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CS Tae ee ie ee Se s | : is ‘ 3 s ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ A lh < a q ‘ e by Abin Hi NAY any: J Wii ad if -- TRANSACTIONS OF THE Illinois State Academy of Science SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING Knox College, Lombard College, Galesburg High School Galesburg, Illinois May 3, 4 and 5, 1923 VOLUME XVI {Printed by authority of the State of Lllinois.]} TRANSACTIONS OF THE Illinois State Academy of Science SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING Knox College, Lombard College, Galesburg High School Galesburg, Illinois May 3, 4 and 5, 1923 VOLUME XVI [Printed by authority of the State of Illinois.] R332 ee Vert ACADEMY MEMBERS Taken at Galesburg Meeting. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. A. R. Crook, Librarian. State Museum, Springfield, Ill. PRICE I, 1908, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... $1.50 II, 1909, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50 III, 1910, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50 IV, 1911, paper binding. Published by the State........ Gratis V, 1912, paper binding. Published by the State......... Gratis VI, 1913, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... $1.50 VII, 1914, paper binding. Published by the Academy.... 1.50 VIII, 1915, paper binding. Published by the Academy... 1.50 IX, 1916, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50 X, 1917, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50 XI, 1918, paper binding. Published by the State......... Gratis XII, 1919, paper binding. Published by the State...... Gratis XIII, 1920, paper binding. Published by the State...... Gratis XIV, 1921, paper binding. Published by the State...... Gratis XV, 1922, paper binding. Published by the State......... Gratis SCHNEPP & BARNES, PRINTERS SPRINGFIELD, ILL, 1923. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1923-1924. ..........-2 ees eeeee cece 8 Past OFFICERS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE........ 9 Manors OF COUNCIL MEETINGS... <. a. oi0 2 sc cic ae ew cvciee se eteees 11 MINUTES OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING, GALESBURG...... ceo LD EWASERER SOACEPORT 5ccc cs oleic dees wb 2.0,90,5 cto es clea anlar os ew wie © 8 5 Be 15 PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS: Studying Mines with a Microscope. W. S. Bayley, University GMT Gisin- soc tee ce oo aie amines wsetes ste oe EEN SS wee ates 27 The Present Status of Evolution. The Botanists’ View. John M. Coulter, University of Chicago............-..sseee-s- 29 The Zoologist’s View of Evolution. Charles Zeleny, University TAOIST. see ce cee et ano a cea Sols Bem aes wie iartatm eae 37 The Paleontologist’s View of Evolution. T. E. Savage, Univer- Shey RB LTH OMS rol ca. aio -o aq ore aisle A citrate a8in or Sie! sivhatos etnies 39 A Novel and Economic Method of Making Charts for Science Instruction. William W. Wesley, St. Procopius College, NRT W are SAI eT Sica e Sete mec RIS owe a eS Oe Oe Metis Sastaxerounhe iad 43 A State Forest Preserve. James H. Ferriss, Joliet Park Dis- Cap Gl Epo Ree ae ae Ra elie apc Pe eo LORS TP 46 A Collecting Trip to Alaska and the Canadian Northwest. Ruth Marshall, Rockford College..............+2+++eeeee- 51 A Tundra Trip in Alaska. Patsy Hughes Lupo, Rockford Col- A NEY Cie SES Reale Se a il Cre RO eee ee ee ee ar 54 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE: Practical Plant Protection. Willard N. Clute, Editor, American RGtaAHIsth AOMEL foe ce noe. 2 oe fetes cals Peete eGoss pita mene os 67 Mytilaspis Citricola and Other Scale Insects. Wesley N. Speck- Man RAMA NT Et OONCLe. 4.0: so. aie oe wee os siala tw es eee ee ee 74 Opportunities for Botanical Research in Central America. J. M. Greenman, Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo........... 76 A Comparison of the Transpiration Rates of Corn and Certain Common Weeds. Helen A. McGinnis and W. B. McDougall, MIVOCESILY Of UPILIHOIS: fc. cee Shoei eS se ee asies ade aes 56 82 The Determination of the Age of Fishes from Scale Character- istics, Frank Smith, University of Illinois................ 89 Seedling Vascular Anatomy of Nelumbo Lutea. Isabel S. Smith; tHimeis: College, Jacksonville 525 22). .< 22 &. eee See oie ee Eee eee hee eee 140 Testing Lamarck’s Theory. Casper L. Redfield, Chicago...... 145 Blooming Records of the Apple. C. S. Crandall, University of DINGS) eho LeeLee Vag Olaye aS otet Oe ae oO 155 An Ecological Survey and Flora of Lake Knox. Paul K. Houdelk, KnoxiCollewe <5 .. cchees oiciats slsrcie so 0 tae 163 Seasonal Changes in the Insect Population of an Illinois For- est. A. O. Weese, James Millikin University............ aba The Effect of Selection on the Length of Spine in Daphnia Longispina. Mrs. Margaret Smith Young, Chicago........ 176 Regeneration in Bryophyllum Crenatum. Mary E. Renich, State: Normal University; INormal, >. 2.2 -c)a. 2c eerie 183 Barberry Eradication in Illinois. F. E. Kempton, G. C. Curran, By, Dis (Gras 5. ie aids arovesS wielones skarovenc. 0) «cade eee ker 198 Growth Studies of Certain Bottomland Species in Southern Illinois. -C. J. Telford; University of Tllmoisss.-.s2 eee 210 Bogs of Northern Illinois, II. W. G. Waterman, Northwestern UMIVENSILY “cow cts oe pe cosine bias Bivlgd hb os, 5/30 vie eee 214 Farm Woodlots in Illinois. W. F. Schreeder, University of PUTIN GIS Maa sats @ oie clare oF Oreste hoe rte hes See ee 226 Wood Consumption and Wood Production in Illinois and their Relation to the Future Prosperity of the State. R. B. Miller? State. Horester; UTrbam antics. oh..<. oie wicreyolete 1) oe 233 Legumes as a Source of Nitrate for Farm Crops. H. J. Snider, niversity iOf LMIiMOIS ac. leche cise orice eke Geis a ee 239 A Summary of the Plant Disease Situation in 1922 with re- spect to the Crops of Illinois. Leo R. Tehon, State Natural ieistory Survey, Urbana. .2. 22-4.2.2.. -3 see 246 Origin of Prairies in Illinois. John Woodard, University of NTT OUS Petey 7s tater wats She sia, Shan Sites Gate soon ere a ee 259 PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS: The Problem of Cold Light. Harvey A. Neville, University of TL UFTVOUS OL eee, co etof aus co) loses aera eat ie Sus Seo en eee 267 Standardized Tests. W. C. Hawthorne, Crane Junior College, CHICA ZO NIE. nce tito eer ote Sow ele des Sats Sac, 274 Photoelectric Effect of Caesium Vapor and a New Determina- tion of h, The Universal Constant of Planck. Jakob Kunz and= EY, Williams, University of llinois +... ..-.. se cee 279 A Comparative Study of Soil Acidity Methods on Illinois Soils. EK. E. DeTurk and J. W. Coale, University of Illinois...... 280 Penetration Tests in Wood-Preservation. George T. Parker and H.-A. Geauque, Lombard Colleze..2 7... ee eee 295 A Carbon Film High Resistance; its Construction and Charac- teristics. A. J. McMaster, University of Illinois.......... 299 Some Aspects of Phosphorus Behavior in Soils. M. I. Wolkoff, University. vol Tin oi8\-'...t5. s\.ideeeen ee ees ee eee 308 Notes on the Quantum Theory and Relativity. Jacob Kunz, UMIVERSITY“Of MTNOISie.is./e = sieleass-clanais hehe orale eae 323 PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY: The Origin of the Cahokia Mounds. Morris M. Leighton, Ili- nois. Geological Survey; Urbana... 2... 2 ciel «tele ont 327 The Use of Molluscan Shells by the Cahokia Mound Builders. Frank @- Baker, University of Iiinois*..-....v. > .. vse 328 6g = eT. Fishing with a Hammer. Fred R. Jelliff, Galesburg.......... 335 Correlations of Well Drillings in Northern Illinois, with Out- croppings of Early Paleozic Beds in Wisconsin. A. W. PSEA TENCE ILD OL BUIMOIS . oon %.0.c na ae crete ola e's so Slo 342 Pleistocene Deposits in Lawrence County. Flemin W. Cox, PIMEGCESIL GCE OOTIMENS 2 Sian Sam ele es area ae ae ee es 347 The Use of the Microscope in the Study of Subsurface Stratig- raphy. J. E. Lamar, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana... 353 A College Course in Geography of Illinois. William C. Gould, See) Pesteries CoMlere. Siete atny. 2 oe one ae oe een a eee eee 359 The Mineral Resources of the Region about LaSalle. G. A. Poemard. . Warnote es e o o ae a os petthe ieik = & Mn ten tones 367 Oil Production in Illinois. D. M. Collingwood, State Geolog- WETS Ek AOL tr sence RR Re Ro Apa Oe 5 Sa Bs a are eee ee ee 372 Timber Preservation—A Form of Forest Conservation. F. C. Bohannon, Galesburg High School......................-. 386 Marengo Cave, Marengo, Indiana. W.N. Speckman, Elmhurst re et Pe oe Ste aces Me Ee Ce Rian hk « SURO eee 393 Lake Abram, Berea, Ohio. W. N. Speckman, Elmhurst College 396 PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PuBLic HEALTH: Essentials of a Safe Milk Supply in Cities of Five Thousand and Upward’ in Illinois. Clarence W. East, Illinois De- partment of Public Health, Springfield................... 401 The Treatment of Leprosy. Dr. A. W. Stillians, Northwestern POPES EI he oe cnc oan ee ie eae ed ae ae 403 A Preliminary Report on a Sanitary Survey of Galesburg, Illi- nois. Ella Devenny and George W. Hunter, 3rd, Knox eRe PG 2 ee nw eS ad cS Sheree ee 404 Heart Disease as a Public Health Problem. Dr. Sidney Strauss, Michael! Reese. Hospital, Chieagoc: 22... 22 te ee cence 412 The Vital Capacity Determination. George Schiff, Northwest- ern University Medical School, Chicago.................. 420 PaPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: The Business of Scientific Curriculum Making in Secondary Education. John A. Clement, Northwestern University... 433 Learning Capacity—An Important Factor in Employment Ad- justment. Emery T. Filbey, University of Chicago...... 444 The Seli Analysis Device as an Aid in Guidance. Joseph V. Hanna.” Johet*Jdunior Collere.c: =... e720 Sc Neer SY! 451 The Ideal Aspect of Psychology. G. J. Kirn, Northwestern Col- JES STS 7 i a ee Se ees Se Se ne 470 Further Developments Needed in Tests for Mental Measure- ment. Clara Schmitt, Bureau of Chiid Study, Chicago.... 477 A Radical Educationist in Early Illinois. R. Swiit, Illinois Col- BPs ASSEN. Soa c-Si e Cae eae oe a ee ae 486 On the Orientation of an Animal in a Problem Box. Rutledge ew Wait. GONOX COMerO, ... sso. Bay ose oe cote s ae ek 490 2 STORRS tea Pye ee a Sine eee oe ee ee eee Comer es 495 SR SUERY 8 IAMS ee Stent ce nin CRO Ee TE Sid Ps Oe ne Re 496 OnE Batheby WA MERTEN So ea. sige ae cies cc a ew Gee sok wets nee 501 ae baMc FA USTERT AS.) WOON RIERA 2 os oe ee he, Se 502 ScIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AFFILIATED WITH THE ACADEMY.............. 510 a SEUE eeLIEMAE, | SCTE CRIES, 6 Sc Sls aie wns cle wkd ced dec ae oan bw 510 OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1923-24. President, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University, Evanston. Vice-President, H. J. VANCLEAvVE, University of Illinois, Urbana. Secretary, C. FRANK Purpps, State Teachers College, DeKalb. Treasurer, W. F. Scuvuz, University of Illinois, Urbana. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. The Council. PRESIDENT, RETIRING PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENT, LIBRARIAN, SECRETARY AND TREASURER. Committee on Membership. CLARENCE BONNELL, Township High School, Harrisburg, Chairman. Patsy H. Lupo, Rockford College, Rockford. W. H. Pacxkarp, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria. Frep R. JELLIFF, President Knox County Academy of Science, Galesburg. E. E. DeTurK, University of Illinois, Urbana. Committee on Ecological Survey. Henry C. Cowes. University of Chicago, Chicago, Chairman. Geo. D. Futter, University of Chicago, Chicago. RuTH MARSHALL, Rockford College, Rockford. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois, Urbana. W. B. McDovucAti, University of Illinois, Urbana. R. B. MiLter, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. A. O. WEESE, James Millikin University, Decatur. JAMES H. Ferriss, Joliet Park District, Joliet. H. S. Peroon, Lake View High School, Chicago. M. M. LercntTon, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana. Committee on High School Science and Clubs. J. C. Hesster, Knox College, Galesburg, Chairman. C. M. Turton, 2055 EH. 72nd Place, Chicago. FRANK H. Cotyer, State Normal University, Carbondale. Harriet StRoNG, Downers Grove. W. S. Baytey, University of Illinois, Urbana, F. C. BoHANNAN, Galesburg High School, Galesburg. R. G. Buzzarp, State Normal University, Normal. F. D. Townstey, James Millikin University, Decatur. H. H. RapcuirFer, 1346 W. Macon St., Decatur. Committee on Publications. THE PRESIDENT. THE SECRETARY. Mary E. STeaGatt, State Normal University, Carbondale. PAST OFFICERS OF ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY. 1907 (Organization meeting, Dec. 7, 1907, Springfield.) Chairman, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University. Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 1908 (First annual meeting, Decatur, Feb. 22, 23, 1908.) President, T. C. CHAMBERLAIN, University of Chicago. Vice-President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University. Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 8 PAST OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY—Continued 1909 (Second annual meeting, Springfield, Feb. 20, 1909.) President, T. C. CHAMBERLAIN, University of Chicago. Vice-President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University. Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1910 (Third annual meeting, Urbana, Feb. 18, 19, 1910.) President, S. A. Forses, University of Illinois. Vice-President, JOHN M. Covutter, University of Chicago. P Secretary, A. R. Crook, Siate Museum, Springfield. : Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1911 (Fourth annual meeting, Chicago, Feb. 17, 18, 1911.) > President. JoHN M. Courter, University of Chicago. } Vice-Presdent, R. O. GRAHAM, Illinois Wesleyan University. 7 Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. z Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1912 . (Fifth annual meeting, Bloomington, Feb. 23, 24, 1912.) President, W. A. Noyes, University of Illinois. Vice-President, J. C. Uppen, University of Texas. Secretary, FRANK C. BAKER, Chicago Academy of Science. Treasurer, J. C. HessterR, James Millikin University. ~™~ 1913 (Sixth annual meeting, Peoria, Feb. 21, 22, 1913.) President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University. Vice-President, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. Secretary, Otis W. CALDWELL, University of Chicago. Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1914 (Seventh annual meeting, Evanston, Feb. 20, 21, 1914.) President, FRANK W. DeEWotr, State Geological Survey. Vice-President, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. Secretary, E. N. TraNnseat, Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston. j Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1915 (Eighth annual meeting, Springfield, Feb. 19, 20, 1915.) President, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. Vice-President, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University. Secretary, E. N. TRANSEAU, Eastern State Normal School, Charleston. Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1916 (Ninth annual meeting, Urbana, Feb. 18, 19, 1916.) President, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University. Vice-President, E. W. Wasupurn, University of Illinois. Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. Treasurer, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. 9 PAST OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY—Concluded ‘ 1917 (Tenth annual meeting, Galesburg, Feb. 23, 24, 1917 ) President, WILLIAM TRELEASE, University of Illinois. Vice-President, H. E. GrirrirH, Knox College, Galesburg. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, H. S. Peroon, Lake View High School, Chicago. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 1918 (Eleventh annual meeting, Joliet, Feb. 22, 23, 1918.) President, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. Vice-President, JAMES H. Frrris, Joliet. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, T. L. HANKINSON, State Normal School, Charleston Librarian, A. R. Croox, State Museum, Springfield. 1919 (Twelfth annual meeting, Jacksonville, March 21, 22, 1919.) President, R. D. Satispury, University of Chicago. Vice-President, IsAneL S. SmiruH, Illinois College, Jacksonville. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, T. L. HANKINSON, State Normal School, Charleston. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 1920 (Thirteenth annual meeting, Danville, Feb. 20, 21, 1920.) President, Henry B. Warp, University of Illinois. Vice-President, Gro. D. Funter, University of Chicago. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 1921 (Fourteenth annual meeting, Carbondale, April 29, 30, 1921.) President, Henry C. Cowes, University of Chicago. Vice-President, Cuas. T. Knipp, University of Illinois. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 1922 (Fifteenth annual meeting, Rockford, April 27, 28, 29, 1922.) President, CHas. T. Knrep, University of Illinois. Vice-President, Miss RutTH MarsHALL, Rockford College, Rockford. Secretary, C. FRANK Puipps, State Teachers College, DeKalb. Treasurer, WM. F. Scuutz, University of Illinois. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 1923 (Sixteenth annual meeting, Galesburg, May 3, 4, 5, 1923.) President, W. S. Baytey, University of Illinois. Vice-President, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University. Secretary, C. FRANK Purpps, State Teachers College, DeKalb. Treasurer, WM. F. ScHuuLz, University of Illinois. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 10 APR 2 0 1925 : y : — J ‘ LIBRARY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY pyy YORK i1 BOTANICAL GARDRBN ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Office of the Secretary State Teachers College, DeKalb, Illinois Council Meeting, Urbana, June 3,.1922 President W. S. Bayley presided at the Council meet- ing. The other officers present were, Past President C. T. Knipp, Treasurer W. F. Schulz, Librarian A. R. Crook, and Secretary C. F. Phipps. It was voted to accept the invitation from Galesburg to meet there in the spring of 1923 for the annual meet- ing of the Academy. With the approval of the Council the President ap- pointed the following chairmen of Sections for the annual meeting in 1923: Chairman of Geology and Geography Section, Professor Robert G. Buzzard, DeKalb. (Ad- dress after September, 1922, State Normal Univ., Nor- mal, Ill.) ; chairman of Chemistry and Physics Section, Professor R. D. Mullinix, Rockford College; and chair- man of Psychotogy and Education Section, Dr. C. R. Grif- fith, Urbana. The President is to appoint later the chair- men for the Sections in Biology and Agriculture, and Medicine and Public Health. It was voted that the present committee on High School Science and Clubs be continued in office for another year, that President Bayley be added to this committee, and that Chairman J. C. Hessler be authorized to appoint four additional members to this committee. By vote the present committee on Ecological Survey was reappointed for another year. The suggestion was made that it would be advisable for the committee on High School Science and Clubs to ask Academy members in various towns and cities to endeavor to start Science Clubs in their communities, especially in the high schools and colleges. A report from the State Printer, relative to the cost of printing the last volume of Transactions, was pre- 12 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE sented by Doctor Crook. The bill amounted to $1,135.19. By vote, Doctor Crook was asked to confer with the proper authorities and endeavor to have the appropria- tion from the State to the Academy increased sufficiently to cover the printer’s bill. If this appropriation cannot be increased, money will have to be drawn from the Acad- emy treasury to pay the difference, namely, $135.19. By vote, the Secretary was instructed to add 10% to the printer’s price for all reprints of papers from the Transactions, to cover Academy overhead charges on same. Council Meeting, Urbana, November 25, 1922 President W. S. Bayley called the meeting to order. Others present were the Vice-President, Treasurer, Sec- retary and Chairman of the High School Science and Clubs Committee. Plans for the annual meeting were discussed. It was decided finally that the dates for the annual meeting to be held at Galesburg, 1923, should be May 3rd, 4th and oth. The proposed work of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs was discussed. Among other things an active campaigning for more science clubs in high schools is being planned by the Committee. The Coun- cil authorized the Committee to send copies of the Acad- emy Transactions to high school science clubs now affili- ated, or to be affiliated, with the Academy. The Treasurer gave the following report: Balance onshand April 275 5 1922 oo crccecer-) ote ee tadey no tateko ts $ 629.32 Collected'4sinee that date <<. »).nmiceenecocia etoeteess ere 1,169 77 : $1,799.09 Paid to A. A. A. S. dues collected from Na- tional Members, $4.00 each............. $776.35 All: other ‘expenditures: <2-)... 2.0.7 » eee 620.12 1,396.47 Balance “ons hand @. 34 Aes. eae eens $ 402.62 The Treasurer submitted 14 names for membership. It was voted to approve the list and to present these names at the Galesburg meeting for election. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 The Secretary was asked to give, at the annual meet- ing, a summary of the growth of the Academy for the fifteen years of its existence. It was the opinion of the Council that the section chair- men should be asked to secure papers for the annual meeting from high school teachers and from those be- ginning research work, and not so many as in recent years from university research professors. A communication from the Baird Memorial Commit- tee of Washington, D. C., was read and discussed. The communication stated that the 100th anniversary of the birth of Spencer Fullerton Baird is to be commemorated February 3rd, 1923, and that the committee is being formed in Washington to decide on the most appropriate form for the memorial, and that our Academy, with other organizations, is asked to appoint a delegate to meet with the committee, and to offer suggestions for a fitting me- morial. Dr. Baird was not only Secretary of the Smithsonian Institute, but he was the virtual founder of the U. S. National Museum, the creator and head of the U.S. Fish Commission, and the prime mover in the establishment of the U. S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ameri- ean Ethnology. President Bayley was authorized to write to Dr. H. E. Ewing, one of our members in Washington, and ask him to represent the Academy on the Baird Memorial Com- mittee, and to express the Council’s view that a bust statue or bronze tablet would be most appropriate for the memorial. Reprints The following new prices on reprints have been ob- tained recently by the Secretary from the printers of the Transactions: 100 copies 101 to 200 or less copies 4 printed pages, Orv 1ess, -BOUNG. 2.75... . $2.75 $3.05 5 to 8 ss TEVQVE RVG Sey Sete eee 4.10 4.55 9 to 16 - SEA METS OVIITIC ki cretas alse rote a0 aca 4.50 5.40 Covers on 2 to 16 pages, Bound............-. 3.10 3.70 14 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Council Meeting, Galesburg, May 3, 1923 The Council met with the Local Committee of Arrange ments at Custer Hotel, Galesburg, on Friday, May 3 Final arrangements for the Annual Meeting were dis- cussed and all plans completed. The Treasurer presented 20 new names to be voted on at the Academy business meeting for membership. Fa- vorable action was taken on all the names. A letter from H. EK. Ewing, one of our members in Washington, D. C., and an appointed delegate to the Spencer Fullerton Baird Memorial Committee meeting held in February, was read and approved and placed on file. This report stated that the following three reso- lutions were adopted, and the Memorial Committee is to carry them out: First—That the Congress be memorialized to estab- lish in the City of Washington a museum of fisheries and oceanography, a laboratory and a public aquarium as a memorial to Spencer Fullerton Baird. Second—That there be established a fund for the en- couragement of research and exploration in the direction in which Spencer Fullerton Baird was a leader. Third—That the name of Baird be given to the labora- tory of the Bureau of Fisheries at Wood’s Hole, Massa- chusetts. A letter from the general secretary of the A. A. A. S. was read, outlining their change in policy concerning the collection of dues from members who were also members of affiliated State Academies. The letter was handed to our Treasurer in order that he might cooperate with the Washington office of the A. A. A. S. in the matter of col- lecting dues from our national members. REPORT OF THD SECRETARY 15 Annual Business Meeting, Friday, May 4, 1923 Lombard College, Galesburg President Bayley presided and called first for reports of officers. The Treasurer submitted the following written report: REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR THE YEAR 1922-1923. RECEIPTS Balance on Hands May ol 1 Gao a sce ciple eke Secies wee ws $ 629.32 Received for dues (Initiation and Annual)......... 445.10 A. A. A. S. dues collected by the Academy.......... 1,224.85 ECOIVCU MAOTETED LINES, | 6) diate ais eto stcke sie nya ei eee'e, diele oe. ae 368.93 Received ior Sale Of, EransachionS4 osilc< ss. cance ws se 34.24 $ 2,702.44 DISBURSEMENTS Paid for stationery, postage, and other expenses of GIRCOES Ie ee ic wee eater cles eth ree awe e $ 403.37 APOSTLE IN ALES oso, tr. Usain waloleretwialnis eae alan [ote ela oteraele 449.25 Padstow. Ok AS. dor dues’ collected: <5... 55 = s0!<:s 1,224.85 Amount refunded for excess dues, etc............... 15.00 SORE UATSV TS) SIAL Vier ra intel co uchars cabs ley atets: c, ciate a Diol abeietalete 150.00 $ 2,242.47 UIE AD TLECELDE GI ne! aso)0c io bial clntere Safer ele steers, andi o's $ 2,702.44 GES DISPDUTSEMeENES Go. Sf ooccs 6s hee ae oe ce 2,242.47 SONS OTIATIO lic ce SOA hs Rtorstc icine $ 459.97 The Secretary reported on the growth of the Academy as follows: In 1908, when the Academy was organized, there were 114 charter members. During that year the membership was increased to 246. The membership by years has been as follows: 1909, 283; 1910, 384; 1911, 307 ; 1912, 362; 1913, 388; 1914, 363; 1915, 363; 1916, 318; 1917, 361; 1918, 298; 1919, 298; 1920, 408; 1921, 590; 1922, 546. Of this membership of 546 in 1922, 329 were also members of the A. A. A. S., 36 were charter members, 49 were life members, and 54 were living outside the state of Illinois. The Librarian reported that there had been a steady eall for copies of the Transactions from all parts of the country, and for those which had been published by the Academy a price of $1.50 had been collected. $34.24 had been turned in to the treasury for such sales. Books published by the state were sent gratis to all applicants. The above reports of officers were accepted. 16 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Reports of committees called for: | Chairman H. J. VanCleave of the Membership Com mittee presented 36 names for action. They were all elected to membership. Chairman H. C. Cowles reported progress for the EKeological Committee. Chairman J. C. Hessler repor ted. progress for the Com- mittee on High School Science and Clubs. He stated also that the committee had worked during the year on plans looking to the formation of High School Clubs and their affiliation with the Academy. The committee had sent out to 621 high schools of the state an 8-page pamphlet outlining the importance of Science Clubs, and suggest- ing methods of carrying on meetings of such clubs. A further report was promised for the business meeting of May 5. For the Publication Committee the Secretary reported that the Transactions for the Rockford meeting had been received the middle of April and copies had been mailed to members. Reprints were expected soon for those who had ordered them. The above committee reports were accepted. On motion of A. R. Crook it was voted that:all papers presented at meetings must be sent to the secretary with- in 30 days after the adjournment of the annual meet- ing, or they could not be published. The President appointed the following committees with instructions to report at the business meeting for May 5: Committee on Nominations, C. T. Knipp, Chairman, Isa- bel S. Smith, F. C. Baker, and M. M. Leighton. Commit- tee on Resolutions; H. C. Cowles, Chairman, H. J. Van- Cleave and A. R. Crook. Auditing Committee, A. C. Longden, Chairman, Mary Renich and W. N. Speckman. Adjourned to meet Saturday morning, May 5, ae REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 17 Business Meeting, May 5, Lombard College President Bayley called for reports of committees. The written report of the Auditing Committee was as follows: ; We, the committee appointed to audit the accounts of W. F. Schulz, the Treasurer, certify that we have ex- amined the accounts and find them correct. Respectfully submitted, A. C. Longden, Mary Renich, W. N. Speckman. The Nominating Committee submitted the following report: Nominations for officers of the Academy for 1923-24 President—W. G. Waterman, Northwestern Univer- sity, Evanston. Vice-President—H. J. VanCleave, University of Dli- nois, Urbana. Secretary—C. Frank Phipps, State Teachers College, DeKalb. Treasurer—W. F. Schulz, University of Illinois, Ur- bana. Librarian—A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. Membership Committee for 1923-24 Clarence Bonnell, Township High School, Harrisburg, Chairman. Patsy H. Lupo, Rockford College, Rockford. W. H. Packard, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria. Fred R. Jelliff, President Knox County Academy of Science, Galesburg. E. E. DeTurk, University of Illinois, Urbana. Third member on the Publication Committee for 1923-24 Mary E. Steagall, State Normal University, Carbon- dale. By vote the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Academy for the list of nominees for office. The new officers were declared elected. The Membership 18 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Committee and the member of the Publication Committee as presented by the Nominating Committee were elected in the same manner. W. G. Waterman submitted the following Resolution relative to legislation in favor of state parks :— ‘‘Resolved that the Illinois State Academy of Science heartily favors the bills for state parks and forests now before the legislature, and urges that every effort be put forth to secure their passage.’’ By vote the Resolution was adopted, and the Secretary was authorized to confer with State Forester R. B. Miller and forward a copy of the Resolution to influential mem- bers of the state legislature. Chairman Hessler, in reporting for the Committee on High School Science and Clubs, stated that the High School Section Meeting held Friday was an enthusiastic one, interesting papers were presented, and the Chair- man and President Bayley had presented the matter of Science Clubs to the meeting, and the response was good. Chairman Hessler moved that the committee on High School Science and Clubs be empowered to carry out de- tails in the formation of a Science Clubs Section for the next Annual Meeting, this Section to include all High School Science Clubs which affiliate with the Academy; also this Committee should meet with any committee which might be appointed by the High Schools. This motion was carried. Very favorable discussion on the work of Chairman Hessler’s Committee followed the vote. Report of the Resolutions Committee The Resolutions Committee reported as follows in writing: It is with regret that the Illinois State Academy of Science notes the passing from its ranks by death during the preceding year of several of its members as follows: Arseneau, Stanislaus, R., State Teachers College, De- Kalb, Tl. Caldwell, C. B., Lincoln, Tl. Cook, Mrs. Jane Perry, 5456 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Til. ot _ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY i9 Goodell, William L., Effingham, III. Johnson, Frank S., 925 Oakland Ave., Pasadena, Cal. Salisbury, Rollin D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ul. A loss particularly severe has been occasioned by the death of Professor Salisbury, a charter member and for- mer president of the Academy. His service to the Acad- emy, the state, and the nation has been outstanding, and his place will be impossible to fill. The Illinois State Academy of Science desires here- with to express its hearty endorsement of the state park and forestry bills that are now up for action before the Illinois legislature, and the hope is hereby expressed that the members of the Academy will individually carry out the spirit of this resolution by endeavoring to secure for these measures the support of the legislators in their respective districts. The Illinois State Academy of Science views with satisfaction the growing interest in the work of the Acad- emy on the part of the teachers and students in the ecol- leges, normal schools and high schools in the state. In such institutions lies the hope of scientific progress in the future, and on this account the Academy specifically ex- presses its purpose to continue to cooperate in every possible way with the schools and science clubs. By common consent the Galesburg meeting of the Academy for 1923 is one of the largest and best meetings in the history of the Illinois State Academy of Science. In large part this success is due to the efficiency of the local organizations, representatives, and committees. Singled out for special appreciative mention are Knox and Lombard Colleges, the Galesburg High School, the Knox County Academy of Science, the Knox College Biology Club, the Lombard College Chemical Fraternity, the High School Science Club, the Galesburg Chamber of Commerce, the Galesburg Press, the Galesburg Street Car Company, and, last but by no means least, the local committee on arrangements of which Mr. Fred R. Jelliff has been the efficient chairman, and Mr. Paul Houdek a 20 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE most able helper. The Galesburg meeting sets a high standard of efficiency and excellence that is going to be hard to equal. Henry C. Cowrss, Chairman; H. J. Van Cueave, A. R. Crook. It was voted that the resolutions submitted be adopted and placed on file. The report of the Committee on Metric System was presented by A. C. Longden, Chairman, Thomas G. Hull not being present. Report of the Committee on Metric System This committee was appointed in 1922 to co-operate with other scientific organizations whose purpose it is to promote the Metric System of weights and measures so that the public in general may become familiar with the advantages of the system and proper legislation enacted. The chairman of the committee has been in touch with the ‘‘World Metric Standardization’’ council and the ‘‘ American Metric Association’’, offering. the ser- vices of the committee to those organizations. It would seem that education is necessary before any legislation is enacted, since the majority of individuals do not ap- preciate the value of the Metric System. This education should be undertaken in the schools. As yet, the com- mittee has not arranged such a program. Possibly the science clubs of the Academy could assist in the move- ment. It would seem timely to bring to the attention of the academy a few facts regarding the history of the Metric System and its present status in this country. James Watt, the British inventor, was the originator of the ‘‘Dollar—Meter—Liter—Gram’’ system. Both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson urged very strongly upon the early American Congress the adoption of all four of these items. The decimal dollar system was adopted but the others after prolonged discussion were allowed to be dropped. In 1866 Congress legalized the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 21 Metric System but missed the opportunity for complete simplification by not making it the exclusive standard. Early in the World War, the War Department found it necessary to adopt the Metric System for the Army in France and no other units were used. In 1919 the Brit- tan-Ladd Bill was,introduced in Congress making the Metrie System the only legal system of measurements, allowing a transmissional period of 10 years before the bill should be effective. As an indication of some of the organizations in Illinois that have advocated the use of the Metric System, the following list is given: Illinois State Senate; Chicago City Council; South Side Business Men’s Association, Chicago; Chamber of Commerce, Elizabethtown; Logan County Medical Society; Chicago Laundry Owners’ Association, Chicago; The +Ones, Chicago; Millinery Jobbers Association, Chicago; National Association of Box Manufacturers, Chicago; National Association of Loose Leaf Manufacturers, Chicago ; National Association of Retail Druggists, Chicago; National Manufacturers of Soda Water Flavors, Chi- cago; National Refrigerator Manufacturers Association, Chicago; Women’s Association of Commerce, Chicago; Chicago Heights Chamber of Commerce, Chicago; Chamber of Commerce, LaSalle; Illinois Valley Manufacturers Club, LaSalle; Commercial Club, Liberty; Chamber of Commerce, Ottawa; Illinois Wholesale Grocers Association, Peoria. This is only a partial list of Illinois organizations re- commending and urging the adoption of the Metric Sys- tem. There are thousands of organizations in other states as well as national organizations in the same work. A concerted effort by all of these organizations, headed by the American Metric Association, would be able in the next few years, in the opinion of the committee, to bring 22 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE about sufficient education so that no difficulties would be met in obtaining the legislation. The above report was accepted and placed on file. President-elect Waterman was called upon for a few remarks. In a brief speech he outlined some policies which he would like the Academy to consider the coming year,—such as popularizing science more, but in the right way ; selling science properly to the people; and continu- ing to select carefully meeting places in cities prepared to cooperate with us in making the meeting a success. He suggested also that a four-page pamphlet, setting forth the aims of the Academy, be used freely with ap- plication cards in securing new members. Treasurer Schulz spoke of the need of securing new members, since we were barely keeping up our member- ship, and the funds in the treasury were growing smaller in amount each year. Council Meeting, Urbana, May 19, 1923 President Waterman presided and all six members of the Council were present. Invitations from Elgin, Decatur, Normal and Bloom- ington, and Joliet, urging the Academy to hold its next annual meeting in their respective cities, were read, and after thorough discussion it was voted to accept the Elgin invitation. The decision was based on two facts; first, that the Academy has never met in Elgin while it has met in the other cities named; and second, Elgin had extended a cordial invitation a year ago to hold our 1923 meeting there. The following standing committees were appointed: Committee on Ecological Survey—H. C. Cowles, Chairman; George D. Fuller, Ruth Marshall, V. H. Shel- ford, W. B. McDougall, R. B. Miller, A. O. Weese, James H. Ferriss, H. S. Pepoon and M. M. Leighton. Committee on High School Science and Clubs—John C. Hessler, Chairman; F. H. Colyer, C. M. Turton, Har- riet Strong, W. S. Bayley, F. C. Bohannan, R. G. Buz- zard, F. D. Townsley and H. H. Radcliffe. Chairman Hessler was authorized to add another member to the committee and to make other changes if desired. Det Nad” REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 23 By vote the Committee on High School Science and Clubs was empowered to use funds up to $50 if neces- sary, to carry on its work. The President was given authority to have printed a small four page pamphlet, setting forth useful informa- tion concerning the Academy and its work, for distribu- tion among members and for use in securing new mem- bers; the cost of such a pamphlet not to exceed $30. The following amendments and additions to the con- stitution were presented to be acted upon at the next annual meeting: Article V.—Council. The first sentence to read: The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, and the presidents of the two preceding terms. (This allows for two past- presidents on the Council instead of one). Addition to Article V.—At the annual meetings the presiding officers of all the affiliated scientific societies of the state shall meet with the Academy Council for the discussion of policies. Article VI—Standing Committees. Add to this article a Committee on Affiliation. Also add to this article: The Committee on Affiliation shall consist of five mem- bers, chosen annually by the Academy. By vote the President was empowered to appoint a temporary committee on Affiliation to serve this year and work among the County Academies and other scientific societies of the state, with a view to securing the affilia- tion of their members with the Academy, so that all may cooperate in the interest of science. The following Committee on Affiliation was appointed: W.S. Bayley, Chairman; H. J. VanCleave, F. R. Jelliff, Clarence Bonnell and W. G. Waterman. C. F. Putrps, Secretary. coi PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE GENERAL SES- SIONS OF THE GALESBURG MEETING if ‘mi wi ih i i ae Ae i 2 ‘ ree ee fis ns ein if - ‘ : { 3 2 " 5 oi = ) = . ' Fd Ud a x ~*~ Zo * “ ia , ‘ ~ { i Pilg AC i _ ~ ¢ ’ 7? 4 . i iV t ~ ' : Wy : \ : i s ae re v * 3 yes i ii ae. j . 4 ye =a ' z ; y ‘ ig > Wri : yore i ‘ on) ges i 45 ' ¢ ~ \ . Te " ; Ls . . ow 7 Bigng { ; ' arse { i r is , > / * ‘ ‘ + ‘ e i t 1 . - A . 7 ‘ , \ a r ' i i ; = { o 4 * % , : P 3 Ne “4 S s i 5 > < A 4 / =a e , te, < ¢ be ‘ } “ sf P “4 e a out ‘ ' ‘ r * a i ; 4 ; iW lp ~ “ ; ; > y cua » PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 27 STUDYING MINES WITH A MICROSCOPE W. S. Bayzey, University or ILurnots (Abstract) The address by President Bayley was on the modern methods of studying mines with the microscope to deter- mine the way in which iheir ores have been formed, and thereby to learn something as to their expectancy of life. The lantern pictures of extremely thin sections of rocks, disclosing the minerals composing them, were graphic and beautiful. The speaker introduced his subject by explaining briefly how pieces of rock are ground so thin that they are transparent, and how in these transparent sections the character of the different minerals present and their relations to one another may be discovered by allowing polarized light to pass through them and noting the ef- fects. Photographs of thin sections of granites, horn- blende-schists and other rocks were thrown on the screen and the methods by which the minerals in them were recognized were explained briefly. After giving a general view of the differences between some of the commoner rocks and the changes that take place when one type is changed into another, the speaker threw on the screen a number of photographs of the ore and asso- ciated rocks from some of the iron mines in North Caro- lina and showed that the ore was derived from deep- seated sources. It was inferred therefore that the ore body was persistent downward as far as mining is profit- able. Incidentally, the minute character of the ore was observed and a method for concentrating it was sug- gested. It was seen from the photographs that the ore consists of magnetite and hornblende so inextricately mixed that it is hopeless to attempt to separate them. It was seen, however, that these two minerals are also mixed with quartz, which is an objectionable component, but in such a way that it can be separated from the magnetite and hornblende by crushing and treatment with a mag- net. The hornblende is not injurious to the ore and con- sequently its presence in the concentrate does not in- jure it. 28 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Another kind of iron ore is abundant in the south and elsewhere but it is not mined because it contains titanium. It is of some importance to know the form in which this objectionable constituent occurs in the ore mineral, as the titaniferous ores will probably be needed at some time in the not very distant future and it is desirable to know whether the titanium can be removed from the ore without reducing its iron content. Photographs of sections of some of the ores were thrown on the screen and it was seen readily that the titanium is present as little particles of the mineral rutile imbedded in the magnetite which is the ironbearer. The rutile is not magnetic; consequently if the ore is ground to the fine- ness of the grains of rutile in it, all the magnetite, which is magnetic, may be withdrawn from the powder by elec- tro-magnets and may be used as an iron ore. Incidentally a number of veins in the mountains in the vicinity of the mines in North Carolina and Tennessee, and a number of sections of the iron ores of the Lake Superior region were shown on the screen. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 29 THE PRESENT STATUS OF EVOLUTION (The Botanist’s View) JoHN M. Counter, University oF CHIcaco. In the last few months I have been asked frequently to speak on this subject. My audiences, however, have not been made up of members of an Academy of Science and their friends, but of people who want evolution explained, and to know whether it is as wicked as some elaim. The misunderstanding in reference to evolution is very widespread. This has arisen from ignorance of the subject, from misinterpretation of the statements of scientific men, and from what may be called a mediae- val attitude of mind. It has been a shock to educators to realize that there still remains such a mass of un- trained minds that can be imposed upon by eloquent ignorance. As one illustration of the misinterpretation of the atti- tude of scientific men, I may call attention to the use that has been made of the address given by Bateson at the Toronto meeting of the American Association. He has been quoted extensively as an illustration of a distin- guished biologist and student of evolution who has given up his belief in the theory of organic evolution. No state- ment in his address can justify such a claim. The bur- den of his argument was that with our increasing knowl- edge of the complexity of the subject, our present explan- ations of the origin of species are inadequate. Each dis- covery opens up a new perspective for exploration. To quote Bateson as denying the fact of evolution is to dis- regard the following statement which concludes his address: ‘‘Tet us proclaim in precise and unmistakable lan- guage that our faith in evolution is unshaken. Every available line of argument converges on this inevitable conclusion. The obscurantist has nothing to suggest which is worth a moment’s attention. The difficulties which weigh upon the professional biologist need not trouble the layman. Our doubts are not as to the reality or truth of evolution, but as to the origin of species, a technical problem,’’ 30 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE To quote Bateson as having given up his belief in evo- lution, and in doing so to disregard this closing statement of his address, is plain dishonesty. In such ways are the people being imposed upon. - One of the curious facts in reference to the current dis- cussion of evolution, which shows great lack of informa- tion, is the confusion of evolution with Darwinism. As you know, Darwin’s explanation of the fact of evolution is simply one of a number of explanations, and it belongs to the mediaeval period in the history of evolution, when only the method of observation and inference was used. Of course, Darwin’s explanation came at a psychological moment and attracted an attention that was wholly a sur- prise to him. It is this fact that has made his explana- tion so famous that many think that Darwinism and evo- lution are synonymous. With this preface, dealing with the present commo- tion concerning evolution, a preface hardly pertinent to this occasion, but perhaps excusable under the circum- stances, I shall now address myself to a scientific group, a group which I am assuming is not troubled by doubts as to the fact of evolution. The problem that faces us is the explanation of evolu- tion. All of the explanations proposed thus far may prove inadequate and still the fact remain to be ex- plained. In the early history of the subject, simple explanations were offered. As facts multiplied, however, and especially such facts as genetics has been uncover- ing, it became evident that evolution is not a single prob- lem, but a complex of problems, involving a multitude of factors. It is obvious now that no single explanation can be adequate for all the phenomena of evolution. It may be said that all of the classic explanations explain some things, but no one of them can explain all things. The present status of evolution will be appreciated more clearly if we evaluate the classic explanations in the light of recent knowledge. Lamarck’s explanation encountered the obstacle of the inheritance of acquired characters. Biologists presently became convinced that acquired characters are not in- herited, and therefore Lamark’s explanation was thrown PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 31 out of court. Now, however, we have discovered that the inheritance of acquired characters is possible in many organisms under certain conditions, especially in the simpler organisms. This means that Lamarckism is coming into notice again, and there is a decided revival of interest in a modern modified form of this explanation. A single simple illustration of the work on the inherit- ance of acquired characters in plants may be given. A great many plants have been used in experimental work of this kind. In investigating the periodicity of sexual cells in Dictyota, a marine alga, Williams has proved the possible inheritance of acquired characters. In a given locality the male and female organs develop simultaneously, and a general liberation of gametes and fertilization take place on a particular day. This date differs in different localities, showing a relation to tides and therefore to the amount of available light. On the other hand, there is no evidence of periodicity in seas where there are no tides. Plants transferred to the lab- oratory, and thus removed from tides and varying light, continue to show the characteristic periodicity of the locality from which they came. Here is an obvious adjustment of the plant to a varying set of environ- mental conditions which has become hereditary. As perhaps many of you know, very recently much more important and convincing testimony as to the inheritance of acquired characters has been secured by Guyer in his experimental work on eye defects in white rabbits. In short, there seems to be no doubt but that acquired characters may be inherited. Darwin’s explanation encountered the obstacle of variations of a sort that were claimed to be inadequate to account for the results of evolution. It ought to be kept in mind that this objection does not involve the idea of natural selection. That such selection occurs is ob- vious, for some forms survive and others perish, but does this result in building up new species with these small variations we call continuous? The question whether Darwin’s variations are adequate for his con- clusion is being examined critically by geneticists. 32 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE DeVries’ explanation simply changes the type of variation subjected to selection. Instead of a new species being built up gradually, it is born full fledged, and nat- ural selection merely decides which of the fledglings shall survive. This explanation encountered the objec- tion that the so-called mutating forms are simply hybrids splitting. In fact, the original classic example of muta- tion, Oenothera Lamarckiana, has turned out to be prob- ably a hybrid, and not a genuine case of mutation. The situation was concealed for a time by the fact that the ratio of a splitting hybrid and the ratio shown by these so-called mutants were very far from consistent. This, however, has now been explained by work in genetics, so convincingly, in fact, that DeVries himself has ac- cepted the explanation. His attitude toward his proposed explanation of evolution should be understood. He told me on several occasions that he was not at all sure of this explanation, but that he prided himself not on his theory, but on the fact that he had started a new method of studying evolution, that is the experimental method. I might also state for your benefit an experience I had showing the same spirit in Darwin with reference to his explanation. As you know, Asa Gray was the champion of Darwinism in this country, writing many notable papers on the subject, which were afterwards collected in a volume entitled Darwimana. On one occasion Dr. Gray showed to me a letter he had received from Darwin after the latter had read one of these papers. In the letter Darwin said: ‘‘You have stated the case so clearly and convincingly that I am almost persuaded to believe it myself.’’ In other words, these pioneers in evolutionary theory realized better than their followers that their explanations were only tentative, to be tested by subsequent investigation. They were suggestions rather than conclusions, to be thought about rather than believed. Weismann’s explanation, revived by Lotsy, that hybridization ig responsible for evolution, encountered the obstacle that although hybridizing multiplies varia- tions, it can never account for original differences. It results in mixtures of various kinds, but introduces PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 33 nothing new. It is the appearance of new things that leads from one great group to another. Another subsidiary explanation is called ‘‘isolation,’’ which certainly accounts for the survival of variations that might otherwise have been swamped out by crossing and competition. After all it is a method of natural selection; that is, selection is usually made by competi- tion, but sometimes by isolation. | Now, however, we are in the modern period in the history of evolution. Darwin carried the method of observation and inference to its limit in space and time, but inference is not demonstration. At present we are developing the technique of demonstration, by opening up the great field of heredity, which is not only vast in extent, but also extremely complex. When a species . ordinarily begets its own kind, according to well defined laws of inheritance, what are the very occasional condi- tions that make it beget or at least start another species? At the present time, therefore, attention is being focused upon the experimental study of inheritance, the field of genetics, which may be rightly called also the experi- mental study of evolution. This newly developed field of genetics, with its increasing complexities, has taught us that evolution is a very intricate process, and that some of the earlier explanations, like that of Darwin for ex- ‘ample, deal only with the more superficial phenomena. They are true as far as they go, but they do not get at the fundamentals. To say that evolution is diseredited because Darwin’s explanation does not explain the whole situation would be like discrediting the rotation of the earth because some one explanation is not satisfactory. It was in recognition of this modern genetical attack upon the problems of evolution, with its multiplying com- plications, that Bateson spoke of evolution as he did, as a problem not yet solved. Of course, any explanation of evolution must take into account the machinery of heredity, and we are finding that machinery not only complicated, but now and then producing unexpected results, which the geneticist must explain. | Naturally, this intensive study of evolution through experimental work in inheritance has somewhat 34 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE restricted the presentation of evolution. When the only method was inference from observed facts, there was no lhmit to inference, and it could be made to include the whole plant and animal kingdoms. Now, however, the experimental method limits us to a few generations, and the wide-ranging inferences are left to the unscientific who are not particular about the facts. In considering the relative merits of these explana- tions, it is not necessary to subscribe to a belief in any one of them, to the exclusion of the others. All of them may be factors in evolution, and it is altogether probable that no one of them is adequate to explain all evolution- ary changes. We need them all, and more besides. A good method of evaluating these explanations and any others that may be offered is to realize the questions any explanation of evolution must answer. There are at least four conspicuous questions: (1) What is the cause of variation? (2) What is the nature of the varia- tions that are important in evolution? (3) How may variations be perpetuated and mutiplied? (4) How are the variations manipulated to effect progressive evolu- tion? Lamarck’s explanation goes farther than any other in answering the first question, the cause of variation, and also in suggesting a basis for progressive evolution. Dar- win and DeVries accept the variations without attempt- ing to explain the cause, differ as to the kind of varia- tions used, and agree as to the method of manipulating them. The hybridization explanation answers the third question, how variations are perpetuated and multiplied. It will be noted that no one of them answers all these questions. Such an estimate of the proposed explanations empha- sizes the fact that there must be more exact experimental evidence before much further progress can be made in solving the problems of evolution. It was in realization of this that at the beginning of the present century the study of evolution culminated in, and became diverted into, genetics, the experimental study of inheritance, which has already suggested many things, and promises to be still more suggestive in the future. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 35 As an illustration of this, reference may be made to the results of this work as bearing on the mutation ex- planation. Until genetics began to uncover the machin- ery of inheritance, which of course is fundamental in producing variations, the general belief in evolution included the following ideas: Inheritance of acquired characters is exploded; Darwinian variations are du- bious as a basis for explaining evolution; but mutation, with natural selection among the mutants, doubtless ac- counts for the facts. Now what does genetics tell us? The majority of mutants may be called degenerates, the new characteristics shown serving to adapt the mutant more poorly to the environment than the parent was adapted. In fact, the general statement is that the ma- jority of mutants are much worse than their parents, and none of them are better. If only a few were better equipped, they would furnish sufficient material for evo- lution; but with none better equipped, evolution is blocked. . Such considerations have made many biologists feel less certain in explaining evolution than they were a few years ago. This loss of faith in mutation, added to re- cent discoveries on inheritance of acquired characters, has caused many to seek an explanation of progressive evolution in Lamarckian terms. The great problem we are facing is progressive evolu- tion, commonly called ‘‘orthogenesis’’, which history has made so evident. Continuous variations, discontin- uous variations (so-called ‘‘mutations’’), and hybrid variations may all be explained as due to a complex of factors. Such variations, however, are like the waves on the surface of a choppy sea, running in every direc- tion, and getting nowhere. Progressive evolution, how- ever, may be likened to a deep-seated oceanic current which moves steadily in one direction without any refer- ence to the choppy surface. How can we explain this oceanic current? In my own field, I have been impressed by the progressive evolution of the gymnosperms, of which we have continuous records from the Paleozoic to the present time. Throughout that tremendous stretch of time, in spite of all imaginable changes in external 36 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE conditions, certain structures have changed steadily in one direction, and these changes have resulted in the origin and development of the various great groups. What kind of variation furnishes the material for such evolution, and what are the conditions that produce such variations? These questions have not been answered, except in such a vitalistiec way that the appeal is to faith rather than to knowledge. In reviewing the status of the subject of evolution today, it seems fair to conclude that competent opinion is in a condition of flux, inclining now in this direction and now in that as the results of experimental work are re- ported. It is time for the open mind, for no one ean fore- tell what a day may bring forth. With Lamarck’s view once abandoned and now revived, Darwin’s view once accepted and now doubted, DeVries’ view once hopeful and now questionable, and all the other views fluctuat- ing in apparent importance, no person is in a position to pass judgment. My feeling is that we have been simply playing with the surface, discovering minor factors, drawing general inferences from special cases. This was a necessary introduction to the subject. We begin by wading in shallow water, and as we advance the water gets deeper, until now we must realize that it is over all our heads. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 37 THE ZOOLOGIST’S VIEW OF EVOLUTION ( Abstract.) CuHarLtes ZeELENY, University oF ILLINots As time goes on it becomes more and more certain that plants and animals have come to their present condition by a long series of changes. Recent advances along many biological lines have furnished what are perhaps the most striking of all the confirmations. There is now no biologist who is not firmly convinced that the only ex- planation of the present day similarity with diversity among organisms is to be found in the view of blood rela- tionship. And the evidence that man must be included in this statement is equally strong. Any one who is willing to subject this evidence to careful examination will be convinced of its soundness. When biologists became certain of the fact of evolu- tion they centered their attack on the determination of the way in which evolution acts, upon the conditions or factors of the process. These investigations have gone on step by step, demonstration of each step being gained by accurate observation and experiment with critical dis- cussions. These discussions of the problems at the frontier of investigation have been taken by superficial observers to indicate difference of opinion among biolo- gists as to the fact of evolution itself. The real situa- tion is that as our knowledge of the method of evolution increases there is always a border zone of new problems under active investigation and discussion. Im such a zone there will always be differences of opinion. It should not be necessary to state that such differences do not affect belief in evolution itself. In the time at my disposal I shall pick out a few of the zoological facts upon which our belief in evolution is based, laying special emphasis upon the more recent work: 1. Evidence from comparative anatomy. 2. Evidence from embryology. 3. Evidence from classification. 4. Evidence from geographical distribution, 38 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 5. Evidence from physiology. 6. Evidence from direct experimental studies of evo- lution. In conclusion, a few words may be said concerning man’s relation to the rest of the universe. Scientific investigations have demonstrated that the universe is not a fixed, rigid system but a changing one. The earth is a part of this changing universe and as such has gone through a series of orderly processes, finally reaching a stage in which life became possible. When living things came they in turn did not remain unchanged. They progressed from one condition to another until man him- self appeared. There is grandeur in this view of man as an integral part of the universe. He fits into a large scheme of things, not as a disturbing element but as a fulfillment of the plan. The fertility of this dynamic conception has been demonstrated in all fields of human thought and action. The knowledge of a long course of past improve- ment leads to a belief in the probability of further ad- vance. It is highly improbable that man is at the apex of a long series of upward change. Instead, there is every reason why we should prepare for boundless fur- ther advance. If we will but accept the obvious facts and apply their lessons to human improvement, we can accelerate the onward progress not only to a goal fixed by present aspirations but past it to conditions beyond our dreams. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 39 THE PALEONTOLOGIST’S VIEW OF EVOLUTION T. EK. Savace, University oF Inurors. To the paleontologist, evolution means the progressive change in the life of the earth from age to age, as a result of natural causes. Just as the life of today devel- oped out of the life of yesterday, the life of the present year was derived in a natural way from that of last year; so the life of the present age evolved in a natural way by slow progressive changes out of the age that preceded, and so on back to the earliest appearance of life on the earth, several hundred million years ago. The causes of these changes were partly inherent in the organisms, but were largely a result of responses to changes in the external environment. There are three main lines of evidence which practically compel the student of fossils to believe in the doctrine of evolution. These are (1) the geologic succession of life on the earth, (2) the num- erous transitional or connecting forms and (3) the law of recapitulation in the life history of the individual. 1. The fossils preserved in the rocks show us the actual types of life that existed during the time the suc- cessive rock formations were deposited. It is significant that these fossils show a constant advance in the life as we pass from lower to higher, i. e. from older to younger rock strata. For example, the earliest known plants are found in rocks of pre-Cambrian age, and are algae and related forms, representatives of the lowest Phylum or group of plants. The higher, fern-like plants did not appear until much later (Silurian) time; and the highest group, the seed bearing plants, were not developed for a long time later than the ferns. Likewise, the earliest animal fossils preserved in the rocks are the lower invertebrate types, which preceded the vertebrate forms by several million years. Of still greater significance is the fact that within any Phylum or group of animals or plants, it is the lowest members of the group that appear earliest, successively higher types being developed later in time, just as among the Vertebrata the fishes appeared before the Amphibia, the Amphibia before the reptiles, and the reptiles before the 40 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE birds or mammals; and among seed plants the Gymno- sperms appeared before the higher Angiosperms. 2. The connecting or transitional characters pos- sessed by the earliest representatives of any class of plants or animals present still more definite evidence of evolution. For example, the earliest birds are found in rocks of Jurassic age. These first bird forms had teeth in both lower and upper jaws, like reptiles, a long verte- brated tail, like reptiles, and, like reptiles had separate toes, ending in claws, on their front limbs or wings. In fact they show so clearly their reptilian relationship that if it were not for the feathers with which these birds were scantily clothed, there would be no hesitation in ealling them reptiles. A somewhat different kind of connecting or transi- tional forms is shown in the classic example of the evo- lution of the horse, of which a most complete series of skeletons has been found in rocks ranging from Eocene to Pliocene in age. These show every step in the change from the small Eocene horse, about as large as a fox terrier, and having four toes and a rudiment of another toe on each front foot, and three toes and a splint on each hind foot, to the full size modern horse found in late Pliocene rocks, having one functional toe and two splints or rudiments of other toes on each foot. The evo- lution of the elephant and camels is known by series of skeletons almost as complete as that of the horse. 3. The evidence of evolution shown by the law of recapitulation, is possibly even more conclusive than that already cited. This law states that the life history of each individual recapitulates, or repeats in a short- ened way, the evolutionary history of the race to which it belongs. A clear illustration of this law is shown in the life history of the frog, the young stage of which is a tadpole having no lungs or legs, but breathes by means of gills, swims by movements of its tail, and is a fish in all its main characteristics and habits. Later it develops legs and lungs; absorbs its gills and tail; leaves the water, and is adapted to life on land. According to the law of recapitulation, the fish stage in the early life of the frog indicates a fish ancestry for the class Am- PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 41 phibia to which the frogs belong. This law was first dis- eovered by students of embryology, but the paleontolo- gist has in some ways a better opportunity to test its validity than the embryologist, especially as regards stages in the life history somewhat later than the truly embryonic. This is because, according to this law, the mature shells of any age should be found to correspond with immature growth stages of shells of their descend- ants occurring in rocks of later age, and this has proven true in a wonderful variety of fossil forms. An example will suffice from the Cephalopoda, or animals which have their shells separated into a number of chambers by par- titions like the chambered nautilus. The earliest forms with chambered shells were straight. Later, some of _ these developed curved shells, and later still the loosely coiled, and finally shells closely coiled in one plane, like the Nautilus, were evolved. Now the remarkable thing is that when this closely coiled Nautilus shell is carefully sawed lengthwise through the middle, it is seen that the curvature in the oldest part or apical end of the shell is not symmetrical. The shell begins to grow straight at the tip, later becoming only slightly curved till the first three septa are formed, then becomes loosely coiled, but does not become closely coiled until the end of the first volution. This remarkable manner of growth results in leaving an empty space between the two halves of the first volution, and repeats perfectly the order in which the various degrees of curving and coiling of the Nau- tilus type were developed successively in time. Now as if Nature was afraid this record was not sufh- ciently clear, she has made the evidence of evolution still more definite. In all of the closely coiled chambered shells, like Nautilus, the septa or partitions were evenly eurved plates which joined the inner side of the shell along straight regular lines called sutures. In Devonian ‘time there began to be developed in some of these shells irregular wrinkling of the septa, causing the bending backward and forward of the suture lines as in the Gon- iatites. As time progressed the lobing of the suture lines became more and more complex, as in the Ceratites, and reached its culmination in the later Ammonites. During 42 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the Triassic and Jurassic periods the Ammonites with very complex suture lines reached the climax of their careers. Now at the apex of each of these Ammonite shells the first sutures were simple, like those of the adult Nautilus. These were followed in the first half of the coil by sutures with simple lobes, as in Goniatites; and farther forward the lobes of the later sutures became more complex, until the true Ammonite type of suture is attained about the time the first whorl is completed. Thus, each individual Nautilus shell repeats in its growth the successive stages of curvature and coiling that the Nau- tilus group passed through in its development from straight-shelled ancestral forms; and in a similar way ~ each individual Ammonite shell repeats in its growth the successive stages of complexity of suture line that the Ammonite group passed through in its development from the simple-sutured Nautiloid ancestors. In their growth the shells in many of the classes of fossils repeat in their young stages adult characters of their earlier ancestors so that the paleontologist does not doubt the general validity of the evidence of the law of recapitulation with regard to evolution. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 43 A NOVEL AND ECONOMIC METHOD OF MAKING CHARTS FOR SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Wriuiam M. Westey, Sr. Procoprus Cotuecer, Liste. Are charts of any value? Many of you who are engaged in teaching the sciences, but especially those in connection with botany, zoology or psychology, have, no doubt, realized the importance of charts in the class room. If a particular phase or stage is visualized, it is impressed more forcibly upon the mind of the student; hence it is more readily retain- ed in his memory. The market is indeed flooded with charts, but seldom is a person able to procure just what he would want. Hence you are confronted with this problem: Are you to adopt a course of instruction to fit the charts available; are you to omit the use of charts altogether, or are you to make your own charts? It was the last named course that was adopted at our college at Lisle, for the faculty refused to be satisfied with what the market had to offer. At first Dr. Jurica set a few students to work at making charts free-hand, but soon realized that this was tedious and quite expensive. After negotiating with a number of optical companies, he finally induced the Spencer Lens to modify their Model 3 Delineoscope so that it could be used for projecting opaque iflustrations at any distance. Ordinarily the delineoscope is equipped with but a short plunger which does not permit a short working distance. This means that one would have a limit to the size of any particular illustration on the chart. But an 18 inch plunger allows one to come as near the cloth as is desired and corres- pondingly reduces the size of the picture. The procedure is quite simple. Having made the proper connection, and having set the delineoscope in place, all one needs to do is to tack the cloth in- tended for the chart to a wall or beaver board. Then project the selected illustration, from a book, a re- print or a drawing, regulating the size by moving the table backward or forward as is necessary and focusing by, means of the elongated plunger. With this all set, one 44 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is free to trace the chart in outline with pencil, and later it ean be finished with indelible inks or paints. The advantage afforded by this procedure is that one can easily and at a very small cost make whatever charts he desires; that is, a person can include in a series just exactly what he thinks will illustrate the subject best. The practice at our institution at Lisle is as follows: Dr. Jurica makes the selection, and he, himself, traces it in outline with pencil and leaves the rest to be finished by the students with colored waterproof ink, directing, of course, the choice of colors and all detail work. The cloth used, which has been found to be very satisfac- — tory, is known as ‘‘binders’’, Velum de Lux, and can be purchased in rolls of 40 yards, ranging in price from 17 to 35 cents per yard, depending upon market condi- tions. [tis cut easily into sheets of any size with a knife or razor blade. Our practice is to tack the roll to a kit- chen table and to cut along the edge, cutting up the whole roll at one time into sheets of uniform size. After finishing the chart in detail, it is then lettered and bound in loose-leaf form in strong covers made of beaver board and mounted on a tripod. If one desires, the chart could also be put on rollers, but as a rule this does not keep so well. Moreover, where a quantity is made, the book form on a tripod has a decided advantage, for the lecturer can turn readily from chart ke chart as necessity demands. A probable objection may be that it is difficult to find students capable and willing to finish charts. This, how- ever, presents no difficulty; for if the teacher is able, there is no class, not even on the high school level, in which a number of students could not be trained, and who would not be willing to earn some pocket-money. Be- sides, the students as a rule take pride in their finished products, especially if the proper credit for whatever they do is given them. The delineoscope in itself is not very expensive, if one considers the time it saves in outlining or merely measur- ing off the illustrations according to the rules of propor- tions. With this machine charts have been outlined, ranging in time from 17 minutes to an hour and a half, PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 45 depending upon their complexity. It is both a time and a money saver. Moreover, a simple turn of the globe enables one to use the delineoscope for lantern slide projections. The accompanying illustrations show some of the stu- dents at work making charts. Turning the globe back again and inserting a sliding feeder, postal cards may be projected. 46 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A STATE FOREST PRESERVE. James H. Ferriss, Jouret Park District As reported by a national senate committee, the con- sumption of American timber is now four times greater than production. Many deserts and waste places of the earth were formerly timbered and fertile, densely popu- lated by leading nations of their time. Man with all of his industry, commerce, science, apparently is the great destroyer. His ambitions and enterprise fill the river beds, destroy the forest, and lay waste the fertile plain. Endowed with intelligence, education, incomparable to all the inhabitants of the land and sea, he is the most wasteful, the one great embarrassment of creation. This is not a sermon, however; neither a thing highly scientific. Merely I have dropped in here neighborly, in- formally, for ten minutes, to inquire if there is not some pleasing method or plan, whereby we scientifics might add considerably to the park and forest conservation movement. The awaking people are enthusiastic; enter- prise runs wide and deep. The state highway project, a forerunner, has been an unexpected and a pleasing suc- cess. Electricity and gasoline quicken the pace. The people are doing more and quicker thinking. Perhaps without our help much of the forest lands would be saved and nature’s balance in a large measure preserved. As with the older states, the land may not be stripped alto- gether of its verdure and fertility; however, with our help the saving movements can. be started much quicker and more usefully, beautifully, certainly. It is not needful at this time, in this audience, to dis- cuss the merits of forest preservation, values in public health, protection of navigable streams, effects upon water levels and atmosphere, or the moral effects and educational features as applied to ourselves. If you do not know more of this entire subject than I do, I am sorry. The newspapers and libraries are full of this. The editors, disinterested as they are, have caught on. They find that a truthful story of the hop-toad, an ode to a spray of the Golden Bell, or the portrait of a tumble- weed holds the subscribers better than a whole page of PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 47 colored screams and rough stuff. Doe Calomel is losing his best customers. The old folks are camping in the woods, also the young ones and their school master. We scientifics have a large influence with that virile group who make the laws, levy the appropriations and shape the policies of the state. Perhaps you have noticed yourselves that a botanist or a geologist is viewed with a peculiar awe or reverence by legislators and aldermen. A scientific gent, to these law and constitution builders, seems something above and beyond a common creature— something ordained, a super thing, loaded for bear. With busy people, also, toiling eight hours daily at a dollar and a quarter per hour, or sweating around the bulletins of a stock exchange two hours at a time, Coulter, Tre- lease, a Chamberlin, Ridgeway, Doctor Evans and each of a lot more of us is a larger man than some governors of the state. Any old timer who can chop a log between his feet with these hustling moderns is an architect, a landscape authority or a wizard equipped to build a navy or fix a clock. © There is reason for much encouragement in Joliet play- grounds, parks and an arboretum of 836 acres publicly owned and the 70 acres in parks and forests owned by the Street Railway, all free to everybody. About 330 acres of the arboretum is a matured forest of native trees. Privately owned until recently, it had received five years or more of excellent care and planting before given to the public, and the planting and forest conditions will now be continued. The Cook County Forest Preserve, within four miles of the Joliet arboretum, is one of the very best enterprises of this character, a splendid testimonial to the industry and the courage of its promoters. Over thirty thousand acres of the Cook County forest land has been purchased, and the purpose is to secure at least forty thousand. To preserve the native forests in their regular, natural or- der, to build trails and roads in and between, to provide shelters and picnicing conveniences, in short, to develop an outer park belt of wild woods accessible to the people of a greater Chicago is the object of the Park Commis- sion. The Joliet Park District intends to connect its 48 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE arboretum with the Cook County Preserve along a small river with wooded hills and banks, thus becoming a part of this greatness and beauty. Winnebago County followed Cook with a county pre- serve, and already has saved a forest selected for des- truction. Peoria, Hast St. Louis and ‘other cities of the state have their ambitions, and with the Chicago-Joliet link as a commencement, this Queen of the States may do something worth while, namely, save the forest before it is cut over, the soil before it is washed away. Some of us can remember when Central Park, N. Y., and the Commons of Boston, parkwise, stood alone in the nation. The Arnold Arboretum is just fifty years of age this year. White pine lumber in our time sold in Chicago for sixteen dollars per thousand, firsts, and eight for fencing. Some of us cut down the trees for the nuts, the honey, or the coons, and set the woods on fire to warm our hands. Now the national government is buying back the moun- tain ranges of the Atlantic and Pacific slopes and the water sheds of the navigable streams in between, and sixteen states have adopted various forms of parks or forest protection. Thus there is much encouragement, the going is good, and why not continue to preserve all the land in and about the forests not suitable for agricul- tural purposes? To do it largest, to do it first, pleases the taxpayers. The best state in the Union should lead the way. Why wait for New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts or boastful California? The deep water route from the Lakes to the Gulf is now well under way, and the suggestion of forest saving along the scenic banks from the Lake to Cairo is receiv- ing some attention from the press and Chambers of Com- merce. Here would be greatness—probably the longest enterprise of the character nation wide, the most used and useable in the state. The Illinois counties on the banks of this canal have a population twice as large as all the other counties of the state, with four more counties in Missouri to be heard from. The last census, 1920, gave the waterway counties of Illinois a population of PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 49 4,129,859; the whole state, 6,485,280. The scenery itself is fitted exactly for our purpose, parks already made, with wide stretches of water, deep forests, high bluffs, lakes, lily ponds, the greatest of Indian mounds, ever changing scenes, and all delightful. The makings, the formulas, are before us. The O’Neil bills now at Springfield, house numbers 181, 182, and 183, cover the situation. The first named provides that the state department of public works, now in charge of the state highways and numerous activities of the kind, may aequire tracts of lands of natural scenic beauty, embody- ing cliffs, forest covered bluffs and forested or wood- land areas, of which the chief values are best adapted for natural park areas, reservations and preserves; also to maintain, improve and establish public parks and fish and game preserves in their natural state of beauty. Bull number 182 provides $100,000 to be divided between the two coming years in the acquisition of land. Bill number 183 provides for a board of agricultural advisers of fifteen persons. The friends of Our Native Landscape, an organization of real workers, containing. some of the best authorities of the state in these matters,—Jens Jensen, Stephen A. Forbes, Dr. Cowles and others of their stature—have made an extensive survey of the state, although they con- tend there is much more to be done. This authority is back of the O’Neil bills. Their survey is mapped and illustrated artistically and to the purpose. Leaving out the Chicago-Joliet corner of the state, this survey sug- gests twenty locations fairly located, the state over, from the pineries of the northwest down the Mississippi, Sa- vannah, Lima Lake, Piasa Bluff, Ft. Gage, Fountain Bluff, and then through the Ozark Hills to the Ohio, Po- mona Natural-Bridge, Giant City, Bald Knob, Wolf Lake, Fern Cliff, Parker, Jackson Hollow, Dixon Springs, and Cave Hill, one near Effingham and three on the L[llinois, Greater Starved Rock, Lake Senachwine and Havana, and another in the Rockford pines and hills. Though the appropriation per the O’Neil bills is small, it is a beginning, and in view of the highway triumph there is a reason for activity upon our part. The Cook 50 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE County plan is the result of much study, good talent and time. The method of selecting the governing body is one promising the best talent and is working well. They have made the forest preserve method one of the great achievements of the nation. Their legislative work gives any county in the state the same advantages taken by Cook. Any 500 voters in a county may now eall an election for the purpose of adopting this law. Cities have the most votes and the doing is easy. Only one mill upon the dollar of assessed valuation is permitted, but it brings in a large annual revenue. One per cent upon the same valuation is the limit of indebtedness. In my county, with an assessed valuation of fifty-five millions, we can raise $55,000 annually by direct taxation without the taxpayers noticing it, and run in debt for ten times as much for investments to their great profit and pleasure. There is much encouragement for the preservation of this beloved state, and while things are going our way may we scientifics do our full duty and a little more, and stick. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 51 A COLLECTING TRIP TO ALASKA AND THE CANADIAN NORTHWEST. Ruts MarsHati, Rockrorp CoLuEcE. Alaska has many attractions for the traveler. Histor- ically, it is one of the oldest parts of our country; its people and their needs are almost unknown to the citizens of the States; it has great natural wealth in its minerals, - its forests and its fisheries; it is a land of surpassing beauty, with its great glaciers, snow-capped mountains, fiords, and vast meadows of brilliant wild flowers. This great territory, in area one-fifth of the size of the States, is a rich and little explored country for the naturalist. From brg game to the tiny beasts in the mountain pools, in the dense forests of the mild and moist coast region to the frozen treeless tundras of the north, there is a great field for the collector. In the summer of 1922, I spent two months in an ex- tended trip along the coast from Seattle to Kodiak Is- land, a journey by boat of about two thousand miles. All of the larger coast towns, and many of the cannery set- tlements were visited. Stops were made in several places, varying from one day to two weeks, and there were short journeys inland on the three Alaskan railways. My scientific interests lay chiefly in the life of the ponds and lakes, especially those at high altitudes, where I hoped to find water mites. In this quest I was reasonably successful, considering the size of the territory and the difficulties of transportation. Altho the material obtained was not great in amount, the stations visited were many and of a varied character. This part of Alaska is rich in lakes. The coast towns, built very pic- turesquely on the mountain sides, draw their water sup- ply from snow-fed lakes which form natural reservoirs. There are usually trails or roads to some bodies of water at every stopping place. And so, provided with a Birge collecting net, a knapsack and a camera, it was possible to reach and study a goodly number of places. Five days by boat from Seattle lies Skagway, at the end of the famous Inside Passage. Here I left the boat for the train on the White Pass and Yukon Railway over 52 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the mountains and north to White Horse, in Yukon Ter- ritory, a hundred miles into the Canadian. Northwest. This great scenic route follows the trail of the Klondik- ers of 798. Along the way are several lakes. Stops were made for collecting at Carcross and at Bennett; at the latter place the ponds are at an elevation of over two thousand feet. To the east lies the beautiful Atlin Lake region, and a few days were spent in collecting material in small pools there. The first material from Alaskan waters was secured at Skagway, at two stations; one was a small pool in the town and the other was the lake reservoir, 1500 feet above the town. In Lake Dewey, adjacent to this, no water mites were found. At Juneau, the territorial capitol, the ponds and pools visited yielded nothing. But in Sitka, the old Russian town and former eapitol, I was directed to a pond in a sphagnum bed, choked with yellow water lilies, which gave several interesting forms. The most intensive collecting was done during a two weeks’ stay in Cordova, the port of the Copper River country, famous for its copper and its salmon. Here is a large and beautiful body of water, Lake Eyak, at sea level, and a number of mountain pools, with clay bottoms, in beds of sphagnum, at elevations of a few hundred feet. From Cordova I made the trip on the Copper River and Northwestern Railway, ‘‘the Iron Trail’’ of Rex Beach fame, past Miles and Childs Glaciers, another wonderful scenic route, to the little town of Chitna, one hundred and thirty miles inland. Here among the moun- tains are several small lakes near the town, one of them at an elevation of 750 feet. At Seward, on farther to the westward, we again left the steamer, this time to board a train on the Govern- ment Railway, for the trip across the Kenai Penninsula to the new town of Anchorage, over a hundred miles north. Again our route took us over a great pass and between living glaciers, with beautiful mountain scenery at every turn. A day’s stop in Anchorage afforded a chance to do a little collecting in some small pools. I was fortunate in being able to make two stops on Kodiak Island. The town of Kodiak, at the northern Alitak, Kodiak Island, Ketdukan, Alaska. Leaving the harbor from S. S. Queen. side. ain punt 2 mo 1e m tl Fror aska. iat AG lutir Xn S = ( ) PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 53 end of this beautiful island, is the outfitting station for expeditions to the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. Ash from the Katmai eruption of 1912 is still seen blowing about on the mountain tops. A small pond in the town has a bottom of voleanic ash; no life was found in this in the hasty examination made in the evening. But a large shallow pond near the Agricultural Experiment Station, supporting a rank growth of water plants, yielded several mites and crustacea. Alitak is a cannery settlement at the southern end of Kodiak Island, one of the many places where our boat stopped for more than a day to load cases of salmon. On the mountain side, brilliant with the flowers and fruits of late summer, I found several shallow pools of clear water in sphagnum beds, and here there was fair collecting. Ketchikan, the southernmost town of Alaska, was vis- ited on the return trip, in the first days of September. There is a mountain reservoir here, some three miles along a tram-way up the slope. In a bay of this lake a little material was found. Besides the stations enumerated, two ponds, one at Seattle and one at Tacoma, were visited on the trip, and interesting material found. On the way out to the coast, a few days were spent in Glacier National Park; but no mites were found in any of the bodies of water tested. But at Banff, on the return trip over the Canadian Pacific Railway, a few mites were found in a marshy pool. f In all, nearly forty stations were visited and between five and six hundred individual water mites were found. Only ten genera were represented, and of these, the genus Hygrobates claimed over half of the specimens. Work on one genus, the Arrhenuri, has been completed, and the paper is now in press. Work on the other genera will be completed as soon as time will allow. Material in other groups collected at the same time has been turned over to other workers for study. 54 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A TUNDRA TRIP IN ALASKA. Patsy Hucues Lupo, Rockrorp CoLuEcE. Since the early gold rush to Alaska, the first boat of the season to venture into the Northwest Seas has left amid the cheers of crowds of people who thrilled at the thought of her adventures and came to wish her well; for something about travel in ice-laden seas appeals to the romantic spirit of even the most stolid. So it is that even today hundreds of people who are strangers to the country and to all the passengers still come to wave good-bye and good luck to the ‘‘Old Vict’’ when she leaves the dock. And well it is that they do, for I doubt if even the oldest of the old-timers go without some little twinge of wonder whether thru storms and ice she will reach Nome in safety. The Victoria ‘steers a course almost due west to longitude of about 162°, and then turns north thru Unimak Pass into Bering Sea. This is the ‘‘outside’’ passage, in contrast to the line of travel which leads close to the coast and to the Southern part of Alaska. It is the course which the Oriental boats to Japan take; and few people realize that one is halfway to Japan before he turns north toward Arctic Alaska, _ and that possessions of the United States and of Russia are in one place only half a mile apart! It is in Bering Sea that the day lengthens until there is no night, and the watch for ice becomes vigilant. Since the days of wireless the danger from being caught in the ice is less, for word comes from the Yukon when the last ice goes, and from Nome as to the condition of her coast. But sometimes the ice is caught in drifts and is brought back again when unexpected; and so it was on our trip in 1922 when on June eleventh the first mate announced, ‘Tee ahead, sir.’’ But the floe was well broken up and caused no delay, so that we landed at Nome within two days. Nome is a city of renowned past, made famous by Rex Beach’s Spoilers and by Sweepstake races on which bets were made around the world. She is now, tho, a city of dwindled population, of unpainted houses, of plank streets in need of repair, and of empty homes where the Fig.1. A kyack race of the Eskimos. Fig.2. Seward Peninsula railroad—called the “dogomobile.” PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 55 destruction of a wall exposes furniture deserted in place. The population of the city varies, for the people are transient; they go into the hills to work their claims in summer, and by far the greatest number go ‘‘outside’’ on the last boat that returns to the States. Nome is a drab little mining town; straggling along a narrow coas- tal plain that borders the hill regions. Its people are occupied mostly in gold mining, and fishing for salmon and whales, and a few little shops supply the necessities of life. This is the town where women once wore Pari- sian gowns, and imported Corsican dancers were paid in showers of gold! The Fourth of July in Nome is, even yet, a day of great celebration for both white people and Eskimos. It is a holiday of games, and the Eskimos particularly were very interesting in the originality and execution of their contests. Their walrus skin throwing is similar to blanket throwing of this country, except that the taut- ness of the skin makes it a more difficult accomplishment ; but altho some who attempted it made funny spectacles of themselves, many of them succeeded in landing and rebounding with beautiful poise. A standing kick to touch with both feet a ball suspended about six feet three inches high was one of the novel feats; and a kyack race was an example of a very typical Eskimo sport. The ‘‘modern’’ Eskimo who took part in these sports is little different from the Eskimo of Steffanson’s books so far as one can see. They are modern only in the substitution of calico trimmed in fur for the all-fur parka, and in the use of all kinds of expensive American perfumes to add to the odor of seal oil and blubber! Their women are very pretty when young, but age most rapidly, and the most lasting and appealing picture of Eskimo people is the sweet madonna face of the parka-dressed young Eskimo mother with one baby on her back and several holding her by hand. During the influenza epidemic, these people died by hundreds, so that in places their communities are almost depopulated, and the orphanages are crowded with children. Travel in Alaska may be accomplished with ease only in winter, with dog team over packed ice. A summer 56 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE journey entails innumerable hardships, and especially in 1922 the late thaw and continued cold made it difficult to get into the hills. There are no trails, and one must go on foot or with team across unbroken, swampy coun- try. We left Nome about the twenty-third of June to go to Teller on the Sea Wolf, but ice floes filled Port Clar- ence Bay and a storm made us anchor for protection be- hind a big iceberg; and in three days we had to return to Nome. After a month’s delay there we set out again for Teller on the Sea Wolf. Truly, Alaska is the land of waiting, for there are no schedules for anything and the weather rules supreme. This delay in Nome and another in Teller when the storms racked the house over our heads made us almost despair of finishing our journey to the Kougarok. In Teller is the farthest north news- paper in the world, published every week or so (whenever there is any news!) by a boy of twelve years, who also _ builds his boats, fishes for the winter supply of dog feed, and helps his father with the reindeer herd. We left Teller in the twilight of midnight and lull of the storm to cross the bay with the team which carried all our provisions for the distance of fifty miles. We our- selves walked, for the reason that horse feed is scarce in this country, and the horses were ill-fitted even for the load of necessities which they hauled. On our journey we made three stops, one when we were halted by a flood and camped on a gravel bar in the Agiapuk River, one at a tent of a miner, and one at a shack of an English prospector who was making his fire in a pan and letting the smoke out by a hole in his window! In fifty miles we saw one man, and there are many places on Seward Peninsula where one might travel and see none. It was the same story on our outward journey, too,—a claim with one miner, or a dredging camp with five or six men. An empty house, or an empty town were the signs of habitation that we passed. My aunt and I felt our- selves to be objects of curiosity when we came to camps because there are no women in this part of the hill coun- try. One man we passed had not seen a woman for two ~ years, and later I met a Scotchman who said he had lived for seventeen years without seeing a woman! Hospital- PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 57 ity, naturally, is the law of the land, and even in a house where the owner is away, a traveler may take what he wants, with the only obligation to leave the place in good condition with some food for the next fellow traveler. Deserted towns as well as houses are not rare. Shelton was a town on our home journey, and from the hill it looked to be quite populous with some dozen fine frame houses, and even two-story homes. But on our arrival we found it occupied by only two men, and both of them were transients! Our journey of two months ended on July 30th when we crossed the Arctic Divide and saw the red mud roof of our cabin shining in the sunlight on a limestone hill that was part of Kougarok Mountain. It is a simple little cabin built of planks and made secure by bricks of peat. Within, its walls are made picturesque by paper- ing of old magazine covers and pages of ancient date, so that one can read the early Saturday Evening Post stories of Mary Roberts Rhinehart as one eats. The fur- nishings are home-made things of board, with typical eabin ‘‘bunks’’ for beds and only benches to sit on. But there is the real luxury of a good stove with an oven that bakes bread exactly right if you watch it carefully. At first our cabin was damp and dismal with green mold covering wood and paper and fur robes; but fires and air cleared it out; fresh new curtains at the deepset square windows, and the few deft touches of my Aunt very soon made of our shack a cabin home. Life is busy in house-keeping under primitive condi- tions. Fires made with willow twigs soon go out, and three substantial meals a day are necessities for vigorous, pioneer life. Nor are there stores nearby! The dried stuff and canned goods brought in must furnish all the food requirements, and bread must be made, and fresh meat killed. For our meat we lived on ptarmigan, with one delicious sandhill crane, and some reindeer that was given to us for variety. And in addition to the neces- sities of life, for a Botanist the identification of the countless new species of plants on the tundra is a lure which urges him to work with all the haste of civilization, even in this remote corner of the globe. AS ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE {t is a country wholly different. It is a hill-country prairie, for it is treeless and lies in a region known as the ‘‘barren lands.’’ These barrens extend from the Aleutian Peninsula to the region of the McKenzie River delta, the only point where trees border the Arctic Ocean. In truth it is not a barren territory, but is, instead, cov- ered by a most diverse and abundant flora with a hundred or more species in a small area. In Seward Peninsula the area is one of interminable hills gloriously colored and rolling to infinite distances; and often, as one watches them, rainbows arch them over and touch the ground at each end where pots of gold may lie in truth. More than on the prairies does one have a feeling of immense spa- ciousness and vision to remote places. It is said that on a very clear day one may see from Kougarok Mountain into Siberia, over a hundred miles away. And the ability to see so far, yet the absence of any object of known size in that view by which one may estimate distances, leads - the observer, as Steffanson explains, to make strange errors in judgments. Captain MacIntyre of the Teddy Bear told a story of mistaking an Arctic mouse for a polar bear, and certainly one of our party mistook a claim stake for our cabin, and was lost thereby. It isa curious country of misleading seeming-familiarity, a fas- cinating country which, in spite of all its dangers, com- pels love even from those who most loudly condemn the vagaries of climate and place. The tundra, as stated before, is not barren but is cov- ered by a carpet of hummocking plants overlying in most places centuries’ accumulation of raw humus. Rock sur- faces are exposed only on the highest mountains and comparatively recent faults, and in the creek beds of cutting streams. For the most part, it is a country of swampy conditions everywhere, so that to the newcomer ‘‘mush,’’ used as it is in Alaska to mean ‘‘move on,’’ ‘‘travel,’’ would seem to have come into use from the suggestive character of the country rather than from its authentic derivation as a corruption of ‘‘marchon.’’ The accumulation of humus which freezes and thus prevents drainage causes the hydrophytic conditions which, to- gether with the cold, are responsible for the universal Fig. 4. Tundra thawing PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 59 presence of sphagnum and plants of xeromorphie char- acter. As is well known, the plants are all of the low- growing, dwarf habit, with many of them of cushion forms which retain their dead leaves and structures for some time. The flowers, tho small, are exquisitely vivid, even more beautiful than members of the same genera which are familiar in this region, such as Dodecatheon, Myosotis, and so forth. Warming, in his Oecology, describes the fell fields, the moss tundra, the lichen tundra, and the dwarf shrub heath of Arctic regions; and he indicates the water relationships of these by putting the moss association as following the fell fields when the mosses gain the ascend- ency, and the lichens as inhabiting the drier portions of any of these associations. Since then no work has been done to determine any further ecological relationships between these associations, tho a great deal has been done toward collection and identification of Arctic spe- cies. In the time that was possible the attention of the writer was directed toward the relationships and loca- tion of different type associations. But these observa- tions can be regarded only as preliminary, almost as merely casual, for they were made over a very limited area, and also under atypical weather conditions. They make no claim other than to be just suggestive. The types of tundra observed by the writer were (1) pioneer lichen associations, (2) open dwarf shrub asso- ciations, (3) closed dwarf shrub associations, (4) Carex- Eriophorum associations, (5) Spagnum-willow associa- tions, and (6) the grass associations of the flood plains. The most important factor in influencing the rate of suc- cession between these associations is apparently the wind, as the climate is apparently humid enough for the support of mesophytic forms. After the accumulation of humus by the early stages the water relations are affected by drainage, for the freezing of the peat deposits below prevents drainage and creates conditions produc- tive of zeromorphic plant forms; but seepage of water from higher land above the peat tends to keep the sub- stratum thawed and gives rise to swampy conditions described below in the Sphagnum-willow association, 60 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The descriptions of these formations given below are very brief and no species except type species are named. More detail concerning these will be given in a paper that is to be published. On the rock uplands, the lichens are pioneers as they are elsewhere, but they are of shorter duration except on the perpendicular surfaces, for crevices and slopes are soon taken up with shrubs such as Diapensia lapponica, Salix uva-ursa (?), and Dryas octopetala; and these form the thin scattered cushions of vegetation called ‘‘fell fields’? above. Their growth continues until they cover the ground with a thick carpet in which other plants in- termingle. Potentilla uniflora, P. biflora are prominent in this situation, as are also Arctostaphylos alpina, An- dromeda polifolia, Cassiope tetragona, Rhododendron lapponica. One or another of these may be dominant in any particular location, depending perhaps on priority of occupancy; and hence arise the names of Dryas tundra, ete., used by Warming. These shrubs may be- come so thickly intergrown in later stages with sedges and grasses and herbaceous plants that the shrubby character may be lost entirely, and in this situation the Potentilla and bearberry, perhaps, are the best survivals of the shrubs. This stage is regarded by the writer as a probable transition stage between the dwarf shrub and the Sphagnum-Ericad tundra mentioned below. ‘The rapidity with which dwarf shrubs cover the ground and develop the thick carpet just described depends upon the protection from wind, as stated before. The windward and lee slopes of a hill offer strong contrasts to each other, and even on one boulder, the protected and exposed sides may show, in one case, a solid covering, and in the second, a perfectly bare surface except for a few lichens. Succeeding the more open stages of the dwarf shrub associations there may be the cotton grass-sedge asso- ciation, developed in situations made hydrophytie by configuration of the land and drainage influenced thus. These places show accumulations of rock soil and reveal on digging the frozen condition of this soil. Dryas may remain with the sedges, but it is infrequent, and the other shrubs are even still rarer, but mosses and herbaceous PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 61 plants are plentiful. The clump habit of these plants causes hummocks (what Alaskans call ‘‘nigger-heads’’) and reticulate ridges with puddles between where water often remains and Nostoe sp. and hydrophytie mosses are found. The question of a climax is a difficult one. In the opin- ion of the writer it seems probable that the climax is the Sphagnum-Ericad tundra, (1) because it seems from the observations to be most extensive in conditions not made unusual by peculiar drainage conditions, and (2) because it was an association found in areas of greatest age, for example on the Arctic Divide. This association has Sphagnum abundant but not very conspicuous because of the larger size of the shrubs, the most important of which are Ledum palustris, Vaccinium ulignosum, V. Vitis-idaea, Betula glandulosa, and especially Rubus Chamaemorus. On the drier hummocks, which are still characteristic, are sedges and Polytrichum. Deep layers of peat are usually found beneath this association, and are frequently exposed by erosion of streams which cut thru it and expose the frozen, rock-like layers below. So far as the writer observed the grasses have place only on flood plains of alluvial character, or of peat char- acter, if the former tundra vegetation of the peat has not survived transplantation. It is a brief stage and ap- parently gives way to either the willows or to the sphag- num and heaths. The willows are particularly interest- ing in that they are distributed in regions where the ground is thawed and wet. This condition is brought about usually by seepage thru the peat of water draining from higher levels. The drainage lines are usually very conspicuous, and the line of extent of the willows coin- cides with these drainage lines. These shrubs are of the espalier habit described by Warming; they grow about five to six feet high and attain an inch or so in diamter in fifty to sixty years of growth. Growing beneath the willows are mesophytic mosses, sphagnum, and many herbaceous plants. It is evident from this brief discussion that any change * causing new drainage lines will cause changes in the plant associations; and because the peat is eroded easily this 62 - ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE frequently occurs. A gully developed by the spring freshets of one year is shown in the accompanying pic- tures. The down-cutting was creating market changes in the topography. The lumps of peat dislodged frequently were deposited in short distances with their plants undis- turbed, and these then continued their growth in their new situation. Retrogression due to drainage of a pre- viously undrained area would naturally give rise to more xerophytic conditions. In locations where this had hap- pened, a lichen association was found over-growing the former plant association. The plants of this former as- sociation did not die completely, but continued to live in less vigorous condition and send occasional shoots above _ the over-growing lichens. These observations were made in the month of our stay in the Kougarok. We left there on the third of Sep- tember and traveled overland to Nome, a ‘‘mush’’ of about one hundred fifty miles, with an Alaskan pack sad- dle carrying all our luggage. The weight was easy to earry because of the comfort of the pack in spite of the difficult walk; and the weather was the most beautiful of the whole summer. At Shelton we took the Seward Pen- insula Railroad, an old track laid for use with gasoline engines in the days when Shelton hummed with gold pros- pects. Since then no one is left living in Shelton, and the railroad is unrepaired. Its rails are frequently missing, and sometimes the tundra beneath the track has sunk out of sight; yet in spite of danger, it is easier travel than walking, and it is used by individuals who hitch their dogs to small hand cars and enjoy traveling at the greatest speed of five to six miles an hour on the up- grades and twenty miles an hour or more on the down grades. For excitement and adventure, there can be no rival for the Seward Peninsula Railroad! The journey of nearly four months resulted in only meager results. It was not primarily a Botanical ex- pedition, altho that was the main interest of the writer. But it served as an introduction to a novel land of delight for all those who love adventuring in the open and a land of possibility for Botanists who wish an unexplored field. The Northward Course of Empire by Steffanson can PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 63 help one to a realization of the economic possibilities and a truer appreciation of the pleasures of this country. But no words of any pen can describe adequately the joys of the open hill-country to anyone who has been there and forever longs to go back. _ PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE . > < all . —~ - - ~ ” = fl ne ay), es PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 67 PRACTICAL PLANT PROTECTION. Wuarp N. Crurte, Eprror, American Botanist, JOLIET. In the early days the wildflowers were so abundant and widespread that the destruction of immense num- bers was of no consequence, but with the growth of our country, many of the more showy and attractive speci- mens have been brought to the verge of extinction. A few species have disappeared or are disappearing from purely natural causes, such as the chestnut blight and the pine blister rust, but the greatest enemy of the plants is man. For every flower picked for a bouquet, he de- stroys thousands by felling the forest, flooding the val- leys, draining the swamps, burning the thickets and tear- ing up the prairie sod to set a whole new race of plants in the place of violet and shooting-star, puccoon and camas- sia, phlox and gentian, sunflower and goldenrod. His eattle trample them, all sorts of animals feed on them, the mower lays countless thousands low, and yet in some way little short of a*miracle another year finds them smiling from fence-row and thicket with the same trust- ful innocence as of yore. Only when he finally stakes out a factory village in the midst of all this loveliness do the native plants give up the struggle. Such things have to be if our own race is to survive, but we may well object to all unnecessary destruction of our wild plants. The roadmaker has no sooner torn his way through the wilderness than nature sets to work to repair the damage with a cloud of wildflowers. The ugly wounds of plow and scraper are healed with boneset, Joe-Pye-weed, clematis, bittersweet, asters, goldenrod and a host of others. And then back comes the road- maker to ‘‘improve”’ his work by removing all this love- liness. To him the birds, the wildflowers, the sheltering trees and the wild things that scurry from one thicket to another are not to be compared with a carefully barbered roadside bordered by a neat barbed wire fence. Law- making bodies often encourage him in his efforts to lay waste the countryside by requiring this annual slaugh- ter of wildflowers. Beauty is no excuse for being in the eyes of one who considers himself a practical man. In 68 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE my own town some time ago, the question arose as to whether a certain nook about one of the public buildings should be covered with concrete or set with plants, and the care-taker was ordered to do whichever was cheapest! Of all offenders against good taste in such matters, the railroads are the worst. Though quick to see the ad- vantage of planting the station grounds with beautiful flowers, they are blind to the fact that the selfsame spe- cies are doing their best to ornament the whole right of way, and they send out laborers to cut them down. Great clumps of lilies, acres of painted-cups, banks of anem- ones, swamps of wild hyacinth, clouds of phlox, thickets of laurel, sandy wastes blue with lupine and whole galaxies of sunflowers fall before this untutored savage with a scythe. In late August last year, I travelled more than a thousand miles on our mid-west railroads without seeing a single conspicuous patch of wildflowers on the right of way. The mower had done his worst. The poorer railroads through lack of funds may still allow some of these wildlings to grow, but the bétter roads mow them down and then dilate on the scenery through which their lines run. Added to the other destructive agencies must be the vandal out for a day’s holiday. He not only devastates the roadsides but invades private property as well. Much of his transgressions must be ascribed to ignorance, for the general public seldom considers flowers of any spe- cial value and, indeed, supposes them to grow out of the ground much as wool grows on a sheep and therefore to be picked without compunction. It is to this individual that the increasing rarity of the wildflowers in the vicin- ity of cities and large towns is mostly due and now that the automobile has widened the range of his activities, no part of the country is safe. It has often been assumed hastily that the methods of protection applied to birds so successfully need only be extended to the wildflowers to have equally happy results, but a moments reflection will serve to show that the eases are far from identical. Birds, being able to move about from place to place, are rarely if ever in the way. They are peculiarly the property of the whole publie and PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 69 their collection may well be prohibited entirely. Unlike the flowers, their attractiveness departs with their col- lection. Moreover, gifted with movement, they can move out of harm’s way and are less easily exterminated. Every person induced to cease hunting them gives them that much more chance of surviving, but with plants, so long as:there is a single person collecting, all are in dan- ger. It is also easier to make sentiment in favor of bird protection because birds are known to be helpful as well as attractive in other ways. Birds may even be tolerated among our crops and attracted in various ways to fre- quent and nest in our grounds. It may be doubted whether it is wise to prevent or even to discourage all picking of flowers. They appeal to the better natures of everybody, and children especially are not content to admire but must acquire as well. Child- hood forbidden to gather flowers would be a sorry spec- tacle. All our traditions are in favor of making use of the flowers. Man wore flowers long before he wore clothes, and he still takes pleasure in decorating his grounds, his residence and himself with them. The use of plants in garlands and coronels has been a custom for so long that this is embodied in the common names that weresin existence long before scientific names were thought of. We still make use of a wealth of flowers on all festive occasions, and with them we also attempt to cheer the sick or soften the grief of those whose friends have passed on to more flowery fields. Every city and hamlet has one or more shops wherein are sold flowers only. In view of all this we cannot reasonably ask the lover of flowers to cease picking them entirely. There is a pleasure in the pursuit of any thing that comes only with possession. Does anybody imagine that the hunt- ing and fishing that still go on in settled communities is inspired by the need of food? Far from it. The spoils brought home by the hunter or fisher are simply the trophies that speak of his success. They are con- crete evidences of his prowess. And shall we deny the child, the poet and other flower-lovers their evidences of success? Why, even the birds gather flowers! The martins delight to deck their nesting sites with peach- 70 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE blossoms, crows are well known to be attracted by bright blossoms, and even the blood-thirsty hawk has been known to ornament his nest with violets. Fortunately for us, all flowering plants do not need protection. The rough and ugly weeds need not be in- cluded in our list since nobody cares to collect them, but there are many fair flowers as well as weeds on the far- mer’s list of enemies, and many others whose room is regarded as much better than their company. A large number must be exterminated if we and our crops are to live. One may gather as much as he will of butter- cups, daisies, toad-flax, evening primroses, bouncing Bet, rudbeckias, goldenrod, wild morning glories and the like without fear of reducing the supply. And there are many others so rampant as to growth, so ubiquitous and per- sistent, that an annual picking seems almost necessary to keep them within bounds. Of this nature are dande- lions, bouncing Bet, the elder and in some localities the wild crab. We may be thankful, also, that there are a few others that are protected by their habitat: species of inaccessible cliffs, remote mountain summits, desert fastnesses and extensive barrens. These are natural sanctuaries in which the embattled plants may persist long after their kind, elsewhere, have given up the con- test. No thoughtless band of picknickers are likely to devastate such a region or destroy a whole race at one sweep. The plants that are in need of special protection are a comparatively small number that have been brought to the attention of the public through some special attrac- tiveness they possess. All the early flowering species are in danger because, coming so close on the heels of winter, they are typical harbingers of the milder season to which we always look forward. The flowers of mid- summer rarely receive like attention. Then there is an- other class made conspicuous by history, tradition or use, such as the fringed gentian, ginseng, golden seal, pitcher plant, lotus, arbutus, the orchids and the like. Plants which are shallow rooted and easily pulled up, like the phlox, hairbell and the cardinal flower, or those in which the leaves are collected with the flowers, such PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 71 as trillium, jack-in-the-pulpit, rue anemone, are especi- ally in need of protection. Unusually fragile species must be considered also, such as the Dutchman’s breeches, bloodroot, celandine, and Indian pipe. To these must be added those species whose leaves are the objects sought, among them the laurel, galax, many ferns, and ground pine. Last are those plants whose beauty is so conspicu- ous as to attract even the matter-of-fact business man— the azalia, the mountain laurel, water lilies, flowering dogwood, redbud and others. All these must be pro- tected or they will disappear speedily. All right-thinking people are agreed that our wild- flowers should be protected, but they are not of one mind as to the best way to accomplish it. The sentimentalist speaks of ‘‘the sanctity of plant life’’ and adjures us to ‘love the lily and leave it on its stalk’’ or perchance to ‘‘leave the dainty little recluse to fulfill the law of its being.’’ If he (or is it she?) is speaking of properly pro- tected areas, we may not object, but of what advantage is it to leave a much desired specimen to the tender mer- cies of the marauding urchin or some wandering cow? IT still remember with some chagrin inducing a class on a field trip to refrain from gathering a thousand or more pogonia orchids, and later while lunching in a shady spot, seeing the entire thousand go by—a solid mass of wilting blossoms in the clutches of a couple of small boys. So long as there is one individual interested in picking, no plant in unprotected areas is safe. If we divest the whole question of sentiment and get down to the business methods of protecting plants, we shall discover that adequate laws, justly enforced, is the only solution of the matter. We should bend our energies toward securing a law in every state which will back up the land-owner in protecting his own. And after such a law is secured, we should see that it is enforced. The sale of wildflowers should be forbidden absolutely except by legal permit, and the dealers in such things should be obliged to breed their stock and not dig it up from the wilds. With proper laws, sanctuaries for plants could be established and maintained. Every park, every large estate, the railroad rights of way, the lake shores, 72 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the river banks and many roadsides ought to be made sanctuaries of this kind. The railroads maintain with some truth that the undergrowth must be kept down to prevent disastrous fires, but it is quite possible to indicate the decorative plants and except them from the annual mowing. A number of interesting plants, owing to the special conditions under which they grow, probably must be protected in their present habitats, but this in a ma- jority of cases is entirely feasible. In other cases, rare plants may be removed to protected areas. Even with adequate laws there is still needed an ef- fort to interest land-owners in protection. Every farm woodlot should become a protected area until the land is needed for something else. It should be fairly easy to induce the farmer to post his entire farm and perhaps to design a special notice for the purpose. When his attention is drawn to the interest the botanist has in some rarity on his lands, he is generally as much in favor of protecting it as anybody. ; It is probable that there will always be numerous areas in which flower picking may go on, but even here there is need for education in the selection of the flowers and in the proper manner of gathering. Emphasis should be laid on the fact that a few well-chosen blossoms are far superior to a larger number gathered with less dis- crimination. The ignorant and unthinking are ever im- pressed by mere size and reason that if a dozen are good, a hundred are better. It is a failing that all are prone to. Do we not always mention the size of our home town be- fore mentioning its intellectual citizens? Children and adults, too, for that matter, should be taught to select only the fresh and newly-opened specimens, leaving those that are past their prime to reproduce the plants. Merely to instruct the public in the proper way to gather flowers will go a long way toward protecting the landscape from devastation. The true lover of flowers rarely returns from an excursion laden with specimens. The planting of memorial trees and the decorating of our great trans- continental highways with flowering plants should do much to direct the attention of the public toward a right attitude regarding the wild flora. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 73 But in the end we come back to our original thesis; the - best and most practical way of protecting the plants is by adequate laws properly enforced. Let us do what we can to hasten the day when this condition shall prevail throughout the land. 74 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE MYTILASPIS CITRICOLA AND OTHER SCALE INSECTS Westey N. Speckman, Eumuurst Couuzce. Scale insects belong to the family Coccidae, which in- cludes three sub-families: Dactylopinae or Mealy Bugs, Coccinae or Soft Scales, and Diaspinae or Armored Scales. Parthenogenesis occurs in many species of Coc- cidae to a certain extent but it is not so general as among Aphididae. The males, which are smaller than the fe- males, are difficult to secure as they have no mouths and are short-lived. They differ from the females also in having wings with which they move about freely. The female is wingless and, attaching herself to a plant or fruit, secretes a scalelike shield as a refuge for herself and her young, losing in time her external organs and be- coming little more than a protecting shell. Coccidae are destructive to fruit trees and fruits, yet they do not multiply as rapidly as aphids do. The fe- male fastens her beak in a leaf or fruit and remains in one place. After secreting a scale which envelopes her, she lays her eggs beneath the scale, where they hatch. The young females settle down near the mother. Some Coccidae give birth to living young which are visible in the body of the mother, as may be seen in the microscope slides which I made two years ago. In the Mealy Bug, Dactylopinae, no scales are formed, but usually there is a cottony sac. In the common spe- cies of the greenhouses (Pseudococcus citri) Lutz* says: ‘‘The eggs are laid under the female in a loose nest of sticky, white fibers in such quantities that she is forced to stand on her head in order to feed.”’ Soft Scales are characterized by the Cottony Scale of Maple and some other plants. These scales, if such they may be called, are the thickened surface of the insect rather than a true scale. This mass of cottony material is secreted by the female of Pulvinaria innumerabilis in which to place her eggs. The sticky substance found under the trees is honey-dew secreted by these insects. * Frank E. Lutz, Field Book of Insects. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 75 Of the true Scale insects, Diaspinae, the best known, is probably the Aspidiotus perniciosus or San José Scale, which is only about .06 inch long, and was introduced originally into California (where it got its name), but is now found in most parts of the United States. This Seale is so well-known that a description of it is super- fluous. Kellogg, in ‘‘ American Insects,’’ says: ‘‘ Early in the spring, females which have hibernated under their protecting armor begin giving birth to living young, and continue doing this actively for about six weeks, when they die exhausted.’’ Aspidiotus ficus, Ashmead, is the Red Scale of Florida that affects oranges, especially on the trees grown in conservatories. The color is rich reddish brown, almost black, with the central portion much lighter. It is nearly circular in outline, with the molted skins in the center of the scale. Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell, is the name of the Red Seale of California, which differs from the preceding, as Marlatt** says, ‘‘in the fact that the body of the female turns a reddish brown and shows through the thin trans- parent waxy scale. * * * * * It is controlled by oily washes, and also by the gas treatment. The young are born free, or in other words, the insect is semi-oviparous, and therefore any wash which will kill the old scale will destroy the young also.’’ Mytilaspis citricola, Packard, or the Purple Scale, is one of the most plentiful scales affecting both orange and lemon. It is found in Florida as well as in California. In shape it resembles the Oyster-shell seale of the apple, which is round and flat at one end and gradually narrows to a blunt point at the other. It has a bent or twisted appearance. The color is brownish purple. **C. L. Marlatt, Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. 76 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIEWCE OPPORTUNITIES FOR BOTANICAL RESEARCH IN CENTRAL AMERICA J. M. Greenman, Curator or Herpartum, Missourtr Bo. TANICAL GARDEN, St. Louts, Mo. It was my good fortune during the winter of 1922 to make a botanical expedition through Central America. I have no intention now of giving an account or travelo- gue of that expedition, yet, remote as my topic may seem, there are a few matters relative thereto which, I think, are of sufficient general interest to bring before this group of active scientific men and women. I should like furthermore to say at the outset that by 6pportunities for botanical research in Central America I do not mean op- portunities offered by elaborately equipped and well manned laboratories in endowed institutions, nor do I have reference to special grants generously made by scientific organizations in Central America to encourage botanical research. These things, as you all know, do not exist in that country. I do want to call your attention, however, to the fact that Central America itself offers exceptional opportuni- ties for research in botany—first on the part of the sys- tematist; second, the ecologist; third, the plant geograph- er; and fourth, the one interested in the development of economic plant products. It is true that the flora of Mexico, Guatemala, Salva- dor, Costa Rica and the Canal Zone, through the labors of Gray, Watson, John Donell-Smith, Coulter, Robinson, Rose, Brandegee, Pittier, Maxon, Standley and others, has been studied somewhat intensively during the past 25 or 30 years, but that work has been more or less intermittent, the publications are fragmentary, and there exists today no complete or comprehensive published flora of these countries; and as a matter of fact a vast amount of work must still be done before an exhaustive flora of Mexico or the other countries mentioned is pos- sible. British Honduras, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Republic of Panama have been explored but little and the flora as yet is but superficially known. Indeed, only a PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE iG few hundred specimens from these countries exist in American or European herbaria. To the taxonomist, therefore, the latter countries mentioned, particularly Nicaragua and Honduras, constitute an almost virgin field for exploration and research. The natural¢conditions in Central America, namely, the geographical formations, the varied topography, pre- cipitation, air currents, trade winds, temperature factors, etc., are such that the most pronounced changes in the character of the vegetation are evident in contiguous regions extending over relatively limited areas. Many of these regions present to the ecologist interesting and highly significant problems. This fact is shown con- spicuously as one crosses the Republic of Costa Rica from east to west, namely, from Port Limon on the Caribbean Sea to Punta-Arenas on the Pacific. An adequate description of this country in few words is beyond my ability to present. Briefly, however, the east coast is low, the rain fall is abundant, and the vege- tation is tropical. Cartago and San José are located on an elevated plateau about 3000-3500 feet above sea level. At least three rivers have their origin on this plateau. To the north of San José and Cartago is the so-called Cordillera Central, consisting of several voleanic moun- tains, namely, Turrialba, Irazu, Barba, Poas, and others ranging in elevation from 8000 to almost 12000 feet above sea level. Immediately to the south of this plateau lies the southern Cordillera with enormous mountain masses, such as Buena Vista, Pic de la Vueltas, El Copey, and Cerro de la Muerte (the wall of death), almost as high as those peaks to the north. The general course of both Cordilleras is northwest and southeast. The prevailing winds, at least during the winter months, come from the east or southeast; there is, therefore, an abundant precipitation on the eastern and southeastern slopes of both Cordilleras. The coun- try to the west of these great mountain masses, namely, west of the continental divide, receives only a limited amount of rain fall, especially during the winter months, and the vegetation there is relatively sparse and presents a marked contrast with that in the eastern part of the 78 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE country. The change in the character of the vegetation is quite abrupt, and is noticeable especially between San José and Punta-Arenas. Chemical content in the soil here plays little or no role in the growth of plants; it is mainly a matter of moisture. Permit me to mention another similar situation in Guatemala. In southeastern Guatemala is a region lying mainly along the Motagua River which is one of the most notable deserts in all Central America. On either side of the river is a range of mountains, off-shoots from the Sierra Madre; their general course is almost north- east and southwest, as is most of the mountain ranges which make up the great Honduras-Nicaragua peninsula. The prevailing winds here also are from the east or southeast, and the precipitation is confined mainly to the mountains east of the Motagua River or to the high slopes of the mountains to the northwest of the river. There is a very limited amount of precipitation in the valley, and the result is a typical cactus desert miles in extent, centering about the region of Zacapa and known locally as the Zacapa desert. Farther northeast and at lower altitudes in this same river valley where there is little to obstruct the moist-laden trade winds, namely, in the vicinity of Puerto Barrios, there is one of the most luxuriant tropical palm-vegetations to be found any- where in Central America. These may seem to be very simple matters in ecology. They are; but they are sig- nificant nevertheless, not only in determining the charac- ter of vegetation on local areas but also in determining the distribution of vegetation in the American tropics. A particular opportunity, however, to which I should like to call the attention of the ecologists is that of a study of plant succession in voleanic craters. For example, there are on Mount Poas in Costa Rica several volcanic craters representing eruptions which have taken place at different times, and each crater has, more or less, its distinctive flora in accordance with its relative age. What now are the specific opportunities in Central America for the plant geographer? No one can say at present with any degree of certainty how far the Andean flora of South America extends into Central America, _ ~ PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 79 or to what extent the reverse migration has taken place. In other words, our knowledge of the flora of these two countries is not yet sufficient to enable any one to say what floral elements are common to the two countries or what the proportion of occurrence of floral elements in one country is to that of the other. Presumably there has been a northward trend of tropical vegetation since the glacial period. In this connection it may be of inter- est to site a few cases of specific plant distribution. In Colombia one of the most- common types of vege- tation is to be found on the paramo or dry ridges. This type of growth consists largely of Compositae of a shrub- by or suffruticose habit; and it includes several species of Eupatorium and Senecio. One of the common plants of the paramo of Colombia is Senecio vaccinioides Wedd. Curiously enough either the same thing or a very closely related species, described as Senecio firmipes Greenm., occurs on the Vueltas and on the Cerro de la Muerte of the southern Cordillera in Costa Rica at an altitude of 3100 meters or about 10000 feet. Only two stations are known for this plant in Costa Rica, and it has never been reported from Panama. The Senecio vaccinioides is very common in Colombia and whether the two things are conspecific or not, it is fair to assume that the Costa Rican form has descended from the South American type, and probably represents a northern migration which has taken place since the glacial times. Certain other natural groups of Senecio, consisting of several little known trailing or climbing species, are represented both in South America and Central America. The af- finities or relationships of these species are such as to show clearly a South American origin; and the present distribution of these species is such as to indicate a northern migration from the Andean region of Ecuador and Colombia into Central America. In at least one instance this northward migration has extended to that great elevated mountain region of Orizaba in Southern Mexico. In most cases, however, these plants do not oc- eur north of the Southern Cordilleras in Costa Rica. May I mention one more specific example? I found growing, and apparently indigenous, on the great moun- 80 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tain mass known as Mount Poas in Costa Rica, a species of Solanum which is conspecifie with the South Ameri- ean Solanum tuberosum L. from which our common Irish potato has been derived. It would seem that we have here also a case of northern migration of an Andean species. Further investigations along these lines would unquestionably yield interesting and valuable results in determining the relation of our Central American flora to that of Andean South America; and a most profitable region for investigation in plant distribution is that of these great east and west ranges of Costa Rica, Nica- ragua, and Honduras. It is, of course, well known that Central America for many years, mainly through corporation interests, has been a source of supply for certain staple food and other economic plant products, particularly bananas, coffee, dye woods, fibers, ete. The natural resources, however, have been barely touched; but as a matter of fact the possibilities for development and increase of out-put of these and similar products are more promising today than ever before. There are already limited facilities for botanical research at the laboratory in connection with the hospital at Ancon in the Canal Zone, and cer- tain research work is there under way. There is also a small government station at Frijoles in the Canal Zone . where certain experimental work on tropical fruits is be- ing conducted under the direction of Doctor David Fair- child. The various corporations, like the United Fruit Company, employ their own specialists to take care of their special botanical problems. Furthermore, as you doubtless know, a movement is under way to establish somewhere in the American tropics a station where it will be possible to carry on various lines of botanical ac- tivity. Transportation facilities between the different Central American countries are being extended by the Ferro Nacional or National Railway. Indeed, one can now travel by rail all the way from any railway point in the United States to Guatemala City, and it will be only a short time before that railway system will be extended through Salvador; and eventually it will be continued to the Canal Zone. Railways and roadways are being built PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 81 in Honduras and Salvador which will open up the inter- ior of those countries. Recently a chemical manufacturer in Chicago said to me, ‘‘ We import hundreds of tons of plant materials from India, China, Ceylon, ete., from which we make oils, per- fumes, soaps, et cetera. Why can’t we get these raw products from Central America?’’ Many of them could be obtained there and in the West Indies also if we only had a better knowledge of the flora and conditions of those countries and could develop their natural resources. The United States must turn to the American tropics not only for an increased supply of fruit products, but also for an increased supply of varied raw plant pro- ducts. The rapidly expanding commercial relations be- tween the United States, Central America, and South America render the present time most opportune to en- ter the tropics of Central America for more intensive botanical research. 82 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A COMPARISON OF THE TRANSPIRATION RATES OF CORN AND CERTAIN COMMON WEEDS Herzen A. McGinnis anp W. B. McDoveatt., University oF ILLINOIS That the presence of weeds in a corn field is detrimen- tal to the intake of moisture, the reception of light and the manufacture of food by the corn plant has been demonstrated by experiment (15). Such experiments, however, do not show either the amount or the rate of removal of water from the soil by the weed invaders. It is the purpose of the present paper to present data concerning the relative rates of water loss by transpira- tion from the leaves of corn and of corn field weeds growing under the same environmental conditions. The study of transpiration from the leaves of grow- ing plants is by no means new. Trelease and Livingston (19), for example, measured the relative transpiring power of a number of plants. These authors were inter- ested, however, in the diurnal fluctuations of this trans- piring power rather than with the differences between different plants. Bakke (1) also measured the index of transpiring power of various plants and the same might be said of several other authors. meas me ey 1 ae PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 95 EPICOTYL ANATOMY (FIG. 13) The following is the arrangement of the fibro-vascular bundles in the lower part of the epicotyl. In the center are four very prominent central bundles. Surrounding these are twelve smaller bundles, roughly describing a circle. The cotyledons were cut off between these bundles and the peripheral bundles. The latter are of course cotyledonary bundles, not epicotyl bundles. This ar- rangement continues for a considerable distance, but is disturbed at the level where the adventitious roots are given off. Six were formed in the seedling from which the model was made. They are the first permanent roots, and arise from an almost complete ring formed by the central bundles. The first leaf is supplied by strands Fig. 14 which connect with one of the four central bundles, by peripheral strands, and by fusion strands connected with these two types. However, the suceeding leaves are sup- plied by fusion strands from all the epicotyl bundles. The arrangement of three desmogen strands to a leaf shown so clearly in the younger seedling has given place to a fusion type of structure. At this stage the petiole of the first leaf does not show fusion of strands. The adult leaf of Nelumbo lutea was cleared by immersion “in equal parts of hot absolute alcohol and glacial acetic acid followed by immersion in clove oil and later by im- mersion in xylol. 96 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE It was then evident that although most of the vascu- lar strands were closed, some of the small strands had blind endings. This would mean a dicotyl leaf venation, which was very close to monocotyledony. Immersion in a saturated chloral hydrate solution for twenty-four hours was tried for the same purpose, but with poorer success. The fusion of bundle strands to form partial rings is a prominent feature. In some of these, leaf gaps may be seen. The rhizome of Nelumbo lutea was studied. It is poly- stelic and shows collateral bundles without cambium, a monocotyl character (Fig. 14). However a few dicotyls are polystelic. Comparison of this rhizome with that of Nelumbo albiflorum shows the same type of bundle for both. Longitudinal sections of adventitious root tips of these two species were studied also, and are both of the usual dicotyl type. They differ only in that the outer cells of N. albiflorum have pitted walls. Conard states (1) that the Nymphaceae have this type of root struc- ture. Why the cotyledons of Nelumbo lutea should develop so peculiarly is difficult to understand. In embryos with a single cotyledon, the latter develops in contact with the ovule wall, which is markedly thicker there than the rest of the wall. This may mean larger food supply and therefore faster growth at that point. Later the sec- ond cotyledon grows with increasing rapidity and very soon overtakes the first. At the same time the meristem in the center grows slowly, the tissues between the coty- ledons very slowly, and we have an apparent dicotyl plant. Before the second cotyledon has grown to any size, the thickening of the ovary wall has disappeared. The researches of Coulter, Land, and Farrell show that monocotyledony and dicotyledony mean little and are very easily interchangeable. Farrell (5) found four growing points on the cotyledonary zone of Cyrtanthus. All except one slowed up and a single cotyledon was formed. Coulter and Land (4) found in Agapanthus one completely dicotyledonous seedling, while all the oth- ; : a PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 97 ers were monocotyledonous. The same authors show that even the grasses have in many cases a suppressed cotyledon (3). SUMMARY 1. The massive spherical proembryo without a sus- pensor is considered to be a primitive characteristic. 2. The root, perhaps the most conservative organ, ap- pears to show the prevailing dicoty] type, having a region of undifferentiated cell tissue from which calyptogen and dermatogen are ultimately derived. This arrangement corresponds to DeBary’s third type of root tip. 3. The other vascular bundles of the plant are of the generally accepted monocotyledonous type as is shown by: (a) Three vascular strands to each leaf and coty- ledon in the juvenile stages. (b) Polystelic bundle arrangement. However it must be remembered that while most mono- eotyls have this Srran=cmnent, some dicotyls also have it. (c) Rhizome and epicotyl bundles are collateral and without stelar cambium. However a very few of the dicotyls are without stelar cambium and some monocotyls are said to show traces of stelar cambium. (d) The venation of the adult leaf is dicotyledon- ous. (e) One cotyledon precedes the formation of a second cotyledon. CONCLUSION Nelumbo lutea is phylogenetically one of the higher angiosperms having both monocotyledonous and dicoty- ledonous characteristics. The fibro-vascular bundles are strongly monocotyledonous but they throw no light on the origin of the seed plants. Finally, I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. J. M. Coulter, to Dr. W. J. G. Land, and to Dr. C. J. Chamber- lain for kind assistance given me while making this in- vestigation. Also to Dr. W. E. Davis of Manhattan, Kansas, to the authorities of the Missouri Botanical 98 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Garden, and to Miss Gladys Gladfelter for helping me to secure material difficult to obtain. Also to Dr. L. C. Petry of Syracuse University for making the photograph of the vascular structure of the cotyledonary plate. LITERATURE CITED. 1. Conard, H. S., Notes on the embryo of the Nymphaceae. Science 15: 316. 1902. 2. Cook, M. F., Development of the embryo sac and embryo of Castalia odorata and Nymphea Adveba. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club 29: 211. 1902. a 3. Coulter, J. M., The origin of monocotyledony. Records of the 50th Anniversary of the Missouri Bot. Gardens, St. Louis, Mo. 4. Coulter, J. M., and Land, W. J. G., The origin of monocotyledony. Bot. Gaz. 57: 509. 1914. 5. Farrell, Margaret E., The ovary and embryo of Cyrtanthus sau- grineus. Bot. Gaz. 57: 428. 1914. 6. Lyon, H. L., Embryo of Nelumbo. Minn. Bot. Studies 11: 643. 1901. 7. York, H. H., Embryo sae and embryo of Nelumbo. Ohio Naturalist IV: 167. - 1904. LEGENDS FOR FIGURES. Fig. 1. Seedlings which had germinated naturally, in the Illinois River. Fig. 2. Micropylar end of young ovule. Fig. 3. Spherical proembryo from Fig. 2. Begins to show traces of the traces of the formation of the root and cotyledons. Fig. 4. Older proembryo. Fig. 5. Photograph of a wax model of a young embryo with a single cotyledon. Fig. 6. Photograph of a wax model of a slightly older embryo. The first cotyledon is large and in the background; the second cotyledon is small and is in the foreground. Fig. 7. Diagram giving the shape of an older embryo: c, cotyledon; m, meristemic tip. Fig. 8. Diagram giving shape and relative size as compared with Fig. 7, of an older embryo. Fig. 9. Diagram of the desmogen strands of a young seedling made from serial longitudinal sections. Actual size of embryo. Length of cotyledons 15 mm. Length of epicotyl 4 mm. PR, primary root; vp, cotyledonary ring; L*L*L*, first, second and third leaves; MT, meristematic tip; rs, root strands; cps’, eps*, primary cotyledonary strands; st, stem traces; ess', ess*, secondary cotyledonary bundle traces; I, I’, leaf traces. Fig. 12. Photograph of a wax model made from serial transverse sections of the cotyledonary plate of the same seedling. The sections were 10 u thick. Four central bundles usually termed “stem bundles” are seen. Surrounding these are two concentric rows of bundles. The cotyledons were cut — off from the stem between the inner and outer peripheral rows of bundles. The lattice work arrangement of the vascular strands is evident. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 99 Fig. 13. Diagram of bundles in the epicotyl of the same seedling. Constructed by means of a model from the serial transverse sections 10 u thick. The base plate shows the arrangement of bundles thru the lower part of the epicotyl, from the region where the cotyledons are cut off, to the region where the adventitious root strands (AR) arise. Ss’, S*, S*, St——central epicotyl bundles. F", F’, F*—first, second, and third leaves. LG’, LG*, LG*,—first, second, and third leaf gaps. L’, L*,—peripheral vascular strands. Fig. 14. Transverse section of a bundle from the rhizome of Nelumbo lutea. Nore: In the preparation of the model of the oldest seedling pictured, comparisons were made with still older seedlings to determine certain points difficult to ascertain in so young a seedling. Some of the ideas thus gained are incorporated in the model. 100 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE BRAIN OF COENOLESTES OBSCURUS JEANNETTE Brown OpencuHarn, University or CHrcaco Coenolestes is a small ratlike Americal marsupial about five inches in length from tip of snout to root of the slender tail. It is a native of the high Andean forests and has been known to science since 1860, so far by rare and usually incomplete specimens from Colombia, Hena- dor and Peru. Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood of the Field Mu- seum recently collected eleven specimens, which he made the basis of an extensive monograph published in 1921. The brain of one specimen was sufficiently preserved for study, and Dr. C. Judson Herrick described and figured its dorsal, lateral and ventral surfaces in an appendix to the monograph. Cut into serial sections and stained by the iron-haematoxylin method to show both cells and fibres, it forms the basis of the present study. The brain of this creature is especially interesting for two reasons. First, because it is one of the simplest and most generalized of mammalian brains, since both the monotreme brains are rather highly specialized. Second, because the classification of Coenolestes in one or the other of the two marsupial suborders, Polyprotodontia and Diprotodontia, has given rise to a long and lively controversy. In his account of the external features of this brain Dr. Herrick drew attention to its extreme simplicity, as evidenced both by the enormous development of the visi- ble olfactory regions (olfactory bulbs, olfactory tu- bercles, lateral olfactory cortex) and by its small and smooth cerebral cortex, which he thought to be probably the least extensive, relative to the total weight of the brain, in the whole mammalian series, as so far deseribed. He noted also that in external conformation the brain of Coenolestes resembled much more closely those of two Australian polyprotodont forms, the bandicoot Perame- les and the marsupial mole Notoryctes, than it did that of the American opossum. The lateral olfactory cortex, the cortex of the pyriform lobe (lob. p.), occupies more than half the lateral sur- face of the brain (Fig. 1). Both anteriorly and posterior- * ° wat PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 101 - ly it is in continuity with the median olfactory cortex or hippocampus (hip.). Dorsally (Fig. 2) the two are split apart by the wedgelike neopallium, which occupies the dorsal surface of the hemisphere. Its lines of con- tact with the two olfactory cortices are marked by two Fig. | neopallium , tr ol L na fs. erh Fie. 1. Lateral view of the cerebral hemisphere of Coenolestes obscurus, as reconstructed from serial sections. Reference letters: amg., amygdaloid complex; b. ol., olfactory bulb: fs. amg., amygdaloid fissure; fs. erh.. endorhinal fissure; fs. rh., rhinal fis- sure; lob. p., pyriform lobe; fr. ol. I., lateral olfactory tract: tub. ol.. olfactory tubercle. Fig. 2 $s. rh: Fic. 2. Dorsal view of the cerebral hemisphere of Coenolestes obscurus, 2s reconstructed from serial sections. Reference letters: b. ol., olfactory bulb; fs. rhk., rhinal fissure; lob. p., pyri- form lobe. : Tis. 3 Fic. 3. Ventral surface of the cerebral hemisphere of Coenolestes obscurus, ~as reconstructed from serial sections. Reference letters: amg., amygdaloid complex—dotted outline indicates internal extent; Bb. ol., olfactory bulb; fs. amg., amygdaloid fissure; fs. erh., endorhinal fissure; fs. rh.. rhinal fissure; lob. p., pyriform lobe; — neopallium; fr. ol. 1, lateral olfactory tract; twb. ol., olfactory ‘ Ly ae i a”, ENF ee A R OY rk HAS Mami’ NWS | Sea | is N \ Cae H . ¥ H ~% t fre si Sa ¥ 3d] XH ORY ‘ \ y ; 4 SY \ i N ‘| x 2 ‘i 1 . \y Zy rsg Q PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 113 the floor of the brain at the chiasma of the two normal optic nerves. This relationship will be discussed in more detail in the section of the nervous system in the sequel. so 1 It is quite evident that these accessory external sen- sory appendages have developed through a fusion of the embryonic structures in such a way that the left organ 114 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of one of the embryos has fused with the right organ of the other embryo. Accordingly, the normal eyes and ears are to be interpreted as the right and left organs of the two primitive embryonic stages. Two trunks, joined to each other in the mid-ventral thoracic regions, are attached to the posterior lat- eral angles of the head. These trunks are of unequal size. The larger is on the right side, considered from the standpoint of the head, and measures 25 em. from crown to rump; while the smaller animal, similar on the left side, has a corresponding measurement of but 18cm. The bodies are joined as far back as the unpaired umbilical cord, which contains upon examination two arteries and two veins. There are eight legs, completely developed, which occupy proper positions upon their re- spective girdles. The smaller animal is devoid of tail as well as external genitalia and rectal openings; while the larger one possesses all these structures and is of the female sex. INTERNAL ANATOMY The metacoeles of the two bodies are continuous, so that the peritoneum of the one continues directly into that of the other; thus but a single metacoele may be identified. The common viscera lies almost entirely in that portion of the metacoele which lies within the larger animal; although a relatively small part does extend over into that portion of the metacoele in the smaller pig. A fused diaphragm, resulting from the greatly modified development, cuts off two anterior pleural regions from this common metacoele, and extending back along the dorsal surface of each body reaches to a line just anterior to the paired kidneys. THE ALIMENTARY TRACT The buceal cavity and the pharynx are entirely nor- mal, as well as those structures within them. From the pharynx two larynges with normal epiglottes extend pos- teriorly, and between them, definitely opening from the more ventral larynx, is the single oesophagus which con- tinues posteriorly between the two tracheae into the me- tacoele. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 115 The alimentary tract is complete only in the larger animal, and consists of a greatly modified stomach which continues into an elongate undifferentiated intestine. The stomach is not readily differentiated into the usual eardiac and pyloric regions but it consists of five simple lobes, each connected with a centralized portion (Fig. 2). The lining of this stomach is conspicuously ridged, and the lumen into each pouch is constricted greatly by the approximation of these gastric folds. Upon dissection each pouch was found to contain coagulated masses of green material, suggesting a possible accummulation of bile secretions. Characteristic mammalian duodenum and ileum can not be identified; but an intestine, strange- ly twisted and coiled, continues back from the median pouch of the stomach through a small pylorus. Differen- tiation of the intestine into ileum and colon portions can not be made, for the entire tube is of uniform diameter throughout, except for a single enlargement where the shorter tract of the smaller pig continues into that of the larger (Fig. 2, p.). A secondary stomach, that of the smaller pig, consists of a two-lobed structure, and is bound firmly to the left wall of the larger stomach by heavy strands of connec- tive tissue. The cavities of the two are not continuous, neither is there a connection of the smaller stomach with the oesophagus; so that no digestive function could ever have been ascribed to this organ. Through a small py- lorus, this secondary tract continues into a short intes- tine, one-fourth the length of that of the larger pig, which joints its mate at an enlarged region 15 em. anterior to the caecum (Fig. 2, p.). From point of junction the two tracts are confluent and from thence continue as a single tract to the rectal opening of the larger pig. This relationship differs from that of Carey’s monster, in which the alimentary tract is entirely single to a point 16 em. anterior to the caecum, where it bifureates into two regions, each of which is related to its own rectal aperture. The mesentery of this monster, peculiarly twisted with the coils and twists of the intestine, is possessed of an abundance of lymphoid and glandular tis- 116 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE sues, a fact possibly correlated with the peculiar develop- ment of the monster. The entire tracts are held within a region embraced by the livers. Of these, one hes above and the other below the fused viscera, the upper being slightly the larger of the two. In both livers characteristic lobulation is ab- sent; for each consists of a single enlarged structure bearing two or three smaller lobules (Figs. 4, 5). Two post-cavae are present, and from their relations to each other it would appear that the larger liver, more dorsal in position, is of the smaller pig’; likewise the ven- tral liver belongs to the larger animal. Normal mesohe- pars are present, and normal gall bladders pour their secretions into normal bile ducts related to their respec- tive intestines. A two-lobate pancreas is fixed by heavy membranes to the lobes of the larger stomach only; but normal spleens are present in both animals. Pan- creatic ducts were not identified. URO-GENITAL ORGANS Normal kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra are pre- sent in the larger pig, as well as ovaries, oviducts and a well-defined uterus. In the smaller animal, on the other hand, two pairs of greatly reduced structures lie in the pelvic region, and it is entirely probable that these re- present rudimentary kidneys and sex glands. Neither ureters nor reproductive ducts were identified in the smaller animal; but the presence of genital arteries and veins as well as renal arteries suggest the identification of these structures. Microscopic identification has not yet been made. There are no external genitalia upon the smaller animal. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Differing from the hearts of the animal described by Carey (1917), this monster has two hearts of approxi- mately equal size, each contained within its own pericar- dial cavity in a normal thoracic position. These hearts are both normal, and have normal relations to the main circulatory trunks of its respective body. The hearts are so placed that their dorsal surfaces are opposed to each PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 117 other; and because of their relations to the two post cavae, it would appear that the larger heart, the more ventral one, is of the smaller pig, while the slightly smal- ler one is likewise of the larger pig. Just anterior to the larger heart the main dorsal aorta, coursing from its right ventricle, bifureates to form the two aortae, each of which passes to a normal position in its respective animal. That aorta supplying the larger animal is joined at once by a secondary aortic arch com- ing from the right ventricle of the smaller heart; so that the two hearts thus have a common bond in these con- nections to the aortae. Posteriorly each aorta gives rise to the normal intercostals, coeliac and mesenteric arter- ies; although in the smaller animal these branches are greatly reduced and largely devoid of blood content, and thus were relatively difficult to trace. Renals, iliaecs and umbilical arteries are present in the larger animal, but no. umbilicals were recognized in the smaller. Furthermore, a variation isto be noted in the pomt of attachment of the umbilicals to the aorta; instead of attaching to the internal iliac as we would expect, here the umbilicals con- nect with the aorta considerably anterior to the iliaes. The carotid arteries have not retained their identity of relationship to each animal; but all are united to the common aorta (Fig. 3). A single brachiocephalic artery arises from the arch of the smaller aorta and divides in- to two earotids, from which later arise a corresponding subelavian artery, distributed to the respective limb. From the bend of the aorta, just in front of the larger heart, a pair of arteries continue forward into the head region and form the paired carotids and the left subela- vian of the larger animal; while the right subclavian of the larger animal arises independently from the aortic arch of the smaller heart (Fig. 3). The complete dis- tribution of these arteries into the head region was not ascertained, as the absence of the blood content made their identification extremely difficult; and accordingly no knowledge is available of the relation of the paired internal carotids to the circle of Willis, so graphically figured by Carey in his description of this region in his monster. 118 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE In contrast to the fused relations of the arterial sys- tems, the venous systems were found to be completely independent of each other. Post cavae are normally pre- sent, and these are joined in each liver by respective um. © bilical veins, from whence a single vessel continues for- ward into the right auricle of the respective heart. These are joined by precavae coming from adjacent regions, although the two anterior vena cavae are independent of each other. Within the hearts, normal relations were found to exist. Completely four-chambered structures were developed and normal canals and valves separated the chambers from each other. Well-defined Botall’s ducts were iden- tified between the pulmonaries and the adjacent aortic arches. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Two complete sets of lungs are developed, and these lie in independent pleural cavities, separated by double folds of visceral pleurae. These cavities lie around the heart, and each pair of lungs is connected to its respec- tive heart by normal pulmonary arteries and veins. The ventral lungs, characteristically lobulated, are slightly larger than the more dorsal pair and are understood to belong to the larger pig as evidenced by the vascular connections. Normal bronchioles and bronchi with nor- mal cartilage supports are developed, and from the junc- tion of the two bronchi, normal tracheae extend forward to the neck into the pharynx. As indicated above, these tracheae lie one above and the other below the unpaired oesophagus. Anteriorly, each trachea continues into a larynx, ap- parently normal, with the three characteristic cartilages present, but somewhat distorted and partially fused. A greatly modified basihyal cartilage is present, and this is continuous with the hyoid apparatus, consisting of four parts. The hyoids, which are continuous with the ventral larynx, are more nearly normal, and the distal tympano- hyals join the auditory bulla of each temporal bone. On the other hand, the hyoids of the more dorsal larynx are greatly reduced, because of the cramped position; but each continues upward through the connective tissue re- PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 119 gion to join a peculiar structure, the fused bulla of the other pair of temporal bones (Fig. 10, fab). The skull is understood to be a fused structure, as will appear in the discussion on the skeleton; and thus it would follow that the normal bulla are but opposites of the adjacent heads, and that the related hyoids, although apparently normal on the ventral larynx, must be of independent origin (Fig. 6). The oesophagus joins the dorsal wall of the ventral larynx, so that the ventral tracheae and oesophagus are confluent here. : =. 18 ects i Oath Ae 19 £236 Waev.% -14.2. <3 a IS it yaks ees 21 1 8 i eae ee 22 i a 23 i ee | Dee. 8. St 24 eS 53 Der’- -1Gecc.cc. 25 1 5 i ay Shee 26 oS ae 27 1 3 wan Sic. 28 «2 5.5 iS i See 29 1 3 ios: Bee 30 2 Seer 31 Loe ee 32 Pat Reb. 033... <<. 33 1 7 Feb. — 20:-s. <<. 34 1 6 Reb. 27s--. <0. 35 1 7 | ee a 36 1 10 ae | See 37 1 4 iar « Mis ccuce> 38 Max) 295. =... 39 1 14 “TE See 40 1 5 J oe | Se 41 1 6 Vee” eee 42 3 Sy. aR 43 1 0 ap bee 44 1 13 Ag, Mee 45 1 1 ny 4 fe. oo on 46 a oe oo 47 | feet. 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Ave. 1 1 5 3.4 1 15 1 15 2 78.5 1 69 1 24 1 14 1 5 ae ate 4.5 1 4 1 9 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8&7 $4 175 Per Per Hee Acre tare (Thousands) 515 1263 749 1838 990 2437 946 2322 2283 5602 5480 13446 2288 5616 2352 5734 1859 4773 1337 3280 902 2214 1023 2511 528 1296 726 1782 473 1161 495 1215 743 1822 198 486 1100 27 187 459 258 621 396 972 231 567 352 864 1045 2565 506 1242 1496 3772 2200 5400 3511 13527 5501 13257 1474 3618 1001 2457 385 955 1045 2565 946 2322 957 2349 1034 2538 Graph of the Animal Population of an Area of Four Square Feet in an Illinois Elm-Maple Forest, July, 1921-June, 1922, inclusive. + 176 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE EFFECT OF SELECTION ON THE LENGTH OF SPINE IN DAPHNIA LONGISPINA Mrs. Marcarer SmirH Younea, Chicago The work was started Dec. 27, 1922, and so far there have been ten generations. This paper is, therefore, merely a preliminary one. The Daphnia stock was obtained from the Laboratory of the University of Chicago where the work was carried on. The stock came originally from a fish fancier and had been kept in the laboratory for about a year before this experiment was begun. A parthenogenetic female (3027) was selected to start - the first (8028)* generation. A brood is produced about every other day. The stock is kept in fngerbowls under greenhouse conditions, and temperature, food and other environmental conditions kept as nearly uniform as pos- sible. The food consists of a coccus (Chlamyda monas) which causes the water to look green. Successive broods are termed A, B and C, and broods A, B and C are used as a basis for all the mathematical calculation. From brood A of 3028 an individual was selected to start the minus strain, and another to start the plus strain of 3029’. The difference in length of spine between the two was not great and was taken without measuring. After this the length of body, divided by the length of spine and called ‘‘Index’’, was made the basis of all calculations. The plus or long spine strain will therefore have a smal- ler index than the minus or short spine strain. Selection was made from the A brood of +3029? for the +3030° generation, the indices being respectively .3 and .4. In order to have better proof of the hereditary quality of the character, the A broods of +3030* were measured alive and the five most favorable: animals respectively were used to start five plus lines and five minus lines of 3031*. It was then thought best to use the method of se- lecting in each generation five individuals of the plus strain and five from the minus strain of the B brood be- longing to the most favorable A brood. This was done to start generation 3032°. The curves of this generation 177 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE ae is - | £5 1G 6h LP Be Ie BE WE Sit ee Te ew See oer tele (aiet 1 i Cae Basia in a aS am a a a ec! 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(as (ses sssssanseeenzae suonr casey Uoeseataee Sates Seauy Uaseu Teese Sense seene Teseeenees Conse esend (ecez ceees cnc sto7.9) oases 7seeensescez=5 i SoD ob Bocbs coset esoes seesacersscaesasereeeeees fasta cer aseeces tesrsQesceneseeeeeeseren” Zoen\ Geveerretseecccesaee a se te . ’ a se TE A LAY IP dT tt Ta id Sa TENT ECE gaan Aouanbaty ———— ggg — PERLE EEE EEE EEEEE SEELEY SobEs veces 2608 7 CECE EEE EEE EE EEE EEE CEEEEE EEE CEE Soo uodey sEUaUEESEUS¢EEToTaEsa¥azabrazs nasa xan DSU EEGESESET=Taeuaneeuenetaevesad ares rerareererevatserers i (A I A HT ST Ft Ti PEE FREE EEEEE EE EEE EEE EERE EEE EEE EEE EH (MFT YLT WD Yt Ch it i eS el i a tt i Fl 2 it SE lv UE 1 Sl i Yi DP OW i at me pH EEE EEE pT pr (5 kf LEA 4 HL a, | Pd sosedatsssaasabsaes sorseereesoeres7aezaezaes sananenasaeveesaesaeraes sereebretscesessaersersseesres=ase0sc082 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 178 PP 69 savun) Xsuanbaiy ~~) (9) ESF 5. 4 L2 SE OF PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 179 3028) Unselected Pit Suess sens neaeieereees PHA PEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EH EB REE SIRNEES at naa pepe SSES ARSES BEE EEE Ht ft EnREEES ae pay = 180 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 3031‘ are based on the five lines of + strain A brood and the + B brood from which selection was made. However, the A brood is often small, sometimes only four or five individuals, and therefore not so good to base selection upon. The method was changed again so as to average together the A and B broods of each of the five plus lines and of each of the five minus, and select five in- dividuals from the + C brood of the most favorable aver- age. This was done to start generation 3033° and has been continued to date (generation 3037 included). Cal- culations for all curves from 3032 to 3037 are based there- fore on +(5A’s + 5B’s + C) used for selection. The results are shown in the table of Means and Dif- ferences each with their probable errors. It shows that the least positive results are a difference which is still three times the probable error, and two times as great as the difference between the first selected individuals. In one case the difference is twenty times the probable error. The frequency curves are interesting. They seem to show that whereas at the beginning the difference is often due partly to odd individuals at the extremes, later these are more or less eliminated and the population more even. The mode of the plus curve seems to be mov- ing to the right of that of the minus curve. Environmental conditions have important bearing on the results and probably explain the fluctuations of the difference. When the food water becomes concentrated other algae get the upper hand, one occurring particu- larly on which Daphnia could not subsist and in the long strings of which it became entangled. A sudden rise in temperature kills them rapidly, such as is caused by the sun shining on the bowls. The food must be replenished continually or they do not thrive. The writer has lookea for indications that size of brood or size and vigor of animal causes a difference, but has been unable to find any signs of this. The vigorous animal is larger both + but the length of spine has the same relation to body length. All individuals were measured at about seven days old. One cannot tell exact date of birth unless ma- terial is under constant surveillance. The size at the same age varies considerably, but not so the index. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 181 The work was done entirely with parthenogenetic fe- males, no males appearing; hence the results are entirely in a pure line. Whether similar results will continue or whether the difference will persist when selection is dis- continued remains to be seen. The full significance of the experiment can not be gauged in so early and pre- liminary a stage. What the causes are which may produce selection in a pure line if such should prove possible in the long run, is still an open question. A. M. Banta in his interesting work on ‘‘Selections in Cladecera on the Basis of a Phys- iological Character’’ takes up the question. He was slightly successful in selecting Daphnia longispina for its reaction to light. In one line he got a difference 4.05 times the probable error. He thinks selection may be due to (1) general physiological changes or (2) direct genetic changes. The first consists of materials carried over by cyloptasm, lide bacteria or protozoa or dye, which fed to fowls appears in egg yolk (Riddle 1908). But if the genetic basis be assumed, then he thinks that selection in a pure line altho it cannot cause genetic changes ‘‘may seize upon modifications of the character used in selection as they occur and in the ease of plural genetic changes may build up differences between se- lected strains’’ and may be ‘‘the means of utilizing the variations in accomplishing the end sought.’’ There is no way in Daphnia by which there could be any recombi- nation of nuclear material, since there is only one ma- turation division without reduction in the partheno- gentic egg. Banta also discusses the mutation theory. In connec- tion with such small genetic changes he would not call them mutations, but calls the point immaterial. He would not call them segregations or larger mutations be- cause they occur too often and because there is no chro- matic reduction involved. Sturtevant, in his work on Dichaet flies, was able to select plus and minus strain for a number of bristles. Dichaets vary more in bristle num- ber than non Dichaets. In his final discussion he raises three questions. 182 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 1. ‘‘Does selection use germinal differences already present or such as arise during experiment, or both?”’ He thinks that, assuming the factors are Mendelian, se- lection in a group heterozygous for many minor factors will be effective in isolating favorable combinations of such modifying genes or multiple factors. Since muta- tions take place at all times, selection may make use of variations arising during the experiment. 2. ‘‘In ease it uses new differences does it cause them to occur more frequently and does it influence their direc- tions?’’ He finds nothing to show that favorable varia- tions occur oftener on account of selection. 3. ‘‘Are differences new or otherwise more likely to occur in the locus of the gene under observation or in other loci?’’ He thinks variations appear more often in other factors since there are so many, but only in one that is responsible for the difference under observation. TABLE OF MEANS AND DIFFERENCES WITH P. E. Generation — Means + Means Difference 3029 (2) 4.6 + .098 Duce 49 9 age 3030 (3) 3: 16. ==) .046 3.6 + .04 11 + 062 3031 (4) A.7+ (094 4.1+ .074 6+ 011 3032 (5) 4.6 + .034 4.0 + (042 .6 = .054 3033 (6) £8.32 5066 3 «6.035 1.2 + _ 066 3034 (7) Ae segs 3.98 ==. p54 2m = Rs 3035 (8) 3.8 + (039 Ss wea el Oe) aie 3036 (9) Dh» 9g 3.3 + 017 5+ 025 3037 (10) 3.6 + .028 3-1 A 3018 5+ 02 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 183 REGENERATION IN BRYOPHYLLUM CRENATUM i Mary E. Renicu, Inurvois State Norman UNIvErRsITY, NorMaL In Vol. 60 (1915) of the Botanical Gazette, appeared an article by Jacques Loeb entitled ‘‘Rules and Mechan- ism of Inhibition and Correlation in the Regeneration of Bryophyllum Calycinum.’’ This article was followed by several others from the same author in later numbers of the Gazette, in Science and in the Journal of General Physiology. As there was available in the Botany Greenhouse at the University of Illinois a number of plants of Bryophyllum erenatum, the experiments given in Loeb’s first article were repeated using this species. While many of the re- sults obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum applied to B. crenatum, several differences were found sufficiently great to warrant noting. Since the plants of B. crena- tum used in the experiments differed from those of Loeb in that they were mature and in flower, the differences were thought at first to be due to maturity or to the physiological state of the respective species. Subse- quently it was found that very young plants of B. crena- tum gave essentially the same results as the mature ones. In the cases where the results with B. crenatum differed from those obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum, the ex- periments were repeated using B. calycinum. One difference between the two species should be noted here. With B calycinum, whenever growth appeared in the notches of leaves separated from the plants, roots developed before the shoots. The reverse order of devel- opment was always true with B. crenatum. Since the study was to be a comparative one, the meth- ods used by Loeb were followed as nearly as possible. The work was done in the greenhouse during the winter months and at a temperature of approximately 70° F. The numbers used in referring to the leaves correspond to those used by Loeb. In the first experiment, 3 leaves of B. calycinum and of B. crenatum were prepared as follows:—leaf 1 was separated entirely from the plant, leaf 2 had a portion of 184 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the stem, leaf 3 had a portion of the stem and also the opposite leaf attached. These leaves were suspended by means of threads from the top of an aquarium in a saturated atmosphere in such a manner that their tips were submerged in water. After 10 days the results obtained with B. calycinum were essentially those obtained by Loeb. After 16 days, however, roots had developed at the base of the petiole in 2 of the completely isolated leaves suspended in satu- rated air, and by the end of 5 weeks shoots had appeared also. These results are contrary to those obtained by Loeb who says, ‘‘The advantage of this plant for the study of the problem of regeneration lies in the fact that shoots can grow out only from definitely located buds in the stem and in the notches of the leaf.’ In another place he states, ‘‘The stalk of an isolated leaf without any piece of stem is not capable of giving rise to any re- generation. Such a leaf will form adventitious roots and shoots in its notches very rapidly.”’ B. crenatum gave several results different from those obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum. After 10 days, growth had occurred in leaf 1 on the aerial as well as on the submersed portion of the leaf, and in mature flower- ing plants the growth from the aerial was more vigorous than that from the submersed portion of the leaf. In leaf 2 from mature plants the bud grew out from the opposite axil as stated by Loeb. In many cases, however, shoots appeared in both axils. In the leaves from very young plants, only the bud from the adjacent axil had developed. With B. calycinum, Loeb reports no develop- ment of the axilliary buds in leaf 3. In B. crenatum shoots appeared from both axils in all the specimens. There was also some notch growth on most of the leaves. Plate I shows these leaves at the end of 5 weeks. Leaf 1 with the best notch growth had developed a large shoot at the end of the petiole. The shoots and roots in both axils of leaf 3 were as large as those in leaf 2 and the growth from many notches was nearly as vigorous as that in leaf 1. Leaf 2 showed considerable notch growth. All the drawings given in this article were made from photographs of the specimens. 185 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE Sal 186 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCB PUA TEU PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 187 This same experiment was repeated suspending the leaves in a saturated atmosphere but not allowing their tips to touch the water. Plate II shows the results after 5 weeks. The growth was the same as that just described but the leaves were less turgid. Experiment II was designed to show the inhibiting in- fluence of the axillary buds on the growth in the notches of the leaves. Leaf 6, similar to leaf 1, was separated en- tirely from the plant; leaves 7, 8 and 9 had a portion of the stem attached. Both axillary buds were removed from leaf 7, the opposite axillary bud was removed from leaf 8, and no bud was removed from leaf 9. In this experiment B. crenatum gave results different from those obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum. Leaves 6 and 9 agreed with leaves 1 and 2 described in experiment I. After 4 weeks, 2 specimens of leaf 7 showed no growth. 3 specimens had developed a shoot from the petiole above the cut. In each of the latter, there was-some notch growth although it was much smaller than in leaf 6. _ Leaf 8 had a shoot from each adjacent axillary bud and also some notch growth. Plate III shows these leaves after 5 weeks. Concerning the inhibiting influence of the growth of the axillary buds on the notch growth Loeb states, ‘‘It is, therefore, obvious first, that a stem whose buds are removed has still an inhibiting influence upon the for- mation of roots in the notches of a leaf; and second, that if the buds of the stem are not removed, the growth of the bud opposite the leaf enhances this inhibiting effect of the stem upon the leaf considerably. Since the growth of this bud of the stem is as a rule also inhibited when the opposite Ieaf is not removed, as in figure 3, we under- stand why the non-removal of this leaf favors the growth of the adventitious roots from the notches of the other leaf.’’ In B. crenatum the removal of the buds from the stem did inhibit the notch growth and the inhibiting effect was enhanced by the growth of the bud which was not removed, but the growth of this bud of the stem was not inhibited when the opposite leaf was not removed as was shown by leaf 3, 188 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE qe TA, PLATE 2 189 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE Al ALW Id im, 190 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE In experiment IIT, several nodes of a stem were used. On some stems, leaf 10, the leaves of the apical node and on others, leaf 11, those of the basal node were retained. The results with B. crenatum were quite different from those obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum. In 5 days, in leaf 10, four out of five specimens had developed basal node shoots and the fifth had both basal and apical node shoots. In leaf 11, there were two apical node shoots in each specimen and also a basal node shoot in one. In 20 days, in leaf 11, there were two shoots from the basal node of one specimen and some notch growth on 2 leaves. After 4 weeks, leaf 10 had developed 2 shoots from the basal node of each specimen. Four of the specimens had developed 2 apical node shoots and also some notch growth. The fifth had but 1 apical node shoot. Plate IV. shows leaves 10 and 11 after 5 weeks. The growth of the buds on the stem may have inhibited a vigorous notch growth as stated by Loeb, but the shoots developed rapidly at those nodes from which the leaves had been removed, regardless of whether those nodes were apical or basal. From the under side of one leaf, a shoot had developed near the mid-vein. Here again we have regen- eration other than that from the notches of the leaf or from a definite place on the stem. Loeb found that in B. calycinum the development of the bud on the stem was inhibited or retarded if only a piece of the petiole of the opposite leaf was left on the stem. This was not true for B. crenatum. In 14 days, in the leaves whose opposite leaf blade had been removed, leaf 14, a shoot grew from the opposite axillary bud in each specimen and there was a slight notch growth on most of the leaves. The petioles were still intact when the shoots developed. Plate V. shows 2 specimens of leaf 14 after 1 month. At this time the petiole had withered and fallen from one stem and a shoot was growing in the adjacent leaf axil in this specimen. Leaf 20 on Plate V. shows the effect of cutting the stem lengthwise leaving a leaf attached to each half. In 5 days the adjacent buds appeared on 3 out of the 6 spee- imens. The other 3 showed notch growth. In 21 days there was an adjacent shoot in each and a slight notch PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE I4 PEATE ¥ 191 c0 192 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE growth in 4 specimens. The rate of development here was about the same as in leaf 3 where both leaves were left on the stem. In following Loeb’s experiments to show that root pressure and not the roots themselves inhibited the notch growth, few, if any, roots developed in B. crenatum. In 10 days shoots from the opposite buds developed in 2 specimens. In 12 days, there were shoots from both buds in 4 cases. After 17 days, only one stem had formed roots. There was no notch growth in the mature plants, but in 14 days most of the leaves from very young plants had some notch growth. That is, with B. crenatum, the leaves with a piece of stem attached when placed in a Petri dish with a small amount of water behaved similar to leaf 2. In the seventh experiment, the stem of B. crenatum, consisting of several nodes stripped of all its leaves, was suspended in moist air, number 23. In 3 days apical node buds had appeared from 2 out of 5 specimens. In 12 days, 2 shoots had developed at each apical node and in two specimens, from the second node also. After 20 days, 2 shoots had appeared from the third node of 1 stem. Although the shoots of the apical node developed most rapidly their development did not inhibit the growth of the shoots at the lower nodes. This is shown in Plate VI. The photograph was taken after 4 weeks. This plate also shows a single node, number 28, from which the leaves were removed. When single nodes from near the top of the main stem were used, buds appeared on all the specimens in 3 days. In 12 days, 2 shoots were growing from each node. This shows that in B. crenatum the development in the single apical node was as rapid, in some cases more rapid, than when, as in leaf 2, a leaf was left on the stem. The presence of the leaf did not accelerate the growth of the axillary bud. In experiment VIII, lateral incisions were made through the mid-vein of leaves of B. crenatum. In 7 days the smallest isolated leaf, leaf 38, showed notch growth. 3 of the 5 specimens of a leaf with a portion of the stem, leaf 39, had developed both axillary buds, and the adja- cent bud of the other 2 just showed. In 9 days, there was PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 193 PLATE VI 20 194 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE notch growth in each of the 5 isolated leaves. 4 leaves with stems had both axillary shoots; the fifth had just the opposite shoot. These leaves are shown in Plate VII. The notch growth on the leaves having a portion of the stem attached was as abundant in the 4 specimens having both axillary shoots as it was in the isolated leaves. The axillary shoot had lost its inhibiting effect. When leaf 1 of B. crenatum was suspended in moist air and deprived of light, the buds developed in most of the notches within 7 days. In 5 weeks the shoots were fully an inch long. The purpose of these experiments was not to discover the cause of regeneration, but rather to determine whether the rules given by Loeb for B. calycinum could be applied to B. crenatum. Loeb assumed that the cause of regeneration was the prevention of the flow of material from the notches of the leaf, and he was supported in this view by his experi- ments on B. calycinum. No such simple explanation can be given for B. crenatum. If a piece of stem was left attached to the leaf, leaf 2, one or both axillary buds de- veloped. A comparison of this leaf with the isolated node from near the apex of the plant shows the growth of the buds about the same in leaf 2, altho in the latter case there were no leaves from which the buds could get this flow of material. In a later experiment,’ Loeb finds that an apical leaf influences the lower buds of its side of the stem. He states, in this connection, that the inhibiting influence of the leaf upon shoot formation is due to an inhibiting sub- stance which is secreted by the leaf and carried with the sap toward the lower part of the stem. No such sub- stance seems to be produced in B. crenatum. Although the development of the axillary buds and notch growth is hastened by the separation of leaf or stem from the plant, Goebel* found in his experiments with B. crenatum that the development of the notch growth on leaves attached to the plant could be brought about by cutting squarely across the middle vein near the edge of the leaf no growth occurred. He attributed PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 195 this lack of growth to the fact that by the longitudinal eut the vascular bundles were not sufficiently injured, Wakker*® said that the growth of adventitious buds on B. ealycinum could be brought about by injuring or disturb- ing the water passages of the leaf, NSS ay ars a, stp ‘am o & NUS yo" 4, KY ‘s 5 58 a PLATE VII Child and Bellamy* found that cooling a portion of the petiole of a B. calycinum leaf to a temperature from 2.5 to 4° C. for a few days was a very effective means of inducing notch growth. 196 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE That even these injuries and disturbances are not nec- essary in order that shoots may develop was discovered in the plants at hand. In the Botany Greenhouse, notch growth appeared on the leaves of several plants which apparently were in normal condition. This development has been found on the leaves of B. calycinum as well ‘as on those of B. crenatum and on both old and young plants. An interesting feature noted in the species caly- cinum was that, while in the notch growth on leaves sep- arated from the plant roots appeared before the shoot, the reverse order of development was true on leaves attached to the plant. For more ready comparison, the results with B. caly- cinum obtained by Loeb and those with B. crenatum ob- tained by the author are given in the following table. Unless otherwise stated, the results given for B. caly- cinum are those obtained by Loeb; those given for B. ere- natum were obtained by the author. Where no time is given for calycinum it was the same as for crenatum. Leaf Time B. crenatum Time B. calycinum 1 10da. Much notch growth, Roots and then _ shoots aerial and submersed. on submersed portion. 5 wk. Shoot on petiole in one. Shoot on petiole of 2. (Author’s results) 2 10 da. Shoot from opposite or Opposite axillary shoots. both axils in all ma- ture leaves. In very young, shoot from adjacent axil in each. 5wk. A few notch shoots and No notch growth. roots. 3 10 da. Shoot from each axil. Roots and shoots on sub- mersed portion. Not quite as quickly as in leaf 1 Notch growth on most leaves. 5 wk. Shoots and roots as 4 shoots from submersed large as) im) leat 12. portion. Adjacent axil- Notch growth as vig- lary bud. orous as in leaf 1. 6 10 da. Abundant notch growth Roots and shoots under the same as in leaf 1. water, similar to leaf 7 10 da. No growth. Roots on many _— sub- mersed portions. Shoot on one. 4wk. 2—no growth. 38—shoot on petiole and some notch growth. 8 10 da. 4 out of 6 no growth. A few had some roots 1—adjacent shoot. 1— and shoots on_ sub- adjacent shoot and mersed portion. notch growth. 4wk. Adjacent shoots in each. Some notch growth. 9 Same as leaf 3. Same as leaf 3. 10 5 da. 4—basal shoots; 1— Notch roots and _ shoots, basal and apical node shoots, no axillary shoots. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 197 Leaf Time B. crenatum Time B. calycinum 20 da. 2 basal shoots in each, 17 da. Notch roots under water. 2 apical in 4, 1 apical in 1. 4wk. Some notch growth. 11 5 da. 2 apical node shoots in A few 2 apical shoots in each. each, 1 basal in one. days. 20 da. 2 basal in one and some 17 da. No notch growth. notch growth in 2 leaves. 14 14 da. Opposite axillary shoot, A few notch roots and slight notch growth in shoots. most leaves, petiole intact. 4wk. Adjacent shoot in one. 10 wk. Petiole fallen off, axil- lary shoot growing. 20 5 da. Adjacent buds in 3 out 6wk. Adjacent axillary shoots of 6. Notch growth in others. 21 da. Adjacent shoots in all, 14 da. In very young plants—a slight notch growth in few roots on base of 4. stem, and in 6 wks. 23 much notch growth under water. No ad- jacent buds. (Author’s results) 12 da. 2 shoots from each apical Apical node shoots only node. 2 from second node in two cases. 20 da. 2 shoots from 3rd node bie 28 3 da. Buds in all 5 cases. No growth. 12 da. 2 shoots from each node. 38 7 da. 3 out of 5 had both axil- Opposite shoot, no notch lary buds, 2 had ad- growth. jacent bud growing. 9 da. 4—both axillary shoots, 1—opposite shoot. No notch growth in 4 with both buds. 1 7 da. Most notches had growth. No growth. (In 5 wk. Shoots about 1 inch long Many small roots. dark ) but not sturdy. Shoot from base of pet- iole. (Author’s result) In all notch’ growth, Roots develop first, then shoots developed first, shoots, when leaves are then roots. separated from plant. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Loeb, J.:: Rules and Mechanism of Inhibition and Correlation in Bryophyllum Calycinum. (Bot. Gaz., 60:249-276, 1915.) Loeb, J.: Morphological Polarity in Regeneration, I. (Journ. Gen. Physiol., 1:337-362, 1919.) Goebel, K.: Ueber Regeneration in Pflanzenreich. (Biologisches Centralblatt, 22:396, 397. 1902.) Child, C. M. and Bellamy, A. W.: Physiological Isolation by Low Temperature in Bryophyllum. (Bot. Gaz., 70:249-267, 1920.) 198 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE BARBERY ERADICATION IN ILLINOIS.* IF’. EK. Kempton, PatHouocist 1n Cuarce, G. C. Curran, State Leaver, Inurois, EK. D. Grirrin, Asst. State Leaver, ILLINOIS Introduction. Progress of Eradication. Problem of Escaped Barberries in Illinois. The Gurnee Area. The Galena Area. The Ogle County Area. Chemical Eradication. Rust Epidemiology Studies. Airplane Studies of the Dissemination of Spores of Puccimia graminis. Method Used in Collecting and Examining the Spores.” Results from Series 1 and 2. Results of Series 3. Results of Series 4. Summary. INTRODUCTION The barberry eradication campaign in Illinois was be- gun in the spring of 1918 as a part of the campaign or- ganized by the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with 13 north-central wheat-growing States, namely, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michi- gan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. This campaign in the United States followed the severe black rust epidemic in 1916 which produced a shortage of wheat that seriously affected the nation’s flour supply during the period of the world war. Through the agita- tion of scientists and the results of preliminary surveys in Minnesota and Iowa, conferences were held in 1917 1 Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, and the Tilinois University, College of Agricul- ture, cooperating. ? Thanks are due to S. P. Harter, field assistant, who made observa- tions, counts, and germinations of aecigspores on the exposed slides, PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 199 and 1918 which brought about the organization of the present barberry eradication campaign by the Office of Cereal Investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture in March, 1918. Field work was begun in April, 1918, under an emergency appropriation for sti- mulating agriculture. An annual appropriation of ap- proximately $150,000 was provided by Congress from July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1921, after which it was increas- ed to $350,000. During this time, practically all cities and towns were surveyed for barberry bushes and a farm- to-farm survey was begun in 1919. By December 31, 1922, all properties in 472 counties had been surveyed. Because of the desire of interested commercial and agricultural organizations to further the campaign and shorten the time necessary to complete the survey, a con- ference was called by them at Minneapolis in March, 1922, to consider further measures that might be adopt- ed as a means of rust control. Representatives of com- mercial interests, the farm bureaus, the State depart- ments of agriculture, and the State experiment stations formed a permanent organization, and indorsed the bar- berry eradication campaign as the feasible measure to be used in rust control. Largely through effective presenta- tion by this organization Congress increased the appro- priations for barberry eradication, and some of the States likewise provided extra funds. PROGRESS OF ERADICATION The entire State of Illinois is included in the eradica- tion area. Due to a wide range of temperature and lati- tude within the State there is a marked difference in the type and variety of cereals and grasses in the northern and southern areas. Experimental data show that spring wheat is subject to greater damage from stem rust than winter wheat, and, as spring wheat is grown successfully only in northern Illinois, it was decided to begin barberry eradication in that section. From April 1, 1918, to December 31, 1922, 762 cities and towns were surveyed for barberry and 15 counties were covered in the farm-to-farm survey with the result that 142, 882 bushes were located, and, in most instances, 200 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE eradicated. Owing to a large increase in the Federal ap- propriation more men were employed for survey and eradication during the summer of 1922 than in previous years. As a result six counties were completed in 1922 alone, in addition to a considerable portion of the city of Chicago. More properties infested with common barberries have been found in Illinois than in any of the other twelve States within the barberry eradication area. During the five-year campaign, 9,478 properties on which barberry was growing have been located. Iowa ranks second with 8,390 and Michigan third with 8,325. Although Illinois has the highest number of properties with barberry, in the total number of bushes found the State ranks fifth. Thus far about twice as many bushes have been found in the towns as in the country, probably due to the fact that the urban survey has been nearly State-wide while the farm-to-farm survey has been confined to fifteen counties in northern Illinois. At the rate of progress in Illinois during 1922, the best year of the campaign, at least five more years will be necessary to complete the original survey. Illinois re- ceived $20,000 of the Congressional appropriation of $350,000 in 1922. To date less than a quarter of the total area of the State has been covered in the farm-to-farm survey. Hither the annual Federal allotment will have to be increased considerably or the State will have to give generous financial aid to the movement if Illinois is to be cleared of barberry by the time the other 12 States are covered. PROBLEM OF ESCAPED BARBERRIES One of the difficult problems encountered in the eradi- cation campaign in Illinois is the widespread occurrence of escaped bushes that have grown from seeds scattered from cultivated bushes. Of the bushes found in the coun- try, 27,463 were escaped bushes on 458 properties distri- buted in every county of the surveyed area. Because of the large number of escaped bushes, eradi- eation has been retarded considerably. Usually these bushes were found growing in timber land, brushy pas: Fig.1. Escaped barberry bushes growing in the Galena area. The soil is extremely rocky and eradication by digging is impossible. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 201 tures or on rocky hillsides, often of rugged topography. Survey of these areas made on foot and covering every square rod is a slow process. Three outstanding areas of escaped bushes have been found in the surveyed terri- tory, namely, at Gurnee, Lake County; Galena, Jo Daviess County; and Chana, Ogle County. They are widely separated and possess different characteristics. THE GURNEE AREA The Gurnee area is located in Lake County and has the largest number of bushes. The number of bushes is esti- mated at 5,000 and there is a wide variation in size and age. Most of these bushes were growing in a 40-acre woodlot on the farm of a Mr. Lake. Other scattered plantings were found along highways, hedges, and fences for several miles around. Seedlings, sprouts, and large mature bushes were all growing together in timber forming a dense growth of underbrush. Unlike most areas, the escaped bushes were not closely associated with streams. The original source of these bushes was a hedge near the old homestead on the Lake farm. This hedge had been eradicated some years ago. THE GALENA AREA The Galena area was found during the summer of 1922 and is located about the city of Galena in Jo Daviess County. The topography is extremely rough due to its being unglaciated, and many difficulties were encountered by the field men. It was necessary to survey twelve sec- tions on foot and considerable time was thus consumed. Unoceupied property offered another stumbling block to the efficient destruction of the barberry. There were approximately 1,500 bushes found within a radius of about two miles from the original planting. Many were growing against rocky cliffs (Fig. 1) and in ravines that were almost inaccessible to the scouts. Digging was a difficult process and sprouts invariably appeared after digging because the roots could not be entirely removed. This area originated from a large hedge planted in Galena in 1844. In general the escapes are scattered along hillsides on both banks of the Galena river. Birds 202 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE probably were the principal disseminating agent, with water as a second factor. THE OGLE COUNTY ARHA Three separate areas of escaped barberry were found in Ogle County during the summer of 1922. The total number of bushes in these areas was about 250 and in each instance they were associated with streams in tim- ber lands. The topography is somewhat rough but not as rugged as that in the vicinity of Galena. Although the number of bushes in the Ogle County area would in- dicate that it was comparatively unimportant, there are several characteristics peculiar to it. In the territory about the town of Chana, twenty bushes all about the same size were estimated to be 70 years old. One of the largest bushes found in Illinois was in this area (Fig. 2). Another unusual characteristic was that the escaped bushes grew separate- ly, only a few on each farm. In the area about Mt. Morris, the bushes were of all sizes and were widely seattered in small groups. The area is about six miles across and includes about 100 bushes originating from a single source. In the Polo area many of the bushes were found growing on the sides of rocky bluffs and eradication necessarily will be difficult. CHEMICAL ERADICATION? The common barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) when well established is a very difficult plant to kill. This is the conclusion reached after five years of effort to eradi- cate the common barberries from 13 of the North-Central States. When the bushes are dug, even small fragments of roots left in the ground usually will sprout. This means that where the digging is difficult, as in rocky ground or around trees or stumps or when unusual care is not taken to remove all fragments of roots, sprouts are almost sure to develop. In lawns or gardens where a eareful watch can be kept, the problem is not so serious, 1Noel F. Thompson. Kill the Common Barberry with Chemicals, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Cir. 268, 4 p., 3 fig. March, 1923. Fig.2. Immense escaped barberry bush found in Ogle County. This is one of the largest bushes found in Illinois and is typical of the twenty large and widely separated bushes found in one escaped area. Fig. 3. Barberry sprouts near Galena, Illinois, treated with crushed rock salt. The character of the soil makes chemical eradication necessary. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 203 for in a year or two all roots left at the first digging will have sprouted and can be removed. With bushes grow- “ing wild in pastures and woodlots-and along fences at a distance from the house, the situation is different, and other means of killing the bush are desirable. In the past two years experiments have been carried on at Gurnee in Lake County in an effort to find some suitable chemical that would kill barberry bushes. A large area of escaped barberry was found at Gurnee in June, 1921, and the chemical experiments were begun in the autumn of the same year. Noel F. Thompson, who is now in charge of the experiments, has found that rock salt and a commercial compound containing sodium arsenite are the most effective compounds for killing the bushes. Dr. W. W. Robbins conducted a series of experiments to determine a satisfactory method for killing barberry seedlings. He found that a number of chemicals are ap- parently equally toxie to barberry seedlings. Sodium arsenite was the most economical and effective compound used. A spring application was more effective than a fall application. Apparently the seedlings gain in re- serve strength as the season advances. This fact sug- gests the advisability of spraying the young plants as soon as possible after the germination of the barberry seeds in the spring and summer. Because of the danger to livestock resulting from the use of sodium arsenite, it has become necessary to dis- continue using this chemical and to rely entirely upon salt. There are many localities in Illinois where the soil is of such a character that effective digging of the bushes is impossible. An example of such a condition was encoun- tered in the Galena district. The soil of the entire region is extremely rocky and where bushes were removed in July, sprouts appeared in September, thus demonstrat- ing the absolute necessity of adopting the more efficient method of using chemicals in order to eradicate perma- nently every common barberry bush in the State (Fig. 3). Even when the character of the soil would not inter- fere with eradication by digging, sprouts have been found 204 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE in many instances. For example, the 1922 survey in Oak Park, Cook County, showed that fully fifty per cent of the bushes eradicated in previous years had sprouted? However, it is not likely that chemicals can be used con- veniently on every planting because of the injurious ef- fect on the soil, retarding plant growth one or two years. Crushed rock salt has been applied to a number of bushes in Jo Daviess County (Fig. 4). About ten pounds is the recommended application for the average-sized bush. It should be distributed over the crown. The bush may be left standing or the top cut off before applying the salt. The average cost per plant for treatment with erushed rock salt was from five to fifteen cents, depend- ing upon the character of the bush. This included the cost for salt and labor. RUST EPIDEMIOLOGY STUDIES In connection with the barberry eradication campaign in Illinois numerous observations have been made in the spread of black stem rust from infected barberries. Sev- eral outstanding cases have been noted; one at Minooka, Grundy County, probably is best known because it was the first to be brought prominently to the attention of farmers. It was discovered in 1919 and showed the re- lationship so clearly that it was mapped and described in the annual report of the barberry eradication cam- paign of that year. Much of the rust around Minooka originated in a lates hedge of common barberry comprising some six hundred bushes. Directly east of this hedge was a field of winter wheat sheltered by an intervening orchard. This pro- tection, together with the earlier development of winter wheat, prevented serious damage to this field. About a quarter of a mile southeast of the hedge was a field of spring wheat with no protection other than distance. Intervening was a pasture extending from the hedge to the wheat. In this pasture was considerable wild barley. Rust spread from the barberries to the grass and then spread rapidly through the pasture to the grain where it produced a 90 per cent infection. Directly across the © Fig. 4. An area of escaped barberries in Jo Daviess County. The tops of of the bushes have been cut off and the crowns treated with salt. PAPERS ON BIGLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 205 road, about 70 feet from the hedge, was a field of oats. Not a single stalk escaped the rust. A mile farther away was another field of oats which showed an infection of about 75 to 80 per cent. The removal of the hedge has decreased stem-rust losses in this neighborhood in sub- sequent years. During the summer of 1922, no serious outbreaks of black stem rust were reported. Weather conditions in June were very unfavorable for the levelopment of stem rust. The rainfall was light and the dry weather hin- dered the growth of the rust. However, the earliest in- fection of stem rust in northern Illinois in 1922 ean be traced to barberry bushes, and, if weather conditions had favored stem-rust development, severe attacks with heavy losses might have occurred in that year. The first spread of rust from barberries in 1922 was noticed in Lake, Livingston, and Will counties at about the same time. Mr. Thompson found quack grass and oats with a trace of infection near barberry bushes on June 10 in Lake County. In Livingston County on June 9, wild barley growing near a barberry hedge was found to be slightly infected. No rust could be found on this grass more than fifty yards away from the hedge. On June 23, barley growing near barberry in McHenry County was heavily rusted, while at a distance of fifty feet from the bushes the rust was extremely light. On the same date orchard grass and quack grass were found rusted near barberry in DuPage County. In almost every instance when infected barberry was found, stem rust was present on grasses or grains, and probably weather conditions alone were responsible for the ab- sence of heavy infections. AIRPLANE STUDIES OF THE DISSEMINATION OF STEM-RUST SPORES Airplanes have been used in connection with studies of stem-rust spores in the air. The purpose of these investigations was to determine general relations which might exist between height or distance from the infected material and the resulting dissemination of rust spores. It includes an attempt to 206 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE - find a correlation between distance from infected bar- - berries in the direction of prevailing winds and the num- ber of aeciospores or urediniospores which might be found. METHOD USED IN COLLECTING AND EXAMIN- ING THE SPORES The work of collecting the spores was made possible through a cooperative agreement between the United States Department of Agriculture and the Air Service of the War Department. Slides were exposed from Army airplanes stationed at Chanute Field, Rantoul, Illinois. The airplanes, piloted by U. S. Army officers, flew from Rantoul to Gurnee, a distance of 150 miles each time spore collections were made. The bushes in the Gurnee area, previously described, were rusted heavily in the spring of 1922 and it was during the period of rust infection on the barberry that most of the flights were made over this area. The apparatus as described in another paper’ consisted of ordinary glass slides 3”x1” in size coated with a very thin film of white vaseline or glycerine jelly. Each slide was fastened to a wooden handle and placed in a small glass bottle two inches in diameter and four inches high. With the use of a close-fitting cork stopper the bottle was made air tight. The glass slide was exposed by removing it from the bottle and holding the handle with the slide attached out in the air above the cockpit of the airplane for a definite time at definite altitudes. The microscopic examination of the slides and germination tests were made in the laboratory. Four series of slides were exposed. Glycerine jelly, because it is quite transparent when examined under a microscope, was used in one series to determine its effect- liveness in catching and holding spores. The time of ex- posure varied from three minutes in the first, second and fourth series to ten minutes in the third series. In all cases the slides were examined under a micro- scope with a mechanical stage for the purpose of getting 1Elvin C. Stakman, Arthur W. Henry, Gordon C. Curran, and Warren N. Christopher. Spores in the Upper Air. In Journal of Agricultural Re- search, Vol. 24, No. 6, May 12, 1928. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 207 a close estimate of the spores present on each slide. To insure positive identification of all spores, they were measured by means of an ocular micrometer and were compared directly with type slides which contained the various forms. Only spores which were whole and un- injured were counted. In addition to aeciospores, ure- diniospores and teliospores of Puccinia graminis Pers., which were the only spores counted, there were, in many instances, large numbers of smut spores, spores of other rusts, pollen grains and spores of a considerable number of other fungi such as Alternaria. RESULTS FROM SERIES 1 AND 2 The slides of this series were exposed on June 14, 1922, from an Army airplane over and near the 40-acre area of escaped barberries on the H. C. Lake farm near Gurnee, Illinois. The barberry bushes were infected severely on this date. The wind was blowing from the northeast and the observations were made directly over the area of bushes, at distances of 10, 15, and 25 miles south of the area. Each slide was exposed for three minutes. A vaseline-coated slide was placed on one side of the wooden paddle and a slide coated with glycerine jelly on the other; thus, when the paddle was exposed, two slides were in position to catch spores from the air. Observations show that aeciospores were present in the air over the Lake farm at altitudes from 100 to 12,000 feet. Urediniospores were found at alti- tudes of 1,000 to 7,000 feet. Ten miles south of this in- fected area, both aeciospores and urediniospores were found at an altitude of 2,000 feet. Fifteen miles south, aeciospores were found at an altitude of 2,000 feet. Twenty-five miles south, only one aeciospore was found and this at an altitude of 2,000 feet. RESULTS OF SERIES 3 Slides of this series were exposed from an Army air- plane over and near the 40-acre area of escaped barber- ries on the H. C. Lake farm near Gurnee, Illinois, on July 5, 1922. The length of the exposure was ten minutes. All the slides were coated with vaseline and two slides 208 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE were exposed at the same time by attaching two slides to each paddle. Observations made on this date show that approxi- mately the same numbers of spores were present at ele- vations of 100 to 2,000 feet. At 6,000 feet there were about six-tenths as many spores as at 2,000 feet. At each elevation there were twice as many aeciospores as ure- diniospores and few teliospores were found from 100 to 2,000 feet. RESULTS FROM SERIES 4 These slides were exposed on September 18, 1922, and the results are given to show the presence of the different spore forms late in the season. The exposure period was three minutes over an area free from any escaped bar- berries, and probably harboring few cultivated bushes. No aeciospores whatever were found on microscopic ex- amination. A very large number of urediniospores were found and a decidedly increased number of teliospores, all of which is in direct keeping with the advanced season and the other conditions under which the exposures were made. SUMMARY The campaign for the eradication of the common bar- berry began in I]linois in the spring of 1918. Practically all of the cities and towns were surveyed during the first two years. The activities of the past three years have been devoted to the farm-to-farm survey of 15 counties in the northern part of the State and a resurvey of the city properties in these counties. Illinois has an unusually large number of escaped bar- berries. In most cases, these escaped bushes are growing in timber land, brushy pastures, or on rocky hillsides which are of rough topography and present serious prob- lems of successful eradication. The spread of escaped barberries is correlated with the type of soil and topogra- phy of the land over which they scatter. Results of ex- periments show that the most feasible method of killing barberry bushes in rocky situations is by the application of salt. An average-sized bush can be killed with 10 pounds of common crushed rock salt piled over the crown. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 209 The cost per bush for the salt and application ranges from ten to fifteen cents. Epidemiology studies show that barberry bushes are directly responsible for the early spread of black stem rust to fields of grain. The aecial stage of stem rust was found on barberry bushes in northern Illinois as early as June 10 in 1922. Observations made by airplane flights show that in June and July aeciospores were present in the air over infected barberries. Also, these spores were caught in the direction of the prevailing winds from 15 to 20 miles from any known area of infected barberries. From flights made on September 12, 1922, no aeciospores were obtained in the air, but numerous teliospores were caught. 210 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE GROWTH STUDIES OF CERTAIN BOTTOMLAND SPECIES IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS C. J. Tevrorp, Naturat History Survey, URBana The study of tree growth has always had a certain scientific interest. Now since we know that the virgin stand of timber amounting to 138,000,000 acres out of an original stand of 822,000,000 acres will be cut out, in all probability, within the next 50 or 100 years and that we must turn to the cut over lands and to plantations as future sources of supply, growth studies assume greater economic importance. The two great classes of lumber—hardwoods or broad leaved trees and softwoods or conifers—are graded ac- cording to different specifications. The hardwoods are graded largely upon appearance and beauty; the soft- woods largely upon strength, which in their case can be secured from immature trees, but clear lengths can not, this having been well exemplified in the choice of Sitka spruce for aeroplane stock. In general, hardwoods require better soil, produce fewer trees to the acre and have a slower rate of growth than conifers. They must be carried over a long inter- val to produce the desired grades and sell for but little more than softwoods in the market. Among the hardwoods the growth rate varies widely - as to species; within the species also the growth rate var- ies as to site, but the height growth rate for the same species on similar sites is remarkably uniform, so that it is used in site classification. The fact that different species grow at different rates is so well known that it needs no proof. That the same species may have a very different growth rate upon up- land than upon bottomland sites is brought out ‘in the study of sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). At fifty years of age sycamore growing upon the uplands in Ran- dolph county averages sixty feet in height as compared with ninety-two feet for the same age on the Mississippi bottomlands of Union County. The fifty year upland tree has an average diameter on the stump inside the bark of 8 inches and the bottomland tree of 24.2 inches. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 211 That the growth rate in height for the same species on similar sites is very uniform is brought out by study of pin oak (Quercus palustris). Measurements were taken in Gallatin county on pin oak growing on gray clay subject to flooding from the Wabash, and in Union county for the same species on drab clay subject to flooding from the Mississippi. The height growth of the average tree for each at 50 vears is 68 feet, and at no period between 5) and 65 years is there a variation of more than one foot in the height of the average tree for these widely separat- ed stands. Comparing the rate of growth in height for the com- mon upland commercial species with that of the bottom- land species of the state, the studies show that the up- land species grow in height about 70% as fast as the bot- tomland species and in diameter about 55% as fast. Thus it is apparent that if the growing of hardwood timber crops is going to be profitable anywhere the bottomlands present the more favorable conditions. Comparing the height growth of the eight bottomland species studied there is a noticeable grouping. The in- tolerant cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) show an average annual height growth of more than two feet for the first 50 years. The honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), soft maple (Acer saccharinum), and pin oak (Quercus palustris) have an average height growth of 1.4 feet for the same period. The elm (Ulmus Americana), ash (Fraxinus Americana) and hackberry (Celtis Mississippiensis) average slightly less than 1 foot per year. Thus in rate of volume growth for average individual trees the listing would be in order of importance, cottonwood, sycamore, pin oak, honey locust, soft maple, ash, elm and hackberry. Where these studies were made the soils are rich and moisture abundant. Thus the factor controlling both the occurrence of any one species in the mixture and its rate of volume growth is available sunlight. Abandoned river channels generally have seedlings in abundance of several species, but the rapid growth rate of cottonwood and sycamore soon places these above their competitors and results in a belt of these intolerant trees. But the 212 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE more tolerant species, while not competing with the over- wood of cottonwood and sycamore, will persist at a slower growth rate, or will seed in under the tolerant trees. With the removal of the latter the site will be oc- cupied and held by the elm, maple, oak, hackberry, honey locust and ash. Within this grouping of the more tolerant species there will be a sharp struggle for crown space, and the check in crown expansion will be reflected in a correspondingly poor diameter growth. Thus, under the conditions which exist in these all-aged stands, the two species which show unusually rapid growth are the species which must have an abundance of sunlight; therefore they occur locally in the bottomland as an early stage in the transition from the new land to the ultimate forest, and where occurring, make a uni- formly high rate of growth. 3 In attempting to grow either sycamore or cottonwood in pure even-aged stands the average diameter growth would probably be less than that of these same species growing in a mixed stand, for the reason that in the mixed forest the sycamore or cottonwood carry their crowns well up above the other species with consequently more leaf exposure to sunlight. The average diameter growth of the more tolerant species grown in pure even- aged stands probably would be increased, because at no period of their growth would there be an overwood with consequent suppression. In the management of such even-aged stands the suppression resulting from lateral crowding would be modified by thinnings in the plan- tation. In the natural grouping of this all-aged virgin bottom- land stand the average yield per acre is 15,000 B. F. The average age of the merchantable trees is slightly over 100 years. Cottonwood and sycamore made a diameter growth inside the bark on the stump of 20 inches in 40 years, pin oak in 58, honey locust in 57, soft maple in 59, hackberry in 125, elm in 127, and ash in 150 years. In conclusion, it seems evident that the highest re- turns can be secured from a naturally stocked bottomland area by encouraging the sycamore, cottonwood, pin oak > PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 213 and maple. Probably the honey locust should be consid- ered as a desirable species but hackberry and elm grow altogether too slowly and have no special merit. Ash has an extremely low rate of growth and its encourage- ment is justified only by the high market value of the wood. The highest returns from artificial plantations would probably be derived from cottonwood and syca- more, but such a plantation requires a cleared field and involves almost prohibitive initial investments except on land which is subject to overflow and is not liable to be for some years in an organized drainage project. April 26, 1923. 214 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE BOGS OF NORTHERN ILLINOIS—I1 W. G. WaterMan, NorTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY. At the 1921 meeting of this academy the writer briefly described four bogs located in Lake County, Illinois, and mentioned several others which had been heard of or seen in the distance, but not visited. In the present paper five others are described and some data are added to the descriptions already reported. There is still certainly one and possibly several others which have not yet been visited. (Fig. 1.) The new bogs, both those visited and those reported, are in the same general region, already described. That is, they are all within the limits of the late Wisconsin Drift of the Valparaiso moraine which is characterized by a soil consisting of clay or gravel, frequently con- taining a large percentage of calcium carbonate, and having an uneven topography, orginally with many knobs and kettle holes. Most of these depressions have been in- cluded in the drainage systems of the rivers of the region, but a section in western Lake and eastern McHenry Counties on the edges of the drainage basin of the Fox and DesPlaines Rivers still contain a few poorly drained or undrained depressions, and it is in these that the bogs are found. For a thorough understanding of these formations at- tention should be called first to the present distinction between bog and swamp, which is based partly on the character of the habitat and partly on floristic content. A bog is characterized in general by a xerophytic vegeta- tion and by the presence of such special forms as the pitcher plant, drosera, cranberry and sphagnum, which are accompanied usually by an acid condition of the sub- stratum. In a swamp, on the other hand, the characteris- tic bog plants are absent and the substratum is alkaline or neutral. There are, to be sure, occasional anomalous communities in which a few bog species are present, al- though the conditions in general would seem to indicate a swamp. In the main, however, the distinction is fairly well marked, and in many eases it is so well defined that ot = =< w a RG) et =A VE } ti Fi ie od Counties, ILLINOIS. Fig.1. Location of bogs in Lake and McHenry Counties. Black circles indi- cate bogs described; black squares, bogs reported but not yet visited. La , eaetae re eee, . led Ste PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 215 swamp and bog zones may be distinguished clearly within the limits of the same depression. The typical succession of communities in swamps in- clude (1) free floating aquatics such as algae and pond- weeds in deep water; (2) aquatics whose roots are in the soil of the bottom but their vegetative parts float on the surface, as the waterlilies; (3) plants which root in the bottom but have a large part of their vegetative parts above water, as bulrushes, cattails and pickerel-weed; (4) plants which grow in water or very wet soil, as sedges; (5) water-loving shrubs, chiefly willows; (6) swamp trees, as the ash and elm; and (7) the plants of the surrounding uplands when the substratum becomes solid and dry. The first three stages of the bog succession are the same as those of the swamp, but at the fourth stage the characteristic bog plants begin to appear, usually on a floating mat made up of the roots and rhizomes of sedges and low woody plants with a filling of sphagnun. The characteristic shrubs are Chamaedaphne, Andromeda, Vacciniums and the dwarf birch, and the chief bog tree is the tamarack followed by the upland plants as in the case of the swamp. By the identification of these stages, the progress of the succession and the consequent maturity of the bog or swamp may be determined. CHARACTERISTICS OF HABITATS The depressions in which these bogs are found are all similar in general features except in shape, as they vary all the way from small circular bowls or kettles 200 yards in diameter, to large oval or irregular basins half a mile or more in length. The most irregular is the group con- taining four bogs about a mile northwest of Volo, which will be found to be quite similar in general outline to the drained depression which contains the Fox-Pistakee group of lakes. The profiles of the larger depressions are similar also, usually including broad stretches of shallow, gently sloping plains which extend from the sur- rounding uplands to a deep pocket more or less centrally located. These bordering plains are wet and swampy at 216 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE times of high water but may become quite dry in the late summer and fall. The line between these plains and the surrounding uplands is always clearly marked and shows evidences of shore erosion, as if it had marked the shore line of a lake which filled the whole depression at some time in the past. The uplands show a marked alkalinity, and the glacial. material of which they are composed contains many boulders and pebbles of lime-stone. The low flat borders are also alkaline, while the substratum under the bog vegetation is uniformly acid. The soil of the plains con- sists of black peat or muck, sometimes interbedded with sandy wash from the uplands, but this deposit is very shallow, not being more than six feet deep at the maxi- mum. At the edge of the bog vegetation the bottom drops off rapidly and the character of the peat changes to a dark yellowish brown and contains fragments of bog plants. This kind of peat underlies all of the bog vege- tation, and is everywhere over ten feet in thickness and probably much thicker in the central parts of the bogs. Many borings have been made in all of these bogs to a maximum depth of ten feet, and the data obtained con- firm the finding of Burns (1) and indicate that the condi- tions he reports as to greater depths would hold good here also. DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BOGS In many ways the most interesting bog is the one lo- eated on Cedar Lake and numbered 1 in the first report (4), as it is small in relation to the size of the lake and is evidently very immature. (Fig. 2.) On the open edge in the lake it is in the first bog stage, that of the quaking mat, and the shrub and tree stages are only beginning to appear. The bog mat is only about 100 yards wide, and be- tween it and the shore is a swamp zone of about the same width. (Fig. 3.) The depth of the water gradually in- creases from the shore to the edge of the bog mat where it is about 6 feet, and from there it rapidly deepens, going beyond 10 feet in a short distance. Soundings beyond that depth have not yet been taken, but according to local opinion the lake is very deep just beyond the edge of the a PeVernetsag ec 2 2 a r~] ow ¢ > Pees shy POSES, PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 217 bog while all other parts of the lake are relatively shal- low. Another feature of interest is a small island or patch of floating mat which is forming very rapidly about 300 yards off the center of the bog. It appeared about five years ago and was at first only a few yards across. In 1922 it was L shaped, each arm being about 20 yards long, but it is not yet solid enough to bear a man’s weight. The plants are mostly sedges with some Decodon verticillatus, a very important mat-forming shrub. (Fig. 4.) At the other extreme of maturity is the bog near Wau- conda already described (4—No. 4) and one near Antioch in S. E. corner, Section 15, T. 46 N., R. 10 E., about three miles southeast of Antioch. The Antioch bog occupies a small, almost circular depression about 300 yards in di- ameter with a relatively narrow swamp zone on the north, east and west, but with a long flat valley on the south. The shrub zone is narrow, and consists chiefly of choke- berry and winterberry with some red ozier dogwood, swamp blueberry and elder. The tamarack forest is very mature with solid substratum and large trees, and there are also several upland specimens present, includ- ing a yellow birch 10 inches in diameter and several red or ellipsoid oaks, and occasionally choke cherries, trem- bling aspens and mountain ashes; and one service berry was noticed. (Fig. 5.) The undergrowth is most mesophytic in the eastern half of the forest with few bog relicts, but including Maianthemum, Trientalis, Smilax, Geum, Onoclea sensi- bilis, Osmunda regalis, Asplenium sp., but in the western half there are fair sized patches of sphagnum, a few pitcher plants, and one specimen of menyanthes was ob- served. The east side is more open, many tamaracks have been overturned or eut, and there are few shrubs except red ozier dogwood which was abundant locally. There is a wide swamp zone on this side with quite abundant dwarf birch. Although the substratum is dry in autumn, the drift material in the bushes indicates temporary water levels of 2 to 3 feet above the surface in times of heavy precipitation, probably in the spring. 2i8 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The Wauconda bog occupies a larger and more irregu- lar depression with a broad shallow extension to the south east, apparently a large bay in the time of pre- historic high water, and a curving valley to the north- east which apparently connected the prehistoric lake with the depression now occupied by Bang’s Lake. Both of these extensions are now occupied by swamp vegetation while the bog is confined to a rounded triangular depres- sion to the west. The standing forest is similar to that of the Antioch bog, but the western half of the triangle was cut over about fifty years ago and is now a mixed secondary association containing scattered young tama- racks along the borders, a large number of dwarf birches, sedges and grasses, and among the stumps af the origi- nal trees, relicts of the undergrowth of the original forest, including Linnea, Cornus canadensis, with Leucobryum and other mosses. The central portion of the cut area is low, and apparently holds a small pond at times of high water as it contains vigorous colonies of Typha, Phrag- mites and other early-stage swamp plants. : The most mature bog found is in the small pocket near the Allandale farm already deseribed (4—No. 2), and there is nothing to add to that description. The most interesting group of bogs is found in two ad- joining depressions northwest of the town of Volo, one of which was partly described as the Volo bog (4—No. 3), but it has been found to be surrounded by three other bogs which are quite as interesting. From the map in Fig. 6, it will be seen that there are three contiguous de- pressions not actually connected with each other which contain four formations of very different character. The bog described as No. 3 in the preliminary report (4) ad- joins the George Sayer Farm No. 3, and therefore will be known as the Sayer bog. This was treated fully in that report and little needs to be added to the description. It seems almost certain that a twig of ledum was brought in among other specimens at the time of the first visit to the bog, but the twig was not preserved as it was supposed that if it was found so easily in a preliminary reconnois- sance, it would be located easily later. Careful search subsequently has failed to find any trace of this species ‘Q0UTISIP UL PURIST Sulpyeoy WUJIM oYUY aAvpoH WoO soq ainzeUIUy LOAD MOTTA "& “SIT ah 77 a - : fe r . E f J ‘ ‘ « Fi : ‘ > c _ f ‘ a» , ot Wy fe é " ‘ ; a : F » ay 5 S x ¢ , 4 ‘ ye, * fs r r : . ’ ae 7 : s ed hy & Xt _ - * 4 : ‘ ‘ , 4 . : 2 ¥ Vth = ‘ r ; t j a fr fi : 1 é J a) es 2 x , ; Shs #! rey, 7 Q 7 ‘ ; : Hie a *1 i : te 7 ‘ a 5 t # hy fi ~ 7 ‘ : y ' 4 fe 5 s " es . 5 an ay ial re / en , it i? ar wa y = S x Se air : i i A e : ple) -; +4 . : 2 Mew es fi : ; , t \ . ‘Oye IepoH Ul PuUBIST Sul VOTE JO MOTA OSOTD ‘P “SLT * PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 219 and, while it is possible that there may be one or more specimens in the heart of the forest, its presence has not as yet been confirmed. On the other hand, Andromeda polifolia, not included in the first report, has been found to be rather common. The winterberry (Ilex verticillata) is a prominent shrub on the west border of the forest and there are a few small specimens of yellow birch and oaks in the western part of the tamaracks. The inner edge of the swamp zone, especially in the west and north, carries a dense growth of Bidens and other ruderals, which grow so luxuriantly to a height of five feet or more as to make passage through them rather disagreeable. The pond in the center of the forest was found to be oval in shape and about 100 yards in length by fifty in width, and surrounded by a quaking mat of from 50 to 100 yards in width. Old inhabitants say that the pond occupied the whole of the open area when first visited about fifty years ago, and that the quaking mat has in- _ ereased to its present width since that time, reducing the pond to its present size (Fig. 7). The open mat is made up of sedges, sphagnum, buckbean (Menyanthes trifoli- ata), marsh fern (Aspidium thelypteris), and large colo- nies of cattail on the edge of the pond itself. The clear water in the pond is not over a foot or two in depth and its bottom is apparently composed of soft peat. Northeast of the Sayer bog but separated from it by a low ridge about 200 yards wide, traversed by an east and west road, is an oval depression about one quarter of a mile long by one eighth wide extending northeast and southwest, which formerly carried a tamarack forest growing on a sphagnum mat. The tamaracks were cut some time ago and their stumps are buried a foot or more by a thick growth of chamaedaphne and of sphagnum, which is climbing vigorously among the stems of the chamaedaphne. There are several small colonies of pitcher plant and occasional patches of sedges with cran- berry and some blueberries. There are scattered speci- mens of dwarf birch, one large dead tamarack and five or six very young living trees near the center of the bog, and eight or ten others at the northwest corner. On the east side of the bog is a long belt of dense dwarf birch, 220 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and beyond that a swamp zone with swamp fern and sedges and some iris and swamp cinquefoil along a small drainage ditch. The edges of the bog are now being drained toward the center, but the draining of the whole bog would be an expensive matter owing to the height of the surrounding ridges. The surface has been burned repeatedly and the swamp zone is now occupied by a scanty growth of ruderals. About one half a mile to the west of these two bogs is a long L-shaped depression which contains two separate tamarack groves indicated on the map (Fig. 6) and originally referred to as No. 7 and 8. One is long and L shaped, running north and south, and the other, ap- proximately round, at the end of the western arm of the depression. The north end of the depression is large and rounded and the tamarack grove occupies only the west- ern half of this enlargement, while the eastern half con- tains a erescent shaped pond which narrows rapidly toward the south and disappears about the middle of the tamarack forest. _ The substratum is fairly solid under the tamaracks, and its upper surface consists largely of tamarack needles but below it is composed of dark brown peat. Both at the surface and below to a depth of six feet it gives a neutral or alkaline reaction. On the east side of the tamaracks between the forest and the small lake is a small morainic knoll covered with oaks, and beyond this knoll the sub- stratum becomes a quaking mat which contains no char- acteristic bog plants and is underlain by a soft muck which is strongly alkaline and contains many small, white, caleareous fragments apparently of gastropod shells. This swamp mat surrounds the southern pointed end of the lake and in that locality contains dense colon- ies of cattail, bulrush and reed grass (Phragmites). The main body of the mat consists of grasses and sedge and swamp mosses with some swamp cinquefoil, St. John’s wort and several colonies of fringed gentian. The tamarack forest has been cut in places, but where relatively untouched the growth is dense and contains many trees up to 10 and 12 inches in diameter, with at least one of twenty inches. A 4-inch stump showed 40 or mature forest in Antioch Bog. 1 S A me o = w = = = ~ 6 H = = ue) = = 3) n ¢ o = o Y n I o oS a = o = n fo! = ~ = = & o = = 2 fe} io) = = Y is Pal Fig. 5. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 221 50 very narrow rings while one of 10 inches showed 79 rings divided into zones which varied considerably in the thickness of their rings. On account, perhaps, of the dense shade and the carpet of needles the undergrowth in the center of the forest was scanty but contained much minium, some patches of marchantia, one species of aster and some fungi, especially several specimens of Helvella. The southern portion of this forest and the western grove are less dense and the trees are smaller. The swamp zone is narrow along the west side and on the east side below the northern basin which contains the lake, but the western depression has wide extensions both to north and south, which are filled with grass hummocks with occasional specimens of dwarf birch. The shrub zone is narrow and scanty toward the north, the chief species being Cornus paniculata and saplings of balsam poplar. From the center south and west it consists of an almost pure stand of swamp sumach which, taken with the specimens on the Sayer bog, constitute much the largest display of this plant to be found in the State. The topography of the bottom of the original depression is similar apparently to those of the other depressions,— shallow in the swamp zones but much deeper under the tamaracks. Where the swamp zone is narrow, the bottom drops away rapidly, but in the broad bay-like extensions the slope is very gentle. The last bog of those so far studied is located in the N. W. corner of Section 35, T. 46 N., R. 10, E. about a mile west of the village of Millburn. In many respects it re- sembles the one located northeast of the Sayer bog, but it has some distinctive features of its own. There are no tamaracks visible and no sign of their former presence although, as there was no ditching going on, there was nothing to show whether or not a former forest had been cut in the past. The depression is a broad oval extending northeast and southwest and measures about 500 yards by 300, bordered by the usual swamp zone which is narrow on the north and east, but with broad extensions to the south and southwest. Within this swamp zone the substratum is covered by a thick mat of sphagnum with much cranberry 222 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and many colonies of pitcher plants. A peculiar feature of this bog is the tendency of several species to form dense local colonies of almost pure stand. Among such species were noted dwarf birch, andromeda, dewberry, marsh fern, and violet; and cattail in the swamp zone on the northwest. Less common species were cotton grass, swamp cinquefoil, and the mosses Polytrichum and Leucobryum, a few saplings of trembling aspen, two willows, and one specimen each of winterberry and moun- tain ash. A very dense belt of shrubs, almost as long as the bog mat and ranging from 15 to 30 feet wide, runs parallel with the southeast side of the oval and about 20 feet within it. 50 to 75% of the specimens are dwarf birch which grows there very dense and 5-7 feet high. There were also much winterberry, chokeberry, some elder, five or six oaks 10 feet high, and many trembling aspen sap- lings. The ground occupied by this shrub belt seemed to be a low sand bar rising a foot or two above the level of the mat, but as no borings were taken at this bog, the un- derground topography can only be guessed at. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The chief interest in these bogs lies in the fact that they are the only examples remaining in Illinois of a type of plant formation common in most of our northeastern states and very abundant farther north. The distribu- tion of deep peat deposits as shown by the soil map of Illinois would indicate that these bogs were much more common in Illinois in fairly recent geological times, though a careful examination of the peat would be neces- sary to determine whether it was formed in a bog or ina swamp. The correlation between chemical condition and depth of the substratum and the character of the vegetation is important on account of its bearing on the theories of the causes of xerophytism in bog plants. In these bogs the substratum on which the bog plants grow is found to be of considerable depth and acid in character, while the swamp plants are found on a shallow substratum which gives a neutral or alkaline reaction. le HENRYS SY W\LaKke Countr.. SAK RNAS CANAAN SX. RAW SHY M YE QAYQ SNS MQ iioa SQ *:“°“~Qnar sg“ SUT SENS BOWS AS SYS Os > \ Jf. SNS AAS ee % Xs : a i Pes A a ae Ge “ PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 293 In summarizing the various theories of bog xerophy- tism, Rigg (2) regards four as of chief importance, and considers that these are; acidity, difference between air and soil temperature, lack of aeration of the substratum, and toxic substances in the substratum. It will be seen that the conditions in these four theories fit in with the observed relation between the distribution of bog plants and the depth of the substratum. In the broad shallow portions of the depressions the water is stirred up con- tinually by the wind and mixed with finely divided matter from the uplands, thus insuring aeration, neutralization of acids, absorption of toxic substances, and a tempera- ture more nearly the same as that of the air. The situa- tion in the deep substratum would be just the opposite and would favor the development of conditions which would permit the growth only of plants with a structure more or less xerophytic in character. The absence of sphagnum and other bog plants from depressions with an alkaline substratum has been re- ported before, but the experiments of Transeau (3) who succeeded in growing sphagnum in the laboratory in water containing 100 parts of calcium carbonate to the million, have usually been interpreted as overthrowing the theory that presence of calcium salts is the reason for the absence of sphagnum. This experimental evi- dence does not seem to the writer to be conclusive, for either conditions in the field might be different in other important respects from those in the laboratory, or the conditions governing the germination and establishment of sphagnum might be different from those affecting the mature plant. In the bogs under consideration all other conditions except the acidity or alkalinity of the substratum seem to be the same in Nos. 7 and 8 as in the remaining bogs, so it would seem as if the presence or absence of calcium must be the limiting factor for the sphagnum. Experi- ments in transferring sphagnum and other bog plants to parts of bogs from which they are now absent are in preparation, and it is hoped they may throw some light on this question. 224 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Complete lists of the species found in the different bogs have not as yet been completed, but an examination of the lists of the dominant species (Fig. 8) shows interesting anomalies. Apart from the absence of the usual bog plants in 7 and 8, the dominance of chamaedaphne in 5 and of andromeda in 2 is the most striking. These two bogs are very similar in all other respects and there is no obvious explanation of this marked difference in the pres- ence of two species so closely related both taxonomically and ecologically. Another point of great interest is the maturity and the rate of development of the bog mat in the different de- pressions. Bogs 1, 4, 7, 8, and 9 (Fig. 8) show by the condition of the substratum and the presence of members of the upland forest that they have reached a condition of considerable maturity, while 6 is intermediate and 3 is very young. Furthermore, the evidence, both from the formations themselves and from human testimony, shows that there has been a very rapid increase of bog mat formation within the memory of man. If these bogs have been in existence since the glacial period, as has been the generally accepted view, it is necessary to account for the sudden speeding up of their development in recent years. If, on the other hand, No. 3 is of recent origin, it is equally difficult to explain how the conditions which pre- vented its origin for a very long period became changed so as to permit its start in recent years. From observa- tions of these bogs and also of similar formations in Ben- zie County, Michigan, (5, p. 27) it is the opinion of the writer that a recent lowering of the water levels in all of these depressions may have caused the change in con- ditions which made possible a recent increase in bog mat formation. Further study will be necessary before any final decision can be reached on this question. LITERATURE CITED. 1. Burns, G. B., A botanical survey of the Huron River valley. VII. Bot. Gaz. 47:445-453. 1909. 2. Rigg, Geo. B., A summary of bog theories. Plant World. 19:310-325. 3. Transeau, E. N., Bogs of the Huron River Valley. IV. Bot. Gaz. 41:1-42. 1906. 4. Waterman, W. G., Preliminary report on the bogs of northern IIli- nois. Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sci. 14:79-84. 1921. 5, —— Development of plant communities of a sand ridge region in Michigan. Bot. Gaz. 74:1-31. 1922. ter of Sayer Bog. In ceyn Pond Ru ei III 111 43 Sie fe: F DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES=-ILLINOIS BOGS, ie. Bs] 4} 5 | pio Lerix laricina arr | RID) ZXx fen ZIX) XIX) 322) 111 Sitex cess, ef par] pry ad ela : Llex verticillsta ipoly ea a | I Rhus vernix . = 13 311 III | Cornus stclonifera I ! i | I Betuta pumila roar ae {ej a jam. | jun Chamaedaphne calyculata Biciees &y FS eeaae Wy 04 4 OS ee Glee et Andromeda glaucophylla SRE S ae 1 | | tt Sphagnum sp. I III 111 tee ar | ieees & 5 arracenia purpurea EP tia, ee Ee iit iz ar | ig Vaccinium macrocarpon | | I ) | i a Kaiantkemum canadense BATURITY OF FORMATION Fig. §. Table of distribution of plant species in bogs. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 225 TITLES FOR ILLUSTRATIONS. Location of bogs in Lake and McHenry Counties. Black cir- cles indicate bogs described; black squares, bogs reported but not yet visited. Map of Cedar Lake showing location of immature bog. View over immature bog on Cedar Lake with floating island in distance. Close view of floating island in Cedar Lake. Yellow birch with slender stems and large tamarack in ma- ture forest in Antioch Bog. Map of group of, bogs northwest of Volo. Pond in center of Sayer Bog. Table of distribution of plant species in bogs. 226 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FARM WOODLOTS IN ILLINOIS W. F. Scurereper, Naturat History Survey, URBANA The acreage of farm woodlots in Illinois as given by the 1920 Census amounts to 3,102,579 acres, and the value of woodlot products was $6,259,000.. Taking into con- sideration the value of this asset it seems that a brief discussion of the farm woodlot in Illinois would not be out of place at this meeting. Some studies had been made as to the value of farm woodlot products as they contribute to the farmer’s liv- ing (Funk 714) and the use of wood for fuel (Bulletin No. 753, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Forest Investigations), but not until recently have studies been made as to the economic value and possibilities of the farm woodlot. Perhaps the most recent information on this subject is contained in an unpublished manuscript in the files of the Forest Service, by Mr. E. F. Hodgson, on ‘‘Farm Woodland EKeonomics’’. The results which are presented in preliminary form in this paper have been derived from a study made of farm woodlots in Illinois, partly by personal visitation to farmers in certain townships and partly through the questionnaire method. It is a part of the whole subject of forest economics of the state, for the study of which Professor H. H. Chapman, professor of Forest Manage- ment in the Yale School of Forestry, was employed part time last summer by the Natural History Survey and upon which he will later present a detailed report. During the year 1922 questionnaires were sent out to 1,600 farmers in every county in the state. Lists of farm- ers from various counties were sent in by the county farm advisers and contained the names of those most likely to have farm woodlots or to be interested in the same, although many were ‘‘corn-belt farmers’’. Ques- tions were asked not only concerning the acreage of the farm in woods and the amount of timberland grazed, but also regarding the amount of wood and coal burned, the number of fence posts used and the amounts of various products cut from farm woodlands for the last five year period with the prices received for the same, as well as PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 227 local prices for lumber, fence posts and shingles. One question dealt with the durability of various species for fence posts and another with the attitude of the farmer towards annually burning over the woods. About 440 of these questionnaires, completely or partially filled out on these various points, were returned to the Natural History Survey and the figures resulting from averaging the data may be of interest. GENERAL FACTS The average farm contained 354 acres. Fifty acres, or about 14 per cent of the average farm, was woodland. Compilation of results on clearing for farming and pas- turage showed that within the next few years this 50 acres is to be reduced to 34 acres, or there will be a re- duction of 31 per cent of our present timber stand for the farms represented. The 16 acres which is slated for clearing will be about equally used for farm and pasture land. Inguiry as to the amount of land which might be planted or reforested showed that an average of five acres should be planted, being considered more valuable for forestry than for farming. The average amount of forest plantation for each farm was only one acre. The value of the woodlot to the farmer as revealed by the answers is considerable. From his woodland he se- cures on the average 223 posts, or nine more wooden posts than he needs to keep his fences in repair. Besides furnishing him with fence posts, this same woodlot yields 15.5 cords of wood annually to its owner, and during the last five year period has supplied him annually with 2,863 board feet of lumber, about two- thirds of his total needs in this line. While as a rule the farmer takes less care of his woodlot than of his other crops, in addition to the pasture it yields him, his average annual return from it, according to our figures, is as follows: Total yield Price per piece per farm Amount or number of pieces cord or M. feet per annum ete) VA CHOCC MENGES gis alsin am Syaie, ool a's wore! n js.» wide -22 centseach.... $ 49.06 CE ST ee pt hee ee a re $1.95 percord...... 30.22 2863 board oe Coe lraen fe eo acess $31.30 per M. feet.... 89.61 eras CATERERS as Tet be san tne hakoeee seme ee care $168.89 228 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE INDIVIDUAL EXAMPLES OF PROFIT Some examples of individual profit from farm woodlots stand out conspicuously. The answer on one in particu- lar, where the farmer said ‘‘that there was not enough timber around here to bother avith’’ shows that he ob- tained from 17 acres 60 to 70 cords of wood for himself and tenant, valued at $247.50, 125 fence posts and 600 feet of farm lumber. Besides, on eleven acres of the same woods he had pas- tured three head of cattle, four horses, and 250 hogs from May to November. When we consider that a fair price for pasturing stock is about $2.00 per head per month we must conclude that this 17 acres of woodland yielded a return fully equal to some of the owner’s farm land. DURABILITY OF FENCE POSTS The figures given on durability of native timber for fence posts, while, of course, a matter of opinion by the farmers who have answered, agree very well with figures on the durability of untreated fence posts given by the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, by the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, and by the Iowa State College. Soft maple stood lowest in the list with a durability of 2.4 years; white oak, which is taken ‘usually as a standard in service tests, was rated at 9 years, catalpa was rated at 15 years, cedar at 13, black locust and mulberry at 17 years each, while osage orange or ‘‘hedge’’ had an average rating of 36 years. We have seen specimens of osage orange posts which had been in the ground 35 years, so that we can rely on the latter figure as being not far from correct. Black locust and red mulberry are next to osage in order of durability. WOODLOT MANAGEMENT The three principal factors influencing successful woodlot management in Illinois are grazimg, fire and taxes, and these will be considered in order. (a.) Grazing. This is a state-wide practice. Results from the questionnaires show that 84.5 per cent of all the woodland owned by 212 farmers who replied to that par- ticular question is subject to grazing. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 229 — Definite figures have not been obtained as to the amount of woodland pasture required to support a single head of stock, but most farmers agree that grass under the shade of trees has much less nourishment in it for stock than that grown in full sunlight. Farmers in southern IIli- nois place its value for forage at about one-fifth of that of good bottomland pasture. Hodgson estimates the value of woodland pasture at 24 acres required for 10 head of stock or 2.4 acres required per head. DAMAGE DUE TO GRAZING It is very easy to see the damage done by grazing, first to the trees and reproduction, and second to the soil. The bark of the mature trees is damaged by rubbing, the tender shoots forming the young growth are eaten off, and seedlings are trampled out and killed. Forest soil which is normally moist and porous and ideal for the growth and reproduction of trees is packed hard, and growth is either retarded or completely stopped. The soil, where packed by the hoofs of graz- ing animals, becomes dry and dusty and the rain instead of soaking into the ground runs off rapidly, leading finally along paths to the formation of gullies. In LaSalle county Dr. George D. Fuller states that not over 5 per cent of the grazed woodlands show any reproduction; that in the last 25 years there has been but little change in the timber; and that grazing has produced woodlots which had better be called ‘‘ wooded pastures’’, so scattering are the trees. The need of shade for cattle is advanced as an excuse for grazing the woodlands, and this is perhaps quite as important as the forage which the cattle obtain. Shade for stock can be provided by fencing off a portion of the woods sufficient to supply shade, thus shutting out the stock from the more valuable woodland. The numerous photographs which have been taken by the Forest Survey party show very forcibly the effects of grazing, leading us to say that good timber and good grazing are impos- sible on the same tract. | (b.) Fire. Fire, the second problem of the landowner, varies greatly with the region. The woodland tracts of 230 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE northern Illinois are sufficiently isolated to confine fires to relatively small areas. The tracts in southern Ilh- nois, however, are more continuous and public sentiment against burning is not so well developed. Results com- piled from the questionnaires show: that out of 217 farm- ers 80 per cent were against and 20 per cent in favor of annual burning. Out of 296 answers, causes for fires were assigned to the following: Campers‘and hunters’... oc. spe eee 103 Cav elessnessiu4iatrant we Beeeewee: 54 Burning to: kall-imsectsrs head wee ee se 37 Brush and grass bupming.. sens 32 PRAT ORS eke me eee ercisere wince ths fae oe eee 26 SMO RANG" (Ne cosas eo cn Nae cae es ete ce et 25 Be CW ee Sapceete sae ans, hie eames gee 6 incendiaty 2.0.5. Pie nae eee 3 Total answerme ss. kawiek soe 296 It can be seen from this list of causes that about 89 per cent of the fires are due to man and are preventable. One fourth of this 89 per cent are set by farmers themselves under the pretext of killing insects or benefiting grazing. Burning over the entire woodland to kill chinch bugs is inexcusable (Flint ’22) since in- vestigations on the edges of woods have shown that at a distance of 50 feet about 90 per cent of the bugs are left behind, as they seek the sunny edges of the woods, being found mostly on the south and west sides. The burning of a narrow strip around the timber would not only kill the greater per cent of them but make a satisfactory fire euard to prevent the entrance of fires. As to benefiting grazing, the idea is prevalent that the ashes of the burned grass act as a fertilizer, but this is probably more than counterbalanced by damage to the roots of the grass. Wherever there is a rail or ‘‘worm fence’’ around the woods we usually find that fires are kept out, as farmers do not like to rebuild their fences, and this is true especially in southern Illinois. (c.) Taxes. In spite of answers from farmers in certain sections showing that taxes were excessive on PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 231 timberland and tended to its conversion into use for farming or pasturage, there was considerable opposi- tion from farmers themselves, if we can believe news- paper reports, to the proposed clause on that subject in the new constitution which read thus: ‘‘Areas devoted to forests and forest culture shall be classified for or ex- empted from taxation’’. The main objection stated was that ‘‘owners of fine landed estates would escape taxes by listing their grounds as woodland, thus adding to the tax burden of the dirt farmer’’. The object of the clause was simply to allow some kind of classification of forest land, with exemp- tion perhaps of young timber not yielding any revenue, and the interests of the ‘‘dirt farmer’’ could have been amply safeguarded in the tax law by prescribing that land to be classed as forest must have a certain number of trees per acre, thus avoiding any chance of the wealthy owner of an estate having his few ornamental trees listed as a forest. Over against such hastily formed conclusions as the above opposing some sort of forest land classification, are such statements as these from farmer’s question- naires: ‘‘The average landowner cannot.afford to main- tain forest land as taxes, and lack of income on the in- * vestment will put him in the County Home’’. ‘‘All of this sandy land is now taxed far beyond its worth. My tax last year on 300 acres was $158.90. My largest in- come from this 300 acres was $275, with 700 rods of fence to keep up’’. These statements certainly look as if some tax reform was needed, but of course they are only isolated examples. As it is at present, matters are largely in the hands of the local assessor as to how much tax is paid upon a piece of timber. So far as we know, no consideration is taken of the age of the timber, its yield per acre, or the nearness to the time for cutting. There is not time here to discuss the admitted failure of the general property tax. It may be said, however, to be defective when applied to immature timber ‘‘be. cause by taxing the total value of the land and the trees upon it, it imposed an excessive burden upon the grow- 232 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ing forest and it placed on the owner the inconvenient obligation to pay annual taxes for years before any in- come was realized’’ (Fairchild ’22). The Committee on forest taxation of the National Tax Association suggests as a remedy the paying of a products tax of about 5 per cent on timber when it is cut, this applying to mature forests; and an exemption from taxation for immature and young timber, assessing these lands no higher than similar bare lands in the neighborhood. The main diffi- culties lie in the determination of what is ‘‘mature tim- ber’’, and the irregularity of revenue resulting from the yield tax. It is along these lines, however, that the most satisfactory adjustment of our forestry taxation prob- lem is to be looked for. Fairchild, Fred R., 1922. Finding the Solution of the Forest Taxation Problem. Report of the Committee on forest taxation, National Tax Association, Minneapolis, Minnesota, American Lumberman, September 30, 1922. Pages 54-55. Funk, W. C., 1914. What the Farm Contributes directly to the Farm- er’s living. Farmer’s Bulletin 635. U. S. Dept. Agr. December 24, 1914. Flint, W. P., 1922. Burn the Chinch-Bug. Circular 265, Univ. of Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Urbana, Illinois, October, 1922. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 233 WOOD CONSUMPTION AND WOOD PRODUCTION IN ILLINOIS AND THEIR RELATION TO THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE STATE R. B. Minuer, State Forester, UrBana In order to form an economic back ground for forestry in Illinois the Natural History Survey has been muking a study, largely by the questionnaire method, of the amount of wood consumed in the state. The amount of wood produced by growth and the extent to which this total can be increased by better methods of handling existing stands of timber or replacing them with more rapidly growing species form the other side of the problem. This economic aspect of the question strikes us as the one lying at the root of the whole forestry question in this state. No matter how much we may expand our forest areas by an appeal to the sentimentalist and to the recreationist, we all realize that wood will be grown as a crop only when we can convince people that it is a basic substance, essential to industry, lacking which we shall be forced to lower our present standard of living to that which prevails today in some of the European coun- tries. This paper deals with some preliminary points which have been found out in following up various sources of information about our present consumption of wood to be elaborated more fully later in a bulletin of the Natural History Survey. CONSUMPTION OF WOOD BY RAILROADS Franklin B. Hough, who may be styled the first United States forester, sounded in 1882 a first note of warning about a scarcity of timber for railway ties when he said that at the existing rate of increase in railroad mileage there would come a time in 1893 when a total of 10 million ties would be needed annually by American railroads. What if Mr. Hough should return now? He would find that the American railroads use 125,000,000 ties annually and that the electric and trolley lines use 10,000,000 more, just the amount of his original estimate. 234 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE There is located some little distance out from the city of Galesburg a plant which the Academy of Science mem- bers will visit as one of the points of interest. I refer to the tie-treating plant of the C. B. & Q. Railway Company, one of the twelve located in this state, which is seeking by preservative treatment to prolong the life of timber, thus contributing their part to forest conservation. The Burlington railroad not only maintains this plant and buys treated ties and timber from commercial treating plants elsewhere in the state, but it has been foremost in maintaining experimental tracks where the durability of untreated ties and those treated by various methods can be studied. It has demonstrated that the average annual renewal of untreated ties in a track of 15 per cent can be reduced by using preservative processes to about 6 per cent. Other roads assure us that where now it re- quires on an average 250 to 275 ties per mile for renewals this figure can be cut, when all ties are treated, to some- thing like 100 per mile. We can not yet give a figure for the total consumption of cross, switch and_ bridge ties required on the 25,000 miles of railroad in Illinois but we do have data on many of them and know that the normal consumption of one road alone in Illinois is 20,000 ties per month. On the production side we have definite records showing that 980,000 ties were secured in Illinois in 1921, and believe that this figure could be raised safely to 1,000,000 ties. Perhaps 500,000 of these come from southern Illinois. CONSUMPTION BY COAL MINES IN ILLINOIS Perhaps some persons have not thought of wood as an essential in coal production in Illinois but this problem is giving mining engineers some concern. Our own results compiled from answers to questionnaires from 27 large coal companies in this state, combined with material se- cured by the U. S. Bureau of Mines (Tufft ’23)*, show that on the average close to one-quarter of a cubic foot of timber is required to mine one ton of coal and that the 1Tufft, Harry E., 1923. Mine Timbers in Illinois Coal Mines. Reports of Investigations, Bureau of Mines, April, 1923. Department of the Interior. Serial No. 2465. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 235 cost to the operator is not far from 5 cents per ton. Take one-fourth of our coal production, then, and you get al- most 20,000,000 eubie feet of wood required yearly for coal mining, costing delivered at the mine almost $4,000,- 000. Furthermore, the ordinary mine prop has an aver- age length of life of about two years. Only a few com- panies in Illinois have begun to apply preservative treat- ment to mine timbers or to think seriously of perpetuat- ing the supply of mine timbers. Both of these lines of work present worth-while problems in practical forestry for mining companies. This shortage of timber for mining purposes seems to be rather general. The U. 8. Bureau of Mines (Hornor and Hunt ’22)° under date of February, 1923, says that in the East and Middle West, the Lake Superior re- gion and the metal mining regions of the West, the sources of mine timber are becoming more remote from points of consumption, the timbers are getting more diffi- cult to obtain and, naturally, more costly. Moreover, the better and more durable varieties are being exhausted rapidly; consequently the less durable varieties. must be used in their place. ° CHARCOAL It takes almost 2,000,000 kegs of powder for blasting purposes in Illinois in connection with mining operations. Leaving out smokeless powder, which is made from gun cotton, charcoal is a very important constituent of powder used for blasting and sporting purposes. Some of the facts which we have learned about this industry of charcoal making in Illinois may be of interest. We have found that in a limited region of southern Illi- nois near to a supply of second growth bottomland hardwoods over 15,500 cords of wood are reduced annual- ly in brick kilns in the making of charcoal, most of which finds a market in Illinois. Some of the powder companies have their own kilns, one large company getting over 6.000 cords of charcoal wood annually from islands of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. 2Hornor and Hunt, 1922. “Mine timber preservation’, Reports of Investigations, Bureau of Mines, Serial No. 2321, February, 1922. Re- printed in Coal Trades Bulletin, April 17, 1922. 236 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Other powder companies buy their charcoal in other states, the amount used being shown by the fact that one Tiling company in normal times imports over 5,000 bushels per month from Pennsylvania. This is explained doubtless by the fact that operators of retorts and ovens in the Kast can undersell the men operating brick kilns here because the former secure in the distillation process not only charcoal as a by-product but also wood alcohol and lime acetate for which there is a good demand in the market. FURNITURE AND WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES According to the Secretary of the American Walnut Manufacturer’s Association, the city of Rockford ranks first in the United States as a consumer of walnut lumber, with Chicago second by a very fair margin. At Rockford most of the walnut goes into the manufacture of furniture but in Chicago it is used by a wide range of industries, among which furniture is the leading one. The total of all kinds of lumber and logs used by the Rockford furni- ture manufacturers has not yet been compiled, but pres- ent figures stand at 11,500,000 board feet annually. The leading species used consist of cedar and mahogany, oak, walnut, gum, birch and basswood, with considerable quantities of rock and red elm, used for crating. A very large amount of this lumber comes from the southern states, the local supply cutting very little figure. The consumption by wood-using industries in Chicago - in the year 1910 was 1,116,855,120 board feet, out of a total of about 2500,000,000 poe feet of lumber shipped into that city. This large amount used by factories of various sorts did not include material used for cross ties, telegraph and telephone poles, mine timbers, shingles, lath, or rough lumber used in construction. Rock Island also used about 30,000,000 feet of lumber in her factories outside of that sold by local lumber yards, while factories in Peoria, Quincey, Aurora, Kankakee, Bloomington and other cities are yet to be heard from. VENEERS With the growing scarcity and high prices of logs of the larger sizes in this country, we are coming gradually PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 237 to the use of veneered panels for furniture and interior finish where large surfaces must be exposed. The suc- cess during the war with waterproof casein glues has led to a marked increase in the manufacture of built-up material, commonly known as ‘‘ply-wood’’ for trunks, automobile tops, shoe findings, airplane propellers, and — many other articles requiring both strength and durabil- ity. The fact that the fibres of the constituent pieces run in several different directions insures strength, while the waterproof glue makes the built-up piece proof against moisture changes. Outside of the large amount of wood used for the above, the scarcity of elm and other slack cooperage woods has inereased the price of barrels so that there have been introduced into the fruit shipping industry a number of ‘‘veneered packages’’ which are made from wood by slicing vertically or cutting in a rotary direction logs which have been steamed previously to soften the fiber. Egg cases are made also in large quantities from cottonwood and gum by a similar process. In the face of increasing demand, the amount of wood ‘used for veneers in Illinois has fallen from 22,650,000 board feet to 19,538,000 board feet, a decrease of over 3 million feet or 13.7 per cent in the last ten years. Visits to veneer plants in a limited portion of southern [Illinois covered by a recent bulletin show that about 4,000,000 board feet of logs are consumed for veneers in that im- _ mediate region, and that some of the mills will be forced to move to Arkansas or Missouri nearer a larger source of supply within five years. Thousands of dollars are paid out in one limited region of southern Illinois for fruit and vegetable containers, and some are imported from other states, especially ladders for fruit-picking. Indications are that larger and larger quantities of both logs and manufactured products will have to be shipped into this region which is in some parts 30 per cent tim- bered. TIMBER IN THE ROUND Large quantities of wood are used in the round for telegraph and telephone poles, piling, and fence posts, which it is almost impossible to estimate. The Illinois 238 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE farmer uses a considerable quantity of lumber for farm buildings, and the amount of wood produced and con- sumed on farms has been made the subject of a special study, some of the results of which will be given in the paper on farm woodlots. This leaves a long list of special uses to be investigated, such as in the manufacture of re- frigerators, school equipment, handles, wagons and farm implements, cabs and other vehicles. If you saw the frame of a certain make of popular cab you would understand better why the ‘‘thinking fel- low’’ calls that variety— — the frame is built in Chicago or Detroit of second growth Argansas ash, every piece of which is tested carefully for strength before being used. In connection with the use of ash for sporting goods you may be interested in knowing that the American record for the javelin throw of 203 feet, 914 inches was won by Milton Angier of the University of Illinois at the Drake relay carnival, and that these javelins are manufactured in Urbana of Indiana and Illinois ash, under the supervi- sion of Coach Harry Gill. This same firm turns out the discus, the maple for which comes largely from Wis- consin and Michigan. Thus wood is a material with which we ean not well dis- pense. We can not afford to reduce our standards of liv- ing in this country by dwarfing our use of wood to the 125 board feet per capita of Kurope. In spite of sub- stitution for wood along many lines we are constantly going to need more of this basic commodity. The only way to insure against a shortage is to grow more of it now, on our three million acres of farm woodlots in Illi- nois, on our undrained bottomlands and on our other idle and waste land. The whole question centers back in the right use of land, the devotion of a lot of it, which is just on the margin between profit and loss, to tember growing. April 27, 1923. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 239 LEGUMES AS A SOURCE OF NITRATE FOR FARM CROPS H. J. Snmwer, University oF ILurnois The maintenance of an adequate supply of available nitrogen is probably the most important practical soil problem with which the farmer of today has to deal. This problem is not limited to any particular area or to any one country, for the production of agricultural pro- ducts the world over is limited by an insufficient supply of nitrogen. This is by no means a difficulty of recent origin, because there are records showing that a shortage of nitrogen caused some apprehension among the old Roman farmers. The peculiarity of the nitrogen supply is that there is a superabundance of free nitrogen in the atmosphere which must be combined with other elements before it may be utilized for growing crops. It is said that there is in the atmosphere 5.8 tons of free nitrogen for each square yard of earth surface, and it is estimated that there is less than one ounce of combined nitrogen per square yard of earth surface in the service of man. The supply of free nitrogen is almost inexhaustible, and in comparison the supply of combined nitrogen now in use seems insignificant. Converting free atmospheric nitrogen into combined nitrogen is a process which is of vital importance to all classes of people. There are several practical methods for manufacturing combined nitrogen, but at present these processes are not sufficiently developed to furnish economically any considerable amount of available nitro- gen which might be used on a large scale as a soil fer- tilizer. In the production of our grain crops at the present time, it is necessary to look to some other source for a supply of combined nitrogen. The most economical and practical means of securing this nitrogen supply for farm crops at present is by the utilization of the various leguminous plants. It has long been known that leguminous plants have the power of enriching the soil, but it was not until com- paratively recent years that the process has been well 240 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE understood. The old Roman farmers (Ill. Bul. 179, p. 472) knew that beans possessed the power of enriching the land, and these early farmers followed the practice of plowing under lupines as a means of adding nitrogen and enriching their cultivated lands. There are many early writings which indicate that legume plants were consid- ered valuable for soil enrichment, but it was not until after 1886 that Hellriegel first announced the discovery that bacteria living in symbiotic relationship with legum- inous plants have the power to fix free atmospheric nitro- gen. From the time of Hellriegel’s discovery down to the present day there has been much experimental work done looking toward the utilization of lezumesg as a means of furnishing a supply of combined nitrogen sufficient to meet the requirements of crops in general farm practice. After the fact was thoroughly established that le- gumes do have the power to fix free atmospheric nitro- gen, there have been efforts made to determine the ap- proximate amount fixed by these plants. The amount of nitrogen fixed is influenced by different soil conditions and other factors. It is apparent that when legumes properly inoculated are grown in a soil rich in available nitrogen they will utilize the supply in the soil rather than make use of the free atmospheric nitrogen. On the other hand, if legumes properly inoculated are grown in a sandy soil or other soil low in nitrogen they will at once fix comparatively large amounts of free nitrogen in order to make proper growth. Some experimental work conducted by the late Dr. Hopkins( Ill. Bul. 76) shows a comparison of inoculated and uninoculated alfalfa when grown on common corn belt prairie land. The results of this test show that the alfalfa when properly inoculated fixed about 40 lbs. more nitrogen per acre than did the uninoculated alfalfa. The amount of nitrogen fixed as indicated by this experiment might vary with different soil conditions; however, this test serves to show the possibilities of the utilization of free atmospheric nitrogen by legumes under field condi- tions. There are many legume plants which adapt themselves to general farm practice, and some of these are particu- PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 241 larly desirable for furnishing on a large scale a part at least of the available nitrogen needed in producing farm crops. One of the most outstanding of these le- gumes at the present time is sweet clover (Mellilotus Alba). There are many interesting and valuable facts regarding the influence of sweet clover as a soil enriching crop under the various soil and climatic conditions found in Illinois. In 1905 the Illinois Experiment Station be- gan the use of sweet clover for soil improvement on the Odin Experiment Field (Marion county). The object of this experiment as stated in the field records was ‘‘to test the value of sweet clover as a leguminous green manure crop.’’ Starting with this test the Experiment Station has made practical use of sweet clover for soil improvement purposes in many parts of the state. Sweet clover has been very successful under field conditions as a means of securing available nitrogen for the produc- tion of general farm crops. Some very valuable facts have been brought out by the Illinois Experiment Station regarding the available nitrogen created in the soil when sweet clover is plowed under as a green manure crop. (Ill. Bul. 233.) The fol- lowing table gives some results obtained on the Minonk Experiment Field (Woodford county) during the season of 1919. The land on this field is typical of the common prairie corn belt soil. In this test a spring growth of sweet clover was plowed under late in April and the land planted to corn. The figures represent pounds per acre of available nitrogen found in the surface soil at various dates on treated and untreated land. Soil treatment April 26 May 30 July 1 Aug. 12 Sweet clover turned under.......... 38.7 76.8 67.2 143.6 PI NGMSOM. tTreatment$.', 2ncies cusce cass 10 4 8.1 11.8 ily Pet Limestone and rock phosphate had been applied to the land where the sweet clover was turned under. Lime- stone is usually essential to the successful growing of sweet clover on average corn belt land. The above re- sults show that as compared with the untreated land the decomposition of the green sweet clover when plowed under does greatly increase the supply of available nitro- gen. It requires about 114 pounds of nitrogen to pro- 242 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE duce one bushel of corn, and on August 12 there was suf- ficient available nitrogen in the soil to produce about 95 bushels of corn. Comparing the untreated land with the treated land it may be seen that the sweet clover con- tained about 314 to 12 times as much available nitrogen as when no sweet clover was turned under. The farm lands in southern Illinois are very different in composition and productiveness from those in the cen- tral and northern parts of the state. On these lighter soils of the south part of the state clovers cannot be grown successfully without the judicious use of lme- stone. When limestone and sweet clover as a green ma- nure are used on these lands the supply of available nitrogen is greatly increased. The following table gives results obtained on the New- ton Experiment Field (Jasper county) during the season of 1919. (Bul. 233.) The land on this field is typical of - the light prairie soils of southern Illinois. The figures represent pounds per acre of available nitrogen in the surface soil at various dates. Soil treatment May 12 June 18 July 4 Aug. 19 Sweet clover turned under.......... 18.6 36.8 30.6 78.2 NGMSoil treatment. 02 2 cee oe coe 14.0 22.6 9.2 25.9 Limestone and rock phosphate were used in addition to the sweet clover. The decomposition of the sweet clover furnished available nitrogen far in excess of that on the untreated land. On August 19, the available nitro- gen on the treated land was sufficient to produce 50 bushels of corn while on the untreated land there was enough for about 16 bushels of corn. The data above cited show that legume crops when worked into the soil do increase greatly the supply of available nitrogen. This plan of soil management is practical and fits into the scheme of general farm prac- tice, and there is no question regarding its economy when compared with the cost of commercial nitrogen as sold on the market today. It has been demonstrated clearly that sweet clover as a green manure crop may add large amounts of available nitrogen to the soil; now it is well to look at actual crop yields and note the influence of this treatment. The PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 243 Experiment Station has followed the plan of locating soil experiment fields at various points in the state, and thru the operation of these fields by the University much re- liable information is secured from year to year regard- ing the permanent improvement of Illinois soils. In the following tables some twelve experiment fields are considered upon which sweet clover has been used as a green manure crop during the past eight years. These fields are distributed widely so that they represent in general the predominating soil types of the state, and are located in regions of varying climatic conditions. The following table gives corn yields obtained from three experiment fields located in northern Illinois and representing the Brown Silt Loam soil which is the pre- dominating soil type of that region. CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE. Soil Treatment Dixon Mt. Morris LaMoille Average Crop residues and lime- stone—sweet clover. 56.5 60.7 53.4 56.9 Crop residues only..... 49.1 49.1 50.0 49.4 Gain for lime— sweet PIOVET Shs Jae Sides 7.4 11.6 3.4 io The average of these three fields gives an eight year average increase of 7.5 bushels of corn per acre for the use of the lime-sweet clover treatment. This is a very substantial increase on land which is maintaining an average corn yield of almost 50 bushels per acre. The following table gives the corn yields obtained from three experiment fields located in the central part of the state and also representing the Brown Silt Loam soil which is the common corn belt prairie farm land. CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE. Soil treatment Urbana Carthage Clayton Average Crop residues and lime- stone—sweet clover. 68.7 51.6 52.2 5z.5 Crop residues only...... Sy Cass 43.2 43.3 48.0 Gain for lime — sweet CIOVER A: Soares steak es 11.2 8.4 8.9 9.5 The average gain for the lime-sweet clover treatment on these three fields on corn belt soil is 9.5 bushels of corn per acre. This type of soil has often been referred to as inexhaustible, and yet these experiments demon- 244 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE strate that the corn yields may be increased greatly by the addition of nitrogenous organic matter and limestone. . The following table shows the corn yields obtained on ‘three experiment fields located in southern Illinois. These fields are on a soil type known as Gray Silt Loam On Tight Clay, and this type predominates over a large area of the southern part of the state. CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE. Soil treatment Ewing Oblong Toledo Average Crop residues and lime- stone—sweet clover. 31.7 36.8 rat bert 32.0 Crop residues only...... 12.9 26.6 Diao 18.9 Gain for lime — sweet ClOVED Peace et ne ke ew 18.8 10.2 10.4 jS7H! The average gain for the lime-sweet clover treatment on these three fields is 13.1 bushels of corn per acre. This type of soil is much less fertile than that of the corn belt, as indicated by the corn yields, but these experiments show that the productiveness of this soil may in some eases be almost doubled by the application of the soil treatment indicated. The following table shows the corn yields obtained from three experiment fields located in the extreme part of southern Illinois. These fields are on a type of soil known as Yellow Gray Silt Loam. This land was former- ly timbered, and is the predominating type over a large area of the southern part of the state. CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE. Soil treatment Raleigh Unionville Enfield Average Crop residues and lime- stone—sweet clover. 38.8 39.2 40.8 39.6 Crop residues only...... 20.8 22.6 29.7 24.4 aain for lime— sweet CLOVER: tiers eterno ches 18.0 16.6 abel 15.2 The average gain for the lhme-sweet clover treatment on these three fields is 15.2 bushels of corn per acre. This is the largest increase on any of the types of soil men- tioned, and indicates to what extent corn yields may be increased on these less fertile soils of southern Illinois. The corn yields on the twelve experiment fields named show an increase of 11.3 bushels per acre as an average of the past eight years. It would seem from the distri- PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 245 bution of these fields that this figure is fairly represen- ‘tative of what might be accomplished under average farm conditions throughout the state. As an average of the past eight years the state has grown annually ap- proximately 9,500,000 acres of corn, and on the basis of the 11.3 bushel increase this would add over 107,350,000 bushels of corn to the total annual production of the state. This increase would amount to almost 1/3 of the present annual corn production of the state, and would add much to the agricultural wealth of Illinois for the corn crop alone. The experimental evidence obtained shows that not only is the corn yield increased by the ad- dition of legume nitrogen, but the yields of wheat, oats, clovers and other crops have been increased materially by the liime-sweet clover treatment. These experimental results show that our agricultural production may be increased greatly by the proper utili- zation of the common legume crops which may be grown successfully on every [Illinois farm. This also indicates that science has made much advancement toward the solution of practical soil problems. 246 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A SUMMARY OF THE PLANT DISEASE SITUA- TION IN 1922 WITH RESPECT TO THE CROPS OF ILLINOIS Leo R. Trenon, Boranist, State Naturat History Sur- veY Division, URBANA Plant diseases are factors of extreme importance in crop production. Hach year crop reductions are attribu- ted to them which, if translated into terms of dollars, would appear sori irierly large. All are not equally se- vere every year, but vary according to climatological conditions and the abundance of infectious materials. Observations of plant disease from year to year are useful in that they tend to indicate what may be ex- pected under specific conditions subsequently, and their publication is justified as forming a concise and perma- nent record for future reference. A year ago the writer prepared a statement of the purposes of a plant disease survey of the state, con- ducted as a part of the activities of the State Natural History Survey Division, and included a number of ob- servations on plant disease conditions during 1921. This paper proposes to summarize briefly the disease situation with respect to the crops of the state for the year 1922. In securing the material upon which the sum- mary is based a force of four men was placed in the field from about the first of June until the last day of August. Their reports and observations are substantiated by rep- resentative specimens of disease deposited in the Survey Herbarium. . 2-6 so. Cee a 8.55 .0468 “ SES ERMIOKS fais oes oe ips « oes ewe eg oe 13.05 -0306 “ LETS SO Bh 9 21 2), oa ay 14.77 0271-° oP TESI VE 5 ee oS eee a ee ee 12.36 (0324 6° ESTOS DEO s PEG gn ee ye 16.36 .0244 “ Aluminum Phosphate .............. 17.09 -0234> “ ACE NSBR ARE oo oe Ss oe oe oss a 9.54 .0419 “ Steamed Bone Meal 2%. 2 .Sils. ss. 14.81 0270.3 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE 2. Percent phosphorus recovery from Tennessee rock phosphate and double acid phosphate after different soils were treated with these substances in proportion of 4 mgs. of phosphorus per 25 gms. of soil; fifth normal nitric acid was used for extraction. Percent: Phosphorus S Recovery 12 bonves) ; %os = em £55 Description of soils. o5 $3 Se ail Pi Fog ah 2S Ar fs, ae BLO ag Re Aud 26) ge 3 _ & ao) 3 sa BR BSR E+) ga BBE n ia fx, A A < PRAIRIE SOILS. i (Brown. Silt, loam’. vee 7729 45.5 48.3 —2.8 784.2 dies 2 Brown silt loam passing into yellow clayey SUE ea chops eeccaleieenssterarene eed 25 —Aae 3 Yellow clayey silt with vi38 35.8 36.8 Bas oe WUE Be Ain parm Oa aoe 7731 0.2 0.0 0.2 04 0.2 4 Brown ‘silt loam:....... 1741 55.2 61.5 oe 39.70 10.6 5 Brown Bilt loam with MOME VV CHOW Wares meee, 7 TAI Te Ae sa) Cea al eee 10.7 6 Yellow clayey silt with Whee ee stad ee Paseo Pore tee eeeee 7743 ieee eRe ey | 49 ee rown Silt loam....... c .2 120 1.00 8 Brown silt loam with nee ee ae a some yellow.,....... 7766 87.7. +. 88.5 --4.2 DT 6o ee 9 Yellow clayey silt, more silty with depth..... 1767 42.5 41.5 -+-1.0 1.2005 Sasa 10 Black clay loam to dark DHOWAN.. ciel cca chee emerge 7840 66.3 65.8 +0.5 25 12.4 11 Drab to black clay loam 73841 66.0 64.5 +1.5 225. pleats 12 Yellow to brownish yel- low and drab clay... 7342 53.0 AB RAs 645 aes 138 Black clay loam with SOMCy SANG von eet 71825 58.0 55.7 +2.3 529) tere 14 Black clay loam, some gravel and sand..... 7826 49.5 500" ——0- 5 25> h2eu 15 Drab to olive colored Cla VEY MSIVEE as. aio cio 7827 45.3 43.5 +1.8 3324. gaa 16 Drab clay loam, dark.. 7843 60.0 59.0 -+1.0 1.00 10.0 17 Drab clay loam, lighter BG Oe SS cre torre renchate ane 7844 56.7 65.0 —8.3 68.90 10.2 18 Drab silty clay, pebbles ariel lame icine eee oe 7845 18.0 27.2 —9.2 84.64 10.5 19 Brown gray silt loam ON bisht Claywaniocen 7801 61.5 68.7 —7.2 51.84 9.3 20% OUAY Silt OAM ees. hace 7802 58.7 BB ot 00) Wc eers 8.9 21 Yellow to grayish clayey SUC were s mtieenelaig Pree 7803 Sled 37.0 +0.5 2p 4.7 22 Brown sandy loam..... 7849 66.3 67.2 —0.9 81 9.8 23 Brown sandy loam, Some qsangur ae ee 7850 56.8 53.5 +3.3 10.89 10.1 24 Yellow sand, some silt. 7851 45.8 42.5 13.3 10.89 4.2 TIMBER SOILS. 25 Yellow gray silt loam ON GETAVEL aie cor cust 7816 54.7 49.2 +5.5 30.25 12.0 26 Yellow silt loam....... 7817 46.0 43.0 +3.0 9 Q0\2 aia 27 Yellow clayey silt, some EUAN GLASS 2 others rin horas 7818 50.5 45.8 +4.7 22.09 =a 28 Yellow silt loam, brown- ish STavelly wouseenee 7858 70.5 68.5 +2.0 4.00 10.6 29 Yellow silt loam _ to yellow sandy loam.. 7859 63.8 66.8 —3.0 9.00 11.4 30 Yellow silt to gravelly Sandy silt (okies ees 7860 62.3 62.0 +0.3 09° ie 31 Yellow gray sandy loam, some brown... 7855 73.0 73.5 —0.5 -25 12.0 32 Yellow sandy loam, Ssomeweray. Goce oe 7856 68.7 73.2 —4.5 20.25 12.1 33 Yellow sand, little silt.. 7857 68.0 69.5 —1.5 2.20" tee PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS TABLE 2—Concluded. percent | Phosphorus Recovery > S$ 2a Description of soils. Ze $3 a0 = | ev bs ea sig & C& iad z AS (Se Sa ng gS «ess 24° 25 SA om sa St 3a n = = = 7 TERRACE SOILS. Brown sandy loam..... 7852 65.7 64.2 41.5 2.25 Brown sandy loam, vari- SS Tee ee See 7853 46.5 44.0 +2.5 6.25 Yellow sand, some SIAVEY SANE om 2 ene ve 7854 34.8 34.0 +0.8 -64 RIVER AND BOTTOM SOILS. Brown mixed loam..... 7861 48.5 50.0 —1.5 2.25 Brown mixed loam..... 7862 42.5 46.3 —3.8 14.44 Yellowish brown loam, Some =n .cSon% use 7863 54.9 54.0 +0.9 .81 Black decomposed peat, MICU Pact Soe ewe da es 7870 «=©102.0 101.0 +1.0 1.00 Hibek peat. 20. 2. Sac 7871 110.8 113.0 —2.2 4.84 Black to brown at, Grab clay at 30”... °787 66.8 70.0 —3.2 10.24 Algebraic sum ........ —15.6_ 451. Mean deviation........ ea /ED* /451 Standard deviation = /—— >= /— — .137 = 3.256 we v 37 Z = ratio of mean deviation to standard deviation = eee = 3.256 TABLE 3. Recovery of phosphorus from different phosphatic fertilizers ap- plied to Brown Silt Loam. In each case 4 mgs. of phosphorus was applied per 25 gms. of soil. SR ge ae SURE PETE. SEARS | vio. naein S's Ue LEE Te ee a il a ee $2 ee aE A eee POM PRONPMALE | .-0n0.cu.4bee's wos Aluminum Phosphate cE ei] ENOEDERALS ec. ww ccr se tees Steamed Bone-meal ..........-. Soret ae AMERICA rs cick wikis « PP eA ee wid saan. > wiew so added to it. Mgs. Phos- phorus bo bo bo bo DD DD DO bo DD DD OD extracted 35 12 = b! -16 -33 -23 Alkali required 321 tracted solution, per 10 c.c, ex- -113 Alkali re- quired per Percent 10 c.c. of Phosphorus extracted extracted solution 58.8 11.6 53.0 11.4 52.8 11.4 54.0 11.4 58.3 11.4 55.8 11.5 57.0 11.6 59.3 11.6 60.0 11.6 47.8 if-7 58.0 11.6 57.3 11.6 53.8 11.6 £127 12.7* *10 cc. of distilled water was used to wet the soil after fertilizer was added to 250 c.c. of acid before titration. In order to make the results comparable, 10 c.c. of water was 322 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE 4. Phosphorus extracted with distilled water and fifth normal nitric acid from different phosphatic fertilizers. 250 c.c. of either acid or water were used on fertilizer which contained per sample 4 mgs. of phosphorus. Water Soluble Fifth normal HNOz Soluble (Po Percent Percent Alkali Phos- Phos- required Megs. phorus Megs. phorus per 10 ce. Phos. ex- re- Phos. ex. re- extracted tracted covery tracted covery’ solution Tennessee rock phosphate... .08 2.0 3.94 98.6 13.0 Double acid phosphate...... 3.60 90.0 4.19 105.0 Tei) Dla ALM eiemienetads mate cheno oiher 0.0 0.0 3.89 97.3 1259 Ley tes teats atavarek amen cielo st aioroke .03 8 3.98 99.5 12.9 SAE CS ectar ted ote ein sbotenets wane 23 5.8 4.05 101.0 12.8 Sais SEI Na cen lh are mean etobone oh vheuake .06 aes) 4.02 100.5 12.8 Birmingham Slag oii asccss . .09 2.93 3.96 99.0 12.9 BUG ROCK ieee ies cee aac tecehccearehe .16 4.0 4.02 100.0 ple yaal AMLORIGA SOL EvOCK er.) acts 1a shel he 09 2.3 3.98 990 13.0 SAT ABIL ise dere ate, eroreeeieee OL 0.3 4.08 102.0 13.0 Tron PHOSPMALE, cictelchie c)eee ace me 3.8 3.72 93.0 13.1 Aluminum phosphate ...... 22 55 4.07 101.8 Tc ACO! PHOSPHATE secs alercte es orele 3.40 85.0 3.88 97.0 ae Steamed bone meal ........ .20 5.0 4.01 100.2 13.0 ACIDS ALONG iis hahevelore emeln stele stots te 13.1 TABLE 5. Recovery of phosphorus from 25 gms. of Brown Silt Loam and Brown Gray Silt Loam treated with 4 mgs. of phosphorus of either Tennessee Rock Phosphate or Double Acid Phosphate. Five consecu- tive extractions were made with fifth normal nitric acid. Brown Silt Loam Brown-gray Silt Loam —ouw—_ with with Double with with Double Rock Acid Rock Acid Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate First extraction in Mgs. P...... 1.86 a Mir) 3.02 3.10 Second id 5S “ A piars etek 47 . 46 ~25 24 Third ne ee oe caepatea iene 24 Spat .09 .10 Fourth es “ oe Saree ete alls 12 02 05 Fifth ee “ sj asec ate ele .09 .02 .00 01 Total fi if ai ry iovelevetale 2.79 2.56 3.38 3.50 Percent of phosphorus recovery IN USt OXthaGLION: sles iil svese sis 46.5 43.8 (0a) Tied Percent of phosphorus recovery in) all) fiverextractions: »..- 045. 69.8 64.0 84.5 87.5 PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 323 NOTES ON THE QUANTUM THEORY AND RELATIVITY Jakos Kunz, University or Inurois It has been shown by A. Sommerfeld that the fine structure of the lines of the Balmer series of the hydro- gen and helium spectrum can be explained by a simultan- eous application of the quantum theory and of relativity to the elliptic orbits of the electron revolving around the nucleus. The mass of the electron varies in its stationary elliptic motion according to the expression given by re- lativity, but during the jump of the electron from one stationary orbit to another one the mass is supposed to be constant in spite of the fact that this motion is ac- companied by radiation, i. e., by emission of energy, and that the emission of energy is accompanied by a loss of mass of the radiating system, according to the equation dE a —— om which holds in relativity as well as in classical electrody- namics if we assume an electromagnetic momentum in a beam of light. When the electron jumping from one orbit to another one loses energy A E= E, — E. = hv, hv then it should also lose mass A m—=—jin a discontinnu- (> ous process. These masses Am would be the smallest particles at present suggested by our theories. It is sur- prising that they do not make themselves felt in the theory of the fine structure of the helium and hydrogen lines, nor in the doublets of the Roentgen spectra, where they are of considerable magnitude. There is probably a compensation in the mass. A second remark is related to the previous one. The quantum theory and the theory of relativity seem to be at variance. The experimental basis of the quantum theory is much broader than that of the general theory of 324 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIBNCE relativity. It may be that between the quantum theory and the generalized phenomenological theory of the electromagnetic field there exists a relation similar to that between the kinetic theory of the gases and the phenomenological gas equation pyv=RT. What becomes of the four dimensional continuum of space and time if it has to be atomized or quantified? PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY ‘phe 2 < * 2 & 9h al PAPERS GN GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 327 THE ORIGIN OF THE CAHOKIA MOUNDS (ABSTRACT) Morazis M. Leicuton, Intrnors GeoLocicaL SuRVEY, URBANA During the recent explorations which have been car- ried on by Doctor W. K. Moorehead of Andover, Massa- chusetts, under the auspices of the University of Illinois, four widely scattered mounds of the Cahokia group, northeast of St. Louis, ranging in height from 10 to 35 feet, have been trenched and opportunity afforded for the study of their constitution, structure, and in one ease, their relations to the underlying materials of the allu- vial filling of the Mississippi Valley. The Illinois Geo- logical Survey was invited to make a geological examina- tion, resulting in the accumulation of evidence decisively favoring the artificial mode of origin of at least those mounds which have been opened and examined. This conclusion is re-enforced by the artificial form of the mounds, their orientation, their grouping, and their geologic setting. Monks Mound, the dominating unit of them all, has not as yet been trenched or tunneled, and hence a positive conclusion can not be drawn as to its origin; but the materials revealed by auger borings made by the writer on the summit and slopes of the mound and its artificiality of form are suggestive that at least a large part of it is due to the work of man. A full report of the geologic aspects of the Cahokia Mounds is now in press and will appear as Part II of a bulletin of the University of Illinois which treats of the explorations made up to and including the fall of 1922. 358° ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE USE OF MOLLUSCAN SHELLS BY THE CAHOKIA MOUND BUILDERS* Frank Cotuins Baker, Museum or Naturat History, University or ILLINoIs The use of the Mollusea by aboriginal man has received scant attention from students of the Mollusca. Stearns,’ many years ago, published a very able paper on the use of molluscan shells as primitive money, but the wide use of shells for many purposes has been noted almost exclu- sively by ethnologists. Figures and descriptions of these are scattered through the reports and bulletins of the Bu- reau of American Ethnology and in papers and reports by archeologists. One of the best summaries of the use of mollusean shells may be found in Moorehead’s Stone Age in America, pages 117-133. The excavation and study of the Cahokia group of mounds near Hast St. Louis, Illinois, carried on by Pro- fessor W. K. Moorehead under the auspices of the Uni- versity of Illinois, has given unusual opportunity to study the use of the Mollusca by the ancient Mound Builders, at least in this region. The mollusecan shells may be divided into two groups: those of marine origin and those gathered from near-by streams and ponds—fresh water shells. The latter may be considered first. FRESH WATER MOLLUSCA An examination of the region about the Cahokia Mounds indicates that there were numerous bodies of water as well as creeks (and the Mississippi River) from which mollusks could be obtained. The collection contains specimens from both creek and river, as well as a few from ponds and swales. * Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Illi- nois, No. 31 1. Ethno-Conchology: A Study of Primitive Money. By R. E. C. Stearns. An. Rep. Smithsonian Institute, 1887, Part II, page 297. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY - 329 MUSSEL SHELLS PROBABLY OBTAINED MAINLY FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.) Spike or Lady-finger. Com- mon. A fine specimen of this shell, which had been made into a nose or ear ornament, was found at a depth of 20 feet in the James Ramey Mound. The purple nacre of the interior was beautifully preserved. Proptera alata megaptera Raf. Pink Heel-splitter. An effigy representing a human head was found in the Sawmill Mound (a burial structure) made from a piece of this shell. A gorget or ornament of peculiar design made from this species was found in burial mounds 19, 20, 21 (overlapping mounds). This species was not common. Megalonmas gigantea (Barnes) Washboard. A me- dium sized specimen from the James Ramey Mound had been made into a shell hoe. Very rare. Fragments be- lieved to be of this species were found mixed with deer bones. Amblema costata Raf. Three-ridge. Found in all mounds, common. One specimen from James Ramey Mound made into a hoe. Amblema peruviana (Lam.) Blue-point. Rare. Quadrula quadrula Raf. Maple-leaf. Common. Quadrula cylindrcia (Say.) Rabbit’s-foot. Rare. Cyclonaias tuberculata (Raf.) A specimen (broken) from mounds 19, 20, 21, had been used as a hoe. Rare. Truncila truncata Raf. Deer-toe. Rare. Found at depth of 21 feet in James Ramey Mound near the bottom of the structure. Lampsilis fallaciosa (Smith) Simpson. Slough Sand Shell. Rare. Lampsilis anondontoides (Lea). Yellow Sand Shell. Not common. Lampsilis siliquoidea (Barnes). Fat Mucket. Not com- mon. Lampsilis ovata (Say). Pocket-book Mussel. Rare. A specimen from the cemetery at Pittsburg Lake, south of the Cahokia group, had been used as an ornament, sev- eral holes being drilled in the side. 330 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Lampsilis ventricosa (Barnes). Pocket-book Mussel. Specimens of this mussel were common in all mounds and fragments occurred in village site debris. Two specimens from Pittsburg Lake cemetery had been variously cut along the anterior margin. It is thought that these were used as scoops or spoons. Ligumia recta latissima (Raf.) Black Sand Shell. Rare. SNAIL SHELLS Anculosa praerosa (Say). River Snail. This snail was used largely for beads. The side was ground until a perforation was made into the cavity of the body whirl and the shells could then be strung on threads or cords through this hole and the natural open- ing at the aperture. Shells thus prepared were common in the James Ramey Mound at. various depths and also in other mounds. Campeloma subsolidum (Anthony). Large River Snail. This shell, which in life has a beautiful green epider- mis, was also esteemed by the mound builders and used as beads in the same manner as Anculosa described above. These shells occurred in the mounds and in the village site material. Campeloma ponderosum (Say). Heavy River snail. Rare. Two specimens were found in the James Ramey Mound. Pleuwrocera acuta Raf. A few specimens of these slender river snails were found in the James Ramey Mound. Their practical use is not indicated by marks on the shells. Near the bottom (21 feet depth) of the James Ramey Mound, as well as in other mounds, a number of fresh water shells were found which evidently were not used by the aborigines for ornamentation or domestic use but were included when the mound was built. If the material from which the mounds were built was in part taken from the border or bottom of ponds which were dry in summer but contained water in the winter and spring, such mollusks as here indicated would be included. They occur abundantly in such locations in all parts of Illinois. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 331 It is possible also that this depth (21 feet) marked the base-of the mound and these shells may have lived in a swale on the original site of the mound. Three species were found, as follows: Physa gyrina Say, Planorbis tri- volvis Say, Lymnaea reflera Say. One specimen of Plan- orbis trivolvis was found in the upper eight feet of the mound. This must have been contained in the material used in erecting the mound. Professor M. M. Leighton collected several shells from other mounds during his geological examination of this region. These are noted below. Planorbis trivolvis Say, Segmentina armigera (Say), Lymnaea palustris (Miull.) (fresh water shells) : Helicodiscus parallelus (Say), land shell. From Sam Chiucallo’s Mound, on outskirts of East St. Louis, Ill. These probably were included in building material. Physa gyrina Say, Vivipara contectoides W.G.B., An- odonta grandis Say. Fresh water snails and paper shell clam from the Kunnemann Mound. These probably were included in building material. Nineteen species of fresh water shells are listed above as occurring in the mounds and as being used by the Indians for some purpose. Seven additional species probably were included in building material. The first mentioned species doubtless were used largely as food, for the ancient aboriginee, like his more modern descend- ant, probably esteemed this bivalve as a valuable part of his menu. The curious and brightly colored shells of the clams and the form of the snails doubtless attracted his attention and suggested ways in which they could be used for practical use as well as for bodily ornamentation. The shell gorgets and effigies also indicate that the large flat surface of some of the mussels created an art impulse which is reflected in these curious objects. MARINE MOLLUSCA That the Mound Builders and other aboriginal inhabit- ants of America were traders is evidenced by the pres- ence of many marine shells which evidently came from the west coast of Florida or from the Gulf coast of the 332 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE southern states. That certain of these mollusks were highly esteemed is shown by the number of fragments and finished objects made from at least one of these marine snails. It is probable that the canoes of the more south- ern tribes ascended the Mississippi River and barter was carried on between them and the Cahokia Indians. Busycon perversa (Linn.). Marine Conch. This mollusk, so common on the Gulf and Atlantic coast of the United States, is the most abundant snail in the Cahokia Mounds. Hundreds of specimens of the heavy axis occurred in the James Ramey Mound from top to bottom. This part evidently was used to make a drill, and it may also have been used for ornamental purposes. Beads, nose and ear ornaments, and gorgets were made from parts of this shell. A dipper made from the body _ whorl of this species was found in burial mounds 19, 20, 21. A gorget made from the side of the body whorl was found in the Sawmill Mound with skeleton No. 10. Busycon carica (Gmelin). Marine Conch. Two speci- mens of this species were found in the James Ramey Mound. Busycon pyrum (Dillwyn). Marine Conch. One speci- men of this small conch was found in the James Ramey Mound. Strombus pugilis alatus Gmelin. Stromb Conch. One perfect specimen and a fragment of this species were found in the James Ramey Mound. Used as nose or ear — ornament. Fasciolaria gigantea Kiener. A portion of the axis of this largest of American marine snails was found in the James Ramey Mound. Fasciolaria distans Lamarck.

CO, COW co, *Cf., for the use of this idea of polar valence in organic compounds, Stieglitz, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 44, 1293 (1922), and earlier papers; and Lewis, Me oe the Structure of atoms and Molecules (1923), particularly pp. an F ? Nef, Ann. 308, 329 (1899); Howell with Noyes, J. Am. Chem. Soe. 4, 991 (1920) ; Macbeth and others, J. Chem. Soc. 119, 1356 (1921); 121, 892, JO4 1109 = tate (1 s22y. 3 Nicolet, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 48, 2081 (1921). *#Am, Chem. J. 42, 453 (1909). eS a ee PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 119 | One notes that (a) an iodine has been removed, and replaced by hydrogen; and (b) the iodine thus removed retains the power of resubstituting in the bezene ring, a power which negative iodine does not have. . Lt os = aA r cs, =: =a PBA REG = . lie TN 2 i Seana ost 7s : : : : ~arhen tio 2 Sure ; = / | Leganthimic Scale Se eal Be TT) iso 260 300 400 500 = 35 Free CO, p-p-m. 128 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE MOLECULAR SPECTRUM OF AMMONIA B. J. Spence, NortHWESTERN UNIVERSITY PRetIMInary Report A number of years ago it was found that hydrogen chloride showed a double branched absorption band at a wavelength of approximately 45,000 A. U. This wave- length is found in the near infra-red spectrum. The bands were accounted for by Bjerrum (Nernst Fest- sehrift, 1911) assuming that the diatomic molecule ro- tated about a line at right angles to the line joining the atomic centers and that the atomic centers vibrated along the line joining them. Such a system of molecules will absorb energy from a beam of radiation passing through them corresponding to the frequency of rotation and also the frequency of the combined frequencies of rota- tion and vibration. The double branched band will have frequencies corresponding to fy + f,, where fy is the fre- quency of vibration of the molecule and f; is the fre- quency of rotation. Later experiments revealed the fact that the double branched band was not simple but made up of a number of fine bands. Bjerrum modified his theory involving the quantum theory. His theory was not altogether satis- factory, and later Lenz (Verh. d. D. Phys. Ges. 31, 632, 1919) following the idea of the stationary state of Bohr in his atomic theory arrived at a more satisfactory ex- pression for the wavelength of these bands. The Lenz theory assumes that the molecules exist in a series of stationary states in regard to rotation and vibration, and that energy is emitted or absorbed during a transi- tion between stationary states. Lenz’s expression for the frequency of the emitted or absorbed radiation is h mh igh 8n71 477] where f and f, are the frequencies of the absorbed radia- tion and the atomic vibration frequency respectively, h is the Planck constant, I the moment of inertia of the molecule and m and n are small integers characterizing tia PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 129 = stationary states of rotation and vibration respective- y: 7 The interpretation of the above expression is interest- ing. When the molecule is in the state characterized by the quantum numbers n = m — QO, it has no energy of vi- bration and of rotation. When a change occurs during absorption of energy such that n =m =1, the frequency of the absorbed radiation is given by f= f,-- -— 8n71 So far this so called zero branch of the curve has never been observed, as far as the writer is aware. If the. molecule is in the stationary state characterized by n=O, and m = 1; then a transition to n—=1, and m= 2 gives rise to an absorbed radiation of frequency ‘ h h f=—f,+ ne Sel 4r2l This expression indicates two bands, one on each side of the above zero branch. If now we allow the change from n=O ton=—1, and m—2 to m=3, and so on, we have a series of equidistant bands which approximate the ex- perimental values fairly well. Experimentally these bands are not equidistant. The above theory was de- veloped assuming an independence of m and n, or that the moment of inertia of the molecule is independent of the angular velocity. By making the necessary modifi- eations with this point in mind an extremely satisfactory theory is developed which accounts for the facts very well. The above theory was developed for the diatomic mole- cule. No theory exists for the polyatomic molecule. However, double branched absorption bands with the fine structure have been observed for polyatomic molecules. Their characteristics are, in the main, similar to those of the diatomic molecule. In an investigation to bring to light other examples of these double branched absorption bands it was found that ammonia gas showed a serrated double band with a zero branch at 30,000 A. U. The investigation was car- ried on with an infra-red grating spectrometer, using a 130 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE radiometer as the receiving instrument. The grating was one of 2500 lines per inch and had a ruled surface 2x2 inches. A cell 10 em. long with mica windows was so arranged before the slit of the spectrometer that it could be moved in or out of the beam of light brought to focus on the slit. Such an arrangement made it possible ~ | to determine the per cent absorption. The bands as. ob- served for ammonia are not equally spaced, the wave- length interval between them increasing from about 140 _ A. U. on the short wave side of the band to 200 A. U. on the long wave side. In addition to the system of narrow bands a deep band was found at 299,000 A. U. which cor- responds to the transition of n-—m—Oton=m=1 as indicated above. This appears to be the first substance found to show the zero branch of the double absorption. band. Hight of the narrow bands were found on each | side the zero branch. Inasmuch as the grating used in the investigation was a 2500 line per inch grating it did not have sufficient resolving power to make accurate quantitative determinations possible. It is planned to examine these bands under larger resolving power. The frequency difference between the narrow —— is given from the expression of Lenz as h di = An?] From this expression it is possible to get an ostimenn of the moment of inertia of the ammonia molecule. Substi- tuting wavelengths in the expression and solving for I we have h)? 1c An?cd) where ¢ is the velocity of light, ) the wavelength of a band and dd the difference of wavelengths between two - bands. Making the substitutions, we find 2.8x10~° gm. cm?’ as the moment of inertia oe the ammonia mole- cule. Northwestern University May 4, 1924: PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 131 A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF METALS IN CONTACT WITH SOLUTIONS OF SILVER HALIDES IN VARIOUS SOLVENTS J. H. Ransom anp D. W. Hanson, James Muaikin UNIVERSITY PRELIMINARY PAPER During the performance of an experiment by a class of students large quantities of a very dilute solution of silver salts were produced, from which, both for eco- _ nomic reasons and for its efféct on the student, it was desired to recover the silver. It occurred to one of the authors that the easiest and most direct way to recover _. the silver was to convert it into chloride, dissolve this in some solvent like ammonia, and precipitate the silver | _ by treatment with some metal like iron or zine. Whether metals would precipitate silver from such solutions was _ not known and a search through the available literature _ did not indicate that the experiment had ever been tried. When silver chloride is dissolved in ammonia it is be- heved that a complex positive ion results which contains both silver and ammonia, Ag(NH;).. Since more than the equivalent amount of ammonia is necessary to pro- duce solution it is probable that this positive ion is in equilibrium with the silver ion, the concentration of the latter ion decreasing with the increase in concentration of free ammonia. In any such solution, however, there might be enough silver ions so that in contact with metals whose solution tension was greater than that of __ silver ions the latter might be discharged and the silver deposited. A preliminary trial with such a solution gave a gray powder appearing somewhat metallic. The solutions of silver salts, left over from the stud- _ ents’ experiment, were collected and the silver precipi- tated by an excess of hydrochloric acid. After washing _ . the silver chloride it was dissolved in rather concen- _ trated ammonia, making a nearly saturated solution. _ To this was added granulated zine. Almost immediately _ the gray deposit formed, together with some gas, prob- ably hydrogen, and towards the end of the experiment Pye) 6 os there were formed beautiful silver-white metallic erys- tals. Much of the gray powder was rather soft and malleable and when rubbed gave a metallic luster. Al- ways there was a larger or smaller amount insoluble in dilute nitric acid, and this appeared to be silver chloride which had been affected by light. After some hours only the smallest traces of aS chloride remained in the solution. These results were so encouraging that it was felt to be worth while to study the effect of various metals on solutions of the halides of silver, not only in ammonia solutions but in other solvents, especially in the ‘‘hypo’’ of the photographer. It is known that large quantities of the spent ‘‘hypo’’ liquors are discarded without the recovery of the silver contained in them, thus involving | a great economic loss of silver as well as of ‘‘hypo’’. While a method is in use for the recovery of the silver - it is felt by some photographers that it is more trouble — than it is worth and the use of the recovered ‘‘hypo’’, if such it is, is not undertaken because of its possible in- - jurious effect on the pictures. ) When the silver halides, silver bromide especially, is dissolved in ‘‘hypo’’, sodium silver thiosulphate is formed. The solution may contain silver ions and the fact, as we show in this paper, that metals cause a de- position of the silver in a very pure condition is eyi- dence that such is the case. At this point the investigation was taken up by the junior author. The results, while only of a preliminary nature, are interesting, and we hope to extend the scope of the work at an early date. After most of the results, here reported, were seas there appeared in pipet Abstracts, page 1094, (April, 1924) an abstract of an article in Cherhische Zeitung by A. Steigmann, describing ‘‘A New Method of Precipi- tating Silver and Gold.’’ In his method the solution of silver halide in ‘‘hypo’’ is treated with sodium hypo- sulphite Na.S.O., in the presence of soda which reacts with the sulphur dioxide produced during the chemical action. The abstract states that the fixing bath can be regenerated five or six times, but he recommends only 132 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE - PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 133 Haiece times. Since the hyposulphite is usually made by reduction of the sulphite with zinc, and since soda must be used to neutralize the sulphur dinaale which is con- verted into sulphite and this in acid solution, in which the ‘‘hypo”’ is always used, produces sulphur dioxide _ which might act in an injurious way upon the picture, it - seems a more direct and better method to use the zine - directly with the ‘‘hypo”’ in recovering the silver. This _ would be especially true if, as seems evident from our - results, the hypo is as good and safe a fixing agent after treatment with the zine as when freshly made. _ In order to study in a more nearly quantitative way the action of several metals on solutions of silver chlo- _ ride in ammonia, a nearly saturated solution of the chlo- _ ride was made and one-half of it was diluted with an _ equal volume of distilled water. In separate portions _ of both the concentrated and dilute solutions were placed = weighed amounts of the metals, zinc, aluminum, copper and iron and then these were kept in a dark room until all the silver had been precipitated. Before the metals _ were introduced their surfaces were well cleaned. With all the metals except iron precipitation of silver began at once and all the silver had left the solution within twenty- _ four hours (the first. test was made at the end of this time). In the case of iron in the dilute solution the action had started only slightly at the end of the first hour and was complete only after forty-eight hours. In the concentrated solution the iron remained perfectly bright for the first day, and not a trace of silver had de- posited. On being brought into the light, however, ac- tion began within fifteen minutes and seemed to con- tinue after it had been replaced in a dark room. When the action had become complete the metals were re- moved, cleaned and weighed, and the precipitate treated with quite dilute nitric anak: In the case of zine quite a large amount of material was not dissolved in the acid _ and appeared like darkened silver chloride. With the other metals only a trace of material was found to be msoluble. In the case of zine it was found that 54% more went into solution than was equivalent to the silver formed. . This might be anticipated from the fact that 134 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE water acts slowly on zine to form the hydroxide. In the ease of the other metals the excess loss was not deter- mined. Since the recovery of silver. from ‘‘hypo’’ fixing baths © is of commercial importance, most of the time was spent . in its study. For this purpose a spent ‘‘hypo”’ solution was obtained from a local photographer. Before using this solution, however, preliminary experiments were performed with a fairly concentrated solution of silver chloride in sodium thiosulphate solution. The method used followed very closely that with ammonia solutions, using the same metals. With all of the metals it was found that the precipitation of silver began very slowly, only after two or more hours, and that it proceeded regu- larly to completion. With iron the end was reached only after forty-eight hours, but with the others twenty- four were all that was needed. Only slight traces of the precipitate were insoluble in dilute nitric acid. In the case of copper the silver deposited as a smooth layer upon the surface of the copper sheets; with the other ~ metals the silver deposited very smoothly on the glass walls of the containing vessels, forming a mirror more or less perfect. After this preliminary experiment a liter of the spent liquor, mentioned above, was treated with small rectan- gular chunks of pure zine lying at the bottom of the flask. The silver slowly deposited as a mirror on the walls. About four grams of silver were deposited for three grams of zine disappearing into the solution. This is far less silver than is theoretically possible (3.3 :1), but by using a larger surface of zine suspended in the solu- tion and by stirring the solution it is believed the amount might be increased nearly to the theoretical. After the silver had become completely precipitated from the spent liquor a part of it was treated with sod- ium carbonate to separate the carbonate of zine. After filtration of the carbonate it was found that the slightly acidified solution (with acetic acid) dissolved 62 grams of silver chloride per liter. The part of the silver-free solution from which the zine had not been removed was. found to dissolve 70 grams of silver chloride per liter. ce es - PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 135 - This would indicate that the zine salt in the solution had - no injurious effect on the solubility of the silver halides, but rather improved it slightly, In order to test the qualities of the treated ‘‘hypo’’ as 3 a fixing agent the solution from which the zine had been Temoved as well as that containing this metal was sub- mitted to an expert student photographer for use in his fixing bath. He reported that both solutions worked in a perfectly normal manner, and that he could observe no decrease in efficiency as compared with the ordinary solution and no difference in the quality of the product. It is planned to continue the investigation along sev- eral related lines and to the end of making the process a commercial success. 136 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHOTO- CHEMISTRY W. Avpert Novss, Jr., UNiveRsity or CHICAGO The advent of the quantum theory has givenus ameans of applying some of the principles of thermodynamics to photochemical reactions. According to this theory; the energy of frequency v incident upon a given system is necessarily some multiple of an energy unit, hv. The Bohr theory of atomic structure has successfully applied this idea to the spectrum lines of hydrogen and to X-ray data. According to this theory there are several pos- sible ‘‘energy states’’ or ‘‘stationary states’’ for an atom. When the atom is in its normal state it does not radiate energy, but if energy is added to the atomic sys- tem either by electron impact or by radiation, the total energy of the system is now greater than for the normal atom by a definite amount. This energy may be repre- sented by E. If now the atom returns to its original energy state, light of frequency given by the simple equation H=—hv is radiated, where h is Planck’s con- stant. 7 Several attempts have been made to apply the ideas © of the quantum theory to photochemical processes. Ejin- . stein’ has derived a photochemical equivalence law, which, briefly stated, equates the radiant energy neces- sary to cause a mol of substance to react to the heat of reaction AH = Nhv In the case of a system A’ capable of changing by the action of radiation of frequency v into a system A’, radiation of frequency v’ being re-emitted in the process according to the scheme A + hv — A’ + hv’ ‘then the heat of reaction would be given by the. expres- s1on AH = Nh(v—v’) It should be noted that radiation of frequency v’ would cause the reverse reaction to take place if it were al- lowed to act on the system A’. 1 Einstein, Annalen der Physik, 87, 832 (1912). ' : ‘PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 137 ~ One other important attempt has been made to apply - the quantum hypothesis to photochemical processes. Per- rin? has proposed a theory which has been discussed in _ detail and modified to a certain extent by Tolman®. The - classical 22 Sates equation dink E dT BT? connects the constant in the equation for a monomole- cular reaction dx —— = k(A—x) dt with a quantity E which has the dimensions of energy. Perrin states that this term represents an energy of “‘activation’’, and writes H= Nhv. Thus a molecule might absorb an amount of energy hv and subsequently either decompose or return to its original state. This formula has been applied to the decomposition of nitro- gen pentoxide with great care by Daniels and Johnston‘ and roughly to the decomposition of solid oxalie acid’. In neither of these cases was the formula found to agree with the experimental facts. It is obvious, of course, that an idea such as that pro- posed by Pes could at best hold true in an ideal case. For the ordinary photographic action of light on the silver halides all wave lengths of light seem to be active from the .red end of the spectrum to hard X-rays, a fact which could not be explained by Perrin’s hy pothesis : Berthelot® has suggested that the effect of radiation would increase with increase in frequency according to an exponential law, in much the same manner that the rates of thermal reactions increase with the tempera- ture. In the case of the decomposition of a crystalline body by the action of radiation, it would seem that Per-. rin’s formula should fail for the following reasons’: a molecule in a crystal lattice is held to the other mole- ? Perrin, Annales de Physique, 11, 5 (1919). 2 Tolman, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 42, 2506 (1920); 45; wee el * Daniels and Johnston, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 48, WZ. (1921). ®' Noyes and Kouperman, ibid., 45, 1398 (1923). * Berthelot, Bull. de la Soc. chimique, $5, 241 (1924). This article sums up mony of Berthelot’s views ™ Noyes, Comptes Rendus, 176, 1468 (1923). 138 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cules in the lattice by definite forces. A certain amount of energy must be added, therefore, in addition to the - energy necessary to decompose a given molecule, in order to separate it from its fellows. Moreover, if pres- ent ideas of molecular structure are accepted, the action of light may be to set up vibrations of the atoms with reference to each other, or to cause a separation to a given distance of an electron. According to Perrin’s theory the molecule would either decompose or return to its initial state. It would seem that the probability of decomposition would depend on the extent of the separation. Bearing this in mind, a formula analagous to that for the photoelectric effect would be obtained in which the rate of reaction is a linear function of the frequency dx —— = kIT h(v—w) dt In this formula the rate is assumed to be proportional to the intensity of the radiation, I, in the same manner as in most of the other theories. The most general fallacy in reasoning connected with photochemical processes seems to be in making the as- sumption that one general theory can be found which will account for all reactions affected by radiation. It is well known that a catalyst will not cause a reaction to take place unless the reaction has a tendency to take place without the cataly st. In other words if a reaction leads to a decrease in free energy, as in the combination of hydrogen and nitrogen to form ammonia, a proper catalyst should greatly increase the rate of reaction, even though the rate of reaction is immeasurably slow under ordinary conditions. On the other hand if a re- action involves an increase in free energy, as in the com- bination of nitrogen and oxygen to form nitrogen diox- ide, the mere ‘use of a catalyst will not cause the reac- tion to take place. In the case of photochemical react- ions, it seems that a similar distinction should be made. Bodenstein® has classified photochemical reactions as 8 Bodenstein, Zeit. phys. Chem., 85, 333 (1913). For a good summary see Lind, The Chemical Effects of Alpha Particles and Electrons, The Chemical Catalog Company, 1921 PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 139 either ‘‘primary’’ or ‘‘secondary’’. For ‘‘primary’’ light reactions the number of molecules reacting per quantum absorbed is either one or some small number. In this series of reactions the free energy change is either positive or very slightly negative (See Table I) for those reactions for which the free energy change is known. It seems probable that this could be stated as a general law. TABLE I. Primary Light Reactions (Bodenstein) : - AF°,., —= —630 3 O, = 2 0, ae —= +64800 + 7820 ; + 109014 Si! Sp ~ —1 (?) In the case of ik sadary ’? light reactions, one quantum causes a large number of molecules to react. These reactions are almost always those which involve a large decrease in-free energy, and the light seems more to Me the role of a catalyst. im TABLE II. Secondary Light Reactions (Bodenstein) Phe eR = 2 FGI > AF°oog == — 45384. 2 O, = 3 0. : = — 64800 S7F@, =o He ake: = — 56660 eo eloes oF Pans @ 6 et Bes: 1G G0 It would seem safe to predict, then, that only those re- actions which involve a slight negative or a positive free energy change will follow a photochemical equivalence law. For the other reactions light seems to be capable of starting a chain process which continues until it comes to an accidental end. As Nernst® has pointed out an ‘‘aeceptor’’ which neither multiplies nor diminishes the products of the primary reaction, but transforms them directly into the equivalent quantity of finally measured product should give rise to a reaction which obeys the photochemical equivalence law. This point has been studied by Pusch’’, who studied the action of bromine on ®° Nernst, Zeit. Elektrochem., 24, 335 (1918). 10 Pusch, ibid., 24, 336 (1918). 140 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE hydrogen, heptane, hexane, toluene and hexahydro-ben- zene under the influence of light. The first took place much less than was predicted by theory, several quanta being required to cause one molecule to react; the next three took place more than was predicted by theory and © hexahydrobenzene reacted according to theory. Since the free energy changes in organic reactions are little known, it is impossible to correlate these results with the rule enounced above. | os The action of light on the hydrogen-chlorine reaction has formed the subject of many studies. As a result, it is impossible to state at present what the function of the light really is. Stark™ suggests that the action of light is to loosen the valence electrons. It is impossible to— make any generalization of this sort, and it is probable that the action in the hydrogen-chlorine reaction is not connected with the valence electrons as such but with the molecule as a whole. In some recent experiments” it has been shown fairly conclusively that a mereury surface which-has been acted on by wave lengths below the pho- — toelectric threshhold reacts more readily with nitrogen dioxide and with oxygen than an unactivated mer- cury surface. Since fields which would tend to hinder the elimination of electrons from the surface caused the . speed of the reaction to become normal, it seemed that the emission of the electrons was the deciding factor. A large number of molecules of HgO were formed for each electron emitted, and since the free energy change is negative, this reaction should be classified as a ‘‘second- ary’’ light reaction. In conclusion, it seems that the field of photochemistry is in a rather unsatisfactory state from a theoretical standpoint. Much work is being done on synthesis of or- ganic compounds, especially those compounds formed in plants by the action of sunlight and of certain carbohy- drates from formaldehyde, and these reactions may lead to very important conclusions from the standpoint of the biologist. ; 11 Stark, Atomdynamik, Leipzig, 1911, Vol. II, p. 207. 122 Moore and Noyes, to appear in the June number of the Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 141 A LABORATORY EXPERIMENT FOR TESTING THE EFFICIENCY OF A SCREW JACK A. P. Carmen anv R. F. Paton, Untversiry or ILuinois Our object in devising this experiment has been to get a feasible quantitative college experiment which would fix the principle of work and the concept of efficiency of amachine. We chose as the machine a small screw jack, the particular jack being an inexpensive one used to lift light weight automobiles. The apparatus is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The hand lever was removed from the gear Fig. 1 Fig. 2 wheel of the jack and a disk was substituted. The ‘‘nower’’ force is applied as a weight hung by a wire cord which is wound in a groove on the periphery of the disk. This applies a moment of force to the small gear wheel 142 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE which acts in turn on the gear turning the screw on the jack. The ‘‘weight’’ force which is overcome consists of a number of large iron weights hung on the end of a lever. The fulcrum of this lever is at the opposite end of the bar and the ‘‘power’’ force on the lever is the force exerted by the jack. .The lever as constructed by us consists of an oak beam 1.5 inches thick, about 4 inches wide and about 70 inches long. The upper end of the jack screw was fitted with a wedge-shaped piece and this rests on an iron plate screwed on the lower part of the oak beam. The point of application of this ‘‘power’’ force can thus be shifted along the lever bar. This point of application will not in general be under the center of gravity of the lever bar so that the work done in raising the center of gravity must be taken into account in the final caleula- tions of the efficiency of the machine. The following is a sample set of readings made with this apparatus. WELZIE. Of TVG de. ere oie Loser Merk aral chovals lesa be dst w taco rin otonare teks Se none 6490 grams DITCH OLASELEW: 2/5) Me eye ceo Pos RI ese ne et nace .847 cm distance: of = filer) tO! jae PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 159 determined. Now oxidation is based on the ability to lose electrons so that whether it will take place in a given case can be predetermined by referring to the electro- motive series which lists metals in the order of their ability to lose electrons. Helium is an element which forms no compounds. The chemist would say that this is because it is inactive, but the physical chemist has gone much farther when he ex- plains it as due to the inability of helium to lose electrons and thus gain a positive valence, while the phenomenon is entirely accounted for by the sub-atomic physicist who says that the helium atom is composed of a positive neu- cleus and negative electrons which swing in an orbit which is in perfect equilibrium, so that there is no ten- dency for an electron to leave it. Probably the most obvious contribution of physics to chemistry is in apparatus embodying physical principles. Whenever chemical changes or properties are not direct- ly observable by the senses, the physical instrument is a necessary medium. When the hands cannot detect heat we use a thermometer; when the eyes cannot perceive the arrangement of the atoms within a crystal, we use X-ray diffractions to interpret this arrangement. The spectroscope is a true product of the inter-relation of physics and chemistry, first because it was the out- come of joint research by a physicist, Kirchoff, and a chemist, Bunsen, working together in the same labor- atory, and second because it has found application in both fields. To illustrate, Bunsen applied it to the analy- sis of water of certain springs and thereby discovered two new elements, caesium and rubidium. In the hands of Kirchoff it explained the dark lines in the sun’s spec- trum as being due to absorption, and as a result it became the means of determining the composition of other plan- ets. Another physical instrument of value to the chemist. is the polarimeter. This apparatus is used for measuring the degree which an optically active substance will rotate the plane of polarized light. Its importance to chemis- try came when it was found that some substances with 160 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the same formula, which had hitherto been considered identical, differed in their effect on polarized light. For example, lactic acid from beef extract rotated the plane to the right, being dextro-rotatory ; lactic acid from the fermentation of milk sugar, with a certain ferment, was levo-rotatory, while the synthesized. product was in- active. The chemist usually explains such isomers by a difference in arrangement of the atoms, but in the case of lactic acid only one structure could be conceived, un- less, as Van’t Hoff suggested, spatial relations were con- sidered. So the immediate importance of: the polari- meter was the incentive to study organic structure. The inactive lactic acid referred to was found to be a mixture of the dextro and levo forms, so that the problem arose of separating them. In most cases the chemical and physical properties of two optically active isomers are the same except in their effect on polarized ight, and so the usual method of separation based on differences of properties was difficult to apply. But here biology made an important contribution in the form of ‘certain bacteria, which, when introduced into the mixture, would destroy one and leave the other. These living cells se- crete complex proteins called enzymes which catalyze or- ganic decomposition in order to use the energy liberated. Now in accordance with laws of evolution each organ- ism will be provided with the enzyme which can attack the substances it finds in its environment, and conse- quently one which will be indifferent to most other sub- stances. The mould penicillum glaucum is thus capable of destroying levo-lactic acid but is indifferent to the dextro-form, so that when it is introduced into the mix- ture, it will leave only the latter acid. Aside from this practical value the study of enzyme catalysis is of the greatest importance in biological chem- istry. The value of a compound as a food is largely de- pendent upon its ability to undergo decomposition, and since these decompositions are brought about in many cases only through the agency of certain enzymes, the question of food value becomes largely one of whether the necessary enzyme is present. The enzyme’s selection of compounds has been shown to be according to the PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 161 stereochemical structure of the molecule, and so one of nature’s most fundamental. processes, that of digestion and metabolism, may be quite as much chemical as bio- logical. : Other complex problems of biology ean often be simpli- fied by resolving them into their physical and chemical components. Professor Lillie has shown that nerve cur- rents, the biological basis of psychology, are essentially electrical and chemical in nature. Also, Sir Wm. Bate- son, an eminent authority on evolution, believes that all its theories must be in accordance with facts of physics and chemistry. It is from this point of view that muta- tion, the act of differing from parent to offspring, has been resolved into problems of these two departments. Crystallization, diffusion, electric or magnetic lines of force, and harmonic vibration are factors which make for similarity between organisms from the same source; so that to find conditions which would modify these factors is to form a basis for the explanation of mutation. The contribution of physics has been such conditions as tem- perature and pressure, while the chemist has been study- ing the effect of colloids on erystallization, all of which show that mutation is not as obscure a process as it ap- pears on the surface. The biological discovery of insulin as a eure for dia- betes had little practical value until the chemist had worked out a method of preparing it in quantity. The biological method was to extract it from the pancreas of a dog, by first destroying the pancreatic juices in order that they would not digest the insulin. Since this proc- — ess required six months it was impractical, and the prob- lem was turned over to chemists. After a year of re- search they were able to prepare it from the sweetbreads of cattle so that now the industry is able to supply the 18,000 people in the U. S. who take insulin daily. The function of insulin is to destroy the excess sugar in the blood, and the amount administered must be exactly in proportion to this excess, for an overdose of insulin is harmful to the patient. The difficulty is that in a given dose the amount of pure insulin is not known, so that its strength has to be determined by injecting it into a 162 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE rabbit and measuring the amount of sugar destroyed. The present problem of the chemist is to prepare a com- pound of such purity that its strength will be known directly, thus eliminating the trial and error method. — We have thus shown how each science is dependent upon the others. It may have become evident that when- ever one science has contributed to another, the contribu- tion comes back much more useful to its original depart- ment. The chemist borrowed the electron theory from the physicist, developed it as an explanation of oxidation, then returned it to the physicist much more valuable be- cause now he could use it in explaining the Voltaic cell and the storage battery. In the same way the spectrum came back to the physicist in the form of the spectro- scope which he could use in explaining the dark line spec- - trum of the sun and in determining the composition of other stars. The biologist’s knowledge of enzymes was greatly increased by loaning them out to the chemist for use in stereochemistry. Biological methods could never have found that the ferment’s choice of foods depends upon so insignificant a thing as the interchange of a few hydrogen and hydroxyl groups. It is such illustrations as these which show that if the inter-relation of the sciences is put to practical use, as is being done in the border-line sciences, it will lead to a greater exhaustiveness and accuracy im scientific re- search. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 165 THE AIM IN TEACHING FOREIGN GEOGRAPHY Herman T. Lukens, Francis W. Parker ScHoo., CHICAGO Traveling is likely in the future to become increas- ingly frequent, as governments will cease to hinder and will begin to recognize that it is to the public interest for more people to meet and mingle with those of other nations. Seeing this, the authorities will begin to aid travelers to remove natural obstacles, instead of putting artificial ones in our way. The greatest need for all travelers is knowledge of every kind. He who knows the most before he starts will learn the most on the way. Over the door of the Union Station in Washington is this inscription: ‘‘He -who would obtain the wealth of the Indies must carry it with him to the Indies.’’ 2. The study of foreign peoples should develop the appreciation of the real brotherhood of mankind, our mutual interests, and our true interdependence. 3. The course should make plain and rather dwell upon points in which other peoples excel our own. There should be much comparison of natural resources, cli- mate, and manufactures. Our geographies make the United States too much the center of the world and mini- mize the relative importance of other countries. It does us good, therefore, to get hold of a British atlas, or to refer to a Japanese chart, or a German guide book, or a French or Dutch colonial publication with a different world view. It is something to stir us out of narrowness to realize that every new day starts in Japan, while Kurope and, later still, America are finishing up the pre- ceding day. 4. Differences of religion, custom, and faith should be presented without bias or prejudice, as likewise differ- ences in climate, dress, resources, and manufactures. Somehow or. other, most of our pupils get the idea that foreigners are ignorant and stupid, inferior to ourselves in ability and inheritance. Perhaps ninety percent of what we teach about other races involves the assump- _ tion that they are inferior to our own, and is more cal- 166 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE culated to instill Beer: than to lay the foundation for mutual understanding. 5. All of our ideas of the shapes of countries come from maps and models, and likewise nearly all our ideas of their size. While, hawever, we learn the shapes cor- rectly, we fail woefully in getting a correct idea of the relative or the actual size of foreign countries or of dis- tances between places. This is due directly to having such a variety of scales to our maps that our resultant memory image has shape only, but no seale by which we can calculate or think size adequately. To most of us, our Western States are thought of as too small and New England as too large; we think Great Britain as relatively too large and Russia as too small. Kurope is too large and Asia is too small in our mental - map to enable us to make true comparisons. Tor illus- tration, Missouri and Washington are each larger than all of New England, but do they seem to have that size in our thought? The Yellowstone National Park is about the size of Porto Rico and is larger than Rhode Island and Delaware combined. Java has the same area as England, and Ceylon is half as large. Maine is larger than Ireland. New Zealand is considerably larger than the Island of Great Britain, with England, Scotland, and - Wales. Formosa is larger than either Maryland or Hol- land. Borneo is larger than Texas. India stretches as far as from the mouth of the Chesapeake to Panama. Korea is larger than either Idaho, Minnesota, or Utah. From Peking to Canton, China, it is about as far as from Duluth to New Orleans. How many of us think of these countries in their true size? It is a great deal as tho we used a pair of field glasses in looking at part of the earth’s surface and then reversed the glasses and looked thru the other end at other countries. It is thru this sense impres- | sion from maps of varying scales that our minds are furnished with memory images that are inconsistent with reality. The scale of the maps in our atlases and on our wall charts is determined chiefly by the con- venience of the printer and the cost in making the pages of uniform size and therefore of varying scale. The PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY “SE price we pay is utter confusion in our source impres- sion of size. Scales should be standardized into one uniform set of scales, easily transferable from one into another; e.g. 100 miles to an inch, 50 miles to an inch, 20 miles to an inch, 10 miles to an inch, and 1 mile to an inch. It should be possible to get a map of any country in any of the stand- ard scales. This would make possible direct comparison of size by superposition of the maps. Such scales as 6144 miles to an inch and 2214 miles to an inch, simply should not be used, because the distances on such a map will not be translated into miles. Recent publications are moving in this direction, but confusing scales are still very abundant. 168 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE STREAM POLLUTION, A GROWING MENACE TO WATER SUPPLIES Frep R. Jevuirr, Prestpent Knox Country ACADEMY OF ScIENCE The pollution of the streams of Illinois by sewage and- factory waste has reached a point where a statewide pro- test should be formulated and a campaign organized to reduce the present evil and to prevent further increase. The public must be informed and positive action must be taken. We seem to have ample law and no fault is found on this score; we have a State Board with power to act, and we have no desire to criticize the Board. Stream pollution is largely the result of indolence and ignorance, which do not take into account the effects, and which seek the easiest way of getting rid of waste and sewage. A.late report of the Illinois Department of Health says: ‘‘Contaminated water is a mighty danger- ous enemy.’’ It is time that attention be given in every institution and every commercial body of the State to . the menace that this indiscriminate practice constitutes. First I will emphasize the fact that the time is ap- proaching when as much as possible of the water that falls from the clouds must be conserved for animal and vegetable and industrial consumption. In my own county last year a great railroad company was forced to haul water from an artificial reservoir forty miles away; an electric light and power company. -was reduced to an extremity to procure an adequate sup- ply of the right kind of water; farmers were compelled to haul water for stock, streams were so dry that one could walk on their beds, and municinalities were at their wits’ ends to obtain water fit to use and in ample quan- tity. The procuring of unspoiled supplies is each year becoming more difficult. The source of our supplies is the rain. Is it possible to formulate a policy by which a larger quantity of this may be made available before it is contaminated with organic, animal or mineral impurities? Authorities give the average annual rainfall for the State at thirty-five - inches. In years of maximum rainfall, a total of fifty PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 169 inches or more may be precipitated, while in years of least rainfall the total may not be more than twenty-four inches or even less. It is in these years of least rainfall that the need of conservation of water becomes most ap- parent, and when the effects of pollution become most acute and dangerous. Drift formations of various depths cover most of our State and the yellow clays, sands and gravels absorb water which is diffused through their layers. Below the yellow clay lies.a blue or bowlder clay that as a rule is impervious to water. Part of the rain sinks through the soil and subsoil into this yellow clay, which thus over a large area is a water bearing stratum. Water is re- tained in it because of blue clay underneath. This under- ground reservoir is not by any means inexhaustible, al- though our State report properly calls it our largest and most valuable supply, and surface wells over much of the State extend into it. The level in this formation has been lowered, and it can no longer be relied upon, as in pioneer days, to meet the increasing demands. Professor J. A. Udden in one of the early Bulletins says: ‘‘The general ‘level of the ground water is being lowered.’’ As early as 1908, the Bulletin spoke of the insufficiency of the yel- low clay supply. — Another important consideration is that the wide- spread tile drainage of the surface has accelerated the run off so that not.so large a quantity of water as for- merly reaches the yellow clay. In a general way one can figure this run off at nearly one-third of the precipitation. It is estimated that nearly one-third is evaporated and at some seasons the proportion is greater. This leaves about a third to sink into the water bearing clays, sands and gravels, and a portion of this seeps out along the edges of the blue clay into the streams or breaks out in springs. Or very great economic importance, therefore, is what becomes of the portion that seeps into the clays or runs into the streams. It is on this that man and all other animal and even vegetable life must depend for most convenient supplies. In the State Bulletin of 1913 it is stated that ‘“With very few exceptions there are no sources of water supply 170 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE in Illinois that are free from possible contamination.”’ Again it is declared that ‘‘all running streams are in dan- ger of pollution.’”’? To this it can be added that many of our streams are now polluted. The report of 1917 listed 433 municipalities with water supplies, of which 189 are from rock wells; 149 from drift - wells; 67 from streams; 22 from Lake Michigan, and 10 _ from springs. To these must be added the tens of thous- ands of drift wells on private premises. One must also consider the hundreds of municipalities that do not yet have public supplies and whose needs must be kept in view. Let us take first the pollution of the run off as ex- hibited in our streams. This is accomplished by the con- tamination of watersheds as well as by the discharge of waste and sewage into the channels. Cedar Fork, a small stream that flows through Galesburg, furnishes an illustration. Untreated sewage and much waste go into this and render the water foul and exceedingly offensive. These putrid discharges poison the water for eight to ten miles below the city. Estimating the watershed of the creek at seven square miles, when it crosses the west city limits, this ereek would have in a year of average rain- fall a run off of 1,500,000,000 gallons of water, with seep- age of possibly a quarter of a billion more. Sewage ren- ders all this absolutely unfit for use. If this water were conserved and impounded the gas company and other industries along its banks would have an ample supply. As it is; not a frog will venture into it for miles below the city and fish life was long since extinguished. Live stock will not drink the water and the stream, which might be an asset,-is changed into a liability to the farm- ers. This is not an isolated case by any means. Because it is easiest and cheapest, cities and factories all over the the State are using streams as open sewers and recep- tacles for waste. Neither lake, river or creek is spared. When we are discussing this, we naturally think of Chi- cago, but after an investigation I am convinced that most of the cities of the State, little and big, are equally guilty PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 171 and that poisoning of the water that falls pure from the clouds is nearly a general practice. Let us take the pollution of the Illinois river, a stream once renowned for its beauty and charms. Through the drainage canal it receives much of the sewage of Chicago, and is so befouled by this that even the bottom of Lake Peoria, far down the river, has its blanket of filth. The main tributaries of the Illinois are the Kankakee, Des- Plaines, Fox, Vermillion, Mackinaw, Sangamon, and Spoon rivers and Crooked creek. The report of 1921-2 says: ‘‘The conditions of the sewage of the Illinois river are more pronounced than ever before.’’ ‘The Fox river valley is quite thickly populated. The large cities of Elgin, Aurora and Ottawa use this as a sewage channel, not to mention smaller towns that find it a convenient depository. The discharges of twelve Hilgin sewers pass into the river. Elgin is, however, building a sanitary sewer system. Aurora has nine sew- ers connected with the channel and there are sewer out- lets from various private and manufacturing plants along the river, without treatment. Aurora is said now to be agitating a drainage district. An effort was made by the Rivers and Lakes Commission several years ago to abate the nuisance but the war interfered. The DesPlaines river is polluted by the sewage of Joliet and by its factory waste. The corrupt condition of the Sangamon river is in the reports deemed a special object of concern. The sewage of Springfield and Decatur goes into it. The report of 1918-19 declares that Sanga- mon river is greatly polluted below Decatur. Decatur now has a million dollar sanitary sewer system, just com- pleted, and that will take care of raw sewage and waste save in times of flood. Jacksonville and Bloomington empty their sewage into creeks but it finds its way into the Illinois river. The Kankakee river receives the sew- age of Kankakee and there are other towns along it that may contribute toward fouling it. Both Streator and Pontiae on the Vermillion river use it for sewage and waste purposes. In the State report of 1920-21 special mention is made of the foul condition of the river at Pontiac. Another comment is that ‘‘Dur- 172 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ing a large part of the time, the Vermillion river below Streator consists only of sewage, industrial waste and mine water.’?’ We understand that Pontiac has built a disposal plant and that Streator is considering one. Peoria is on the Illinois river, and its sewage and waste go into it. We have the authority of a fish and game official, familiar with the condition of the river there, that when the water is low the stream is in a foul condi- tion and that the fish are liable to be affected injuriously. It seems unnecessary to multiply instances, for this is enough to indicate the extent to which the Illinois river system is being used for sewage purposes. Practically all the large streams that flow into it receive more or less sewage. Although a state wide, detailed survey has not been made there is reason to believe smaller municipali- ties also are polluting the tributaries, so that from all parts of the river basin filth and industrial waste are being conveyed to the main streams and thence to the river itself. In its 1921 report the Commission says: ‘‘During the last year complaints have been received © from numerous farm organizations, where streams have been so polluted by industrial waste or city sewage as to prevent their natural and lawful use for agricultural or other legitimate purposes.’’ Specific mention is made of conditions at Joliet, Ot- -tawa, Seneca, Morris and Elgin. It is’ stated that the Desplaines and Illinois rivers are badly polluted and for years have been unfit for bathing or domestic uses, or for stock, and the fish industry has been completely destroyed as far down as Peoria. The stench at times in the summer is offensive and also a.damage to naviga- tion. Several States have laws regarding sewage treat- ment to avoid stream pollution. Such a law would bea progressive step in Illinois of a great public benefit.’’ The Mississippi river we have heard referred to as an open sewer. One will not allude to what other States are doing to it. It is enough to speak of the offenses against it in our own commonwealth. The Father of Waters must forsooth be forced to hold his nose when a whiff comes his way. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 173 At Quincy, the sewage is emptied into the river above the city water intake, which, however, is far out in the channel. The sewage and factory waste of Moline, par- tially treated, go into the tail race and then into the Mississippi river channel at Rock Island. Rock Island pours the contents of its sewers into the Mississippi. The sewage and waste of the large city of Kast St. Louis are conveyed into the Mississippi river below the city. Alton finds the river a convenient receptacle for its waste and sewage. Cairo’s sewage and waste .peur into the Ohio and then into the Mississippi river. Other cities along both sides of the river from the north end of the State are abusing this magnificent waterway and contributing to its contamination. In low water the river is for weeks and even months likely to be a foul and filthy stream. . Tributaries that flow into the Mississippi river are - polluted also. Take Rock River, one of the most pictur- esque rivers in the state, whose banks have been noted as picnic grounds. One of its tributaries is the Peca- tonica river, and within the city limits of Freeport raw sewage flows into it in five places. This includes factory waste. Rockford, the main city on the river, known for the extent of its industries, turns its sewage into the river, and the report for Sterling, another good sized city, is of the same nature. All this sewage must tend to make the river less desirable and a menace. Belleville, not far from the Mississippi, uses a small creek for sewage in part, although it has a disposal plant. Shelby- ville reported, ‘‘We are emptying everything into the Kaskaskia’’, and a similar answer came from Vandalia. On the other side of the State one finds Danville empty- ing its sewage into the Big Vermillion. In nearly every case the reports make the statement that the rivers and streams are too foul to use as sources of supplies without treatment. In the state department report for 1919-20 we find this strong statement: ‘*Stream pollution is depriving the public of the legiti- mate use of the water therein. For years streams not only in Illinois but in many states have been accepted as a natural means of sewage disposal. Increased develop- 174 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ment and growth of population have resulted in a load of sewage or industrial waste that the streams can no longer carry with due regard to public health or to the use of the streams for stock on the farm’’. It is but simple justice to say that several of these cities are taking steps that may lead to the installation of disposal plants. Decatur and Elgin are leading the way, and my own city is agitating this question. One of the chief difficulties is in getting the people to vote the necessary funds. | | In the 1923 report of the proceedings of the annual meeting of the civil engineers of the State is found an address by Paul Hansen who enumerates 103 disposal plants, and makes the comment that many of the plants are neglected, ten of them abandoned and eleven over- loaded, disclosing that efficiency in many instances is far from maintained. Thus is the run off from practically one-third of the rainfall, expedited by tiling and sewers, seriously affect- ed, and the citizens of our State are being deprived of many billions of gallons of water annually. Cities are finding it increasingly difficult to find a stream of suffic- ient size to serve as a supply, when impounded, owing to the unsanitary condition which may extend even to the watershed. Judging from the reports at hand it is the common practice of cities to create a reservoir on a’ stream and empty the sewage into the. stream at some point below the reservoir. The next town below finds itself short of water and becomes aware. that the city above is using the river for a sewer. But it builds its dam, and erects an extensive purifying plant, expecting that chlorine and other chemicals will protect the lives of the people, and in turn conveys its sewage to a point below its dam, thus contaminating the water for the next town below. This goes on for the length of the stream. The health of each of these places depends upon the efficacy of the purification plant, and any imperfection in this that causes raw water to get into the distributing system is likely to result in serious epidemics. Some of our I[lli- nois cities have had sad experiences along this line. Pol- PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 175 luting a river for the city next below is a great deal like poisoning your neighbor’s well. Cities that have deep wells or spring supplies are likely to show least responsi- bility. One might cite Rockford, Freeport, Peoria, Aurora and Joliet. Illinois is not all equally favored. South of a line running east and west through Champaign, water, ac- cording to the 1914 Bulletin, is seldom obtained in large quantities either from deep rock or the drift, and such ground water usually is very hard. Some exceptions exist in Southern [lnois; but it is frequently the case that there is no choice but to adopt a surface supply in the south half of our State. This means the impounding of water, and this enhances the importance of main- taining the streams in an uncontaminated condition. On the other hand many of the cities in the north half of the State are not obliged to resort to ground water due to the accessibility of deep rock supplies. These waters, as a rule, while fit for domestic uses, are not adapted to industrial purposes without treatment, due to the mineral content. Impounded surface water is gen- erally much preferred and hence the large use of im- pounded water for boiler and other mechanical uses. In the north part of the State two formations are recognized as fairly sure sources of supplies, and water -may be found in others but not with the same degree of certainty. Sometimes it may be too heavily charged with minerals even for domestic uses. These two form- ations are the St. Peters and the Pottsdam. The former underlies much of six states and is regarded as one of the most remarkable water rocks in the world. Scores of municipalities procure their supplies from this forma- tion, but the State reports indicate that constant pump- ing is gradually lowering the water level. The Potts- dam formation lies below the St. Peter’s and is sepa- rated from it by the Lower Magnesium. Observation, however, indicates that the water level in this is also being slowly lowered. Thus there is raised the question whether these rock supplies are inexhaustible and whether finally a dense population will not even in the north part of the State 176 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE have to rely upon the surface and ground supplies; in other words on the rainfall. The question in view of the possible decline and the often quick exhaustion of the ground supplies in a dry season relates not merely to the preservation of the purity of the surface water but a its conservation. Take Knox, my own, county. In it are 440 streams, little and big, enclosed between ranges of hills. Many of these streams could be dammed and the water pre- served. We have built up a wonderful system of surface drainage that empties the surface layers of their water, — more rapidly than formerly, and hastens exhaustion of the moisture so that crops suffer. Last year the drouth cost Knox county farmers a third of their corn crop. With reservoirs there could be at least partial irriga- tion. Hven Congress has considered means of impound- ing water so as to prevent destructive floods. It is esti- — mated that in Knox county, an annual rainfall of thirty six inches means the precipitation of four hundred and fifty billion gallons of water on its surface, and the im- mense run off of 150,000,000,000 gallons, if not more in flood years, goes on its way to the ocean, while during ‘the dry season the beds of the streams may be dry. It goes without our making use of it. Illinois has some good laws on the subject of stream pollution but in view of existing public sentiment it is difficult to apply them. For instance, the Statute pro- vides that, ‘‘It shall be the duty of the Department of Public Works and Buildings to see that all the streams and lakes of the State of Illinois, wherein the State of Illinois or any of its citizens have any rights or inter- ests, are not polluted or defiled. ‘‘Tt shall be unlawful for any persons, firm or corpo- ration to throw, discharge, dump, or. deposit, or cause, suffer or procure to be thrown, discharged , dumped or deposited any acids or chemicals, industrial wastes or refuse, poisonous effluent, or dye stuff, clay or other washings, or any other substance deleterious to fish life, or any refuse matter of any kind or description contain- ing solids, substance discoloring or otherwise polluting any navigable lake, river or stream in this state, or lake, : < ' e| Hi} ea a (age J y fw ~ gent 4: Wet Amung 2aeu i fs. OAS The state map in a general way shows the drainage system of Illinois and the cities that are the principal sources of stream pollution. The deep well geological section shows the formations passed through in borings at Galesburg and vicinity that reach to the Potsdam. The other section is of the surface formations in Knox county, and with some varia- tions will apply to much of the State. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY . VT river or stream connected with or the waters of which discharge into any navigable lake, river or stream of this State or upon the borders thereof, or any water- - course whatsoever.’’ The drainage district for Chicago and the Desplaines river are made exceptions. — It was also provided by the Fifty-second General As- sembly that it is necessary to submit plans and obtain a permit from the Division of Waterways before any work can be done legally toward the construction of a sewer outlet for the discharge of sewage into a lake, stream or water course of the State. In all this I have been trying to show: First—That under the present methods, ground sup- plies are not adequate the year around. - Second—That the usability of our surface waters rep- resented by our streams is lessened by their pollution by sewage and factory waste. | Third—That the available supply could be increased by the suppression of such pollution and the enforcement of a law that would compel cities or permit them to pro- vide for the disposal of sewage and waste. For the good of all, municipalities must be taught to observe sanitary law. Fourth—That sewage and waste pollution of the streams is a menace to health, a source of disease, and -renders water unfit for use, and constitutes a public nuis- ance, besides killing aquatic animal life and making the water a possible source of disease to domestic animals, which may communicate it to man. Fifth—That conservation, checking flood waste, would probably carry the supply through the heated season and save much expense and trouble. Sixth—That the uncertainty attending the life of deep -well supplies makes the saving of surface supplies all the more important. It seems to me that it would be well for us to urge the legislature to provide the State Water Board with an ‘ appropriation sufficient to enable it to make a compre- hensive survey of the extent of pollution of Llinois streams and to formulate the most practical remedies. In the meantime, I believe that the systematic education 2 A ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of the public should be undertaken and that they should become informed not only of the dangers of the indis- — criminate use of our streams as open sewers and waste receptacles, but also of methods of conserving rainfall and making more of it available. It is a subject that could be pursued to advantage in our schools. Our streams should not continue to serve as cess pools, but should be converted back to their original state of whole- someness. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 179 COAL BALLS HERE AND ABROAD A. C. Not, Universtry or Curcaco A coal ball is a caleareous or siliceous coal seam con- eretion which frequently contains recognizable plant fragments.* These plant fragments have furnished our entire knowledge of the inner structure of paleozoic plants. They have been observed since 1835 in England where Williamson used them in his monumental studies ‘of fossil plants since 1875, a work which was continued by D. H. Scott in England, C. D. Bertrand in France, and many others. ‘The existence in America of coal balls was suspected by the author who succeeded in obtaining in 1922 the first specimens of genuine American coal balls. These came from Harrisburg, Illinois; later good specimens were found in Danville, Illinois, in Calhoun (Richland County), Illinois, and in Streator, Illinois. Other Ameri- ean deposits are in Iowa where coal balls showed up at DesMoines, Indianola, and Chariton. Good specimens were also collected by the author near Sturgis, Ken- tucky, and at Cayuga, Indiana. They were found outside of England, France, and America in Austria, Germany, Russia, Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, and Australia. Of the American coal ball specimens from Harrisburg, Danville and Calhoun thin sections have been made in the botanical laboratory of the University of Chicago. The following genera of fossil plants were observed and their structure carefully examined: Harrisburg— P Fern sporangia Sphenophyllum stem Root with spongy cortex Lepidodendron stem Peculiar leaf Lepidodendron sporangium Calamites leaf Stigmaria and rootlets Calhoun— Anachoropteris — Sphenophyllum stem Angiospermophyton Calamites stem Root with spongy tissue Bothrodendron stem Fern sporangia and spores Microsporophyll and Calamites leaf, probably in all sporangium three places. Megosporophyll and Danville— sporangium Lepidodendron stem Stigmarion rootlets Lepidodendron sporangia Numerous multeseriate fern, Stigmaria and rootlets (few) sporangia with spores Sturiella minor Lyginodendron stem * Jose Maria Feliciano, The Relation of Concretion to Coal Seams (Journal of Geology, Vol. 32, pp. 230-239, 1924. 180 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The results of these investigations are being published by Dr. G. H. Hoskins and Miss Fredda Reed in the Botan- ical Gazette. The most important of these discoveries was the appearance of a paleozoic angiosperm in one of the Harrisburg Coal Balls.* Among the unpublished ‘material are several other angiosperm specimens which make the existence of angiosperms in the paleozoie be- yond question. | Our entire knowledge of the inner structure of pale- ozoic plants has been based upon English and French coal balls. It is to be hoped that the American coal balls which have come under observation will contribute in the near future as rich material as was obtained formerly from Kngland and France, and that our knowledge of plant structure will in this way be greatly enriched from American sources. * J. Hobart Hoskins: A Paleozoic Angiosperm from an American Coal Ball, The Botanical Gazette, Vol. 75, pp. 390-399. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 181 GLACIAL PHENOMENA IN THE VICINITY OF CARBONDALE J. HE. Lamar, Iuurnois State GroLocicaL Survey, URBANA The area particularly discussed in this paper is that of the Carbondale quadrangle, in the northwest corner of which the town bearing the same name is located. This quadrangle may be roughly divided into three topo- graphic units according to the bed rock formations which underlie these units respectively, as shown in the accom- panying figure. The northern unit is that underlain by the Carbondale formation, composed of sandstone and shale, which when eroded, gives rise to a gently rolling surface. The central unit, which is by far the largest of the three, is underlain by the massive sandstones and shales of the Pottsville formation. This part of the quadrangle is very rugged and constitutes a portion of the [llinois Ozarks. Sandstone bluffs and cliffs are numerous. The southern unit of the quadrangle is that underlain by the limestones, shales, and sandstones of the Chester group. It has a varied topography. In places it is like the northern unit, and elsewhere like the central unit, particularly in the areas where some of the prominent cliff-forming sandstones are well developed. The north three-fourths of the quadrangle drains to the north; the south one-fourth to the south.. The north- ward drainage eventually merges in Craborchard Creek, which flows westward across the northern part of the quadrangie, but turns abruptly to the north in the north- west corner to join Big Muddy River. The Ilinoian glacier spread over the northern half of the region just described. It came dominantly from the north and perhaps a little from the east. The ice of the glacier was probably porous and much crevassed from the buffeting against the hills of the country over which it had passed, and its advance was seemingly very slow. The rapid melting and pronounced deposition which ac- companied the formation of the terminal moraines of the Wisconsin ice were essentially missing. The melting of the Illinoian ice seems to have been comparatively slow. The ice moved over the rolling topography of the north- 182 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE .- ern unit of the quadrangle without great difficulty, but when it encountered the rugged upgrade slopes of the Pottsville unit, the forces which were pushing it ahead seem to have been insufficient to send it completely up the grade. The southward progression of the glacier, therefore, is thought to have ceased more because of a lack of motion of the ice itself rather than to the predom- inance of melting over ice advance. There was probably a geologically brief period when the advance and the melting back of the ice were equal and the margin there- fore maintained a fairly constant position. During that time deposits accumulated at the ice front in ‘thickneaade somewhat in excess of those formed elsewhere in this region, but in this rough topography did not form a pr ominient moraine. The first important event in thie general glacial history of the region was the shutting off of the drainage of Craborchard Creek from Big Muddy River. It is not known where the ice first Gee the drainage of the creek, whether near Big Muddy River or farther up stream, but eventually the result was the same. All the precipitation as well as the water from the melting of the glacial ice was therefore ponded in that part of the val- ley of Craborchard Creek not occupied by ice and its tributaries until it became high enough to eross the di- vide at the headwaters of the creek some 20 miles east of Carbondale near New Dennison. Just how high the water stood in the valley can now only be approximated, but it certainly stood as high as 435 feet above sea level, for that is the present height of the New Dennison col. The maximum depth, of the lake was about 100 feet. With the continued advance of the ice, certain northward flowing tributaries of Craborchard Creek were cut off from the main stream and became local lakes. Some of these lakes at times found exit across divides into neigh- boring valleys which still discharged into Craborchard Creek. Two cols which were produced in this fashion, but probably during the early stages of Lake Craborch- ard, occur in Secs. 1 and 2, T.10 S., R.1 E., where the waters of Little Grassy and Caney creeks probably crossed the divide into Sugar Creek and thence joined the main drainage. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 183 During the existence of these lakes, deposition of ma- terials from the melting ice was constantly going on. In the Craborchard lake, which was probably by far the largest on this quadrangle, it’seems possible that un- stratified gray clay accumulated in portions of the lake basin where deposition was continuous. From time to time boulders and pebbles fell from bergs and ice blocks floating about on the lake and became imbedded in this lake bottom clay. Thus it is possible that some of the gray clay till-like material which contains sparse pebbles may have originated. This method of origin does not, however, preclude the probability that the greater part of the gray till was formed in the commonly accepted fashion, but is merely a suggestion as to how a very simi- lar sort of deposit might have been formed under special conditions. In the smaller lakes and the larger lake alike there were deposited in considerable thicknesses statified ma- terials composed for the most part of sand and silt. There is some gravel found with these sands and silts, but it occurs in lens-like deposits, some of which seem to have been built up as small deltas where comparative- ly rapid moving water entered a quiet body of water. In some of the smaller valley lakes in the central part of the quadrangle, fifty or more feet of these sands and silts accumulated. They are commonly underlain by pebbly clay till, and in places have this material intercalated with them. The valley of Sycamore Creek, in the east- ern part of T. 10 S., R. 1 W. particularly, has excellent exposures of these sands and silts. In two of the lakes the water seems to have become high enough to have spilled across the divide and found an outlet to the south to Ohio River. These lakes oc- curred in the valleys of Drury Creek and Little Grassy Creek respectively. The former lake had its inception when the ice shut off the drainage of Drury Creek from Craborchard Creek. By the time the ice had advanced south to a point about a mile and half south of Bosky Dell, the lake was about eight miles long and the water in it at that point was about 200 feet deep. The surface elevation of the lake was about 600 feet. Some of the 184 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE water spilled over a small col in See. 20, T.10 S., R.1 W., thence into Cedar Creek, and eventually into Mississippi River. The farther advance of the glacier, however, eventually shut off this exit and the water found its way across the divide to the south through a col just north of the town of Cobden. The elevation of this col is a little over 600 feet and drainage through it, and the pre- viously mentioned col, may have been contemporaneous for a time. The Cobden col is not a particularly large col, its size suggesting that the quantity of the water passing through it at any time was not large. The col is cut in formations of the Chester group which are not particularly resistant to erosion. The character of the bedrock, therefore, would not have been a particular hindrance to the enlargement of the col had it contained - a torrential stream. Glacial boulders have been found in the valley of Cache Creek south of the col, and though the presence of some of them doubtless may be assigned to transportation by human agencies, it is probable that most of the larger boulders were carried over the Cob- den co! in floating blocks of ice, and later left stranded farther down-stream. It is a matter of interesting Sadnawitiens whether with a head of 200 feet of water in Drury Lake some of the water of the lake may not have followed the natural trend of drainage to the north through the much crev- assed glacial ice, eventually to find a mode of egress into the Mississippi or its tributaries; also, whether in places sedimentation may not have been going on within the body of the ice where it was saturated with water. The lake in the valley of Little Grassy Creek was not as large as that in the valley of Drury Creek. Its maxi- mum length was about three miles and it probably began when the ice blocked the valley in See. 19, T.10 S., R.1 EK. The water in this lake stood at least as high as 570 feet above sea level. This is the present elevation of the Water Valley col over which the water from this lake found its way southward into Bradshaw Creek and even- tually into Ohio River. The col is cut through a faulted area in which the Kinkaid limestone of the Chester group and a massive sandstone of the Pottsville formation are PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 185 exposed. The fractured character of the bedrock -form- ing the floor of this col is a factor favoring rapid erosion. The eol, however, is only about an eighth of a mile wide and does not itself seem likely to have carried a great volume of water, nor does Bradshaw Creek, into which the waters entered after crossing the col, show evidence of having carried an abnormally large volume of water. Most of the materials which were presumably de- posited in Little Grassy Creek lake have been eroded away, but in places in the valley a deposit of gray clay containing much rotted limestone boulders is found which was probably formed during the existence of the lake. Very little outwash seems to have been developed in front of the margin of the ice after it had reached its maximum southern extent. Igneous boulders are found in places for distances of two miles or more south of the margin of the glacial deposits, but they are merely loose in the beds of the creeks and were not seen in any defin- ite arrangement that could be considered characteristic of outwash deposits. The absence of these deposits is probably due to the rapid and pronounced erosion which has taken place since glacial times, and also to the ten- dency of the present drainage to transport the debris in the valleys to the north. Outwash boulders transported in this direction soon become mixed with other glacial material and are indistinguishable from it. The retreat of the Illinoian ice seems to have been in a measure a replica of its advance in so far as the de- posits which the ice left are concerned. Local lakes were formed in valleys, and Drury and Little Grassy lakes extended to the north until the ice ceased to obstruct the drainage in that direction. In these lakes more silt and sand accumulated, and elsewhere where water sorting was not active, a deposit of more or less heterogeneous materials. _ To summarize, then, the outstanding features of the glaciation of the Carbondale quadrangle are as follows: 1. The advance of the ice to its maximum southern limit was accompanied by the formation of lakes in the valleys of many streams draining toward the ice. In the ease of two lakes water rose high enough to cross the 186 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE divide of the Illinois Ozarks and to find an outlet to the south. 2. In these lakes were deposited primarily sand aa silt. The silts are in some cases stratified, in others not stratified. 3. In an environment of such rough topography the terminal morainie deposits are not pronounced. 4. Outwash deposits are essentially lacking because they were either not formed or have been subseqneney obliterated by erosion. CaRBONDALE QUADRANGLE TT Sa eT EET is a breaking face on that side. The reason that chatter marks are scoop shaped is because there is no vertical breaking face, and the plane of fracture returns to the surface, which is the only avatlable breaking face. The granitic rocks are pitted with shallow depressions in many places after the fashion of pot-holes.* (Figure 2.) Pot-holes are usually thought of as those depres- sions which are worn by swirling boulders or pebbles eT ? E 196 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — below the falls of a rapid river or in other eddying streams, but the great abundance of concave surfaces on the Killarney granite and gneiss makes any reasonable observer at once give up any such explanation for the thousands of ‘‘pot-holes’’ in this district, unless indeed he believes that the whole area was at one time over- flowed by a huge and very widespread torrent. Streams doubtless followed the glacial period, but such an expla- nation does not fit all the cases because many of the de- pressions have the smooth, polished surface character- istic of glacial polishing. Many of these depressions antedate the last glacial sheet which covered the land. Observations show that a variety of causes has brought about similar products in different manners. The granite at Killarney has a nearly horizontal sheet- ing. It tends to break off in rather irregular and shal- low slabs of rock as a result of frost work. Glaciers riding over these granite surfaces broke out some of these slabs and carried them away. The place left, in several cases found, is almost scoop shovel shaped. (Figure 3.) The glacier chipped out a piece of rock, which broke in a vertical direction down to the sheeting plane in a curv- ing surface which was convex toward the direction from which the glacier came, provided the breaking surface was on the sheltered side of the rocky knob or roche moutonnée. In some other cases the granite broke out from the bed rock on the downstream (stoss) side of the outcrop, concave towards the direction from which the ice was coming, as a sort of giant chatter mark. In- either case, the passing ice in time smoothed off the edges of the broken rock, and left a polished depres- sion in the midst of an otherwise convex surface, looking something like a pot-hole. (Figure 4.) - In other cases the primary depression was made by | the conjunction of three or more joint planes which - loosened upwards a piece of rock of pyramid shape. After frost had heaved this piece loose, and passing ice had earried it away, the place from which it came pro- vided the start of another polished depression which looks like a pot-hole. Near Killarney these joints were 3 Pot-holes have been described and classified in detail by EB. D. Elston. The Scientific Monthly, Vol. V pp. 554-567 and Vol. VI pp. 37-51 (1918). Fig. 3. Potholes due to removal of granite sheeting slabs. Fig. 4. Glaciated depression made by intersecting joints. Fig. 5. Coneave fractures of Killarney granite. Fig. 6. Solution cavities in pegmatitic granite. / 7 Wi athe oe fe Pirate ; iya¥ rm F * al erly Vino jeu CAV) : eh bh RL el il ee v! ‘ ~ ] ) ‘ : ; ‘ ih — 1 - . : i iM 4 pai as is n woe : ih ri : ‘ , ens ve me) iJ paruP PR wrt . a) aoe mt ve ° oe | yi i ‘ . : i 1m ye rs xi a ¢ A i 1 f (u\l rss ; A ro a ' J A i + ie «ld ka Je , , hs - > : WL iS? : 4 4 ° { ] i* ; ae) 4 i in a . 4 . 1 # ' Wiey al + *. l + 7 i A Py) Lid : ve Bi meu r, ‘ i. Wu a = { i . ‘ %; ue ‘i i" #7) A . , A i Tn oe 4 j : BY r€, aut meat ate F; we x se i : ' a , ¢ ( es af oe ad ¥ F ny \ Sr f d eT i ; . at Ae: ‘am ” y re ie, a ‘ Nene Ty adel hm i 7 uh oY ee, pod f 12) My, y Fy i . ‘ i ' rs 7 2 f 1 \ ' . Hl id i i y i . ’ ‘ ‘ ' ’ = oe PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 197 found to have the following positions; strike N. 180° E., dip 40° W; strike N. 15° E., dip 39° S; and strike N. 85° E., dip 87° S. A similar process is responsible for some of the so-called rock ‘‘tanks’’ in arid ‘regions’. Again it happens that the Killarney granite has a natural conchoidal fracture in some places, and (Figure 5) under any stress, such as that, for instance, of a pass- ing glacier heavily loaded with locally burdensome drift, itis likely to break along curved surfaces. A piece which breaks out of a plane face naturally leaves a concave surface, and after such a surface has been glaciated, that too is like a pot-hole. There are porphyritic phases within the granite and the gneiss which are not of the same fine, even grain characteristic of the rest of the rock, and the parts which are weaker than others weather more readily and leave hollows in the surface, which are likely to have been smoothed off by glaciation. (Figure 6.) In the side of a nearly vertical surface facing north- ward, on the north side of an island south of Philip Ed- ward Island, there is a cavity, over a foot deep, which penetrates a glaciated surface, and which seems to be ‘in part of age greater than the last ice sheet. This hole is gradually growing larger by a sort:of spherical scal- ing within the hole. The hole is growing on opposite sides of a narrow crack in the rock. The crack appears to be the thoroughfare by which ground water works into the rock, oxidizes the minerals, and causing them to expand in volume, creates a pressure sufficient to crack the rock. The shape and position of the hole is such that pieces which break off fall out of the hole into the lake; thus fresh rock is repeatedly exposed to the agency of disruption. Of course this is not a pot-hole, for it is quite impossible for a pot-hole to form in the side of a vertical cliff, yet it is a hole, and after glaciation such a hole would be distinguished with difficulty, in some sit- uations, from a real pot-hole made by swirling boulders. (Figure 7.) igen Bryan, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply, Paper No. 498, (1923), 198 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE In the immediate neighborhood of Killarney, in the village itself, one may see all but the last type of glaci- ated rock hole. At the rocky point, at the west end of the channel, on the north side of the water, one may see the depressions formed by two types of giant chatter marks. In the walk outside the MacDonald Hotel one may see the depressions formed by the intersection of joints, and by the conchoidal fracture of Killarney gran- ite, and there are excellent illustrations of the way im which the glacial abrasion truneated and. partly de- stroyed some depressions which had been made at an earlier time. Only those which came in the later period of glaciation are preserved intact. In a garden near the store of Mr. T. Jackman there is a rock exposure which shows admirably the way in which some of the pegma- titic and miarolitic material in the granite weathers into pitted shapes something like pot-holes. A significant argument that the pot-holes are indige- nous to the granite and not the result of any outside agency is the fact that the quartzites of the same district contain almost no such depressions. Photographs show the peculiar shape of the glaciated surfaces of the granite rock moutonées. Almost all of these peculiarities are | due to a normal glaciated surface, which is convex up- wards in the direction of glacial movement, truncating a smooth surface which has been glaciated, although not fashioned by glaciation, and which is concave upwards. Some of these concave surfaces were in existence before glaciation, some came into being during glaciation, and others came after glaciation. (Figure 8.) Thus it is stupid to suppose that all concave surfaces, or even holes, in glaciated rocks are due to the work of subglacial streams. It is quite clear at Killarney that several other agencies made such depressions, and there is no evidence that any of these ‘‘pot-holes’’ were really made by the spinning and swirling of boulders ¢aught in an eddy of a subglacial stream or at the bottom of a moulin in a glacier. Striking as these holes are, they do not seem to have been bored by any natural gimlet, such as a spinning boulder in running water. Indeed, this area provides the evidences of ‘‘pot-holes’’ of hitherto undescribed methods of development. eathering. dal w i sphero granite due to In Cavity potholes. c= 4 5 imulatin s e surfaces of glacial erosion, Concayv ig. 8 F ¢ we i Wie pares aM PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 199 SOME QUESTIONS IN GENERAL AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY WHICH ARE SUGGESTED BY OIL OCCURRENCES IN CRAWFORD COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIAN BEDS JaMeEs H. Hance, Srare GrotocicaL Survey Division, URBANA SUMMARY Over a considerable part of Crawford County, oil pro- duction from Pennsylvanian sands is conditioned by other factors, perhaps as important as the LaSalle Anti- cline. Certain features indicate a nearby source for the oil and this may be important in future exploration work. GENERAL One of the controlling features, perhaps the most im- portant, of the oil fields in southeastern Illinois is the LaSalle Anticline which extends from the vicinity of La- _ Salle southeast nearly to the Wabash River at St. Fran- cisville. Productive territory has been developed through Clarke, Crawford, Lawrence, and Wabash Coun- ties for a distance of seventy miles, and although this area of production varies in width up to sixteen miles, commercial accumulation of oil extends to a distance of eleven miles northeast from the axis on the less steeply dipping flank. ; Thus far production has been developed from Pennsyl- vanian sands on down to the Trenton limestone, but the development in any one place is limited to a small por- tion of the vertical range. (Martinsville area excepted.) Thus in Lawrence County most of the oil produced comes from rocks of Mississippian age. In Crawford County production is chiefly from Pennsylvanian and Mississip- pian rocks, and in Clarke County, the Pennsylvanian, -Mississippian and Ordovician rocks are each important locally. All of this production is along the LaSalle anticline and is clearly related to it. During the past eight years detailed studies have brought to light certain features, which when better understood may assist greatly in 200 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE further development. In 1915, Rich’ made a careful study of the Birds Quadrangle in Crawford County, and noted the allignment of the Pennsylvanian sand produe- tion at right angles approximately to the axis of the anti- ~ cline. He concluded that the Pennsylvanian beds were essentially flat-lying over this area, and that oil accu- mulation in the Robinson sand seemed to be conditioned on its thick and massive development. Differences in elevation of the sands due to arching and folding are less in amount than differences due to irregularities in the sand lenses themselves. oo. Later work by Mylius’ in Clarke County disclosed cer- tain features in the northern part of the field, to account for which he hypothecates cross folding. As some of the production includes pre-Pennsylvanian rocks, the prob- lem is modified somewhat, but the fact is noted that something other than the LaSalle anticline is involved in the oil occurrences in this part of the field. Recent field work, as yet incomplete, in the north one-half of Craw- ford County is adding its quota to the information rel- ative to our south-eastern oil fields and furnishes some conspicuous contrasts between Pennsylvanian and pre- Pennsylvanian production. Here the upper sands (Rob-- inson) are elongated in a direction approximately N. 52° Hi, whereas upper Mississippian production (Chester), developed here in only a small way, follows the direction _ of the anticline. As noted by Rich in the Birds Quad- rangle, differences in elevation of the top of the Robinson sand are influenced less by folding and warping than by lensing. Some of these areas are irregular in shape with no conspicuous or symmetrical elongation. Others are several miles in length, and these longer dimensions are in the northeast-southwest direction. Another note- worthy feature is the occurrence of all of these elongated areas on the northeast side of the axis of the anticline. In no instance have they been reported or observed on the west flank of the fold. The most prominent develop- ment of this nature occurs between Birds and Annapolis, a distance of about twenty miles. 1 Rich, J. L., Oil and Gas in the Birds Quadrangle, Ill. State Geol. Sur- vey, Buil. 33, pp. 105-145. 2Mylius, L. A., Extract from Bulletin 44, Ill. State Geol. Survey. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 201 Summing up the observations to date, we have the fol- lowing: 1. Robinson sand production is commonly elongated in a northeast-southwest direction. This does not hold true for the Chester. Perhaps correlation is at fault. 2. These elongated areas are all east of the fold, but are found very close to it. 3. The sand top drops less rapidly from west to east than to the north or south. Available data, though too meagre to be very satisfactory, indicate overlapping sand lenses. . . QUESTIONS Since these occurrences are somewhat independent of the general structural conditions along the LaSalle anti- cline, they raise some interesting questions. 1. Are these transverse elongations due to cross folds, faults, sand lenses, or some other agency? 2. Why are’they confined to the east side of the anti- cline? Perhaps the final solution will show that they are not so confined. 3. Are they limited in occurrence to the immediate vicinity of the-anticline, and if so, why? 4. Do these occurrences suggest certain phases of Paleogeography? What are some possibilities? -5. What and where is the probable source of this oil? Isitlocal or may it be remote? Has any of the oil migrated very far? 6. What is the general artesian circulation of the Illinois basin? Is there a critical relation between the oil accumulation and the present artesian circulation through the basin? If so, what? 7. How are these questions related to future explora- tion? SOME TENTATIVE SUGGESTIONS At present studies are too incomplete to answer finally most or all of these questions, but some points seem reasonably clear. Cross folding is not apparent here because the sands appear to be missing where the synclines should be found. Contours on the top and the bottom of the Robinson sands 202 _ ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE would be at variance. Is cross folding known to occur anywhere? pi Displacement or faulting of the sands does not seem ~ to be shown from a study of the well logs. This hypothe- sis, however, is not untenable so far as the writer knows. Sufficient confirmatory evidence is lacking. A study of the well logs indicates the existence of elongated sand lenses and bodies. This material ‘is somewhat variable, and shale or lime breaks are com- monly reported within such sand bodies. : Studies of present development fail to show these transverse zones on the west side of the anticline, al- though recorded dry holes indicate a fairly thorough testing of the west flank. The Pennsylvanian beds are more nearly flat on the east flank than on the west. Per- haps this is sufficient reason -either for occurrence of the sand lenses or for their gathering oil. Only the higher portions of such sand lenses might favor commercial ac- cumulation of oil, and hence the importance of a position near the crest of the anticline. Do these sand lenses indi- _ cate near-shore phases of Pennsylvanian geography? No fossils from them are available for study, but the inter- spersed limestones are marine. This is demonstrated by a study of samples from outcrops and from diamond drill cores. Were the sand lenses formed as off-shore bars, beaches, dunes, river channel fillings, or composites on a delta? Rich favors the delta hypothesis for the Birds Quadrangle, and it seems in harmony with condi- tions to the north and northwest of that area. If this were the case, was the shore line parallel approximately to the LaSalle anticline as has been commonly supposed? Did a large river discharge its debris into the sea in or near Crawford County, and in what direction did it flow? Some differences of opinion are held as to the probable source of the oil, but greater favor is now accorded the idea of a local source and of limited migration to the present sand reservoirs. Abundant organic material was present in the muds (both lime and siliceous) at the time of deposition, and only a small fraction of this would be. needed to furnish the amount of oil now known to have been present. Most of the geologic section is made up of PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 203 — shales and limes, and as most if not all of these were ma- rine, the local supply of organic material was perfectly adequate. Present conceptions of artesian circulation, in a basin such as our Illinois Paleozoics form, favor the idea that marginal movements are much more rapid than are those in the deeper part of the basin. Such circulation doubt- less has been changed many times since the Illinois Paleozoics were deposited as rock debris, but most of this circulation has probably moved southward. During Pennsylvanian time the LaSalle anticline formed a structural high, along both sides of which there may have been relatively rapid movement of meteoric water. If not too rapid this would favor oil accumulation in suitable reservoirs. With an oil content in some of the shales of 12 to 16 gallons per ton*® the adequacy of material is no problem. If this hypothesis. should prove correct, the oil now developed is local in origin and large areas to the west of the fold may justify test drilling where struct- ural and textural conditions can be determined as favor- able. Similarly, reserves in the Mississippian and lower rocks were developed under physiographic conditions unlike those of the Pennsylvanian, and for obvious rea- sons may be expected to conform more closely to the larger structural features. - ? Ashley, G. H., Bulletin 641, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 314-319. 204 _ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN AS A GEOGRAPHIC STUDY Wiiiiam H. Haas, NortHwesterN UNIVERSITY South America offers many surprises to the traveller, but none of them is more arresting than those which re- late to the Indian. He gives an atmosphere to the west coast countries which has no counterpart anywhere. At first sight of some of the world’s famous ruins, such as. Sacsahuaman, Ollantaytambo, Tiahuanaco, and others, there comes an almost irresistible conviction that the builders of these tremendous structures with their huge blocks of stone were of a better blood than that of the modern Quechua or Aymara with his sullen and hope- lessly sad hang-dog expression. Nevertheless, the near ancestors of these spiritless people were a part of the proud and powerful Inca Empire. The contrasts between a brilliant past and a sordid present is in constant juxtaposition. The resoureeful- ness of the ancestors, their activity, application, and con- ‘ceptions of big things are everywhere as evident as the filth, the poverty, and the degradation of the descendants, making the contrasts all the more striking. It is hard to believe that living in the same general physical en- vironment in contact with a superior, at least a more ad- vanced race, should have produced such a marvelous change in such a remarkably short time. It is not surprising, therefore, that for many years the belief existed among most investigators that the Ineas; the Chibchas, the Mayas, the Aztees, and our own Mound- builders were of a different racial stock than that of the Indian of today. Little by little, however, an overwhelm- ing mass of evidence has accumulated, which shows that all belong to the same stock, and that practically all their cultural evolution, as shown in major and minor antiqui- ties, has taken place in the New World. This has been done in a comparatively short time, for we have no undis- puted evidence of glacial man in America. Various evi- dences tend to show that the American Indian came to this continent shortly after the stone polishing stage had been inaugurated in the land from which he came. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 205 To the student of geography these facts are interesting and vital, for this means that the progress evolved in the New World has been, very probably, as distinct from any Old World development as though it had originated on _ another planet. The Indian is a product, therefore, of the American environment, and the differences in advance- ment can be explained only by the differences in the nat- ural conditions which made certain advances possible. A study in this field ought to be productive in working out fundamental geographic relationships, which here should be found in their simplest forms. The field of investigation, however, is not an easy one, for much is still unknown. The student of geography needs to know, rather definitely, how much of the de- velopment of this culture was accomplished under the Asiatic and how much under the American environment. What cultural elements did this migrant bring with him on which to start? Have all the cultural elements of both continents come from the same or from different groups, ~ or migrations? After their arrival on these shores, did their dispersal come at once before a local development had taken place, or was the dispersal due to slow spread- ing from the periphery of the group? Can certain simi- lar elements of culture originate simultaneously in far distant places, or when such are found, may they have been transmitted by contiguous groups and may they be traced to an original center? These and a host of other questions must be answered before the Geography of the American Indian can be written. - The non-Anglo-Saxon sections of the New World offer by far the best conditions for such study. Even in the regions north of the Rio Grande much still can be found out concerning the life relationships of the American- Indian, but it is to be regretted that so little attention is paid along lines of investigation where facts readily at- tainable now will disappear most probably in this genera- tion. However, in South America the general lack of white development in many sections offers possibilities of study entirely unknown here, for even now some of the countries are more Indian than white. -When one speaks of the American Indian in South America, it becomes necessary to explain the term used. 206 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE In the Indian countries little or no distinction is made as to blood relationships. The distinctions arise from the great contrasts among the people in wealth and social position, and are very sharply drawn. To find statistics on the ‘‘Indios’’ or ‘‘Mestizos’’ does not mean Indians or mixed bloods but merely those of the lowest and next lowest rank, those without wealth and social position. Anyone with sufficient leisure, who can maintain his family without work, belongs to the white class. Possi- bilities of change from one class to another are rare, as opportunities for the accumulation of wealth by the poor - are few. A class division, therefore, may be made, into one with opportunities and into one without hope. The latter group for want of a better name may be called Indian. | Mixing of bloods has gone on without any sentiment against it ever since the time of the ‘‘Conquistadores”’, so that there are, very probably, few native whites with- out some strain of Indian blood, and likewise few Indians, except in some of the undeveloped sections, that are free from admixtures. The number of pure blood Indians in the plateau countries is much greater than pure blood whites. The Bolivian census for 1900 gives the Indian population as 48.42 per cent of the total and the white as 14.64 per cent, the rest being mestizos. These figures representing classes may be fairly correct, but the abso- lutely pure white population is probably less than two per cent of the total. The figures show, however, the dominance of the Indian blood in the life of the Republic. If there is such a thing as cultural evolution con- trolled or modified, at least largely, by the environment, then there should be such a thing as regional cultures brought about by regional activities,—in other words, a regional geography of the American Indian. South America has been divided into four major cultural areas on the assumption that the activities based on the getting of food are the most fundamental. These culture groups are as follows: (1) the Chibeha in Colombia, agricul- turists of the upland type; (2) the Manioe in the Amazon basin, agriculturists whose main food was the roots of the mandioca; (3) the Guanaco, in the Pampas of Argen- PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 207 tina, hunters whose activities were much like those of our plains Indian; and (4) the Inca, on the high plateaus of Peru and Bolivia, agriculturists whose progress far out- stripped that of any others. If such a classification is legitimate from a geographie point of view, then the geographer has a large field be- fore him and some serious problems. Why was the evo- lution so slow here even in the most progressive sections when compared to Old World development? It seems in- credible that the Indian lived here without much progress while civilizations in the Old*World rose and fell. The natural environment of the western world, for the most part, seems to be stimulative enough now. Climate and topography were then much the same as now. The available resources, of course, are immensely greater now than then, and probably will continue to multiply as methods are discovered to use the resources locked up for the present. Were the migrants a dullard group, driven from their old environment by the more progres- sive and thus in their wanderings reached a new world? The evolutionary trend has not been in that direction, for many a full blooded Indian has shown great brilliancy along certain lines. Whatever the geographer of the future will find, one of the most striking facts is that the descendants of that most advanced group, the Incas, are at present in the most pitiable condition of any group in either continent. Their poverty is great, with little or no possibility of changing their status under present conditions. This is not due to laziness or lack of energy, but largely due to a vicious system in which they find themselves. Their condition is well nigh hopeless and if they have a philos- ophy it is one that accepts the inevitable. Their ‘‘chicha’’ is their curse as it undermines their physical and moral welfare. It is also a blessing in that it enables them to forget a sordid world and to conjure up a new one with hope. Their ‘‘coca’’ dulls their minds and sensibilities and makes of them little else than a beast of burden. However, it also dulls the gnawing pains and the recol- lections, if there are any, of ancient splendor. The en- vironment is powerless now to stimulate for there are other forces which dominate. 208 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PALEOZOIC KARST TOPOGRAPHY Grorce KE. Exsiaw, State GroLocicaL SuRVEY Karst topography is that unique physiographic ex- - pression which.is characterized by surficial sinks, ‘‘lost’’ rivers, natural tunnels or bridges, subsurface solution channels, and subterranean caverns. The name ‘‘Karst’’ was applied because of the remarkable development of this type of topography in the Karst or Carso plateau of Austria.’ Since it results from isin karst topography can occur only in areas that are closely underlain by thick beds of limestone, dolomite,. gypsum, salt, or other sol- uble rock formations. Most of the known areas of karst topography are underlain by limestone or dolomite. Many karst areas occur in the United States and other countries. In many Petrie such as northwestern Illinois and southwestern Missouri, valuable mineral deposits have been described as filling ancient solution channels and cavities. This is indirect proof that karst topography existed in geologic periods other than the present. Unique and direct evidence of this fact was obtained last ~ summer in the vicinity of Kankakee, Illinois, which area is underlain by Niagaran limestone or dolomite at a very shallow depth. In the quarry of the Lehigh Stone Company, seven miles west and one mile south of Kankakee, are ‘‘clay pockets’’ which on examination proved to be ‘deposits of shale in cavities that are clearly fossil sinks. All of the cavities have the shape of a funnel or a cone with the apex downward. In some of them the walls have a gentle average slope; in others they are precipitate. _ Again, regardless of the degree of their slope, the walls have a constant and consistent pitch from top to bottom, or they may be made up of alternating projecting and receding layers when the slope is precipitate or of alternating pitches and flats when the average slope is gentle. Except where the wall has collapsed before or during deposition of the shale, it has gen- 1Sanders, E. M., “The Cycle of Erosion, in a Karst Region (After Cvijic)’’, Geog. Review, v. 11, No. 4, p. 593-604, 1921. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 209 erally a smooth surface, which is apparently the re- sult of solution. Im size the cavities vary from ten to a hundred feet in diameter and from twenty to forty feet deep; and their outlines may be circular, oval, or irregu- lar. They are not arranged regularly relative to one an- other, but they do show a rude parallelism, controlled probably by joint-planes where solution would be favored. Occasionally two or more cavities may be so close that their upper portions coalesce to form one large pit with several separate downward projections. Along the joint-planes are many smaller vertical tubular solu- tion channels, also filled with shale. The shale which now fills the cavities is of bet general types. The more abundant type is usually light | green- ish-gray, non-laminated, silty, and contains much crys- talline iron-sulfide. It also contains rounded pebbles of limestone and chert. Frequently it is laminated, in which case some of the laminae are either fine, gray sandstone, or thin, black layers of carbonized plant fragments. Rarely the laminae are of variegated colors of purple, blue, green, and gray. This shale has a sub-conchoidal fracture; it weathers rapidly to a non-plastic, non-tena- cious silty, gray mud. It fills all the cavities except that _ portion in each of a few of the larger ones which is oe- cupied by the second type. The second and less common type of shale found in these cavities is black, laminated, carbonaceous, full of carbonized, well-preserved plant fragments and brown spore-cases or seeds, and with an abundance of botryoidal nodules of iron-sulfide that are of all sizes up to about three inches in length. When fresh, this shale has a conchoidal fracture that contin- ues across several laminae. It weathers rapidly on ex- posure, first dividing into sub-conchoidal, lamellar flakes — and then further disintegrating into a black, non-plastic mud. Two or three showers with intermissions of but a few days afford sufficient opportunity to reduce the fresh shale to mud. Where both types of shale occur in the same ‘‘pocket’’ there is a sharp line of contact between them, and the green shale contains weathered masses of the black, in- dicating decisively that the green is younger than the 210 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE black shale and that there have been at least two separate generations of sinks in this one area. In addition to these two types of shale, there are rare occurrences of a granu- lar, fine or coarse grained, calcareous sandstone that is made up of grains of quartz and of the surrounding lime- stone. In several cavities there are deranged masses of limestone that are collapsed portions of the walls, and around these masses the shale is practically undisturbed from its horizontal position, showing that the collapse occurred contemporaneous with the deposition of the shale. Similarly, where there are irregularities of the walls or recessive channels, they are filled by shale that is stratigraphically continuous with that in the main pit. Some idea of the extent of the area which exhibits this phenomenon may be gained from the following facts. The Lehigh Stone Company abandoned an-old quarry two miles west of the present one because of the prevalence of ‘‘clay pockets’’. While testing prospective areas on which to locate the present plant, they found similar ‘clay pockets’’ abundant over a wide expanse of this region. In an old quarry on the west side of the Kanka- kee River at Kankakee it is reported that there were found ‘‘soapstone pockets,’’ which are doubtless the same as the usual ‘‘clay pockets’’, containing good shale. Several of the farm wells in the intervening territory have been drilled through ‘‘mud’’ for many feet instead of the usual rock, and this fact, considered in the light of the chance location of well sites, indicates that the shale-filled cavities must be numerous, to say the least. In the eastern part of Bradley, two miles north of Kankakee, are two small circular swamps overgrown with willows, which probably mark the location of large —- shale-filled sinks like the others. Dr. D. J. Fisher of the University of Chicago reports that in the quarries about Joliet are similar cavities filled with green clay or shale, but there the evidence was insufficient to warrant any positive statement as to their origin or age. Smaller cavities in the Niagaran limestone, filled with Devonian shale or clay, have been reported from a quarry near Elmhurst and from McCook, near Summit?. 1 Weller, Stuart: A Peculiar Devonian Deposit in Northeastern Illinois; Journal of Geol., v. VII, No. 5, 483-488, July-August, 1899. * Personal communication from G. W. Hawley, State Geological Survey: PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 211 There is no reason to believe that these cavities are anything but sinks; every geologist who has seen them agrees to that. The only other possible explanation is that they are pot-holes, but their shape disposes of that possibility without argument. Their age can be deter- _mined from the deposits that fill them; all geologists who have examined them believe that the green shale or clay and sandstone is Pennsylvanian in age, but the age of the black laminated shale is in doubt. An authority to whom the material was shown has suggested that it may be Devonian; another, that it may be Pennsylvanian; but neither of these has yet had opportunity to study the deposits or the plant fossils sufficiently to make a defi- nite statement. The color of the shale and the occur- rence of Devonian shale in cavities in the Niagaran lime- stone near Chicago tend to strengthen the possibility of Devonian age. If it proves to be Pennsylvanian, the marked difference in character of the two shales and their abrupt contact where they occur together are ample proof of two distinct epochs of deposition. Two hypotheses may be offered to explain the condi- tions under which the sinks were filled by shale. One is that after the sinks were formed the outlet at the bottom of each became choked and the pits gradually filled up with material washed into the resulting ponds by surface run-off, in which may have been included much organic debris. The possibility that some of the debris is the residue of plants growing in the sink itself is untenable because the shale is in horizontal layers as is found only in subaqueous deposits, shows no old soil or peat or coal, and contains no plant remnants in place. The other hypothesis is that the area was completely submerged be- neath the sea, and there filled with silt, sand, and organic debris. The regularity of the deposits seems to indicate the latter hypothesis the more probable, in which case the abundance of plant remnants indicates that the area was near the shore of that sea. It is safe to state that at some time after the deposi- tion of the Niagaran limestone or dolomite in the Silur- ian sea over this area and preceding either the Devonian or the Pennsylvanian period, there was relative emer- 212 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE gence of sufficient relief to permit ground water to de- velop subsurface channels and- caverns with surficial sinks. Then there was a complete relative submergence, during which the sinks were filled with black shale, but whether this relative submergence was of Devonian or Pennsylvanian age must yet be determined. Fig. 2. Southeastern Minnesota. The major portion of the wheat produced in Southeastern Minnesota has been grown on the broad, nearly-level, loess- covered, upland into which the deep, steep-sided valleys of Root, Whitewater, Zumbro and Cannon rivers are cut. Wheat culture in the area began in 1853 when a crop of winter wheat was raised on the alluvial terraces in Rollingstone Valley in Winona County,® and probably also in-some of the terraces in Houston and Fillmore counties. Such alluvial terraces rise in many places above the flood plains of the streams, and comprise the principal areas farmed in the valleys. Wheat raising spread to the upland somewhat slowly because the valley ®ibid., p. 262. 218 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE walls of the Mississippi are so steep that the upland farms were not readily accessible, until roads were built to them. Southeastern Minnesota is a region of nearly horizontally bedded limestone, sandstone, and shales, dissected to topographic early maturity by the Missis- sippl River and a number of its tributaries. It consists of nearly level upland tracts, the surfaces of which are about 1,150 feet above sea level, and of the valley floors of the Mississippi River and its tributaries, which lie from 350 to 400 feet below them. The upland corresponds in surface to most of southeastern Minnesota, and it con- stitutes the larger part of this area. The Root, White- water, Zumbro, and Canyon rivers flow across the area from west to east (Fig. 2). The deep valleys of these streams divide the upland into wide, flat-topped ridges which, like the rivers, extend from west to east across the area. The broad summits of these ridge-like remnants of the upland are fine farm lands, but their margins are not because they are too greatly dissected by the head ra- vines of the streams. The following table shows that SHIPMENTS OF FARM PRODUCE FOR RIVER POINTS IN SOUTH- EASTERN MINNESOTA IN 18597 (Bushels) Ports Wheat . Oats Corn Barley Potatoes FUE Wa a eck ie reece 30,000* ern er ee Ere iia Raker City, eee. SO. 0D) Sin mepeieesel! nL lets re hes chereoees ; 3,400 Wabasha: aio aoe apes 4.800 LOO On Soap cece po. ol ror 2,000 Reed’s Landing ..... 3,000 BOOO Fares aN me aah one 1,000 Minneiska sith eases DEO OOF esta. sy ieee se Oats ale oe eon a MitanViernon' issn ZO00F ea eee ty Oe ee ee Winona. “soos eee 177,000 SoLOO0iaw meee < 9,000 6,000 Ba Crescent, .i0). on ee 15,000 1,000 2,000 Aspnes 2,000 Hokahli | eS n eee S000 ee en no Brownsville occ. fete ee 32,000 A000. taecan 1000): «oe in 1859 wheat had already attained first place among the crops. The large shipments of wheat from Winona were due to the fact that Winona County was settled early, and that a larger tract of undissected upland suited to farm-* ing is tributary to Winona by wagon haul than to any other point along the river. A road was built at an early 7 Robinson, E. V.: Early Economic Conditions and the Development of Agriculture in Minnesota (Minneapclis. 1915), p. 45. as corrected from - 1st Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics for Minnesota (Hartford, 1860), p. 155. * All grains, but principally wheat. a i in a i PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 219 date from Wabasha Prairie, a river terrace on which the city of Winona is located, to the upland along each of . the several small valleys which focus on the terrace. During the pioneer years some attempts were made to grow winter wheat on the upland prairies. Of those in Olmsted County local reports state that winter wheat Was a success only once in three years*, and this experi- ence was found to hold on other prairies. In most years the wheat was killed during the winter because the prai- ries were so broad, open, and windswept that the snow was blown off, leaving the wheat exposed to the alter- nate freezing and thawing occasioned by diurnal and cyclonic temperature changes. In some years the fall of snow was too light or came too late in the season to pro- tect the wheat®. In other years a warm spell melted the snow and covered the fields with water, which if it be- came ice killed the wheat. In the valleys and timbered tracts, snow drifts much less than on the prairies, so that winter wheat was grown successfully. In 1859, the commissioner of statistics ad- dressed specific inquiries to the different counties, ask- ing for reports on the success of winter wheat. The re- plies showed that it was a failure in the counties which were mainly prairie, but was a success in those which in- cluded large areas of bluff lands or timber*’. Until the improved methods of milling were introduced, the winter wheat crop in the valleys and wooded tracts in the southeastern part of the state was important. Good flour was made from it in the small water-power mills located near rapids or falls in the streams. Some of these mills gained a considerable local reputation for their flour. A few of them have been in business for more than fifty years, grinding the small amount of wheat annually produced in the communities tributary to them. The pioneers shortly discovered that spring wheat is adapted admirably to the conditions on the upland prai- ries. The crop seldom is damaged by frost, as the growing season, varying from 140 to 150 days, is ade- § First Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics (Hartford, 1860). * Ibid., - 94. 3° Tbid., 94, a Cares, V. G.: Climatic para of Minnesota, Minnesota Geologi- cal Survey, Bull, No. 12, pp. 19-21 220 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE quately long for this crop. Wheat is sown in the latter ' part of April or early in May, and grows rapidly through May, June, and the early part of July, which are the months of greatest rainfall. It ripens and is harvested in August, in which month hot, dry spells of weather are characteristic. The farmers have discovered that if sowing is delayed by a late spring or by other causes, -tthe crop may come into ‘‘the milk’’ during a late sammer dry spell and be injured. Judging by a comparison of crop yields with the weather records’ spring wheat has done well in most seasons since its culture began in this area. However, the decrease in yield per acre after 1875 was attributed incorrectly, by some writers, to vagaries of the weather”. . . By 1860, in the river counties of Minnesota, houses and barns were built and other improvements made, so. that the farmers had time to cultivate more of their farms. In that-year fifty per cent of the improved land in the counties facing on the Mississippi, and thirty per cent in the counties remote from the river but still within hauling distance, were planted to wheat’. As it became evident that wheat was the most profitable crop, more and more land was devoted to it. A man’s income increased with the size of his crop, and consequently large acreages were planted. The establishment of the one-crop system in this area was favored by the large yields of wheat produced from the fertile soils. The average yield per acre for the state as a whole was 22.05 bushels in 1860**. With the exception of Houston County, all of the counties in this area had an average yield per acre greater than that for the state. In some townships in these counties the aver- age yleld per acre was exceptional. In New Hartford township in Winona County it was 33.2 bushels, in Douglas township in Fillmore County, 27.7 bushels, and in Goodhue township in Goodhue County, 27 bushels”. In the next decade the average yield per acre varied from ~ time to time, according to the season, but in 1875, twenty 2 History of Winona County (Chicago, 1883), p. 99. ‘ 1% Second Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics, pp: 128, 129, 131. “Second Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics of Minnesota (St. Paul, 1861), p. 57. aSipids, “Dp. 5S: PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 221 - years after settlement, the average yield per acre was 21.08 bushels in Goodhue, 18.02 in Fillmore, 19.64 in Olmsted, 18.06 in Wabasha, 17.55 in Winona, and 17.34 in Houston County*®. After 1880, however, the average yield rapidly decreased. While statistics are not avail- able to show which type of soil maintained high yields for the longest time, there is little doubt that the yield on the loess soils was satisfactory for some years after other soils were exhausted. The searcity of labor which prevailed in these early years somewhat retarded the increase of wheat acre- ages. Land was so cheap that nearly every man owned or hoped to own a farm rather than to work for some one . else. Other parts of the West were developing at the same time, and the immigration of laborers into any one area seldom equalled the demand for them. As a result of this labor shortage and the profits in wheat farm- . ing, labor-saving farm machinery was adopted rapidly. Sulky plows, disk harrows, seeders, reapers, binders, threshing machines, fanning mills and other machines found a ready sale when they were put on the market. In southeastern Minnesota the use of farm machinery was favored by the nearly level surface and the fine text- ured, well-drained loess and weathered drift soils of the upland prairies. Moreover the shortage of-labor during harvest, when it was most acute, was solved, in part at least, by the importation of gangs of men who had previously worked in the wheat fields in states to the south. The extension of the wheat growing area northward simply prolonged the working period of these men and brought them near the Minnesota and Wis- consin forests where many of them were employed in the winter. | The use of this machinery and the adoption of this harvesting practice so increased the acreage of wheat on many farms that the profits earned enabled many men to increase the size of their farms. Consequently hold- ings of from 300 to 1,000 or more acres were not uncom- mon. The profits were so great in many instances that 78th Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics for Minnesota (St. . Paul; 1877), p. 36. c 222 i]LLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE nearly every man in a community tried to own a piece of land. Storekeepers, shopkeepers, mechanics, and profes- sional men bought farms which they partially worked themselves or rented ‘‘on shares’’ to farmers*’. Quick returns led to speculation. Threshing outfits costing about $800 in some instances paid for themselves in two years’. Farmers ran store bills and bought machinery on time, and in many instances the returns from their crops more than warranted the outlay. There was small incentive for the farmers to use either their land or machinery carefully. Straw stacks were burned as the easiest way to dispose of them. Binders costing more than $200, and other machines and tools, in many in- stances were left in the field until wanted in the next season. As a result they rapidly depreciated in utility and value**. The prairie soils yielded so readily to the plow, wheat was relatively such an easy crop to grow, and yields were for the most part so satisfactory, that it is no wonder that farmers became a bit careless about expenses. The acreage and production of wheat in southeastern Minnesota and elsewhere in the Spring Wheat Belt in- creased rapidly after certain developments in the market- ing phase of the industry occurred. A notable one was the introduction of the ‘‘middlings-purifier’’ and other milling improvements which made it possible to produce a high-grade flour from the hard spring wheat”. The improvement of transportation to eastern markets was even more important. This was accomplished by (1) an increase of the number of steamboats on the river, (2) the introduction of river barges especially designed for carrying wheat, (3) the erection of warehouses and elevators along the railroads and at the steamboat land- ings, (4) the establishment of rail connection between the Mississippi and the Great Lakes, and (5) the con- struction of railroads westward from the Mississippi. The importance of these developments is reflected in the fact that in 1865, sixty-five per cent of the land under 17 Schatzel, G. W.: Among the Wheat Fields of Min cdatas Harper’s MeSarie, XXXVI, January: 1868, p. 197. Ibid. 19 Tbid., p. 200. 20 Robinson, Op: .Cit., (De 7% PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 223 cultivation in Olmsted County was planted in wheat”, and that in 1870, Fillmore, Goodhue, Wabasha, and Wi- nona Counties, each produced more than 1,300,000 bush- els of wheat, and Olmsted County more than 2,000,000 bushels (Fig. 1). The relative importance of the south- eastern counties is indicated by the fact that with one ex- ception the counties mentioned were the only ones in the state to raise more than 1,000,000 bushels”. Climax of wheat raising. Bonanza farming in the southeastern counties culminated in the five years from 1875 to 1880. The largest acreage in the state as a whole occurred in 1878, when wheat was grown on 68.98 per cent of all cultivated land*®*. In the southeastern coun- ties the largest crop was produced in 1875, when these counties produced 38 per cent of the state’s crop. The production and distribution of the. crop in that year by counties and townships clearly reflects the natural in- vironment. In that year, Wabasha and Winona counties each produced more than 1,000,000 bushels of wheat, Olmsted and Fillmore counties more than 2,000,000 bush- els, and Goodhue County more than 3,000,000 bushels* (Fig. 1). The three counties last named owe their large production to (1) their large size, (2) their nearly level surface, being much less dissected than Houston, Winona and Wabasha counties, and (3) their fertile loess and glacial soils. In Goodhue County wheat was raised on 30 per cent of its area and occupied 81 per cent of its cultivated land. ‘Such a production led early writers to deseribe Minne- sota as one continuous wheat field* and to claim that Red Wing was the ‘‘leading primary wheat market in the world*®’’. Vasa, Belle Creek, Goodhue, Wanamingo and Zumbrota townships each produced more than 199,- 000 bushels of wheat in the year in question. All of them have a nearly level surface, a loess soil, and little waste land. In the northern part of the county the pro- 7? Annual Report of ‘the State Auditor, Session of 1867, Minnesota Ex. Docs. for 1866, p. 61. Sth Census of the United States; Robinson, op. cit., pp. 260, 261. #iebicoe op. cit., 79. A 8th Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics (St. Paul, 1877), p. 75 Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minn., Vol. I, aate 7s Hancock, R. W.: Past and Present in Ganikia County, (Red Wing, 1893), p. 187. 224 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE duction was small, reflecting the dissected surface and less productive soils of that section. Likewise the acre- age and production of wheat was relatively small in northwestern Olmsted County where the surface is dis- sected by the South Branch of Zumbro River, the drift is thin, loess is absent and the soil derived from the sand- stone or limestone formations is poor*’. The two leading townships in wheat production in the‘state in that year were Farmington township in the northeastern part of Olmsted County and Elgin township in Wabasha County, which joins it on the east, each of whieh produced more than 200,000 bushels. These townships cover a broad and nearly level stretch of prairie with a deep and fertile loess soil’. In Fillmore County the townships in which the yield was less than 100,000 bushels were in the dissected lands contiguous to Root River and its tributaries. In Winona and Houston counties the townships along the bluff lands of the Mississippi and Root valleys, and the. upland ridges produced less than 100,000 bushels. The town- ships of maximum production were those occupying Wilmington Prairie in Houston County and Lewiston Prairie in Winona County”. In all of these counties, the townships in which more than 100,000 bushels of wheat were raised are on the uplands. In general, the greatest yields came from townships with a minimum of dissection, and from those which have loess over much of their surface. After 1880 the acreage and production of wheat in southeastern Minnesota declined rapidly and the acreage and production of oats, corn, and barley, and the num- ber of livestock increased. Although this change in the farm system was due to several conditions, the most important were the low price for wheat which prevailed after 1880 and a gradual decrease in the yield per acre.” The average yield per acre for the six counties in this area in 1875 was 18.6 bushels; by 1880 it had dropped to 11.5 bushels. Moreover, weeds became such a menace 27 Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minn., Vol. I, pp. 337-338. 28 8th Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics, pp. 29-34. 29 Tbid. 80 Robinson, op..cit., p. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 225 on account of consecutive wheat crops on the same land, that it was necessary to plant other crops in order to get rid of them. The locust plague, which partially destroyed the crop in the central and western parts of Minnesota from 1872 to 1877, did not affect the south- eastern counties in any large way.* On the other hand, the chinch-bug appeared first in the southeast, and in 1877 destroyed two-fifths of the crop in Houston County.** The ravages of this insect were sufficient to make profits from the wheat crop uncertain. By the middle of the decade, from 1880 to 1890, railroad mileage was extended so that most farms were within 10 miles, or nearer, of a station, and it was possible to market other farm products profitably. During the same decade, breweries began business in LaCrosse, Winona, Wabasha, and Red Wing, and a local market for barley was created. In addition, the losses incurred in wheat farming had led many farmers to mortgage their farms, so that progressive farmers realized that a change must take place. The Commissioner of Statistics and other state officials, the scientists from the State Agricultural College, the State Dairy Commissioner, the State Dairy- men’s Association and other agricultural societies com- bined with the state press in a protest against the old method of farming. Gradually the change to a more diversified crop system took place. 31 Bull, C. P.: Barley Investigations, University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 148, p. 7. 22 Statistics of Minnesota, 1873, p. 192; 1874, pp. 7-9; 1875, pp. 19-22; 1876, pp. 49, 80, 88; 1877, pp. 17, 19; 1878, p. 9. Fifth Report of Agri- cultural Experiment Station, pp. 96-97. 3% Statistics of Minnesota, 1877, pp. 18, 94. 226 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE COTTON INDUSTRY OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS Frank H. Cotyer, State NorMat UNIvErsity, C'ARBONDALE COTTON GROWING AN EARLY INDUSTRY IN ILLINOIS While the exact date of the first cotton grown in JIl- nois is perhaps unknown, yet it could not have been many years after the first permanent English settlements. As proof of this, Governor John Reynolds, in speaking of the early cotton industry in Illinois says: ‘‘The first gin was established in 1813.’ This statement of Rey- nolds is in complete accord with that of J. M. Peck, who wrote his Gazetteer of Illinois in 1837. In this book Peck says: ‘‘Cotton, for many years, has been success- fully cultivated in this state (Illinois) for domestic use, and this branch of business admits of enlargement; and invites the attention of eastern manufacturers with small capital.’ Peck further states: ‘‘A few factories for spinning cotton yarn have been put into operation in several counties on a small seale of from one hundred to two hundred spindles each.’” H. L. Ellsworth in his book, ‘‘Tlinois In 1837,’’ makes this significant statement concerning early cotton manu- factures in Illinois: ‘‘Coarse clothing from cotton is manufactured in the southern portion of the state, where the article is raised in small quantities. Woolen cloth, and jeans, a mixture of wool and cotton, is made for ordinary wear, as is cloth from flax.’* From these early writers it is clear that cotton was not merely grown in Illinois at a very early date, but cotton yarn and cotton cloth were made for commercial purposes in addition to that made and consumed in the homes of the early set- tlers. It is also quite probable that available statistics do not show the entire amount of cotton raised, for the reports show the amount of lint by bales. Baled cotton was for 1 Reynolds, John: Pioneer History of Illinois: Page 398. 2Peck, J. M.: Gazetteer of: Illinois. Page 22. 3 Peck, J. M.: Gazetteer of Illinois. Page 32. * Ellsworth, H. L.: Illinois in 1837. Page 59. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 227 *fexport’’ and did not represent that used in the home, for such cotton was evidently not baled. AMOUNT OF BALED LINT PRODUCED FROM 1839 to 1880 In 1839 amount of lint produced in Illinois was 402 bales. a3 1859 ce “ee se se 73 oc “ 1186 ae “ce 1860 “e “e 73 “e “ oc cas 1482 “ ce 1865 oe a7 oe * oe ce Tc 7609 “ “ 1870 ce “ “c ce oe ce “ 465 «ce ce 1875 ec “ ce oe ae = “ 13 27 ae i876 cc ae “ce “ “ce ce cs) about t “ec ce 1877 a4 “ ce ee ae ec “ae a Hibbs “e a 1878 a3 af ce ee ae cc “ce 6 “ce ce 1879 se aa ce e “ ce ia) 18 “e oc 1880 ce “ce ce ce a3 ce “ 95 “ While available statistics do not show the production for each year, yet they do show that cotton was probably continuously grown from the period of the early English settlements of Illinois to at least 1880. It is quite prob- able that cotton continued to be grown on a small scale till about 1910 or even later. The writer distinctly re- members seeing a field of cotton between Mound and Mound City about 1910. COTTON INDUSTRY DURING CIVIL WAR In 1865 cotton culture in Illinois reached its high water mark for the 19th century. This was due almost wholly to the changed economic conditions caused by the war itself. President Lincoln’s proclamation closing the southern ports to all foreign trade, together with lack of labor on many southern plantations near the close of the COTTON PRODUCTION IN 13 ILLINOIS COUNTIES IN 1865. No. of No. Price acres Yield of bales per lb. Amount Counties planted peracre of lint in seed realized WEESOW Se? aid 2 ss 3,280 800 Ibs. 1,876 10¢ $378,065 inion <5... .< fie oes 2,700 800 “ 1,458 10¢ $199,757 Williamson ...... 1,678 800 -“ 1,000 10¢ $141,750 Sounsow oo. 3. 2S 2 1,000 900 “ 800 916¢ $136,800 IMASBAG (io chs" 2 es 728 800 “ 370 914¢ $ 55,361 (Ec ae es, Ae 661 800 “ 639 9¢ $ 56,563 Brankdins so... o's. 625 800. “ 356 91%4¢ $ 47,500 SEPOTAON Co: s ..2 sss 435 306. ** 240 . 9¢ $ 27,920 ODE. peer eens 350 800 “ 190 9¢ $ 22,680 Alexander ....... 310 B00)=:* 250 9¢ $ 18,700 Gallatin si sek' 7: 300 800 “ 200 9¢ $ 21,600 Pulagha ee eres ¢ Fas AIO. 200 1014¢ $ 13,500 RAP AITE) io 5 5 wih as 45 800 “ 30 8¢ $ 4,200 OGRA a5. 2! share 12,835 7,609 $1,125,396 228 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE war, caused a very serious shortage of raw cotton both in America and western HKurope. Thus the price of eotton was high and many southern Illinois farmers found cotton the most profitable crop they could raise. These statistics show some rather remarkable things. In the first place, the largest producing counties in 1865 were not the extreme southern counties of Alexander, Pulaski, Massae, and Pope, but Jackson, Union, William- son and Johnson counties, somewhat farther north. Jackson county alone produced more than twice as much as the five southernmost counties combined. In the second place most of the cotton was not produced in the more — fertile bottom lands of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, but on the warmer south and east slopes of the hill lands of Jackson, Union, Williamson, and Johnson counties. Even the hill county of Massae produced more than twice as much cotton as the two counties of Pulaski and Alex- ander with their much larger proportion of river bottom ~ land. The explanation of this is that the river bottom lands in 1865 were still largely in timber, poorly drained, and not well protected from floods, while the hill lands still retained much of their virgin fertility of soil, were warmer, and much better drained. Cotton needs warm and well drained lands quite as much as lands of high fertility. Owing to the fact that the Illimois Central railroad was the only road having a direct outlet to the north and thence east to New York City, nearly all the cotton was marketed in towns along the Illinois Central railroad. Of all these towns Carbondale was the most accessible to the chief cotton producing counties and as a consequence became the chief cotton market in Illinois. In 1865 there were 11 cotton gins in and near Carbondale. Carbon- dale was the shipping point for most of the cotton of Jackson, Williamson, Saline, Gallatin, northern Hardin, Pope, and Johnson counties, The importance of Carbondale as a cotton ieee ean be gained also from this statement of Newsome, who says: ‘‘At one time there were about a dozen cotton gins 5 Pearcy, A. J.: Transactions of Ill. State Agr. Society. Vol. 6, 1865-6, Page 66. : pe PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 229 - in town (Carbondale), so in the autumn, the place had very much the appearance of a southern town, for the ~ eotton was everywhere, and the bales were piled upon the depot platform ready for shipment. The price was high, money was plenty, and business lively®.’’ It is quite probable that more than one-half of the 1,125,396 dollars worth of cotton shipped from Illinois in 1865 was shipped from Carbondale. For a few years after the Civil War cotton continued to be one of the leading money crops in several southern Illinois counties; but as the South gradually recovered from the war, cotton growing increased, prices grew less and Illinois being unable to compete with the southern cotton grower, the industry gradually declined and finally ceased entirely about 1910 or soon thereafter. REVIVAL OF COTTON GROWING IN 1923 anp 1924 Perhaps at no time in the history of Illinois has more been said and done to revive cotton growing in this state than has been the case in the last two years. Bankers, farm advisers, lawyers, merchants, farmers and others have been persistently advocating the possibilities of cot- ton production, particularly in the counties of Pulaski, Alexander, Union, Massae, and Johnson. Bankers and lawyers have visited the southern cotton growing states to study how best to start the industry. Experienced cotton men from the South, and the national government have been brought to these counties where large and enthusiastic meetings with prospective growers have been held. At these meetings such questions as these have been discussed: the time to plant cotton, the type of soils, the best kinds of cotton for southern Illinois, manner of preparing seed bed and of cultivating cotton, the amount one man ean plant, cultivate and pick, and finally how and when best to pick and how to sell the crop. CHIEF CAUSES THAT HAVE PRODUCED THIS REVIVAL Chief of the causes that have contributed to this renewed interest in cotton growing is the destruction due ¢ Newsome, E. “Historical Sketches of Jackson Co. Ill,” Page 124. 230 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE to the ravages of the boll weevil in the southern cotton growing states. Second, there is a general belief among experienced cotton growers that the boll weevil will not be a serious menace to cotton growing in southern Ilh- nois, due to the colder winters of this section of the coun- try. The third reason for this revival in cotton growing is the development, by careful seed selection, of earlier maturing varieties of cotton that can mature a paying crop in these more northern regions with their shorter growing seasons. Such early varieties as trice, acula, delfos and express can mature an early crop of high grade cotton in latitudes of southern Illinois. : The fourth reason is that cotton has been successfully grown in southern Illinois for a great number of years. Added to this is the influence of the largely increased growing of cotton just across the state border, in south- - eastern Missouri. This rather large scale production in southeastern Missouri has been so pronounced that it has attracted the attention of business men and farm advisers in adjoining sections of southern Illinois. There are other, but perhaps more temporary, causes for this recent activity in cotton planting. These last may even be the greater stimuli to many farmers who will plant cotton this season. The greatest of these stimuli is the present high price of cotton. Very close- ly connected with this is the fact that farmers generally have made but little out of wheat, corn, alfalfa, and live stock in the last few years and are as a consequence ready to listen to any suggestion. of some farm product that promises better money returns than the present day staple crops. Experience alone must in the future deter- mine whether these. stimulating causes have sufficient merit to justify present expectations. They certainly seem to have. While there is still some uncertainty as to the cotton acreage for 1924, yet conservative estimates place the amount somewhere between 15,000 and 18, 000 acres. It may go to 20,000. These estimates are based on amounts of cotton seed already purchased through farm advisers in the various cotton producing counties. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 231 The accompanying table shows approximately the chief cotton planting counties for 1924 and the amount to be planted in each. Pulaski and Alexander, together, estimated from 10,000 to 12,000 acres. : Union County estimated acreage about 2,500 to 3,000 acres. Massac “ 750 “ 1,000 “ Johnson “ a 5 ae SO Jackson “ “ake - “ 2b S00 a For Williamson, Pope, Saline, and perhaps other coun- ties, no definite figures are available, but each will plant asmall amount. Pulaski probably will have the largest acreage, which will = closely followed by Alexander county. In contrast to the cotton growing counties of the Civil War period, it will be noticed that the extreme south- ern counties, with their larger share of bottom lands, will lead; and the more hilly lands to the north will take a decidedly lower rank. The explanation of this con- trast with 1865 is that the river bottom lands are much more fertile, they are now much better drained than formerly, and the construction of levees in recent years gives greater protection from floods. In the larger producing counties of Pulaski, Alexander and Union the labor in the cotton fields will be done chief- ly by negroes from the South. These are experienced cotton raisers who have left the South because of the ravages of the boll weevil and are as a rule very poor. The land owners lease the land, furnish food, imple- ments, seed, teams, and get one half of the crop. In the other counties the labor will be largely performed by native white labor on their own farms. This seasons trial of cotton growing will be watched eagerly, particularly by southern Illinois farmers, and upon its success the future of cotton growing in this sec- tion will largely depend. The chief hope of southern Illinois becoming again a part of the cotton growing region rests largely upon the oft repeated statements of experienced cotton growers from the South who declare to prospective Illinois grow- ers, ‘‘You are on the same footing as we of the Gulf States because we must plant early maturing varieties to get the crop far enough advanced before the boll wee- 232 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE vil becomes sufficiently numerous to effect the crop seri- ously.’’ In other words, the growing season for these early maturing varieties is about the same in southern Illinois as in the Gulf States. PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 233 THE CORRELATION OF THE MAQUOKETA AND RICHMOND ROCKS OF IOWA AND ILLINOIS - JT. KE. Savace, University oF [n.rots The rocks of Richmond age in southeastern Iowa have been called the Maquoketa formation, or Maquoketa shale, from the Little Maquoketa River in Dubuque County, Iowa, along which they are well exposed. Cor- responding strata also outcrop in the northwest part of Jilinois. The lower strata of Richmond age in southern and eastern Illinois have been correlated with the Fernvale* limestone. They are exposed in a number of places along the Mississippi River in the southwest part of the State, for example, near Thebes in Alexander County, and near Val Meyer in Monroe County. Outcrops of this lime- stone also occur in adjacent portions of Missouri, as at Cape Girardeau. Strata of corresponding age also out- crop in Will and Kendall counties, in the northeast part of the State. One of the localities in which they furnish an unusual number of bryozoa and other fossils in an excellent state of preservation is in the banks of Kanka- kee River at Wilmington, Illinois, where the exposed sec- tion is as follows: SECTION OF RICHMOND STRATA IN THE VICINITY OF WILMINGTON emetic y Ok. . th ley = a PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 251 HUMANIZING MEDICAL EDUCATION FrRepericK R. Green, M. D., Cuter, Eprrortan Dep’ oF ** Heatru,’’ CHICAGO In one of his historical essays, John Fiske says that the increased geographical knowledge of the European world in the fifty years immediately following the dis- covery of America by Columbus was so great as to re- quire the next two hundred years to digest, assimilate and utilize this knowledge. This statement may with equal truth be applied to our present-day knowledge of the human body and its diseases, their diagnosis, preven- tion, and treatment. In the last half century, modern medicine and surgery have developed. More has been learned regarding the human body and its diseases than in all the preceding centuries of civilization. Our profes- sion has been so busy learning newly discovered facts that there has been little or no opportunity in this era of analysis and investigation for synthesis or generaliza- tion. New discoveries have crowded so fast on each other that there has been no time for taking stock or for adjusting educational methods to meet new conditions. The medical school has, through force of circumstances, become a part of the modern university. But the mod- ern university has become something radically different from the university of yesterday. In his ‘‘ History of Mankind’’, Dr. Henry Van Loon gives an interesting account of the medieval universities. ‘‘They were found’’, he says, ‘‘wherever a few teachers and a few pupils happened to find themselves together. Now-a-days, when a new university is built, the process is as follows: Some rich man wants to do something for ‘the community in which he lives, or a particular religi- ous sect wants to build a school to keep its children under supervision, or a state realizes the need of educating doc- tors, lawyers, and teachers. The university begins as a large sum of money which is deposited in a bank. This money is drawn out to construct buildings and labora- tories and dormitories. Finally, professional teachers are hired, entrance examinations are held, and the uni- versity is on the way. But in the Middle Ages things 252 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE were done differently. A wise man said to himself, ‘I have discovered a great truth. I must impart my know- ledge to others.’ And so he began to preach his wisdom whenever and whereever he could get people to listen to him, like a soap-box orator. If he was an interesting speaker, the crowd came and stayed; if he was dull, they shrugged their shoulders and continued their way. By and by, certain young men began to come regularly to hear the words of wisdom of this great teacher. They brought copybooks with them and little bottles of ink and goose quills, and they wrote down what seemed to them to be important. One day, it rained. The teacher and his pupils retired to an empty basement or to the room of the professor. The learned man sat in his chair and the boys sat on the floor. That was the beginning of the uni- versity, the ‘universitat’—a college of professor and students in the Middle Ages, when the teacher counted for everything and the building in which he taught counted for very little.’’ So the university was originally built around a man who had a new idea which he wished to impart to others. It was said in New England a hundred years ago that a college consisted of Horace Bushnell sitting on one end of a log and a student with a Greek textbook on the other. Here were all the essentials for the college of that day— the learned teacher and the responsive student, who by personal contact with his teacher absorbed his wisdom and profited by his experiences. But the modern college teaches more than the ‘‘humanities’’. With the develop- ment of the natural sciences in the latter half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th, and the applica- tion of scientific discoveries to industrial life, came the demand for technical training in laboratories and work- shops. . Naturally, this had a marked effect on our universities. Law and theology, which consist of principles, preced- ents and moral maxims, can be taught from textbooks today, just as they were two hundred years ago, but the development of the natural sciences and the addition to the university curriculum of courses in mechanical, elec- trical, and mining engineering and other technical sub- PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 253 jects has made the university of today a gréat workshop instead of the quiet and secluded retreat which it was a century ago. On no other profession has this development of mod- ern science had so marked an effect as on the teaching and practice of medicine. In the last hundred and fifty years has developed practically all of our accurate know- ledge of physics, chemistry, and biology, the three sci- ences fundamental to a knowledge of the human body its workings, and diseases. The modern microscope, as perfected by Lister and Amici in 1836, has, in less than a hundred years, developed the new sciences of histology, pathology, biology, and bacteriology. So that instead of a medical training of one or two short courses of lectures, - the medical student of today must have the most thor- ough preparation and must undergo the longest, the most severe and the most expensive training required of any present-day profession. Medical education has undergone a complete revolu- tion and has produced changes not only in edueational methods, but also in the character and type of physician, that have not as yet been fully realized. During the Colonial period of our history, the only trained physicians in this country were men who had gotten their medical education in England or on the Con- tinent and who had later come to this country. Naturally, such men were few in number. The searcity of physi- cians in the growing colonies led to the custom of a young man who desired to become a physician ‘‘reading medi- cine’’ with an older and established practitioner and fitting himself to treat the sick through personal instruc- tion by his preceptor and the study of the medical text- books in the physician’s library. Such an arrangement was not only the best that could be made under the ex- isting conditions, but it was also by no means an ineffec- tive system of training. The young man of seventy-five years ago who ‘‘read medicine’’ with his preceptor and who. incidentally, took care of the horses, put up and de- livered the medicines, and acted as general office boy, while he received a quality of instruction along scientific lines which would not be recognized today by any medical 254 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE school, also received something which the medical student of today lacks. He was in constant and every day con- tact with his preceptor. He saw the patients who came for diagnosis and treatment. He assisted often in their treatment. He rode for miles in the old-fashioned doc- tor’s gig with his teacher, and from the older man, with his years of experience and trained observation, he ac- quired all of his scientific knowledge and in addition his knowledge of the practical or applied side of medicine as a profession. He learned how to handle not only the patient, but, what is often more difficult, the patient’s relatives and friends. He learned not only all that the doctor knew of medicine as a profession, but aiso all that he knew of medicine as a business. He acquired, in a word, that personal knowledge based on individual ex- perience that can not be taught in laboratories or by text- _ books, but that can only be acquired from man to man. It was this crude but essentially human training which made the old-time family doctor the confidant and father confessor of his patients, as well as the man of influence and leadership in the community, an essential factor in medical education which the highly scientific, thorough and exhaustive present-day medical curriculum has not yet. been able to supply. The doctor of fifty years ago was essentially human, even if he was not always highly educated. The doctor of today, with his exhaustive and expensive training, his highly technical ability, his thoroughly equipped office and laboratory, and his equal- ly fully equipped hospital around the corner, is not in as close contact with his patients, either individually or collectively, as his professional forefather of half a cen- tury ago who did not have one-tenth of the medical know- ledge of today but knew far better how to use, effective- ly, sympathetically, and understandingly the knowledge which he did possess. The human element is lacking in the training and is consequently lacking in the product. The story of the development of medical education in this country is an intensely interesting one. But it is not possible at this time to consider it in detail. - The problem today is not how to raise the standard of scientific instruction (that is practically solved), but PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 255 how to adapt our present-day educational methods so that the medical graduate of today may be as capable and efficient along practical lines as was his professional forefather of two generations ago, who, with a far less comprehensive and adequate training, was able to exer- . eise a far greater personal influence. Everyone agrees that physicians today do not have the influence or enjoy the public confidence of their predecessors, though they are much better educated and far more capable. How can this confidence be restored without sacrificing our high scientific standards? The defects of our present-day medical education are widely recognized. At the alumni dinner of the Car- negie Institute of Technology, Dr. Thomas S. Baker, the president, said, ‘‘We are giving too much importance to methods and not. enough to substance; too much im- portance to courses of study and not enough to the indi- vidual teacher. College and school executives are so enmeshed in a maze of administrative details that they are in danger of building up systems rather than in build- ing up faculties. The greatest need of American educa- tion is simplification.’’ Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur, presi- dent of Leland Stanford University and president of the American Medical Association, says, ‘‘The social re- sponsibilities of the profession are enormous. Are we going to fit in or be fitted? The social aspects of medi- cine are inevitable. We need to smash the present cur- riculum and revamp it to bring it up to the medical re- quirements of modern knowledge. Present medical courses are in some ways ridiculous. We now take twenty-five years of the life of the best young men in the country preparing them to become physicians. We standardize the work so that when they have finished they are all alike.’’ Dr. Richard C. Cabot of Boston says, ‘‘The psychical side of practice is more than half of the practitioner’s job and makes or mars him. Men intending to study and practice medicine must face the fact that medical schools give practically no attention to the psychic side of the doctor’s work. How to deal with people,—that is the problem. The doctor must learn the 256 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE psychology of human approach. This is absolutely neces- sary in his education, but he is never taught it.’’ Nor are such views confined to the leaders in medical thought in this country. Sir James Mackenzie, probab- ly the leading English authority on diseases of the heart, in his recent book on “‘The Future of Medicine’’ says, ‘«The chief difficulty is in the fact that there is no teacher with a broad outlook on medicine who ean see all the different branches in their proper perspective. Fifty years ago, progress was being made on certain lines _ which tended to a clearer conception of what medical education was, because the teachers were men who had taken a broad outlook. At the present day, there is not a single teacher in a school of medicine capable of taking that broad outlook. When any attempt is made to modify the instruction necessary for the general prac- titioner, every kind of individual connected with edu- cation is consulted except the one individual capable of showing from his own experience where medicine fails, that is, the general practitioner himself.’’ The situation, today, is radically different from that of fifty years ago. In those days, the surgeon taught anat- omy, operative surgery, surgical diagnosis, and operat- ive technique. The medical student who worked with Sir Astley Cooper, John Hunter, Everhard Home, Syme, or any of the other great surgeons of that day, learned from them, not every anatomical fact regarding the hu- man body, which it is not possible for anyone except the professional anatomist to learn or retain for any length of time, but those anatomical facts which are necessary and essential for the proper practice of surgery, and he learned them with an exactness and a thoroughness which remained with him through life. From the same teacher, he learned his surgical diagnosis and his oper- ative technique. He stood beside and assisted him in the operations. He learned the after-care of his surgi- eal patients but, most important of all, he learned from these great leaders not only how to handle surgical con- ditions, but also how to handle patients suffering from surgical conditions. Just as the student of the early days who ‘‘read medicine’’ with a preceptor learned the PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 257 practical and applied side of medicine, so the student of surgery learned courage, self-control, and resourceful- ness from the greatest men of his day. Today, the medical student learns his anatomy from a bachelor or a master of science whose work has been limited entirely to the dissecting-room and the labor- atory. He learns his histology from another laboratory man; his pathology from a teacher, most of whose time has been spent in the morgue and in the preparation- room; his physiological chemistry from a professional chemist; his X-ray diagnosis and treatment from the electrical specialist. The eye he studies under an oph- thalmologist; the ear under an aurist; the throat and nose under a laryngologist and nervous diseases from a neurologist. Nowhere at any stage of his long, expen- sive and crowded course is there any opportunity for him to come in contact with some broad mind which will help him to digest this tremendous mass of information pouring in on him from all sides and many sources. No- where on the faculty is there a single man who is inter- ested in the problems which will confront the doctor in the first few years of his professional career. Above all, nowhere in the curriculum is any attempt made to tell him anything about the practical, everyday problems which are going to confront him. He is taught all about the human body, but he is taught nothing about human beings. ; As a result, he leaves his alma mater, even after an internship in a hospital, loaded down with the very latest knowledge of all the innumerable branches of present- day medicine and surgery, full of information given him by experts who are twenty or thirty years ahead of him in point of experience, equipped with all of the technical knowledge of tests, examinations, analyses, methods of diagnosis and methods of treatment, without having had a single hint during the entire six years of his course as to how he can secure patients on whom to exercise this enormous accumulation of knowledge, how he shall keep them after he has gotten them, or how he can collect enough money from them to pay his professional ex- penses and make a living for himself and his family. In 258 ILLINOIS STATEH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE a word, the science of medicine is taught today as never before, but practically everything that could possibly help the student to a knowledge of the practice of medi- cine has been eliminated. He is taught all about medi- eine except how to practice it. The result is that the young medical man goes into practice without any clear ideas of the relations between himself and his patients individually; between the doctor and the public, either individually or as a class; between - the doctor and his professional associates. No one has told him of such things in medical schools. He soon gets some amazing shocks. He believes that the so-called ‘‘regular’’ school, to which he of course belongs, is not only the only one which has a right to exist, but the only one which is accepted by the public as reputable or hon- est. Yet he sees great lawyers, judges and business men patronize osteopaths and chiropractors, Christian Sei- ence healers and nature doctors. Naturally, he is con- fused and irritated. He was taught nothing in his medi- cal course regarding the history or development of his profession, and, of course, nothing regarding the numer- ous sects, cults and so-called schools of medicine which have always existed. He knows, in a contemptuous and superior way, that homeopaths believe in ‘‘similia simili- bus eurantur’’ and that the only medicine they are sup- posed to give is little sugar-coated pills. He knows that Christian Science was founded by Mrs. Eddy. He knows that osteopathy and chiropractic consist in using mas- sage or some modification of it in strange and wild ways, but who is responsible for these sects, how they origi- nated and why intelligent people support them, he does not know. He has never been told anything about the history of sectarianism or its various manifestations. He regards all sectarians as quacks and fakirs and looks with contempt on any layman who would patronize them. He feels, and rightly, too, that a medical man should be judged by the quality of his work, the standing of the college from which he graduated, and the hospital in which he served as an intern. He can not understand why intelligent laymen should pass him by and patronize a Christian Science healer or a nature doctor. He is PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 259 amazed, hurt, and disappointed because no one has ever told him anything about popular psychology, the eternal appeal of the charlatan or pseudo-scientist. His college professors should have told him something about the various cults and sects and how to meet them, but they were all far too busy lecturing on pure science to waste time on such absurd subjects. So he has to learn by hard knocks because no one has ever told him how his own profession reached its present state. When the young practitioner considers his legal status, he is also puzzled. He believes that his diploma, and especially his state license, constitute him a privileged individual, and that he is ‘‘recognized by the state,’’ whatever that may mean. He believes that a medical practice act exists for the purpose of protecting him from competition by preventing everybody except regular physicians from treating the sick. He regards all health laws as commendable or desirable. If some of these laws impose compulsory restrictions on laymen, it is neces- sary for them to submit for the public good. He views compulsory vaccination and quarantine regulations as perfectly proper restrictions on the layman. So far he is right. But when the state or federal government im- poses regulations or restrictions on him, in the form of laws for the restriction of the use of alcohol or habit- forming drugs, his wails of protest are heard afar, be- cause his professional and personal liberty is thereby interfered with. No one ever told him in his medical course that medical practice acts are for the protection of the people and not the doctor, and that his cherished state license is in no sense a ‘‘recognition’’ or endorse- ment but is simply a police permit to do business and legally is in the same class with an automobile license. So again he has to learn by hard experience or remain in ignorance, because no one has ever told him anything about. his legal relations. Early in his practice, the young doctor comes in con- tact with some one of the many medico-social bodies which have developed so numerously in the last twenty- five years. The Red Cross, the National Tuberculosis Association, the Cancer Society, the Society for the Pre- 260 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE vention of Blindness, ask him to support them or work with them. Again, he is confused. What are laymen doing in the field of medicine? What ought they to do? ' What should be the doctor’s attitude to such bodies? What are the social relations of the doctor and the medi- cal profession? What is State Medicine and what effect will it have on him? What are Health and Industrial Insurance? What is Contract Practice? What shall he do about all these things that surround him every day and that his teachers never told him about? He doesn’t know because during all the years of his training he never knew there was such a thing as medical sociology —that great field that has developed so rapidly in the . last twenty years. His teachers were all too busy to tell him anything about it. And again he has to suffer be- cause no one has told him. Then practical and financial questions arise. How much should he charge for his services? How can he collect his accounts? Who is liable, in complicated and perplexing cases, for payment for his services? How can he, an expensively and thoroughly educated technician, develop into a successful business man, as well? He has the technical training for his work. How ean he suc- ceed as a practitioner? Has any one told him? No. There is not a medical school in this country where any instruction is given on how to practice medicine as a business. Yet the most highly trained man will be a failure and a dead loss to himself and society unless he can make enough to support himself and family, pay his bills, and save enough for postgraduate work and invest enough to secure him for old age. Is any medical school teaching medical economies? If they are, it isn’t men- tioned in the catalogues. Yet the business side of a pro- fession is quite as important as the technical side, if one is to be successful. The practical advice that the medical student formerly got from his old preceptor has no counterpart in the present-day medical curriculum. He not only makes mistakes but he loses money because no © ene has ever told him how to manage his business. After the young doctor has been in practice for any-~ where from one to five years, some other doctor asks him = PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 261 to join a medical society. This is the first time he has heard it mentioned. In the last twenty-five years, our medical organizations have increased in membership, efficiency and influence more than in the preceding seventy-five years. Has the medical student been told anything about medical organizations, their purposes and advantages, and that it is his duty and privilege to join the county, state, and national bodies just as soon as he is eligible? Not that I have ever heard. I recently had occasion to talk to a senior medical student of one of the leading medical schools of the country. In the course of the conversation, I mentioned the American Medical Association. To my surprise, he hadn’t the slightest idea what it was. I said to him, ‘‘In the four years you have been in college have you never heard the American Medical. Association mentioned?’’ He said, ‘““No, Doctor, except I remember one spring one of our professors dismissed his class early because he had to catch a train to go the American Medical Association meeting, but I hadn’t any idea what it was. That’s the only time I heard it mentioned.”’ Christ said to his disciples, ‘‘The children of this world are wiser in their day and generation than the children of light.’’ B. J. Palmer, the founder of chiro- practic, may be short in science but he’s long in common sense. Every student who matriculates at the Daven- port Chiropractic School joins the National Chiropractic Association the day he enters the school. We let four thousand of the brightest and best trained of young men spend from four to seven years in school studying medi- cine, and send them out to become the doctors of the future and never tell them a word about our own organi- . zations. After they have had four or five hard years of bumps and mistakes we go around and try to organize them. Brilliant idea! But why not begin to organize the medical profession at the door of the medical school? Common sense, isn’t it? Finally, after enduring all the knocks and rude awak- enings incident to the first years of practice, comes the last straw. The young doctor is sued for malpractice. It may be inspired by a jealous business rival, stimulated Ries 262 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE by a firm of ambulance-chasing lawyers, brought by a dead-beat patient to scare the doctor from collecting his bill, or the consequence of an unforseen but unfortunate outcome of a complicated fracture or a wilful and diso- bedient patient. Does the doctor know his own rights, responsibilities, and liabilities before the law, so that he can protect his own interests? Not from anything he has learned in college. Yet the principles of the common law as applied to professional responsibility are com- paratively simple and could easily be presented in such a way as to be of enormous value to the student. ‘‘But,”’ you say, ‘‘most medical colleges give a course in medical jurisprudence.’’ True. But most, if not all the time for such a course is devoted to criminal law and the legal aspects of insanity. Few doctors, even after they have been practicing for years, have any clear ideas regard- ing a physician’s rights, obligations, and responsibilities as applied to the problems of everyday practice. What does the student learn in our present-day medi- eal school? He learns the science of medicine. Nowhere, so far as I know, has any attempt been made to teach him or even advise him on the applied art of the practice of medicine. When the University of Pittsburgh Medi- cal School, a few years ago, decided, what was perfectly true, that their graduates were being turned out without any knowledge of the history of their profession, a course in medical history was added to the curriculum. But who gave the course? The professor of history in the University, a non-medical man, whose only knowledge of the history and development of the medical profession was gained from textbooks. In order to cure the danger | of specialism, another specialist was added. Our present-day medical curriculum, then, is deficient © in that it lacks a humanizing influence at three points of contact. First, the instruetion, today, is exclusively by special- ists, each interested in his particular line. The student does not anywhere come in contact with a broad, highly trained mind, capable of synthetizing the entire field of medical knowledge for him, adding the experience and practical knowledge that has been gained through years s PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 263 of effort, giving the medical student the sound, practical advice which he needs, especially in the first few years of his medical career. There is nothing in our present medical curriculum to bridge the gap between the medi- cal student of today and the well-grounded medical prac- titioner of ten years from now. Second, the student, both in college and in the hospital, looks on the patient simply as one unit in a large mass of clinical material. Himself a machine-made product, with but little individuality in his training, he regards the patient in much the same light. Nowhere is he taught to consider the patient in the hospital or in the elinie as an individual entity which he must learn to understand quite as thoroughly as he does the disease from which the individual patient is suffering. He is taught to treat diseases rather than human beings. Third, and most important of all, the medical student at no time during his four-year course receives any in- struction or even any advice regarding his own individual place in society, his relation to his patients, the public, or the medical profession as a whole, the personal relations of the medical profession, or how the present-day situa- tion came about. Yet all this knowledge, which would make possible an entirely different social viewpoint from that now held by most physicians, could be made a valu- able part of the present-day medical curriculum. Even if it were necessary to sacrifice some of the numerous specialties which now occupy so much time, such a course would be well worth the while. But such a sacrifice is _ not necessary. One hour a week, during the four-year course. is ample for this purpose. During the first or freshman year and before the stud- -ent has had his mind distracted by a multitude of other subjects, one hour a week, throughout the freshman year, should be given to the history of medicine. This import- ant subject should be taught, not in the perfunctory and dry manner in which most historical matter is presented, not in the fragmentary and divided way in which some of the special departments present the history of their own subject. It should rather be given as a series of in- _ formal talks on the early history and development of Ver is ; “ 264 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE medicine among primitive peoples; its growth among the - Greeks, the Jews, the Egyptians, the Romans, and the Arabians; its condition and limitations during the Mid- dle Ages; with a summary of the important advances which were made; an account of the development of the natural sciences in the 17th and 18th centuries and the influence of the development of physics and chemistry on medicine; an account of the slow development of the microscope and its final perfection; of the influence which this discovery had on biology; of the development of organic chemistry by Liebig; of cellular pathology by Virchow; of.bacteriology by Pasteur; and of present-day surgery by Lister; of the marvelous development of the last fifty years and of the men who made this develop- ment possible, with a summary of the leading men in the different fields who are at present regarded as leaders. Such a course would not only be intensely interesting, if illustrated with lantern slides and moving picture films, but it would also give the young medical student the his- torical background which he is, today, entirely lacking. In connection with each epoch or period of medical de- velopment, attention would be called to the different sects, cults, and schools which prevailed at that time. Most physicians, I have found, are familiar with and bitterly hostile to the cults of their own day, which they regard as entirely unique, present-day phenomena. They do not realize that every period in medicine has had its own peculiar brand of pseudo-medicine; that every generation has had its fads and its sects; that be- fore the chiropractor was the osteopath; before the os-. teopath, the eclectic; before the eclectic, the botanical doctor and the Thompsonian; before that, the homeo- path; before Hahnemann, the Perkins’ traetors, Bishop Berkeley’s tar-water, and the stone extractors of previ- ous generations. There has always been the sectarian, the faddist, and the follower of fantastic cults. Attempt to suppress him is the breath of his nostrils and only » gives him so much free advertising. The only way to combat him is to learn his own particular fad more thor- ~ oughly than he knows it himself so that he can be the more readily refuted and discountenanced. This would PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 265 avoid the spectacle which we often see of learned physi- cians, known throughout the country, appearing before legislative committees and being made monkeys of by shrewd, adroit quacks who did not have a fraction of their knowledge but far exceeded them in ability to present a subject to a lay audience. In the second year, an equal amount of time—one -hour a week—should be devoted to a discussion of the social side of medicine. Under this head would be discussed the relation of the individual physician and the medical profession to society as a whole, both in previous genera- tions and today; a discussion of the relation of the medi- eal profession to other professions, as lawyers, ministers, ete.; the relation of the allied professions of dentistry, pharmacy, trained nursing, and the midwife; the growth of the social public health movement of the last twenty- five years, including such organizations as the National Tuberculosis Association, the American Society for the Control of Cancer, the American Child Health Associa- tion, and all of the other organizations, nearly one hun- dred in number, which have developed in this field since ‘the beginning of the present century. The lack of reliable knowledge on these subjects has not only caused much eonfusion and division of opinion among physicians, but has prevented the profession from exerting its united in- fluence for the guidance of public: opinion and the pro- tection of the public health, as well as its own legitimate interests. . ; In the third year, an hour a week should be devoted ta - the economic side of medical practice. Business methods, systems of bookkeeping, and cost accounting, correct methods of charging and collecting, as well as advice on investments, would betaken up. Here, also, would be dis- — cussed the advantages and disadvantages of government service, the Army, Navy, and United States Public Health Service, public health and industrial work, as well as such important economic problems as health in- surance, contract practice, fee splitting, group practice, ete. . The fourth, or senior year, should have an hour a week devoted to the instruction of the graduating class in medi- 266 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cal ethics and organization for half the year, the remain der to be devoted to a course of lectures on medico-legal problems of the physician, telling the men about to enter the actual practice of medicine what the law provides and the courts have ruled regarding a physician’s rights and special privileges, liability for professional services, the law of expert testimony, of malpractice, of privileged communications, of birth, death, and marriage registra- tion, of legitimacy, insanity and criminal procedure, so far as it touches the everyday problems of medicine. Only one who has followed the subject for many years has any idea how diverse and perplexing are the prob- lems that arise in the physician’s daily life, how sorely he needs advice on these problems and how to meet them, and how much annoyance he could be spared by practical instruction at the beginning of his professional career. The adoption of such a course, covering a large and im- portant list of subjects not found today in any medical curriculum, would only require one hour a week through- out the four years. It would not be necessary to omit or greatly curtail any of the courses now being offered. In the hands of a teacher who understood his subject and who put into it vitality and human understanding, it could easily be made one of the most valuable and popu- lar courses in the entire schedule. It is impossible to turn back the hands of time. The old preceptor with his wise, kindly, practical advice is gone forever. Our medical schools are today giving better, more scientific and valuable training than ever | before. But with all their highly specialized courses, © expensive laboratories, and expert teachers, they fail to provide any substitute for the old preceptor or any hu- manizing touch by which the medical graduate of today is qualified to deal with and solve not only scientific prob- lems, but human problems as well. If to the thorough- ness and accuracy of the present-day curriculum the sav- ing grace of personality and human experience can be added, the medical graduate of tomorrow can begin his professional work with a far greater assurance of real success than is possible today. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 267 Universities are something more than buildings; teach- ing is something more than laboratory equipment; pro- fessional training, in the highest sense, is more than technical instruction. Our medical schools must not be satisfied with anything short of that training which is not only of the highest scientific quality, but also of the broadest practical value. While the curriculum in our medical schools today is perhaps more crowded and over- weighted than that of any other course of technical in- struction, a place must be made in the four-year medical course for instructing the physician of the future in the spirit as well as in the letter of his work. He must be told the history of his profession, not in a perfunctory recital of names and dates, but so as to make him under- stand the heritage of effort, experience, knowledge and sacrifice which the great men of previous generations have handed on to him. He must be taught his duties and his responsibilities to his patients and to his com- munity with as much care as he is now instructed in anatomy, bacteriology, and chemistry. He must be shown his duty and his responsibility to his profession and to his individual professional associates, and he must be given as sound instruction in the business of his pro- fession as he is now given in its science. In a word, he must be taught the vastly increased scientific knowledge of today, plus the practical, personal inspiration of the old system, so that each graduate of our vastly improved medical colleges of today may be not only the best trained man in his community, but also the man with the largest, broadest, and deepest human understanding and sym- pathy. 268 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE REMARKS UPON THE TREATMENT OF PARKSIS. Cuartes F’. Reap, M. D., State Atmnist—CHIcaco . On June 30, 1923, there were 920 cases of general paralysis of the insane enrolled in the various state _ hospitals of Illinois. Of the 4770 patients admitted dur- ing the year of 1922-1923 for the first time to any insti- tution, 560 were suffering from this same disease. Of the 1919 patients who died during this same year, 425 were cases of general paralysis. The average hospital life of patients admitted with this disease and who die in our state hospital is 1.11 years. Although over 500 patients were discharged as recovered, from the various ~ state hospitals of Illinois during this same year, there was not one ease of paresis—a slenter term for — same disease—among them. The statistics of the state of Illinois are true for those of the United States in general, and even the enormous ageregate thus revealed does not account for all the ray- ages produced by this dread disease. Many patients doubtless die in private institutions or in the home be- fore their conduct has become so bad as to necessitate — hospitalization. Upon the average they are men in early middle life, men who have arrived at the most product- ive time of life, and have assumed the responsibilities of wife and children. In a recent study made by a social service worker in the Hast, it was found that the major- ity of the families of these patients became dependent upon charity or the earnings of the wife and mother who was forced to go to work when her husband went into the hospital. Of the 560 patients admitted in 1922-1923 only 95 were women, thus leaving 465 men representing, at a valua- tion of $10,000 each, a loss to the state of Illinois of $4 650,000—aside from the cost of maintaining them in an institution for a year and a month, an expenditure which would run the total figure well up to $5,000,000.00! This is a problem with which we have to deal in our state hospitals—a problem of the end results of syph- ilitie infections dating back from 10 to 20 years prior to the patients commitment as insane. It is said that ~ —_—— . PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 269 about 5 out of. every 100 syphilitics develop loco- ' motor ataxia or general paralysis of the imsane. Obviously the rational way in which to deal with this problem is along the lines of prevention; first, the prevention of infection, and secondly, the prevention of the involvement of the central nervous system. But the prevention of venereal disease is a problem of social ~ hygiene, while the prevention of an involvement of the central nervous system belongs for the most part to the syphilographers. What the state hospitals must en- deavor to do is to make what repairs are possible to the damaged human mechanisms committed to our institu- tions for care and treatment. By general paralysis of the insane, or paresis, we understand a disease of the central nervous system especially affecting the cortex of the brain itself, as differentiated from other syphilitic conditions involving the meningeal coverings of the brain or the walls of the blood vessels or the production of new growths, gum- mata, in connection with the meninges or blood vessels. Formerly it was thought that while syphilis had some- thing to do with laying the general foundation for par- alysis, other factors such as over work conditioned its development.- This opinion, however, has of late years been revised by the discovery of Moore and Noughchi (in 1911) of the spirochaeta pallida in the brain sub- stance of these patients. There is still, however, con- siderable discussion as to what determines this invasion of the brain. Some, notably Levaditi, contend that there are strains of this organism which are neurotrophic, hav- ing a predelection for nerve tissue, while others, derma- trophic in nature, by preference locate in other parts of the body and produce visceral syphilis: Certain experi- ments of Levaditi would seem to corroborate his views. As a matter of fact, it is quite commonly accepted that patients developing paresis have suffered few if any of the secondary and tertiary lesions common to ordinary syphilitic infection. It has been well established by many observers that about 20 per cent of infected patients show early in the course of the disease some changes in the spinal fluid, 270 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE indicating an early involvement of the central nervous system, and it is probable that patients who later suffer from disease of the central nervous system are recruited from the ranks of those who suffer such early involve- ment; hence the necessity of examination of the spinal fluid in all cases of syphilis, with treatment espenaa directed to combating this invasion. Unfortunately for our problem as to the treatment of paresis in state hospitals, the patients do not come to us until their behavior as the result of brain involvement has become so bad as to necessitate their separation from home and society.. This means that, given an average duration of.three years from the appearance of symp- toms to the death of the patient, the state hospital has to deal with patients who are well along in the course of the disease, probably two years at least upon the aver- age. Obviously considerable structural change has taken place and therapy is thus rendered so much the more difficult. The infected organism lies in the brain sub- stance itself and is exceedingly difficult to reach with any drug known to us at the present time. The history of the treatment of paresis is one of many therapeutic gestures and relatively small accomplish- ment. Fortunately for the paretic and unfortunately for the establishment of facts concerning cures, the disease is subject to spontaneous remissions in from eight to ten per cent of cases. Thus the patient who is apparently quite demented and about ready to die may without ap- parent cause or following an attack of erysipelas or other intercurrent infection, make a remarkable improvement which may last anywhere from a few months to many years, but inevitably the patient dies of his disease sooner or later—unless intercurrent disease carries him off meanwhile. For this reason statistics concerning the re- sults of various treatments are unreliable unless observa- tion is carried on over a long period of years, or a very high percentage of remissions are secured in a consider- able group of treated cases. It is unnecessary to recite the long history of the treat- ment of paresis here. Very naturally the discovery by Ehrlich of the arsenical known as salvarsan aroused PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 271 great hopes, and many favorable reports were received - following the treatment of patients in various ways with this and allied drugs. Of late years, however, pessimism has again evidenced itself in numerous reports of con- siderable numbers of cases in which the results have been disappointing. This is notably true of various observers ‘working in the state hospitals of New York State, where the number of patients benefitted, as quoted by Mills and Vaux (Archives Neurology and Psy. Vol. 9, -No. 4) was only 15.9 per cent in 1920 and 13.8 per cent in 1921. Intra-spinal treatment was taken up with great enthusiasm at the time of the announcement of Swift and Ellis that favorable results had been obtained by the introduction into the subdural spaces of the patient’s own blood serum following the intravenous injection of salvarsan. At the present time, however, but few clin- icians are using this form of treatment in state hospital practice—and it must be understood that in this discus- slon we are limiting ourselves to such cases. Only a trace of arsenic can be found im the spinal fiuid follow- ing intravenous injections of the arsenicals,-and none whatever in the brain substance (animal experiments ‘and investigation of cases dead from arsenical poison- ing). In 1917 Wagner-Jauregg of Vienna began to treat par- esis with malarial infection upon the theory that the violent reactions thus obtained in some manner mobilize the defense resources of the organism, and reports a number of patients treated at that time to be still out of the hospital and doing well. At the present time reports upon this method of treatment claim a high percentage of remissions especially in the more incipient cases. In May, 1923, Dr. Lorenz of Wisconsin with a group of workers (Journal of A. M. A. May 26th, 1923) reported as high as 50 per cent of institutional cases showing great improvement after treatment with tryparsamid, an ar- senical derived from arsenic pent-oxide. Eighty per cent of the blood Wassermanns and thirty per cent of the spinal finid Wassermanns became negative,—results heretofore not obtained with any type of treatment. 272 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY. OF SCIENCE These findings were later confirmed by Moore of Johns Hopkins (Journal A. M. A., Feb. 16, 1924). Following this inspiring report letters poured into our state institutions from anxious relatives inquiring if this new treatment could not be given to their patients, and accordingly in July, 1922, arrangements were made through the courtesy of Dr. Lorenz for a supply of this new arsenical, not yet upon the market, which can be given in very large doses—three grams each week intra- venously, associated with a mercury salicylate. At the same time another group of similar patients was placed upon a modification of arsphenamine known as sulphar- — sphenamine. It is mainly with the results obtained with these two groups that this report has to do, although various other modes of therapy are being tried. At this same time 60 patients are under intensive treatment at the Elgin State Hospital with these and other remedies, notably new mercurials that can be given intravenously, a new arsenical allied to tryparsamid and a form of non specific treatment less dangerous than malarial infection. We let the slides speak for themselves as to the exact results obtained, and summarize them in general as fol- lows: Remissions thus far secured in either group do not surpass the percentage that may be expected in eases treated in the usual manner with arsphenamine. The im- provement in physical health in the tryparsamid group has been notable and many negative bloods have also been obtained, but no negative Wassermann in the spinal fluid as yet. Several cases of apparent early optic atrophy (one or two of them very evident) have been found in both these treated groups, though the patients in the tryparsamid group were the only ones examined at the beginning of treatment. Some of the sulpharsphenamine treated cases have also made marked improvements (one remission) but 25 per cent are worse than at the beginning of treatment, where- as none in the tryparsamid group have apparently de- teriorated. . g } PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 273 Though somewhat disappointed in the present results, _ the reporters realize that they have had to do with very unfavorable types for treatment and that it is really too early to draw worthwhile conclusions as to the results of this effort. In justice to the remedies employed another six months must elapse before publishing results in de- tail. The reporters are grateful to Dr. Hinton, Superintend- ent of the Elgin State Hospital for his most cordial co- operation, to Dr. Hughes of Elgin for his painstaking examination of the fundi, and to Dr. Lorenz through whose courtesy a supply of tryparsamid has been re- ceived until quite recently. The writer is continuing, in collaboration with Dr. Pas- kind of the Elgin State Hospital staff, this rather intens- ive piece of therapeutic research and hopes in another six months to have some very definite conclusions for publication. 274 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE RELATION OF ANIMAL DISEASES TO PUBLIC HEALTH THomas G. Hutu, Curer, Dracnostic Laporatoriss, Iuurnois DEPARTMENT OF Pusiic Heatran, SPRINGFIELD ‘‘Man is his own worst enemy”’ in the spread of com- municable diseases, but the lower animals are a close second. It is only necessary to cite bubonic plague, a disease of rats, which carried off 25 percent of the world’s population not so long ago and which is today costing the United States Government large sums of money in preventive measures. Another instance is sleeping sickness, a disease primarily of animals and transmitted by the tse-tse fly, which makes certain parts of Africa actually uninhabitable for either white man or native. Some prominence has been given this ques- tion lately through the offer of the Germans to give to the world a cure for sleeping sickness in return for cer- tain territory. a But to get nearer home, take our own domestic cow. Tuberculosis is by far the most. serious problem, ranging in extent from 2 to 3 per cent of the cattle in the southern part of Illinois to 50 per cent or more of the animals in the intensive dairying districts of the northern part of the state. The hogs that follow the cows, and the chick- ens that follow the hogs may also become infected with bovine tuberculosis and be incidental sources of danger. The chief source of danger is through milk to children. In surveys made some years ago in several large cities about 10 per cent of milk samples were found infected with tubercle bacilli, and this figure probably holds good today in the average small city of Illinois. Efficient and compulsory pasteurization has eliminated danger in the large cities. While 25 per cent of tubercular children formerly were infected with the bovine type of the dis- ease, recently bone and gland tuberculosis (evidence of the bovine infection) have been rare occurrences in cities like Chicago. Dr. Lorenz on his last visit to this country cried, ‘‘Where is your bone tuberculosis?’’ ee ee hes PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 275 Two other diseases, anthrax and foot and mouth dis- ease, may be spread not only by cattle, but also by the other domestic animals which are subject to infection. There occurred during the calender year 1922 in the United States 89 cases of human anthrax, of which I[lli- nois had four. The disease is well under control, al- though present in various parts of the country. Foot and mouth disease is rather rare in man, due principally to the immediate destruction of infected animals. Milk is a possible source of danger, but proper pasteurization will prevent infection. Contagious abortion among cattle is very prevalent, but its relation to human welfare is not yet settled. Huddleson has shown the presence of abortion bacilli in milk from infected cattle, and Park and others have shown as high as 25 per cent of individuals giving agglu- tination reactions to this organism. In several states the problem is considered of public health importance and tests for the disease in cattle are performed by the laboratory of the State Board of Health. The writer at one time observed a herd of cattle badly infected with con- tagious abortion where the wives of three successive ‘ herdsman gave premature births to children. Pasteuri- zation of milk is a proper safeguard to the public. Trichiniasis, primarily a disease of hogs, has played a considerable part in the world’s history. The old Jew- ish law against eating pork was in all probability the re- sult of havoe wrought by this disease. Great epidemics in Europe have been caused by the parasite, trichinella spiralis, and some forty years ago it caused international complications between this country and Germany, with the result that American pork was barred from German markets. The danger from eating raw pork is today common knowledge, yet from 0.5 per cent to 2 per cent of the population of civilized countries show trichina embryos at post mortem examinations. Glanders, very common in horses, is rather rare in man. The two classes of persons likely to be infected are hostlers and laboratory workers. Recently a case in IIli- nois was drawn to the attention of the writer through laboratory examinations. The disease was not suspected 276 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE previous to this time. Often the symptoms are very ob- secure, and it is possible many more cases may occur than are recognized. Rabies is spread usually by our good friend, the dog, though all other animals are susceptible and if infected are sources of danger. The disease for centuries was the dread of all peoples, in some communities the unfortunate person bitten by an infuriated animal being put to death immediately. Not till fifty years ago did Pasteur discoy- er a preventative which has greatly reduced the mortal- ity. In 1922, 50 deaths were reported in the United States. At the present time there amounts to what is. almost an epidemic of rabies among dogs in the southern part of Illinois. ) Of all useless animals on earth, the rat is the most de- - testable. As a marauder he is bad enough, as a murderer he excels. Reference has already been made to bubonic — plague, which has swept the world in three great pandem- ics. The first authentic epidemic originated in 542 A. D. in Pelusium, Egypt. It spread by trade routes over the then known world, till at its height the morality was_ 5,000 persons a day and rose to 10,000 persons some days. According to Procopius, a witness of the epidemie, ‘‘It spared neither island nor cave nor mountain top where man dwelt—. Many houses were left empty and it eame to pass that many for want of relatives and servants were left unburied for several days. At that time it was hard _ to find any one at business in Byzantium. Most people who met in the streets were bearing a corpse. All busi- ness had ceased, all craftsmen had deserted their erafts.’’ The second epidemic, known in history as the Black Death, originated in Mesopotamia about the middle of the eleventh century. Again the disease spread by trade routes over the entire known world, carrying off 25,000,- 000 people, or one-fourth the population of Europe. The third epidemic had its origin in China in 1871, coming to the ports of Europe and America. Due to advancement of the sanitary sciences and their strict application in war upon rats and fleas, the world epidemic never reached beyond isolated cases at seaports in Europe and America. The disease is of especial importance to Ilhi- ‘ 4 J PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 277 nois because of the water ways from the two coasts, and will be of increasing importance as these waterways are improved for ocean-going vessels. Of lesser importance are infectious jaundice and rat bite fever. Rats in many cities in the United States have been shown to harbor the Spirocheta icterohemorrhagiae, causing infectious jaundice in man. In [Illinois several ‘epidemics have been reported. Rat bite fever is less prevalent in this country than in other parts of the world, though some cases have occurred here. The causative agent is Spirocheta morsus muris harbored by rats. Very recently the United States Public Health Service has been making an extended investigation of tularemia, a disease of rats transmitted by the rat fleato man. Man seems very susceptible to the disease. The bacteriolo- gists in Washington who were working with the causative agent, Bact. tularense, one after another became infected till everyone connected with the problem had had the dis- ease. The Lister Institute in London then requested a culture of this virulent organism, which was sent, togeth- er with a warning that great care must be used in hand- ling it. In spite of this warning, word was received two months later that the bacteriologist working on tula- _ remia had contracted the disease. Added interest was lent to the subject when many rabbits for sale in Wash- ington markets were found infected with tularemia. Goats are subject to a disease known as malta fever, which may be transmitted to man through goat milk. In Texas considerable trouble has been caused in this man- ner. Guinea pigs usually are harmless little creatures, but recently an epidemic of ‘‘guinea pig plagne’’ was re- ported in man. The infection was spread to bakeries by rats. The domestic fowl is especially subject to a disease known as ‘‘white diarrhea’’. The writer some years ago found the disease especially fatal to young rabbits, young kittens and young guinea pigs. The eggs from infected hens contain large numbers of the organisms,—Bact. pul- lorum,—which are not destroyed by usual methods of cooking eggs. The relationship of the disease to man is problematical, but there is little doubt that a severe 278 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE gastro-intestinal upset if nothing worse might be caused by a young child eating infected eggs. This disease is very prevalent in poultry in Illinois. Another problem that keeps recurring is the relation of paralized animals to poliomyelitis. In Lllinois a few years ago the writer had the opportunity to study several outbreaks of paralysis among animals which epidemio- logically were closely related to poliomyelitis among chil- dren. Laboratory studies however were negative. The animals included in these studies were colts, hogs, and chickens. Brief mention should be made of intestinal parasites. Tenia saginata, the beef tapeworm, Tenia solium, the pork tapeworm, and Dibothriocephalus latus, the fish tapeworm, all infect man. Belascaris mystax is a com- mon parasite of the dog and cat and hence found in chil- dren. Some of the arthropods are subject to diseases quite fatal to man. Among these are ticks, transmitting re- lapsing fever and rocky-mountain spotted fever, lice, which spread typhus fever, mosquitoes whose bite causes malaria, yellow fever, dengue and filaria, and the flies es- pecially in regard to sleeping sickness. This paper must not be closed without including an animal disease which is not fatal to man, but which has actually been the means of saving a countless number of human lives. This is cowpox, infection with which will prevent the fatal smallpox in human beings. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 279 MOSQUITO AND MALARIA CONTROL IN ILLINOIS Harry F'. Fereuson, Corer Sanitary Encryesr, Division oF Sanitary ENGINEERING, State DEPARTMENT oF Pusiic Hearty, SPRINGFIELD All counties in Illinois suffer more or less from malaria and mosquitoes. In the northern and central portions of the State where much of the land has been fairly well drained for agricultural and other purposes, malaria is much less prevalent than in the southern counties, and the mosquito pest has been greatly reduced except in certain special areas. The death rates from malaria are especially high in the southern counties, and that portion of the State has been termed the ‘‘malaria belt of Illi- -nois’’. The accompanying map of Illinois shows the malaria death rates by counties for the fiscal years from June 1, 1919, to June 30, 1922. When it is considered that for each death from malaria there are approximately 300 cases of that disease, the case rate in the southern coun- ties will be seen to be quite high. Moreover, many deaths are caused by illnesses which would not have been incur- red if the individuals had not previously been infected by malaria and left in a weakened physical condition. This is especially true of children, for if children are infected by malaria in their growing years their growth and vital- ity are probably greatly reduced. As an example of the economic loss from malaria, ref- erence may be made to Jackson County. Vital statistics show that there are occurring in Jackson County between 2,700 and 3,000 cases of malaria a year. Assuming that the economic loss per ease is $100, which would be a con- servative figure, and include the cost of medicine, doctor bills, and loss in productive earnings, the economic loss to Jackson County is over $250,000 yearly. Thus that eounty and other similar counties could well afford to spend considerable sums yearly until mosquito-breeding places have been eliminated. Drainage work that has been going on for many years in Illinois to reclaim land or make it more productive for 280 : ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE oa = —— JO DAVI pssloTEPHENSONWi STATE OF ILLINOIS et DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH aa a eal DIVISION OF ENGIMEERING AND SANITATION j DIVISION OF VITAL STATISTICS MALARIA IH ILLINOIS FISCAL YEARS 1919-20, 1920-21 AMD 1921-22 Nae ata poe sal ° it ik =k 4 jeru ny | | j [Me DONOUGH |! HANCOCK | CM VAN HN | yy, YY ti DE eae pale 4 Oh, wi | LLY YY, Uy q re i Na I 1 MOULTRIE 11] 4 lo con co MALARIA DEATH RATES PER 100,000 POPULATION EaG ALLATI DEATH RATES BASED UPON RECORDS OF THE DIVISION OF VITAL STATISTICS AND THE AVERAGE OF FEDERAL CENSUS POPULA TIONS FOR 1920 AND ESTIMATED POPULA- TIONS FOR JAN. 1, 1922 S LT HENR i A : c no i Hone fl Lf /, HY, Yy Ypy CHLA 4) Malaria death rates in counties in Illinois. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 281 agricultural purposes has resulted in a great decrease in the amount of malaria among the inhabitants because malaria is spread only by the bite of a certain type of - mosquito, and this mosquito, like all types of mosquitoes, can breed.only when stagnant water is available in which to lay eggs and in which the wiggler stage of the mos- quito’s life can be passed. The economic saving from decreased sickness and deaths from malaria, and also other diseases which may have attacked individuals when in a weakened condition from malaria, is not generally taken into consideration in drainage projects, but it real- ly should be included as a benefit as well as the increased productiveness of the land. In some instances the eco- nomic saving from decreased illness alone has been un- doubtedly far in excess of the cost of the complete drain- age work. In 1916 the chief sanitary engineer of the State Depart- ment of Health called attention in an article in ‘‘ Health News’’ (the monthly publication of the department) to . the heavy economic losses caused by malaria in Illinois, especially in the southern portion. No systematic ma- laria-prevention work by mosquito eradication was undertaken in Illinois, however, until 1922, but in the meantime the matter was given consideration by the Southern Illinois Medical Society, and as the result of a resolution of that society, studies of mosquito-breeding places and the types of mosquitoes prevalent in some southern Illinois communities were made by entomolo- gists of the State Natural History Survey. With the 1916 report of the State sanitary engineer, the resolution of the Southern Illinois Medical Society, and the studies of the State Natural History Survey en- tomologist as a background, the question of systematic malaria-mosquito eradication was presented on several different occasions, as opportunity offered, by-the State Division of Sanitary Engineering to the city officials and interested civic organizations and citizens at Carbondale. It was considered that Carbondale presented, for various reasons, the best place to demonstrate what could be done in the way of mosquito eradication and that cities would benefit by such work. 282 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE As a result the Lion’s Club of Carbondale went on record on January 27, 1922, guaranteeing to raise a fund of $2,000 in order to carry on systematic malaria-mos- quito control during 1922. The International Health Board had previously tentatively agreed to furnish $1,000 and the Illinois Central Railroad had given favor- able consideration to the draining of many acres of swamp land adjoining the city on the north. The State Department of Public Health had agreed to provide the services of a sanitary engineer to supervise the work, and the assistance of the State Natural History Survey and the U. S. Public Health Service were also assured. Proposed and recommended by the State Department of Public Health, sponsored by the Lion’s Club of Car- bondale and receiving financial assistance from that elub, the International Health Board, and the [Illinois Central Railroad, and directed by the Sanitary Engineering Di- vision of the State Department of Public Health, Car- bondale carried on systematic mosquito-control work for the season of 1922, and for the first time in the history of the city enjoyed practically complete relief from the pestiferous insects. The results from the standpoint of reduction in malaria cases were equally gratifying. Vital statistics and house-to-house canvasses had shown that prior to 1922 the city suffered an average of over 2950 eases of malaria a year (267 during 1921). Following the close of the mosquito-control work for 1922 it was found by a house-to-house canvass that only 19 cases of malaria had occurred during that year in the entire city. It is quite probable that some of those few cases were recurrent cases or may have received their infections elsewhere. The results were so satisfactory to the city officials and civic organizations that had participated in the work, and the economic saving to the community was so appar- ent that arrangements were made to carry on similar control work during 1923. During 1923 the city was again practically free from mosquitoes and only 11 cases of malaria were found by a house-to-house canvass. With these two successful seasons’ work as a_ practical example of what can be done, the city is making arrange- PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 283 ments to carry on mosquito control during 1924 and pro- ‘vision wiil probably be made in the city budget for such work each year in the future. The work has been found to save lives, to eliminate the pestiferous mosquito, and to make a considerable economic saving to the commun- ity. The cest of the work at Carbondale for 1922, not including the supervision by a State sanitary engineer, was about $2,600. At least 250 cases of malaria were prevented, and considering the economic loss as $100 per case, the net economic saving to the community for the mosquito-control work was over $20,000. The cost for the second season’s work (1923) was only about $800 and thus the economic saving was even greater. Following the example set by Carbondale, the city of Belleville undertook complete malaria-mosquito control during 1925. The work was assured by the interest and financial assistance of the local Lion’s and Rotary Clubs, the Board of Trade, and the city officials. Financial as- sistance was also given by the International Health Board and a State sanitary engineer directed the work. From vital statistics for previous years and a house-to- house canvass at the beginning of the control season of 1923 and another canvass at the end of the year, it was found that the mosquito-control work reduced the ma- laria in the city to about one-eighth of what had existed - im previous years. Malaria had not been quite as prevalent in Belleville as in Carbondale, but nevertheless the control work re- sulted in preventing at least 110 cases and made the city practically free from the bothersome mosquito. The season’s control work cost $3,020 and from the record of the number of malaria cases during previous years and during the control year it is conservatively esti- mated that the net economic saving to the community was over $8,000. The cost of control work for future years will be less because of some permanent work done during the first year, and thus the economic saving will be correspondingly greater. The work at Belleville was locally considered very beneficial and profitable and provision is being made in the city budget, with some additional financial assistance 284 . ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE by interested civic organizations, for the 1924 season’s work and probably for future years the city may finance the entire work. Malaria and mosquito surveys have been made by State sanitary engineers at Herrin and Pekin in response to re- quests from interested citizens and organizations and at a few other Illinois communities. Herrin will undertake systematic control during 1924 the same as Carbondale. and Belleville. The work at Pekin may be delayed until 1925 because of certain local conditions. It is unwise to spend money for mosquito control un- less the control is planned in a systematic manner and will extend over a suitable area, and such work can not be really successful unless a community is thoroughly interested and the individual citizens cooperate. The State Department of Public Health is desirous of assist- ing communities in malaria and mosquito control, and will arrange to have a survey made of malaria and mos- quito conditions in any community and direct the control work wherever a community is sufficiently interested. Before discussing the control measures used at Carbon- dale and Belleville it may be well to review the life hist- ory of the mosquito, the manner in which malaria is spread by one type of mosquito, and then outline the various methods that can be used to eradicate malaria and to prevent mosquito breeding. Because many of the persons attending this meeting are undoubtedly some- what familiar with the life history of the mosquito the matter will be presented very briefly. Two types of mosquitoes may be mentioned: the Ano- pheles, the female of which can spread malaria, and the Culex or ordinary pestiferous mosquito. The life eycle of a mosquito is divided into four stages, the first three of which are entirely dependent upon water for their continuance. The entire cycle from the egg to the adult requires from 7 to 10 days, depending upon climatic conditions and water temperature. The mosquito lays her eggs on water. The eggs of the Anopheles are laid shies as distinguished from the eggs of the ordinary Culex which are jaa in rafts, each raft containing from 200 to 300 eggs. In two or three PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 285 days’ time, the eggs hatch into the larvae or ‘‘wigglers’’. _ Anopheles wigglers swim horizontally on the surface of the water and when disturbed, dart laterally. Culex A raft of culex ova. (After Dead- Patterns assumed by rick.) Anopholes ova. (After Deaderick.) Larva of Anopholes mosquito. (Castel- lain- and Chalmers. Modified after Howard.) Larva of a culex mosquito. (After owar' d.) ; . | 3 Hi ; ‘3 1 i 2 Pupae; i, Culex; 2, Anopholes; 3, Resting posture of mosquitoes: 1 and 2, Aedes colspus. anophoies; 3, culex pipiens. (After Sam- (After Howard.) bon.) Fig. 2. Life cycle of Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes. wigglers hang head down, with their tails protruding , through the surface, their bodies at an angle of about - 60 degrees with the surface, and when disturbed, dart downward. Although living in the water and feeding on small organisms and plant life, the wigglers are at all 286 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE times true air breathers, securing their supply of air through respiratory siphons located on their tails. In two or three days, the wigglers or larvae develop into pupae. Both types of pupae resemble very closely the figure of the comma (,). In two or three days the shell - of the pupa splits and the adult mosquito emerges. The Anopheles mosquito may be distinguished from other types of mosquitoes by the definite markings on the wings and by the position it assumes when resting or feeding. When resting or feeding its proboscis and body are in the same line, and at an angle from 45 to 90 degrees with the surface upon which it is resting. The ordinary Culex mosquito has transparent wings and when resting, keeps its body parallel with the surface. The life habits of the two types of mosquitoes are dif- ferent in a great many respects. The Anopheles appar- ently has the better taste and will not breed abundantly in sewage-polluted water. Anopheles ecrucians “breed most abundantly in swamps and fresh marshes; Ano- pheles punctipennis prefer slowly moving streams, while Anopheles quadrimaculatus choose woodland pools and the shallow portions of lakes and ponds. The Anopheles mosquito very seldom bites in the daytime and its song is much quieter and less annoying than that of other types. It does most of its work between the hours of sunset and sunrise. The Culex mosquito is very annoy- ing both as to song and bite, and will make its attacks in the daytime as well as at night. Only Anopheles mosquitoes, and only the females of that species, can spread malaria. In the ‘‘dark ages’? of malaria it was commonly believed that the disease was caused by breathing or contact with air in low places or which had passed over swamps or stagnant ponds, espe- cially at nighttime. Whence the name malaria from two Latin words, ‘‘mal’’ meaning bad and ‘‘aria’’ meaning air. There was a grain of truth to this unscientifie but popular understanding of the cause of malaria, for it is true that the Anopheles mosquito that can spread ma- laria breeds in swamps and stagnant waters and flies almost entirely after dusk or dark. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 287 To spread malaria, the female Anopheles must first bite and suck the blood of a person infected with the disease. Then after the parasites of the disease have undergone certain changes while in the body of the mos- quito and have passed through its stomach walls and reached its salivary glands, the mosquito can spread malaria to the persons it thereafter bites. Malaria is caused by the animal parasites that are in- jected into the blood stream by the biting mosquito. The chills and fever accompanying the disease are the result of the multiplication of these parasites and the simul- taneous liberation of millions of daughter parasites from their parents. Malaria control may be conducted along three general lines, any one or combination of which will meet with a fair measure of success: (1) by the prompt and proper medical treatment of infected persons so as to eliminate sources of infection for the mosquitoes; (2) by sereening houses and the sick bed and otherwise preventing the mosquito from becoming infected, or an infected mos- quito reaching well persons; and (3) by eradicating the mosquito primarily through the destruction or proper treatment of mosquito-breeding places. The eradication of mosquitoes is the most effective, and besides prevent- ing malaria gives relief from annoyance. It is a problem for the sanitary and drainage engineers. The fight against the mosquito must be directed against its water stages, particularly against the wigg- lers. The mosquito must be killed while in the process of developing and before it takes the wing. All types of mosquitoes invariably make use of all the natural pro- tection afforded for breeding. Along streams the wigg- lers may be found close to the shore, among the protect- ing grass and weeds, in the vicinity of drifts, close to logs, among fallen leaves and other accumulations of a like character. The same is true of ponds and pools, the wigglers always being found in the shallow portions among the marginal growths that furnish such excellent protection. Drainage as an antimosquito measure is the most ef- fective. To remove the water is to eliminate the breed- ry. a hoe . 288 _ JLLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ing place. Drainage of swamps, marshes and ponds can — be effected by the construction of open ditches or tile drains, preferably the latter because of their perman-_ ency. In some cases ponds can be drained by vertical drainage. Old ditches with numerous potholes should . be regraded and cleared in order to drain the potholes and keep the grass and weeds away from the water. A small trench cut in the bed of an old ditch or stream will confine the dry-weather flow and do much to keep the grass and vegetation from encroaching. A tile laid in the bed of an old ditch will remove the trouble entirely. Small depressions and pools can sometimes be more eco- nomically filled than drained. The work of clearing as an antimosquito measure can not be over-emphasized. The work appears of little con- sequence perhaps, yet in many instances at least 90 per cent of the breeding can be destroyed by this work alone. If stagnation of the water is prevented and the marginal vegetation removed, there can be but little breeding. Places that can not be drained or filled in should be treated in-some manner. Oil is the most efficient as well as the cheapest larvicide known at the present time. In some cases lime, hog dip, niter cake, and other com- pounds can be used to good advantage. The oil, in addi- tion to creating a thin film over the water surface through which the wiggler can not penetrate its breath- ing tube, acts as a poison and kills the wiggler much more quickly than by suffocation. Kerosene is effective and easily spread, but evaporates comparatively rapidly. — Kerosene mixed in the proportion of about 4 to 1 with erude oil makes the best mixture. The oil may be ap- plied by sprinkling oil-soaked sawdust along the edges of lakes or streams, by oil drips, swabs, or sprayers. The sprayer is considered the most effective implement, the Panama knapsack sprayer being the one more widely recommended. Because the oil evaporates or after a while separates so as not to form a continuous film over the surface of the water, oiling must be done at regular intervals of about 7 days. Paris green is strictly a malarial mosquito larvicide. When mixed in the proportions of about 2 parts Paris come infected from sucking the blood of malaria victims: they then spread malaria by bit- ing well persons; and thus the vicious circle continues. To break the circle eradicate the mosquito. The vicious circle. Mosquitoes breed in water: they bec — —— -— oe 7 PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 289 green and 100 parts of road dust, and strewn with the wind over marshes and swamps, a great reduction in anopheline breeding can be noted. This is explained by the fact that the Anopheles wigglers or larvae, swim- ming on the water surface, come in contact with the arsenic flakes, while the other larvae do not. The stocking of ponds and lakes with the top minnow known as Gambusia affinis, is an important means of control, for these little fishes swimming near the surface of the water and near the banks devour the mosquito wigglers. If the fish are present in sufficient numbers, namely, about one minnow for each yard of shore line, and no protection is afforded the wigglers by grass and ‘other growths through which the minnows can not pene- trate they will establish complete control. Rain barrels and other man-maintained mosquito-breeding places in cities can be controlled by rigid house-to-house inspec- tions, by the passing’ of mosquito ordinances and educa- tional measures. For the control work at Carbondale a working map was prepared showing all ditches, streams, lakes, ponds, depressions, and other possible mosquito-breeding places in the area to be controlled. The area comprised all land within the city and one mile in each direction from the city limits. The mosquito-breeding places included about 60 acres of cat-tail swamps on the north side, a 40-acre lake on the south side, a number of small ponds and about 6 miles of ditches and streams, all within mosquito- flight distance of the city. The trouble was augmented by an enormous number of rain barrels and open wells and cisterns. The control of the natural breeding places was com- paratively easy, and the greatest difficulty was the breed- ing in rain barrels and other man-maintained places. Control was carried on by means of drainage, clearing of existing ditches, oiling, use of top minnows in ponds, open wells and cisterns, and the scattering of Paris green and road dust. The Illinois Central Railroad constructed by use of dynamite 9,000 feet of ditch for the drainage of the swamps. The first estimate of cost for draining and clearing the swamps was $8,000, of which $2,500 was 290." ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — << — =e ee oe ee oe Ls [ os 4 2 NSz f - | LEGEND _OF MOSQUITO BREEDING PLACES AND MALARIA CASES STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH DIVISION OF ENGINEERING AND SANITATION CAA ORO NDAL all : SMALL PONDS ode DITCHES AND STREAMS(SMI.) ——>~ OPEN WELLS AND CISTERNS(584) *Segeses LAKES (40 ACRES) eAed As = apa © S80 a Seasieae e288) ° ase, (wstavon) |v 40 coo ago 08 BOUNDARY OF AREA CONTROLLED | — —_ =. — —=—=—-—— SS Malaria-mosquito control area at Carbondale, 1922. | RAIN BARRELS, TUBS ETC. (831) %23888 | | ALARIA CASES IN 1921 (267) —-gies8e i nN. r 1 J Les PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 291 for the ditch to be constructed by hand labor. By use of dynamite the ditch was actually constructed for about $1,200. ; The 40-acre lake on the south side was abundant with eat-tail growth and pond lilies in a number of small bays, and there was also a fine growth of grass around the edge of the lake, making it an ideal breeding place for mos- quitoes. The water level in the lake was dropped 18 inches by cutting the outlet wall, and a great reduction in breeding was at once apparent. The bays were cleared of the cat-tails and pond lilies, and portions of the sur- face and the edges oiled throughout the season. A care- ful examination in September failed to find any breeding, when in May before the work started as many as 200 larvae could be secured in a single dip with a small dip- per. All ditches and streams in the area were carefully _ regraded, cleared and kept in a proper condition through- out the season for oiling. All ditches and other collec- -tions of water in the area were oiled once each week. Frequent inspections showed that almost perfect control was established on natural breeding places. The most troublesome part of the campaign was the control of rain barrels and other man-maintained breed- ing places. In June, out of 664 open wells and cisterns, breeding was found in 391, and 584 were immediately stocked with Gambusia. A later inspection of 60 wells and cisterns showed that the fish were performing their duties well, only two cisterns being found breeding, and the fish had apparently been removed from these. The vontrol of rain barrels and tubs was accomplished by regular house-to-house inspections. In June the first in- spection showed 1,030 containers, 831 being rain barrels and tubs which were found breeding mosquitoes. The second inspection in June caught 296 containers breed- ing, the third inspection 154, and the fourth inspection 206. For the fifth inspection every container holding water in the city was oiled. The sixth inspection caught 19 containers breeding, the seventh 7, and the eighth 11. By the height of the mosquito season, almost perfect con- trol had been established. 292 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The control work at Belleville was somewhat similar to that at Carbondale. The greatest trouble at Belleville was a sewage-polluted stream flowing through the city. The city is now planning a sewerage improvement which will remove the pollution from that stream and thus greatly reduce Culex mosquito breeding and also make possible the clearing and maintaining of the stream in such condition as to promote the development of top min- nows, and thus the control of all mosquito breeding. ~ In addition to the mosquito-control work in southern Illinois earried on under the supervision of the Division of Sanitary Engineering of the State Department of Pub- lic Health, mention should be made of the mosquito-con- trol work carried on during 1922 along DesPlaines River, . within the limits of the Chicago Sanitary District. At the request of persons residing in some of the communi- ties in the towns along that river, a preliminary inspec- tion was made of mosquito-breeding conditions and it was decided that the greatest source of the trouble was the sewage-polluted DesPlaines River. Because of the pollution carried by that river the mosquitoes breeding in it were Culex and thus not malaria carriers. Mosquitoes were found to be breeding in the river by the millions, and the interested parties were advised that satisfactory control would not be possible unless the va- rious adjoining communities joined together in a syste- matic control program. At this time the Chicago Sani- tary District agreed to undertake mosquito-control work in that area, and although.the mosquito-breeding season had already started before the field-control work could be started, Joseph F. Base, engineer engaged by the Sani- tary District to supervise the work, carried on a very suc- cessful season’s control and decreased the mosquito nuisance in that area to a very small fraction of what had prevailed during the previous years. The control work was not continued by the Sanitary District during 1923, but some work was done by the communities and it is understood that the Sanitary District will possibly earry on the work during 1924. The mosquito-and-malaria-control work in Illinois has been merely an application of the scientific knowledge Malaria-mosquito control at Carbondale, 1922. we i} ntr¢ quito co S ia-m¢ alar M PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH _ 293 that has been developed by entomologists, biologists, physicians, sanitary engineers, and other scientists, and many cities in Illinois would do well to make use of simi- lar knowledge. Mosquito-control work, when properly planned and carried out, not only prevents sickness and deaths from malaria, but eliminates the mosquito pest and actually benefits a community financially by reducing the large economic loss suffered because of sickness and deaths from malaria. The mosquito-control work al- ready done is an instance of what really can be accom- plished by the proper application of scientific knowledge, and the malaria death-rate map of Illinois shows the large amount of work remaining to be done and only awaiting the realization of the communities and counties of the benefits to be derived from such work. 294 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PRACTICAL VALUE OF FULL TIME HEALTH OFFICERS K. W. Wers, M. D., Director, Hyerentc Institute +] >] =) “4 LaSaue It seems superfluous to attempt to advance any argu- ments in favor of a proposition that is obvious to any one that will give it a moment’s attention. Unfortunate- ly, however, people are so constituted that they will not give serious consideration to the apparent, simple things of hfe whose results stand for everything that we would lke in the way of better health, increased longevity, greater physical efficiency, and more happiness. Prob- ably the reason for the great indifference of the people at large is due to the fact that the ordinary individual depends upon the State or the Municipality to provide whatever protection is necessary. While this is now’ true, in the main due to our more thorough knowledge of the cause of deteriorating conditions, it has become a question of individual as well as State responsibility. The individual, however, does not like to sacrifice his convenience for the public good; therefore the Public to defend itself must resort to preventive measures, mak- ing observance of well known rules and regulations com- pulsory, and for the better carrying out of these prinei- ples men trained specifically to this work emphasize the practical value of a full-time health officer. That this condition has been appreciated 1s proven by the fact that many colleges now give special courses and training in public health work, many societies have been organized whose deliberations are only on this line. Many journals now devote all of their pages to preven: tive medicine and to public health endeavors. Yet with all of this we are woefully lacking in sufficient good ma- terial to present the message properly. Public health service for years and years has been dealt with in a hap- hazard sort of fashion, and because of the fact that we are not daily threatened by an epidemic that takes a large toll of lives, we become indifferent, and the custom has grown to employ some man with a slight knowledge to carry on this work. This means the part-time man. 2 I know whereof I speak, as at one time I enjoyed this position at the munificent salary of $300 per annum, and now I know that I was overpaid. I am safe in saying right now that the same is the case anywhere where a part-time man is employed; in other words, there is no value under these conditions. Owing to the fact of re- markable discoveries being made of the causes of dis- ease, especially of communicable diseases, and also owing to the fact that the laity reads and digests this knowl- edge, a demand has been created for Directors who will devote their entire time and energies in this field; hence the full-time man, and just now physicians are beginning to appreciate this work because more men are entering this field than ever before. Physicians have been very slow to do health work; first, because the compensation has been very small; second, the prospect of advancement beyond a certain point has also been small; but we are beginning to rea- lize that a good salary regularly received is worth more than the general compensation of an uncertain practice. Another factor may enter into this problem and that is the absence of mathematical demonstration of the re- sults, nor have we patience enough to allow a period of years to elapse to prove the benefits received. As an example, and this has occurred often, a case of infectious disease arrives in a town, is laxly controlled and fifty other cases result. Ina neighboring city the same origi- nal ease arrives, is thoroughly controlled and no other ease results. Is there a benefit credited or claimed? Now this is going on all the time. Dr. McCullough of Ontario in an address recently read before the American Public Health Association says, “‘Considering the situation at the present time, the con- clusion has been reached that our greatest need is a com- petent full-time directing head of a health department with an efficient organization, whether it be in the state, the county or the municipality. Public health is a large business, and some of us at least may be of the opinion _ that the advancement of public health is one of the most important if not the most important business of the state’’. According to the figures collected by Dr. Fer- PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 295 296 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE rell in 1914, there were but three full-time health officers in the United States. At the present time there are close to 250, and the figure is being added to rather rapidly. In Illinois the County Health Officer Bill failed of pass- age in the last Legislature. In spite of that we now have two, Morgan and Jacksonville combined and Cook County. There are only three full-time municipal health officers, exclusive of Chicago, in the state. These figures taken collectively prove that the sentiment in favor of full-time men is being rapidly appreciated. The trend of medicine today is toward prevention, and it depends upon the trained hygienist and sanitarian to spread the knowledge that is necessary in this preven- tive work. What was formerly considered the ravages of time we now know are the ravages of bacteria and an unphysiological manner of living. With the adoption of safety measures, thus avoiding accidental conditions including those producing malignancy, it would be in- teresting to note just what the limit of life would be. To this particular phase of work the full-time man should devote considerable attention. Seven years ago I de- voted considerable time to training trees with results that were remarkably gratifying, and we all know what Burbank has done both by careful selection and culti- vation. As the secret of our education is to begin with the young, it is evident that the Hygienist and the Sani- tarian should be ones who can impress upon impression- able minds the lessons of prevention and proper methods of living. A full-time man proves his value in propor- tion to his knowledge and application of it to the on- coming generation. The part-time man has neither the ability nor the inclination and certainly not the time if he is in active practice. Therefore he is not to be con- sidered in this connection at all. There are two problems, and very serious ones, in the appointment of full-time health officers; one is the ten- ure of office and the other is his political associations. It is apparent that any full-time man who must rely on political influence to continue in office is not the man who should be employed. It is unfortunate that at the pres- ent time most of the appointments are political, and as Ruhland of Milwaukee has observed, ‘‘Under these cir- cumstances it is not difficult to see that those who are PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 297 asked to take the responsibility of public health service will treat that appointment somewhat as a side issue and not as the issue.”’ The great objection to the employment of full-time men has been the supposed inability to pay a requisite salary. This objection is overcome in the State of Illi- nois and in several other States by the adoption of the law wherein two or more towns can join together and form a public health district and levy a small tax for the maintenance of the health department. If this is properly presented there should be very little difficulty in securing public health departments in any number of eommunities, for the benefits conferred are far greater than can be had by any other investment. To nullify as much as possible political influence, the law of Illinois provides that appointments should be made from a list of eligibles from the State Department of Public Health, and this list is made up by a competitive examination. The law that I refer to was caused to be placed upon our statute books by the late Mr. F. W. Matthiessen of LaSalle, a man of remarkable vision and fortunately as- sociated with it the ability to determine its expediency. He endowed the Hygienic Institute for LaSalle, Peru and _ Oglesby with sufficient funds, the income of which pays the necessary expenses. The Hygienic Institute is a corporate body operating solely for the benefit in pub- lic health service for the three cities mentioned. The Institute employs a Director who is Health Commis- sioner of each city and a member of the board of health of each respective city. The Hygienic Institute is con- trolled by a Board of five Trustees and is perpetual in character. Besides the Director it employs necessary assistant Health Commissioners, Bacteriologist and Chemist, three school Nurses and an Infant Welfare Nurse, a Veterinary for inspection of dairies, Stenog- rapher and assistant Technician, and owns and operates one of the finest Isolation Hospitals for contagious dis- eases. All of these at its own expense, and the price is not prohibitive to any community of our size. Our records prove that our morbidity and our mortality and our longevity are of a better percentage than communi- ties who do not operate with a full-time health officer. 298 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SOME COMMENTS ON THE PHYSICAL FINDINGS IN HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES J. Howarp Brarp, M. D., Untversiry Heatrx OFricer, URBANA The generalizations made herewith are based directly upon 2955 medical examinations of high school gradu- ates made in September, 1922, of which 885 were of wom- en and 2070 were of men. They are further supported by similar approximate findings in a total of 12,000 medi- cal records of high school graduates, of which 9000 are of men and 3000 of women. As one group of 26 physi- cians and 18 specialists and dentists assisted in examin- ing the men, and another of 11 physicians and 4 special- ists assisted in examining the women, the total defects considered represent a composite opinion rather than that of one individual with a preconception or a fixed idea. The most important deduction, in my judgment, to be drawn from the findings of the medical examination of high school graduates is that physically, mentally, and morally, they are unsurpassed by any group of similar age of which there is record for comparison. It should be pointed out at the outset that a large proportion of the mechanical defects noted are minor and are not, in reality, a serious handicap in civil life. Impairments of the special sense organs and of the teeth are to such a large degree correctible, as, in the vast majority of cases, not to interfere markedly with effective living. GENERAL DEVELOPMENT Slightly more than one-half of the high school gradu- ates examined in 1922 received a classification of good in their physical development at the time of their physi- cal examination. About one-third were recorded as fair, 3.2% of excellent development, and 5.2% of poor develop- ment. . The relative general development of men and of wom- en differs but little. A slightly larger per cent of the men are classified as good; a somewhat greater per cent of women than of men, as fair. This difference in physique of men and of women may be influenced, in a PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 299 measure, by the opinion of different groups of examin- ers, but it has tended to become less each year. This de- crease in the variation in classification in the physical development of men and women parallels the progress of physical education in the grammar and in the high schools. . The general nutrition of the group is very close to average, but with a slight tendency towards thinness. Men are more apt to be average than women, who seem to show a slightly greater tendency to approach the ex- tremes of either slenderness or obesity. The finding of: a greater tendency of women than of men toward either overweight or underweight when registered is consistent with a similar finding of girls and boys from nine to six- teen years inclusive. The causes of underweight consid- ered broadly may be elassified as those of race and those of malnutrition. There is a greater general tendency for _ high school graduates from the city to be underweight than from the rural districts. This is chiefly due to the fact that such small races as southern Europeans and Polish Jews tend to locate in the towns rather than in the country. Shortness of stature is largely independent of environment. It is a characteristic of the above races, and in this country has a geographical distribution sim- ilar to them. Unhealthy environment, bad habits of eating and exer- cise, and physical handicaps are productive of underde- velopment. Defective vision, deafness, large tonsils, ade- noids, nasal obstruction and communicable disease are also preventives and deterrents of growth. It is the general observation, however, that high school graduates presenting themselves for physical examina- tions at the time of registration are yearly showing bet- ter posture and general physique. The publicity of the physical findings of the draft and the consequent growth in interest in Hygiene and Physical Education is now bearing fruit. DEFECTS OF THE EYES Without the use of a eycloplegic, 25% of the men and 32% of the women applying for registration in the fall - 300 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of 1922 were found to have errors of refraction of a handicapping severity at the time that they were exam- ined. About 91% of the men and 92% of the women with defective eyesight had their condition wneorrected. Myopia was the most common error of refraction ob- served. It is more frequent in students from the city. This is due primarily to the racial constitution of the population of large cities, and secondarily to the exces- sive eyestrain incidental to study, and to clerical ane industrial occupations. As causes of impaired vision, uncorrected astigmatism, short-sightedness and squint aggravated by. close work are of the first importance. Dufour has shown that the number of pupils with myopia and the average degree of short-sightedness increases from class to class and with the addition in school demands. This form of myopia is usually primarily due to congenital astigmatism, a very common condition, and to the consequent strain ‘upon the accommodation of the eye in the effort to see. Risley has reported a series of cases in which astigmatic eyes had passed, while under his observation, from hypermetropic to myopic refraction. Neglected squint is an important factor in the serious impairment and destruction of vision. The bad advice to parents that the child beginning to squint will grow out of it, frequently has led to delay until the eye was practically blind. If the serious consequences of pro- erastination were known, children would be no more neglected than if they had appendicitis or diptheria. EAR Exxeessive wax in the ear, ceruminosis, W was rather a common finding, being present in 16% of the men and 8% of the women. Chronic suppuration of the ear was found in the total of ten cases. This is a very important finding since the condition impairs hearing, is a center of infection that may produce serious complications, and is rarely cured without a surgical operation for the re- moval of decayed bone. Middle-ear disease, which causes eighty-five to ninety per cent of all deafness, usually has its origin in the naso- - PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 301 pharynx and the Eustachian tube. Approximately thirty per cent of the deafness in the United States is due to the suppuration of the middle-ear during child- hood. Ten per cent of the discharging ears of children are complications of scarlet fever, measles, or other com- municable diseases; in ninety per cent diseased tonsils and adenoids are predisposing causes. In a systematic oral examination of patients with adenoids, Tomlinson found some grade of ear involvement in seventy-five per cent. Where the function of hearing is impaired, the men- tality of the child suffers. He becomes inattentive, in many instances diffident, and frequently a class repeater. ‘Partial deafness, especially when it dates from child- hood, is a disadvantage that seldom permits the indi- vidual to attain the efficiency of which he would be otherwise capable. Much deafness would be avoided if ice of the ear were promptly treated by specialists and if parents would see that the adenoids and enlarged tonsils of their children received proper attention. Medical in- spection of schools and free treatment for children with disease of the nose, throat and ear whose parents are unable to provide medical care for them should be an important part of any program for the ph ape of deafness. NOSE AND THROAT Twenty-six and two-tenths per cent of the students ex- amined showed some abnormality of the nose. In the vast majority of cases the conditions were not of patho- logical significance. Approximately 43% of the defects were due to deviation of the septum and 33% to nasal spurs. Enlarged adenoids showed a very low instance due to removal before examination at registration, the age of the individual, and possibly to being overlooked in rare instances by examiners when rushed. Of the 2955 students examined 17.6% had had their tonsils re- moved. This is an indication of the greater knowledge. of the danger of diseased tonsils. This large per cent of 302 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the removal of the tonsils is a preventive measure of great economic, social, and hygienic significance. The public is beginning to appreciate more and more that although tonsillitis is generally a mild disease it is not one whose effect upon the patient is always local and one from which the victim always recovers quickly. If it is as Felty believes, a specific streptococcus disease caused by the hemolytic strain of this bacterium, it is a menace to health locally, by extension through the blood stream, by way of the lymphatics, and through the respi- ratory ‘and intestinal tracts. Bloomfield and Felty have shown that 40% of the indi- viduals of a large group examined by them when tonsil- litis was not prevalent were found to be carriers of the hemolytic streptococcus. Later when certain members of the group developed tonsillitis, the investigators were surprised to find that the ill were among those of the group who were not carriers of the organism. These ecar- riers seem to enjoy immunity during the period of har- boring the streptococcus. Spontaneous termination. of the carrier state is followed shortly by relatively hyper- sensibility to tonsillitis. The organisms present in the tonsils of carriers seem to have produced a protective immunity which lasted but a short time after the re- moval. From the standpoint of resistance individuals may be divided into two groups; those naturally resistant, who rarely have the disease, and susceptibles who have fre- quent recurrences with intervals of immunity due to a previous attack and its associated carrier state. The 17.6% of the prospective students examined who | had their tonsils removed had not only gotten rid of a menace to their health but had made conditions in the throats less favorable for the growth for the hemolytic streptococcus. Removal of the tonsils, therefore, would seem to be justified under two conditions; namely, re- peated attacks of tonsillitis, and possibly to prevent the individuals from remaining carriers and infecting others. The mere appearance of the tonsils would not neces- sarily be an indication for excision. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 303 TEETH The dental examination revealed that every third man examined had defective teeth. In most instances these defects were only slight cavities requiring fillmg. Ina few cases a number of teeth had been lost and conse- quent facial asymmetry was present. The findings of the dentist emphasize the importance of the care of the teeth to insure proper alignment of the permanent set. It is indeed a rare thing to find perfect teeth in high school graduates. Most of them give their teeth proper atten- tion; a very small per cent are careless of their oral hygiene. While dental caries is primarily due to bacteria of the mouth acting in the presence of food debris and to cer-- tain elements in the saliva which lead to the formation of acid which attacks the enamel, many other factors are predisposing causes. The teeth may have little resistance to decay because of developmental defect, faulty diet, neglect as result of ignorance of parents, cost or lack of dental facilities so common in rural communities. The ill effects of carious or defective teeth reach be- yond the mouth. Decayed teeth may prove the gateway through which pathogenic bacteria reach the blood stream and a root abscess may be the source of arthritis, valvular heart lesions or Bright’s disease. Poor teeth are often the cause of indigestion and improper assimila- tion of food. With the exception of certain professions and a few in- dividuals in whom the sense of the cosmetic is highly de- veloped, the majority of men and women do not seek their fortune through their faces. The average man or woman, however, desires a symmetrical face. Yet, few parents give sufficient attention to their children’s first set of teeth to prevent asymmetry by insuring proper align- ment of the permanent set. GOITER Thirty-one and eight-tenths per cent of the women and 4 per cent of the men high school graduates showed some enlargement of the thyroid gland, when examined in the 304 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE : fall of 1922. This gland tends to enlarge during adoles- cence, but as this swelling seems to be influenced by the locality from which the individual comes, a particular age is not the important factor responsible for the increased size of the thyroid observed. It has been known for a number of years thatin certain regions of the world swelling of the thyroid gland was common, and it has been known for a century or more that in America this enlargement is pre-eminently a disease of the Great Lakes’ Basin, and its greatest incidence corresponds rather well with that of the hard waters of the Niagara limestone. It is only comparatively recently, however, that this enlargement of the neck was known to occur so extensively in this region and to be common in men, al- though much less frequent than in women. Goiter is a disease usually characterized by the enlarge- ment of the thyroid gland which occupies the lower por- — tion of the neck, anterior-laterally. There are two forms of this disorder; simple goiter which is primarily a swelling of this gland, and exophthalmic goiter, an en- larged thyroid accompanied by a distention of the eye- balls, anemia, overactivity of the heart, tremor, muscle weakness, mental irritability, and general organic dis- turbance. In the three groups of men and women examined in the falls of 1920-21-22 simple enlargement of the thyroid gland was found to be a health problem of importance in this state. As it is due apparently to iodine insufh- ciency, it is preventable by the administration of this ele- ment, either through such foods as cereals, beets, pota- toes, and sea-water salt, or of iodine or its compounds. Prevention of goiter reduces the death rate, increases resistance of the individual to disease, improves his eco- nomic status, and promotes his mental, moral, and physi- — eal efficiency. HEART DISEASE If the hearts of individuals of high school age are eare- fully ausecultated both in the erect and recumbent posi- tion and before and after exercise, definite murmurs that are not cardio-respiratory in origin may be heard in from ——_ ss ve PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 305 10 to 15 per cent of those examined. In the great ma- jority of such cases the heart is of normal size, reacts properly to exercise and position, and the diastolic and systolic blood pressure will be found to be within the range of normal. Such individuals enjoy the usual ac- tivities of their age without imconvenience or without showing cardiac symptoms of any kind. If this group is earefully observed and repeatedly examined, it will be difficult in most cases to discover anything more indica- tive of heart abnormality than the murmur. Such con- ditions are probably functional. There are, however, of all those examined from 2 to 4 per cent with definite organic heart disease. This latter group is showing a small increase year by year and un- doubtedly will eventually go to make up a part of the increasing death rate from organic heart disease in early middle life, unless measures are adopted to protect their hearts. Heart disease is generally a reminder that entire re- covery from infection is often only apparent. The great destruction of life caused by it is usually not the immed- iate result of acute infection, but rather a slowly pro- gressive failing of the cardio-vascular mechanism due to injuries received originally from such diseases as rheu-. matism, chorea, tonsillitis, scarlet fever, diphtheria, in- fluenza, or pneumonia. Dublin, in comparing the life expectancy of those who have had typhoid fever, for the three years immediately following the disease, with those who have not had the disease found the death rate in the first group doubled as compared with those who have not had typhoid. It was remarkable that 14.8% of the deaths were due to heart disease, showing that although recoy- ery was apparent the heart was so injured as to cause ' death ina few years. Lues, of course, plays a great role in the production of heart disease in middle life but was not an apparent factor in any of the cases that came under our observation. The prevention of heart disease in youth i is largely a problem of the elimination of communicable disease. The general adoption of the usual means for the control of epidemic diseases whose complications are involvements 306 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF: SCIENCE of the heart would undoubtedly be followed by a de- crease in the number of cases of this disease found in high ~ school graduates. The high death rate from organic heart disease demands renewed emphasis upon the im- portance of routine medical examination of the heart and chest. Much will be done in the prevention of this disease when parents, as well as physicians, appreciate the close relation of rheumatism, chorea, and tonsillitis to endo- carditis. It should be generally understood that the symptoms of rheumatism vary in severity from so-called ‘‘ growing pains’’ to obvious acute rheumatic fever with an immed- iate, impending dissolution. The publiic must be so edu- cated as to understand that repeated sore throat and St. Vitus’ dance are truly menaces to life, because of the fre- quent damage to heart valves and to the cardiac muscle. Both parents and physicians should be on the alert for diseased or permanently enlarged tonsils and adenoids, and should have them removed. The child complaining of tiredness, aching limbs, or who is fidgety or does not desire to work or play should be given a medical exami- nation. Children with even the mildest attack of rheu- matism or chorea should receive medical attention and should be watched most carefully to prevent, if possible, the development of inflammation of the heart. The child with an impaired heart should be given close supervision and special school work. Finally, parents as well as the victims of heart impairment should know that a damaged heart, properly treated and cared for in its earliest stages and guarded intelligently through life, is not in- compatible with old age and many useful years of service. HERNIA The average incidence of hernia among the men gradu- ates of high school registering at the University for the first time over a period of four years is approximately one in twenty-five examined, or 3.7%. A number of these cases observed are of congenital origin or are superin- duced by anatomical abnormalities. This condition is also in evidence of the inability of the lower abdominal muscles and fascia to withstand the extraordinary ab- - PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 307 dominal strain of modern civilization. It may also be considered an indication of man’s ia aaa adaptation to the erect position. Chronic constipation, faulty posture, lack of exercise and improper clothes, with the resulting flabby abdominal musculature and sudden strain, are factors in its produc- tion. Hernia, to a considerable degree, is preventable. Its presence in young adults is proof of neglected sur- gery. SPINAL CURVATURE While heredity may produce conditions favorable to the development of curvature of the spine, faulty posture is the most frequent cause. Abnormalities of the spine are more common among girls than boys, due, to a large degree, to the differences of dress and the manner of - living. Curvature of the spine is part of the price paid by man for the ability to stand erect. The force of gravity is both a predisposing and an exciting cause. Curvature may be secondary to disease and deformity, both of the spine and of other parts of the body. As only a very small per cent of the eases under con- sideration are structural in origin, we wish to eall atten- tion to them, particularly, as defects of carriage and posture. Happily, the great majority of abnormalities are correctible by physical training and individual atten- tion. Only about 10% of the women and 7% of the men show anatomical abnormalities of the spine that are eorrectible by gymnastics with difficulty, if at all. There has been a slight tendency to increase in curva- ture of the spine among high school graduates during the last four years. This rise, we believe, to a consider- able degree is explainable by more careful record of slight deviations from normal. Many of these postural deformities might be described as a slouch or sag and are correctible by the individual himself when his atten- tion is called to it. As his musculature is weak, he needs exercise, otherwise he will resume his old position as soon as his attention is diverted. In the comparison of the relative frequency of lateral curvature, stooped shoulders, and swayback, scoliosis 308 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is by far the most common deviation of the spine. It con- stitutes about two-thirds of all spinal abnormalities noted among high school graduates. The comparison also shows that lordosis, or swayback, is more common than kyphosis, or stooped shoulders. FLAT FEET While our records show that 35% of the high school graduates examined have some abnormality of the feet, it-should be noted that only about 7% of the men and 10% of the women have frank flat feet. Undoubtedly, our sta- tistics include some instances of flat feet that are normal, as it is characteristic of certain races to have flattened arches. It should also be borne in mind that this large per cent is more apparent than real, because it includes a large number of cases of defects in standing and walk- ing that are potential, and not actual signs of pes planus. We have attempted to discover and to treat flat feet with reference to their predisposing causes by recogniz- ing pes planus as weak feet before flattening of the long arches has developed and the usual train of symptoms are present. The body weight normally passes slightly to the inside of the center of the knee, through a line pro- longed from the crest of the tibia, through the ankle, over the dorsum of the foot to the second toe. With the be- ginning of eversion of the foot and the change of direc- tion of the body weight, it is only a question of time be- fore the symptoms and signs of fiat foot become evident. The importance of muscle insufficiency, improper nu- trition and communicable disease in the production of flat foot are shown in the following table, taken from the statistics of Ehrenfried: Children under twelve years of age examined..................- 1,000 Children ‘with debility. of the) feet...;.. <..\sclee cite sie teeters «sine ee 440 Congenital-—eltib-fo0t: yeeros wee © hse tarce ok a cools ore oeeise eee eee 18 Idiopathie—physieal> debility |. sires si. Siete sais oe eras © wha ——.----- SS '"”- _ Lowest 2d. Middle 4th Highest fifth * fifth fifth ~ fifth ~= fifth) ioral Test G-1 (numbers)....... 12 9 9 9 7 45 Test G-2 (numbers)....... 8 6 13 8 10 45 Test G-1 (per-cent)....... 26.7. 720.0 1728" $20.0: * bso annie Test G-2 (per-cent)....... L758 “A823. 92829 747.8. 22.2 aero * Series I Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence. * TABLE 10 Showing the correlation between (a) the intelligence of pupils as measured by the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Tests, given in terms of the Intelligence Quotient (I. Q.) and (b) the teachers’ judgments con- cerning the pupils’ intelligence, (given from E lowest to A highest). 130 cases. Read as follows: Of pupils having intelligence quotients between .50 and .55, twe were judged by teachers to be in the lowest fifth of their classes, in intelligence. Of pupils having intelligence quotients between .56 and .60 one was judged by the teacher to belong in the lowest fifth of the class and one was judged by the teacher to belong in the next to the highest fifth. Of eleven pupils who had intelligence quotients between .61 and .65 three were judged to belong to the lowest fifth, three to be- long to the next to the lowest fifth, three were judged to belong to the * Wducational and Psychological Tests in the Public Schools of Win- chester, Va., University of Virginia Record Vol. 6, No. 6, January, 1922. - , | : PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 385 middle fifth, one was judged to belong to the next to the highest fifth, and one was judged to belong to the highest fifth. . Teachers’ judgments Intelligence quotient BE fi 3 Wee oa, @ B A Total eine ee eter ers wore is Brads Oe 2 ‘A ae ee - 2 EES Ue SRS Se SPS, 5 PIR a te eS i te ee 1 2 Ree E oe ct sta ahve o otaee eer sre wen 3 3 3 1 1 11 TLE CUBS Sew eae dO ee 1 5 2 ee 8 Ti EY ASE is ee Seat ee SEBO MOO SE mn Ce tage hs, ERA 2 7 3 1 13 A= UL Ra, SMS ee |e ea 3 4 4 Ke ace BNR e Bate Nea ae, SRM teh here Oe 2 4 7 5 2 20 Os Se ck Metre eee 5 1 5 3 3 aE 12 JES ENS ee ie Spt ae Pa ee st 4 2 a! 1 9 ANE Yeh ee tc MRE ee CoS ce 1 3 2 5 2 13 TRUDE 1 RPO ORE 9 or Mae ar are 1 1 a 1 4 NO PADS os LI AS os ate ve ghee 2 i Z 1 6 DEBS Se Seite Cyarenr yah peevete a oak oe 1 ae 1 2 3 7. LLY STI, EA a emer REA. SNe eae oa 2 1 3 FRE EO Nae ents Porch is. «, =) Wh del Wie WG ie at 2 2 DSU TUS) UO Ge Ree ao 2 Sant Ars eh eae 1 1 2 LS LR Es REE coterie rea rae 2 1 3 Bg FAN ena ee eee ec atacdi ye ors = ae Di eS IL et Cangas ee se ee, See, ee ans iw es it 2 oA cm Tics (ESSE Ot ine OAR Serco Ve ie Sa ‘ake ose ap i a 1 OTe LST Sst eet NN ey el Re aa ee - a if MGS re betes a ete ariel 19 38 29 Zt 17 130 TABLE 11 A Comparison of an Allocation of ACCELERATED Pupils According to I. Q.’s and According to Teachers’ Judgments Number of pupils in Middle eee high. Highest | Total fifth of fifth of fifth of | est fifth of} fifth of class | ae class class | class | Below 50. 0 | 0 0 | a 0 0 50-59 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 60-69 0 0 2 | 0 0 2 70-79 Al | 3 5 2 3 14 80-89 0 q 20 15 4 46 90-99 0 | 5 27 31 14 17 100-109 si«i 2 36 54 13 105 190-139 | a 4 4 30 34 21 90 120-1290 0 5 24 14 43 130-139 | 0 0 3 6 10 19 140-1499 0 0 2 ac 6 Over 149 | 0 0 0 0 2 0 Totals 2 21 128 168 =| 86 404 386 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE 12 A Comparison of an Allocation of NORMAL Pupils According to I. Q.’s and According to Teachers’ Judgments : Number of pupils in TQ | Lowest | jose, | Middle |Next high) Highest | 70% fifth of fifth of | est fifth of} fifth of class fifth of class class class class Below 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 50-59 “0 0 1 0 0 ak 60-69 0 6 6 2 0 14 70-79 ih 11 22 7 0 41 80-89 1 18 55 25 0 99 90-99 2 14 60 26 3 105 100-109 0 8 36 21 3 68 110-119 0 3 10 9 3 25 120-129 0 0 2 5 3 10 130-139 0 0 0 0 0 0 140-149 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 Over 149 0 0 0 0 0 0 Totals 4 60 192 95 12 363 TABLE 13 A Comparison of an Allocation of RETARDED Pupils According to I. Q.’s and According to Teachers’ Judgments Jumber of pupils in 1.Q. Lowest eat Middle |Next nien| Highest Total fifth of fifth of fifth of |est fifth of) fifth of class iene class | class | class Below 50 3 2 5 4 0 14 50-59 3 12 5 2 0 22 60-69 4 13 1 3 0 en 70-79 9 35 32 4 0 80 80-89 3 41 38 2 0 84 90-99 0 15 ey 10 20 42 100-109 0 6 15 2 0 23 110-119 0 0 3 2 0 5 120-129 0 0 1 0 0 al 130-139 0 0 0 0 0 0 140-149 0 0 0 0 0 0 Over 149 0 0 0 0 0 0 Totals 22 124 123 29 0 298 ; ad Last Name, First Name PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION TEACHER’S ESTIMATE—PUPIL ABILITIES November, 1921 pos ae ship seed | Years in | school | ship | gence| try school li Age Last Name, First Name| Age | Grade Grade —— 387 ae 388 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE IS EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH YIELDING APPROPRIATE DIVIDENDS? Water §. Monroz, University or ILnrots It may perhaps appear suggestive of heresy to an- nounce a title which raises the question of the value of educational research, but the experience of several years devoted largely to this field and my contacts with other investigators have convinced me that this is a question of vital importance. About ten years ago there began to be established in colleges and universities explicit or- ganizations for the avowed purpose of conducting edu- cational research. Several of these research organiza-_ tions now enjoy liberal appropriations for this work. . Somewhat similar research departments have been estab- lished in a number of public school systems. At the present time the number of such organizations in exist- ence is probably one hundred. In addition there are a large number of workers who are carrying on educa- tional research as personal projects. The Commonwealth Fund, General Educational Board, and other educational foundations are making generous donations to both in- dividuals and research bureaus. The total annual ex- penditure for educational research is unknown, but un- doubtedly it amounts to several hundred thousands of dollars. The amount of educational research is also indicated by the large number of published reports. In the ad- vance sheets of the biennial survey of education for 1920- 22, a summary of certain phases of educational research for that period includes bibliographies totaling 518 titles. School surveys and mental tests are not included. Fur- thermore, it is announced that only the principal con- tributions are given in. these bibliographies. Beginning in 1917, the Bureau.of Educational Research at the’ Uni- versity of Illinois has compiled a list of masters’ and doctors’ theses in Education. Although the compilations are not complete, as all the institutions have not reported their titles, 410 doctors’ and 1896 masters’ theses have been listed during a period of six years. All doctorial dissertations are expected to be significant contributions » ra PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 389 to our knowledge about education. Many masters’ theses - make minor contributions. - What are the net results of all this activity? What additions have been made to our knowledge of educa- tion? What has been the effect of educational research upon school practice? Are we developing a group of competent and reliable research workers? Is the work being done increasing in quality as well as in amount? What has been the effect of educational research upon the attitude of teachers and of others not engaged in carrying on investigations? It would be presumptious for me to attempt a final answer to these questions, but a number of facts which have seemed significant and perhaps indicative of a general trend have recently come to my observation. Some of these facts I shall pass on to you with the hope that I may stimulate you to think about some vital questions. In the time at my disposal, I propose to cite illustrations of four sources of waste in educational research. In a doctorial dissertation recently accepted and pub- lished by one of our foremost graduate departments in education, the investigator set for herself the problem of making an inventory of the content of the minds of children of six and seven years of mental age. Obviously the first step in dealing with this problem was to locate a representative group of children whose mental ages fell in the interval from six years and no months to seven years and eleven months. This was done by administer- ing the Stanford Revision of the Binet Test to certain groups of children. Later they were given also the Her- ring Revision of the Binet Test. The average of the two measures was used as the criterion of mental age, al- though the results of the second test do not appear to have been used in. determining what children should be chosen for the investigation. For reasons which are not made clear in the report, the investigator later adminis- _ tered four group intelligence tests and eleven specialized individual tests, and caleulated from the scores thus ob- tained a number of coefficients of correlation and regres- sion coefficients. 390 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A careful reading of the monograph fails to reveal any use which was made of the additional data secured from these tests or of the derived measures which were calcu- lated from the resulting scores. Two tables of coefficients of correlation are presented with the statement that the relations and inter-relations shown are ‘‘food for thought,’’ but the report contains little or no evidence that the investigator made any effort to masticate or digest this ‘‘food.’’ In fact, it is difficult for the reader to conceive how these correlations might have’ contrib- uted to the study of the problem under consideration. One gets the impression that the giving of the tests and the subsequent calculations are for ornamentation rather than for any useful purpose. If one may be permitted to read between the lines, he might say that the investi- gator or her advisers believed that an acceptable doctor-: ial dissertation must contain some coefficients of corre- lation and statistical formulae, and that in this case these features were added somewhat as an afterthought in order to meet these requirements. At least the reader cannot escape the conviction that the returns upon a cer- tain portion of the investment in this investigation yield- ed only very meager returns if any at all. It is not always possible for an investigator to esti- mate correctly in advance the value of all data collected, and of the calculations which he may make. There will necessarily be some scrapping of material in’ pioneer work, but this published report has been described as illustrative of a source of waste in educational research which unfortunately is more prevalent than seems to be justified. A careful definition of the problem and a strict adherence to the limitations of this definition will result in a mental reduction in the amount of useless data collected and tabulated. 3 The writer of a recent article gave a tabulation of the intelligence quotients derived from a group intelligence test. Several of the I. Q.’s were so low and others were so high as to suggest the presence of errors in the scores from which they were calculated. In the original article no mention had been made of this possibility, but a few months later a criticism was published in which the point PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 391 was made that the investigator should have considered these limitations in preparing his report of the study. In a reply the author of the original article criticised his critic. Among other things he said, ‘‘Nor can there be any question about the reliability of gathering the data. The tests were given by two experienced examiners and scored by trained scorers under supervision.’’ This statement expresses what appears to be a pre- valent attitude toward the measures yielded by standard- ized educational tests. If the tests were administered by experienced examiners and if there is reason to believe that no errors were made in marking the test papers, then the scores may be considered accurate measures of the traits or abilities which the tests were designed to measure. If specifically interrogated, most test users would probably admit that our present standardized tests are imperfect, but a large number disregard pos- sible limitations when they are using these instruments of educational research. Variable errors are always present in test scores and constant errors are frequently introduced even when the tests have been carefully ad- ministered. Critical studies of standardized tests have demonstrated that the possibility of errors in test scores is sufficiently great to make the investigator assume the responsibility for proving that his data are accurate when there is any reason for suspicion. Failure to do this means that the investigator is building upon a sus- _ picious foundation which may result in the collapse of his conclusions. The conclusions reached by educational research cannot be more dependable than the weakest step in the study. In view of the frequent failure of investigators to be critical of their data, it is then not inappropriate to raise again the question, ‘‘Are we receiving adequate divi- dends for the time and money which is being invested in educational research in the United States?’’ There are literally hundreds of persons putting time and money in educational research, but with few except- ions they are working independently and with little reference to what other workers have already done. If one examines the voluminous literature in the field, he 392 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE will find relatively few attempts to summarize and or- ganize previous contributions. As a result there are sey- eral sources of waste. Most of the educational research which has been done is fragmentary. ‘The studies have been based upon too few cases, or have included only minor aspects of the problem, or have not been carried on long enough to lead to dependatle conclusions. Be- ‘cause it is fragmentary much of this work will natu- rally be lost unless steps are taken to conserve it. | Cooperation has been urged as a means of coordinating and unifying educational research. Workers within cer-. tain areas have formed associations and provided faeili- ties for exchanging information in regard to the prob- lems which they are studying or which they expect to study sometime in the future. In this way they believe that duplication of effort ean be avoided, or at least mini- mized, and that when two or more persons are engaged in studying the same problem or related problems, co- operation is mutually advantageous. Some leaders have taken the initiative in organizing those interested in a’ particular field into a cooperative group and have claim- ed that such ‘pooling of abilities and resources will re- sult in superior work. In certain types of studies, cooperation in the form of assistance is necessary and in other cases it has doubt- less been beneficial, but it will not correct certain waste- ful tendencies. This can be accomplished only by changes in the attitude and interests of those engaged in educational research. Instead of emphasizing ‘‘orig- inal’’ research they must develop an interest in studying, in summarizing and in organizing the published reports of the work of others. In my experience with graduate students, I have found them much more eager to attempt an ‘‘original’’ study than to inquire into what has already been done. Recently I inquired of the departments offer- ing graduate work in education concerning the types of theses which they urged students to undertake, or which they found most satisfactory. ‘‘Summaries of other in- vestigations,’’ were reported as being among the least satisfactory types of theses. On the other hand, the types most frequently mentioned as being encouraged, PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 393 or considered most satisfactory, included original in- vestigations, surveys of a school system, or causal in- vestigations. The popularity of such studies appears to be due to the ease with which they may be made; and the unpopularity of a summary of the work of others is due in part to the fact that such work is difficult and when well done requires a higher degree of ability. One of my correspondents made this illuminating statement, ‘‘According to present-day standards anything with tables and statistics seems to be most satisfactory. It is questionable, however, whether they really mean very ‘much in most cases.”’ The prevailing attitude is reflected also in the prefer- ence for studies involving the use of a questionnaire, or of standardized tests rather than for those based upon data to be found in records or published sources. In far too many cases this preference is indicative of men- tal laziness. It is easy to ask questions for other people to answer. It is also easy to administer a standardized test. No particular ability or acquaintance with the field of education is required to do either of these things. Frequently I have received a number of questionnaires calling for information which was available in reason- ably accessible published sources. These questionnaires have come not merely from graduate students who might have been unacquainted with the field, but in some cases from men who were acknowledged leaders and who have been identified with educational research for many years. I do not wish to be understood as condemning the ques- tionnaire as an instrument of research. Its use is in- evitable for certain types of studies and there will always _be occasions when a questionnaire will be appropriate, but I am citing the misuse of it as evidence of an unde- sirable attitude on the part of what I fear is a large number of persons. They seem to be most interested in doing something that will attract attention because of some special feature or of its newness rather than in making comprehensive and permanent contributions to our knowledge of education. Until there is a changed attitude with reference to the purpose and ideals of edu- cation research, and I am convinced that the responsibil- 394 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ity for this change rests with those of us who are college teachers of education, most of our research will be frag- - mentary with resulting waste. As long as present cond1- tions prevail we should ask ourselves, ‘‘Is educational research paying appropriate dividends upon its invest- ment?”’ When the proposal was first made that mooted ques- tions relative to school practice could be answered by scientific methods, there were-many unbelievers. For years the conservatives far outnumbered the progres- sives, but gradually the skeptics have been converted to the belief that educational experimentation is possible. Today these same people are among those who are ac- cepting the fragmentary and imperfect findings of edu- cational research as comprehensive and final. It is not at all unusual for a person who avows a belief in educa- tional research to make dogmatic endorsements of the results of studies which meet few if any of the require- ments of scientific procedure. For example, a teacher in a certain city school system recently asserted that the teachers of that system had solved the problem of con- structing a curriculum in history. It was obvious that this teacher believed the work was finished and, because ~ methods called scientific had been used, nothing more was to be said in the matter. This is not an isolated case, but unfortunately it is typical of the attitude of many toward educational research. | As I talk with superintendents and others, imelud- ing university professors, who have not had intimate experience with educational research, I am surprised and distressed by their childlike faith in the con- clusions based upon very imperfect studies. It appears that in our effort to convert those who hesitated to believe in educational research as a means of answering questions that we have over- done the matter. The possibilities of educational re- search have been advertised, and like all good advertis- ers we have extolled the good features and have failed to mention the limitations, or if mentioned we have sug- gested that they could easily be overcome. The result of our selling campaign begins to be apparent. In gen- PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION | 395 eral, educational research may be said to be sold to the public and to the greater majority of teachers and ad- ministrators, but educational research itself is failing to deliver the goods. There is being engendered a dogma- tism which will exert a deadening influence upon our ef- forts to study educational problems scientifically. Again Wwe may appropriately ask ourselves the question, ‘‘Is - educational research yielding appropriate dividends ’ upon its investment?’’ This recital of waste in educational research might be greatly extended, but perhaps enough has been said to demonstrate that the title of my paper represents a very real question. There are those who are watching edu- cational research to see what we make of it. Some day they will say, ‘‘What have you given in return for the generous investment which has been made in your work? Exactly what have you discovered about education?’’ They will expect an answer, not in terms of possibilities but of findings which may be considered as conclusive. They will not be satisfied with results that are merely fragmentary. When that day comes we shall need to be able to show that educational research has yielded and will continue to yield adequate dividends upon the in- vestment. At the present time we may point with pride to certain notable achievements, and there is rapidly accumulating a commanding body of scientific informa- tion about education, but a few notable achievements will not be accepted as sufficient evidence that the present confidence and support of educational research should be continued. In closing, I command to your earnest consideration the question with which I started. are closely related at many points. But in all our teach- ing let us emphasize the doing of the things that need to be done rather than the don’ts with their vicious suggest- | iveness and their appeal to the daring of youth. The common, everyday conditions of living seem here to de- mand a new stating in terms of what biology has taught us. This applies to both the moral and the health as- pects of our problem. It seems needless to enumerate here all the elements which center around this particular phase of science teaching. They are well known to us all. What we should strive for is to give to our pupils a consciousness of real objectives to be attained if they are to live their lives to the greatest advantage for themselves and for posterity. - Where we have been failing in this particular is in not making any clear and definite use of what science has al- ready taught us. To quote from the same source as above: ‘‘Hardly a trace of this scientific knowledge has been applied, positively or negatively, to the betterment of the human stock. How long a scientific civilization, making ever increasing demands upon the ability of the people, can be maintained under such conditions is be- coming a pressing issue.’’ That is another way of saying that it is the mission of the school, as far as the teaching of science is concerned, not only to instruct youth in the principles of biology and physics, but to introduce them, as far as possible, to the practical applications of these principles in the home, in the community, in business and in industry. And the more nearly such scientific attitudes become habitual the more successful will be our teaching. Sanderson of Oundel had the right idea when he set out to teach his boys science by attacking the problems of daily life in his school community. As a result, and also as an acid test of the sanity of his method, when the world war came on, his boys thus trained were able at once to as- PAPERS CN HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE 423 sume tasks of grave responsibility in applying science to the many hurried readjustments that the modern con- ditions of warfare into which the British nation was plunged demanded. The principle is no less true under peace conditions. How urgent are the needs of many readjustments of the rank and file of our citizenry in these days of radical in- novations in all the fundamental aspects of living! And how true it is that in our haste for material development we have forgotten the corresponding need of applying the latest word in science to the conservation and im- provement of the human biological factor. We see this in the risk to lives that comes along with the invention of complex machines. This is notably true of the auto- mobile now in common use, and yet a large percentage of the users know little of the mechanism they undertake to direct in the midst of ever increasing traffic. For the driver who takes the trouble to know and master his ear, and to consider the risks, the danger is always from the ‘other fellow.’’ Thus both in education and in the moral sense of responsibility for others our biological advance- ment is far behind the demands of this age of the appli- cation of physics and chemistry in doing the world’s work. : : We need a different literature of science, one that may _ be broadeasted with the hope that all who listen in may comprehend. We need more of such material as Slos- son’s ‘‘Creative Chemistry,’’ of Hunter’s ‘‘Civie Biol- ogy,’’ in order that the masses, through our schools, mav learn the language of science as applied to living. We need more teachers of science like Miss Smallwood and Miss Loomis of Chicago, Miss Huffman of Woodstock, and Clarence Bonnell of Harrisburg,—teachers who make science a living thing that vibrates throughout all that is important and vital in our social and civie life. As has been suggested, we have been stressing too much the material benefits of science as applied to com- merce and industry to the serious neglect of its appli- cation to the biological wellbeing of our people. It is not enough to assign text-book lessons and perform a few ex- periments in the laboratory in order to ‘‘pass’’ and earn 424 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE a ‘‘credit.’’ We need to teach the language of science so that our youth may be able to read intelligently and also with interest the results of research as they apply to the great fundamental interests of life. The vast expendi- tures of the national government and of institutions in conducting experiments and research are still failing of accomplishment with the majority of those who should profit by their published results because they are unable to read the literature of science with understanding and appreciation. As one illustration, note the premium that men still put upon the services of the chef who can most skillfully concoct the dishes that, because of their delect- able qualities that tickle men’s palates, lead to a stuffing and gormandizing that end in premature death or incom- peteney. On the other hand, men listen, how grudgingly, to the trained dietician who seeks to enlighten them on the relation of food elements to normal bodily function- ing and consequent health. We hear much these days about conflicts between re- ligion and science. This because we, as science teachers, have failed to compare the eternal verities of science with the fundamental teachings of religion. Yet what more important relationship to life than this does science hold for us as individuals and as a Christian nation? I can do no better than to quote here from an article by Professor T. E. Savage in the March number of ‘‘The Open Court.’’? Professor Savage is a Geologist of no mean ability and his word may well command our atten- tion. He says: “Tf God’s presence permeates nature in such an inti- mate way, we should expect to find nature’s laws teach- ing the same moral lessons as the Bible, and working along lines parallel with it in bringing about righteous- ness in the earth. In a very large way this is true. The Bible says, ‘Prove all things, hold fast to that which is good.’ Science has accepted this rule as one of its funda- mental principles. The Bible says, ‘The Wages of sin is death.’’ Science repeats the same warning and shows us how nature works to bring about this result. When a man indulges in evil practices and persistently trans- gresses the laws of health, his physical vigor and power PAPERS ON HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE 425 of resistance are lessened thereby, and he falls an early victim to disease. Nature detects even those who ap- pear to be sound, but are rotten at the core. The Bible says, ‘The iniquities of the fathers are visited upon the children to the third and fourth generations.’ Science shows clearly the truth of this statement. Where par- ents are dissolute and victims of sinful habits, the chil- dren also possess weakened constitutions as well as sin- ful tendencies, either as a result of inheritance, or of early environment and neglect. Where for only a few generations parents are persistently vicious the stock grows weakened, idiotic, and eventually becomes ex- tinct. Persistent sinfulness is stamped out in a few years by natural selection acting through heredity. In the language of science the sinner is out of harmony with his environment, and if he and his posterity will not or can not change, natural selection will as surely cut off his race as in the case of any other animal not in ad- justment with its environment. This is ‘the power not of ourselves that makes for righteousness.’ Happily, in a similar way the higher qualities of character developed by the parents are also impressed upon the children by early education and example. The Bible says, ‘The righteous shall inherit the earth,’ and science assures us that righteousness or right living makes for health and length of life.’’ Surely in this grossly materialistic age we may well stress such ideals in our teaching of the fundamentals of science to those who are the hope of the future. cov Grewal Je) 2. See — D4 e a 2: Pas ee Se ar bg i aie ate ae 4 Ne en Bets ' wy , tia ’ *. = hy . : . ; ’ . . 7 ; 5 ; ’ , : a ’ ’ 7 * « ' 1 ‘ NSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS Co CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS . 429 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS Illinois State Academy of Science CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. NAME. This Society shall be known as THe ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. ARTICLE II. OBJECTS. The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the unification of the scientific interests of the State. ArtTicte III. MeEnseERs. The membership of the Academy shall consist of two classes as follows: National Members and Local Members. National Members shall be those who are members also of the ’ American Association for the Advancement of Science. Each national member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of five dollars. Local Members shall be those who are members of the local Acad- emy only. Each local member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of one dollar. Both national members and local members may be either Life Members, Active Members, or Non-resident Members. Life Members shall be national or local members who have paid fees to the Academy to the amount of twenty dollars. Life members, if national members, shall pay an annual assessment of four dollars. Active Members shall be national or local members who reside in the State of Illinois, and who have not paid as much as $20.00 in fees to the Academy. Non-resident Members shall be active members or life members who have removed from the State of Illinois. Their duties and privi- leges shall be the same as active members except that they may not hold office. Charter Members are those who attended the organization meet- ing in 1908, signed the constitution, and paid dues for that year. For election to any class of membership, the candidate’s name must be proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the committee on membership, and receive the assent of three-fourths of the members voting. ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS. The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a 1st Vice- President, a Librarian, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. The Chief of the Division of State Museum of the Department of Registration and Education of the state government shall be the Librarian of the Acad- emy. The other above officers shall be chosen by ballot on recom- mendation of a nominating committee, at an annual meeting, and shall hold office for one year or until their successors qualify. A 2nd Vice-President, who may be a resident of the town in which the next annual meeting is to be held, may be appointed by the council each year when the next meeting place shall have been decided upon. They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respec- tive offices. 430 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at which his term of office expires. : The Librarian shall have charge of all the books, collections, and material property belonging to the Academy. ARTICLE V. COUNCIL. The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Secre- tary, Treasurer, Librarian, the retiring president and his immediate predecessor. To the Council shall be entrusted the management of the affairs of the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings. At the Annual Meetings the presiding officer of all the affiliated scientific societies of the State shall meet with the Academy Council for the discussion of policies. ARTICLE VI. STANDING COMMITTEES. The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on Publication, a Committee on Membership and a Committee on Affilia- tion and such other committees as the Academy shall from time to time deem desirable. The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the Secretary and a third member chosen annually by the Academy. The Committees on Membership and Affiliation shall each consist of five members chosen annually by the Academy. ARTICLE VII. MEETINGS. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time and place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be called by the Council, and shall be called upon written request of twenty members. ARTICLE VIII. PUBLICATIONS. The regular publications of the Academy shall include the trans- actions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the Committee on Publication. All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy ARTICLE IX. AFFILIATION. The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with other organizations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the Council and may be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present at any regular meeting. ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS. This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the membership present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the desired change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least twenty days before such meeting. BY-LAWS. I. The following shall be the regular order of business: Call to order. Reports of officers. Reporis of standing committees. Election of members. Reports of special committees. Appointment of special committees. Unfinished business. New business. Election of officers. Program. Adjournment. fe die Me eM to) i CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 431 II. No meetings of the Academy shall be held without thirty days previous notice by the Secretary to all members. III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council. IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the President and Secretary. V. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for three years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. VI. The Librarian shall have charge of the distribution, sale, and exchange of the published Transactions of the Academy, under such restrictions as may be imposed by the Council. VII. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint a committee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon the account of the Treasurer. VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program un- less the manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previ- ously delivered to the Secretary. No paper shall be presented at any meeting, by any person other than the author, except on vote of the members present at such meeting. IX. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall have their expenses paid from the Treasury of the Academy while attending council meet- ings and annual meetings. Other members of the council may have their expenses paid while attending meetings of the council, other than those in connection with annual meetings. X. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the members present at any regular meeting. LIST OF MEMBERS LIST OF MEMBERS 435 List of Members Note—The names of charter members are starred; names in black- faced type indicate membership in the American Association for the Advancement of Science. ; LIFE MEMBERS. *Andrews, C, W. LL. D., The John Crerar Library, Chicago, Ill. (Sei. Bibl.) a ee G., M. D., St. John’s Hospital, Springfield, Ill. (Bacter- iology. Barber, et D., M. S., Illinois State Normal University, Normal, ll. (Phy sics. Barnes, R. M., LL. B., Lacon, Ill. (Zoology.) Barnes, William, M. D., 320 Millikin Bldg., Decatur, Ill. (Lepidoptera.) *Bartow, Edward, Ph. D., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. Chamberlain, C. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) TE T. C., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geol- ogy Cowles, H. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) Crew, Henry, Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Physics.) *Crook, ‘An ty PRs DD, Chief State Museum, Springfield, Ill. (Geology.) Deal, Don W., M. D.. Leland Office Building, Springfield, Ill. (Medicine.) Farrington, O. C., Ph. D., Field Museum, Chicago, Ill, (Minerology.) Ferriss, J. H., Joliet, Ill. (Conchology.) *Fischer, C. E. ML, M. D., Marshall Field Annex Bldg., 25 E. Washington St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.) *Porbes, S. A., LL. D., Chief, Natural History Survey, Urbana, [Iil. (Zoology.) Fuller, Geo. D., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) *Gates, Frank C., Ph. D., State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. (Botany.) Hagler, E. E., M. D., Capitol Ave. and Fourth St., Springfield, Ill. (Ocu- ist.) Hankinson, Thos. L., B. S., State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. (Zo- ology.) *Hessler, J. C., Ph. D., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.) Hinkley, A. A., Dubois, Ill. (Conchology.) Hoskins, William, 111 W. Monroe St., ee Til. (Chemistry.) Hunt, Robert I., Decatur, Ill. (Soils.) Jordan, Edwin O., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Se Till. (Bacteri- ology.) Skea e te orator ate Kunz, Jakob, Ph. D., 1205 S. Orchard St., Urbana, tl. Physics.) Latham, ae A., M. D., D. D. S., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Micros- copy. Lillie, F. B., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Marshall, Ruth, Ph. D., Rockford College, Rockford, Iil. (Zoology.) Miller, G. A., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathematics.) Moffatt, Mrs. Elizabeth M., Wheaton, IIil. Moffatt, Will S., M. D., 105 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) Mohr, Louis, 349 W. Illinois St., Chicago, Ill. *#Noyes, William A., Ph. D., LL. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, I1l. (Chemistry.) *Oglevee, C. S., Sc. D., Lincoln College, Lincoln, Ill. (Biology.) Payne, Edward W., First State Trust & Savings Bank, Springfield, Ill. (Archeology.) *Pepoon, H. S., M. D., Lake View High School, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology, Botany.) pee Ie aan K., B. A., Peabody Normal College, Nashville, Tenn. iology. *Smith, Frank, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.) *Smith, Isabel Seymour, M. S., Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill. (Botany.) Smith, L. HL, Ph. D., Univ ersity of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Plant Breed- ing.) Stevenson, A. L., B. S., Field School, 7019 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago, Il. Stillhamer, A. G. 705 N. East St., Bloomington, Il. (Physics. ) Sykes, Mabel, B. S., South Chicago High School, Chicago, Ill. (Geology.) Trelease, William, pAyy D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany.) Ward, Henry B., Ph. D., ‘University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.) Washburn, E. W., Ph. D., National Research Council, Washington, D. C. (Chemistry.) Weller, Annie L., Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Il. *Weller, Stuart, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, II. (Paleon- tology.) Zeleny, Charles, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Experimental Zoology.) 436 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ANNUAL MEMBERS. Abbott, Howard C., University of Illinois, Urbana, Il. Fagen eka A. C. E., Lewis Institute, Chicago, Ill. (Structural Ma- erials. Adams, i. A., 605 W. Indiana Ave., Urbana, Ill. Adler, Herman M., M. D., 721 S. Wood St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.) Alexander, Alida, M. A., Illinois Woman’s College, Jacksonville, IL (Botany.) Alexander, C. P., Ph. D., Fernald Hall, Mass. Agri. College, Amherst, Mass. (Mntomology.) ; pe Samuel M., A. B., P. O. Box 682, Johnston City, Ill. (Chem- istry. Allee, W. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Ames, E. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Psychology.) Anderson, H. W., 811 Michigan Ave., Urbana, Ill. (Plant Pathology.) Anderson, S. L., M. D., DeKalb, Ill. (Medicine.) Andras, J. C., B. A., 540 S. Main St., Manchester, Ill. (Astronomy, Botany.) Armstrong, Christie, A. B., Princeville, Ill. (Physiography.) Ashman, George C., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria, Ill. (Chemistry.) ea B., Ph. M., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Bot- any. Augur, eee W., M. A., 11859 S. Irving Ave., Chicago, lll. (Phys- ics. : Bacon, Chas. Sumner, Ph. D., M. D., 2156 Sedgwick St., Chicago, Ill. Bailey, Wm. M., M. S., 701 S. Poplar St., Carbondale, Ill. (Botany.) Saeco Frank C., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology, Con- chology.) Balduf, W. V., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Entomology.) Ball, John R.,M. A., 820 Hamlin St., Evanston, Ill. (Geology.) Bangs, Edward H., 212 W. Washington St., Chicago, Ill. (Agriculture, Electricity.) _ Barnes, Cecil, LL. B., M. A., 1522 1st National Bank Bldg., Chicago, Ill. (Physical Geography.) Barwell, John Wm., Madison and Sands Sts., Waukegan, Ill. (Anthrop- ology.) © Bastin, E. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, lll. (Geology.) Bayley, W. S., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Beal, James Hartley, Sc. D., 801 W. Nevada St., Urbana, Ill. (Pharma- ceutical.) Behre, Chas. H., Jr., University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. Bentley, Madison, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Psychol- ogy.) Benton, Curtis, B. A., McComb, Ill. (Entomology.) *Betten, Cornelius, Ph. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., (Biology.) Bevan, Arthur, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Black, Arthur D., M. A., M. D., D. D. S., Northwestern University, Evans- ton, Il. (Dentistry.) Blake, Anna M., B. S., 203 N. School St., Normal, Ill. (Botany, Physi- ology.) Blake, Mrs. Tiffany, 25 East Walton Place, Chicago, Ill. Bleininger, A. V., B. S., Care of Homer Laughlin China Co., Newell, W. Va. Ceramics.) Bohannan, F. C., B. S., Galesburg High School, Galesburg, Ill. (Ge- ology, Geography.) Bonnell, Clarence, Township High School, Harrisburg, Ill. (Biology.) Boomer, S. E., M. A., 207 Harwood St., Carbondale, Ill. (Physics.) Boot, G. W., M. D., 813 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Medicine, Geology.) Boys’ Science Club, Galesburg High School, Galesburg, Il. Breed, Frederick S., Ph. D., 5476 University Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Educa- tion.) Brennan, George A., 24 W. 110th pl., Chicago, Ill. (Principal Van Viissingen School. Bretz, J. Harlan, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geology.) Brink, Chester A., M, D., Apple River, Ill. (Medicine.) Brophy, Truman W., D. D. S., M. D., 81 E. Madison St., Chicago, Till. (Medicine. ) Brown, Agnes, 1205 West State St., Rockford, Ill. Brown, George A., 304 E. Walnut St., Bloomington, Ill. (Education.) Brown, Howard C., B. S., 409 Hamilton St., Geneva, Ill. _(Botany.) Brown, Walter J., M. D., 151 N. Vermillion St., Danville, Ill. (Medicine.) Browne, George M., 902 S. Normal St., Carbondale, Ill. (Chemistry.) Buckingham, B. R., Ph. D., Director of Bureau_of Educational Research. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. (Education.) ‘ Burmeister, Wm. H., M. D., 536 Deming Place, Chicago, Ill. (Exp. Medi- cine.) Buswell, A. M., Chief, State Water Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana, Til. Buzzard, Robt. G., M. S., State Nermal University, Normal, Ill. (Geog- raphy, Geology.) ; LIST OF MEMBERS 437 Cahn, Alvin R., M. S., University of Iliinois. (Zoology.) Caldwell, Delia, M. D., 590 W. Main St., Carbondale, Ill. (Medicine.) Campbell, Ian, M. A., 11 Conant Hall, Cambridge, Mass. (Geology.) Carlson, A. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Physiology.) Carlson, Fred, Ed. B., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Geography.) Carmen, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physics.) *Carpenter, Chas. K., D. D., 311 Park St., Elgin, I11. Causey, David, University of California, Berkley, Cal. (Biology.) Challis, Frank E., 121 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Analin Dyes.) Chandler, S. C., B. S., R. R. 5, Carbondale, Ill. (Entomology.) *Child, C. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Christie, J. R., B. S., M. S., East Falls Church, Virginia. (Biology.) Clark, Albert Henry, B. S., 701 W. Wood St., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.) Clark, H. Walton, M. A., Steinhardt’s Aquarium, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, Cal. (Biology.) *Clawson, A. B., B. A., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Biology.). Clement, John A., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Psy- chology, Education.) Cletcher, J. O., M. D., 10 N. Main St., Tuscola, Ill. (Medicine.) Clute, W. N., Editor ‘“‘The American Botanist”, Joliet, Ill. (Botany.) Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph. D., Lake Forest, Ill. (Physical Chemistry.) Coggeshall, Ruth, B. S., 3927 Hamlin Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Biology.) Colby, Arthur Samuel, Ph. D., 413 University Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Pomology, Pathology, Medicine.) Colby, Chas. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geography.) Colyer, oy =o M. S., State Normal University, Carbondale, Ill. (Geog- raphy. Combs, Ralph Marion, 706 W. Main St., Decatur, Ill. (Biology.) Compton, James S., Eureka College, Eureka, Il. Cone, Albert Benjamin, 5245 Magnolia Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Forestry, Microscopy.) *Coulter, John M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) *Crandall, Chas. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany.) Crathorne, en R., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathe- matics. _Creager, Gail, Ed. B., Pinckneyville, Ill. (Biology.) Crocker, William, Ph. D., Care of J. M. Arthur Thompson Institute. Yonk- ers, N. Y. (Botany.) Crosier, W. M., M. D., Alexis, Ill. (Medicine.) Cross, Chas. H., Science Teacher, ¥. M. C. A., Freeport, Ill. (Biology, Chemistry.) Crowe, A. B., M. A., Eastern State Teachers College, Charleston, [1]. (Physics.) Cullison, Aline, 1735 E. 67th St., Chicago, Ill. Culver, Harold E., Ph. M., State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Ge- ology.) Danville Science Club, High School, Danville, Ill. (General.) Darling, Elton B., Ph. D., 1345 West Macon Ave., Decatur, Ill. Dart, Carlton B., 706 Greenleaf Ave., Wilmette, Ill. Davenport, Eugene, LL. D., Woodland, Mich. (Agriculture.) Davies, D. C., Director Field Museum, Chicago, Ill. *Davis, J. J., B. S., Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. (Entomology.) Deam, Hon. Chas. C., M. A., Bluffton, Ind. (Forestry, Flora.) Dean, Ella R., B. Ed., 310 E. Elm St., Olney, ll. (Chemistry.) DeLee, Jos. B., M. D., M. A., 5028 Ellis Ave., Chicago, Ill. Dempster, A. J., Ph. D., Ryerson Physical Lab., University of Chicago, Chicago, I11. (Physiecs.) DeTurk, Ernest E., Ph. D., 707 W. Green St., Urbana, Ill. (Agriculture.) Dilts, Charles D., A. B., 3121 Fairfield Ave., Fort Wayne, Ind. (Chemis- trv.) Doll, Theodore, M. A., Nova Springs, Floyd Co., Iowa. (Mathematics.) Downie, Thomas R., 1216 N. Kellogg St., Galesburg, Ill. (Geology.) Downing, ea R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zo- ology. 4 Dufford, BR. T., 104 Physics Bldg., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo (Physics.) Dunn, Charles F., 1912 S. 9th Ave., Maywood, II]. Dye, Marie, M. S., 1700 E. Michigan Ave., Lansing, Mich. (Chemistry.) Earle, C. A., M. D., DesPlaines, Ill. (Botany.) East, Clarence W., M. D., F. A. S. C., 326 W. Jackson St., Springfield, Ill. (Preventive Medicine.) Ehrman, E. H., M. E., Homan Ave. and Fillmore St., Chicago, Ill. Eifrig, C. W. G., 504 Monroe Ave., Oak Park, Ill. (Ornithology, Botany, Zoology.) j Ekblaw, George E., A. M., State Geological Survey Division, Urbana, Ill (Geology.) : Ekblaw, W. E., Ph. D., 711 W. Nevada St., Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Eldredge, Arthur G., Physics Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, IIL (Photography.) Eller, W. H., S. B., State Teachers College, Macomb, Ill. (Physies.) 438 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Elliott, A. T., B. S., P. O. Box 1221, East Chicago, Ind. (Science.) Englew ood High School General Science Club, 62nd St. and Stewart Ave., Chicago, Ill. Englis, Duane T., Ph. D., 358 Chemistry Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.) Eureka Science Club, Eureka Twp. High School, Eureka, Il. Ee Dee. Dept. of Insectology, Smithsonian Institute, Wash- gton, D. C. (Biology.) Farwell, Mrs. Francis C., 1520 Astor St., Chicago, Ill. Featherly, H. I., Waterloo, Ill. (Biology, Agriculture. ) ‘ Feuer, Bertram, B. S., M. Ss. 2634 Argyle St., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry, Bacteriology.) Finley, C. W. M. A., The Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. (Zoology.) eee pee Asst. Curator, State Museum, Springfield, Ill. (Gen. nterest. 4 Flint, W. P., Asst. State Entomologist, 1006 South Orchard St., Urbana, Foard, Castle W., M. S., 990 E. Brooks St., Galesburg, Ill. (Physics.) Foberg, J. Albert, B. S., Camp Hill, Pa. (Mathematics. ) Ele rcatin w., Se: D; University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Ento- mology. Franing, =. C., M. D., 404 Bank of Galesburg Bldg., Galesburg, Ill. (Medicine. ) Franing, Russell, A. B., Elgin Academy, Elgin, Ill. (Chemistry.) Frank, O. D., 5825 Drexel Ave., Chicago, Ill. . (Biology.) Franklin Science Club, Community High School, Pleasant Hill, I. French, G. H., M. A., Herrin Hospital, Herrin, Ill. (Botany, Entomology.) Frison, Theodore H., Natural History Building, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Entomology, General Riology.) Fuller, Margaret B., Ph. D., 14 University Hall, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill, (Geology.) Gantz, R. A., 411 N. Talley St., Muncie, Ind. (Botany.) Gault, B. T., 564 N. Main St., Glen Ellyn, Ill. (Ornithology.) Geauque, H. A., 531 Lombard St., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.) Gerard, R. W., B. S., 2811 Cottage Grove Ave., Chicago, Ill. Gerhard, Wm. J., Field Museum, Chicago, III. Gerould, T. F., M. D., 115% N. Locust St., Centralia, Ill. (Medicine.) Glattfeld, J. W. E., Ph. D., Kent Chemical Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.) Goode, J. Paul, Ph. D., 6227 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Geography.) Gore, G. W., M. D., 231 N. McCleamsboro St., Benton, Ill. (Internal Medicine.) Gorrell, T. J. H., M. D., Chicago Heights, Ill. (Medicine.) Gould, William C., A. B., M. A., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. epee, Gradle, Harry S., M. D., 22 E. Washington St., Chicago, Ill. (Ophthal- mology.) Graham, R. 105 Animal Pathology Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, 1H *Grant, U. S., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Geology.) Green, Bessie, M. A., University of Tennessee, Knoxv ille, Tenn. (Zoology.) Greenman, J. M., Ph. D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo. (Botany.) Griffith, C. R., Ph. D., 209 University Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Psychology.) Gronemann, Carl F., 310 N. Liberty St., Elgin, Ill. (Artist, Naturalist.) Guberlet, John E., Ph. D., Okla. A. & M. College, Stillwater, Okla. (Zo- ology.) Gurley, William F. E., 6151 University Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Paleon- tology.) Haas, William H., M. A., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Geog- raphy.) Hadley, Geraldine, B. A., Bradley Polytechnic Inst., Peoria, Ill. (Domes- tic Science.) *Hale, John A., M. D., Bush, Ill. (Medicine.) Hall, Earl H., 998 Spring Garden St., Greensboro, N. C. Hance, James H., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Hanna, Joseph V., A. M., Joliet High School and Junior College, Joliet, aH (Psychology.) Hansen, Paul, 39 W. Adams St., Chicago, Ill. (Sanitation.) Hanson, Alyda C., B. S., Chicago Normal College, 68th St. and Stewart Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Geography, Geology.) Hardin, Sarah M., Ph. B., 402 W. Walnut St., Carbondale, Ill. (Biology.) Harding, H. A., Ph. D., P. O. Box 834, Detroit, Mich. (Bacteriology.) Harkins, William D., Ph. D., 5437 Ellis Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.) Hartsough, Ralph C., B. S., A. M., Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloom: ington, Ill. Hauberg, John H., B. S., LL. B., 23d St. Hill and 13th Ave., Rock Island, Ill. (Botany.) LIST OF MEMBERS 439 Hauberg, Mrs. John H., 23d St. Hill and 13th Ave., Rock Island, Ill. Haupt, Arthur W., St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y. (Botany.) Hawthorne, W. C., B. A., B. S., Crane Junior College, Chicago, ITIL (Physics. ) Heflin, H. N., M. D., Kewanee, Ill. (Medicine.) eee B., M. D., 620 Amos Ave., Springfield, Ill. (Public ealth. Henning Community High School Science Club, Henning, Il. Herrick, C. Judson, Ph. D., Dept. of Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ili. (Anatomy, Neurology.) , D. F., B. S., M. S., Claremont, Tl. (Geology.) Higgins, George M., Ph. D., Inst. Experimental Medicine, Rochester, Minn. (Zoolegy.) Hildebrand, L. E., M. A.. New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Ill. (Zoology.) *Hill, W. K., Carthage College, Carthage, Ill. (Biology.) Hinchliff, Grace, 715 N. Broad St., Galesburg, Il. Hines, Murray A., Ph. D., 1610 Oak Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Chemistry.) Hoffman, Prank F., M. D., 3117 Logan Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Phys-Surg.) Holgate, T. F., LL. D., 617 Library St., Evanston, Til. (Mathematies.) Holmes, Manfred J., B. L., 703 Broadway, Normal, Ill. (Social and Edu- cation.) Honey, Edwin E., B. S., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y¥. (Plant Path- ology, Botany, Entomology.) Hood, Frazer, Ph. D., Davidson, N. C. (Psychology.) Hoover, Harvey D., Ph. D., S. T. D., Carthage, Il. Hopkins, B. Smith, Ph. D., 706 W. California St., Urbana, Ill. (Inor- ganic Chemistry.) Hottes, C. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.- (Botany.) Houdek, Paul, Rantoul, Ill. (Biclogy.) Huey, Walter B., M. D., Elgin, Joliet, and Eastern Ry., Joliet, Il. (Medicine.) Hull, Thos. G., Ph. D., State Board of Health, Springfield, Ill. (Health.) Hunter, Geo. W., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Biology.) *Hutton, J. Gladden, M.-S., State College, Brookings, S. D. (Geology.) Illinois Nature Study Society of Elgin, 310 N. Liberty St., Elgin, [il. Illinois State Library, State House, Springfield, Il. Isenbarger, Jerome, B. S., 2200 Greenleaf Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Jane, Wm. T., Room 905, 122 S. Michigan Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.) Jelliff, Fred R., B. A., Editor, Daily Republican Register, Galesburg, Il. (Geology.) Jenks, Ira J., M. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Chemistry.) Jensen, Jens, Ravina, Ill. (Geology, Botany.) Johnson, George F., 625 Black Ave., Springfield, Ill. (Astronomy.) Johnson, John H., B. Ed., Sup’t. of: Schools, Tremont, Ill. (Biology.) Johnson, T. Arthur, M. D., 7th St. and 4th Ave., Rockford, Ill. (Medi- cine.) Jones, Elmer E., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Men- tal Development, Heredity.) Jurica, Hilary S., St. Procopius College, Lisle, Ill. (Botany.) Karpinski, Louis C., Ph. D., 1315 Cambridge Road, Ann Arbor, Mich. (Mathematics.) Karraker, Edward L., Jonesboro, Til. (Forestry.) Kauffman, J. S., M. D., 233 York St., Blue Island, Ill. (Medicine.) Kempton, F. E., M. S., Bureau of Plant Industry, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Plant Pathology, Botany.) Kennicott, Ransom, 547 Cook Co. Bldg., Chicago, Ill. (Forestry.) Kerr, Charles Roy, M. D., Chenoa, Ill. (Medicine.) Kibbe, Alice, Carthage, I11. King, R. S., 304 W. Bennett St., Pontiac, Ill. (Biology, Chemistry.) Kirn, George wy) Mi. S., ME -A:, Ph. D., D. D., Northwestern College, Nap- erville, Il. (Psychology, Philosophy.) Kline, R. G., M. D., Hoopeston, lll. (Medicine.) *Knipp, Charles T., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physics.) Knox County Academy of Science, Bae ort as Til. Koch, Fred Conrad, Ph. D., 1903 E. 72d St., Chicago, Ill. (Physiological Chemistry.) Krey, Frank, B. S., State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Krueger, John H., M. D., 118 Ellinwood St., DesPlaines, Ill. (Medicine.) Kuderna, J. G., M. S., Normal, [il. (Physical Science, Education.) Kudo, Rokusabtro, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.) Euh, "Sidney, M. D., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.) Kurz, Herman, B. S., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee, Flor- ida. (Botany.) Lamar, J. Everts, B. S., State Geological Survey Division, Urbana, III. (Geology.) Lambert, Earl L., B. S., Dakota, Ill. (Botany, Zoology.) Land, W. J. G., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) 440 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE sponses George, B. S., McKenna Process Co., Joliet, Ill. (Paleontol- ogy. : Lanphier, Robert C., Ph. B., Sangamo Electric Co., Springfield, fIIl. (Electricity.) Larson, Karl, B. A., Augustana College, Rock Island, Ill. (Chemistry.) Lathrop, W. G., Principal Twp. High School, Johnston City, Ill. (Ge- ology, Geography.) Laves, Kurt, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Astronomy, Mathematics.) . Lawson, Edwin W., 400 Jefferson Ave., Elgin, Ill. Lawrence, Nathan A., 6639 S. Lincoln St., Chicago, Ill. (Biology.) Leighton, Morris Morgan, Ph. D., Chief, Illinois Geological Survey Divi- sion, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Lerche, Thorleif I., D. D. S., 3012 E. 92d St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.) Lewis, Howard D., Ph. D., University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Mich. (Physiological Chemistry.) Lewis, Julian H., D. D., Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Pathology.) - Linder, O. A., 208 N, Wells St., Chicago, Il. Linkins, R. M., M. A., 706 Broadway, Normal, Ill. (Zoology.) Logsdon, Mrs. M. I., S. B., A. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Tll, (Mathematics.) Longden, A. C., Ph. D., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Physics.) Lukens, Herman 1., Ph. D., 330 Webster Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Geography.) Lutes, Neil, 1595 Atlantic St., Dubuque, Iowa. (Chemistry.) eT W. D., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Astron. omy. Maddock, Rosa G., B. S., 9648 Vanderpool Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Madison, Wm. D., M. D., Eureka, Ill. (Medicine.) Magill, Henry P., 175 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Sociology, Finance.) Malinovsky, A., Chemical Engineer, Washington Iron Works, Los Ange- les, California. (Chemistry.) Mann, A. L., M. D., 392 E. Chicago St., Elgin, Ill. (Medicine.) Mann, Jessie 1g es B. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Biology.) Marks, Sarah, Pecatonica, Ill. (Biology.) Martin, Geo. W., B. S., Ph. D., Washington and Jefferson College, Wash- ington, Penn. (Biology.) Mason, J. Alden, Field Museum, Chicago, Ill. (Anthropology.) Mason, Arthur J., 5715 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill. Mathews, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Cincinnati, College of Medi- cine, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Biochemistry.) McAuley, M. Faith, S. M., Home Economics Dept., University of Chi- cago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) McClure, S. M., McKendree College, Lebanon, Ill. eee gee N., Ph. D., 1623 Hyde Park Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Chem- istry McDougall, W. B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany.) McEvoy, s. Aleta, B. S., Rockford High School, ‘Rockford, Ill. (Chemis- try.) McGinnis, Helen A., 6400 S. Maplewood Ave., Chicago, Ill, (Gen. Sci- ence.) McKee, W. A., D. D. S., Hast Side Square, Benton, Ill. (Dentist.) carpal Archie J., 600 Ravine Ave., Peoria, Ill. (Physics, Chem- istry. Mecham, John B., Ph. D., 118 S. Center St., Joliet, Tl. Metcalf, C. S., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ul. (Enfomology.) Metzner, Albertine E., M. S., 24 Marshner St., Plymouth, Wis. (Geol- oy, Physics.) Michelson, A. A., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Physics.) Miller, Harry Milton, Jr., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. (Zo- ology.) Miller, Isiah Leslie, M. A., Station A, Box 53, Brookings, South Dakota, (Mathematics, Chemistry.) Miller, P. H., High School, Henning, Ill. (Biology.) Miller, R. B., M. F., 223 Natural History Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Forestry, Ecology.) : Milton, Charles, B. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Mitchell, Catherine, A. B., 144 Fairbank Road, Riverside, Ill. (Botany, Ornithology.) Mongerson, Oscar V., B. S., State Normal University, Normal, Ill. (Physics.) Montgomery, C. E., M. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Biology.) Morgan, Wm. E., M. D., 1016 Hyde Park Blvd., Chicago, bust (Medicine. ) Moulton, F. R.., Ph. 1D. University of Chicago, Chicago, Tll. (Astronomy.) Mullinix, Raymond C., Ph. D., Rockford College, Rockford, Ill. (Chem- istry.) Mumford, H. W., B. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Animal Hus- bandry, Agriculture.) Murrah, Frank C., M. D., 105% N. Park Ave., Herrin, Ill. (Medicine.) LIST OF MEMBERS 441 Mylius, L. A., S. B., M. E., 312 N. Neil St., Champaign, Ill. (Geology.) - Nadler, Walter H., M. D., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.) Neiberger, William E., M. D., Bloomington, Ill. (Eugenics.) Neifert, Ira E., M. S., 806 E. Knox St., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.) Nelson, C. Z., 534 Hawkingson Ave., Galesburg, Ill. (Botany.) Newcomh, Rexford, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Engineer- ing we i SOE Newell, M. J., M. A., 2017 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. Newman, H. H., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Nicholson, F. M., 66th St. and Avenue A, New York City. (Anatomy.) Nirdlinger, Sidney, Ph. D., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.) Noé, Adolf Carl, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) Normal Science Club, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Ill. (General.) North, E. M., B. A., 694 Garland Place, DesPlaines, Ill, (Geology, As- tronomy, Pedagogy.) Obenchain, Jeanette Brown, Ph. B., 6130 Dorchester Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Anatomy.) paket Robert S., 807 Crescent Building., Glen Ellyn, Ondrak, Ambrose L., B. A., St. Procopius College, rae: ‘Til. (Physics.) Ozment, Arel, 806 W. ashington Ave., Johnston City, Ill. (General.) Serres hoe He, et, | Os, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, Ill. (Bi- ology Paddock, Walter R., M. D., 904 State St., Lockport, Ill. (Medicine.) Parker, George T., 185 N. "Kellogg St., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.) *Parr, S. W., M. a.’ University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.) Parson, S. F., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Mathematics.) Patterson, Alice J., Illinois State Normal University, Normal, [ll. (En- tomology, Nature Study.) Patterson, Cecil F., B. S., University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada. (Horticulture. ) Patton, Fred P., M. D., Glencoe, Ill. (Medicine.) Pearsons, H. P., 1816 Chicago Ave., Evanston, Il. Peterson, Harvey A., 502 Normal Ave., Normal, [Ill. Phipps, Charles Frank, B. S., M. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Physics, Chemistry.) Pieper, Charles J., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (General Science.) Plapp, F. W., 4140 N. Keeler Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany, Geology.) Platt, Robert S.,; Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geog- raphy.) Poling, J. A., M. D., Crum-Forster Bldg., Freeport, Ill.. (Medicine.) Pollock, M. D., M. D., Powers Bldg., Decatur, Ill. (Medicine, Surgery.) Porter, Charles L., A. B., B. S., 828 N. Main St., W. Lafayette, Ind. (Botany, Plant Pathology.) Porter, James P., M. A., 1085 Sheridan Road, Hubbard Woods, Ill. (Zo- ology.) Quirke, T. T., Ph. D., Room 234 Nat. Hist. Bldg., University of Illinois. Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) *Radcliffe, H. H., Principal of Night School, 1346 W. Macon St., Decatur, Ill. (Physics, Chemistry.) Ransom, James H., B. S., James Millikin University, Decatur, Ill. (Chem- istry.) Rauth, Andy Fred, R. F. D. No. 9, Boonville, Ind. (Biology.) Reagan, Albert B., A. B., A. M., Cornfields, Arizona. (Paleontology, Eth- nology, Botany, Geology.) Redfield,.Casper L., 526 Monadnock Block, Chicago, Ill. (Evolution.) Renich, Mary E., Ph. D.,.355 Jefferson Si., Galesburg, Ill. (Botany.) Rew, Irwin, Fh. D., 217 Dempster St., Evanston, Ill. Rice, Arthur L., M. M. E., 537 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. (Engineer- ing.) Richardson, Baxter K., A. B., Dept. of Public Health, Springfield, Ill. (Public Health.) Richardson, R. E., Ph. D., Vivarium, Cor. Wright and Healy Sts., Cham- paign, Ill. (Zoology 7) eae ST vs fee arg M. S., 1030 S. Morgan St., Route 7, Olney, Ill. (Orni- thology Rinker, Jacob Arron, B. S., Eureka, Ill. (Physics.) Rockford Nature Study Society, 210 N. Avon St., Rockford, Il. Bodebush, W. H., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.) Romer, A. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Paleontology.) Root, Clarence J., U. S. Weather Bureau, Springfield, Ill. (Climatology.) Ss aT SE A., Ph. D., Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. (Psy- chology. Budnick, Paul, 10640 S. Seeley Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.) Salter, Allen, Lena, Ill. (Medicine.) Sampson, H. C., Ph. D., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Savage, T. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Stratigraphic Geology.) onan Orpheus M., Room 1649, 10 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, Ill. (Birds, lants.) 442 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE panes mere L., Ph. D., 2437 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Ill. (Psy- chology. Schmidt, Otto L., M. D., 5 So. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (History.) Schmoll, Hazel Marguerite, ye sr sa OE M. S., 14837 Pennsylvania Ave. Denver, Colo. (Botany.) Schneider, Nora, B. S., 403 W. Washington Blvd., Urbana, Ill. (Chemis- tary) Schreiber, Geo. F., 80 Illinois St., Chicago Heights, [1]. Schulz, W. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physics.) Scott, Re nACE SMO Ss, State Normal University, Carbondale, Ill. (Chem- istry.) f Sears, O. H., 606 E. Chalmers St., Champaign, III. Chee Shamel, C. H., Ph. D., 802 Massachusetts Ave., N. E., Washington, D. C. (Chemistry.) Shank, ne os M., A. M., 42 W. Walnut St., Carbondale, Ill. (Geog- raphy. Shelford, V. E., Ph. D., Vivarium Bldg., Wright and Healy Sts., Cham- paign, Ill. (Zoology, Ecology.) Shinn, Harold B., 3822 Lowell Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Shull, Chas. A., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany, Plant Physiology.) Siedenburg, Frederic, M. A., 1076 West Roosevelt Road, Chicago, Ill. (Sociology.) Simmons, Marguerite L., B. S., M. A., 325 Melrose Ave., Centralia, TL (Biology.) Simonds, O. C., 1101 Buena Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany:) Simons, Etoile B., Ph. D., 7727 Colfax Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) *Simpson, Q. I., Bear Creek Farm, Palmer, Ill. (Hwugenics.) Singer, H. Douglas, M. D., 6625 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Psy- chiatry.) seagate boa ni Ph. D., Se. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Mathe- matics Slocum, A. W., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Slye, Maud, A. B., 836 Drexel Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.) Smallwood, Mabel =. 550 Surf St., Chicago, Tl. (Zoology.) eae Seley 3 Bessey, B. S., 2324 Hartzell St., Evanston, Ill. (Tele- phony. *Smith, C. HL, M. E., 5517 Cornell Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Physics.) Smith, Clarence B., B. S., Aurora College, Aurora, Ill. (Physics.) Smith, Mrs. Eleanor C., B. S., 104 Winston Ave., Joliet, Ill. (Biology.) Smith, Grant, M. S., 1738 W. 104 St., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Smith, James W., M. D,, Cutler: Perry Co., Ill. (Medicine.) Smith, Jesse L., Supt. Schools, Highland Park, Ill. : Smith, JK sks, “Ph! D:; Northwestern Univ., Evanston, ill. . (Physics) Smith, Merlin G., A. B., A. M., Ph. D., Greenville College, Greenville, Tl. (Mathematics.) Smith, RB. S., Ph. D., 653 Agricultural Bldg., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry and Physics of Soils.) Smith, ey S., Galconda, Pope Co., Ill. (Vocational and Physical Educa- tion. Snider, Alvin B., M. D., Blue Island, Ill. (Medicine.) Snider, H. J., B. S., College of Agri., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Soils, Agri.) = craves gel Bobert, M. D., 4518 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medi- cine. Speckman, Wesley N., Ph. D., Elmhurst College, Elmhurst, Ill. (Biology.) Spicer, C. E., 100 Sherman St., Joliet, Ill. (Chemistry.) Stark, John Thomas, ge iA, 749 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Geology:) Steagall, Mary M., Ph. 808 S. Illinois Ave., Carbondale, Ill. (Botany.) Stevens, F. L., Ph. >, Tuiwcrares of Illinois, Urbana, Til. (Plant Path- ology, Botany.) Stillians, A. W., M. D., 819 East 50th St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.) Stover, E. L., State Teachers College, Charleston, Ill. (Botany.) Stover, Mrs. EB. Ee, MSS. 2930 Second St., Charleston, Ill. (Botany.) * Strode, W. S., M. D., Lewiston, I11. (Medicine. ) Strong, Harriet, B. S., 192 E. Maple Ave., Downers Grove, Ill. (Biology.) Struble, R. H., A. B., 4481 Sheridan Ave., Detroit, Mich. (Physics.) Swan, W. S., M. D., Cor. Main and Walnut Sts., Harrisburg, Ill. (Medi- cine.) Tatum, Arthur L., Ph. D., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Physiology, Pharmacology.) Taylor, Mildred E., A. B., A, M., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Mathe- matics.) Tehon, Leo. R., A. B., M. A, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Til. (Botany, Plant Pathology.) Tharaldsen, C. E., M. A., 719 Emerson St., Evanston, Ill. (Zoology.) Thomas, E. T., M. A., Haven House, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Geology.) ae L. J., 301 Natural History Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, 11. LIST OF MEMBERS 443 eee ae Tt. E., Ph. D., Naval Proving Station, Dahlgren, Va., ysics. Ree ay O. B., M. D., 201 S. Washington Ave., Carbondale, Ill. (Medi- cine. Thurlimann, Leota, 3856 Gladys Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) Thurston, Fredus A., 1361 E. 57th St., Chicago, Il. Tiffany, L. Hanford, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio. (Botany.) *To EB. J., Ph. D., Univ. of [llinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathematics.) Townsend, ML. T., B. S., St. John’s College, Annapolis, Md. (Animal Ecology.) Townsley, Fred D., B. A.. James Millikin University, Decatur, Ml. Trapp, A. R., M. D., Illinois National Bank Bldg., Springfield, Il. (Medi- cal Diagnosis.) Turton, Chas. M., M. A., 2055 E. 72d Place, Chicago, Ill. (Physics.) Ulrich, Katherine, Ph. B., 304 N. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park, Ill. ( Geology, Geography, Botany.) Van Cleave, H. J., Ph. D., University of DTllinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.) Van Cleet, Eugene, B. S., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. (Com- mercial and Hceon. Geography, Climatology.) Van Tuyl, Francis M., Ph. D., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. (Geology.) Vestal, A. G, Ph. D., Stanford University, Cal. (Ecology.) VonZelinski, Walter F., M. D., Ph. D., Station Hospital, Camp Bragg, N. C. (Biology, Physiology.) Waldo, B. H., E. E., Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Ili- nois, Urbana, Til. (Eleciricity.) Waldo, Jennie E, 1204 Third Ave., Rockford, Ill. (Biology.) Walker, Ellis David, M. D., B. Se, Litchfield, Dll. (Pedagogical Med, Biol., Agri.) Walsh, John, 1120 S. West St., Galesburg, Il. (Water Supply.) Wandless, Harold R., Ph. D., 1003 W. Oregon St, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.) Warbrick, John C., M. D., M. C., 306 E. 43d St., Chicago, [1l. (Birds, Na- ture Study.) i Ward, Harold B., B. S., Northwestern Univ., Evanston, fll. (Geology, Geography.) nino + oaaaioa G., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Il. otany ‘elronerri ¥. B, Ph. D., Dept..of Physics, University of Illincis, Urbana, Weaver, George H., M. D., 629 S. Wood St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine, Bacteriology.) Weaver, H. E., Raymond, Il. Weber, H. C. P., Ph. D., Westinghouse BDlectric Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. (Chemistry.) Weckel, Ada L., M. S.. Twp. High School, Oak Park, Til. (Zoology.) Weese, Asa Orrin, James Millikin University, Decatur, IL Weicholt, A., M. D., Barrington, Ill. (Medicine.) Welker, William H., Ph. D., Univ. of Illinois College of Medicine, 508 S. Honore St., Chicago, lll. (Biological Chemistry.) Wells, M. M, Ph. D., General Biological Supply House, 1177 E. 55th St., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) Wentworth, Edward N., B. S., M. S., Armour’s Bureau of Agricultural Research and Economics, Chicago, Ill (Genetics and Economics.) Wever, Ernest Glen, A. B., 15 Wendell St., Cambridge, Mass. (Biology.) Whitmore, Frank C., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Il. (Organic Chemistry.) Whitney, Worallo, A. M., 5743 Dorchester Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) Whitten, J. H., Ph. D.,_ 7111 Normai Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) Wilczyncki, E. J.,; Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Math.) Williams, E. G. C., M. ine 316 The Temple, Danville, fll. (Medicine, Clinical Pathology.) Willier, Benj. H., Ph. D., Zoology Bidg., University of Chicago, Chicago, Il. (Zoology.) Wilson, J. Gordon, M. A., 5755 Kenwood Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Otology.) Windsor, Mrs. P. L., 701 Michigan Ave., Urbana, T1l. (Entomology:) *Winter, S. G., M. A.. Lombard College, Galesburg. Ill. (Histology.) Witt, Dr. J. C., 881 Cordelia Ave., Chicago, Til. (Chemistry.) Witzemann, Edgar J., Ph. D., 321 S. Ridgeland Ave., Oak Park, TIL (Chemisiry.) i Wolkoff, M. Z, Ph. D., Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, Il (Soil Fertility.) Wood, F. E., 804 N. Evans Sit., Bloomington, Ill. (Biology.) beg ea cing M., Chicago Academy of Science, Chicago, Ill. €Taxi- ermy. Woods, F. C., 100 N. Cherry St., Galesburg, Ill. (Physics.) Worsham, Walter B., A. B., Paris, Ill. (Physics.) Wright, a M. D., 5 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Biological Chem- istry. Wright, Paul R., B. A., Michigan Ave. and Oak St., Highland Park, DL (Geolosy.) 444 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Wynne, Ross B., A. B., 250 B 111th St., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.) Young, Mrs. J. D., M. S., Windermere Hotel, 56th St. and Cornell Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) é Young, Paul Allen, A. B., 204 Vivarium Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany.) Zehren, Karl C., Flanigan, Ill. (Agriculture.) *Zetek, James, A. M., Box 245, Ancon, Panama Canal Zone. (Hntomology.) Zimmerman, Augustine G., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Biologi- cal Science.) Zoller, C. H., M. D., Hughes Bldg., Litchfield, Ill. (Medicine.) SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AFFILIATED WITH THE ACADEMY. Tllinois Nature Study Society of Elgin, 310 N. Liberty St., Elgin, Illinois. Knox County Academy of Science, Galesburg, Illinois, Fred R. Jelliff, President. Normal Science Club, Tlinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois. ‘Rockford Nature Study Society, 210 N. Avon St., Rockford, Illinois. HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE CLUBS. Boys’ Science Club, High School, Galesburg, Illinois. Danville Science Club, High School, Danville, Illinois. Englewood High School General Science Club, Chicago, Ill. Eureka Science Club, High School, Eureka, Illinois. Franklin Science Club, Community High School, Pleasant Hill, Illinois. 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