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OF THE
Illinois State Academy of Science
SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING
Knox College, Lombard College, Galesburg High School
Galesburg, Illinois
May 3, 4 and 5, 1923
VOLUME XVI
{Printed by authority of the State of Lllinois.]}
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
Illinois State Academy of Science
SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING
Knox College, Lombard College, Galesburg High School
Galesburg, Illinois
May 3, 4 and 5, 1923
VOLUME XVI
[Printed by authority of the State of Illinois.]
R332
ee Vert
ACADEMY MEMBERS
Taken at Galesburg Meeting.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
A. R. Crook, Librarian.
State Museum, Springfield, Ill.
PRICE
I, 1908, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... $1.50
II, 1909, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50
III, 1910, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50
IV, 1911, paper binding. Published by the State........ Gratis
V, 1912, paper binding. Published by the State......... Gratis
VI, 1913, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... $1.50
VII, 1914, paper binding. Published by the Academy.... 1.50
VIII, 1915, paper binding. Published by the Academy... 1.50
IX, 1916, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50
X, 1917, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50
XI, 1918, paper binding. Published by the State......... Gratis
XII, 1919, paper binding. Published by the State...... Gratis
XIII, 1920, paper binding. Published by the State...... Gratis
XIV, 1921, paper binding. Published by the State...... Gratis
XV, 1922, paper binding. Published by the State......... Gratis
SCHNEPP & BARNES, PRINTERS
SPRINGFIELD, ILL,
1923.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1923-1924. ..........-2 ees eeeee cece 8
Past OFFICERS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE........ 9
Manors OF COUNCIL MEETINGS... <. a. oi0 2 sc cic ae ew cvciee se eteees 11
MINUTES OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING, GALESBURG...... ceo LD
EWASERER SOACEPORT 5ccc cs oleic dees wb 2.0,90,5 cto es clea anlar os ew wie © 8 5 Be 15
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS:
Studying Mines with a Microscope. W. S. Bayley, University
GMT Gisin- soc tee ce oo aie amines wsetes ste oe EEN SS wee ates 27
The Present Status of Evolution. The Botanists’ View. John
M. Coulter, University of Chicago............-..sseee-s- 29
The Zoologist’s View of Evolution. Charles Zeleny, University
TAOIST. see ce cee et ano a cea Sols Bem aes wie iartatm eae 37
The Paleontologist’s View of Evolution. T. E. Savage, Univer-
Shey RB LTH OMS rol ca. aio -o aq ore aisle A citrate a8in or Sie! sivhatos etnies 39
A Novel and Economic Method of Making Charts for Science
Instruction. William W. Wesley, St. Procopius College,
NRT W are SAI eT Sica e Sete mec RIS owe a eS Oe Oe Metis Sastaxerounhe iad 43
A State Forest Preserve. James H. Ferriss, Joliet Park Dis-
Cap Gl Epo Ree ae ae Ra elie apc Pe eo LORS TP 46
A Collecting Trip to Alaska and the Canadian Northwest.
Ruth Marshall, Rockford College..............+2+++eeeee- 51
A Tundra Trip in Alaska. Patsy Hughes Lupo, Rockford Col-
A NEY Cie SES Reale Se a il Cre RO eee ee ee ee ar 54
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE:
Practical Plant Protection. Willard N. Clute, Editor, American
RGtaAHIsth AOMEL foe ce noe. 2 oe fetes cals Peete eGoss pita mene os 67
Mytilaspis Citricola and Other Scale Insects. Wesley N. Speck-
Man RAMA NT Et OONCLe. 4.0: so. aie oe wee os siala tw es eee ee ee 74
Opportunities for Botanical Research in Central America. J.
M. Greenman, Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo........... 76
A Comparison of the Transpiration Rates of Corn and Certain
Common Weeds. Helen A. McGinnis and W. B. McDougall,
MIVOCESILY Of UPILIHOIS: fc. cee Shoei eS se ee asies ade aes 56 82
The Determination of the Age of Fishes from Scale Character-
istics, Frank Smith, University of Illinois................ 89
Seedling Vascular Anatomy of Nelumbo Lutea. Isabel S.
Smith; tHimeis: College, Jacksonville 525 22). .< 22 &. eee See oie ee Eee eee hee eee 140
Testing Lamarck’s Theory. Casper L. Redfield, Chicago...... 145
Blooming Records of the Apple. C. S. Crandall, University of
DINGS) eho LeeLee Vag Olaye aS otet Oe ae oO 155
An Ecological Survey and Flora of Lake Knox. Paul K.
Houdelk, KnoxiCollewe <5 .. cchees oiciats slsrcie so 0 tae 163
Seasonal Changes in the Insect Population of an Illinois For-
est. A. O. Weese, James Millikin University............ aba
The Effect of Selection on the Length of Spine in Daphnia
Longispina. Mrs. Margaret Smith Young, Chicago........ 176
Regeneration in Bryophyllum Crenatum. Mary E. Renich,
State: Normal University; INormal, >. 2.2 -c)a. 2c eerie 183
Barberry Eradication in Illinois. F. E. Kempton, G. C. Curran,
By, Dis (Gras 5. ie aids arovesS wielones skarovenc. 0) «cade eee ker 198
Growth Studies of Certain Bottomland Species in Southern
Illinois. -C. J. Telford; University of Tllmoisss.-.s2 eee 210
Bogs of Northern Illinois, II. W. G. Waterman, Northwestern
UMIVENSILY “cow cts oe pe cosine bias Bivlgd hb os, 5/30 vie eee 214
Farm Woodlots in Illinois. W. F. Schreeder, University of
PUTIN GIS Maa sats @ oie clare oF Oreste hoe rte hes See ee 226
Wood Consumption and Wood Production in Illinois and their
Relation to the Future Prosperity of the State. R. B.
Miller? State. Horester; UTrbam antics. oh..<. oie wicreyolete 1) oe 233
Legumes as a Source of Nitrate for Farm Crops. H. J. Snider,
niversity iOf LMIiMOIS ac. leche cise orice eke Geis a ee 239
A Summary of the Plant Disease Situation in 1922 with re-
spect to the Crops of Illinois. Leo R. Tehon, State
Natural ieistory Survey, Urbana. .2. 22-4.2.2.. -3 see 246
Origin of Prairies in Illinois. John Woodard, University of
NTT OUS Petey 7s tater wats She sia, Shan Sites Gate soon ere a ee 259
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS:
The Problem of Cold Light. Harvey A. Neville, University of
TL UFTVOUS OL eee, co etof aus co) loses aera eat ie Sus Seo en eee 267
Standardized Tests. W. C. Hawthorne, Crane Junior College,
CHICA ZO NIE. nce tito eer ote Sow ele des Sats Sac, 274
Photoelectric Effect of Caesium Vapor and a New Determina-
tion of h, The Universal Constant of Planck. Jakob Kunz
and= EY, Williams, University of llinois +... ..-.. se cee 279
A Comparative Study of Soil Acidity Methods on Illinois Soils.
EK. E. DeTurk and J. W. Coale, University of Illinois...... 280
Penetration Tests in Wood-Preservation. George T. Parker
and H.-A. Geauque, Lombard Colleze..2 7... ee eee 295
A Carbon Film High Resistance; its Construction and Charac-
teristics. A. J. McMaster, University of Illinois.......... 299
Some Aspects of Phosphorus Behavior in Soils. M. I. Wolkoff,
University. vol Tin oi8\-'...t5. s\.ideeeen ee ees ee eee 308
Notes on the Quantum Theory and Relativity. Jacob Kunz,
UMIVERSITY“Of MTNOISie.is./e = sieleass-clanais hehe orale eae 323
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY:
The Origin of the Cahokia Mounds. Morris M. Leighton, Ili-
nois. Geological Survey; Urbana... 2... 2 ciel «tele ont 327
The Use of Molluscan Shells by the Cahokia Mound Builders.
Frank @- Baker, University of Iiinois*..-....v. > .. vse 328
6g
= eT.
Fishing with a Hammer. Fred R. Jelliff, Galesburg.......... 335
Correlations of Well Drillings in Northern Illinois, with Out-
croppings of Early Paleozic Beds in Wisconsin. A. W.
PSEA TENCE ILD OL BUIMOIS . oon %.0.c na ae crete ola e's so Slo 342
Pleistocene Deposits in Lawrence County. Flemin W. Cox,
PIMEGCESIL GCE OOTIMENS 2 Sian Sam ele es area ae ae ee es 347
The Use of the Microscope in the Study of Subsurface Stratig-
raphy. J. E. Lamar, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana... 353
A College Course in Geography of Illinois. William C. Gould,
See) Pesteries CoMlere. Siete atny. 2 oe one ae oe een a eee eee 359
The Mineral Resources of the Region about LaSalle. G. A.
Poemard. . Warnote es e o o ae a os petthe ieik = & Mn ten tones 367
Oil Production in Illinois. D. M. Collingwood, State Geolog-
WETS Ek AOL tr sence RR Re Ro Apa Oe 5 Sa Bs a are eee ee ee 372
Timber Preservation—A Form of Forest Conservation. F. C.
Bohannon, Galesburg High School......................-. 386
Marengo Cave, Marengo, Indiana. W.N. Speckman, Elmhurst
re et Pe oe Ste aces Me Ee Ce Rian hk « SURO eee 393
Lake Abram, Berea, Ohio. W. N. Speckman, Elmhurst College 396
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PuBLic HEALTH:
Essentials of a Safe Milk Supply in Cities of Five Thousand
and Upward’ in Illinois. Clarence W. East, Illinois De-
partment of Public Health, Springfield................... 401
The Treatment of Leprosy. Dr. A. W. Stillians, Northwestern
POPES EI he oe cnc oan ee ie eae ed ae ae 403
A Preliminary Report on a Sanitary Survey of Galesburg, Illi-
nois. Ella Devenny and George W. Hunter, 3rd, Knox
eRe PG 2 ee nw eS ad cS Sheree ee 404
Heart Disease as a Public Health Problem. Dr. Sidney Strauss,
Michael! Reese. Hospital, Chieagoc: 22... 22 te ee cence 412
The Vital Capacity Determination. George Schiff, Northwest-
ern University Medical School, Chicago.................. 420
PaPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION:
The Business of Scientific Curriculum Making in Secondary
Education. John A. Clement, Northwestern University... 433
Learning Capacity—An Important Factor in Employment Ad-
justment. Emery T. Filbey, University of Chicago...... 444
The Seli Analysis Device as an Aid in Guidance. Joseph V.
Hanna.” Johet*Jdunior Collere.c: =... e720 Sc Neer SY! 451
The Ideal Aspect of Psychology. G. J. Kirn, Northwestern Col-
JES STS 7 i a ee Se ees Se Se ne 470
Further Developments Needed in Tests for Mental Measure-
ment. Clara Schmitt, Bureau of Chiid Study, Chicago.... 477
A Radical Educationist in Early Illinois. R. Swiit, Illinois Col-
BPs ASSEN. Soa c-Si e Cae eae oe a ee ae 486
On the Orientation of an Animal in a Problem Box. Rutledge
ew Wait. GONOX COMerO, ... sso. Bay ose oe cote s ae ek 490
2 STORRS tea Pye ee a Sine eee oe ee ee eee Comer es 495
SR SUERY 8 IAMS ee Stent ce nin CRO Ee TE Sid Ps Oe ne Re 496
OnE Batheby WA MERTEN So ea. sige ae cies cc a ew Gee sok wets nee 501
ae baMc FA USTERT AS.) WOON RIERA 2 os oe ee he, Se 502
ScIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AFFILIATED WITH THE ACADEMY.............. 510
a SEUE eeLIEMAE, | SCTE CRIES, 6 Sc Sls aie wns cle wkd ced dec ae oan bw 510
OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1923-24.
President, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University, Evanston.
Vice-President, H. J. VANCLEAvVE, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Secretary, C. FRANK Purpps, State Teachers College, DeKalb.
Treasurer, W. F. Scuvuz, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
The Council.
PRESIDENT, RETIRING PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENT, LIBRARIAN, SECRETARY
AND TREASURER.
Committee on Membership.
CLARENCE BONNELL, Township High School, Harrisburg, Chairman.
Patsy H. Lupo, Rockford College, Rockford.
W. H. Pacxkarp, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria.
Frep R. JELLIFF, President Knox County Academy of Science, Galesburg.
E. E. DeTurK, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Committee on Ecological Survey.
Henry C. Cowes. University of Chicago, Chicago, Chairman.
Geo. D. Futter, University of Chicago, Chicago.
RuTH MARSHALL, Rockford College, Rockford.
V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois, Urbana.
W. B. McDovucAti, University of Illinois, Urbana.
R. B. MiLter, State Natural History Survey, Urbana.
A. O. WEESE, James Millikin University, Decatur.
JAMES H. Ferriss, Joliet Park District, Joliet.
H. S. Peroon, Lake View High School, Chicago.
M. M. LercntTon, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.
Committee on High School Science and Clubs.
J. C. Hesster, Knox College, Galesburg, Chairman.
C. M. Turton, 2055 EH. 72nd Place, Chicago.
FRANK H. Cotyer, State Normal University, Carbondale.
Harriet StRoNG, Downers Grove.
W. S. Baytey, University of Illinois, Urbana,
F. C. BoHANNAN, Galesburg High School, Galesburg.
R. G. Buzzarp, State Normal University, Normal.
F. D. Townstey, James Millikin University, Decatur.
H. H. RapcuirFer, 1346 W. Macon St., Decatur.
Committee on Publications.
THE PRESIDENT.
THE SECRETARY.
Mary E. STeaGatt, State Normal University, Carbondale.
PAST OFFICERS OF ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY.
1907
(Organization meeting, Dec. 7, 1907, Springfield.)
Chairman, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University.
Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
1908
(First annual meeting, Decatur, Feb. 22, 23, 1908.)
President, T. C. CHAMBERLAIN, University of Chicago.
Vice-President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University.
Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
8
PAST OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY—Continued
1909
(Second annual meeting, Springfield, Feb. 20, 1909.)
President, T. C. CHAMBERLAIN, University of Chicago.
Vice-President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University.
Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
1910
(Third annual meeting, Urbana, Feb. 18, 19, 1910.)
President, S. A. Forses, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, JOHN M. Covutter, University of Chicago.
P Secretary, A. R. Crook, Siate Museum, Springfield.
: Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
1911
(Fourth annual meeting, Chicago, Feb. 17, 18, 1911.)
> President. JoHN M. Courter, University of Chicago.
} Vice-Presdent, R. O. GRAHAM, Illinois Wesleyan University.
7 Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
z Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
1912
. (Fifth annual meeting, Bloomington, Feb. 23, 24, 1912.)
President, W. A. Noyes, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, J. C. Uppen, University of Texas.
Secretary, FRANK C. BAKER, Chicago Academy of Science.
Treasurer, J. C. HessterR, James Millikin University.
~™~
1913
(Sixth annual meeting, Peoria, Feb. 21, 22, 1913.)
President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University.
Vice-President, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
Secretary, Otis W. CALDWELL, University of Chicago.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
1914
(Seventh annual meeting, Evanston, Feb. 20, 21, 1914.)
President, FRANK W. DeEWotr, State Geological Survey.
Vice-President, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago.
Secretary, E. N. TraNnseat, Eastern Illinois State Normal School,
Charleston. j
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
1915
(Eighth annual meeting, Springfield, Feb. 19, 20, 1915.)
President, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
Vice-President, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University.
Secretary, E. N. TRANSEAU, Eastern State Normal School, Charleston.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
1916
(Ninth annual meeting, Urbana, Feb. 18, 19, 1916.)
President, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University.
Vice-President, E. W. Wasupurn, University of Illinois.
Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
Treasurer, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago.
9
PAST OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY—Concluded
‘ 1917
(Tenth annual meeting, Galesburg, Feb. 23, 24, 1917 )
President, WILLIAM TRELEASE, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, H. E. GrirrirH, Knox College, Galesburg.
Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal.
Treasurer, H. S. Peroon, Lake View High School, Chicago.
Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
1918
(Eleventh annual meeting, Joliet, Feb. 22, 23, 1918.)
President, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.
Vice-President, JAMES H. Frrris, Joliet.
Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal.
Treasurer, T. L. HANKINSON, State Normal School, Charleston
Librarian, A. R. Croox, State Museum, Springfield.
1919
(Twelfth annual meeting, Jacksonville, March 21, 22, 1919.)
President, R. D. Satispury, University of Chicago.
Vice-President, IsAneL S. SmiruH, Illinois College, Jacksonville.
Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal.
Treasurer, T. L. HANKINSON, State Normal School, Charleston.
Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
1920
(Thirteenth annual meeting, Danville, Feb. 20, 21, 1920.)
President, Henry B. Warp, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, Gro. D. Funter, University of Chicago.
Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal.
Treasurer, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University.
Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
1921
(Fourteenth annual meeting, Carbondale, April 29, 30, 1921.)
President, Henry C. Cowes, University of Chicago.
Vice-President, Cuas. T. Knipp, University of Illinois.
Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal.
Treasurer, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University.
Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
1922
(Fifteenth annual meeting, Rockford, April 27, 28, 29, 1922.)
President, CHas. T. Knrep, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, Miss RutTH MarsHALL, Rockford College, Rockford.
Secretary, C. FRANK Puipps, State Teachers College, DeKalb.
Treasurer, WM. F. Scuutz, University of Illinois.
Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
1923
(Sixteenth annual meeting, Galesburg, May 3, 4, 5, 1923.)
President, W. S. Baytey, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University.
Secretary, C. FRANK Purpps, State Teachers College, DeKalb.
Treasurer, WM. F. ScHuuLz, University of Illinois.
Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
10
APR 2 0 1925
: y : — J ‘ LIBRARY
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY pyy YORK i1
BOTANICAL
GARDRBN
ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Office of the Secretary
State Teachers College, DeKalb, Illinois
Council Meeting, Urbana, June 3,.1922
President W. S. Bayley presided at the Council meet-
ing. The other officers present were, Past President C.
T. Knipp, Treasurer W. F. Schulz, Librarian A. R.
Crook, and Secretary C. F. Phipps.
It was voted to accept the invitation from Galesburg
to meet there in the spring of 1923 for the annual meet-
ing of the Academy.
With the approval of the Council the President ap-
pointed the following chairmen of Sections for the annual
meeting in 1923: Chairman of Geology and Geography
Section, Professor Robert G. Buzzard, DeKalb. (Ad-
dress after September, 1922, State Normal Univ., Nor-
mal, Ill.) ; chairman of Chemistry and Physics Section,
Professor R. D. Mullinix, Rockford College; and chair-
man of Psychotogy and Education Section, Dr. C. R. Grif-
fith, Urbana. The President is to appoint later the chair-
men for the Sections in Biology and Agriculture, and
Medicine and Public Health.
It was voted that the present committee on High School
Science and Clubs be continued in office for another year,
that President Bayley be added to this committee, and
that Chairman J. C. Hessler be authorized to appoint
four additional members to this committee.
By vote the present committee on Ecological Survey
was reappointed for another year.
The suggestion was made that it would be advisable
for the committee on High School Science and Clubs to
ask Academy members in various towns and cities to
endeavor to start Science Clubs in their communities,
especially in the high schools and colleges.
A report from the State Printer, relative to the cost
of printing the last volume of Transactions, was pre-
12 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
sented by Doctor Crook. The bill amounted to $1,135.19.
By vote, Doctor Crook was asked to confer with the
proper authorities and endeavor to have the appropria-
tion from the State to the Academy increased sufficiently
to cover the printer’s bill. If this appropriation cannot
be increased, money will have to be drawn from the Acad-
emy treasury to pay the difference, namely, $135.19.
By vote, the Secretary was instructed to add 10% to
the printer’s price for all reprints of papers from the
Transactions, to cover Academy overhead charges on
same.
Council Meeting, Urbana, November 25, 1922
President W. S. Bayley called the meeting to order.
Others present were the Vice-President, Treasurer, Sec-
retary and Chairman of the High School Science and
Clubs Committee.
Plans for the annual meeting were discussed. It was
decided finally that the dates for the annual meeting
to be held at Galesburg, 1923, should be May 3rd, 4th
and oth.
The proposed work of the Committee on High School
Science and Clubs was discussed. Among other things
an active campaigning for more science clubs in high
schools is being planned by the Committee. The Coun-
cil authorized the Committee to send copies of the Acad-
emy Transactions to high school science clubs now affili-
ated, or to be affiliated, with the Academy.
The Treasurer gave the following report:
Balance onshand April 275 5 1922 oo crccecer-) ote ee tadey no tateko ts $ 629.32
Collected'4sinee that date <<. »).nmiceenecocia etoeteess ere 1,169 77
: $1,799.09
Paid to A. A. A. S. dues collected from Na-
tional Members, $4.00 each............. $776.35
All: other ‘expenditures: <2-)... 2.0.7 » eee 620.12 1,396.47
Balance “ons hand @. 34 Aes. eae eens $ 402.62
The Treasurer submitted 14 names for membership.
It was voted to approve the list and to present these
names at the Galesburg meeting for election.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13
The Secretary was asked to give, at the annual meet-
ing, a summary of the growth of the Academy for the
fifteen years of its existence.
It was the opinion of the Council that the section chair-
men should be asked to secure papers for the annual
meeting from high school teachers and from those be-
ginning research work, and not so many as in recent
years from university research professors.
A communication from the Baird Memorial Commit-
tee of Washington, D. C., was read and discussed. The
communication stated that the 100th anniversary of the
birth of Spencer Fullerton Baird is to be commemorated
February 3rd, 1923, and that the committee is being
formed in Washington to decide on the most appropriate
form for the memorial, and that our Academy, with other
organizations, is asked to appoint a delegate to meet with
the committee, and to offer suggestions for a fitting me-
morial.
Dr. Baird was not only Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institute, but he was the virtual founder of the U. S.
National Museum, the creator and head of the U.S. Fish
Commission, and the prime mover in the establishment
of the U. S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ameri-
ean Ethnology.
President Bayley was authorized to write to Dr. H. E.
Ewing, one of our members in Washington, and ask him
to represent the Academy on the Baird Memorial Com-
mittee, and to express the Council’s view that a bust
statue or bronze tablet would be most appropriate for the
memorial.
Reprints
The following new prices on reprints have been ob-
tained recently by the Secretary from the printers of the
Transactions:
100 copies 101 to 200
or less copies
4 printed pages, Orv 1ess, -BOUNG. 2.75... . $2.75 $3.05
5 to 8 ss TEVQVE RVG Sey Sete eee 4.10 4.55
9 to 16 - SEA METS OVIITIC ki cretas alse rote a0 aca 4.50 5.40
Covers on 2 to 16 pages, Bound............-. 3.10 3.70
14 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Council Meeting, Galesburg, May 3, 1923
The Council met with the Local Committee of Arrange
ments at Custer Hotel, Galesburg, on Friday, May 3
Final arrangements for the Annual Meeting were dis-
cussed and all plans completed.
The Treasurer presented 20 new names to be voted on
at the Academy business meeting for membership. Fa-
vorable action was taken on all the names.
A letter from H. EK. Ewing, one of our members in
Washington, D. C., and an appointed delegate to the
Spencer Fullerton Baird Memorial Committee meeting
held in February, was read and approved and placed
on file. This report stated that the following three reso-
lutions were adopted, and the Memorial Committee is
to carry them out:
First—That the Congress be memorialized to estab-
lish in the City of Washington a museum of fisheries and
oceanography, a laboratory and a public aquarium as a
memorial to Spencer Fullerton Baird.
Second—That there be established a fund for the en-
couragement of research and exploration in the direction
in which Spencer Fullerton Baird was a leader.
Third—That the name of Baird be given to the labora-
tory of the Bureau of Fisheries at Wood’s Hole, Massa-
chusetts.
A letter from the general secretary of the A. A. A. S.
was read, outlining their change in policy concerning the
collection of dues from members who were also members
of affiliated State Academies. The letter was handed to
our Treasurer in order that he might cooperate with the
Washington office of the A. A. A. S. in the matter of col-
lecting dues from our national members.
REPORT OF THD SECRETARY 15
Annual Business Meeting, Friday, May 4, 1923
Lombard College, Galesburg
President Bayley presided and called first for reports
of officers.
The Treasurer submitted the following written report:
REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR THE YEAR 1922-1923.
RECEIPTS
Balance on Hands May ol 1 Gao a sce ciple eke Secies wee ws $ 629.32
Received for dues (Initiation and Annual)......... 445.10
A. A. A. S. dues collected by the Academy.......... 1,224.85
ECOIVCU MAOTETED LINES, | 6) diate ais eto stcke sie nya ei eee'e, diele oe. ae 368.93
Received ior Sale Of, EransachionS4 osilc< ss. cance ws se 34.24
$ 2,702.44
DISBURSEMENTS
Paid for stationery, postage, and other expenses of
GIRCOES Ie ee ic wee eater cles eth ree awe e $ 403.37
APOSTLE IN ALES oso, tr. Usain waloleretwialnis eae alan [ote ela oteraele 449.25
Padstow. Ok AS. dor dues’ collected: <5... 55 = s0!<:s 1,224.85
Amount refunded for excess dues, etc............... 15.00
SORE UATSV TS) SIAL Vier ra intel co uchars cabs ley atets: c, ciate a Diol abeietalete 150.00
$ 2,242.47
UIE AD TLECELDE GI ne! aso)0c io bial clntere Safer ele steers, andi o's $ 2,702.44
GES DISPDUTSEMeENES Go. Sf ooccs 6s hee ae oe ce 2,242.47
SONS OTIATIO lic ce SOA hs Rtorstc icine $ 459.97
The Secretary reported on the growth of the Academy
as follows: In 1908, when the Academy was organized,
there were 114 charter members. During that year the
membership was increased to 246. The membership by
years has been as follows: 1909, 283; 1910, 384; 1911,
307 ; 1912, 362; 1913, 388; 1914, 363; 1915, 363; 1916, 318;
1917, 361; 1918, 298; 1919, 298; 1920, 408; 1921, 590; 1922,
546. Of this membership of 546 in 1922, 329 were also
members of the A. A. A. S., 36 were charter members, 49
were life members, and 54 were living outside the state
of Illinois.
The Librarian reported that there had been a steady
eall for copies of the Transactions from all parts of the
country, and for those which had been published by the
Academy a price of $1.50 had been collected. $34.24 had
been turned in to the treasury for such sales. Books
published by the state were sent gratis to all applicants.
The above reports of officers were accepted.
16 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Reports of committees called for: |
Chairman H. J. VanCleave of the Membership Com
mittee presented 36 names for action. They were all
elected to membership.
Chairman H. C. Cowles reported progress for the
EKeological Committee.
Chairman J. C. Hessler repor ted. progress for the Com-
mittee on High School Science and Clubs. He stated also
that the committee had worked during the year on plans
looking to the formation of High School Clubs and their
affiliation with the Academy. The committee had sent
out to 621 high schools of the state an 8-page pamphlet
outlining the importance of Science Clubs, and suggest-
ing methods of carrying on meetings of such clubs. A
further report was promised for the business meeting of
May 5.
For the Publication Committee the Secretary reported
that the Transactions for the Rockford meeting had been
received the middle of April and copies had been mailed
to members. Reprints were expected soon for those who
had ordered them.
The above committee reports were accepted.
On motion of A. R. Crook it was voted that:all papers
presented at meetings must be sent to the secretary with-
in 30 days after the adjournment of the annual meet-
ing, or they could not be published.
The President appointed the following committees with
instructions to report at the business meeting for May 5:
Committee on Nominations, C. T. Knipp, Chairman, Isa-
bel S. Smith, F. C. Baker, and M. M. Leighton. Commit-
tee on Resolutions; H. C. Cowles, Chairman, H. J. Van-
Cleave and A. R. Crook. Auditing Committee, A. C.
Longden, Chairman, Mary Renich and W. N. Speckman.
Adjourned to meet Saturday morning, May 5,
ae
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 17
Business Meeting, May 5, Lombard College
President Bayley called for reports of committees.
The written report of the Auditing Committee was as
follows: ;
We, the committee appointed to audit the accounts of
W. F. Schulz, the Treasurer, certify that we have ex-
amined the accounts and find them correct.
Respectfully submitted,
A. C. Longden,
Mary Renich,
W. N. Speckman.
The Nominating Committee submitted the following
report:
Nominations for officers of the Academy for 1923-24
President—W. G. Waterman, Northwestern Univer-
sity, Evanston.
Vice-President—H. J. VanCleave, University of Dli-
nois, Urbana.
Secretary—C. Frank Phipps, State Teachers College,
DeKalb.
Treasurer—W. F. Schulz, University of Illinois, Ur-
bana.
Librarian—A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield.
Membership Committee for 1923-24
Clarence Bonnell, Township High School, Harrisburg,
Chairman.
Patsy H. Lupo, Rockford College, Rockford.
W. H. Packard, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria.
Fred R. Jelliff, President Knox County Academy of
Science, Galesburg.
E. E. DeTurk, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Third member on the Publication Committee for 1923-24
Mary E. Steagall, State Normal University, Carbon-
dale.
By vote the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot
of the Academy for the list of nominees for office. The
new officers were declared elected. The Membership
18 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Committee and the member of the Publication Committee
as presented by the Nominating Committee were elected
in the same manner.
W. G. Waterman submitted the following Resolution
relative to legislation in favor of state parks :—
‘‘Resolved that the Illinois State Academy of Science
heartily favors the bills for state parks and forests now
before the legislature, and urges that every effort be put
forth to secure their passage.’’
By vote the Resolution was adopted, and the Secretary
was authorized to confer with State Forester R. B. Miller
and forward a copy of the Resolution to influential mem-
bers of the state legislature.
Chairman Hessler, in reporting for the Committee on
High School Science and Clubs, stated that the High
School Section Meeting held Friday was an enthusiastic
one, interesting papers were presented, and the Chair-
man and President Bayley had presented the matter of
Science Clubs to the meeting, and the response was good.
Chairman Hessler moved that the committee on High
School Science and Clubs be empowered to carry out de-
tails in the formation of a Science Clubs Section for the
next Annual Meeting, this Section to include all High
School Science Clubs which affiliate with the Academy;
also this Committee should meet with any committee
which might be appointed by the High Schools.
This motion was carried. Very favorable discussion
on the work of Chairman Hessler’s Committee followed
the vote.
Report of the Resolutions Committee
The Resolutions Committee reported as follows in
writing:
It is with regret that the Illinois State Academy of
Science notes the passing from its ranks by death during
the preceding year of several of its members as follows:
Arseneau, Stanislaus, R., State Teachers College, De-
Kalb, Tl.
Caldwell, C. B., Lincoln, Tl.
Cook, Mrs. Jane Perry, 5456 Kimbark Ave., Chicago,
Til.
ot
_ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY i9
Goodell, William L., Effingham, III.
Johnson, Frank S., 925 Oakland Ave., Pasadena, Cal.
Salisbury, Rollin D., University of Chicago, Chicago,
Ul.
A loss particularly severe has been occasioned by the
death of Professor Salisbury, a charter member and for-
mer president of the Academy. His service to the Acad-
emy, the state, and the nation has been outstanding, and
his place will be impossible to fill.
The Illinois State Academy of Science desires here-
with to express its hearty endorsement of the state park
and forestry bills that are now up for action before the
Illinois legislature, and the hope is hereby expressed
that the members of the Academy will individually carry
out the spirit of this resolution by endeavoring to secure
for these measures the support of the legislators in their
respective districts.
The Illinois State Academy of Science views with
satisfaction the growing interest in the work of the Acad-
emy on the part of the teachers and students in the ecol-
leges, normal schools and high schools in the state. In
such institutions lies the hope of scientific progress in the
future, and on this account the Academy specifically ex-
presses its purpose to continue to cooperate in every
possible way with the schools and science clubs.
By common consent the Galesburg meeting of the
Academy for 1923 is one of the largest and best meetings
in the history of the Illinois State Academy of Science.
In large part this success is due to the efficiency of the
local organizations, representatives, and committees.
Singled out for special appreciative mention are Knox
and Lombard Colleges, the Galesburg High School, the
Knox County Academy of Science, the Knox College
Biology Club, the Lombard College Chemical Fraternity,
the High School Science Club, the Galesburg Chamber of
Commerce, the Galesburg Press, the Galesburg Street
Car Company, and, last but by no means least, the local
committee on arrangements of which Mr. Fred R. Jelliff
has been the efficient chairman, and Mr. Paul Houdek a
20 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
most able helper. The Galesburg meeting sets a high
standard of efficiency and excellence that is going to be
hard to equal.
Henry C. Cowrss, Chairman;
H. J. Van Cueave,
A. R. Crook.
It was voted that the resolutions submitted be adopted
and placed on file.
The report of the Committee on Metric System was
presented by A. C. Longden, Chairman, Thomas G. Hull
not being present.
Report of the Committee on Metric System
This committee was appointed in 1922 to co-operate
with other scientific organizations whose purpose it is
to promote the Metric System of weights and measures
so that the public in general may become familiar with
the advantages of the system and proper legislation
enacted. The chairman of the committee has been in
touch with the ‘‘World Metric Standardization’’ council
and the ‘‘ American Metric Association’’, offering. the ser-
vices of the committee to those organizations. It would
seem that education is necessary before any legislation
is enacted, since the majority of individuals do not ap-
preciate the value of the Metric System. This education
should be undertaken in the schools. As yet, the com-
mittee has not arranged such a program. Possibly the
science clubs of the Academy could assist in the move-
ment.
It would seem timely to bring to the attention of the
academy a few facts regarding the history of the Metric
System and its present status in this country. James
Watt, the British inventor, was the originator of the
‘‘Dollar—Meter—Liter—Gram’’ system. Both George
Washington and Thomas Jefferson urged very strongly
upon the early American Congress the adoption of all
four of these items. The decimal dollar system was
adopted but the others after prolonged discussion were
allowed to be dropped. In 1866 Congress legalized the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 21
Metric System but missed the opportunity for complete
simplification by not making it the exclusive standard.
Early in the World War, the War Department found it
necessary to adopt the Metric System for the Army in
France and no other units were used. In 1919 the Brit-
tan-Ladd Bill was,introduced in Congress making the
Metrie System the only legal system of measurements,
allowing a transmissional period of 10 years before the
bill should be effective. As an indication of some of the
organizations in Illinois that have advocated the use of
the Metric System, the following list is given:
Illinois State Senate;
Chicago City Council;
South Side Business Men’s Association, Chicago;
Chamber of Commerce, Elizabethtown;
Logan County Medical Society;
Chicago Laundry Owners’ Association, Chicago;
The +Ones, Chicago;
Millinery Jobbers Association, Chicago;
National Association of Box Manufacturers, Chicago;
National Association of Loose Leaf Manufacturers,
Chicago ;
National Association of Retail Druggists, Chicago;
National Manufacturers of Soda Water Flavors, Chi-
cago;
National Refrigerator Manufacturers Association,
Chicago;
Women’s Association of Commerce, Chicago;
Chicago Heights Chamber of Commerce, Chicago;
Chamber of Commerce, LaSalle;
Illinois Valley Manufacturers Club, LaSalle;
Commercial Club, Liberty;
Chamber of Commerce, Ottawa;
Illinois Wholesale Grocers Association, Peoria.
This is only a partial list of Illinois organizations re-
commending and urging the adoption of the Metric Sys-
tem. There are thousands of organizations in other
states as well as national organizations in the same work.
A concerted effort by all of these organizations, headed
by the American Metric Association, would be able in the
next few years, in the opinion of the committee, to bring
22 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
about sufficient education so that no difficulties would be
met in obtaining the legislation.
The above report was accepted and placed on file.
President-elect Waterman was called upon for a few
remarks. In a brief speech he outlined some policies
which he would like the Academy to consider the coming
year,—such as popularizing science more, but in the right
way ; selling science properly to the people; and continu-
ing to select carefully meeting places in cities prepared
to cooperate with us in making the meeting a success.
He suggested also that a four-page pamphlet, setting
forth the aims of the Academy, be used freely with ap-
plication cards in securing new members.
Treasurer Schulz spoke of the need of securing new
members, since we were barely keeping up our member-
ship, and the funds in the treasury were growing smaller
in amount each year.
Council Meeting, Urbana, May 19, 1923
President Waterman presided and all six members
of the Council were present.
Invitations from Elgin, Decatur, Normal and Bloom-
ington, and Joliet, urging the Academy to hold its next
annual meeting in their respective cities, were read,
and after thorough discussion it was voted to accept the
Elgin invitation. The decision was based on two facts;
first, that the Academy has never met in Elgin while it
has met in the other cities named; and second, Elgin
had extended a cordial invitation a year ago to hold our
1923 meeting there.
The following standing committees were appointed:
Committee on Ecological Survey—H. C. Cowles,
Chairman; George D. Fuller, Ruth Marshall, V. H. Shel-
ford, W. B. McDougall, R. B. Miller, A. O. Weese, James
H. Ferriss, H. S. Pepoon and M. M. Leighton.
Committee on High School Science and Clubs—John
C. Hessler, Chairman; F. H. Colyer, C. M. Turton, Har-
riet Strong, W. S. Bayley, F. C. Bohannan, R. G. Buz-
zard, F. D. Townsley and H. H. Radcliffe. Chairman
Hessler was authorized to add another member to the
committee and to make other changes if desired.
Det Nad”
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 23
By vote the Committee on High School Science and
Clubs was empowered to use funds up to $50 if neces-
sary, to carry on its work.
The President was given authority to have printed
a small four page pamphlet, setting forth useful informa-
tion concerning the Academy and its work, for distribu-
tion among members and for use in securing new mem-
bers; the cost of such a pamphlet not to exceed $30.
The following amendments and additions to the con-
stitution were presented to be acted upon at the next
annual meeting:
Article V.—Council. The first sentence to read: The
Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President,
Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, and the presidents of
the two preceding terms. (This allows for two past-
presidents on the Council instead of one).
Addition to Article V.—At the annual meetings the
presiding officers of all the affiliated scientific societies
of the state shall meet with the Academy Council for the
discussion of policies.
Article VI—Standing Committees. Add to this article
a Committee on Affiliation. Also add to this article:
The Committee on Affiliation shall consist of five mem-
bers, chosen annually by the Academy.
By vote the President was empowered to appoint a
temporary committee on Affiliation to serve this year and
work among the County Academies and other scientific
societies of the state, with a view to securing the affilia-
tion of their members with the Academy, so that all may
cooperate in the interest of science.
The following Committee on Affiliation was appointed:
W.S. Bayley, Chairman; H. J. VanCleave, F. R. Jelliff,
Clarence Bonnell and W. G. Waterman.
C. F. Putrps, Secretary.
coi
PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE GENERAL SES-
SIONS OF THE GALESBURG MEETING
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PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 27
STUDYING MINES WITH A MICROSCOPE
W. S. Bayzey, University or ILurnots
(Abstract)
The address by President Bayley was on the modern
methods of studying mines with the microscope to deter-
mine the way in which iheir ores have been formed, and
thereby to learn something as to their expectancy of life.
The lantern pictures of extremely thin sections of rocks,
disclosing the minerals composing them, were graphic
and beautiful.
The speaker introduced his subject by explaining
briefly how pieces of rock are ground so thin that they
are transparent, and how in these transparent sections
the character of the different minerals present and their
relations to one another may be discovered by allowing
polarized light to pass through them and noting the ef-
fects. Photographs of thin sections of granites, horn-
blende-schists and other rocks were thrown on the
screen and the methods by which the minerals in them
were recognized were explained briefly. After giving
a general view of the differences between some of the
commoner rocks and the changes that take place when
one type is changed into another, the speaker threw on
the screen a number of photographs of the ore and asso-
ciated rocks from some of the iron mines in North Caro-
lina and showed that the ore was derived from deep-
seated sources. It was inferred therefore that the ore
body was persistent downward as far as mining is profit-
able. Incidentally, the minute character of the ore was
observed and a method for concentrating it was sug-
gested. It was seen from the photographs that the ore
consists of magnetite and hornblende so inextricately
mixed that it is hopeless to attempt to separate them. It
was seen, however, that these two minerals are also mixed
with quartz, which is an objectionable component, but in
such a way that it can be separated from the magnetite
and hornblende by crushing and treatment with a mag-
net. The hornblende is not injurious to the ore and con-
sequently its presence in the concentrate does not in-
jure it.
28 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Another kind of iron ore is abundant in the south and
elsewhere but it is not mined because it contains titanium.
It is of some importance to know the form in which this
objectionable constituent occurs in the ore mineral, as
the titaniferous ores will probably be needed at some
time in the not very distant future and it is desirable
to know whether the titanium can be removed from the
ore without reducing its iron content. Photographs of
sections of some of the ores were thrown on the screen
and it was seen readily that the titanium is present as
little particles of the mineral rutile imbedded in the
magnetite which is the ironbearer. The rutile is not
magnetic; consequently if the ore is ground to the fine-
ness of the grains of rutile in it, all the magnetite, which
is magnetic, may be withdrawn from the powder by elec-
tro-magnets and may be used as an iron ore.
Incidentally a number of veins in the mountains in the
vicinity of the mines in North Carolina and Tennessee,
and a number of sections of the iron ores of the Lake
Superior region were shown on the screen.
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 29
THE PRESENT STATUS OF EVOLUTION
(The Botanist’s View)
JoHN M. Counter, University oF CHIcaco.
In the last few months I have been asked frequently
to speak on this subject. My audiences, however, have
not been made up of members of an Academy of Science
and their friends, but of people who want evolution
explained, and to know whether it is as wicked as some
elaim. The misunderstanding in reference to evolution
is very widespread. This has arisen from ignorance
of the subject, from misinterpretation of the statements
of scientific men, and from what may be called a mediae-
val attitude of mind. It has been a shock to educators
to realize that there still remains such a mass of un-
trained minds that can be imposed upon by eloquent
ignorance.
As one illustration of the misinterpretation of the atti-
tude of scientific men, I may call attention to the use that
has been made of the address given by Bateson at the
Toronto meeting of the American Association. He has
been quoted extensively as an illustration of a distin-
guished biologist and student of evolution who has given
up his belief in the theory of organic evolution. No state-
ment in his address can justify such a claim. The bur-
den of his argument was that with our increasing knowl-
edge of the complexity of the subject, our present explan-
ations of the origin of species are inadequate. Each dis-
covery opens up a new perspective for exploration. To
quote Bateson as denying the fact of evolution is to dis-
regard the following statement which concludes his
address:
‘‘Tet us proclaim in precise and unmistakable lan-
guage that our faith in evolution is unshaken. Every
available line of argument converges on this inevitable
conclusion. The obscurantist has nothing to suggest
which is worth a moment’s attention. The difficulties
which weigh upon the professional biologist need not
trouble the layman. Our doubts are not as to the reality
or truth of evolution, but as to the origin of species, a
technical problem,’’
30 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
To quote Bateson as having given up his belief in evo-
lution, and in doing so to disregard this closing statement
of his address, is plain dishonesty. In such ways are
the people being imposed upon. -
One of the curious facts in reference to the current dis-
cussion of evolution, which shows great lack of informa-
tion, is the confusion of evolution with Darwinism. As
you know, Darwin’s explanation of the fact of evolution
is simply one of a number of explanations, and it belongs
to the mediaeval period in the history of evolution, when
only the method of observation and inference was used.
Of course, Darwin’s explanation came at a psychological
moment and attracted an attention that was wholly a sur-
prise to him. It is this fact that has made his explana-
tion so famous that many think that Darwinism and evo-
lution are synonymous.
With this preface, dealing with the present commo-
tion concerning evolution, a preface hardly pertinent to
this occasion, but perhaps excusable under the circum-
stances, I shall now address myself to a scientific group,
a group which I am assuming is not troubled by doubts
as to the fact of evolution.
The problem that faces us is the explanation of evolu-
tion. All of the explanations proposed thus far may
prove inadequate and still the fact remain to be ex-
plained. In the early history of the subject, simple
explanations were offered. As facts multiplied, however,
and especially such facts as genetics has been uncover-
ing, it became evident that evolution is not a single prob-
lem, but a complex of problems, involving a multitude of
factors. It is obvious now that no single explanation can
be adequate for all the phenomena of evolution. It may
be said that all of the classic explanations explain some
things, but no one of them can explain all things. The
present status of evolution will be appreciated more
clearly if we evaluate the classic explanations in the light
of recent knowledge.
Lamarck’s explanation encountered the obstacle of the
inheritance of acquired characters. Biologists presently
became convinced that acquired characters are not in-
herited, and therefore Lamark’s explanation was thrown
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 31
out of court. Now, however, we have discovered that
the inheritance of acquired characters is possible in
many organisms under certain conditions, especially in
the simpler organisms. This means that Lamarckism is
coming into notice again, and there is a decided revival
of interest in a modern modified form of this explanation.
A single simple illustration of the work on the inherit-
ance of acquired characters in plants may be given.
A great many plants have been used in experimental
work of this kind. In investigating the periodicity of
sexual cells in Dictyota, a marine alga, Williams has
proved the possible inheritance of acquired characters.
In a given locality the male and female organs develop
simultaneously, and a general liberation of gametes and
fertilization take place on a particular day. This date
differs in different localities, showing a relation to tides
and therefore to the amount of available light. On the
other hand, there is no evidence of periodicity in seas
where there are no tides. Plants transferred to the lab-
oratory, and thus removed from tides and varying light,
continue to show the characteristic periodicity of the
locality from which they came. Here is an obvious
adjustment of the plant to a varying set of environ-
mental conditions which has become hereditary.
As perhaps many of you know, very recently much
more important and convincing testimony as to the
inheritance of acquired characters has been secured by
Guyer in his experimental work on eye defects in white
rabbits. In short, there seems to be no doubt but that
acquired characters may be inherited.
Darwin’s explanation encountered the obstacle of
variations of a sort that were claimed to be inadequate
to account for the results of evolution. It ought to be
kept in mind that this objection does not involve the idea
of natural selection. That such selection occurs is ob-
vious, for some forms survive and others perish, but
does this result in building up new species with these
small variations we call continuous? The question
whether Darwin’s variations are adequate for his con-
clusion is being examined critically by geneticists.
32 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
DeVries’ explanation simply changes the type of
variation subjected to selection. Instead of a new species
being built up gradually, it is born full fledged, and nat-
ural selection merely decides which of the fledglings
shall survive. This explanation encountered the objec-
tion that the so-called mutating forms are simply hybrids
splitting. In fact, the original classic example of muta-
tion, Oenothera Lamarckiana, has turned out to be prob-
ably a hybrid, and not a genuine case of mutation. The
situation was concealed for a time by the fact that the
ratio of a splitting hybrid and the ratio shown by these
so-called mutants were very far from consistent. This,
however, has now been explained by work in genetics,
so convincingly, in fact, that DeVries himself has ac-
cepted the explanation. His attitude toward his proposed
explanation of evolution should be understood. He told
me on several occasions that he was not at all sure of
this explanation, but that he prided himself not on his
theory, but on the fact that he had started a new method
of studying evolution, that is the experimental method.
I might also state for your benefit an experience I had
showing the same spirit in Darwin with reference to his
explanation. As you know, Asa Gray was the champion
of Darwinism in this country, writing many notable
papers on the subject, which were afterwards collected
in a volume entitled Darwimana. On one occasion Dr.
Gray showed to me a letter he had received from Darwin
after the latter had read one of these papers. In the
letter Darwin said: ‘‘You have stated the case so
clearly and convincingly that I am almost persuaded to
believe it myself.’’ In other words, these pioneers in
evolutionary theory realized better than their followers
that their explanations were only tentative, to be tested
by subsequent investigation. They were suggestions
rather than conclusions, to be thought about rather than
believed.
Weismann’s explanation, revived by Lotsy, that
hybridization ig responsible for evolution, encountered
the obstacle that although hybridizing multiplies varia-
tions, it can never account for original differences. It
results in mixtures of various kinds, but introduces
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 33
nothing new. It is the appearance of new things that
leads from one great group to another.
Another subsidiary explanation is called ‘‘isolation,’’
which certainly accounts for the survival of variations
that might otherwise have been swamped out by crossing
and competition. After all it is a method of natural
selection; that is, selection is usually made by competi-
tion, but sometimes by isolation. |
Now, however, we are in the modern period in the
history of evolution. Darwin carried the method of
observation and inference to its limit in space and time,
but inference is not demonstration. At present we are
developing the technique of demonstration, by opening
up the great field of heredity, which is not only vast in
extent, but also extremely complex. When a species
. ordinarily begets its own kind, according to well defined
laws of inheritance, what are the very occasional condi-
tions that make it beget or at least start another species?
At the present time, therefore, attention is being focused
upon the experimental study of inheritance, the field of
genetics, which may be rightly called also the experi-
mental study of evolution. This newly developed field of
genetics, with its increasing complexities, has taught us
that evolution is a very intricate process, and that some
of the earlier explanations, like that of Darwin for ex-
‘ample, deal only with the more superficial phenomena.
They are true as far as they go, but they do not get at
the fundamentals. To say that evolution is diseredited
because Darwin’s explanation does not explain the whole
situation would be like discrediting the rotation of the
earth because some one explanation is not satisfactory.
It was in recognition of this modern genetical attack
upon the problems of evolution, with its multiplying com-
plications, that Bateson spoke of evolution as he did,
as a problem not yet solved. Of course, any explanation
of evolution must take into account the machinery of
heredity, and we are finding that machinery not only
complicated, but now and then producing unexpected
results, which the geneticist must explain. |
Naturally, this intensive study of evolution through
experimental work in inheritance has somewhat
34 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
restricted the presentation of evolution. When the only
method was inference from observed facts, there was no
lhmit to inference, and it could be made to include the
whole plant and animal kingdoms. Now, however, the
experimental method limits us to a few generations, and
the wide-ranging inferences are left to the unscientific
who are not particular about the facts.
In considering the relative merits of these explana-
tions, it is not necessary to subscribe to a belief in any
one of them, to the exclusion of the others. All of them
may be factors in evolution, and it is altogether probable
that no one of them is adequate to explain all evolution-
ary changes. We need them all, and more besides.
A good method of evaluating these explanations and
any others that may be offered is to realize the questions
any explanation of evolution must answer. There are
at least four conspicuous questions: (1) What is the
cause of variation? (2) What is the nature of the varia-
tions that are important in evolution? (3) How may
variations be perpetuated and mutiplied? (4) How are
the variations manipulated to effect progressive evolu-
tion?
Lamarck’s explanation goes farther than any other in
answering the first question, the cause of variation, and
also in suggesting a basis for progressive evolution. Dar-
win and DeVries accept the variations without attempt-
ing to explain the cause, differ as to the kind of varia-
tions used, and agree as to the method of manipulating
them. The hybridization explanation answers the third
question, how variations are perpetuated and multiplied.
It will be noted that no one of them answers all these
questions.
Such an estimate of the proposed explanations empha-
sizes the fact that there must be more exact experimental
evidence before much further progress can be made in
solving the problems of evolution. It was in realization
of this that at the beginning of the present century the
study of evolution culminated in, and became diverted
into, genetics, the experimental study of inheritance,
which has already suggested many things, and promises
to be still more suggestive in the future.
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 35
As an illustration of this, reference may be made to
the results of this work as bearing on the mutation ex-
planation. Until genetics began to uncover the machin-
ery of inheritance, which of course is fundamental in
producing variations, the general belief in evolution
included the following ideas: Inheritance of acquired
characters is exploded; Darwinian variations are du-
bious as a basis for explaining evolution; but mutation,
with natural selection among the mutants, doubtless ac-
counts for the facts. Now what does genetics tell us?
The majority of mutants may be called degenerates, the
new characteristics shown serving to adapt the mutant
more poorly to the environment than the parent was
adapted. In fact, the general statement is that the ma-
jority of mutants are much worse than their parents,
and none of them are better. If only a few were better
equipped, they would furnish sufficient material for evo-
lution; but with none better equipped, evolution is
blocked. .
Such considerations have made many biologists feel
less certain in explaining evolution than they were a few
years ago. This loss of faith in mutation, added to re-
cent discoveries on inheritance of acquired characters,
has caused many to seek an explanation of progressive
evolution in Lamarckian terms.
The great problem we are facing is progressive evolu-
tion, commonly called ‘‘orthogenesis’’, which history
has made so evident. Continuous variations, discontin-
uous variations (so-called ‘‘mutations’’), and hybrid
variations may all be explained as due to a complex of
factors. Such variations, however, are like the waves
on the surface of a choppy sea, running in every direc-
tion, and getting nowhere. Progressive evolution, how-
ever, may be likened to a deep-seated oceanic current
which moves steadily in one direction without any refer-
ence to the choppy surface. How can we explain this
oceanic current? In my own field, I have been impressed
by the progressive evolution of the gymnosperms, of
which we have continuous records from the Paleozoic to
the present time. Throughout that tremendous stretch
of time, in spite of all imaginable changes in external
36 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
conditions, certain structures have changed steadily in
one direction, and these changes have resulted in the
origin and development of the various great groups.
What kind of variation furnishes the material for such
evolution, and what are the conditions that produce such
variations? These questions have not been answered,
except in such a vitalistiec way that the appeal is to faith
rather than to knowledge.
In reviewing the status of the subject of evolution
today, it seems fair to conclude that competent opinion is
in a condition of flux, inclining now in this direction and
now in that as the results of experimental work are re-
ported. It is time for the open mind, for no one ean fore-
tell what a day may bring forth. With Lamarck’s view
once abandoned and now revived, Darwin’s view once
accepted and now doubted, DeVries’ view once hopeful
and now questionable, and all the other views fluctuat-
ing in apparent importance, no person is in a position
to pass judgment. My feeling is that we have been simply
playing with the surface, discovering minor factors,
drawing general inferences from special cases. This
was a necessary introduction to the subject. We begin
by wading in shallow water, and as we advance the water
gets deeper, until now we must realize that it is over
all our heads.
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 37
THE ZOOLOGIST’S VIEW OF EVOLUTION
( Abstract.)
CuHarLtes ZeELENY, University oF ILLINots
As time goes on it becomes more and more certain that
plants and animals have come to their present condition
by a long series of changes. Recent advances along many
biological lines have furnished what are perhaps the
most striking of all the confirmations. There is now no
biologist who is not firmly convinced that the only ex-
planation of the present day similarity with diversity
among organisms is to be found in the view of blood rela-
tionship. And the evidence that man must be included in
this statement is equally strong. Any one who is willing
to subject this evidence to careful examination will be
convinced of its soundness.
When biologists became certain of the fact of evolu-
tion they centered their attack on the determination of
the way in which evolution acts, upon the conditions or
factors of the process. These investigations have gone
on step by step, demonstration of each step being gained
by accurate observation and experiment with critical dis-
cussions. These discussions of the problems at the
frontier of investigation have been taken by superficial
observers to indicate difference of opinion among biolo-
gists as to the fact of evolution itself. The real situa-
tion is that as our knowledge of the method of evolution
increases there is always a border zone of new problems
under active investigation and discussion. Im such a
zone there will always be differences of opinion. It
should not be necessary to state that such differences do
not affect belief in evolution itself.
In the time at my disposal I shall pick out a few of
the zoological facts upon which our belief in evolution
is based, laying special emphasis upon the more recent
work:
1. Evidence from comparative anatomy.
2. Evidence from embryology.
3. Evidence from classification.
4. Evidence from geographical distribution,
38 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
5. Evidence from physiology.
6. Evidence from direct experimental studies of evo-
lution.
In conclusion, a few words may be said concerning
man’s relation to the rest of the universe. Scientific
investigations have demonstrated that the universe is
not a fixed, rigid system but a changing one. The earth
is a part of this changing universe and as such has gone
through a series of orderly processes, finally reaching a
stage in which life became possible. When living things
came they in turn did not remain unchanged. They
progressed from one condition to another until man him-
self appeared.
There is grandeur in this view of man as an integral
part of the universe. He fits into a large scheme of
things, not as a disturbing element but as a fulfillment
of the plan. The fertility of this dynamic conception has
been demonstrated in all fields of human thought and
action. The knowledge of a long course of past improve-
ment leads to a belief in the probability of further ad-
vance. It is highly improbable that man is at the apex
of a long series of upward change. Instead, there is
every reason why we should prepare for boundless fur-
ther advance. If we will but accept the obvious facts
and apply their lessons to human improvement, we can
accelerate the onward progress not only to a goal fixed
by present aspirations but past it to conditions beyond
our dreams.
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 39
THE PALEONTOLOGIST’S VIEW OF EVOLUTION
T. EK. Savace, University oF Inurors.
To the paleontologist, evolution means the progressive
change in the life of the earth from age to age, as a
result of natural causes. Just as the life of today devel-
oped out of the life of yesterday, the life of the present
year was derived in a natural way from that of last year;
so the life of the present age evolved in a natural way
by slow progressive changes out of the age that preceded,
and so on back to the earliest appearance of life on the
earth, several hundred million years ago. The causes
of these changes were partly inherent in the organisms,
but were largely a result of responses to changes in the
external environment. There are three main lines of
evidence which practically compel the student of fossils
to believe in the doctrine of evolution. These are (1)
the geologic succession of life on the earth, (2) the num-
erous transitional or connecting forms and (3) the law
of recapitulation in the life history of the individual.
1. The fossils preserved in the rocks show us the
actual types of life that existed during the time the suc-
cessive rock formations were deposited. It is significant
that these fossils show a constant advance in the life as
we pass from lower to higher, i. e. from older to younger
rock strata. For example, the earliest known plants are
found in rocks of pre-Cambrian age, and are algae and
related forms, representatives of the lowest Phylum or
group of plants. The higher, fern-like plants did not
appear until much later (Silurian) time; and the highest
group, the seed bearing plants, were not developed for
a long time later than the ferns.
Likewise, the earliest animal fossils preserved in the
rocks are the lower invertebrate types, which preceded
the vertebrate forms by several million years. Of still
greater significance is the fact that within any Phylum
or group of animals or plants, it is the lowest members
of the group that appear earliest, successively higher
types being developed later in time, just as among the
Vertebrata the fishes appeared before the Amphibia, the
Amphibia before the reptiles, and the reptiles before the
40 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
birds or mammals; and among seed plants the Gymno-
sperms appeared before the higher Angiosperms.
2. The connecting or transitional characters pos-
sessed by the earliest representatives of any class of
plants or animals present still more definite evidence of
evolution. For example, the earliest birds are found in
rocks of Jurassic age. These first bird forms had teeth
in both lower and upper jaws, like reptiles, a long verte-
brated tail, like reptiles, and, like reptiles had separate
toes, ending in claws, on their front limbs or wings. In
fact they show so clearly their reptilian relationship
that if it were not for the feathers with which these birds
were scantily clothed, there would be no hesitation in
ealling them reptiles.
A somewhat different kind of connecting or transi-
tional forms is shown in the classic example of the evo-
lution of the horse, of which a most complete series of
skeletons has been found in rocks ranging from Eocene
to Pliocene in age. These show every step in the change
from the small Eocene horse, about as large as a fox
terrier, and having four toes and a rudiment of another
toe on each front foot, and three toes and a splint on
each hind foot, to the full size modern horse found in
late Pliocene rocks, having one functional toe and two
splints or rudiments of other toes on each foot. The evo-
lution of the elephant and camels is known by series of
skeletons almost as complete as that of the horse.
3. The evidence of evolution shown by the law of
recapitulation, is possibly even more conclusive than
that already cited. This law states that the life history
of each individual recapitulates, or repeats in a short-
ened way, the evolutionary history of the race to which
it belongs. A clear illustration of this law is shown in
the life history of the frog, the young stage of which
is a tadpole having no lungs or legs, but breathes by
means of gills, swims by movements of its tail, and is
a fish in all its main characteristics and habits. Later it
develops legs and lungs; absorbs its gills and tail; leaves
the water, and is adapted to life on land. According to
the law of recapitulation, the fish stage in the early life
of the frog indicates a fish ancestry for the class Am-
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 41
phibia to which the frogs belong. This law was first dis-
eovered by students of embryology, but the paleontolo-
gist has in some ways a better opportunity to test its
validity than the embryologist, especially as regards
stages in the life history somewhat later than the truly
embryonic. This is because, according to this law, the
mature shells of any age should be found to correspond
with immature growth stages of shells of their descend-
ants occurring in rocks of later age, and this has proven
true in a wonderful variety of fossil forms. An example
will suffice from the Cephalopoda, or animals which have
their shells separated into a number of chambers by par-
titions like the chambered nautilus. The earliest forms
with chambered shells were straight. Later, some of
_ these developed curved shells, and later still the loosely
coiled, and finally shells closely coiled in one plane, like
the Nautilus, were evolved. Now the remarkable thing
is that when this closely coiled Nautilus shell is carefully
sawed lengthwise through the middle, it is seen that the
curvature in the oldest part or apical end of the shell is
not symmetrical. The shell begins to grow straight at
the tip, later becoming only slightly curved till the first
three septa are formed, then becomes loosely coiled, but
does not become closely coiled until the end of the first
volution. This remarkable manner of growth results in
leaving an empty space between the two halves of the
first volution, and repeats perfectly the order in which
the various degrees of curving and coiling of the Nau-
tilus type were developed successively in time.
Now as if Nature was afraid this record was not sufh-
ciently clear, she has made the evidence of evolution
still more definite. In all of the closely coiled chambered
shells, like Nautilus, the septa or partitions were evenly
eurved plates which joined the inner side of the shell
along straight regular lines called sutures. In Devonian
‘time there began to be developed in some of these shells
irregular wrinkling of the septa, causing the bending
backward and forward of the suture lines as in the Gon-
iatites. As time progressed the lobing of the suture lines
became more and more complex, as in the Ceratites, and
reached its culmination in the later Ammonites. During
42 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
the Triassic and Jurassic periods the Ammonites with
very complex suture lines reached the climax of their
careers. Now at the apex of each of these Ammonite
shells the first sutures were simple, like those of the
adult Nautilus. These were followed in the first half
of the coil by sutures with simple lobes, as in Goniatites;
and farther forward the lobes of the later sutures became
more complex, until the true Ammonite type of suture is
attained about the time the first whorl is completed. Thus,
each individual Nautilus shell repeats in its growth the
successive stages of curvature and coiling that the Nau-
tilus group passed through in its development from
straight-shelled ancestral forms; and in a similar way ~
each individual Ammonite shell repeats in its growth the
successive stages of complexity of suture line that the
Ammonite group passed through in its development from
the simple-sutured Nautiloid ancestors.
In their growth the shells in many of the classes of
fossils repeat in their young stages adult characters of
their earlier ancestors so that the paleontologist does not
doubt the general validity of the evidence of the law of
recapitulation with regard to evolution.
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 43
A NOVEL AND ECONOMIC METHOD OF MAKING
CHARTS FOR SCIENCE INSTRUCTION
Wriuiam M. Westey, Sr. Procoprus Cotuecer, Liste.
Are charts of any value?
Many of you who are engaged in teaching the sciences,
but especially those in connection with botany, zoology
or psychology, have, no doubt, realized the importance
of charts in the class room. If a particular phase or
stage is visualized, it is impressed more forcibly upon
the mind of the student; hence it is more readily retain-
ed in his memory.
The market is indeed flooded with charts, but seldom
is a person able to procure just what he would want.
Hence you are confronted with this problem: Are you to
adopt a course of instruction to fit the charts available;
are you to omit the use of charts altogether, or are you
to make your own charts?
It was the last named course that was adopted at our
college at Lisle, for the faculty refused to be satisfied
with what the market had to offer. At first Dr. Jurica set
a few students to work at making charts free-hand, but
soon realized that this was tedious and quite expensive.
After negotiating with a number of optical companies,
he finally induced the Spencer Lens to modify their Model
3 Delineoscope so that it could be used for projecting
opaque iflustrations at any distance. Ordinarily the
delineoscope is equipped with but a short plunger which
does not permit a short working distance. This means
that one would have a limit to the size of any particular
illustration on the chart. But an 18 inch plunger allows
one to come as near the cloth as is desired and corres-
pondingly reduces the size of the picture.
The procedure is quite simple. Having made the
proper connection, and having set the delineoscope
in place, all one needs to do is to tack the cloth in-
tended for the chart to a wall or beaver board. Then
project the selected illustration, from a book, a re-
print or a drawing, regulating the size by moving the
table backward or forward as is necessary and focusing
by, means of the elongated plunger. With this all set, one
44 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
is free to trace the chart in outline with pencil, and later
it ean be finished with indelible inks or paints. The
advantage afforded by this procedure is that one can
easily and at a very small cost make whatever charts
he desires; that is, a person can include in a series just
exactly what he thinks will illustrate the subject best.
The practice at our institution at Lisle is as follows:
Dr. Jurica makes the selection, and he, himself, traces it
in outline with pencil and leaves the rest to be finished by
the students with colored waterproof ink, directing, of
course, the choice of colors and all detail work. The
cloth used, which has been found to be very satisfac- —
tory, is known as ‘‘binders’’, Velum de Lux, and can
be purchased in rolls of 40 yards, ranging in price from
17 to 35 cents per yard, depending upon market condi-
tions. [tis cut easily into sheets of any size with a knife
or razor blade. Our practice is to tack the roll to a kit-
chen table and to cut along the edge, cutting up the whole
roll at one time into sheets of uniform size. After
finishing the chart in detail, it is then lettered and
bound in loose-leaf form in strong covers made of
beaver board and mounted on a tripod. If one desires,
the chart could also be put on rollers, but as a rule this
does not keep so well. Moreover, where a quantity is
made, the book form on a tripod has a decided advantage,
for the lecturer can turn readily from chart ke chart as
necessity demands.
A probable objection may be that it is difficult to find
students capable and willing to finish charts. This, how-
ever, presents no difficulty; for if the teacher is able,
there is no class, not even on the high school level, in
which a number of students could not be trained, and who
would not be willing to earn some pocket-money. Be-
sides, the students as a rule take pride in their finished
products, especially if the proper credit for whatever
they do is given them.
The delineoscope in itself is not very expensive, if one
considers the time it saves in outlining or merely measur-
ing off the illustrations according to the rules of propor-
tions. With this machine charts have been outlined,
ranging in time from 17 minutes to an hour and a half,
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 45
depending upon their complexity. It is both a time and
a money saver. Moreover, a simple turn of the globe
enables one to use the delineoscope for lantern slide
projections.
The accompanying illustrations show some of the stu-
dents at work making charts.
Turning the globe back again and inserting a sliding
feeder, postal cards may be projected.
46 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
A STATE FOREST PRESERVE.
James H. Ferriss, Jouret Park District
As reported by a national senate committee, the con-
sumption of American timber is now four times greater
than production. Many deserts and waste places of the
earth were formerly timbered and fertile, densely popu-
lated by leading nations of their time. Man with all of
his industry, commerce, science, apparently is the great
destroyer. His ambitions and enterprise fill the river
beds, destroy the forest, and lay waste the fertile plain.
Endowed with intelligence, education, incomparable to
all the inhabitants of the land and sea, he is the most
wasteful, the one great embarrassment of creation.
This is not a sermon, however; neither a thing highly
scientific. Merely I have dropped in here neighborly, in-
formally, for ten minutes, to inquire if there is not some
pleasing method or plan, whereby we scientifics might
add considerably to the park and forest conservation
movement. The awaking people are enthusiastic; enter-
prise runs wide and deep. The state highway project, a
forerunner, has been an unexpected and a pleasing suc-
cess. Electricity and gasoline quicken the pace. The
people are doing more and quicker thinking. Perhaps
without our help much of the forest lands would be saved
and nature’s balance in a large measure preserved. As
with the older states, the land may not be stripped alto-
gether of its verdure and fertility; however, with our
help the saving movements can. be started much quicker
and more usefully, beautifully, certainly.
It is not needful at this time, in this audience, to dis-
cuss the merits of forest preservation, values in public
health, protection of navigable streams, effects upon
water levels and atmosphere, or the moral effects and
educational features as applied to ourselves. If you do
not know more of this entire subject than I do, I am
sorry. The newspapers and libraries are full of this.
The editors, disinterested as they are, have caught on.
They find that a truthful story of the hop-toad, an ode to
a spray of the Golden Bell, or the portrait of a tumble-
weed holds the subscribers better than a whole page of
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 47
colored screams and rough stuff. Doe Calomel is losing
his best customers. The old folks are camping in the
woods, also the young ones and their school master.
We scientifics have a large influence with that virile
group who make the laws, levy the appropriations and
shape the policies of the state. Perhaps you have noticed
yourselves that a botanist or a geologist is viewed with
a peculiar awe or reverence by legislators and aldermen.
A scientific gent, to these law and constitution builders,
seems something above and beyond a common creature—
something ordained, a super thing, loaded for bear. With
busy people, also, toiling eight hours daily at a dollar
and a quarter per hour, or sweating around the bulletins
of a stock exchange two hours at a time, Coulter, Tre-
lease, a Chamberlin, Ridgeway, Doctor Evans and each
of a lot more of us is a larger man than some governors
of the state. Any old timer who can chop a log between
his feet with these hustling moderns is an architect, a
landscape authority or a wizard equipped to build a navy
or fix a clock. ©
There is reason for much encouragement in Joliet play-
grounds, parks and an arboretum of 836 acres publicly
owned and the 70 acres in parks and forests owned by
the Street Railway, all free to everybody. About 330
acres of the arboretum is a matured forest of native trees.
Privately owned until recently, it had received five years
or more of excellent care and planting before given to
the public, and the planting and forest conditions will
now be continued.
The Cook County Forest Preserve, within four miles
of the Joliet arboretum, is one of the very best enterprises
of this character, a splendid testimonial to the industry
and the courage of its promoters. Over thirty thousand
acres of the Cook County forest land has been purchased,
and the purpose is to secure at least forty thousand. To
preserve the native forests in their regular, natural or-
der, to build trails and roads in and between, to provide
shelters and picnicing conveniences, in short, to develop
an outer park belt of wild woods accessible to the people
of a greater Chicago is the object of the Park Commis-
sion. The Joliet Park District intends to connect its
48 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
arboretum with the Cook County Preserve along a small
river with wooded hills and banks, thus becoming a part
of this greatness and beauty.
Winnebago County followed Cook with a county pre-
serve, and already has saved a forest selected for des-
truction. Peoria, Hast St. Louis and ‘other cities of the
state have their ambitions, and with the Chicago-Joliet
link as a commencement, this Queen of the States may
do something worth while, namely, save the forest before
it is cut over, the soil before it is washed away.
Some of us can remember when Central Park, N. Y.,
and the Commons of Boston, parkwise, stood alone in the
nation. The Arnold Arboretum is just fifty years of age
this year. White pine lumber in our time sold in Chicago
for sixteen dollars per thousand, firsts, and eight for
fencing. Some of us cut down the trees for the nuts,
the honey, or the coons, and set the woods on fire to warm
our hands.
Now the national government is buying back the moun-
tain ranges of the Atlantic and Pacific slopes and the
water sheds of the navigable streams in between, and
sixteen states have adopted various forms of parks or
forest protection. Thus there is much encouragement,
the going is good, and why not continue to preserve all
the land in and about the forests not suitable for agricul-
tural purposes?
To do it largest, to do it first, pleases the taxpayers.
The best state in the Union should lead the way. Why
wait for New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts or
boastful California?
The deep water route from the Lakes to the Gulf is
now well under way, and the suggestion of forest saving
along the scenic banks from the Lake to Cairo is receiv-
ing some attention from the press and Chambers of Com-
merce. Here would be greatness—probably the longest
enterprise of the character nation wide, the most used
and useable in the state. The Illinois counties on the
banks of this canal have a population twice as large as
all the other counties of the state, with four more counties
in Missouri to be heard from. The last census, 1920,
gave the waterway counties of Illinois a population of
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 49
4,129,859; the whole state, 6,485,280. The scenery itself
is fitted exactly for our purpose, parks already made,
with wide stretches of water, deep forests, high bluffs,
lakes, lily ponds, the greatest of Indian mounds, ever
changing scenes, and all delightful.
The makings, the formulas, are before us. The O’Neil
bills now at Springfield, house numbers 181, 182, and 183,
cover the situation. The first named provides that the
state department of public works, now in charge of the
state highways and numerous activities of the kind, may
aequire tracts of lands of natural scenic beauty, embody-
ing cliffs, forest covered bluffs and forested or wood-
land areas, of which the chief values are best adapted for
natural park areas, reservations and preserves; also to
maintain, improve and establish public parks and fish
and game preserves in their natural state of beauty. Bull
number 182 provides $100,000 to be divided between the
two coming years in the acquisition of land. Bill number
183 provides for a board of agricultural advisers of
fifteen persons.
The friends of Our Native Landscape, an organization
of real workers, containing. some of the best authorities
of the state in these matters,—Jens Jensen, Stephen A.
Forbes, Dr. Cowles and others of their stature—have
made an extensive survey of the state, although they con-
tend there is much more to be done. This authority is
back of the O’Neil bills. Their survey is mapped and
illustrated artistically and to the purpose. Leaving out
the Chicago-Joliet corner of the state, this survey sug-
gests twenty locations fairly located, the state over, from
the pineries of the northwest down the Mississippi, Sa-
vannah, Lima Lake, Piasa Bluff, Ft. Gage, Fountain
Bluff, and then through the Ozark Hills to the Ohio, Po-
mona Natural-Bridge, Giant City, Bald Knob, Wolf Lake,
Fern Cliff, Parker, Jackson Hollow, Dixon Springs, and
Cave Hill, one near Effingham and three on the L[llinois,
Greater Starved Rock, Lake Senachwine and Havana,
and another in the Rockford pines and hills.
Though the appropriation per the O’Neil bills is small,
it is a beginning, and in view of the highway triumph
there is a reason for activity upon our part. The Cook
50 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
County plan is the result of much study, good talent and
time. The method of selecting the governing body is one
promising the best talent and is working well. They
have made the forest preserve method one of the great
achievements of the nation. Their legislative work gives
any county in the state the same advantages taken
by Cook. Any 500 voters in a county may now eall an
election for the purpose of adopting this law. Cities
have the most votes and the doing is easy. Only one mill
upon the dollar of assessed valuation is permitted, but
it brings in a large annual revenue. One per cent upon
the same valuation is the limit of indebtedness. In my
county, with an assessed valuation of fifty-five millions,
we can raise $55,000 annually by direct taxation without
the taxpayers noticing it, and run in debt for ten times as
much for investments to their great profit and pleasure.
There is much encouragement for the preservation of
this beloved state, and while things are going our way
may we scientifics do our full duty and a little more, and
stick.
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 51
A COLLECTING TRIP TO ALASKA AND THE
CANADIAN NORTHWEST.
Ruts MarsHati, Rockrorp CoLuEcE.
Alaska has many attractions for the traveler. Histor-
ically, it is one of the oldest parts of our country; its
people and their needs are almost unknown to the citizens
of the States; it has great natural wealth in its minerals,
- its forests and its fisheries; it is a land of surpassing
beauty, with its great glaciers, snow-capped mountains,
fiords, and vast meadows of brilliant wild flowers. This
great territory, in area one-fifth of the size of the States,
is a rich and little explored country for the naturalist.
From brg game to the tiny beasts in the mountain pools,
in the dense forests of the mild and moist coast region
to the frozen treeless tundras of the north, there is a
great field for the collector.
In the summer of 1922, I spent two months in an ex-
tended trip along the coast from Seattle to Kodiak Is-
land, a journey by boat of about two thousand miles. All
of the larger coast towns, and many of the cannery set-
tlements were visited. Stops were made in several
places, varying from one day to two weeks, and there
were short journeys inland on the three Alaskan railways.
My scientific interests lay chiefly in the life of the ponds
and lakes, especially those at high altitudes, where I
hoped to find water mites. In this quest I was reasonably
successful, considering the size of the territory and
the difficulties of transportation. Altho the material
obtained was not great in amount, the stations visited
were many and of a varied character. This part of
Alaska is rich in lakes. The coast towns, built very pic-
turesquely on the mountain sides, draw their water sup-
ply from snow-fed lakes which form natural reservoirs.
There are usually trails or roads to some bodies of water
at every stopping place. And so, provided with a Birge
collecting net, a knapsack and a camera, it was possible
to reach and study a goodly number of places.
Five days by boat from Seattle lies Skagway, at the
end of the famous Inside Passage. Here I left the boat
for the train on the White Pass and Yukon Railway over
52 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
the mountains and north to White Horse, in Yukon Ter-
ritory, a hundred miles into the Canadian. Northwest.
This great scenic route follows the trail of the Klondik-
ers of 798. Along the way are several lakes. Stops were
made for collecting at Carcross and at Bennett; at the
latter place the ponds are at an elevation of over two
thousand feet. To the east lies the beautiful Atlin Lake
region, and a few days were spent in collecting material
in small pools there.
The first material from Alaskan waters was secured
at Skagway, at two stations; one was a small pool in the
town and the other was the lake reservoir, 1500 feet
above the town. In Lake Dewey, adjacent to this, no
water mites were found. At Juneau, the territorial
capitol, the ponds and pools visited yielded nothing.
But in Sitka, the old Russian town and former eapitol,
I was directed to a pond in a sphagnum bed, choked with
yellow water lilies, which gave several interesting forms.
The most intensive collecting was done during a two
weeks’ stay in Cordova, the port of the Copper River
country, famous for its copper and its salmon. Here is
a large and beautiful body of water, Lake Eyak, at sea
level, and a number of mountain pools, with clay bottoms,
in beds of sphagnum, at elevations of a few hundred
feet. From Cordova I made the trip on the Copper
River and Northwestern Railway, ‘‘the Iron Trail’’ of
Rex Beach fame, past Miles and Childs Glaciers, another
wonderful scenic route, to the little town of Chitna, one
hundred and thirty miles inland. Here among the moun-
tains are several small lakes near the town, one of them
at an elevation of 750 feet.
At Seward, on farther to the westward, we again left
the steamer, this time to board a train on the Govern-
ment Railway, for the trip across the Kenai Penninsula
to the new town of Anchorage, over a hundred miles
north. Again our route took us over a great pass and
between living glaciers, with beautiful mountain scenery
at every turn. A day’s stop in Anchorage afforded a
chance to do a little collecting in some small pools.
I was fortunate in being able to make two stops on
Kodiak Island. The town of Kodiak, at the northern
Alitak, Kodiak Island,
Ketdukan, Alaska. Leaving the harbor from S. S. Queen.
side.
ain
punt
2 mo
1e
m tl
Fror
aska.
iat AG
lutir
Xn
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(
) PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 53
end of this beautiful island, is the outfitting station for
expeditions to the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. Ash
from the Katmai eruption of 1912 is still seen blowing
about on the mountain tops. A small pond in the town
has a bottom of voleanic ash; no life was found in this
in the hasty examination made in the evening. But a
large shallow pond near the Agricultural Experiment
Station, supporting a rank growth of water plants,
yielded several mites and crustacea. Alitak is a cannery
settlement at the southern end of Kodiak Island, one of
the many places where our boat stopped for more than a
day to load cases of salmon. On the mountain side,
brilliant with the flowers and fruits of late summer, I
found several shallow pools of clear water in sphagnum
beds, and here there was fair collecting.
Ketchikan, the southernmost town of Alaska, was vis-
ited on the return trip, in the first days of September.
There is a mountain reservoir here, some three miles
along a tram-way up the slope. In a bay of this lake a
little material was found.
Besides the stations enumerated, two ponds, one at
Seattle and one at Tacoma, were visited on the trip, and
interesting material found. On the way out to the coast,
a few days were spent in Glacier National Park; but no
mites were found in any of the bodies of water tested.
But at Banff, on the return trip over the Canadian
Pacific Railway, a few mites were found in a marshy
pool. f
In all, nearly forty stations were visited and between
five and six hundred individual water mites were found.
Only ten genera were represented, and of these, the
genus Hygrobates claimed over half of the specimens.
Work on one genus, the Arrhenuri, has been completed,
and the paper is now in press. Work on the other genera
will be completed as soon as time will allow. Material
in other groups collected at the same time has been
turned over to other workers for study.
54 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
A TUNDRA TRIP IN ALASKA.
Patsy Hucues Lupo, Rockrorp CoLuEcE.
Since the early gold rush to Alaska, the first boat of
the season to venture into the Northwest Seas has left
amid the cheers of crowds of people who thrilled at the
thought of her adventures and came to wish her well;
for something about travel in ice-laden seas appeals to
the romantic spirit of even the most stolid. So it is that
even today hundreds of people who are strangers to the
country and to all the passengers still come to wave
good-bye and good luck to the ‘‘Old Vict’’ when she
leaves the dock. And well it is that they do, for I doubt
if even the oldest of the old-timers go without some little
twinge of wonder whether thru storms and ice she will
reach Nome in safety. The Victoria ‘steers a course
almost due west to longitude of about 162°, and then
turns north thru Unimak Pass into Bering Sea. This
is the ‘‘outside’’ passage, in contrast to the line of travel
which leads close to the coast and to the Southern part
of Alaska. It is the course which the Oriental boats to
Japan take; and few people realize that one is halfway
to Japan before he turns north toward Arctic Alaska, _
and that possessions of the United States and of Russia
are in one place only half a mile apart! It is in Bering
Sea that the day lengthens until there is no night, and
the watch for ice becomes vigilant. Since the days of
wireless the danger from being caught in the ice is less,
for word comes from the Yukon when the last ice goes,
and from Nome as to the condition of her coast. But
sometimes the ice is caught in drifts and is brought back
again when unexpected; and so it was on our trip in
1922 when on June eleventh the first mate announced,
‘Tee ahead, sir.’’ But the floe was well broken up and
caused no delay, so that we landed at Nome within two
days.
Nome is a city of renowned past, made famous by Rex
Beach’s Spoilers and by Sweepstake races on which bets
were made around the world. She is now, tho, a city of
dwindled population, of unpainted houses, of plank
streets in need of repair, and of empty homes where the
Fig.1. A kyack race of the Eskimos.
Fig.2. Seward Peninsula railroad—called the “dogomobile.”
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 55
destruction of a wall exposes furniture deserted in place.
The population of the city varies, for the people are
transient; they go into the hills to work their claims in
summer, and by far the greatest number go ‘‘outside’’
on the last boat that returns to the States. Nome is a
drab little mining town; straggling along a narrow coas-
tal plain that borders the hill regions. Its people are
occupied mostly in gold mining, and fishing for salmon
and whales, and a few little shops supply the necessities
of life. This is the town where women once wore Pari-
sian gowns, and imported Corsican dancers were paid in
showers of gold!
The Fourth of July in Nome is, even yet, a day of
great celebration for both white people and Eskimos.
It is a holiday of games, and the Eskimos particularly
were very interesting in the originality and execution of
their contests. Their walrus skin throwing is similar to
blanket throwing of this country, except that the taut-
ness of the skin makes it a more difficult accomplishment ;
but altho some who attempted it made funny spectacles
of themselves, many of them succeeded in landing and
rebounding with beautiful poise. A standing kick to
touch with both feet a ball suspended about six feet three
inches high was one of the novel feats; and a kyack race
was an example of a very typical Eskimo sport. The
‘‘modern’’ Eskimo who took part in these sports is little
different from the Eskimo of Steffanson’s books so far
as one can see. They are modern only in the substitution
of calico trimmed in fur for the all-fur parka, and in the
use of all kinds of expensive American perfumes to add
to the odor of seal oil and blubber! Their women are very
pretty when young, but age most rapidly, and the most
lasting and appealing picture of Eskimo people is the
sweet madonna face of the parka-dressed young Eskimo
mother with one baby on her back and several holding
her by hand. During the influenza epidemic, these people
died by hundreds, so that in places their communities are
almost depopulated, and the orphanages are crowded
with children.
Travel in Alaska may be accomplished with ease only
in winter, with dog team over packed ice. A summer
56 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
journey entails innumerable hardships, and especially
in 1922 the late thaw and continued cold made it difficult
to get into the hills. There are no trails, and one must
go on foot or with team across unbroken, swampy coun-
try. We left Nome about the twenty-third of June to go
to Teller on the Sea Wolf, but ice floes filled Port Clar-
ence Bay and a storm made us anchor for protection be-
hind a big iceberg; and in three days we had to return to
Nome. After a month’s delay there we set out again for
Teller on the Sea Wolf. Truly, Alaska is the land of
waiting, for there are no schedules for anything and the
weather rules supreme. This delay in Nome and another
in Teller when the storms racked the house over our
heads made us almost despair of finishing our journey
to the Kougarok. In Teller is the farthest north news-
paper in the world, published every week or so (whenever
there is any news!) by a boy of twelve years, who also
_ builds his boats, fishes for the winter supply of dog feed,
and helps his father with the reindeer herd.
We left Teller in the twilight of midnight and lull of
the storm to cross the bay with the team which carried
all our provisions for the distance of fifty miles. We our-
selves walked, for the reason that horse feed is scarce in
this country, and the horses were ill-fitted even for the
load of necessities which they hauled. On our journey
we made three stops, one when we were halted by a flood
and camped on a gravel bar in the Agiapuk River, one
at a tent of a miner, and one at a shack of an English
prospector who was making his fire in a pan and letting
the smoke out by a hole in his window! In fifty miles
we saw one man, and there are many places on Seward
Peninsula where one might travel and see none. It was
the same story on our outward journey, too,—a claim
with one miner, or a dredging camp with five or six
men. An empty house, or an empty town were the signs
of habitation that we passed. My aunt and I felt our-
selves to be objects of curiosity when we came to camps
because there are no women in this part of the hill coun-
try. One man we passed had not seen a woman for two
~ years, and later I met a Scotchman who said he had lived
for seventeen years without seeing a woman! Hospital-
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 57
ity, naturally, is the law of the land, and even in a house
where the owner is away, a traveler may take what he
wants, with the only obligation to leave the place in good
condition with some food for the next fellow traveler.
Deserted towns as well as houses are not rare. Shelton
was a town on our home journey, and from the hill it
looked to be quite populous with some dozen fine frame
houses, and even two-story homes. But on our arrival
we found it occupied by only two men, and both of them
were transients!
Our journey of two months ended on July 30th when
we crossed the Arctic Divide and saw the red mud roof
of our cabin shining in the sunlight on a limestone hill
that was part of Kougarok Mountain. It is a simple
little cabin built of planks and made secure by bricks of
peat. Within, its walls are made picturesque by paper-
ing of old magazine covers and pages of ancient date,
so that one can read the early Saturday Evening Post
stories of Mary Roberts Rhinehart as one eats. The fur-
nishings are home-made things of board, with typical
eabin ‘‘bunks’’ for beds and only benches to sit on. But
there is the real luxury of a good stove with an oven that
bakes bread exactly right if you watch it carefully. At
first our cabin was damp and dismal with green mold
covering wood and paper and fur robes; but fires and air
cleared it out; fresh new curtains at the deepset square
windows, and the few deft touches of my Aunt very soon
made of our shack a cabin home.
Life is busy in house-keeping under primitive condi-
tions. Fires made with willow twigs soon go out, and
three substantial meals a day are necessities for vigorous,
pioneer life. Nor are there stores nearby! The dried
stuff and canned goods brought in must furnish all the
food requirements, and bread must be made, and fresh
meat killed. For our meat we lived on ptarmigan, with
one delicious sandhill crane, and some reindeer that was
given to us for variety. And in addition to the neces-
sities of life, for a Botanist the identification of the
countless new species of plants on the tundra is a lure
which urges him to work with all the haste of civilization,
even in this remote corner of the globe.
AS ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
{t is a country wholly different. It is a hill-country
prairie, for it is treeless and lies in a region known as
the ‘‘barren lands.’’ These barrens extend from the
Aleutian Peninsula to the region of the McKenzie River
delta, the only point where trees border the Arctic Ocean.
In truth it is not a barren territory, but is, instead, cov-
ered by a most diverse and abundant flora with a hundred
or more species in a small area. In Seward Peninsula
the area is one of interminable hills gloriously colored
and rolling to infinite distances; and often, as one watches
them, rainbows arch them over and touch the ground at
each end where pots of gold may lie in truth. More than
on the prairies does one have a feeling of immense spa-
ciousness and vision to remote places. It is said that on
a very clear day one may see from Kougarok Mountain
into Siberia, over a hundred miles away. And the ability
to see so far, yet the absence of any object of known size
in that view by which one may estimate distances, leads -
the observer, as Steffanson explains, to make strange
errors in judgments. Captain MacIntyre of the Teddy
Bear told a story of mistaking an Arctic mouse for a
polar bear, and certainly one of our party mistook a
claim stake for our cabin, and was lost thereby. It isa
curious country of misleading seeming-familiarity, a fas-
cinating country which, in spite of all its dangers, com-
pels love even from those who most loudly condemn the
vagaries of climate and place.
The tundra, as stated before, is not barren but is cov-
ered by a carpet of hummocking plants overlying in most
places centuries’ accumulation of raw humus. Rock sur-
faces are exposed only on the highest mountains and
comparatively recent faults, and in the creek beds of
cutting streams. For the most part, it is a country of
swampy conditions everywhere, so that to the newcomer
‘‘mush,’’ used as it is in Alaska to mean ‘‘move on,’’
‘‘travel,’’ would seem to have come into use from the
suggestive character of the country rather than from its
authentic derivation as a corruption of ‘‘marchon.’’ The
accumulation of humus which freezes and thus prevents
drainage causes the hydrophytic conditions which, to-
gether with the cold, are responsible for the universal
Fig. 4. Tundra
thawing
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 59
presence of sphagnum and plants of xeromorphie char-
acter. As is well known, the plants are all of the low-
growing, dwarf habit, with many of them of cushion
forms which retain their dead leaves and structures for
some time. The flowers, tho small, are exquisitely vivid,
even more beautiful than members of the same genera
which are familiar in this region, such as Dodecatheon,
Myosotis, and so forth.
Warming, in his Oecology, describes the fell fields, the
moss tundra, the lichen tundra, and the dwarf shrub
heath of Arctic regions; and he indicates the water
relationships of these by putting the moss association as
following the fell fields when the mosses gain the ascend-
ency, and the lichens as inhabiting the drier portions of
any of these associations. Since then no work has been
done to determine any further ecological relationships
between these associations, tho a great deal has been
done toward collection and identification of Arctic spe-
cies. In the time that was possible the attention of the
writer was directed toward the relationships and loca-
tion of different type associations. But these observa-
tions can be regarded only as preliminary, almost as
merely casual, for they were made over a very limited
area, and also under atypical weather conditions. They
make no claim other than to be just suggestive.
The types of tundra observed by the writer were (1)
pioneer lichen associations, (2) open dwarf shrub asso-
ciations, (3) closed dwarf shrub associations, (4) Carex-
Eriophorum associations, (5) Spagnum-willow associa-
tions, and (6) the grass associations of the flood plains.
The most important factor in influencing the rate of suc-
cession between these associations is apparently the
wind, as the climate is apparently humid enough for the
support of mesophytic forms. After the accumulation
of humus by the early stages the water relations are
affected by drainage, for the freezing of the peat deposits
below prevents drainage and creates conditions produc-
tive of zeromorphic plant forms; but seepage of water
from higher land above the peat tends to keep the sub-
stratum thawed and gives rise to swampy conditions
described below in the Sphagnum-willow association,
60 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
The descriptions of these formations given below are
very brief and no species except type species are named.
More detail concerning these will be given in a paper
that is to be published.
On the rock uplands, the lichens are pioneers as they
are elsewhere, but they are of shorter duration except on
the perpendicular surfaces, for crevices and slopes are
soon taken up with shrubs such as Diapensia lapponica,
Salix uva-ursa (?), and Dryas octopetala; and these form
the thin scattered cushions of vegetation called ‘‘fell
fields’? above. Their growth continues until they cover
the ground with a thick carpet in which other plants in-
termingle. Potentilla uniflora, P. biflora are prominent
in this situation, as are also Arctostaphylos alpina, An-
dromeda polifolia, Cassiope tetragona, Rhododendron
lapponica. One or another of these may be dominant in
any particular location, depending perhaps on priority
of occupancy; and hence arise the names of Dryas
tundra, ete., used by Warming. These shrubs may be-
come so thickly intergrown in later stages with sedges
and grasses and herbaceous plants that the shrubby
character may be lost entirely, and in this situation the
Potentilla and bearberry, perhaps, are the best survivals
of the shrubs. This stage is regarded by the writer as
a probable transition stage between the dwarf shrub and
the Sphagnum-Ericad tundra mentioned below. ‘The
rapidity with which dwarf shrubs cover the ground and
develop the thick carpet just described depends upon the
protection from wind, as stated before. The windward
and lee slopes of a hill offer strong contrasts to each
other, and even on one boulder, the protected and exposed
sides may show, in one case, a solid covering, and in the
second, a perfectly bare surface except for a few lichens.
Succeeding the more open stages of the dwarf shrub
associations there may be the cotton grass-sedge asso-
ciation, developed in situations made hydrophytie by
configuration of the land and drainage influenced thus.
These places show accumulations of rock soil and reveal
on digging the frozen condition of this soil. Dryas may
remain with the sedges, but it is infrequent, and the other
shrubs are even still rarer, but mosses and herbaceous
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 61
plants are plentiful. The clump habit of these plants
causes hummocks (what Alaskans call ‘‘nigger-heads’’)
and reticulate ridges with puddles between where water
often remains and Nostoe sp. and hydrophytie mosses
are found.
The question of a climax is a difficult one. In the opin-
ion of the writer it seems probable that the climax is the
Sphagnum-Ericad tundra, (1) because it seems from the
observations to be most extensive in conditions not made
unusual by peculiar drainage conditions, and (2) because
it was an association found in areas of greatest age, for
example on the Arctic Divide. This association has
Sphagnum abundant but not very conspicuous because
of the larger size of the shrubs, the most important of
which are Ledum palustris, Vaccinium ulignosum, V.
Vitis-idaea, Betula glandulosa, and especially Rubus
Chamaemorus. On the drier hummocks, which are still
characteristic, are sedges and Polytrichum. Deep layers
of peat are usually found beneath this association, and
are frequently exposed by erosion of streams which cut
thru it and expose the frozen, rock-like layers below.
So far as the writer observed the grasses have place
only on flood plains of alluvial character, or of peat char-
acter, if the former tundra vegetation of the peat has
not survived transplantation. It is a brief stage and ap-
parently gives way to either the willows or to the sphag-
num and heaths. The willows are particularly interest-
ing in that they are distributed in regions where the
ground is thawed and wet. This condition is brought
about usually by seepage thru the peat of water draining
from higher levels. The drainage lines are usually very
conspicuous, and the line of extent of the willows coin-
cides with these drainage lines. These shrubs are of the
espalier habit described by Warming; they grow about
five to six feet high and attain an inch or so in diamter
in fifty to sixty years of growth. Growing beneath the
willows are mesophytic mosses, sphagnum, and many
herbaceous plants.
It is evident from this brief discussion that any change
* causing new drainage lines will cause changes in the plant
associations; and because the peat is eroded easily this
62 - ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
frequently occurs. A gully developed by the spring
freshets of one year is shown in the accompanying pic-
tures. The down-cutting was creating market changes in
the topography. The lumps of peat dislodged frequently
were deposited in short distances with their plants undis-
turbed, and these then continued their growth in their
new situation. Retrogression due to drainage of a pre-
viously undrained area would naturally give rise to more
xerophytic conditions. In locations where this had hap-
pened, a lichen association was found over-growing the
former plant association. The plants of this former as-
sociation did not die completely, but continued to live in
less vigorous condition and send occasional shoots above
_ the over-growing lichens.
These observations were made in the month of our
stay in the Kougarok. We left there on the third of Sep-
tember and traveled overland to Nome, a ‘‘mush’’ of
about one hundred fifty miles, with an Alaskan pack sad-
dle carrying all our luggage. The weight was easy to
earry because of the comfort of the pack in spite of the
difficult walk; and the weather was the most beautiful of
the whole summer. At Shelton we took the Seward Pen-
insula Railroad, an old track laid for use with gasoline
engines in the days when Shelton hummed with gold pros-
pects. Since then no one is left living in Shelton, and the
railroad is unrepaired. Its rails are frequently missing,
and sometimes the tundra beneath the track has sunk
out of sight; yet in spite of danger, it is easier travel
than walking, and it is used by individuals who hitch
their dogs to small hand cars and enjoy traveling at the
greatest speed of five to six miles an hour on the up-
grades and twenty miles an hour or more on the down
grades. For excitement and adventure, there can be no
rival for the Seward Peninsula Railroad!
The journey of nearly four months resulted in only
meager results. It was not primarily a Botanical ex-
pedition, altho that was the main interest of the writer.
But it served as an introduction to a novel land of delight
for all those who love adventuring in the open and a land
of possibility for Botanists who wish an unexplored field.
The Northward Course of Empire by Steffanson can
PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 63
help one to a realization of the economic possibilities and
a truer appreciation of the pleasures of this country.
But no words of any pen can describe adequately the joys
of the open hill-country to anyone who has been there
and forever longs to go back.
_ PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
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PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 67
PRACTICAL PLANT PROTECTION.
Wuarp N. Crurte, Eprror, American Botanist, JOLIET.
In the early days the wildflowers were so abundant
and widespread that the destruction of immense num-
bers was of no consequence, but with the growth of our
country, many of the more showy and attractive speci-
mens have been brought to the verge of extinction. A
few species have disappeared or are disappearing from
purely natural causes, such as the chestnut blight and
the pine blister rust, but the greatest enemy of the plants
is man. For every flower picked for a bouquet, he de-
stroys thousands by felling the forest, flooding the val-
leys, draining the swamps, burning the thickets and tear-
ing up the prairie sod to set a whole new race of plants in
the place of violet and shooting-star, puccoon and camas-
sia, phlox and gentian, sunflower and goldenrod. His
eattle trample them, all sorts of animals feed on them,
the mower lays countless thousands low, and yet in some
way little short of a*miracle another year finds them
smiling from fence-row and thicket with the same trust-
ful innocence as of yore. Only when he finally stakes out
a factory village in the midst of all this loveliness do the
native plants give up the struggle.
Such things have to be if our own race is to survive,
but we may well object to all unnecessary destruction of
our wild plants. The roadmaker has no sooner torn his
way through the wilderness than nature sets to work to
repair the damage with a cloud of wildflowers. The ugly
wounds of plow and scraper are healed with boneset,
Joe-Pye-weed, clematis, bittersweet, asters, goldenrod
and a host of others. And then back comes the road-
maker to ‘‘improve”’ his work by removing all this love-
liness. To him the birds, the wildflowers, the sheltering
trees and the wild things that scurry from one thicket to
another are not to be compared with a carefully barbered
roadside bordered by a neat barbed wire fence. Law-
making bodies often encourage him in his efforts to lay
waste the countryside by requiring this annual slaugh-
ter of wildflowers. Beauty is no excuse for being in the
eyes of one who considers himself a practical man. In
68 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
my own town some time ago, the question arose as to
whether a certain nook about one of the public buildings
should be covered with concrete or set with plants, and
the care-taker was ordered to do whichever was cheapest!
Of all offenders against good taste in such matters, the
railroads are the worst. Though quick to see the ad-
vantage of planting the station grounds with beautiful
flowers, they are blind to the fact that the selfsame spe-
cies are doing their best to ornament the whole right of
way, and they send out laborers to cut them down. Great
clumps of lilies, acres of painted-cups, banks of anem-
ones, swamps of wild hyacinth, clouds of phlox, thickets
of laurel, sandy wastes blue with lupine and whole
galaxies of sunflowers fall before this untutored savage
with a scythe. In late August last year, I travelled more
than a thousand miles on our mid-west railroads without
seeing a single conspicuous patch of wildflowers on the
right of way. The mower had done his worst. The poorer
railroads through lack of funds may still allow some of
these wildlings to grow, but the bétter roads mow them
down and then dilate on the scenery through which their
lines run.
Added to the other destructive agencies must be the
vandal out for a day’s holiday. He not only devastates
the roadsides but invades private property as well. Much
of his transgressions must be ascribed to ignorance, for
the general public seldom considers flowers of any spe-
cial value and, indeed, supposes them to grow out of the
ground much as wool grows on a sheep and therefore to
be picked without compunction. It is to this individual
that the increasing rarity of the wildflowers in the vicin-
ity of cities and large towns is mostly due and now that
the automobile has widened the range of his activities,
no part of the country is safe.
It has often been assumed hastily that the methods of
protection applied to birds so successfully need only be
extended to the wildflowers to have equally happy results,
but a moments reflection will serve to show that the
eases are far from identical. Birds, being able to move
about from place to place, are rarely if ever in the way.
They are peculiarly the property of the whole publie and
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 69
their collection may well be prohibited entirely. Unlike
the flowers, their attractiveness departs with their col-
lection. Moreover, gifted with movement, they can move
out of harm’s way and are less easily exterminated.
Every person induced to cease hunting them gives them
that much more chance of surviving, but with plants, so
long as:there is a single person collecting, all are in dan-
ger. It is also easier to make sentiment in favor of bird
protection because birds are known to be helpful as well
as attractive in other ways. Birds may even be tolerated
among our crops and attracted in various ways to fre-
quent and nest in our grounds.
It may be doubted whether it is wise to prevent or even
to discourage all picking of flowers. They appeal to the
better natures of everybody, and children especially are
not content to admire but must acquire as well. Child-
hood forbidden to gather flowers would be a sorry spec-
tacle. All our traditions are in favor of making use of
the flowers. Man wore flowers long before he wore
clothes, and he still takes pleasure in decorating his
grounds, his residence and himself with them. The use
of plants in garlands and coronels has been a custom
for so long that this is embodied in the common names
that weresin existence long before scientific names were
thought of. We still make use of a wealth of flowers on
all festive occasions, and with them we also attempt to
cheer the sick or soften the grief of those whose friends
have passed on to more flowery fields. Every city and
hamlet has one or more shops wherein are sold flowers
only. In view of all this we cannot reasonably ask the
lover of flowers to cease picking them entirely. There is
a pleasure in the pursuit of any thing that comes only
with possession. Does anybody imagine that the hunt-
ing and fishing that still go on in settled communities
is inspired by the need of food? Far from it. The
spoils brought home by the hunter or fisher are simply
the trophies that speak of his success. They are con-
crete evidences of his prowess. And shall we deny the
child, the poet and other flower-lovers their evidences
of success? Why, even the birds gather flowers! The
martins delight to deck their nesting sites with peach-
70 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
blossoms, crows are well known to be attracted by bright
blossoms, and even the blood-thirsty hawk has been
known to ornament his nest with violets.
Fortunately for us, all flowering plants do not need
protection. The rough and ugly weeds need not be in-
cluded in our list since nobody cares to collect them, but
there are many fair flowers as well as weeds on the far-
mer’s list of enemies, and many others whose room is
regarded as much better than their company. A large
number must be exterminated if we and our crops are
to live. One may gather as much as he will of butter-
cups, daisies, toad-flax, evening primroses, bouncing Bet,
rudbeckias, goldenrod, wild morning glories and the like
without fear of reducing the supply. And there are many
others so rampant as to growth, so ubiquitous and per-
sistent, that an annual picking seems almost necessary
to keep them within bounds. Of this nature are dande-
lions, bouncing Bet, the elder and in some localities the
wild crab. We may be thankful, also, that there are a
few others that are protected by their habitat: species
of inaccessible cliffs, remote mountain summits, desert
fastnesses and extensive barrens. These are natural
sanctuaries in which the embattled plants may persist
long after their kind, elsewhere, have given up the con-
test. No thoughtless band of picknickers are likely to
devastate such a region or destroy a whole race at one
sweep.
The plants that are in need of special protection are a
comparatively small number that have been brought to
the attention of the public through some special attrac-
tiveness they possess. All the early flowering species
are in danger because, coming so close on the heels of
winter, they are typical harbingers of the milder season
to which we always look forward. The flowers of mid-
summer rarely receive like attention. Then there is an-
other class made conspicuous by history, tradition or
use, such as the fringed gentian, ginseng, golden seal,
pitcher plant, lotus, arbutus, the orchids and the like.
Plants which are shallow rooted and easily pulled up,
like the phlox, hairbell and the cardinal flower, or those
in which the leaves are collected with the flowers, such
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 71
as trillium, jack-in-the-pulpit, rue anemone, are especi-
ally in need of protection. Unusually fragile species
must be considered also, such as the Dutchman’s breeches,
bloodroot, celandine, and Indian pipe. To these must be
added those species whose leaves are the objects sought,
among them the laurel, galax, many ferns, and ground
pine. Last are those plants whose beauty is so conspicu-
ous as to attract even the matter-of-fact business man—
the azalia, the mountain laurel, water lilies, flowering
dogwood, redbud and others. All these must be pro-
tected or they will disappear speedily.
All right-thinking people are agreed that our wild-
flowers should be protected, but they are not of one mind
as to the best way to accomplish it. The sentimentalist
speaks of ‘‘the sanctity of plant life’’ and adjures us to
‘love the lily and leave it on its stalk’’ or perchance to
‘‘leave the dainty little recluse to fulfill the law of its
being.’’ If he (or is it she?) is speaking of properly pro-
tected areas, we may not object, but of what advantage
is it to leave a much desired specimen to the tender mer-
cies of the marauding urchin or some wandering cow?
IT still remember with some chagrin inducing a class on a
field trip to refrain from gathering a thousand or more
pogonia orchids, and later while lunching in a shady
spot, seeing the entire thousand go by—a solid mass of
wilting blossoms in the clutches of a couple of small
boys. So long as there is one individual interested in
picking, no plant in unprotected areas is safe.
If we divest the whole question of sentiment and get
down to the business methods of protecting plants, we
shall discover that adequate laws, justly enforced, is
the only solution of the matter. We should bend our
energies toward securing a law in every state which will
back up the land-owner in protecting his own. And after
such a law is secured, we should see that it is enforced.
The sale of wildflowers should be forbidden absolutely
except by legal permit, and the dealers in such things
should be obliged to breed their stock and not dig it up
from the wilds. With proper laws, sanctuaries for plants
could be established and maintained. Every park, every
large estate, the railroad rights of way, the lake shores,
72 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
the river banks and many roadsides ought to be made
sanctuaries of this kind. The railroads maintain with
some truth that the undergrowth must be kept down to
prevent disastrous fires, but it is quite possible to indicate
the decorative plants and except them from the annual
mowing. A number of interesting plants, owing to the
special conditions under which they grow, probably must
be protected in their present habitats, but this in a ma-
jority of cases is entirely feasible. In other cases, rare
plants may be removed to protected areas.
Even with adequate laws there is still needed an ef-
fort to interest land-owners in protection. Every farm
woodlot should become a protected area until the land
is needed for something else. It should be fairly easy to
induce the farmer to post his entire farm and perhaps
to design a special notice for the purpose. When his
attention is drawn to the interest the botanist has in some
rarity on his lands, he is generally as much in favor of
protecting it as anybody. ;
It is probable that there will always be numerous
areas in which flower picking may go on, but even here
there is need for education in the selection of the flowers
and in the proper manner of gathering. Emphasis should
be laid on the fact that a few well-chosen blossoms are
far superior to a larger number gathered with less dis-
crimination. The ignorant and unthinking are ever im-
pressed by mere size and reason that if a dozen are good,
a hundred are better. It is a failing that all are prone to.
Do we not always mention the size of our home town be-
fore mentioning its intellectual citizens? Children and
adults, too, for that matter, should be taught to select
only the fresh and newly-opened specimens, leaving those
that are past their prime to reproduce the plants. Merely
to instruct the public in the proper way to gather flowers
will go a long way toward protecting the landscape from
devastation. The true lover of flowers rarely returns
from an excursion laden with specimens. The planting of
memorial trees and the decorating of our great trans-
continental highways with flowering plants should do
much to direct the attention of the public toward a right
attitude regarding the wild flora.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 73
But in the end we come back to our original thesis; the -
best and most practical way of protecting the plants is
by adequate laws properly enforced. Let us do what
we can to hasten the day when this condition shall prevail
throughout the land.
74 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
MYTILASPIS CITRICOLA AND OTHER SCALE
INSECTS
Westey N. Speckman, Eumuurst Couuzce.
Scale insects belong to the family Coccidae, which in-
cludes three sub-families: Dactylopinae or Mealy Bugs,
Coccinae or Soft Scales, and Diaspinae or Armored
Scales. Parthenogenesis occurs in many species of Coc-
cidae to a certain extent but it is not so general as among
Aphididae. The males, which are smaller than the fe-
males, are difficult to secure as they have no mouths and
are short-lived. They differ from the females also in
having wings with which they move about freely. The
female is wingless and, attaching herself to a plant or
fruit, secretes a scalelike shield as a refuge for herself
and her young, losing in time her external organs and be-
coming little more than a protecting shell.
Coccidae are destructive to fruit trees and fruits, yet
they do not multiply as rapidly as aphids do. The fe-
male fastens her beak in a leaf or fruit and remains in
one place. After secreting a scale which envelopes her,
she lays her eggs beneath the scale, where they hatch.
The young females settle down near the mother. Some
Coccidae give birth to living young which are visible in
the body of the mother, as may be seen in the microscope
slides which I made two years ago.
In the Mealy Bug, Dactylopinae, no scales are formed,
but usually there is a cottony sac. In the common spe-
cies of the greenhouses (Pseudococcus citri) Lutz* says:
‘‘The eggs are laid under the female in a loose nest of
sticky, white fibers in such quantities that she is forced
to stand on her head in order to feed.”’
Soft Scales are characterized by the Cottony Scale of
Maple and some other plants. These scales, if such they
may be called, are the thickened surface of the insect
rather than a true scale. This mass of cottony material
is secreted by the female of Pulvinaria innumerabilis in
which to place her eggs. The sticky substance found
under the trees is honey-dew secreted by these insects.
* Frank E. Lutz, Field Book of Insects.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 75
Of the true Scale insects, Diaspinae, the best known,
is probably the Aspidiotus perniciosus or San José Scale,
which is only about .06 inch long, and was introduced
originally into California (where it got its name), but is
now found in most parts of the United States. This
Seale is so well-known that a description of it is super-
fluous. Kellogg, in ‘‘ American Insects,’’ says: ‘‘ Early
in the spring, females which have hibernated under their
protecting armor begin giving birth to living young, and
continue doing this actively for about six weeks, when
they die exhausted.’’
Aspidiotus ficus, Ashmead, is the Red Scale of Florida
that affects oranges, especially on the trees grown in
conservatories. The color is rich reddish brown, almost
black, with the central portion much lighter. It is nearly
circular in outline, with the molted skins in the center
of the scale.
Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell, is the name of the Red
Seale of California, which differs from the preceding, as
Marlatt** says, ‘‘in the fact that the body of the female
turns a reddish brown and shows through the thin trans-
parent waxy scale. * * * * * It is controlled by oily
washes, and also by the gas treatment. The young are
born free, or in other words, the insect is semi-oviparous,
and therefore any wash which will kill the old scale will
destroy the young also.’’
Mytilaspis citricola, Packard, or the Purple Scale, is
one of the most plentiful scales affecting both orange and
lemon. It is found in Florida as well as in California.
In shape it resembles the Oyster-shell seale of the apple,
which is round and flat at one end and gradually narrows
to a blunt point at the other. It has a bent or twisted
appearance. The color is brownish purple.
**C. L. Marlatt, Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees.
76 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIEWCE
OPPORTUNITIES FOR BOTANICAL RESEARCH
IN CENTRAL AMERICA
J. M. Greenman, Curator or Herpartum, Missourtr Bo.
TANICAL GARDEN, St. Louts, Mo.
It was my good fortune during the winter of 1922 to
make a botanical expedition through Central America.
I have no intention now of giving an account or travelo-
gue of that expedition, yet, remote as my topic may seem,
there are a few matters relative thereto which, I think,
are of sufficient general interest to bring before this
group of active scientific men and women. I should like
furthermore to say at the outset that by 6pportunities for
botanical research in Central America I do not mean op-
portunities offered by elaborately equipped and well
manned laboratories in endowed institutions, nor do I
have reference to special grants generously made by
scientific organizations in Central America to encourage
botanical research. These things, as you all know, do
not exist in that country.
I do want to call your attention, however, to the fact
that Central America itself offers exceptional opportuni-
ties for research in botany—first on the part of the sys-
tematist; second, the ecologist; third, the plant geograph-
er; and fourth, the one interested in the development of
economic plant products.
It is true that the flora of Mexico, Guatemala, Salva-
dor, Costa Rica and the Canal Zone, through the labors
of Gray, Watson, John Donell-Smith, Coulter, Robinson,
Rose, Brandegee, Pittier, Maxon, Standley and others,
has been studied somewhat intensively during the past
25 or 30 years, but that work has been more or less
intermittent, the publications are fragmentary, and there
exists today no complete or comprehensive published
flora of these countries; and as a matter of fact a vast
amount of work must still be done before an exhaustive
flora of Mexico or the other countries mentioned is pos-
sible.
British Honduras, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the
Republic of Panama have been explored but little and the
flora as yet is but superficially known. Indeed, only a
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE iG
few hundred specimens from these countries exist in
American or European herbaria. To the taxonomist,
therefore, the latter countries mentioned, particularly
Nicaragua and Honduras, constitute an almost virgin
field for exploration and research.
The natural¢conditions in Central America, namely,
the geographical formations, the varied topography, pre-
cipitation, air currents, trade winds, temperature factors,
etc., are such that the most pronounced changes in the
character of the vegetation are evident in contiguous
regions extending over relatively limited areas. Many
of these regions present to the ecologist interesting and
highly significant problems. This fact is shown con-
spicuously as one crosses the Republic of Costa Rica
from east to west, namely, from Port Limon on the
Caribbean Sea to Punta-Arenas on the Pacific.
An adequate description of this country in few words
is beyond my ability to present. Briefly, however, the
east coast is low, the rain fall is abundant, and the vege-
tation is tropical. Cartago and San José are located on
an elevated plateau about 3000-3500 feet above sea level.
At least three rivers have their origin on this plateau.
To the north of San José and Cartago is the so-called
Cordillera Central, consisting of several voleanic moun-
tains, namely, Turrialba, Irazu, Barba, Poas, and others
ranging in elevation from 8000 to almost 12000 feet above
sea level. Immediately to the south of this plateau lies
the southern Cordillera with enormous mountain masses,
such as Buena Vista, Pic de la Vueltas, El Copey, and
Cerro de la Muerte (the wall of death), almost as high
as those peaks to the north.
The general course of both Cordilleras is northwest
and southeast. The prevailing winds, at least during the
winter months, come from the east or southeast; there
is, therefore, an abundant precipitation on the eastern
and southeastern slopes of both Cordilleras. The coun-
try to the west of these great mountain masses, namely,
west of the continental divide, receives only a limited
amount of rain fall, especially during the winter months,
and the vegetation there is relatively sparse and presents
a marked contrast with that in the eastern part of the
78 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
country. The change in the character of the vegetation
is quite abrupt, and is noticeable especially between San
José and Punta-Arenas. Chemical content in the soil
here plays little or no role in the growth of plants; it
is mainly a matter of moisture.
Permit me to mention another similar situation in
Guatemala. In southeastern Guatemala is a region lying
mainly along the Motagua River which is one of the
most notable deserts in all Central America. On either
side of the river is a range of mountains, off-shoots from
the Sierra Madre; their general course is almost north-
east and southwest, as is most of the mountain ranges
which make up the great Honduras-Nicaragua peninsula.
The prevailing winds here also are from the east or
southeast, and the precipitation is confined mainly to the
mountains east of the Motagua River or to the high
slopes of the mountains to the northwest of the river.
There is a very limited amount of precipitation in the
valley, and the result is a typical cactus desert miles in
extent, centering about the region of Zacapa and known
locally as the Zacapa desert. Farther northeast and at
lower altitudes in this same river valley where there is
little to obstruct the moist-laden trade winds, namely, in
the vicinity of Puerto Barrios, there is one of the most
luxuriant tropical palm-vegetations to be found any-
where in Central America. These may seem to be very
simple matters in ecology. They are; but they are sig-
nificant nevertheless, not only in determining the charac-
ter of vegetation on local areas but also in determining
the distribution of vegetation in the American tropics.
A particular opportunity, however, to which I should like
to call the attention of the ecologists is that of a study
of plant succession in voleanic craters. For example,
there are on Mount Poas in Costa Rica several volcanic
craters representing eruptions which have taken place
at different times, and each crater has, more or less, its
distinctive flora in accordance with its relative age.
What now are the specific opportunities in Central
America for the plant geographer? No one can say at
present with any degree of certainty how far the Andean
flora of South America extends into Central America,
_ ~ PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 79
or to what extent the reverse migration has taken place.
In other words, our knowledge of the flora of these two
countries is not yet sufficient to enable any one to say
what floral elements are common to the two countries
or what the proportion of occurrence of floral elements
in one country is to that of the other. Presumably there
has been a northward trend of tropical vegetation since
the glacial period. In this connection it may be of inter-
est to site a few cases of specific plant distribution.
In Colombia one of the most- common types of vege-
tation is to be found on the paramo or dry ridges. This
type of growth consists largely of Compositae of a shrub-
by or suffruticose habit; and it includes several species
of Eupatorium and Senecio. One of the common plants
of the paramo of Colombia is Senecio vaccinioides Wedd.
Curiously enough either the same thing or a very closely
related species, described as Senecio firmipes Greenm.,
occurs on the Vueltas and on the Cerro de la Muerte of
the southern Cordillera in Costa Rica at an altitude of
3100 meters or about 10000 feet. Only two stations are
known for this plant in Costa Rica, and it has never been
reported from Panama. The Senecio vaccinioides is very
common in Colombia and whether the two things are
conspecific or not, it is fair to assume that the Costa
Rican form has descended from the South American
type, and probably represents a northern migration
which has taken place since the glacial times. Certain
other natural groups of Senecio, consisting of several
little known trailing or climbing species, are represented
both in South America and Central America. The af-
finities or relationships of these species are such as to
show clearly a South American origin; and the present
distribution of these species is such as to indicate a
northern migration from the Andean region of Ecuador
and Colombia into Central America. In at least one
instance this northward migration has extended to that
great elevated mountain region of Orizaba in Southern
Mexico. In most cases, however, these plants do not oc-
eur north of the Southern Cordilleras in Costa Rica.
May I mention one more specific example? I found
growing, and apparently indigenous, on the great moun-
80 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
tain mass known as Mount Poas in Costa Rica, a species
of Solanum which is conspecifie with the South Ameri-
ean Solanum tuberosum L. from which our common Irish
potato has been derived. It would seem that we have
here also a case of northern migration of an Andean
species. Further investigations along these lines would
unquestionably yield interesting and valuable results in
determining the relation of our Central American flora to
that of Andean South America; and a most profitable
region for investigation in plant distribution is that of
these great east and west ranges of Costa Rica, Nica-
ragua, and Honduras.
It is, of course, well known that Central America for
many years, mainly through corporation interests, has
been a source of supply for certain staple food and other
economic plant products, particularly bananas, coffee,
dye woods, fibers, ete. The natural resources, however,
have been barely touched; but as a matter of fact the
possibilities for development and increase of out-put of
these and similar products are more promising today
than ever before. There are already limited facilities
for botanical research at the laboratory in connection
with the hospital at Ancon in the Canal Zone, and cer-
tain research work is there under way. There is also
a small government station at Frijoles in the Canal Zone .
where certain experimental work on tropical fruits is be-
ing conducted under the direction of Doctor David Fair-
child. The various corporations, like the United Fruit
Company, employ their own specialists to take care of
their special botanical problems. Furthermore, as you
doubtless know, a movement is under way to establish
somewhere in the American tropics a station where it
will be possible to carry on various lines of botanical ac-
tivity. Transportation facilities between the different
Central American countries are being extended by the
Ferro Nacional or National Railway. Indeed, one can
now travel by rail all the way from any railway point in
the United States to Guatemala City, and it will be only
a short time before that railway system will be extended
through Salvador; and eventually it will be continued to
the Canal Zone. Railways and roadways are being built
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 81
in Honduras and Salvador which will open up the inter-
ior of those countries.
Recently a chemical manufacturer in Chicago said to
me, ‘‘ We import hundreds of tons of plant materials from
India, China, Ceylon, ete., from which we make oils, per-
fumes, soaps, et cetera. Why can’t we get these raw
products from Central America?’’ Many of them could
be obtained there and in the West Indies also if we only
had a better knowledge of the flora and conditions of
those countries and could develop their natural resources.
The United States must turn to the American tropics
not only for an increased supply of fruit products, but
also for an increased supply of varied raw plant pro-
ducts. The rapidly expanding commercial relations be-
tween the United States, Central America, and South
America render the present time most opportune to en-
ter the tropics of Central America for more intensive
botanical research.
82 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
A COMPARISON OF THE TRANSPIRATION
RATES OF CORN AND CERTAIN
COMMON WEEDS
Herzen A. McGinnis anp W. B. McDoveatt.,
University oF ILLINOIS
That the presence of weeds in a corn field is detrimen-
tal to the intake of moisture, the reception of light and
the manufacture of food by the corn plant has been
demonstrated by experiment (15). Such experiments,
however, do not show either the amount or the rate of
removal of water from the soil by the weed invaders.
It is the purpose of the present paper to present data
concerning the relative rates of water loss by transpira-
tion from the leaves of corn and of corn field weeds
growing under the same environmental conditions.
The study of transpiration from the leaves of grow-
ing plants is by no means new. Trelease and Livingston
(19), for example, measured the relative transpiring
power of a number of plants. These authors were inter-
ested, however, in the diurnal fluctuations of this trans-
piring power rather than with the differences between
different plants. Bakke (1) also measured the index of
transpiring power of various plants and the same might
be said of several other authors.
meas
me ey
1 ae
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 95
EPICOTYL ANATOMY (FIG. 13)
The following is the arrangement of the fibro-vascular
bundles in the lower part of the epicotyl. In the center
are four very prominent central bundles. Surrounding
these are twelve smaller bundles, roughly describing a
circle. The cotyledons were cut off between these bundles
and the peripheral bundles. The latter are of course
cotyledonary bundles, not epicotyl bundles. This ar-
rangement continues for a considerable distance, but is
disturbed at the level where the adventitious roots are
given off. Six were formed in the seedling from which
the model was made. They are the first permanent roots,
and arise from an almost complete ring formed by the
central bundles. The first leaf is supplied by strands
Fig. 14
which connect with one of the four central bundles, by
peripheral strands, and by fusion strands connected with
these two types. However, the suceeding leaves are sup-
plied by fusion strands from all the epicotyl bundles.
The arrangement of three desmogen strands to a leaf
shown so clearly in the younger seedling has given place
to a fusion type of structure. At this stage the petiole
of the first leaf does not show fusion of strands. The
adult leaf of Nelumbo lutea was cleared by immersion
“in equal parts of hot absolute alcohol and glacial acetic
acid followed by immersion in clove oil and later by im-
mersion in xylol.
96 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
It was then evident that although most of the vascu-
lar strands were closed, some of the small strands had
blind endings. This would mean a dicotyl leaf venation,
which was very close to monocotyledony. Immersion
in a saturated chloral hydrate solution for twenty-four
hours was tried for the same purpose, but with poorer
success.
The fusion of bundle strands to form partial rings
is a prominent feature. In some of these, leaf gaps may
be seen.
The rhizome of Nelumbo lutea was studied. It is poly-
stelic and shows collateral bundles without cambium, a
monocotyl character (Fig. 14). However a few dicotyls
are polystelic. Comparison of this rhizome with that of
Nelumbo albiflorum shows the same type of bundle for
both. Longitudinal sections of adventitious root tips
of these two species were studied also, and are both of
the usual dicotyl type. They differ only in that the outer
cells of N. albiflorum have pitted walls. Conard states
(1) that the Nymphaceae have this type of root struc-
ture.
Why the cotyledons of Nelumbo lutea should develop
so peculiarly is difficult to understand. In embryos with
a single cotyledon, the latter develops in contact with
the ovule wall, which is markedly thicker there than the
rest of the wall. This may mean larger food supply
and therefore faster growth at that point. Later the sec-
ond cotyledon grows with increasing rapidity and very
soon overtakes the first. At the same time the meristem
in the center grows slowly, the tissues between the coty-
ledons very slowly, and we have an apparent dicotyl
plant. Before the second cotyledon has grown to any
size, the thickening of the ovary wall has disappeared.
The researches of Coulter, Land, and Farrell show
that monocotyledony and dicotyledony mean little and
are very easily interchangeable. Farrell (5) found four
growing points on the cotyledonary zone of Cyrtanthus.
All except one slowed up and a single cotyledon was
formed. Coulter and Land (4) found in Agapanthus
one completely dicotyledonous seedling, while all the oth-
;
: a
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 97
ers were monocotyledonous. The same authors show
that even the grasses have in many cases a suppressed
cotyledon (3).
SUMMARY
1. The massive spherical proembryo without a sus-
pensor is considered to be a primitive characteristic.
2. The root, perhaps the most conservative organ, ap-
pears to show the prevailing dicoty] type, having a region
of undifferentiated cell tissue from which calyptogen and
dermatogen are ultimately derived. This arrangement
corresponds to DeBary’s third type of root tip.
3. The other vascular bundles of the plant are of the
generally accepted monocotyledonous type as is shown
by:
(a) Three vascular strands to each leaf and coty-
ledon in the juvenile stages.
(b) Polystelic bundle arrangement. However it
must be remembered that while most mono-
eotyls have this Srran=cmnent, some dicotyls
also have it.
(c) Rhizome and epicotyl bundles are collateral
and without stelar cambium. However a very
few of the dicotyls are without stelar cambium
and some monocotyls are said to show traces
of stelar cambium.
(d) The venation of the adult leaf is dicotyledon-
ous.
(e) One cotyledon precedes the formation of a
second cotyledon.
CONCLUSION
Nelumbo lutea is phylogenetically one of the higher
angiosperms having both monocotyledonous and dicoty-
ledonous characteristics. The fibro-vascular bundles are
strongly monocotyledonous but they throw no light on
the origin of the seed plants.
Finally, I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. J. M.
Coulter, to Dr. W. J. G. Land, and to Dr. C. J. Chamber-
lain for kind assistance given me while making this in-
vestigation. Also to Dr. W. E. Davis of Manhattan,
Kansas, to the authorities of the Missouri Botanical
98 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Garden, and to Miss Gladys Gladfelter for helping me
to secure material difficult to obtain. Also to Dr. L. C.
Petry of Syracuse University for making the photograph
of the vascular structure of the cotyledonary plate.
LITERATURE CITED.
1. Conard, H. S., Notes on the embryo of the Nymphaceae. Science
15: 316. 1902.
2. Cook, M. F., Development of the embryo sac and embryo of Castalia
odorata and Nymphea Adveba. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club 29: 211.
1902. a
3. Coulter, J. M., The origin of monocotyledony. Records of the 50th
Anniversary of the Missouri Bot. Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.
4. Coulter, J. M., and Land, W. J. G., The origin of monocotyledony.
Bot. Gaz. 57: 509. 1914.
5. Farrell, Margaret E., The ovary and embryo of Cyrtanthus sau-
grineus. Bot. Gaz. 57: 428. 1914.
6. Lyon, H. L., Embryo of Nelumbo. Minn. Bot. Studies 11: 643. 1901.
7. York, H. H., Embryo sae and embryo of Nelumbo. Ohio Naturalist
IV: 167. - 1904.
LEGENDS FOR FIGURES.
Fig. 1. Seedlings which had germinated naturally, in the Illinois
River.
Fig. 2. Micropylar end of young ovule.
Fig. 3. Spherical proembryo from Fig. 2. Begins to show traces of
the traces of the formation of the root and cotyledons.
Fig. 4. Older proembryo.
Fig. 5. Photograph of a wax model of a young embryo with a single
cotyledon.
Fig. 6. Photograph of a wax model of a slightly older embryo. The
first cotyledon is large and in the background; the second
cotyledon is small and is in the foreground.
Fig. 7. Diagram giving the shape of an older embryo: c, cotyledon;
m, meristemic tip.
Fig. 8. Diagram giving shape and relative size as compared with
Fig. 7, of an older embryo.
Fig. 9. Diagram of the desmogen strands of a young seedling made
from serial longitudinal sections. Actual size of embryo.
Length of cotyledons 15 mm. Length of epicotyl 4 mm.
PR, primary root; vp, cotyledonary ring; L*L*L*, first, second
and third leaves; MT, meristematic tip; rs, root strands;
cps’, eps*, primary cotyledonary strands; st, stem traces;
ess', ess*, secondary cotyledonary bundle traces; I, I’, leaf
traces.
Fig. 12. Photograph of a wax model made from serial transverse
sections of the cotyledonary plate of the same seedling. The
sections were 10 u thick. Four central bundles usually
termed “stem bundles” are seen. Surrounding these are
two concentric rows of bundles. The cotyledons were cut —
off from the stem between the inner and outer peripheral
rows of bundles. The lattice work arrangement of the
vascular strands is evident.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 99
Fig. 13. Diagram of bundles in the epicotyl of the same seedling.
Constructed by means of a model from the serial transverse
sections 10 u thick. The base plate shows the arrangement
of bundles thru the lower part of the epicotyl, from the
region where the cotyledons are cut off, to the region where
the adventitious root strands (AR) arise.
Ss’, S*, S*, St——central epicotyl bundles.
F", F’, F*—first, second, and third leaves.
LG’, LG*, LG*,—first, second, and third leaf gaps.
L’, L*,—peripheral vascular strands.
Fig. 14. Transverse section of a bundle from the rhizome of Nelumbo
lutea.
Nore: In the preparation of the model of the oldest seedling pictured,
comparisons were made with still older seedlings to determine
certain points difficult to ascertain in so young a seedling. Some
of the ideas thus gained are incorporated in the model.
100 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE BRAIN OF COENOLESTES OBSCURUS
JEANNETTE Brown OpencuHarn, University or CHrcaco
Coenolestes is a small ratlike Americal marsupial
about five inches in length from tip of snout to root of
the slender tail. It is a native of the high Andean forests
and has been known to science since 1860, so far by rare
and usually incomplete specimens from Colombia, Hena-
dor and Peru. Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood of the Field Mu-
seum recently collected eleven specimens, which he made
the basis of an extensive monograph published in 1921.
The brain of one specimen was sufficiently preserved for
study, and Dr. C. Judson Herrick described and figured
its dorsal, lateral and ventral surfaces in an appendix
to the monograph. Cut into serial sections and stained
by the iron-haematoxylin method to show both cells and
fibres, it forms the basis of the present study.
The brain of this creature is especially interesting for
two reasons. First, because it is one of the simplest and
most generalized of mammalian brains, since both the
monotreme brains are rather highly specialized. Second,
because the classification of Coenolestes in one or the
other of the two marsupial suborders, Polyprotodontia
and Diprotodontia, has given rise to a long and lively
controversy.
In his account of the external features of this brain
Dr. Herrick drew attention to its extreme simplicity, as
evidenced both by the enormous development of the visi-
ble olfactory regions (olfactory bulbs, olfactory tu-
bercles, lateral olfactory cortex) and by its small and
smooth cerebral cortex, which he thought to be probably
the least extensive, relative to the total weight of the
brain, in the whole mammalian series, as so far deseribed.
He noted also that in external conformation the brain of
Coenolestes resembled much more closely those of two
Australian polyprotodont forms, the bandicoot Perame-
les and the marsupial mole Notoryctes, than it did that
of the American opossum.
The lateral olfactory cortex, the cortex of the pyriform
lobe (lob. p.), occupies more than half the lateral sur-
face of the brain (Fig. 1). Both anteriorly and posterior-
* ° wat
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 101
- ly it is in continuity with the median olfactory cortex
or hippocampus (hip.). Dorsally (Fig. 2) the two are
split apart by the wedgelike neopallium, which occupies
the dorsal surface of the hemisphere. Its lines of con-
tact with the two olfactory cortices are marked by two
Fig. |
neopallium
, tr ol L
na fs. erh
Fie. 1. Lateral view of the cerebral hemisphere of Coenolestes obscurus,
as reconstructed from serial sections.
Reference letters: amg., amygdaloid complex; b. ol., olfactory bulb: fs.
amg., amygdaloid fissure; fs. erh.. endorhinal fissure; fs. rh., rhinal fis-
sure; lob. p., pyriform lobe; fr. ol. I., lateral olfactory tract: tub. ol..
olfactory tubercle.
Fig. 2
$s. rh:
Fic. 2. Dorsal view of the cerebral hemisphere of Coenolestes obscurus, 2s
reconstructed from serial sections.
Reference letters: b. ol., olfactory bulb; fs. rhk., rhinal fissure; lob. p., pyri-
form lobe. :
Tis. 3
Fic. 3. Ventral surface of the cerebral hemisphere of Coenolestes obscurus,
~as reconstructed from serial sections.
Reference letters: amg., amygdaloid complex—dotted outline indicates
internal extent; Bb. ol., olfactory bulb; fs. amg., amygdaloid fissure;
fs. erh., endorhinal fissure; fs. rh.. rhinal fissure; lob. p., pyriform lobe;
— neopallium; fr. ol. 1, lateral olfactory tract; twb. ol., olfactory
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PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 113
the floor of the brain at the chiasma of the two normal
optic nerves. This relationship will be discussed in more
detail in the section of the nervous system in the sequel.
so
1
It is quite evident that these accessory external sen-
sory appendages have developed through a fusion of the
embryonic structures in such a way that the left organ
114 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
of one of the embryos has fused with the right organ of
the other embryo. Accordingly, the normal eyes and ears
are to be interpreted as the right and left organs of the
two primitive embryonic stages.
Two trunks, joined to each other in the mid-ventral
thoracic regions, are attached to the posterior lat-
eral angles of the head. These trunks are of unequal
size. The larger is on the right side, considered from
the standpoint of the head, and measures 25 em. from
crown to rump; while the smaller animal, similar on
the left side, has a corresponding measurement of but
18cm. The bodies are joined as far back as the unpaired
umbilical cord, which contains upon examination two
arteries and two veins. There are eight legs, completely
developed, which occupy proper positions upon their re-
spective girdles. The smaller animal is devoid of tail as
well as external genitalia and rectal openings; while the
larger one possesses all these structures and is of the
female sex.
INTERNAL ANATOMY
The metacoeles of the two bodies are continuous, so
that the peritoneum of the one continues directly into
that of the other; thus but a single metacoele may be
identified. The common viscera lies almost entirely in
that portion of the metacoele which lies within the larger
animal; although a relatively small part does extend over
into that portion of the metacoele in the smaller pig. A
fused diaphragm, resulting from the greatly modified
development, cuts off two anterior pleural regions from
this common metacoele, and extending back along the
dorsal surface of each body reaches to a line just anterior
to the paired kidneys.
THE ALIMENTARY TRACT
The buceal cavity and the pharynx are entirely nor-
mal, as well as those structures within them. From the
pharynx two larynges with normal epiglottes extend pos-
teriorly, and between them, definitely opening from the
more ventral larynx, is the single oesophagus which con-
tinues posteriorly between the two tracheae into the me-
tacoele.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 115
The alimentary tract is complete only in the larger
animal, and consists of a greatly modified stomach which
continues into an elongate undifferentiated intestine.
The stomach is not readily differentiated into the usual
eardiac and pyloric regions but it consists of five simple
lobes, each connected with a centralized portion (Fig. 2).
The lining of this stomach is conspicuously ridged, and
the lumen into each pouch is constricted greatly by the
approximation of these gastric folds. Upon dissection
each pouch was found to contain coagulated masses of
green material, suggesting a possible accummulation of
bile secretions. Characteristic mammalian duodenum
and ileum can not be identified; but an intestine, strange-
ly twisted and coiled, continues back from the median
pouch of the stomach through a small pylorus. Differen-
tiation of the intestine into ileum and colon portions can
not be made, for the entire tube is of uniform diameter
throughout, except for a single enlargement where the
shorter tract of the smaller pig continues into that of the
larger (Fig. 2, p.).
A secondary stomach, that of the smaller pig, consists
of a two-lobed structure, and is bound firmly to the left
wall of the larger stomach by heavy strands of connec-
tive tissue. The cavities of the two are not continuous,
neither is there a connection of the smaller stomach with
the oesophagus; so that no digestive function could ever
have been ascribed to this organ. Through a small py-
lorus, this secondary tract continues into a short intes-
tine, one-fourth the length of that of the larger pig, which
joints its mate at an enlarged region 15 em. anterior to
the caecum (Fig. 2, p.). From point of junction the two
tracts are confluent and from thence continue as a single
tract to the rectal opening of the larger pig.
This relationship differs from that of Carey’s monster,
in which the alimentary tract is entirely single to a point
16 em. anterior to the caecum, where it bifureates into
two regions, each of which is related to its own rectal
aperture. The mesentery of this monster, peculiarly
twisted with the coils and twists of the intestine, is
possessed of an abundance of lymphoid and glandular tis-
116 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
sues, a fact possibly correlated with the peculiar develop-
ment of the monster.
The entire tracts are held within a region embraced by
the livers. Of these, one hes above and the other below
the fused viscera, the upper being slightly the larger of
the two. In both livers characteristic lobulation is ab-
sent; for each consists of a single enlarged structure
bearing two or three smaller lobules (Figs. 4, 5).
Two post-cavae are present, and from their relations
to each other it would appear that the larger liver, more
dorsal in position, is of the smaller pig’; likewise the ven-
tral liver belongs to the larger animal. Normal mesohe-
pars are present, and normal gall bladders pour their
secretions into normal bile ducts related to their respec-
tive intestines. A two-lobate pancreas is fixed by
heavy membranes to the lobes of the larger stomach only;
but normal spleens are present in both animals. Pan-
creatic ducts were not identified.
URO-GENITAL ORGANS
Normal kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra are pre-
sent in the larger pig, as well as ovaries, oviducts and a
well-defined uterus. In the smaller animal, on the other
hand, two pairs of greatly reduced structures lie in the
pelvic region, and it is entirely probable that these re-
present rudimentary kidneys and sex glands. Neither
ureters nor reproductive ducts were identified in the
smaller animal; but the presence of genital arteries and
veins as well as renal arteries suggest the identification
of these structures. Microscopic identification has not
yet been made. There are no external genitalia upon
the smaller animal.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Differing from the hearts of the animal described by
Carey (1917), this monster has two hearts of approxi-
mately equal size, each contained within its own pericar-
dial cavity in a normal thoracic position. These hearts
are both normal, and have normal relations to the main
circulatory trunks of its respective body. The hearts are
so placed that their dorsal surfaces are opposed to each
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 117
other; and because of their relations to the two post
cavae, it would appear that the larger heart, the more
ventral one, is of the smaller pig, while the slightly smal-
ler one is likewise of the larger pig.
Just anterior to the larger heart the main dorsal aorta,
coursing from its right ventricle, bifureates to form the
two aortae, each of which passes to a normal position in
its respective animal. That aorta supplying the larger
animal is joined at once by a secondary aortic arch com-
ing from the right ventricle of the smaller heart; so that
the two hearts thus have a common bond in these con-
nections to the aortae. Posteriorly each aorta gives rise
to the normal intercostals, coeliac and mesenteric arter-
ies; although in the smaller animal these branches are
greatly reduced and largely devoid of blood content, and
thus were relatively difficult to trace. Renals, iliaecs and
umbilical arteries are present in the larger animal, but no.
umbilicals were recognized in the smaller. Furthermore,
a variation isto be noted in the pomt of attachment of
the umbilicals to the aorta; instead of attaching to the
internal iliac as we would expect, here the umbilicals con-
nect with the aorta considerably anterior to the iliaes.
The carotid arteries have not retained their identity
of relationship to each animal; but all are united to the
common aorta (Fig. 3). A single brachiocephalic artery
arises from the arch of the smaller aorta and divides in-
to two earotids, from which later arise a corresponding
subelavian artery, distributed to the respective limb.
From the bend of the aorta, just in front of the larger
heart, a pair of arteries continue forward into the head
region and form the paired carotids and the left subela-
vian of the larger animal; while the right subclavian of
the larger animal arises independently from the aortic
arch of the smaller heart (Fig. 3). The complete dis-
tribution of these arteries into the head region was not
ascertained, as the absence of the blood content made
their identification extremely difficult; and accordingly
no knowledge is available of the relation of the paired
internal carotids to the circle of Willis, so graphically
figured by Carey in his description of this region in his
monster.
118 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
In contrast to the fused relations of the arterial sys-
tems, the venous systems were found to be completely
independent of each other. Post cavae are normally pre-
sent, and these are joined in each liver by respective um. ©
bilical veins, from whence a single vessel continues for-
ward into the right auricle of the respective heart. These
are joined by precavae coming from adjacent regions,
although the two anterior vena cavae are independent of
each other.
Within the hearts, normal relations were found to exist.
Completely four-chambered structures were developed
and normal canals and valves separated the chambers
from each other. Well-defined Botall’s ducts were iden-
tified between the pulmonaries and the adjacent aortic
arches.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Two complete sets of lungs are developed, and these
lie in independent pleural cavities, separated by double
folds of visceral pleurae. These cavities lie around the
heart, and each pair of lungs is connected to its respec-
tive heart by normal pulmonary arteries and veins. The
ventral lungs, characteristically lobulated, are slightly
larger than the more dorsal pair and are understood to
belong to the larger pig as evidenced by the vascular
connections. Normal bronchioles and bronchi with nor-
mal cartilage supports are developed, and from the junc-
tion of the two bronchi, normal tracheae extend forward
to the neck into the pharynx. As indicated above, these
tracheae lie one above and the other below the unpaired
oesophagus.
Anteriorly, each trachea continues into a larynx, ap-
parently normal, with the three characteristic cartilages
present, but somewhat distorted and partially fused. A
greatly modified basihyal cartilage is present, and this is
continuous with the hyoid apparatus, consisting of four
parts. The hyoids, which are continuous with the ventral
larynx, are more nearly normal, and the distal tympano-
hyals join the auditory bulla of each temporal bone. On
the other hand, the hyoids of the more dorsal larynx are
greatly reduced, because of the cramped position; but
each continues upward through the connective tissue re-
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 119
gion to join a peculiar structure, the fused bulla of the
other pair of temporal bones (Fig. 10, fab). The skull is
understood to be a fused structure, as will appear in the
discussion on the skeleton; and thus it would follow that
the normal bulla are but opposites of the adjacent heads,
and that the related hyoids, although apparently normal
on the ventral larynx, must be of independent origin
(Fig. 6).
The oesophagus joins the dorsal wall of the ventral
larynx, so that the ventral tracheae and oesophagus are
confluent here. : =. 18 ects
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1045 2565
946 2322
957 2349
1034 2538
Graph of the Animal Population of an Area of Four Square
Feet in an Illinois Elm-Maple Forest, July, 1921-June, 1922, inclusive.
+
176 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE EFFECT OF SELECTION ON THE LENGTH
OF SPINE IN DAPHNIA LONGISPINA
Mrs. Marcarer SmirH Younea, Chicago
The work was started Dec. 27, 1922, and so far there
have been ten generations. This paper is, therefore,
merely a preliminary one.
The Daphnia stock was obtained from the Laboratory
of the University of Chicago where the work was carried
on. The stock came originally from a fish fancier and
had been kept in the laboratory for about a year before
this experiment was begun.
A parthenogenetic female (3027) was selected to start -
the first (8028)* generation. A brood is produced about
every other day. The stock is kept in fngerbowls under
greenhouse conditions, and temperature, food and other
environmental conditions kept as nearly uniform as pos-
sible. The food consists of a coccus (Chlamyda monas)
which causes the water to look green. Successive broods
are termed A, B and C, and broods A, B and C are used
as a basis for all the mathematical calculation. From
brood A of 3028 an individual was selected to start the
minus strain, and another to start the plus strain of
3029’. The difference in length of spine between the two
was not great and was taken without measuring. After
this the length of body, divided by the length of spine and
called ‘‘Index’’, was made the basis of all calculations.
The plus or long spine strain will therefore have a smal-
ler index than the minus or short spine strain.
Selection was made from the A brood of +3029? for
the +3030° generation, the indices being respectively .3
and .4.
In order to have better proof of the hereditary quality
of the character, the A broods of +3030* were measured
alive and the five most favorable: animals respectively
were used to start five plus lines and five minus lines of
3031*. It was then thought best to use the method of se-
lecting in each generation five individuals of the plus
strain and five from the minus strain of the B brood be-
longing to the most favorable A brood. This was done
to start generation 3032°. The curves of this generation
177
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
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ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
178
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PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 179
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180 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
3031‘ are based on the five lines of + strain A brood and
the + B brood from which selection was made.
However, the A brood is often small, sometimes only
four or five individuals, and therefore not so good to base
selection upon. The method was changed again so as
to average together the A and B broods of each of the five
plus lines and of each of the five minus, and select five in-
dividuals from the + C brood of the most favorable aver-
age. This was done to start generation 3033° and has
been continued to date (generation 3037 included). Cal-
culations for all curves from 3032 to 3037 are based there-
fore on +(5A’s + 5B’s + C) used for selection.
The results are shown in the table of Means and Dif-
ferences each with their probable errors. It shows that
the least positive results are a difference which is still
three times the probable error, and two times as great
as the difference between the first selected individuals.
In one case the difference is twenty times the probable
error. The frequency curves are interesting. They
seem to show that whereas at the beginning the difference
is often due partly to odd individuals at the extremes,
later these are more or less eliminated and the population
more even. The mode of the plus curve seems to be mov-
ing to the right of that of the minus curve.
Environmental conditions have important bearing on
the results and probably explain the fluctuations of the
difference. When the food water becomes concentrated
other algae get the upper hand, one occurring particu-
larly on which Daphnia could not subsist and in the long
strings of which it became entangled. A sudden rise in
temperature kills them rapidly, such as is caused by the
sun shining on the bowls. The food must be replenished
continually or they do not thrive. The writer has lookea
for indications that size of brood or size and vigor of
animal causes a difference, but has been unable to find
any signs of this. The vigorous animal is larger both
+ but the length of spine has the same relation to body
length. All individuals were measured at about seven
days old. One cannot tell exact date of birth unless ma-
terial is under constant surveillance. The size at the
same age varies considerably, but not so the index.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 181
The work was done entirely with parthenogenetic fe-
males, no males appearing; hence the results are entirely
in a pure line. Whether similar results will continue or
whether the difference will persist when selection is dis-
continued remains to be seen. The full significance of
the experiment can not be gauged in so early and pre-
liminary a stage.
What the causes are which may produce selection in
a pure line if such should prove possible in the long run,
is still an open question. A. M. Banta in his interesting
work on ‘‘Selections in Cladecera on the Basis of a Phys-
iological Character’’ takes up the question. He was
slightly successful in selecting Daphnia longispina for its
reaction to light. In one line he got a difference 4.05
times the probable error. He thinks selection may be
due to (1) general physiological changes or (2) direct
genetic changes. The first consists of materials carried
over by cyloptasm, lide bacteria or protozoa or dye,
which fed to fowls appears in egg yolk (Riddle 1908).
But if the genetic basis be assumed, then he thinks that
selection in a pure line altho it cannot cause genetic
changes ‘‘may seize upon modifications of the character
used in selection as they occur and in the ease of plural
genetic changes may build up differences between se-
lected strains’’ and may be ‘‘the means of utilizing the
variations in accomplishing the end sought.’’ There is
no way in Daphnia by which there could be any recombi-
nation of nuclear material, since there is only one ma-
turation division without reduction in the partheno-
gentic egg.
Banta also discusses the mutation theory. In connec-
tion with such small genetic changes he would not call
them mutations, but calls the point immaterial. He
would not call them segregations or larger mutations be-
cause they occur too often and because there is no chro-
matic reduction involved. Sturtevant, in his work on
Dichaet flies, was able to select plus and minus strain for
a number of bristles. Dichaets vary more in bristle num-
ber than non Dichaets. In his final discussion he raises
three questions.
182 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
1. ‘‘Does selection use germinal differences already
present or such as arise during experiment, or both?”’
He thinks that, assuming the factors are Mendelian, se-
lection in a group heterozygous for many minor factors
will be effective in isolating favorable combinations of
such modifying genes or multiple factors. Since muta-
tions take place at all times, selection may make use of
variations arising during the experiment.
2. ‘‘In ease it uses new differences does it cause them
to occur more frequently and does it influence their direc-
tions?’’ He finds nothing to show that favorable varia-
tions occur oftener on account of selection.
3. ‘‘Are differences new or otherwise more likely to
occur in the locus of the gene under observation or in
other loci?’’ He thinks variations appear more often in
other factors since there are so many, but only in one
that is responsible for the difference under observation.
TABLE OF MEANS AND DIFFERENCES WITH P. E.
Generation — Means + Means Difference
3029 (2) 4.6 + .098 Duce 49 9 age
3030 (3) 3: 16. ==) .046 3.6 + .04 11 + 062
3031 (4) A.7+ (094 4.1+ .074 6+ 011
3032 (5) 4.6 + .034 4.0 + (042 .6 = .054
3033 (6) £8.32 5066 3 «6.035 1.2 + _ 066
3034 (7) Ae segs 3.98 ==. p54 2m = Rs
3035 (8) 3.8 + (039 Ss wea el Oe) aie
3036 (9) Dh» 9g 3.3 + 017 5+ 025
3037 (10) 3.6 + .028 3-1 A 3018 5+ 02
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 183
REGENERATION IN BRYOPHYLLUM CRENATUM
i
Mary E. Renicu, Inurvois State Norman UNIvErRsITY,
NorMaL
In Vol. 60 (1915) of the Botanical Gazette, appeared
an article by Jacques Loeb entitled ‘‘Rules and Mechan-
ism of Inhibition and Correlation in the Regeneration of
Bryophyllum Calycinum.’’ This article was followed by
several others from the same author in later numbers
of the Gazette, in Science and in the Journal of General
Physiology.
As there was available in the Botany Greenhouse at the
University of Illinois a number of plants of Bryophyllum
erenatum, the experiments given in Loeb’s first article
were repeated using this species. While many of the re-
sults obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum applied to B.
crenatum, several differences were found sufficiently
great to warrant noting. Since the plants of B. crena-
tum used in the experiments differed from those of Loeb
in that they were mature and in flower, the differences
were thought at first to be due to maturity or to the
physiological state of the respective species. Subse-
quently it was found that very young plants of B. crena-
tum gave essentially the same results as the mature ones.
In the cases where the results with B. crenatum differed
from those obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum, the ex-
periments were repeated using B. calycinum.
One difference between the two species should be noted
here. With B calycinum, whenever growth appeared
in the notches of leaves separated from the plants, roots
developed before the shoots. The reverse order of devel-
opment was always true with B. crenatum.
Since the study was to be a comparative one, the meth-
ods used by Loeb were followed as nearly as possible.
The work was done in the greenhouse during the winter
months and at a temperature of approximately 70° F.
The numbers used in referring to the leaves correspond
to those used by Loeb.
In the first experiment, 3 leaves of B. calycinum and
of B. crenatum were prepared as follows:—leaf 1 was
separated entirely from the plant, leaf 2 had a portion of
184 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
the stem, leaf 3 had a portion of the stem and also the
opposite leaf attached. These leaves were suspended
by means of threads from the top of an aquarium in a
saturated atmosphere in such a manner that their tips
were submerged in water.
After 10 days the results obtained with B. calycinum
were essentially those obtained by Loeb. After 16 days,
however, roots had developed at the base of the petiole in
2 of the completely isolated leaves suspended in satu-
rated air, and by the end of 5 weeks shoots had appeared
also. These results are contrary to those obtained by
Loeb who says, ‘‘The advantage of this plant for the
study of the problem of regeneration lies in the fact that
shoots can grow out only from definitely located buds in
the stem and in the notches of the leaf.’ In another
place he states, ‘‘The stalk of an isolated leaf without
any piece of stem is not capable of giving rise to any re-
generation. Such a leaf will form adventitious roots and
shoots in its notches very rapidly.”’
B. crenatum gave several results different from those
obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum. After 10 days,
growth had occurred in leaf 1 on the aerial as well as on
the submersed portion of the leaf, and in mature flower-
ing plants the growth from the aerial was more vigorous
than that from the submersed portion of the leaf. In
leaf 2 from mature plants the bud grew out from the
opposite axil as stated by Loeb. In many cases, however,
shoots appeared in both axils. In the leaves from very
young plants, only the bud from the adjacent axil had
developed. With B. calycinum, Loeb reports no develop-
ment of the axilliary buds in leaf 3. In B. crenatum
shoots appeared from both axils in all the specimens.
There was also some notch growth on most of the leaves.
Plate I shows these leaves at the end of 5 weeks. Leaf
1 with the best notch growth had developed a large shoot
at the end of the petiole. The shoots and roots in both
axils of leaf 3 were as large as those in leaf 2 and the
growth from many notches was nearly as vigorous as
that in leaf 1. Leaf 2 showed considerable notch growth.
All the drawings given in this article were made from
photographs of the specimens.
185
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
Sal
186 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCB
PUA TEU
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 187
This same experiment was repeated suspending the
leaves in a saturated atmosphere but not allowing their
tips to touch the water. Plate II shows the results after
5 weeks. The growth was the same as that just described
but the leaves were less turgid.
Experiment II was designed to show the inhibiting in-
fluence of the axillary buds on the growth in the notches
of the leaves. Leaf 6, similar to leaf 1, was separated en-
tirely from the plant; leaves 7, 8 and 9 had a portion of
the stem attached. Both axillary buds were removed
from leaf 7, the opposite axillary bud was removed
from leaf 8, and no bud was removed from leaf 9. In
this experiment B. crenatum gave results different from
those obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum. Leaves 6 and
9 agreed with leaves 1 and 2 described in experiment I.
After 4 weeks, 2 specimens of leaf 7 showed no growth.
3 specimens had developed a shoot from the petiole above
the cut. In each of the latter, there was-some notch
growth although it was much smaller than in leaf 6.
_ Leaf 8 had a shoot from each adjacent axillary bud and
also some notch growth. Plate III shows these leaves
after 5 weeks.
Concerning the inhibiting influence of the growth of
the axillary buds on the notch growth Loeb states, ‘‘It
is, therefore, obvious first, that a stem whose buds are
removed has still an inhibiting influence upon the for-
mation of roots in the notches of a leaf; and second, that
if the buds of the stem are not removed, the growth of
the bud opposite the leaf enhances this inhibiting effect
of the stem upon the leaf considerably. Since the growth
of this bud of the stem is as a rule also inhibited when the
opposite Ieaf is not removed, as in figure 3, we under-
stand why the non-removal of this leaf favors the growth
of the adventitious roots from the notches of the other
leaf.’’ In B. crenatum the removal of the buds from the
stem did inhibit the notch growth and the inhibiting
effect was enhanced by the growth of the bud which was
not removed, but the growth of this bud of the stem was
not inhibited when the opposite leaf was not removed as
was shown by leaf 3,
188
ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
qe
TA,
PLATE 2
189
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
Al ALW Id
im,
190 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
In experiment IIT, several nodes of a stem were used.
On some stems, leaf 10, the leaves of the apical node and
on others, leaf 11, those of the basal node were retained.
The results with B. crenatum were quite different from
those obtained by Loeb with B. calycinum. In 5 days,
in leaf 10, four out of five specimens had developed basal
node shoots and the fifth had both basal and apical node
shoots. In leaf 11, there were two apical node shoots in
each specimen and also a basal node shoot in one. In 20
days, in leaf 11, there were two shoots from the basal
node of one specimen and some notch growth on 2 leaves.
After 4 weeks, leaf 10 had developed 2 shoots from the
basal node of each specimen. Four of the specimens had
developed 2 apical node shoots and also some notch
growth. The fifth had but 1 apical node shoot. Plate IV.
shows leaves 10 and 11 after 5 weeks. The growth of
the buds on the stem may have inhibited a vigorous
notch growth as stated by Loeb, but the shoots developed
rapidly at those nodes from which the leaves had been
removed, regardless of whether those nodes were apical
or basal. From the under side of one leaf, a shoot had
developed near the mid-vein. Here again we have regen-
eration other than that from the notches of the leaf or
from a definite place on the stem.
Loeb found that in B. calycinum the development of
the bud on the stem was inhibited or retarded if only a
piece of the petiole of the opposite leaf was left on the
stem. This was not true for B. crenatum. In 14 days,
in the leaves whose opposite leaf blade had been removed,
leaf 14, a shoot grew from the opposite axillary bud in
each specimen and there was a slight notch growth on
most of the leaves. The petioles were still intact when
the shoots developed. Plate V. shows 2 specimens of leaf
14 after 1 month. At this time the petiole had withered
and fallen from one stem and a shoot was growing in the
adjacent leaf axil in this specimen.
Leaf 20 on Plate V. shows the effect of cutting the
stem lengthwise leaving a leaf attached to each half. In
5 days the adjacent buds appeared on 3 out of the 6 spee-
imens. The other 3 showed notch growth. In 21 days
there was an adjacent shoot in each and a slight notch
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
I4
PEATE ¥
191
c0
192 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
growth in 4 specimens. The rate of development here
was about the same as in leaf 3 where both leaves were
left on the stem.
In following Loeb’s experiments to show that root
pressure and not the roots themselves inhibited the notch
growth, few, if any, roots developed in B. crenatum. In
10 days shoots from the opposite buds developed in 2
specimens. In 12 days, there were shoots from both buds
in 4 cases. After 17 days, only one stem had formed
roots. There was no notch growth in the mature plants,
but in 14 days most of the leaves from very young plants
had some notch growth. That is, with B. crenatum, the
leaves with a piece of stem attached when placed in a
Petri dish with a small amount of water behaved similar
to leaf 2.
In the seventh experiment, the stem of B. crenatum,
consisting of several nodes stripped of all its leaves, was
suspended in moist air, number 23. In 3 days apical
node buds had appeared from 2 out of 5 specimens. In
12 days, 2 shoots had developed at each apical node and
in two specimens, from the second node also. After 20
days, 2 shoots had appeared from the third node of 1
stem. Although the shoots of the apical node developed
most rapidly their development did not inhibit the growth
of the shoots at the lower nodes. This is shown in Plate
VI. The photograph was taken after 4 weeks.
This plate also shows a single node, number 28, from
which the leaves were removed. When single nodes from
near the top of the main stem were used, buds appeared
on all the specimens in 3 days. In 12 days, 2 shoots were
growing from each node. This shows that in B. crenatum
the development in the single apical node was as rapid,
in some cases more rapid, than when, as in leaf 2, a leaf
was left on the stem. The presence of the leaf did not
accelerate the growth of the axillary bud.
In experiment VIII, lateral incisions were made
through the mid-vein of leaves of B. crenatum. In 7 days
the smallest isolated leaf, leaf 38, showed notch growth.
3 of the 5 specimens of a leaf with a portion of the stem,
leaf 39, had developed both axillary buds, and the adja-
cent bud of the other 2 just showed. In 9 days, there was
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 193
PLATE VI
20
194 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
notch growth in each of the 5 isolated leaves. 4 leaves
with stems had both axillary shoots; the fifth had just
the opposite shoot. These leaves are shown in Plate
VII. The notch growth on the leaves having a portion of
the stem attached was as abundant in the 4 specimens
having both axillary shoots as it was in the isolated
leaves. The axillary shoot had lost its inhibiting effect.
When leaf 1 of B. crenatum was suspended in moist
air and deprived of light, the buds developed in most of
the notches within 7 days. In 5 weeks the shoots were
fully an inch long.
The purpose of these experiments was not to discover
the cause of regeneration, but rather to determine
whether the rules given by Loeb for B. calycinum could
be applied to B. crenatum.
Loeb assumed that the cause of regeneration was the
prevention of the flow of material from the notches of
the leaf, and he was supported in this view by his experi-
ments on B. calycinum. No such simple explanation can
be given for B. crenatum. If a piece of stem was left
attached to the leaf, leaf 2, one or both axillary buds de-
veloped. A comparison of this leaf with the isolated
node from near the apex of the plant shows the growth
of the buds about the same in leaf 2, altho in the latter
case there were no leaves from which the buds could get
this flow of material.
In a later experiment,’ Loeb finds that an apical leaf
influences the lower buds of its side of the stem. He
states, in this connection, that the inhibiting influence of
the leaf upon shoot formation is due to an inhibiting sub-
stance which is secreted by the leaf and carried with the
sap toward the lower part of the stem. No such sub-
stance seems to be produced in B. crenatum.
Although the development of the axillary buds and
notch growth is hastened by the separation of leaf or
stem from the plant, Goebel* found in his experiments
with B. crenatum that the development of the notch
growth on leaves attached to the plant could be brought
about by cutting squarely across the middle vein near
the edge of the leaf no growth occurred. He attributed
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 195
this lack of growth to the fact that by the longitudinal
eut the vascular bundles were not sufficiently injured,
Wakker*® said that the growth of adventitious buds on B.
ealycinum could be brought about by injuring or disturb-
ing the water passages of the leaf,
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PLATE VII
Child and Bellamy* found that cooling a portion of
the petiole of a B. calycinum leaf to a temperature from
2.5 to 4° C. for a few days was a very effective means of
inducing notch growth.
196 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
That even these injuries and disturbances are not nec-
essary in order that shoots may develop was discovered
in the plants at hand. In the Botany Greenhouse, notch
growth appeared on the leaves of several plants which
apparently were in normal condition. This development
has been found on the leaves of B. calycinum as well ‘as
on those of B. crenatum and on both old and young
plants. An interesting feature noted in the species caly-
cinum was that, while in the notch growth on leaves sep-
arated from the plant roots appeared before the shoot,
the reverse order of development was true on leaves
attached to the plant.
For more ready comparison, the results with B. caly-
cinum obtained by Loeb and those with B. crenatum ob-
tained by the author are given in the following table.
Unless otherwise stated, the results given for B. caly-
cinum are those obtained by Loeb; those given for B. ere-
natum were obtained by the author. Where no time is
given for calycinum it was the same as for crenatum.
Leaf Time B. crenatum Time
B. calycinum
1 10da. Much notch growth, Roots and then _ shoots
aerial and submersed. on submersed portion.
5 wk. Shoot on petiole in one. Shoot on petiole of 2.
(Author’s results)
2 10 da. Shoot from opposite or Opposite axillary shoots.
both axils in all ma-
ture leaves.
In very young, shoot
from adjacent axil in
each.
5wk. A few notch shoots and No notch growth.
roots.
3 10 da. Shoot from each axil. Roots and shoots on sub-
mersed portion. Not
quite as quickly as in
leaf 1
Notch growth on most
leaves.
5 wk. Shoots and roots as 4 shoots from submersed
large as) im) leat 12. portion. Adjacent axil-
Notch growth as vig- lary bud.
orous as in leaf 1.
6 10 da. Abundant notch growth Roots and shoots under
the same as in leaf 1. water, similar to leaf
7 10 da. No growth. Roots on many _— sub-
mersed portions. Shoot
on one.
4wk. 2—no growth. 38—shoot
on petiole and some
notch growth.
8 10 da. 4 out of 6 no growth. A few had some roots
1—adjacent shoot. 1— and shoots on_ sub-
adjacent shoot and mersed portion.
notch growth.
4wk. Adjacent shoots in each.
Some notch growth.
9 Same as leaf 3. Same as leaf 3.
10 5 da. 4—basal shoots; 1— Notch roots and _ shoots,
basal and apical node
shoots,
no axillary shoots.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 197
Leaf Time B. crenatum Time B. calycinum
20 da. 2 basal shoots in each, 17 da. Notch roots under water.
2 apical in 4, 1 apical
in 1.
4wk. Some notch growth.
11 5 da. 2 apical node shoots in A few 2 apical shoots in each.
each, 1 basal in one. days.
20 da. 2 basal in one and some 17 da. No notch growth.
notch growth in 2
leaves.
14 14 da. Opposite axillary shoot, A few notch roots and
slight notch growth in shoots.
most leaves, petiole
intact.
4wk. Adjacent shoot in one. 10 wk. Petiole fallen off, axil-
lary shoot growing.
20 5 da. Adjacent buds in 3 out 6wk. Adjacent axillary shoots
of 6. Notch growth in
others.
21 da. Adjacent shoots in all, 14 da. In very young plants—a
slight notch growth in few roots on base of
4. stem, and in 6 wks.
23
much notch growth
under water. No ad-
jacent buds.
(Author’s results)
12 da. 2 shoots from each apical Apical node shoots only
node. 2 from second
node in two cases.
20 da. 2 shoots from 3rd node
bie
28 3 da. Buds in all 5 cases. No growth.
12 da. 2 shoots from each node.
38 7 da. 3 out of 5 had both axil- Opposite shoot, no notch
lary buds, 2 had ad- growth.
jacent bud growing.
9 da. 4—both axillary shoots,
1—opposite shoot. No
notch growth in 4 with
both buds.
1 7 da. Most notches had growth. No growth.
(In 5 wk. Shoots about 1 inch long Many small roots.
dark ) but not sturdy. Shoot from base of pet-
iole. (Author’s result)
In all notch’ growth, Roots develop first, then
shoots developed first, shoots, when leaves are
then roots. separated from plant.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Loeb, J.:: Rules and Mechanism of Inhibition and Correlation in
Bryophyllum Calycinum. (Bot. Gaz., 60:249-276, 1915.)
Loeb, J.: Morphological Polarity in Regeneration, I. (Journ.
Gen. Physiol., 1:337-362, 1919.)
Goebel, K.: Ueber Regeneration in Pflanzenreich. (Biologisches
Centralblatt, 22:396, 397. 1902.)
Child, C. M. and Bellamy, A. W.: Physiological Isolation by Low
Temperature in Bryophyllum. (Bot. Gaz., 70:249-267, 1920.)
198 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
BARBERY ERADICATION IN ILLINOIS.*
IF’. EK. Kempton, PatHouocist 1n Cuarce, G. C. Curran,
State Leaver, Inurois, EK. D. Grirrin, Asst. State
Leaver, ILLINOIS
Introduction.
Progress of Eradication.
Problem of Escaped Barberries in Illinois.
The Gurnee Area.
The Galena Area.
The Ogle County Area.
Chemical Eradication.
Rust Epidemiology Studies.
Airplane Studies of the Dissemination of Spores of
Puccimia graminis.
Method Used in Collecting and Examining the
Spores.”
Results from Series 1 and 2.
Results of Series 3.
Results of Series 4.
Summary.
INTRODUCTION
The barberry eradication campaign in Illinois was be-
gun in the spring of 1918 as a part of the campaign or-
ganized by the United States Department of Agriculture
in cooperation with 13 north-central wheat-growing
States, namely, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michi-
gan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio,
South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
This campaign in the United States followed the severe
black rust epidemic in 1916 which produced a shortage of
wheat that seriously affected the nation’s flour supply
during the period of the world war. Through the agita-
tion of scientists and the results of preliminary surveys
in Minnesota and Iowa, conferences were held in 1917
1 Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, and the Tilinois University, College of Agricul-
ture, cooperating.
? Thanks are due to S. P. Harter, field assistant, who made observa-
tions, counts, and germinations of aecigspores on the exposed slides,
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 199
and 1918 which brought about the organization of the
present barberry eradication campaign by the Office of
Cereal Investigations of the United States Department
of Agriculture in March, 1918. Field work was begun in
April, 1918, under an emergency appropriation for sti-
mulating agriculture. An annual appropriation of ap-
proximately $150,000 was provided by Congress from
July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1921, after which it was increas-
ed to $350,000. During this time, practically all cities
and towns were surveyed for barberry bushes and a farm-
to-farm survey was begun in 1919. By December 31,
1922, all properties in 472 counties had been surveyed.
Because of the desire of interested commercial and
agricultural organizations to further the campaign and
shorten the time necessary to complete the survey, a con-
ference was called by them at Minneapolis in March,
1922, to consider further measures that might be adopt-
ed as a means of rust control. Representatives of com-
mercial interests, the farm bureaus, the State depart-
ments of agriculture, and the State experiment stations
formed a permanent organization, and indorsed the bar-
berry eradication campaign as the feasible measure to be
used in rust control. Largely through effective presenta-
tion by this organization Congress increased the appro-
priations for barberry eradication, and some of the States
likewise provided extra funds.
PROGRESS OF ERADICATION
The entire State of Illinois is included in the eradica-
tion area. Due to a wide range of temperature and lati-
tude within the State there is a marked difference in the
type and variety of cereals and grasses in the northern
and southern areas. Experimental data show that
spring wheat is subject to greater damage from stem
rust than winter wheat, and, as spring wheat is grown
successfully only in northern Illinois, it was decided to
begin barberry eradication in that section.
From April 1, 1918, to December 31, 1922, 762 cities
and towns were surveyed for barberry and 15 counties
were covered in the farm-to-farm survey with the result
that 142, 882 bushes were located, and, in most instances,
200 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
eradicated. Owing to a large increase in the Federal ap-
propriation more men were employed for survey and
eradication during the summer of 1922 than in previous
years. As a result six counties were completed in 1922
alone, in addition to a considerable portion of the city of
Chicago.
More properties infested with common barberries have
been found in Illinois than in any of the other twelve
States within the barberry eradication area. During the
five-year campaign, 9,478 properties on which barberry
was growing have been located. Iowa ranks second with
8,390 and Michigan third with 8,325. Although Illinois
has the highest number of properties with barberry, in
the total number of bushes found the State ranks fifth.
Thus far about twice as many bushes have been found
in the towns as in the country, probably due to the fact
that the urban survey has been nearly State-wide while
the farm-to-farm survey has been confined to fifteen
counties in northern Illinois.
At the rate of progress in Illinois during 1922, the best
year of the campaign, at least five more years will be
necessary to complete the original survey. Illinois re-
ceived $20,000 of the Congressional appropriation of
$350,000 in 1922. To date less than a quarter of the total
area of the State has been covered in the farm-to-farm
survey. Hither the annual Federal allotment will have
to be increased considerably or the State will have to
give generous financial aid to the movement if Illinois is
to be cleared of barberry by the time the other 12 States
are covered.
PROBLEM OF ESCAPED BARBERRIES
One of the difficult problems encountered in the eradi-
cation campaign in Illinois is the widespread occurrence
of escaped bushes that have grown from seeds scattered
from cultivated bushes. Of the bushes found in the coun-
try, 27,463 were escaped bushes on 458 properties distri-
buted in every county of the surveyed area.
Because of the large number of escaped bushes, eradi-
eation has been retarded considerably. Usually these
bushes were found growing in timber land, brushy pas:
Fig.1. Escaped barberry bushes growing in the Galena area. The soil is
extremely rocky and eradication by digging is impossible.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 201
tures or on rocky hillsides, often of rugged topography.
Survey of these areas made on foot and covering every
square rod is a slow process. Three outstanding areas
of escaped bushes have been found in the surveyed terri-
tory, namely, at Gurnee, Lake County; Galena, Jo
Daviess County; and Chana, Ogle County. They are
widely separated and possess different characteristics.
THE GURNEE AREA
The Gurnee area is located in Lake County and has the
largest number of bushes. The number of bushes is esti-
mated at 5,000 and there is a wide variation in size and
age. Most of these bushes were growing in a 40-acre
woodlot on the farm of a Mr. Lake. Other scattered
plantings were found along highways, hedges, and fences
for several miles around. Seedlings, sprouts, and large
mature bushes were all growing together in timber
forming a dense growth of underbrush. Unlike most
areas, the escaped bushes were not closely associated
with streams. The original source of these bushes
was a hedge near the old homestead on the Lake farm.
This hedge had been eradicated some years ago.
THE GALENA AREA
The Galena area was found during the summer of 1922
and is located about the city of Galena in Jo Daviess
County. The topography is extremely rough due to its
being unglaciated, and many difficulties were encountered
by the field men. It was necessary to survey twelve sec-
tions on foot and considerable time was thus consumed.
Unoceupied property offered another stumbling block
to the efficient destruction of the barberry. There were
approximately 1,500 bushes found within a radius of
about two miles from the original planting. Many were
growing against rocky cliffs (Fig. 1) and in ravines that
were almost inaccessible to the scouts. Digging was a
difficult process and sprouts invariably appeared after
digging because the roots could not be entirely removed.
This area originated from a large hedge planted in
Galena in 1844. In general the escapes are scattered
along hillsides on both banks of the Galena river. Birds
202 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
probably were the principal disseminating agent, with
water as a second factor.
THE OGLE COUNTY ARHA
Three separate areas of escaped barberry were found
in Ogle County during the summer of 1922. The total
number of bushes in these areas was about 250 and in
each instance they were associated with streams in tim-
ber lands. The topography is somewhat rough but not
as rugged as that in the vicinity of Galena. Although
the number of bushes in the Ogle County area would in-
dicate that it was comparatively unimportant, there are
several characteristics peculiar to it.
In the territory about the town of Chana, twenty
bushes all about the same size were estimated to be
70 years old. One of the largest bushes found in
Illinois was in this area (Fig. 2). Another unusual
characteristic was that the escaped bushes grew separate-
ly, only a few on each farm.
In the area about Mt. Morris, the bushes were of all
sizes and were widely seattered in small groups. The
area is about six miles across and includes about 100
bushes originating from a single source. In the Polo area
many of the bushes were found growing on the sides of
rocky bluffs and eradication necessarily will be difficult.
CHEMICAL ERADICATION?
The common barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) when
well established is a very difficult plant to kill. This is
the conclusion reached after five years of effort to eradi-
cate the common barberries from 13 of the North-Central
States.
When the bushes are dug, even small fragments of
roots left in the ground usually will sprout. This means
that where the digging is difficult, as in rocky ground
or around trees or stumps or when unusual care is not
taken to remove all fragments of roots, sprouts are
almost sure to develop. In lawns or gardens where a
eareful watch can be kept, the problem is not so serious,
1Noel F. Thompson. Kill the Common Barberry with Chemicals,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Cir. 268, 4 p., 3 fig. March, 1923.
Fig.2. Immense escaped barberry bush found in Ogle County. This is
one of the largest bushes found in Illinois and is typical of the twenty
large and widely separated bushes found in one escaped area.
Fig. 3. Barberry sprouts near Galena, Illinois, treated with crushed rock
salt. The character of the soil makes chemical eradication necessary.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 203
for in a year or two all roots left at the first digging will
have sprouted and can be removed. With bushes grow-
“ing wild in pastures and woodlots-and along fences at a
distance from the house, the situation is different, and
other means of killing the bush are desirable.
In the past two years experiments have been carried
on at Gurnee in Lake County in an effort to find some
suitable chemical that would kill barberry bushes. A
large area of escaped barberry was found at Gurnee in
June, 1921, and the chemical experiments were begun in
the autumn of the same year. Noel F. Thompson, who is
now in charge of the experiments, has found that rock
salt and a commercial compound containing sodium
arsenite are the most effective compounds for killing the
bushes.
Dr. W. W. Robbins conducted a series of experiments
to determine a satisfactory method for killing barberry
seedlings. He found that a number of chemicals are ap-
parently equally toxie to barberry seedlings. Sodium
arsenite was the most economical and effective compound
used. A spring application was more effective than a
fall application. Apparently the seedlings gain in re-
serve strength as the season advances. This fact sug-
gests the advisability of spraying the young plants as
soon as possible after the germination of the barberry
seeds in the spring and summer.
Because of the danger to livestock resulting from the
use of sodium arsenite, it has become necessary to dis-
continue using this chemical and to rely entirely upon
salt.
There are many localities in Illinois where the soil is of
such a character that effective digging of the bushes is
impossible. An example of such a condition was encoun-
tered in the Galena district. The soil of the entire region
is extremely rocky and where bushes were removed in
July, sprouts appeared in September, thus demonstrat-
ing the absolute necessity of adopting the more efficient
method of using chemicals in order to eradicate perma-
nently every common barberry bush in the State (Fig. 3).
Even when the character of the soil would not inter-
fere with eradication by digging, sprouts have been found
204 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
in many instances. For example, the 1922 survey in Oak
Park, Cook County, showed that fully fifty per cent of
the bushes eradicated in previous years had sprouted?
However, it is not likely that chemicals can be used con-
veniently on every planting because of the injurious ef-
fect on the soil, retarding plant growth one or two
years.
Crushed rock salt has been applied to a number of
bushes in Jo Daviess County (Fig. 4). About ten pounds
is the recommended application for the average-sized
bush. It should be distributed over the crown. The bush
may be left standing or the top cut off before applying
the salt. The average cost per plant for treatment with
erushed rock salt was from five to fifteen cents, depend-
ing upon the character of the bush. This included the
cost for salt and labor.
RUST EPIDEMIOLOGY STUDIES
In connection with the barberry eradication campaign
in Illinois numerous observations have been made in the
spread of black stem rust from infected barberries. Sev-
eral outstanding cases have been noted; one at Minooka,
Grundy County, probably is best known because it was
the first to be brought prominently to the attention of
farmers. It was discovered in 1919 and showed the re-
lationship so clearly that it was mapped and described
in the annual report of the barberry eradication cam-
paign of that year.
Much of the rust around Minooka originated in a lates
hedge of common barberry comprising some six hundred
bushes. Directly east of this hedge was a field of winter
wheat sheltered by an intervening orchard. This pro-
tection, together with the earlier development of winter
wheat, prevented serious damage to this field. About a
quarter of a mile southeast of the hedge was a field of
spring wheat with no protection other than distance.
Intervening was a pasture extending from the hedge to
the wheat. In this pasture was considerable wild barley.
Rust spread from the barberries to the grass and then
spread rapidly through the pasture to the grain where
it produced a 90 per cent infection. Directly across the ©
Fig. 4. An area of escaped barberries in Jo Daviess County. The tops of
of the bushes have been cut off and the crowns treated with salt.
PAPERS ON BIGLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 205
road, about 70 feet from the hedge, was a field of oats.
Not a single stalk escaped the rust. A mile farther away
was another field of oats which showed an infection of
about 75 to 80 per cent. The removal of the hedge has
decreased stem-rust losses in this neighborhood in sub-
sequent years.
During the summer of 1922, no serious outbreaks of
black stem rust were reported. Weather conditions in
June were very unfavorable for the levelopment of stem
rust. The rainfall was light and the dry weather hin-
dered the growth of the rust. However, the earliest in-
fection of stem rust in northern Illinois in 1922 ean be
traced to barberry bushes, and, if weather conditions had
favored stem-rust development, severe attacks with
heavy losses might have occurred in that year.
The first spread of rust from barberries in 1922 was
noticed in Lake, Livingston, and Will counties at about
the same time. Mr. Thompson found quack grass and
oats with a trace of infection near barberry bushes on
June 10 in Lake County. In Livingston County on June
9, wild barley growing near a barberry hedge was found
to be slightly infected. No rust could be found on this
grass more than fifty yards away from the hedge. On
June 23, barley growing near barberry in McHenry
County was heavily rusted, while at a distance of fifty
feet from the bushes the rust was extremely light. On
the same date orchard grass and quack grass were found
rusted near barberry in DuPage County. In almost
every instance when infected barberry was found, stem
rust was present on grasses or grains, and probably
weather conditions alone were responsible for the ab-
sence of heavy infections.
AIRPLANE STUDIES OF THE DISSEMINATION
OF STEM-RUST SPORES
Airplanes have been used in connection with studies
of stem-rust spores in the air.
The purpose of these investigations was to determine
general relations which might exist between height or
distance from the infected material and the resulting
dissemination of rust spores. It includes an attempt to
206 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE -
find a correlation between distance from infected bar-
- berries in the direction of prevailing winds and the num-
ber of aeciospores or urediniospores which might be
found.
METHOD USED IN COLLECTING AND EXAMIN-
ING THE SPORES
The work of collecting the spores was made possible
through a cooperative agreement between the United
States Department of Agriculture and the Air Service
of the War Department. Slides were exposed from
Army airplanes stationed at Chanute Field, Rantoul,
Illinois. The airplanes, piloted by U. S. Army officers,
flew from Rantoul to Gurnee, a distance of 150 miles each
time spore collections were made. The bushes in the
Gurnee area, previously described, were rusted heavily
in the spring of 1922 and it was during the period of rust
infection on the barberry that most of the flights were
made over this area.
The apparatus as described in another paper’ consisted
of ordinary glass slides 3”x1” in size coated with a very
thin film of white vaseline or glycerine jelly. Each slide
was fastened to a wooden handle and placed in a small
glass bottle two inches in diameter and four inches high.
With the use of a close-fitting cork stopper the bottle was
made air tight. The glass slide was exposed by removing
it from the bottle and holding the handle with the slide
attached out in the air above the cockpit of the airplane
for a definite time at definite altitudes. The microscopic
examination of the slides and germination tests were
made in the laboratory.
Four series of slides were exposed. Glycerine jelly,
because it is quite transparent when examined under a
microscope, was used in one series to determine its effect-
liveness in catching and holding spores. The time of ex-
posure varied from three minutes in the first, second and
fourth series to ten minutes in the third series.
In all cases the slides were examined under a micro-
scope with a mechanical stage for the purpose of getting
1Elvin C. Stakman, Arthur W. Henry, Gordon C. Curran, and Warren
N. Christopher. Spores in the Upper Air. In Journal of Agricultural Re-
search, Vol. 24, No. 6, May 12, 1928.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 207
a close estimate of the spores present on each slide. To
insure positive identification of all spores, they were
measured by means of an ocular micrometer and were
compared directly with type slides which contained the
various forms. Only spores which were whole and un-
injured were counted. In addition to aeciospores, ure-
diniospores and teliospores of Puccinia graminis Pers.,
which were the only spores counted, there were, in many
instances, large numbers of smut spores, spores of other
rusts, pollen grains and spores of a considerable number
of other fungi such as Alternaria.
RESULTS FROM SERIES 1 AND 2
The slides of this series were exposed on June 14,
1922, from an Army airplane over and near the 40-acre
area of escaped barberries on the H. C. Lake farm near
Gurnee, Illinois. The barberry bushes were infected
severely on this date. The wind was blowing from the
northeast and the observations were made directly
over the area of bushes, at distances of 10, 15, and 25
miles south of the area. Each slide was exposed for
three minutes. A vaseline-coated slide was placed on
one side of the wooden paddle and a slide coated
with glycerine jelly on the other; thus, when the paddle
was exposed, two slides were in position to catch spores
from the air. Observations show that aeciospores were
present in the air over the Lake farm at altitudes from
100 to 12,000 feet. Urediniospores were found at alti-
tudes of 1,000 to 7,000 feet. Ten miles south of this in-
fected area, both aeciospores and urediniospores were
found at an altitude of 2,000 feet. Fifteen miles south,
aeciospores were found at an altitude of 2,000 feet.
Twenty-five miles south, only one aeciospore was found
and this at an altitude of 2,000 feet.
RESULTS OF SERIES 3
Slides of this series were exposed from an Army air-
plane over and near the 40-acre area of escaped barber-
ries on the H. C. Lake farm near Gurnee, Illinois, on July
5, 1922. The length of the exposure was ten minutes.
All the slides were coated with vaseline and two slides
208 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
were exposed at the same time by attaching two slides to
each paddle.
Observations made on this date show that approxi-
mately the same numbers of spores were present at ele-
vations of 100 to 2,000 feet. At 6,000 feet there were
about six-tenths as many spores as at 2,000 feet. At each
elevation there were twice as many aeciospores as ure-
diniospores and few teliospores were found from 100 to
2,000 feet.
RESULTS FROM SERIES 4
These slides were exposed on September 18, 1922, and
the results are given to show the presence of the different
spore forms late in the season. The exposure period was
three minutes over an area free from any escaped bar-
berries, and probably harboring few cultivated bushes.
No aeciospores whatever were found on microscopic ex-
amination. A very large number of urediniospores were
found and a decidedly increased number of teliospores,
all of which is in direct keeping with the advanced season
and the other conditions under which the exposures were
made.
SUMMARY
The campaign for the eradication of the common bar-
berry began in I]linois in the spring of 1918. Practically
all of the cities and towns were surveyed during the first
two years. The activities of the past three years have
been devoted to the farm-to-farm survey of 15 counties
in the northern part of the State and a resurvey of the
city properties in these counties.
Illinois has an unusually large number of escaped bar-
berries. In most cases, these escaped bushes are growing
in timber land, brushy pastures, or on rocky hillsides
which are of rough topography and present serious prob-
lems of successful eradication. The spread of escaped
barberries is correlated with the type of soil and topogra-
phy of the land over which they scatter. Results of ex-
periments show that the most feasible method of killing
barberry bushes in rocky situations is by the application
of salt. An average-sized bush can be killed with 10
pounds of common crushed rock salt piled over the crown.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 209
The cost per bush for the salt and application ranges
from ten to fifteen cents.
Epidemiology studies show that barberry bushes are
directly responsible for the early spread of black stem
rust to fields of grain. The aecial stage of stem rust was
found on barberry bushes in northern Illinois as early
as June 10 in 1922.
Observations made by airplane flights show that in
June and July aeciospores were present in the air over
infected barberries. Also, these spores were caught in the
direction of the prevailing winds from 15 to 20 miles
from any known area of infected barberries. From
flights made on September 12, 1922, no aeciospores were
obtained in the air, but numerous teliospores were
caught.
210 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
GROWTH STUDIES OF CERTAIN BOTTOMLAND
SPECIES IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS
C. J. Tevrorp, Naturat History Survey, URBana
The study of tree growth has always had a certain
scientific interest. Now since we know that the virgin
stand of timber amounting to 138,000,000 acres out of an
original stand of 822,000,000 acres will be cut out, in all
probability, within the next 50 or 100 years and that
we must turn to the cut over lands and to plantations as
future sources of supply, growth studies assume greater
economic importance.
The two great classes of lumber—hardwoods or broad
leaved trees and softwoods or conifers—are graded ac-
cording to different specifications. The hardwoods are
graded largely upon appearance and beauty; the soft-
woods largely upon strength, which in their case can be
secured from immature trees, but clear lengths can not,
this having been well exemplified in the choice of Sitka
spruce for aeroplane stock.
In general, hardwoods require better soil, produce
fewer trees to the acre and have a slower rate of growth
than conifers. They must be carried over a long inter-
val to produce the desired grades and sell for but little
more than softwoods in the market.
Among the hardwoods the growth rate varies widely -
as to species; within the species also the growth rate var-
ies as to site, but the height growth rate for the same
species on similar sites is remarkably uniform, so that
it is used in site classification.
The fact that different species grow at different rates
is so well known that it needs no proof. That the same
species may have a very different growth rate upon up-
land than upon bottomland sites is brought out ‘in the
study of sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). At fifty
years of age sycamore growing upon the uplands in Ran-
dolph county averages sixty feet in height as compared
with ninety-two feet for the same age on the Mississippi
bottomlands of Union County. The fifty year upland
tree has an average diameter on the stump inside the
bark of 8 inches and the bottomland tree of 24.2 inches.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 211
That the growth rate in height for the same species
on similar sites is very uniform is brought out by study
of pin oak (Quercus palustris). Measurements were
taken in Gallatin county on pin oak growing on gray clay
subject to flooding from the Wabash, and in Union county
for the same species on drab clay subject to flooding from
the Mississippi. The height growth of the average tree
for each at 50 vears is 68 feet, and at no period between
5) and 65 years is there a variation of more than one foot
in the height of the average tree for these widely separat-
ed stands.
Comparing the rate of growth in height for the com-
mon upland commercial species with that of the bottom-
land species of the state, the studies show that the up-
land species grow in height about 70% as fast as the bot-
tomland species and in diameter about 55% as fast. Thus
it is apparent that if the growing of hardwood timber
crops is going to be profitable anywhere the bottomlands
present the more favorable conditions.
Comparing the height growth of the eight bottomland
species studied there is a noticeable grouping. The in-
tolerant cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and sycamore
(Platanus occidentalis) show an average annual height
growth of more than two feet for the first 50 years. The
honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), soft maple (Acer
saccharinum), and pin oak (Quercus palustris) have an
average height growth of 1.4 feet for the same period.
The elm (Ulmus Americana), ash (Fraxinus Americana)
and hackberry (Celtis Mississippiensis) average slightly
less than 1 foot per year. Thus in rate of volume
growth for average individual trees the listing would be
in order of importance, cottonwood, sycamore, pin oak,
honey locust, soft maple, ash, elm and hackberry.
Where these studies were made the soils are rich and
moisture abundant. Thus the factor controlling both
the occurrence of any one species in the mixture and its
rate of volume growth is available sunlight. Abandoned
river channels generally have seedlings in abundance of
several species, but the rapid growth rate of cottonwood
and sycamore soon places these above their competitors
and results in a belt of these intolerant trees. But the
212 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
more tolerant species, while not competing with the over-
wood of cottonwood and sycamore, will persist at a
slower growth rate, or will seed in under the tolerant
trees. With the removal of the latter the site will be oc-
cupied and held by the elm, maple, oak, hackberry, honey
locust and ash.
Within this grouping of the more tolerant species there
will be a sharp struggle for crown space, and the check
in crown expansion will be reflected in a correspondingly
poor diameter growth.
Thus, under the conditions which exist in these all-aged
stands, the two species which show unusually rapid
growth are the species which must have an abundance of
sunlight; therefore they occur locally in the bottomland
as an early stage in the transition from the new land to
the ultimate forest, and where occurring, make a uni-
formly high rate of growth. 3
In attempting to grow either sycamore or cottonwood
in pure even-aged stands the average diameter growth
would probably be less than that of these same species
growing in a mixed stand, for the reason that in the
mixed forest the sycamore or cottonwood carry their
crowns well up above the other species with consequently
more leaf exposure to sunlight. The average diameter
growth of the more tolerant species grown in pure even-
aged stands probably would be increased, because at no
period of their growth would there be an overwood with
consequent suppression. In the management of such
even-aged stands the suppression resulting from lateral
crowding would be modified by thinnings in the plan-
tation.
In the natural grouping of this all-aged virgin bottom-
land stand the average yield per acre is 15,000 B. F. The
average age of the merchantable trees is slightly over
100 years. Cottonwood and sycamore made a diameter
growth inside the bark on the stump of 20 inches in 40
years, pin oak in 58, honey locust in 57, soft maple in 59,
hackberry in 125, elm in 127, and ash in 150 years.
In conclusion, it seems evident that the highest re-
turns can be secured from a naturally stocked bottomland
area by encouraging the sycamore, cottonwood, pin oak
>
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 213
and maple. Probably the honey locust should be consid-
ered as a desirable species but hackberry and elm grow
altogether too slowly and have no special merit. Ash
has an extremely low rate of growth and its encourage-
ment is justified only by the high market value of the
wood. The highest returns from artificial plantations
would probably be derived from cottonwood and syca-
more, but such a plantation requires a cleared field and
involves almost prohibitive initial investments except on
land which is subject to overflow and is not liable to be
for some years in an organized drainage project.
April 26, 1923.
214 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
BOGS OF NORTHERN ILLINOIS—I1
W. G. WaterMan, NorTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY.
At the 1921 meeting of this academy the writer briefly
described four bogs located in Lake County, Illinois, and
mentioned several others which had been heard of or seen
in the distance, but not visited. In the present paper
five others are described and some data are added to the
descriptions already reported. There is still certainly
one and possibly several others which have not yet been
visited. (Fig. 1.)
The new bogs, both those visited and those reported,
are in the same general region, already described. That
is, they are all within the limits of the late Wisconsin
Drift of the Valparaiso moraine which is characterized
by a soil consisting of clay or gravel, frequently con-
taining a large percentage of calcium carbonate, and
having an uneven topography, orginally with many knobs
and kettle holes. Most of these depressions have been in-
cluded in the drainage systems of the rivers of the region,
but a section in western Lake and eastern McHenry
Counties on the edges of the drainage basin of the Fox
and DesPlaines Rivers still contain a few poorly drained
or undrained depressions, and it is in these that the bogs
are found.
For a thorough understanding of these formations at-
tention should be called first to the present distinction
between bog and swamp, which is based partly on the
character of the habitat and partly on floristic content.
A bog is characterized in general by a xerophytic vegeta-
tion and by the presence of such special forms as the
pitcher plant, drosera, cranberry and sphagnum, which
are accompanied usually by an acid condition of the sub-
stratum. In a swamp, on the other hand, the characteris-
tic bog plants are absent and the substratum is alkaline
or neutral. There are, to be sure, occasional anomalous
communities in which a few bog species are present, al-
though the conditions in general would seem to indicate
a swamp. In the main, however, the distinction is fairly
well marked, and in many eases it is so well defined that
ot
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ie od
Counties,
ILLINOIS.
Fig.1. Location of bogs in Lake and McHenry Counties. Black circles indi-
cate bogs described; black squares, bogs reported but not yet visited.
La
, eaetae
re eee, .
led Ste
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 215
swamp and bog zones may be distinguished clearly within
the limits of the same depression.
The typical succession of communities in swamps in-
clude (1) free floating aquatics such as algae and pond-
weeds in deep water; (2) aquatics whose roots are in the
soil of the bottom but their vegetative parts float on the
surface, as the waterlilies; (3) plants which root in the
bottom but have a large part of their vegetative parts
above water, as bulrushes, cattails and pickerel-weed;
(4) plants which grow in water or very wet soil, as
sedges; (5) water-loving shrubs, chiefly willows; (6)
swamp trees, as the ash and elm; and (7) the plants of
the surrounding uplands when the substratum becomes
solid and dry.
The first three stages of the bog succession are the
same as those of the swamp, but at the fourth stage the
characteristic bog plants begin to appear, usually on a
floating mat made up of the roots and rhizomes of sedges
and low woody plants with a filling of sphagnun. The
characteristic shrubs are Chamaedaphne, Andromeda,
Vacciniums and the dwarf birch, and the chief bog tree is
the tamarack followed by the upland plants as in the case
of the swamp.
By the identification of these stages, the progress of
the succession and the consequent maturity of the bog or
swamp may be determined.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HABITATS
The depressions in which these bogs are found are all
similar in general features except in shape, as they vary
all the way from small circular bowls or kettles 200 yards
in diameter, to large oval or irregular basins half a mile
or more in length. The most irregular is the group con-
taining four bogs about a mile northwest of Volo, which
will be found to be quite similar in general outline to the
drained depression which contains the Fox-Pistakee
group of lakes. The profiles of the larger depressions
are similar also, usually including broad stretches of
shallow, gently sloping plains which extend from the sur-
rounding uplands to a deep pocket more or less centrally
located. These bordering plains are wet and swampy at
216 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
times of high water but may become quite dry in the late
summer and fall. The line between these plains and the
surrounding uplands is always clearly marked and shows
evidences of shore erosion, as if it had marked the shore
line of a lake which filled the whole depression at some
time in the past.
The uplands show a marked alkalinity, and the glacial.
material of which they are composed contains many
boulders and pebbles of lime-stone. The low flat borders
are also alkaline, while the substratum under the bog
vegetation is uniformly acid. The soil of the plains con-
sists of black peat or muck, sometimes interbedded with
sandy wash from the uplands, but this deposit is very
shallow, not being more than six feet deep at the maxi-
mum. At the edge of the bog vegetation the bottom drops
off rapidly and the character of the peat changes to a
dark yellowish brown and contains fragments of bog
plants. This kind of peat underlies all of the bog vege-
tation, and is everywhere over ten feet in thickness and
probably much thicker in the central parts of the bogs.
Many borings have been made in all of these bogs to a
maximum depth of ten feet, and the data obtained con-
firm the finding of Burns (1) and indicate that the condi-
tions he reports as to greater depths would hold good
here also.
DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BOGS
In many ways the most interesting bog is the one lo-
eated on Cedar Lake and numbered 1 in the first report
(4), as it is small in relation to the size of the lake and
is evidently very immature. (Fig. 2.) On the open edge
in the lake it is in the first bog stage, that of the quaking
mat, and the shrub and tree stages are only beginning to
appear. The bog mat is only about 100 yards wide, and be-
tween it and the shore is a swamp zone of about the same
width. (Fig. 3.) The depth of the water gradually in-
creases from the shore to the edge of the bog mat where
it is about 6 feet, and from there it rapidly deepens, going
beyond 10 feet in a short distance. Soundings beyond
that depth have not yet been taken, but according to local
opinion the lake is very deep just beyond the edge of the
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PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 217
bog while all other parts of the lake are relatively shal-
low.
Another feature of interest is a small island or patch of
floating mat which is forming very rapidly about 300
yards off the center of the bog. It appeared about five
years ago and was at first only a few yards across. In
1922 it was L shaped, each arm being about 20 yards long,
but it is not yet solid enough to bear a man’s weight. The
plants are mostly sedges with some Decodon verticillatus,
a very important mat-forming shrub. (Fig. 4.)
At the other extreme of maturity is the bog near Wau-
conda already described (4—No. 4) and one near Antioch
in S. E. corner, Section 15, T. 46 N., R. 10 E., about three
miles southeast of Antioch. The Antioch bog occupies a
small, almost circular depression about 300 yards in di-
ameter with a relatively narrow swamp zone on the north,
east and west, but with a long flat valley on the south.
The shrub zone is narrow, and consists chiefly of choke-
berry and winterberry with some red ozier dogwood,
swamp blueberry and elder. The tamarack forest is
very mature with solid substratum and large trees, and
there are also several upland specimens present, includ-
ing a yellow birch 10 inches in diameter and several red
or ellipsoid oaks, and occasionally choke cherries, trem-
bling aspens and mountain ashes; and one service berry
was noticed. (Fig. 5.)
The undergrowth is most mesophytic in the eastern
half of the forest with few bog relicts, but including
Maianthemum, Trientalis, Smilax, Geum, Onoclea sensi-
bilis, Osmunda regalis, Asplenium sp., but in the western
half there are fair sized patches of sphagnum, a few
pitcher plants, and one specimen of menyanthes was ob-
served. The east side is more open, many tamaracks
have been overturned or eut, and there are few shrubs
except red ozier dogwood which was abundant locally.
There is a wide swamp zone on this side with quite
abundant dwarf birch. Although the substratum is dry
in autumn, the drift material in the bushes indicates
temporary water levels of 2 to 3 feet above the surface in
times of heavy precipitation, probably in the spring.
2i8 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
The Wauconda bog occupies a larger and more irregu-
lar depression with a broad shallow extension to the
south east, apparently a large bay in the time of pre-
historic high water, and a curving valley to the north-
east which apparently connected the prehistoric lake with
the depression now occupied by Bang’s Lake. Both of
these extensions are now occupied by swamp vegetation
while the bog is confined to a rounded triangular depres-
sion to the west. The standing forest is similar to that
of the Antioch bog, but the western half of the triangle
was cut over about fifty years ago and is now a mixed
secondary association containing scattered young tama-
racks along the borders, a large number of dwarf birches,
sedges and grasses, and among the stumps af the origi-
nal trees, relicts of the undergrowth of the original forest,
including Linnea, Cornus canadensis, with Leucobryum
and other mosses. The central portion of the cut area is
low, and apparently holds a small pond at times of high
water as it contains vigorous colonies of Typha, Phrag-
mites and other early-stage swamp plants. :
The most mature bog found is in the small pocket near
the Allandale farm already deseribed (4—No. 2), and
there is nothing to add to that description.
The most interesting group of bogs is found in two ad-
joining depressions northwest of the town of Volo, one of
which was partly described as the Volo bog (4—No. 3),
but it has been found to be surrounded by three other
bogs which are quite as interesting. From the map in
Fig. 6, it will be seen that there are three contiguous de-
pressions not actually connected with each other which
contain four formations of very different character. The
bog described as No. 3 in the preliminary report (4) ad-
joins the George Sayer Farm No. 3, and therefore will
be known as the Sayer bog. This was treated fully in that
report and little needs to be added to the description. It
seems almost certain that a twig of ledum was brought in
among other specimens at the time of the first visit to the
bog, but the twig was not preserved as it was supposed
that if it was found so easily in a preliminary reconnois-
sance, it would be located easily later. Careful search
subsequently has failed to find any trace of this species
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PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 219
and, while it is possible that there may be one or more
specimens in the heart of the forest, its presence has not
as yet been confirmed. On the other hand, Andromeda
polifolia, not included in the first report, has been found
to be rather common. The winterberry (Ilex verticillata)
is a prominent shrub on the west border of the forest and
there are a few small specimens of yellow birch and oaks
in the western part of the tamaracks. The inner edge of
the swamp zone, especially in the west and north, carries
a dense growth of Bidens and other ruderals, which grow
so luxuriantly to a height of five feet or more as to make
passage through them rather disagreeable.
The pond in the center of the forest was found to be
oval in shape and about 100 yards in length by fifty in
width, and surrounded by a quaking mat of from 50 to
100 yards in width. Old inhabitants say that the pond
occupied the whole of the open area when first visited
about fifty years ago, and that the quaking mat has in-
_ ereased to its present width since that time, reducing the
pond to its present size (Fig. 7). The open mat is made
up of sedges, sphagnum, buckbean (Menyanthes trifoli-
ata), marsh fern (Aspidium thelypteris), and large colo-
nies of cattail on the edge of the pond itself. The clear
water in the pond is not over a foot or two in depth and
its bottom is apparently composed of soft peat.
Northeast of the Sayer bog but separated from it by a
low ridge about 200 yards wide, traversed by an east and
west road, is an oval depression about one quarter of a
mile long by one eighth wide extending northeast and
southwest, which formerly carried a tamarack forest
growing on a sphagnum mat. The tamaracks were cut
some time ago and their stumps are buried a foot or more
by a thick growth of chamaedaphne and of sphagnum,
which is climbing vigorously among the stems of the
chamaedaphne. There are several small colonies of
pitcher plant and occasional patches of sedges with cran-
berry and some blueberries. There are scattered speci-
mens of dwarf birch, one large dead tamarack and five
or six very young living trees near the center of the bog,
and eight or ten others at the northwest corner. On the
east side of the bog is a long belt of dense dwarf birch,
220 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
and beyond that a swamp zone with swamp fern and
sedges and some iris and swamp cinquefoil along a small
drainage ditch. The edges of the bog are now being
drained toward the center, but the draining of the whole
bog would be an expensive matter owing to the height of
the surrounding ridges. The surface has been burned
repeatedly and the swamp zone is now occupied by a
scanty growth of ruderals.
About one half a mile to the west of these two bogs is
a long L-shaped depression which contains two separate
tamarack groves indicated on the map (Fig. 6) and
originally referred to as No. 7 and 8. One is long and
L shaped, running north and south, and the other, ap-
proximately round, at the end of the western arm of the
depression. The north end of the depression is large and
rounded and the tamarack grove occupies only the west-
ern half of this enlargement, while the eastern half con-
tains a erescent shaped pond which narrows rapidly
toward the south and disappears about the middle of the
tamarack forest.
_ The substratum is fairly solid under the tamaracks, and
its upper surface consists largely of tamarack needles
but below it is composed of dark brown peat. Both at the
surface and below to a depth of six feet it gives a neutral
or alkaline reaction. On the east side of the tamaracks
between the forest and the small lake is a small morainic
knoll covered with oaks, and beyond this knoll the sub-
stratum becomes a quaking mat which contains no char-
acteristic bog plants and is underlain by a soft muck
which is strongly alkaline and contains many small,
white, caleareous fragments apparently of gastropod
shells. This swamp mat surrounds the southern pointed
end of the lake and in that locality contains dense colon-
ies of cattail, bulrush and reed grass (Phragmites). The
main body of the mat consists of grasses and sedge and
swamp mosses with some swamp cinquefoil, St. John’s
wort and several colonies of fringed gentian.
The tamarack forest has been cut in places, but where
relatively untouched the growth is dense and contains
many trees up to 10 and 12 inches in diameter, with at
least one of twenty inches. A 4-inch stump showed 40 or
mature forest in Antioch Bog.
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PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 221
50 very narrow rings while one of 10 inches showed 79
rings divided into zones which varied considerably in the
thickness of their rings. On account, perhaps, of the
dense shade and the carpet of needles the undergrowth
in the center of the forest was scanty but contained much
minium, some patches of marchantia, one species of aster
and some fungi, especially several specimens of Helvella.
The southern portion of this forest and the western grove
are less dense and the trees are smaller.
The swamp zone is narrow along the west side and on
the east side below the northern basin which contains the
lake, but the western depression has wide extensions both
to north and south, which are filled with grass hummocks
with occasional specimens of dwarf birch. The shrub
zone is narrow and scanty toward the north, the chief
species being Cornus paniculata and saplings of balsam
poplar. From the center south and west it consists of
an almost pure stand of swamp sumach which, taken with
the specimens on the Sayer bog, constitute much the
largest display of this plant to be found in the State. The
topography of the bottom of the original depression is
similar apparently to those of the other depressions,—
shallow in the swamp zones but much deeper under the
tamaracks. Where the swamp zone is narrow, the bottom
drops away rapidly, but in the broad bay-like extensions
the slope is very gentle.
The last bog of those so far studied is located in the
N. W. corner of Section 35, T. 46 N., R. 10, E. about a mile
west of the village of Millburn. In many respects it re-
sembles the one located northeast of the Sayer bog, but
it has some distinctive features of its own. There are no
tamaracks visible and no sign of their former presence
although, as there was no ditching going on, there was
nothing to show whether or not a former forest had been
cut in the past.
The depression is a broad oval extending northeast and
southwest and measures about 500 yards by 300, bordered
by the usual swamp zone which is narrow on the north
and east, but with broad extensions to the south and
southwest. Within this swamp zone the substratum is
covered by a thick mat of sphagnum with much cranberry
222 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
and many colonies of pitcher plants. A peculiar feature
of this bog is the tendency of several species to form
dense local colonies of almost pure stand. Among such
species were noted dwarf birch, andromeda, dewberry,
marsh fern, and violet; and cattail in the swamp zone on
the northwest. Less common species were cotton grass,
swamp cinquefoil, and the mosses Polytrichum and
Leucobryum, a few saplings of trembling aspen, two
willows, and one specimen each of winterberry and moun-
tain ash.
A very dense belt of shrubs, almost as long as the bog
mat and ranging from 15 to 30 feet wide, runs parallel
with the southeast side of the oval and about 20 feet
within it. 50 to 75% of the specimens are dwarf birch
which grows there very dense and 5-7 feet high. There
were also much winterberry, chokeberry, some elder, five
or six oaks 10 feet high, and many trembling aspen sap-
lings. The ground occupied by this shrub belt seemed to
be a low sand bar rising a foot or two above the level of
the mat, but as no borings were taken at this bog, the un-
derground topography can only be guessed at.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The chief interest in these bogs lies in the fact that
they are the only examples remaining in Illinois of a type
of plant formation common in most of our northeastern
states and very abundant farther north. The distribu-
tion of deep peat deposits as shown by the soil map of
Illinois would indicate that these bogs were much more
common in Illinois in fairly recent geological times,
though a careful examination of the peat would be neces-
sary to determine whether it was formed in a bog or ina
swamp.
The correlation between chemical condition and depth
of the substratum and the character of the vegetation is
important on account of its bearing on the theories of the
causes of xerophytism in bog plants. In these bogs the
substratum on which the bog plants grow is found to be
of considerable depth and acid in character, while the
swamp plants are found on a shallow substratum which
gives a neutral or alkaline reaction.
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PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 293
In summarizing the various theories of bog xerophy-
tism, Rigg (2) regards four as of chief importance, and
considers that these are; acidity, difference between air
and soil temperature, lack of aeration of the substratum,
and toxic substances in the substratum. It will be seen
that the conditions in these four theories fit in with the
observed relation between the distribution of bog plants
and the depth of the substratum. In the broad shallow
portions of the depressions the water is stirred up con-
tinually by the wind and mixed with finely divided matter
from the uplands, thus insuring aeration, neutralization
of acids, absorption of toxic substances, and a tempera-
ture more nearly the same as that of the air. The situa-
tion in the deep substratum would be just the opposite
and would favor the development of conditions which
would permit the growth only of plants with a structure
more or less xerophytic in character.
The absence of sphagnum and other bog plants from
depressions with an alkaline substratum has been re-
ported before, but the experiments of Transeau (3) who
succeeded in growing sphagnum in the laboratory in
water containing 100 parts of calcium carbonate to the
million, have usually been interpreted as overthrowing
the theory that presence of calcium salts is the reason
for the absence of sphagnum. This experimental evi-
dence does not seem to the writer to be conclusive, for
either conditions in the field might be different in other
important respects from those in the laboratory, or the
conditions governing the germination and establishment
of sphagnum might be different from those affecting the
mature plant.
In the bogs under consideration all other conditions
except the acidity or alkalinity of the substratum seem to
be the same in Nos. 7 and 8 as in the remaining bogs, so
it would seem as if the presence or absence of calcium
must be the limiting factor for the sphagnum. Experi-
ments in transferring sphagnum and other bog plants to
parts of bogs from which they are now absent are in
preparation, and it is hoped they may throw some light
on this question.
224 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Complete lists of the species found in the different bogs
have not as yet been completed, but an examination of the
lists of the dominant species (Fig. 8) shows interesting
anomalies. Apart from the absence of the usual bog
plants in 7 and 8, the dominance of chamaedaphne in 5
and of andromeda in 2 is the most striking. These two
bogs are very similar in all other respects and there is no
obvious explanation of this marked difference in the pres-
ence of two species so closely related both taxonomically
and ecologically.
Another point of great interest is the maturity and the
rate of development of the bog mat in the different de-
pressions. Bogs 1, 4, 7, 8, and 9 (Fig. 8) show by the
condition of the substratum and the presence of members
of the upland forest that they have reached a condition
of considerable maturity, while 6 is intermediate and 3 is
very young. Furthermore, the evidence, both from the
formations themselves and from human testimony, shows
that there has been a very rapid increase of bog mat
formation within the memory of man. If these bogs have
been in existence since the glacial period, as has been the
generally accepted view, it is necessary to account for the
sudden speeding up of their development in recent years.
If, on the other hand, No. 3 is of recent origin, it is
equally difficult to explain how the conditions which pre-
vented its origin for a very long period became changed
so as to permit its start in recent years. From observa-
tions of these bogs and also of similar formations in Ben-
zie County, Michigan, (5, p. 27) it is the opinion of the
writer that a recent lowering of the water levels in all
of these depressions may have caused the change in con-
ditions which made possible a recent increase in bog mat
formation. Further study will be necessary before any
final decision can be reached on this question.
LITERATURE CITED.
1. Burns, G. B., A botanical survey of the Huron River valley. VII.
Bot. Gaz. 47:445-453. 1909.
2. Rigg, Geo. B., A summary of bog theories. Plant World. 19:310-325.
3. Transeau, E. N., Bogs of the Huron River Valley. IV. Bot. Gaz.
41:1-42. 1906.
4. Waterman, W. G., Preliminary report on the bogs of northern IIli-
nois. Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sci. 14:79-84. 1921.
5, —— Development of plant communities of a sand ridge
region in Michigan. Bot. Gaz. 74:1-31. 1922.
ter of Sayer Bog.
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F DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES=-ILLINOIS BOGS,
ie. Bs] 4} 5 | pio
Lerix laricina arr | RID) ZXx fen ZIX) XIX) 322) 111
Sitex cess, ef par] pry ad ela
:
Llex verticillsta ipoly ea a | I
Rhus vernix . = 13 311 III |
Cornus stclonifera I ! i | I
Betuta pumila roar ae {ej a jam. | jun
Chamaedaphne calyculata Biciees &y FS eeaae Wy 04 4 OS ee Glee et
Andromeda glaucophylla SRE S ae 1 |
| tt
Sphagnum sp. I III 111 tee ar | ieees &
5 arracenia purpurea EP tia, ee Ee iit iz ar | ig
Vaccinium macrocarpon | | I
) |
i
a
Kaiantkemum canadense
BATURITY OF FORMATION
Fig. §. Table of distribution of plant species in bogs.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 225
TITLES FOR ILLUSTRATIONS.
Location of bogs in Lake and McHenry Counties. Black cir-
cles indicate bogs described; black squares, bogs reported
but not yet visited.
Map of Cedar Lake showing location of immature bog.
View over immature bog on Cedar Lake with floating island
in distance.
Close view of floating island in Cedar Lake.
Yellow birch with slender stems and large tamarack in ma-
ture forest in Antioch Bog.
Map of group of, bogs northwest of Volo.
Pond in center of Sayer Bog.
Table of distribution of plant species in bogs.
226 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
FARM WOODLOTS IN ILLINOIS
W. F. Scurereper, Naturat History Survey, URBANA
The acreage of farm woodlots in Illinois as given by
the 1920 Census amounts to 3,102,579 acres, and the value
of woodlot products was $6,259,000.. Taking into con-
sideration the value of this asset it seems that a brief
discussion of the farm woodlot in Illinois would not be
out of place at this meeting.
Some studies had been made as to the value of farm
woodlot products as they contribute to the farmer’s liv-
ing (Funk 714) and the use of wood for fuel (Bulletin No.
753, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Forest
Investigations), but not until recently have studies been
made as to the economic value and possibilities of the
farm woodlot. Perhaps the most recent information on
this subject is contained in an unpublished manuscript
in the files of the Forest Service, by Mr. E. F. Hodgson,
on ‘‘Farm Woodland EKeonomics’’.
The results which are presented in preliminary form
in this paper have been derived from a study made of
farm woodlots in Illinois, partly by personal visitation
to farmers in certain townships and partly through the
questionnaire method. It is a part of the whole subject
of forest economics of the state, for the study of which
Professor H. H. Chapman, professor of Forest Manage-
ment in the Yale School of Forestry, was employed part
time last summer by the Natural History Survey and
upon which he will later present a detailed report.
During the year 1922 questionnaires were sent out to
1,600 farmers in every county in the state. Lists of farm-
ers from various counties were sent in by the county
farm advisers and contained the names of those most
likely to have farm woodlots or to be interested in the
same, although many were ‘‘corn-belt farmers’’. Ques-
tions were asked not only concerning the acreage of the
farm in woods and the amount of timberland grazed, but
also regarding the amount of wood and coal burned, the
number of fence posts used and the amounts of various
products cut from farm woodlands for the last five year
period with the prices received for the same, as well as
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 227
local prices for lumber, fence posts and shingles. One
question dealt with the durability of various species for
fence posts and another with the attitude of the farmer
towards annually burning over the woods. About 440 of
these questionnaires, completely or partially filled out
on these various points, were returned to the Natural
History Survey and the figures resulting from averaging
the data may be of interest.
GENERAL FACTS
The average farm contained 354 acres. Fifty acres,
or about 14 per cent of the average farm, was woodland.
Compilation of results on clearing for farming and pas-
turage showed that within the next few years this 50
acres is to be reduced to 34 acres, or there will be a re-
duction of 31 per cent of our present timber stand for
the farms represented. The 16 acres which is slated for
clearing will be about equally used for farm and pasture
land. Inguiry as to the amount of land which might be
planted or reforested showed that an average of five
acres should be planted, being considered more valuable
for forestry than for farming. The average amount of
forest plantation for each farm was only one acre.
The value of the woodlot to the farmer as revealed by
the answers is considerable. From his woodland he se-
cures on the average 223 posts, or nine more wooden posts
than he needs to keep his fences in repair.
Besides furnishing him with fence posts, this same
woodlot yields 15.5 cords of wood annually to its owner,
and during the last five year period has supplied him
annually with 2,863 board feet of lumber, about two-
thirds of his total needs in this line. While as a rule
the farmer takes less care of his woodlot than of his
other crops, in addition to the pasture it yields him, his
average annual return from it, according to our figures,
is as follows:
Total yield
Price per piece per farm
Amount or number of pieces cord or M. feet per annum
ete) VA CHOCC MENGES gis alsin am Syaie, ool a's wore! n js.» wide -22 centseach.... $ 49.06
CE ST ee pt hee ee a re $1.95 percord...... 30.22
2863 board oe Coe lraen fe eo acess $31.30 per M. feet.... 89.61
eras CATERERS as Tet be san tne hakoeee seme ee care $168.89
228 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
INDIVIDUAL EXAMPLES OF PROFIT
Some examples of individual profit from farm woodlots
stand out conspicuously. The answer on one in particu-
lar, where the farmer said ‘‘that there was not enough
timber around here to bother avith’’ shows that he ob-
tained from 17 acres 60 to 70 cords of wood for himself
and tenant, valued at $247.50, 125 fence posts and 600
feet of farm lumber.
Besides, on eleven acres of the same woods he had pas-
tured three head of cattle, four horses, and 250 hogs
from May to November. When we consider that a fair
price for pasturing stock is about $2.00 per head per
month we must conclude that this 17 acres of woodland
yielded a return fully equal to some of the owner’s farm
land.
DURABILITY OF FENCE POSTS
The figures given on durability of native timber for
fence posts, while, of course, a matter of opinion by the
farmers who have answered, agree very well with figures
on the durability of untreated fence posts given by the
Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, by
the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, and by the
Iowa State College. Soft maple stood lowest in the list
with a durability of 2.4 years; white oak, which is taken
‘usually as a standard in service tests, was rated at 9
years, catalpa was rated at 15 years, cedar at 13, black
locust and mulberry at 17 years each, while osage orange
or ‘‘hedge’’ had an average rating of 36 years. We have
seen specimens of osage orange posts which had been in
the ground 35 years, so that we can rely on the latter
figure as being not far from correct. Black locust and
red mulberry are next to osage in order of durability.
WOODLOT MANAGEMENT
The three principal factors influencing successful
woodlot management in Illinois are grazimg, fire and
taxes, and these will be considered in order.
(a.) Grazing. This is a state-wide practice. Results
from the questionnaires show that 84.5 per cent of all the
woodland owned by 212 farmers who replied to that par-
ticular question is subject to grazing.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 229 —
Definite figures have not been obtained as to the amount
of woodland pasture required to support a single head of
stock, but most farmers agree that grass under the shade
of trees has much less nourishment in it for stock than
that grown in full sunlight. Farmers in southern IIli-
nois place its value for forage at about one-fifth of that
of good bottomland pasture. Hodgson estimates the
value of woodland pasture at 24 acres required for 10
head of stock or 2.4 acres required per head.
DAMAGE DUE TO GRAZING
It is very easy to see the damage done by grazing,
first to the trees and reproduction, and second to the soil.
The bark of the mature trees is damaged by rubbing, the
tender shoots forming the young growth are eaten off,
and seedlings are trampled out and killed.
Forest soil which is normally moist and porous and
ideal for the growth and reproduction of trees is packed
hard, and growth is either retarded or completely
stopped. The soil, where packed by the hoofs of graz-
ing animals, becomes dry and dusty and the rain instead
of soaking into the ground runs off rapidly, leading
finally along paths to the formation of gullies.
In LaSalle county Dr. George D. Fuller states that
not over 5 per cent of the grazed woodlands show any
reproduction; that in the last 25 years there has been
but little change in the timber; and that grazing has
produced woodlots which had better be called ‘‘ wooded
pastures’’, so scattering are the trees.
The need of shade for cattle is advanced as an excuse
for grazing the woodlands, and this is perhaps quite as
important as the forage which the cattle obtain. Shade
for stock can be provided by fencing off a portion of the
woods sufficient to supply shade, thus shutting out the
stock from the more valuable woodland. The numerous
photographs which have been taken by the Forest Survey
party show very forcibly the effects of grazing, leading
us to say that good timber and good grazing are impos-
sible on the same tract. |
(b.) Fire. Fire, the second problem of the landowner,
varies greatly with the region. The woodland tracts of
230 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
northern Illinois are sufficiently isolated to confine fires
to relatively small areas. The tracts in southern Ilh-
nois, however, are more continuous and public sentiment
against burning is not so well developed. Results com-
piled from the questionnaires show: that out of 217 farm-
ers 80 per cent were against and 20 per cent in favor
of annual burning. Out of 296 answers, causes for fires
were assigned to the following:
Campers‘and hunters’... oc. spe eee 103
Cav elessnessiu4iatrant we Beeeewee: 54
Burning to: kall-imsectsrs head wee ee se 37
Brush and grass bupming.. sens 32
PRAT ORS eke me eee ercisere wince ths fae oe eee 26
SMO RANG" (Ne cosas eo cn Nae cae es ete ce et 25
Be CW ee Sapceete sae ans, hie eames gee 6
incendiaty 2.0.5. Pie nae eee 3
Total answerme ss. kawiek soe 296
It can be seen from this list of causes that about 89
per cent of the fires are due to man and are preventable.
One fourth of this 89 per cent are set by farmers
themselves under the pretext of killing insects or
benefiting grazing. Burning over the entire woodland
to kill chinch bugs is inexcusable (Flint ’22) since in-
vestigations on the edges of woods have shown that at a
distance of 50 feet about 90 per cent of the bugs are left
behind, as they seek the sunny edges of the woods, being
found mostly on the south and west sides. The burning
of a narrow strip around the timber would not only kill
the greater per cent of them but make a satisfactory fire
euard to prevent the entrance of fires. As to benefiting
grazing, the idea is prevalent that the ashes of the
burned grass act as a fertilizer, but this is probably
more than counterbalanced by damage to the roots of the
grass. Wherever there is a rail or ‘‘worm fence’’ around
the woods we usually find that fires are kept out, as
farmers do not like to rebuild their fences, and this is
true especially in southern Illinois.
(c.) Taxes. In spite of answers from farmers in
certain sections showing that taxes were excessive on
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 231
timberland and tended to its conversion into use for
farming or pasturage, there was considerable opposi-
tion from farmers themselves, if we can believe news-
paper reports, to the proposed clause on that subject in
the new constitution which read thus: ‘‘Areas devoted
to forests and forest culture shall be classified for or ex-
empted from taxation’’.
The main objection stated was that ‘‘owners of fine
landed estates would escape taxes by listing their grounds
as woodland, thus adding to the tax burden of the dirt
farmer’’. The object of the clause was simply to allow
some kind of classification of forest land, with exemp-
tion perhaps of young timber not yielding any revenue,
and the interests of the ‘‘dirt farmer’’ could have been
amply safeguarded in the tax law by prescribing that
land to be classed as forest must have a certain number
of trees per acre, thus avoiding any chance of the wealthy
owner of an estate having his few ornamental trees
listed as a forest.
Over against such hastily formed conclusions as the
above opposing some sort of forest land classification,
are such statements as these from farmer’s question-
naires: ‘‘The average landowner cannot.afford to main-
tain forest land as taxes, and lack of income on the in-
* vestment will put him in the County Home’’. ‘‘All of
this sandy land is now taxed far beyond its worth. My
tax last year on 300 acres was $158.90. My largest in-
come from this 300 acres was $275, with 700 rods of
fence to keep up’’. These statements certainly look as if
some tax reform was needed, but of course they are only
isolated examples.
As it is at present, matters are largely in the hands
of the local assessor as to how much tax is paid upon a
piece of timber. So far as we know, no consideration is
taken of the age of the timber, its yield per acre, or the
nearness to the time for cutting.
There is not time here to discuss the admitted failure
of the general property tax. It may be said, however,
to be defective when applied to immature timber ‘‘be.
cause by taxing the total value of the land and the trees
upon it, it imposed an excessive burden upon the grow-
232 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ing forest and it placed on the owner the inconvenient
obligation to pay annual taxes for years before any in-
come was realized’’ (Fairchild ’22). The Committee on
forest taxation of the National Tax Association suggests
as a remedy the paying of a products tax of about 5 per
cent on timber when it is cut, this applying to mature
forests; and an exemption from taxation for immature
and young timber, assessing these lands no higher than
similar bare lands in the neighborhood. The main diffi-
culties lie in the determination of what is ‘‘mature tim-
ber’’, and the irregularity of revenue resulting from the
yield tax. It is along these lines, however, that the most
satisfactory adjustment of our forestry taxation prob-
lem is to be looked for.
Fairchild, Fred R., 1922. Finding the Solution of the Forest Taxation
Problem. Report of the Committee on forest taxation, National
Tax Association, Minneapolis, Minnesota, American Lumberman,
September 30, 1922. Pages 54-55.
Funk, W. C., 1914. What the Farm Contributes directly to the Farm-
er’s living. Farmer’s Bulletin 635. U. S. Dept. Agr. December
24, 1914.
Flint, W. P., 1922. Burn the Chinch-Bug. Circular 265, Univ. of Ill.
Agr. Exp. Sta., Urbana, Illinois, October, 1922.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 233
WOOD CONSUMPTION AND WOOD PRODUCTION
IN ILLINOIS AND THEIR RELATION TO THE
FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE STATE
R. B. Minuer, State Forester, UrBana
In order to form an economic back ground for forestry
in Illinois the Natural History Survey has been muking a
study, largely by the questionnaire method, of the amount
of wood consumed in the state. The amount of wood
produced by growth and the extent to which this total
can be increased by better methods of handling existing
stands of timber or replacing them with more rapidly
growing species form the other side of the problem.
This economic aspect of the question strikes us as the
one lying at the root of the whole forestry question in
this state. No matter how much we may expand our
forest areas by an appeal to the sentimentalist and to
the recreationist, we all realize that wood will be grown
as a crop only when we can convince people that it is a
basic substance, essential to industry, lacking which we
shall be forced to lower our present standard of living to
that which prevails today in some of the European coun-
tries.
This paper deals with some preliminary points which
have been found out in following up various sources of
information about our present consumption of wood to
be elaborated more fully later in a bulletin of the Natural
History Survey.
CONSUMPTION OF WOOD BY RAILROADS
Franklin B. Hough, who may be styled the first United
States forester, sounded in 1882 a first note of warning
about a scarcity of timber for railway ties when he said
that at the existing rate of increase in railroad mileage
there would come a time in 1893 when a total of 10 million
ties would be needed annually by American railroads.
What if Mr. Hough should return now? He would find
that the American railroads use 125,000,000 ties annually
and that the electric and trolley lines use 10,000,000 more,
just the amount of his original estimate.
234 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
There is located some little distance out from the city
of Galesburg a plant which the Academy of Science mem-
bers will visit as one of the points of interest. I refer to
the tie-treating plant of the C. B. & Q. Railway Company,
one of the twelve located in this state, which is seeking
by preservative treatment to prolong the life of timber,
thus contributing their part to forest conservation. The
Burlington railroad not only maintains this plant and
buys treated ties and timber from commercial treating
plants elsewhere in the state, but it has been foremost in
maintaining experimental tracks where the durability of
untreated ties and those treated by various methods can
be studied. It has demonstrated that the average annual
renewal of untreated ties in a track of 15 per cent can
be reduced by using preservative processes to about 6
per cent. Other roads assure us that where now it re-
quires on an average 250 to 275 ties per mile for renewals
this figure can be cut, when all ties are treated, to some-
thing like 100 per mile. We can not yet give a figure for
the total consumption of cross, switch and_ bridge
ties required on the 25,000 miles of railroad in Illinois
but we do have data on many of them and know that the
normal consumption of one road alone in Illinois is
20,000 ties per month. On the production side we have
definite records showing that 980,000 ties were secured
in Illinois in 1921, and believe that this figure could be
raised safely to 1,000,000 ties. Perhaps 500,000 of these
come from southern Illinois.
CONSUMPTION BY COAL MINES IN ILLINOIS
Perhaps some persons have not thought of wood as an
essential in coal production in Illinois but this problem is
giving mining engineers some concern. Our own results
compiled from answers to questionnaires from 27 large
coal companies in this state, combined with material se-
cured by the U. S. Bureau of Mines (Tufft ’23)*, show
that on the average close to one-quarter of a cubic foot
of timber is required to mine one ton of coal and that the
1Tufft, Harry E., 1923. Mine Timbers in Illinois Coal Mines. Reports
of Investigations, Bureau of Mines, April, 1923. Department of the
Interior. Serial No. 2465.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 235
cost to the operator is not far from 5 cents per ton. Take
one-fourth of our coal production, then, and you get al-
most 20,000,000 eubie feet of wood required yearly for
coal mining, costing delivered at the mine almost $4,000,-
000. Furthermore, the ordinary mine prop has an aver-
age length of life of about two years. Only a few com-
panies in Illinois have begun to apply preservative treat-
ment to mine timbers or to think seriously of perpetuat-
ing the supply of mine timbers. Both of these lines of
work present worth-while problems in practical forestry
for mining companies.
This shortage of timber for mining purposes seems to
be rather general. The U. 8. Bureau of Mines (Hornor
and Hunt ’22)° under date of February, 1923, says
that in the East and Middle West, the Lake Superior re-
gion and the metal mining regions of the West, the
sources of mine timber are becoming more remote from
points of consumption, the timbers are getting more diffi-
cult to obtain and, naturally, more costly. Moreover, the
better and more durable varieties are being exhausted
rapidly; consequently the less durable varieties. must be
used in their place. °
CHARCOAL
It takes almost 2,000,000 kegs of powder for blasting
purposes in Illinois in connection with mining operations.
Leaving out smokeless powder, which is made from gun
cotton, charcoal is a very important constituent of
powder used for blasting and sporting purposes. Some
of the facts which we have learned about this industry
of charcoal making in Illinois may be of interest.
We have found that in a limited region of southern Illi-
nois near to a supply of second growth bottomland
hardwoods over 15,500 cords of wood are reduced annual-
ly in brick kilns in the making of charcoal, most of which
finds a market in Illinois. Some of the powder companies
have their own kilns, one large company getting over
6.000 cords of charcoal wood annually from islands of the
Illinois and Mississippi rivers.
2Hornor and Hunt, 1922. “Mine timber preservation’, Reports of
Investigations, Bureau of Mines, Serial No. 2321, February, 1922. Re-
printed in Coal Trades Bulletin, April 17, 1922.
236 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Other powder companies buy their charcoal in other
states, the amount used being shown by the fact that one
Tiling company in normal times imports over 5,000
bushels per month from Pennsylvania. This is explained
doubtless by the fact that operators of retorts and ovens
in the Kast can undersell the men operating brick kilns
here because the former secure in the distillation process
not only charcoal as a by-product but also wood alcohol
and lime acetate for which there is a good demand in the
market.
FURNITURE AND WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
According to the Secretary of the American Walnut
Manufacturer’s Association, the city of Rockford ranks
first in the United States as a consumer of walnut lumber,
with Chicago second by a very fair margin. At Rockford
most of the walnut goes into the manufacture of furniture
but in Chicago it is used by a wide range of industries,
among which furniture is the leading one. The total of
all kinds of lumber and logs used by the Rockford furni-
ture manufacturers has not yet been compiled, but pres-
ent figures stand at 11,500,000 board feet annually. The
leading species used consist of cedar and mahogany, oak,
walnut, gum, birch and basswood, with considerable
quantities of rock and red elm, used for crating. A very
large amount of this lumber comes from the southern
states, the local supply cutting very little figure.
The consumption by wood-using industries in Chicago -
in the year 1910 was 1,116,855,120 board feet, out of a
total of about 2500,000,000 poe feet of lumber shipped
into that city. This large amount used by factories of
various sorts did not include material used for cross ties,
telegraph and telephone poles, mine timbers, shingles,
lath, or rough lumber used in construction. Rock Island
also used about 30,000,000 feet of lumber in her factories
outside of that sold by local lumber yards, while factories
in Peoria, Quincey, Aurora, Kankakee, Bloomington and
other cities are yet to be heard from.
VENEERS
With the growing scarcity and high prices of logs of
the larger sizes in this country, we are coming gradually
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 237
to the use of veneered panels for furniture and interior
finish where large surfaces must be exposed. The suc-
cess during the war with waterproof casein glues has
led to a marked increase in the manufacture of built-up
material, commonly known as ‘‘ply-wood’’ for trunks,
automobile tops, shoe findings, airplane propellers, and —
many other articles requiring both strength and durabil-
ity. The fact that the fibres of the constituent pieces run
in several different directions insures strength, while the
waterproof glue makes the built-up piece proof against
moisture changes.
Outside of the large amount of wood used for the
above, the scarcity of elm and other slack cooperage
woods has inereased the price of barrels so that there
have been introduced into the fruit shipping industry a
number of ‘‘veneered packages’’ which are made from
wood by slicing vertically or cutting in a rotary direction
logs which have been steamed previously to soften the
fiber. Egg cases are made also in large quantities from
cottonwood and gum by a similar process.
In the face of increasing demand, the amount of wood
‘used for veneers in Illinois has fallen from 22,650,000
board feet to 19,538,000 board feet, a decrease of over 3
million feet or 13.7 per cent in the last ten years. Visits
to veneer plants in a limited portion of southern [Illinois
covered by a recent bulletin show that about 4,000,000
board feet of logs are consumed for veneers in that im-
_ mediate region, and that some of the mills will be forced
to move to Arkansas or Missouri nearer a larger source
of supply within five years. Thousands of dollars are
paid out in one limited region of southern Illinois for
fruit and vegetable containers, and some are imported
from other states, especially ladders for fruit-picking.
Indications are that larger and larger quantities of both
logs and manufactured products will have to be shipped
into this region which is in some parts 30 per cent tim-
bered.
TIMBER IN THE ROUND
Large quantities of wood are used in the round for
telegraph and telephone poles, piling, and fence posts,
which it is almost impossible to estimate. The Illinois
238 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
farmer uses a considerable quantity of lumber for farm
buildings, and the amount of wood produced and con-
sumed on farms has been made the subject of a special
study, some of the results of which will be given in the
paper on farm woodlots. This leaves a long list of special
uses to be investigated, such as in the manufacture of re-
frigerators, school equipment, handles, wagons and farm
implements, cabs and other vehicles.
If you saw the frame of a certain make of popular
cab you would understand better why the ‘‘thinking fel-
low’’ calls that variety— — the frame is built in Chicago
or Detroit of second growth Argansas ash, every piece of
which is tested carefully for strength before being used.
In connection with the use of ash for sporting goods you
may be interested in knowing that the American record
for the javelin throw of 203 feet, 914 inches was won by
Milton Angier of the University of Illinois at the Drake
relay carnival, and that these javelins are manufactured
in Urbana of Indiana and Illinois ash, under the supervi-
sion of Coach Harry Gill. This same firm turns out the
discus, the maple for which comes largely from Wis-
consin and Michigan.
Thus wood is a material with which we ean not well dis-
pense. We can not afford to reduce our standards of liv-
ing in this country by dwarfing our use of wood to the
125 board feet per capita of Kurope. In spite of sub-
stitution for wood along many lines we are constantly
going to need more of this basic commodity. The only
way to insure against a shortage is to grow more of it
now, on our three million acres of farm woodlots in Illi-
nois, on our undrained bottomlands and on our other idle
and waste land. The whole question centers back in the
right use of land, the devotion of a lot of it, which is
just on the margin between profit and loss, to tember
growing.
April 27, 1923.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 239
LEGUMES AS A SOURCE OF NITRATE FOR FARM
CROPS
H. J. Snmwer, University oF ILurnois
The maintenance of an adequate supply of available
nitrogen is probably the most important practical soil
problem with which the farmer of today has to deal.
This problem is not limited to any particular area or to
any one country, for the production of agricultural pro-
ducts the world over is limited by an insufficient supply
of nitrogen. This is by no means a difficulty of recent
origin, because there are records showing that a shortage
of nitrogen caused some apprehension among the old
Roman farmers.
The peculiarity of the nitrogen supply is that there
is a superabundance of free nitrogen in the atmosphere
which must be combined with other elements before
it may be utilized for growing crops. It is said that
there is in the atmosphere 5.8 tons of free nitrogen for
each square yard of earth surface, and it is estimated
that there is less than one ounce of combined nitrogen
per square yard of earth surface in the service of man.
The supply of free nitrogen is almost inexhaustible, and
in comparison the supply of combined nitrogen now in
use seems insignificant.
Converting free atmospheric nitrogen into combined
nitrogen is a process which is of vital importance to all
classes of people. There are several practical methods
for manufacturing combined nitrogen, but at present
these processes are not sufficiently developed to furnish
economically any considerable amount of available nitro-
gen which might be used on a large scale as a soil fer-
tilizer. In the production of our grain crops at the
present time, it is necessary to look to some other source
for a supply of combined nitrogen. The most economical
and practical means of securing this nitrogen supply
for farm crops at present is by the utilization of the
various leguminous plants.
It has long been known that leguminous plants have
the power of enriching the soil, but it was not until com-
paratively recent years that the process has been well
240 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
understood. The old Roman farmers (Ill. Bul. 179, p.
472) knew that beans possessed the power of enriching
the land, and these early farmers followed the practice of
plowing under lupines as a means of adding nitrogen and
enriching their cultivated lands. There are many early
writings which indicate that legume plants were consid-
ered valuable for soil enrichment, but it was not until
after 1886 that Hellriegel first announced the discovery
that bacteria living in symbiotic relationship with legum-
inous plants have the power to fix free atmospheric nitro-
gen. From the time of Hellriegel’s discovery down to the
present day there has been much experimental work done
looking toward the utilization of lezumesg as a means of
furnishing a supply of combined nitrogen sufficient to
meet the requirements of crops in general farm practice.
After the fact was thoroughly established that le-
gumes do have the power to fix free atmospheric nitro-
gen, there have been efforts made to determine the ap-
proximate amount fixed by these plants. The amount
of nitrogen fixed is influenced by different soil conditions
and other factors. It is apparent that when legumes
properly inoculated are grown in a soil rich in available
nitrogen they will utilize the supply in the soil rather
than make use of the free atmospheric nitrogen. On the
other hand, if legumes properly inoculated are grown in
a sandy soil or other soil low in nitrogen they will at
once fix comparatively large amounts of free nitrogen in
order to make proper growth.
Some experimental work conducted by the late Dr.
Hopkins( Ill. Bul. 76) shows a comparison of inoculated
and uninoculated alfalfa when grown on common corn
belt prairie land. The results of this test show that the
alfalfa when properly inoculated fixed about 40 lbs. more
nitrogen per acre than did the uninoculated alfalfa. The
amount of nitrogen fixed as indicated by this experiment
might vary with different soil conditions; however, this
test serves to show the possibilities of the utilization of
free atmospheric nitrogen by legumes under field condi-
tions.
There are many legume plants which adapt themselves
to general farm practice, and some of these are particu-
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 241
larly desirable for furnishing on a large scale a part
at least of the available nitrogen needed in producing
farm crops. One of the most outstanding of these le-
gumes at the present time is sweet clover (Mellilotus
Alba). There are many interesting and valuable facts
regarding the influence of sweet clover as a soil enriching
crop under the various soil and climatic conditions found
in Illinois. In 1905 the Illinois Experiment Station be-
gan the use of sweet clover for soil improvement on the
Odin Experiment Field (Marion county). The object
of this experiment as stated in the field records was ‘‘to
test the value of sweet clover as a leguminous green
manure crop.’’ Starting with this test the Experiment
Station has made practical use of sweet clover for soil
improvement purposes in many parts of the state. Sweet
clover has been very successful under field conditions
as a means of securing available nitrogen for the produc-
tion of general farm crops.
Some very valuable facts have been brought out by
the Illinois Experiment Station regarding the available
nitrogen created in the soil when sweet clover is plowed
under as a green manure crop. (Ill. Bul. 233.) The fol-
lowing table gives some results obtained on the Minonk
Experiment Field (Woodford county) during the season
of 1919. The land on this field is typical of the common
prairie corn belt soil. In this test a spring growth of
sweet clover was plowed under late in April and the
land planted to corn. The figures represent pounds per
acre of available nitrogen found in the surface soil at
various dates on treated and untreated land.
Soil treatment April 26 May 30 July 1 Aug. 12
Sweet clover turned under.......... 38.7 76.8 67.2 143.6
PI NGMSOM. tTreatment$.', 2ncies cusce cass 10 4 8.1 11.8 ily Pet
Limestone and rock phosphate had been applied to the
land where the sweet clover was turned under. Lime-
stone is usually essential to the successful growing of
sweet clover on average corn belt land. The above re-
sults show that as compared with the untreated land the
decomposition of the green sweet clover when plowed
under does greatly increase the supply of available nitro-
gen. It requires about 114 pounds of nitrogen to pro-
242 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
duce one bushel of corn, and on August 12 there was suf-
ficient available nitrogen in the soil to produce about 95
bushels of corn. Comparing the untreated land with the
treated land it may be seen that the sweet clover con-
tained about 314 to 12 times as much available nitrogen
as when no sweet clover was turned under.
The farm lands in southern Illinois are very different
in composition and productiveness from those in the cen-
tral and northern parts of the state. On these lighter
soils of the south part of the state clovers cannot be
grown successfully without the judicious use of lme-
stone. When limestone and sweet clover as a green ma-
nure are used on these lands the supply of available
nitrogen is greatly increased.
The following table gives results obtained on the New-
ton Experiment Field (Jasper county) during the season
of 1919. (Bul. 233.) The land on this field is typical of -
the light prairie soils of southern Illinois. The figures
represent pounds per acre of available nitrogen in the
surface soil at various dates.
Soil treatment May 12 June 18 July 4 Aug. 19
Sweet clover turned under.......... 18.6 36.8 30.6 78.2
NGMSoil treatment. 02 2 cee oe coe 14.0 22.6 9.2 25.9
Limestone and rock phosphate were used in addition
to the sweet clover. The decomposition of the sweet
clover furnished available nitrogen far in excess of that
on the untreated land. On August 19, the available nitro-
gen on the treated land was sufficient to produce 50
bushels of corn while on the untreated land there was
enough for about 16 bushels of corn.
The data above cited show that legume crops when
worked into the soil do increase greatly the supply of
available nitrogen. This plan of soil management is
practical and fits into the scheme of general farm prac-
tice, and there is no question regarding its economy when
compared with the cost of commercial nitrogen as sold
on the market today.
It has been demonstrated clearly that sweet clover as
a green manure crop may add large amounts of available
nitrogen to the soil; now it is well to look at actual crop
yields and note the influence of this treatment. The
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 243
Experiment Station has followed the plan of locating soil
experiment fields at various points in the state, and thru
the operation of these fields by the University much re-
liable information is secured from year to year regard-
ing the permanent improvement of Illinois soils. In
the following tables some twelve experiment fields are
considered upon which sweet clover has been used as a
green manure crop during the past eight years. These
fields are distributed widely so that they represent in
general the predominating soil types of the state, and
are located in regions of varying climatic conditions.
The following table gives corn yields obtained from
three experiment fields located in northern Illinois and
representing the Brown Silt Loam soil which is the pre-
dominating soil type of that region.
CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE.
Soil Treatment Dixon Mt. Morris LaMoille Average
Crop residues and lime-
stone—sweet clover. 56.5 60.7 53.4 56.9
Crop residues only..... 49.1 49.1 50.0 49.4
Gain for lime— sweet
PIOVET Shs Jae Sides 7.4 11.6 3.4 io
The average of these three fields gives an eight year
average increase of 7.5 bushels of corn per acre for the
use of the lime-sweet clover treatment. This is a very
substantial increase on land which is maintaining an
average corn yield of almost 50 bushels per acre.
The following table gives the corn yields obtained from
three experiment fields located in the central part of the
state and also representing the Brown Silt Loam soil
which is the common corn belt prairie farm land.
CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE.
Soil treatment Urbana Carthage Clayton Average
Crop residues and lime-
stone—sweet clover. 68.7 51.6 52.2 5z.5
Crop residues only...... Sy Cass 43.2 43.3 48.0
Gain for lime — sweet
CIOVER A: Soares steak es 11.2 8.4 8.9 9.5
The average gain for the lime-sweet clover treatment
on these three fields on corn belt soil is 9.5 bushels of
corn per acre. This type of soil has often been referred
to as inexhaustible, and yet these experiments demon-
244 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
strate that the corn yields may be increased greatly by
the addition of nitrogenous organic matter and limestone. .
The following table shows the corn yields obtained on
‘three experiment fields located in southern Illinois.
These fields are on a soil type known as Gray Silt Loam
On Tight Clay, and this type predominates over a large
area of the southern part of the state.
CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE.
Soil treatment Ewing Oblong Toledo Average
Crop residues and lime-
stone—sweet clover. 31.7 36.8 rat bert 32.0
Crop residues only...... 12.9 26.6 Diao 18.9
Gain for lime — sweet
ClOVED Peace et ne ke ew 18.8 10.2 10.4 jS7H!
The average gain for the lime-sweet clover treatment
on these three fields is 13.1 bushels of corn per acre. This
type of soil is much less fertile than that of the corn belt,
as indicated by the corn yields, but these experiments
show that the productiveness of this soil may in some
eases be almost doubled by the application of the soil
treatment indicated.
The following table shows the corn yields obtained
from three experiment fields located in the extreme part
of southern Illinois. These fields are on a type of soil
known as Yellow Gray Silt Loam. This land was former-
ly timbered, and is the predominating type over a large
area of the southern part of the state.
CORN YIELDS 8 YEAR AVERAGE (1915-22) BUSHELS PER ACRE.
Soil treatment Raleigh Unionville Enfield Average
Crop residues and lime-
stone—sweet clover. 38.8 39.2 40.8 39.6
Crop residues only...... 20.8 22.6 29.7 24.4
aain for lime— sweet
CLOVER: tiers eterno ches 18.0 16.6 abel 15.2
The average gain for the lhme-sweet clover treatment
on these three fields is 15.2 bushels of corn per acre. This
is the largest increase on any of the types of soil men-
tioned, and indicates to what extent corn yields may be
increased on these less fertile soils of southern Illinois.
The corn yields on the twelve experiment fields named
show an increase of 11.3 bushels per acre as an average
of the past eight years. It would seem from the distri-
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 245
bution of these fields that this figure is fairly represen-
‘tative of what might be accomplished under average
farm conditions throughout the state. As an average of
the past eight years the state has grown annually ap-
proximately 9,500,000 acres of corn, and on the basis
of the 11.3 bushel increase this would add over 107,350,000
bushels of corn to the total annual production of the
state. This increase would amount to almost 1/3 of the
present annual corn production of the state, and would
add much to the agricultural wealth of Illinois for the
corn crop alone. The experimental evidence obtained
shows that not only is the corn yield increased by the ad-
dition of legume nitrogen, but the yields of wheat, oats,
clovers and other crops have been increased materially
by the liime-sweet clover treatment.
These experimental results show that our agricultural
production may be increased greatly by the proper utili-
zation of the common legume crops which may be grown
successfully on every [Illinois farm. This also indicates
that science has made much advancement toward the
solution of practical soil problems.
246 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
A SUMMARY OF THE PLANT DISEASE SITUA-
TION IN 1922 WITH RESPECT TO THE
CROPS OF ILLINOIS
Leo R. Trenon, Boranist, State Naturat History Sur-
veY Division, URBANA
Plant diseases are factors of extreme importance in
crop production. Hach year crop reductions are attribu-
ted to them which, if translated into terms of dollars,
would appear sori irierly large. All are not equally se-
vere every year, but vary according to climatological
conditions and the abundance of infectious materials.
Observations of plant disease from year to year are
useful in that they tend to indicate what may be ex-
pected under specific conditions subsequently, and their
publication is justified as forming a concise and perma-
nent record for future reference.
A year ago the writer prepared a statement of the
purposes of a plant disease survey of the state, con-
ducted as a part of the activities of the State Natural
History Survey Division, and included a number of ob-
servations on plant disease conditions during 1921.
This paper proposes to summarize briefly the disease
situation with respect to the crops of the state for the
year 1922. In securing the material upon which the sum-
mary is based a force of four men was placed in the field
from about the first of June until the last day of August.
Their reports and observations are substantiated by rep-
resentative specimens of disease deposited in the Survey
Herbarium. . 2-6 so. Cee a 8.55 .0468 “
SES ERMIOKS fais oes oe ips « oes ewe eg oe 13.05 -0306 “
LETS SO Bh 9 21 2), oa ay 14.77 0271-°
oP TESI VE 5 ee oS eee a ee ee 12.36 (0324 6°
ESTOS DEO s PEG gn ee ye 16.36 .0244 “
Aluminum Phosphate .............. 17.09 -0234> “
ACE NSBR ARE oo oe Ss oe oe oss a 9.54 .0419 “
Steamed Bone Meal 2%. 2 .Sils. ss. 14.81 0270.3
ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
TABLE 2.
Percent phosphorus recovery from Tennessee rock phosphate and
double acid phosphate after different soils were treated with these
substances in proportion of 4 mgs. of phosphorus per 25 gms. of soil;
fifth normal nitric acid was used for extraction.
Percent:
Phosphorus S
Recovery 12
bonves)
; %os
= em £55
Description of soils. o5 $3 Se ail Pi Fog
ah 2S Ar fs, ae BLO
ag Re Aud 26) ge
3 _ & ao) 3
sa BR BSR E+) ga BBE
n ia fx, A A <
PRAIRIE SOILS.
i (Brown. Silt, loam’. vee 7729 45.5 48.3 —2.8 784.2 dies
2 Brown silt loam passing
into yellow clayey
SUE ea chops eeccaleieenssterarene eed 25 —Aae
3 Yellow clayey silt with vi38 35.8 36.8 Bas oe
WUE Be Ain parm Oa aoe 7731 0.2 0.0 0.2 04 0.2
4 Brown ‘silt loam:....... 1741 55.2 61.5 oe 39.70 10.6
5 Brown Bilt loam with
MOME VV CHOW Wares meee, 7 TAI Te Ae sa) Cea al eee 10.7
6 Yellow clayey silt with Whee ee stad ee
Paseo Pore tee eeeee 7743 ieee eRe ey | 49 ee
rown Silt loam....... c .2 120 1.00
8 Brown silt loam with nee ee ae a
some yellow.,....... 7766 87.7. +. 88.5 --4.2 DT 6o ee
9 Yellow clayey silt, more
silty with depth..... 1767 42.5 41.5 -+-1.0 1.2005 Sasa
10 Black clay loam to dark
DHOWAN.. ciel cca chee emerge 7840 66.3 65.8 +0.5 25 12.4
11 Drab to black clay loam 73841 66.0 64.5 +1.5 225. pleats
12 Yellow to brownish yel-
low and drab clay... 7342 53.0 AB RAs 645 aes
138 Black clay loam with
SOMCy SANG von eet 71825 58.0 55.7 +2.3 529) tere
14 Black clay loam, some
gravel and sand..... 7826 49.5 500" ——0- 5 25> h2eu
15 Drab to olive colored
Cla VEY MSIVEE as. aio cio 7827 45.3 43.5 +1.8 3324. gaa
16 Drab clay loam, dark.. 7843 60.0 59.0 -+1.0 1.00 10.0
17 Drab clay loam, lighter
BG Oe SS cre torre renchate ane 7844 56.7 65.0 —8.3 68.90 10.2
18 Drab silty clay, pebbles
ariel lame icine eee oe 7845 18.0 27.2 —9.2 84.64 10.5
19 Brown gray silt loam
ON bisht Claywaniocen 7801 61.5 68.7 —7.2 51.84 9.3
20% OUAY Silt OAM ees. hace 7802 58.7 BB ot 00) Wc eers 8.9
21 Yellow to grayish clayey
SUC were s mtieenelaig Pree 7803 Sled 37.0 +0.5 2p 4.7
22 Brown sandy loam..... 7849 66.3 67.2 —0.9 81 9.8
23 Brown sandy loam,
Some qsangur ae ee 7850 56.8 53.5 +3.3 10.89 10.1
24 Yellow sand, some silt. 7851 45.8 42.5 13.3 10.89 4.2
TIMBER SOILS.
25 Yellow gray silt loam
ON GETAVEL aie cor cust 7816 54.7 49.2 +5.5 30.25 12.0
26 Yellow silt loam....... 7817 46.0 43.0 +3.0 9 Q0\2 aia
27 Yellow clayey silt, some
EUAN GLASS 2 others rin horas 7818 50.5 45.8 +4.7 22.09 =a
28 Yellow silt loam, brown-
ish STavelly wouseenee 7858 70.5 68.5 +2.0 4.00 10.6
29 Yellow silt loam _ to
yellow sandy loam.. 7859 63.8 66.8 —3.0 9.00 11.4
30 Yellow silt to gravelly
Sandy silt (okies ees 7860 62.3 62.0 +0.3 09° ie
31 Yellow gray sandy
loam, some brown... 7855 73.0 73.5 —0.5 -25 12.0
32 Yellow sandy loam,
Ssomeweray. Goce oe 7856 68.7 73.2 —4.5 20.25 12.1
33 Yellow sand, little silt.. 7857 68.0 69.5 —1.5 2.20" tee
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
TABLE 2—Concluded.
percent |
Phosphorus
Recovery
> S$ 2a
Description of soils. Ze $3 a0 = | ev
bs ea sig & C&
iad z AS (Se Sa
ng gS «ess 24° 25
SA om sa St 3a
n = = = 7
TERRACE SOILS.
Brown sandy loam..... 7852 65.7 64.2 41.5 2.25
Brown sandy loam, vari-
SS Tee ee See 7853 46.5 44.0 +2.5 6.25
Yellow sand, some
SIAVEY SANE om 2 ene ve 7854 34.8 34.0 +0.8 -64
RIVER AND BOTTOM SOILS.
Brown mixed loam..... 7861 48.5 50.0 —1.5 2.25
Brown mixed loam..... 7862 42.5 46.3 —3.8 14.44
Yellowish brown loam,
Some =n .cSon% use 7863 54.9 54.0 +0.9 .81
Black decomposed peat,
MICU Pact Soe ewe da es 7870 «=©102.0 101.0 +1.0 1.00
Hibek peat. 20. 2. Sac 7871 110.8 113.0 —2.2 4.84
Black to brown at,
Grab clay at 30”... °787 66.8 70.0 —3.2 10.24
Algebraic sum ........ —15.6_ 451.
Mean deviation........ ea
/ED* /451
Standard deviation = /—— >= /— — .137 = 3.256
we v 37
Z = ratio of mean deviation to standard deviation = eee =
3.256
TABLE 3.
Recovery of phosphorus from different phosphatic fertilizers ap-
plied to Brown Silt Loam. In each case 4 mgs. of phosphorus was
applied per 25 gms. of soil.
SR ge ae
SURE PETE. SEARS | vio. naein S's
Ue LEE Te ee a il a ee
$2 ee aE A eee
POM PRONPMALE | .-0n0.cu.4bee's wos
Aluminum Phosphate cE
ei] ENOEDERALS ec. ww ccr se tees
Steamed Bone-meal ..........-.
Soret ae AMERICA rs cick wikis «
PP eA ee wid saan. > wiew so
added to it.
Mgs. Phos-
phorus
bo bo bo bo DD DD DO bo DD DD OD
extracted
35
12
= b!
-16
-33
-23
Alkali required
321
tracted solution,
per 10 c.c, ex-
-113
Alkali re-
quired per
Percent 10 c.c. of
Phosphorus extracted
extracted solution
58.8 11.6
53.0 11.4
52.8 11.4
54.0 11.4
58.3 11.4
55.8 11.5
57.0 11.6
59.3 11.6
60.0 11.6
47.8 if-7
58.0 11.6
57.3 11.6
53.8 11.6
£127
12.7*
*10 cc. of distilled water was used to wet the soil after fertilizer was
added to 250 c.c. of acid before titration.
In order to make the results comparable, 10 c.c. of water was
322 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
TABLE 4.
Phosphorus extracted with distilled water and fifth normal nitric
acid from different phosphatic fertilizers. 250 c.c. of either acid or
water were used on fertilizer which contained per sample 4 mgs. of
phosphorus.
Water Soluble Fifth normal HNOz Soluble
(Po
Percent Percent Alkali
Phos- Phos- required
Megs. phorus Megs. phorus per 10 ce.
Phos. ex- re- Phos. ex. re- extracted
tracted covery tracted covery’ solution
Tennessee rock phosphate... .08 2.0 3.94 98.6 13.0
Double acid phosphate...... 3.60 90.0 4.19 105.0 Tei)
Dla ALM eiemienetads mate cheno oiher 0.0 0.0 3.89 97.3 1259
Ley tes teats atavarek amen cielo st aioroke .03 8 3.98 99.5 12.9
SAE CS ectar ted ote ein sbotenets wane 23 5.8 4.05 101.0 12.8
Sais SEI Na cen lh are mean etobone oh vheuake .06 aes) 4.02 100.5 12.8
Birmingham Slag oii asccss . .09 2.93 3.96 99.0 12.9
BUG ROCK ieee ies cee aac tecehccearehe .16 4.0 4.02 100.0 ple yaal
AMLORIGA SOL EvOCK er.) acts 1a shel he 09 2.3 3.98 990 13.0
SAT ABIL ise dere ate, eroreeeieee OL 0.3 4.08 102.0 13.0
Tron PHOSPMALE, cictelchie c)eee ace me 3.8 3.72 93.0 13.1
Aluminum phosphate ...... 22 55 4.07 101.8 Tc
ACO! PHOSPHATE secs alercte es orele 3.40 85.0 3.88 97.0 ae
Steamed bone meal ........ .20 5.0 4.01 100.2 13.0
ACIDS ALONG iis hahevelore emeln stele stots te 13.1
TABLE 5.
Recovery of phosphorus from 25 gms. of Brown Silt Loam and
Brown Gray Silt Loam treated with 4 mgs. of phosphorus of either
Tennessee Rock Phosphate or Double Acid Phosphate. Five consecu-
tive extractions were made with fifth normal nitric acid.
Brown Silt Loam Brown-gray Silt Loam
—ouw—_
with with Double with with Double
Rock Acid Rock Acid
Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate
First extraction in Mgs. P...... 1.86 a Mir) 3.02 3.10
Second id 5S “ A piars etek 47 . 46 ~25 24
Third ne ee oe caepatea iene 24 Spat .09 .10
Fourth es “ oe Saree ete alls 12 02 05
Fifth ee “ sj asec ate ele .09 .02 .00 01
Total fi if ai ry iovelevetale 2.79 2.56 3.38 3.50
Percent of phosphorus recovery
IN USt OXthaGLION: sles iil svese sis 46.5 43.8 (0a) Tied
Percent of phosphorus recovery
in) all) fiverextractions: »..- 045. 69.8 64.0 84.5 87.5
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 323
NOTES ON THE QUANTUM THEORY AND
RELATIVITY
Jakos Kunz, University or Inurois
It has been shown by A. Sommerfeld that the fine
structure of the lines of the Balmer series of the hydro-
gen and helium spectrum can be explained by a simultan-
eous application of the quantum theory and of relativity
to the elliptic orbits of the electron revolving around the
nucleus. The mass of the electron varies in its stationary
elliptic motion according to the expression given by re-
lativity, but during the jump of the electron from one
stationary orbit to another one the mass is supposed to
be constant in spite of the fact that this motion is ac-
companied by radiation, i. e., by emission of energy, and
that the emission of energy is accompanied by a loss of
mass of the radiating system, according to the equation
dE
a ——
om
which holds in relativity as well as in classical electrody-
namics if we assume an electromagnetic momentum in a
beam of light. When the electron jumping from one
orbit to another one loses energy A E= E, — E. = hv,
hv
then it should also lose mass A m—=—jin a discontinnu-
(>
ous process. These masses Am would be the smallest
particles at present suggested by our theories. It is sur-
prising that they do not make themselves felt in the
theory of the fine structure of the helium and hydrogen
lines, nor in the doublets of the Roentgen spectra, where
they are of considerable magnitude. There is probably
a compensation in the mass.
A second remark is related to the previous one. The
quantum theory and the theory of relativity seem to be
at variance. The experimental basis of the quantum
theory is much broader than that of the general theory of
324 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIBNCE
relativity. It may be that between the quantum theory
and the generalized phenomenological theory of the
electromagnetic field there exists a relation similar to
that between the kinetic theory of the gases and the
phenomenological gas equation pyv=RT. What becomes
of the four dimensional continuum of space and time if it
has to be atomized or quantified?
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
‘phe 2
<
*
2 & 9h al
PAPERS GN GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 327
THE ORIGIN OF THE CAHOKIA MOUNDS
(ABSTRACT)
Morazis M. Leicuton, Intrnors GeoLocicaL SuRVEY,
URBANA
During the recent explorations which have been car-
ried on by Doctor W. K. Moorehead of Andover, Massa-
chusetts, under the auspices of the University of Illinois,
four widely scattered mounds of the Cahokia group,
northeast of St. Louis, ranging in height from 10 to 35
feet, have been trenched and opportunity afforded for
the study of their constitution, structure, and in one ease,
their relations to the underlying materials of the allu-
vial filling of the Mississippi Valley. The Illinois Geo-
logical Survey was invited to make a geological examina-
tion, resulting in the accumulation of evidence decisively
favoring the artificial mode of origin of at least those
mounds which have been opened and examined. This
conclusion is re-enforced by the artificial form of the
mounds, their orientation, their grouping, and their
geologic setting. Monks Mound, the dominating unit of
them all, has not as yet been trenched or tunneled, and
hence a positive conclusion can not be drawn as to its
origin; but the materials revealed by auger borings made
by the writer on the summit and slopes of the mound and
its artificiality of form are suggestive that at least a large
part of it is due to the work of man.
A full report of the geologic aspects of the Cahokia
Mounds is now in press and will appear as Part II of a
bulletin of the University of Illinois which treats of the
explorations made up to and including the fall of 1922.
358° ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE USE OF MOLLUSCAN SHELLS BY THE
CAHOKIA MOUND BUILDERS*
Frank Cotuins Baker, Museum or Naturat History,
University or ILLINoIs
The use of the Mollusea by aboriginal man has received
scant attention from students of the Mollusca. Stearns,’
many years ago, published a very able paper on the use
of molluscan shells as primitive money, but the wide use
of shells for many purposes has been noted almost exclu-
sively by ethnologists. Figures and descriptions of these
are scattered through the reports and bulletins of the Bu-
reau of American Ethnology and in papers and reports
by archeologists. One of the best summaries of the use of
mollusean shells may be found in Moorehead’s Stone Age
in America, pages 117-133.
The excavation and study of the Cahokia group of
mounds near Hast St. Louis, Illinois, carried on by Pro-
fessor W. K. Moorehead under the auspices of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, has given unusual opportunity to study
the use of the Mollusca by the ancient Mound Builders,
at least in this region.
The mollusecan shells may be divided into two groups:
those of marine origin and those gathered from near-by
streams and ponds—fresh water shells. The latter may
be considered first.
FRESH WATER MOLLUSCA
An examination of the region about the Cahokia
Mounds indicates that there were numerous bodies of
water as well as creeks (and the Mississippi River) from
which mollusks could be obtained. The collection contains
specimens from both creek and river, as well as a few
from ponds and swales.
* Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Illi-
nois, No. 31
1. Ethno-Conchology: A Study of Primitive Money. By R. E. C.
Stearns. An. Rep. Smithsonian Institute, 1887, Part II, page 297.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY - 329
MUSSEL SHELLS PROBABLY OBTAINED MAINLY FROM THE
MISSISSIPPI RIVER
Elliptio dilatatus (Raf.) Spike or Lady-finger. Com-
mon. A fine specimen of this shell, which had been made
into a nose or ear ornament, was found at a depth of 20
feet in the James Ramey Mound. The purple nacre of
the interior was beautifully preserved.
Proptera alata megaptera Raf. Pink Heel-splitter.
An effigy representing a human head was found in the
Sawmill Mound (a burial structure) made from a piece
of this shell. A gorget or ornament of peculiar design
made from this species was found in burial mounds 19,
20, 21 (overlapping mounds). This species was not
common.
Megalonmas gigantea (Barnes) Washboard. A me-
dium sized specimen from the James Ramey Mound had
been made into a shell hoe. Very rare. Fragments be-
lieved to be of this species were found mixed with deer
bones.
Amblema costata Raf. Three-ridge. Found in all
mounds, common. One specimen from James Ramey
Mound made into a hoe.
Amblema peruviana (Lam.) Blue-point. Rare.
Quadrula quadrula Raf. Maple-leaf. Common.
Quadrula cylindrcia (Say.) Rabbit’s-foot. Rare.
Cyclonaias tuberculata (Raf.) A specimen (broken)
from mounds 19, 20, 21, had been used as a hoe. Rare.
Truncila truncata Raf. Deer-toe. Rare. Found at
depth of 21 feet in James Ramey Mound near the bottom
of the structure.
Lampsilis fallaciosa (Smith) Simpson. Slough Sand
Shell. Rare.
Lampsilis anondontoides (Lea). Yellow Sand Shell.
Not common.
Lampsilis siliquoidea (Barnes). Fat Mucket. Not com-
mon.
Lampsilis ovata (Say). Pocket-book Mussel. Rare.
A specimen from the cemetery at Pittsburg Lake, south
of the Cahokia group, had been used as an ornament, sev-
eral holes being drilled in the side.
330 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Lampsilis ventricosa (Barnes). Pocket-book Mussel.
Specimens of this mussel were common in all mounds and
fragments occurred in village site debris. Two specimens
from Pittsburg Lake cemetery had been variously cut
along the anterior margin. It is thought that these were
used as scoops or spoons.
Ligumia recta latissima (Raf.) Black Sand Shell.
Rare.
SNAIL SHELLS
Anculosa praerosa (Say). River Snail.
This snail was used largely for beads. The side was
ground until a perforation was made into the cavity of
the body whirl and the shells could then be strung on
threads or cords through this hole and the natural open-
ing at the aperture. Shells thus prepared were common
in the James Ramey Mound at. various depths and also
in other mounds.
Campeloma subsolidum (Anthony). Large River Snail.
This shell, which in life has a beautiful green epider-
mis, was also esteemed by the mound builders and used
as beads in the same manner as Anculosa described above.
These shells occurred in the mounds and in the village
site material.
Campeloma ponderosum (Say). Heavy River snail.
Rare. Two specimens were found in the James Ramey
Mound.
Pleuwrocera acuta Raf.
A few specimens of these slender river snails were
found in the James Ramey Mound. Their practical use
is not indicated by marks on the shells.
Near the bottom (21 feet depth) of the James Ramey
Mound, as well as in other mounds, a number of fresh
water shells were found which evidently were not used
by the aborigines for ornamentation or domestic use but
were included when the mound was built. If the material
from which the mounds were built was in part taken
from the border or bottom of ponds which were dry in
summer but contained water in the winter and spring,
such mollusks as here indicated would be included. They
occur abundantly in such locations in all parts of Illinois.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 331
It is possible also that this depth (21 feet) marked the
base-of the mound and these shells may have lived in a
swale on the original site of the mound. Three species
were found, as follows: Physa gyrina Say, Planorbis tri-
volvis Say, Lymnaea reflera Say. One specimen of Plan-
orbis trivolvis was found in the upper eight feet of the
mound. This must have been contained in the material
used in erecting the mound.
Professor M. M. Leighton collected several shells from
other mounds during his geological examination of this
region. These are noted below. Planorbis trivolvis Say,
Segmentina armigera (Say), Lymnaea palustris (Miull.)
(fresh water shells) : Helicodiscus parallelus (Say), land
shell. From Sam Chiucallo’s Mound, on outskirts of East
St. Louis, Ill. These probably were included in building
material.
Physa gyrina Say, Vivipara contectoides W.G.B., An-
odonta grandis Say.
Fresh water snails and paper shell clam from the
Kunnemann Mound. These probably were included in
building material.
Nineteen species of fresh water shells are listed
above as occurring in the mounds and as being used by
the Indians for some purpose. Seven additional species
probably were included in building material. The first
mentioned species doubtless were used largely as food,
for the ancient aboriginee, like his more modern descend-
ant, probably esteemed this bivalve as a valuable part of
his menu. The curious and brightly colored shells of the
clams and the form of the snails doubtless attracted his
attention and suggested ways in which they could be used
for practical use as well as for bodily ornamentation.
The shell gorgets and effigies also indicate that the large
flat surface of some of the mussels created an art impulse
which is reflected in these curious objects.
MARINE MOLLUSCA
That the Mound Builders and other aboriginal inhabit-
ants of America were traders is evidenced by the pres-
ence of many marine shells which evidently came from
the west coast of Florida or from the Gulf coast of the
332 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
southern states. That certain of these mollusks were
highly esteemed is shown by the number of fragments and
finished objects made from at least one of these marine
snails. It is probable that the canoes of the more south-
ern tribes ascended the Mississippi River and barter was
carried on between them and the Cahokia Indians.
Busycon perversa (Linn.). Marine Conch.
This mollusk, so common on the Gulf and Atlantic coast
of the United States, is the most abundant snail in the
Cahokia Mounds. Hundreds of specimens of the heavy
axis occurred in the James Ramey Mound from top to
bottom. This part evidently was used to make a drill,
and it may also have been used for ornamental purposes.
Beads, nose and ear ornaments, and gorgets were made
from parts of this shell. A dipper made from the body
_ whorl of this species was found in burial mounds 19, 20,
21. A gorget made from the side of the body whorl was
found in the Sawmill Mound with skeleton No. 10.
Busycon carica (Gmelin). Marine Conch. Two speci-
mens of this species were found in the James Ramey
Mound.
Busycon pyrum (Dillwyn). Marine Conch. One speci-
men of this small conch was found in the James Ramey
Mound.
Strombus pugilis alatus Gmelin. Stromb Conch. One
perfect specimen and a fragment of this species were
found in the James Ramey Mound. Used as nose or ear
— ornament.
Fasciolaria gigantea Kiener. A portion of the axis of
this largest of American marine snails was found in the
James Ramey Mound.
Fasciolaria distans Lamarck.
School and Elgin
2 and 3 :
a
be
i
Elgin H
1924
yy
| May 1
VOLUME XVII
Iinois.
te of.
of the Sta
authority
TRANSACTIONS
% : OF THE
3 Illinois State Academy of Science
“an
_ SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING
2ARY
ay ORK
- cof AL.
_ Elgin High School and Elgin Academy
May 1, 2 and 3, 1924
VOLUME XVII
_ Edited by C. F. Phipps, Secretary
[Printed by authority of the State of Tllinois.]
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
A. R. Crook, Librarian.
State Museum, Springfield, I11.
PRICE
I, 1908, paper binding. Published by the Academy....... $1.50
II, 1909, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50
III, 1910, paper binding. Published by the Academy..... 1.50
IV, 1911, paper binding. Published by the State......... Gratis
V, 1912, paper binding. Published by the State.......... Gratis
VI, 1913, paper binding. Published by the Academy..... $1.50
VII, 1914, paper binding. Published by the Academy.... 1.50
VIII, 1915, paper binding. Published by the Academy... 1.50
IX, 1916, paper binding. Published by the Academy..... 1.50
X, 1917, paper binding. Published by the Academy...... 1.50
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XVI, 1923, paper binding. Published by the State........ Gratis
ScHNEPP & BARNES, PRINTERS
SPRINGFIELD, ILL.
1925
et >
wee
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
GQFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1924-1925. 2... 0... cece cee 6
Past OFFICERS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE......... 7
etre Ok. © NENT ERPENGS ye laced ois «sain sleleale'swa Dele ws ofS eles e 11
MINUTES OF THE SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING, ELGIN........... 14
PPE SIRIE NS CECICPONEICS 20.25. b rade S croiehc ae < oiacin.e CIIVCTSILY 26 <6 54<0 5 2c0c a doce Seed wo oues 85
Some Southwestern Limits of Plants in Indiana, [Illinois and
Iowa, with Suggestions on the Significance of the Phe-
nomena Observed. H. C. Cowles, University of Chicago.
(Paper not submitted for publication).................... 87
Some Outstanding Features of the Plant Disease Situation in
Illinois During 1923. L. R. Tehon, State Natural History
SIRE MCOVG CU PUA TEs oe oe othe Saas Jae 2 8 oe evs clan Wake wae eae awe 88
' Some North and South Stream Valleys in Illinois and their
Vegetation. George D. Fuller, The University of Chicago,
and C. J. Telford, Assistant Illinois State Forester........ 94
Preliminary Check List of the Vascular Plants of the [Illinois
State Park at Starved Rock, LaSalle County. Frank Thone,
University of Arkansas, Fayettville, Arkansas............ 100
Forest Preservation—The Patriot’s Duty. E. M. North, Des-
Re Ceres 8 TEETER er Sere here a ie cates Lote le-n ba ote. kisued a Dice we 107
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS:
The Variation of Pitch of the New Singing Tube with Length.
Chas. T. Knipp and A. J. McMaster, University of Illinois.. 115
Positive Reactions of Halogens Attached to Carbons. Ben H.
HHCOIEL EMIvernicyy Ul CMICASG. 2. ose ce ea cahious yeee eek es 118
A Simple Form of C. T. R. Wilson’s Alpha-Ray Apparatus.
Charles T. Knipp and N. E. Sowers, University of Illinois:. 121
A Note onthe Effect of Temperature on the Transition of Calcite
to Aragonite. R. Edman Greenfield, Chemist, State Water
EEO Re eee eEETIGIS 5. Sorc celeb a ceive acsewtcses aac 125
The Molecular Spectrum of Ammonia. Preliminary Report.
B. J. Spence, Northwestern University... 2.2... -1-) oeenene
A Study of the Effect of Metals in Contact with Solutions of
Silver Halides in Various Solvents. J. H. Ransom and
D. W. Hanson, James Millikin University................
Recent Developments in Photochemistry. W. Albert Noyes, Jr.,
University: of Chicago. ....2 oc. dew cie. es cheteeeen it gin ee
A Laboratory Experiment for Testing the Efficiency of a Screw
Jack. A. P. Carman and R. F. Paton, University of Illinois
The Relation of Flue Gas Analysis to the Efficiency of the Oil
Burner. George T. Parker and H. A. Geauque, Lombard
College, Galesburg: «66. s.si ow se sacle ne eel Se ee
Chemistry of Sewage Treatment. A. M. Buswell, Chief, Illinois
State Water Survey and Professor of Sanitary Chemistry,
University of Tlinois 7. i.2)05 hock oe cee one co eters
The Inter-Relation of the Sciences. Paul L. Salzberg, Knox
College. vs sctete cl he cis Bins PRRs SS ea ieee c 2icks ie
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY:
The Aim in Teaching Foreign Geography. Herman T, Lukens,
Francis ‘W. Parker school, Chicago... 4.2... + + 2s ce eee
Stream Pollution, a Growing Menace to Water Supplies. Fred
R. Jelliff, President of Knox County Academy of Science...
Coal Balls Here and Abroad. A.C. Noe, University of Chicago.
Glacial Phenomena in the Vicinity of Carbondale. J. E. Lamar,
Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana....--..........:.
Outline of the Geology of the Oregon Quadrangle. Arthur
Bevan}. University of Tilinois. 322.2 2. a6. + see oe ese ce eee
Pot-holes and Certain Features of Glacial Abrasion. Terence T.
Quirke; ‘University of IMimois' 5.022 2... see's - crep oie
Some Questions in General and Petroleum Geology Which are
Suggested by Oil Occurrences in Crawford County, Pennsyl-
vanian Beds. James H. Hance, State Geological Survey
Division; -Urbatia (syst sreet hisses it one 3 oe c tees) cceolere es ieiee
128
The South American Indian—as a Geographic Study. William ~
H. Haas;- Northwestern. (University... . « - = 0. . 5 Soc os he ce gue cece Cheeetee 351.26
MRBeTISeS OL YT TCASHTEL S. OMGCE. a, e scctu bi Sales a weed o'date werane oa 48.74
SEE ISU SNS a RR RUS RS RED es re ne ae ee rs 150.00
Peed eee sae em Cys ee tL sia h ee SONNE te deters I a OE $807.55
Oia OCEIDLS EES Suk cn aie See rent es Loe $1,120.08
GTR ere PCTISC Sate circ reals ese Seopa arerk tos Glew ak 807.55
Balinese Oneehawite oa a occ atts urseye.s viele oon oy $312.53
The report was accepted by vote and referred to the
auditing committee.
The Membership Committee, through its Chairman,
Clarence Bonnell, reported that 34 new names had been
approved by the Council for membership. After read-
ing the list of candidates a vote was taken electing them
to membership in the Academy.
The Librarian, A. R. Crook, handed in the following
written report:
Librarian’s Report 1923-1924
Since the museum has been moved to attractive quar-
ters in the magnificient new Centennial Building, oppor-
tunity has been offered for the first time in many years
to make accurate count of the volumes of reports still
on our shelves.
The number of each of the sixteen volumes remaining
is as follows:
Vol. Eesack SSS nh OBE [aE ES One Ae Rh ree ME One Clee ten 71
Vol. ER ene Pe eee RL Ie 604
ER etch le RE ase Woes Ga a esa eee hain s wate ee aeiaetn Samed 559
I ee hs os avis o ola aidinCarerwiniwint ay aie @ ho ninlahok s Smhle ARIE wae 516
Vol. Wack SE 2a es ergo eR AE OOOO DASE Se a LO eer, Olaear 506
oo Le oe eS errs mae ce ie rere warn 230
MMR A Tie Bs oho iol 5c. wei His SFE o we tela peed imax tale Riel wis as Bis 456
16 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Wool. VLD soi so bore ciao tres saa te st p< cael oy BRO] eo a on eo eee 415
Wole | URe i ee Ta i es ee ces eco 1470
Vol. NE os ig lete c etaus: aegis a cagee elie ve opaneibe ee tees is as ees ea 313
10) Ae, 2 Pannen ner MIRO ns Shey Ray ee re mE ohana eS mene 357
Wolk. RTD 3 he dees BRE Wa Re ea ela oe allen re mete ane co ee a one
VOL TLD vce o secant cna oo Ce ve cae orca allegra ara agen et ard lata ai cite one 350
Voll SEIDV sic cc linta eo oGin dig Geel oltielace aca 2 Saaemua manasa aia telatorstas a eta el ane ene 369
Wels SCV 5 55 ois oi eek oer enopies le abel dl itera eee ee entrar a 542
Vol. XVID s ac bo o.3 clare sia B Pahwe ach oe ands Oo ay annie cates oat ee ene anes re 400
The large number remaining of Volume LX is due to
the fact that officers at that time thought that these vol-
umes would-be useful in spreading a knowledge of the
good work which the Academy is doing. If members
of the Academy will let the librarian know where these
volumes may be useful, copies will be sent.
The sales of such volumes as have been published by
the Academy have totalled $34.50 as indicated below:
April 17, 1923, McClurg Company, Chicago, 8 volume @ $1.50
XG | i aren Pe ore rN Te eR LS DY ren eA hay Aci < s - $12.00
June 4, 1923;°H. Garman, Uni- of Ky. *VolumesVilee=. a. teee 1.59
Jan. 31, 1924, Insular. ab oetme ns Station, Rio Piedras, P. H.,
Volunie.. Xb Pere re cence ay eee eee ee ey Se 1.50
Jan. 31, 1924, Minn. Uni. Library, Volumes VI, VII, VIII, Tx, xX,
5B VOLUMES: oo oe bard ovenore oie ta onsis Siete, peaheia /eaheccoe elev es ol cedars ete eae aaa 7.50
April 3,.1924, Wisconsin Uni. Library, Volumes I, II, III, IV, V,
VI, VII, VELL, eG ES CS eviolluimle siayese creieychevarece, ae tec a
Cereals
WV LCi tran cee 62,506,000 16.5 12,351,000 $0.94 $11,609,000
Oats oor treacle 135,100,000 8.5 12,500,000 0.39 4,875,000
arlene ein cit 6,612,000 5.5 384,000 0.58 222,000
EG ViGin vera te tae cts Mise 3,450,000 3.5 125,000. 0.75 93,000
‘Glebe ieanaae oar kee 337,312,000 20.5 87,102,000 0.65 56,616,000
Fruits
0) 0f (oem aes Serena 7,370,000 15.0 1,300,000 1.15 1,495,000
(PGar As cine nvceuer 307,000 7.0 23,000 0.94 21,000
Peach stone 675,000 8.0 58,000 2.64 153,000
Vegetables
POtatoL seen aoe 9,568,000 2.0 195,000 0.88 171,000
Sweet Potato... 880,000 0.5 4,000 1.10 4,000
Totals
Coregisue cut 544,980,000 17.10 112,462,000 $73,415,000
EIGUIts eae 8,352,000 14.18 1,381,000 1,669,000
Vegetables .... 10,448,000 . 1.86 199,000 175,000
Ota atom state 563,780,000 16.82 114,042,000 $75,259,000
* Estimates of this kind have been made since 1917 in Illinois and else-
where and have come to represent the crop reductions which trained and ex-
perienced workers believe to occur. Experiments, however, have indicated
that in several instances the actual reductions greatly exceed the estimates.
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 93
The reduction in yield or the loss in money value can
not be arrived at for many crops because of the lack of
' production and price statistics, but the reductions indi-
cated in the table of 112,462,000 bushels of cereals valued
at $73,415,000, of 1,381,000 bushels of fruits valued at
$1,669,000, and of 199,000, bushels of vegetables valued
at $175,000, the whole reduction totalling 114,042,000
bushels valued at $75,259,000, should be sufficient to im-
press upon every one the importance to agriculture in
Illinois of undertaking a comprehensive and effective
plant-disease-control program.
For the control of these diseases there are now avail-
able methods suitable to every crop. The disinfection”
of seed for seed-borne diseases among cereals and vege-
tables, the application of effective sprays for disease of
fruits and vegetables, the eradication of alternate hosts
for certain diseases of cereals and fruits, and the use of
resistant varieties for diseases not amenable to other
treatment are already used to a limited extent and have
been found to be so generally effective that a more ex-
‘tensive use is greatly to be desired.
94 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
SOME NORTH AND SOUTH STREAM VALLEYS:
IN ILLINOIS AND THEIR VEGETATION
Gerorce D, Fuutuer, THe University or Curcaco, ann C. J.
_ Trvrorp, Assistant ILuinois State ForesTER
A considerable portion of Illinois is characterized by
a relative level upland in which streams have cut chan-
nels and developed valleys of varying depth and ‘width.
This upland has its surface covered with rich dark col-
ored soils described by Hopkins and his associates (1)
as upland prairie soils under the designations ‘‘ brown
silt loam’’ and ‘‘black silt loam’’. These soils, consist-
ing of loam formed principally from wind-blown mater-
ial, have a depth of 3 to 5 feet and are covered with a
grassland that has been well described by Sampson (2).
In contrast, the stream valleys display soils character-
ized as timber soils by the Department of Soil Survey of
the State Agricultural Experiment Station and by them
called ‘‘yellow-gray silt loam’’, or ‘‘upland timber soil’’.
The distribution of these soils and the character of
their vegetation in LaSalle County has been discussed
previously by Fuller and Strausbaugh (3). In this
county the prairie soils cover about 80 per cent of the
surface, while the timber soils are limited to 12 per
cent and are distributed irregularly along the streams.
It has also been pointed out (4) that it seems to be cer-
tain that all these timber soils were covered originally
with forests and that no forests have ever developed
upon the prairie soils. In a further attempt to explain
the distribution of vegetation, which here seems to be
limited by soil conditions, Fuller (5) has emphasized the
peculiarities of the distribution of such timber soil
along north and south streams, and has shown
that the strip on the east side of the stream is
almost always the wider and that it often reaches twice
the extent of that on the west bank. Such uneven dis-
tribution of timber soils and forest is well illustrated
along Big Indian Creek, a tributary of the Fox River.
The explanation usually current for the narrower strip
on the west side of the stream is that prairie fires in
’ PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 95
their advance, driven by the prevailing westerly winds,
make greater inroads upon the western edge of the forest
than upon the eastern. Such destruction of trees and
tree seedlings has been supposed to account for ¢ontrac-
tion of woodland areas along their western margins. In
order to test the truth of this hypothesis and to discover
whether the limits of the woodlands coincided with those
of the slopes of the stream valley, through the courtesy
of the State Forester, the junior author of this article
ran a number of sectional lines or transects from west to
east across the valleys of Little Indian Creek and Big
Indian Creek in groups of two or three at intervals of
from one-half mile to one mile. The position and extent
of one group of three of these lines are shown in Fig. 1.
Along these lines the slope was determined accurately
by levels and the results have been reduced to uniform
scale, and a series of cross sections of the stream valleys
have resulted that exhibit graphically the relative width
and slope of the stream (Figs. 2, 3, 4). Each group of
sections may be considered independently.
The sections A, B, and C across the valley of Little In-
dian Creek (Fig. 2) show that the valley is about 40 feet
deep and that an average of the three sections gives a
strip of timber soil (formerly covered with forest) 1000
yards wide on the west slope and a corresponding strip
2300 yards wide on the east slope. Further, the limits
of the timber soil coincide exactly with the edge of the
stream valley.
Another series of cross sections, D and E, from the
upper part of Big Indian Creek (Fig. 3) show a valley
30 to 35 feet deep with slopes 600 yards wide on the
west and 1600 yards wide on the east. Here, too, the
angle of the western slope is decidedly greater than that
of the eastern and the coincidence of the edge of the
stream valley and the extent of the timber soil de-
cidedly marked.
A third series, F. G, and H, come lower down the
stream where Big Indian Creek has been augmented by
the influx of the waters of the tributary, Little Indian
Creek, and the waters have cut into the underlying rock
(Fig. 4). Here the valley is about 80 feet deep, and the
96 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
average width is 1100 yards west of the stream and 2200
yards east, while again the coincidence of the soil and
the timber is very close. }
From these examinations of the contours of the stream
valleys it is evident that the timber soil varies in its dis-
tribution with the varying slopes of the valleys. Indeed,
a close examination of such timber soils makes it entirely
clear that they are but the subsoils of the prairie silt
loams where the latter have been removed by stream
erosion. The comparative youth of the stream valleys
has permitted little modification of the soil upon their
slopes. It is therefore clear that if, as has been shown,
the edge of the slope of the valleys marks the limit of the
timber soil, and hence that. of the original distribution
of forest associations, prairie fires cannot be accepted
as an adequate explanation of -the narrowness of the
wooded strip on the western slope of the stream. The
cause must rather be sought in some factor that affects
the slope of the stream valley and thus indirectly the
distribution of timber soils and their forest cover.
Two such explanations seem possible, either one of
which is more satisfactory than the fire theory. Geol-
ogists have found that on account of the rotation of the
earth the waters of the north and south streams have
been deflected somewhat to the west and have thus erod-
ed the western bank more rapidly and given rise to val-
leys of unequal slope. It seems rather doubtful, how-
ever, if the volume of water in these small streams is
sufficient to account for the very decided difference here
seen in the slopes of the two sides of the valley. HExam-
ining somewhat similar small north and south streams
on Long Island, Jennings (6) is inclined to reject such
an explanation
The other, and in the opinion of the writers, the more
logical explanation is that the wind-borne soil material
transported by the prevailing westerlies has been con-
tinually sifting in upon the western slopes and tending
to fill up the western half of the stream valleys. This
has at one and the same time checked erosion and caused
the grassland to tend to invade the woodland. ‘This
explanation has been accepted by Jennings as the most
M t
-
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 97
reasonable for similar erosion phenomena on Long Is-
land, and it seems to apply with even greater force in a
region where’ the upland soil consists, according to
authorities quoted, of wind-blown loessial material. We
may, therefore, conclude that the prevailing westerly
winds are the factor limiting the westerly extent of the
forest strips bordering north and south streams in IIli-
nois, but they are effective through the transportation
of soil material rather than through their influence on_
the advance of prairie fires. .
— eeecha aw
Say (a 7
£
re
Fig.1. Map of a portion of Little Indian Creek in Adams Township,
LaSalle County, Ill., showing ‘the original extent of the forests on the
“upland timber soil,’’ indicated by broken lines. On either side of the
stream, the remnants of the forest, indicated by oblique hatchings and
en transects A, B, and C, run from west to east across the stream
valley. ¢
98
ee
ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
LITERATURE CITED.
Hopkins, Cyril G. et al. La Salle County soils. Soil Report No. 5,
Univ. Ill. Agri. Exper. Station, pp. 45. Maps. 1913
Sampson, Homer C. An ecological study of the prairie vegetation
of Illinois. Bull. Ill. State Nat. Hist. Survey 13: 523-577. Pls.
48-77. Figs. 1-9. - 1921.
Fuller, Geo. D. and Strausbaugh, P. D. On the forests of La Salle
County, Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 12: 246-272. Maps 1919.
Fuller, Geo. D. Soil as a limiting factor of the forests of La Salle |
County, Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 12: 99-102. 1919.
Fuller, Geo. D. An edaphic limit to forests in the prairie region of
Illinois. Ecology 4: 135-140. Fig. 3. 1923.
Jennings, O. E. Have the streams of Long Island been deflected
by the earth’s rotation? Science 55: 191. 1922.
y made by transects A, B, and C. The vertical scale is
, and the limits of the “upland timber soil’ are shown by
25 times the horizontal, and the limits of the
Fig. 3. Sections of the stream valley made by transects D and EB. The
soil” are shown by short vertical lines,
®
= »
= 3 hy 3
Ps a ©
as Fs
as
oo a
aN PA ea
ae os
= ae
on oe
eeu ap
ool _
we? § ae
On O38
n Sled
noe wo
ses os
O49 ps
BTL
Owns
oa?
mM a
=
¥
°
Ee]
n
about
Fig. 2.
99
PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
-[}40A
Oud
‘H pue ‘py
‘SOUT [BOT}IOA JOYS AQ UMOYS 91v ,,[[Os
Loquiy, puwldn,, 94) JO SITU, OU. PU ‘;R}UOZIAOY OY Soul, ggZ JNOGu st e[voOS [vO
“WT Syoesuva) Aq opeut Ad][[VA uv
i
O1}8 OY} JO SUOTJOOg
by SLT
100 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
PRELIMINARY CHECK LIST OF THE VASCULAR
PLANTS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE PARK
AT STARVED ROCK, LASALLE COUNTY
Frank Tone, Universtry or ARKANSAS, FAYETTEVILLE,
ARK.
The establishment by the State of Illinois of the first
of its state parks at Starved Rock, LaSalle County, has
served to focus and intensify the interest of citizens of the
state, and of the Middle West generally, in this region.
Its great natural scenic beauty attracts tourists and holi-
day-seekers generally, and its connection with the labors’
and adventures of the early French explorers and mis-
sionaries gives it interest to students of history. Its
great wealth of geological and botanical opportunity are
tending to make it a-point of pilgrimage for college and
university classes bent on more serious and concentrated
examination. In the interests of the latter groups it has
seemed worth while to offer the accompanying check list
of the vascular plants of Starved Rock State Park.
Up to the present, no list at all approaching complete-
ness has been prepared for this region, although inei-
dental mention of elements in the vegetation has been
made in a number of ecological publications.
CO, COW co,
*Cf., for the use of this idea of polar valence in organic compounds,
Stieglitz, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 44, 1293 (1922), and earlier papers; and Lewis,
Me oe the Structure of atoms and Molecules (1923), particularly pp.
an F
? Nef, Ann. 308, 329 (1899); Howell with Noyes, J. Am. Chem. Soe. 4,
991 (1920) ; Macbeth and others, J. Chem. Soc. 119, 1356 (1921); 121, 892,
JO4 1109 = tate (1 s22y.
3 Nicolet, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 48, 2081 (1921).
*#Am, Chem. J. 42, 453 (1909).
eS a ee
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 119 |
One notes that (a) an iodine has been removed, and
replaced by hydrogen; and (b) the iodine thus removed
retains the power of resubstituting in the bezene ring,
a power which negative iodine does not have. . Lt
os = aA
r
cs,
=: =a PBA REG
= . lie TN
2 i Seana
ost 7s : : : : ~arhen tio 2 Sure ;
= / | Leganthimic Scale
Se eal Be
TT) iso 260 300 400 500
= 35
Free CO, p-p-m.
128 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE MOLECULAR SPECTRUM OF AMMONIA
B. J. Spence, NortHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
PRetIMInary Report
A number of years ago it was found that hydrogen
chloride showed a double branched absorption band at
a wavelength of approximately 45,000 A. U. This wave-
length is found in the near infra-red spectrum. The
bands were accounted for by Bjerrum (Nernst Fest-
sehrift, 1911) assuming that the diatomic molecule ro-
tated about a line at right angles to the line joining the
atomic centers and that the atomic centers vibrated along
the line joining them. Such a system of molecules will
absorb energy from a beam of radiation passing through
them corresponding to the frequency of rotation and
also the frequency of the combined frequencies of rota-
tion and vibration. The double branched band will have
frequencies corresponding to fy + f,, where fy is the fre-
quency of vibration of the molecule and f; is the fre-
quency of rotation.
Later experiments revealed the fact that the double
branched band was not simple but made up of a number
of fine bands. Bjerrum modified his theory involving the
quantum theory. His theory was not altogether satis-
factory, and later Lenz (Verh. d. D. Phys. Ges. 31, 632,
1919) following the idea of the stationary state of Bohr
in his atomic theory arrived at a more satisfactory ex-
pression for the wavelength of these bands. The Lenz
theory assumes that the molecules exist in a series of
stationary states in regard to rotation and vibration,
and that energy is emitted or absorbed during a transi-
tion between stationary states. Lenz’s expression for the
frequency of the emitted or absorbed radiation is
h mh
igh
8n71 477]
where f and f, are the frequencies of the absorbed radia-
tion and the atomic vibration frequency respectively, h
is the Planck constant, I the moment of inertia of the
molecule and m and n are small integers characterizing
tia
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 129
= stationary states of rotation and vibration respective-
y: 7
The interpretation of the above expression is interest-
ing. When the molecule is in the state characterized by
the quantum numbers n = m — QO, it has no energy of vi-
bration and of rotation. When a change occurs during
absorption of energy such that n =m =1, the frequency
of the absorbed radiation is given by
f= f,-- -—
8n71
So far this so called zero branch of the curve has never
been observed, as far as the writer is aware. If the.
molecule is in the stationary state characterized by
n=O, and m = 1; then a transition to n—=1, and m= 2
gives rise to an absorbed radiation of frequency
‘ h h
f=—f,+
ne
Sel 4r2l
This expression indicates two bands, one on each side of
the above zero branch. If now we allow the change from
n=O ton=—1, and m—2 to m=3, and so on, we have
a series of equidistant bands which approximate the ex-
perimental values fairly well. Experimentally these
bands are not equidistant. The above theory was de-
veloped assuming an independence of m and n, or that
the moment of inertia of the molecule is independent of
the angular velocity. By making the necessary modifi-
eations with this point in mind an extremely satisfactory
theory is developed which accounts for the facts very
well.
The above theory was developed for the diatomic mole-
cule. No theory exists for the polyatomic molecule.
However, double branched absorption bands with the fine
structure have been observed for polyatomic molecules.
Their characteristics are, in the main, similar to those of
the diatomic molecule.
In an investigation to bring to light other examples
of these double branched absorption bands it was found
that ammonia gas showed a serrated double band with a
zero branch at 30,000 A. U. The investigation was car-
ried on with an infra-red grating spectrometer, using a
130 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
radiometer as the receiving instrument. The grating
was one of 2500 lines per inch and had a ruled surface
2x2 inches. A cell 10 em. long with mica windows was
so arranged before the slit of the spectrometer that it
could be moved in or out of the beam of light brought to
focus on the slit. Such an arrangement made it possible ~ |
to determine the per cent absorption. The bands as. ob-
served for ammonia are not equally spaced, the wave-
length interval between them increasing from about 140
_ A. U. on the short wave side of the band to 200 A. U. on
the long wave side. In addition to the system of narrow
bands a deep band was found at 299,000 A. U. which cor-
responds to the transition of n-—m—Oton=m=1 as
indicated above. This appears to be the first substance
found to show the zero branch of the double absorption.
band. Hight of the narrow bands were found on each |
side the zero branch. Inasmuch as the grating used in
the investigation was a 2500 line per inch grating it did
not have sufficient resolving power to make accurate
quantitative determinations possible. It is planned to
examine these bands under larger resolving power.
The frequency difference between the narrow —— is
given from the expression of Lenz as
h
di =
An?]
From this expression it is possible to get an ostimenn of
the moment of inertia of the ammonia molecule. Substi-
tuting wavelengths in the expression and solving for I we
have
h)?
1c
An?cd)
where ¢ is the velocity of light, ) the wavelength of a
band and dd the difference of wavelengths between two -
bands. Making the substitutions, we find 2.8x10~°
gm. cm?’ as the moment of inertia oe the ammonia mole-
cule.
Northwestern University
May 4, 1924:
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 131
A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF METALS IN
CONTACT WITH SOLUTIONS OF SILVER
HALIDES IN VARIOUS SOLVENTS
J. H. Ransom anp D. W. Hanson, James Muaikin
UNIVERSITY
PRELIMINARY PAPER
During the performance of an experiment by a class
of students large quantities of a very dilute solution of
silver salts were produced, from which, both for eco-
_ nomic reasons and for its efféct on the student, it was
desired to recover the silver. It occurred to one of the
authors that the easiest and most direct way to recover
_. the silver was to convert it into chloride, dissolve this
in some solvent like ammonia, and precipitate the silver
| _ by treatment with some metal like iron or zine. Whether
metals would precipitate silver from such solutions was
_ not known and a search through the available literature
_ did not indicate that the experiment had ever been tried.
When silver chloride is dissolved in ammonia it is be-
heved that a complex positive ion results which contains
both silver and ammonia, Ag(NH;).. Since more than
the equivalent amount of ammonia is necessary to pro-
duce solution it is probable that this positive ion is in
equilibrium with the silver ion, the concentration of the
latter ion decreasing with the increase in concentration
of free ammonia. In any such solution, however, there
might be enough silver ions so that in contact with
metals whose solution tension was greater than that of
__ silver ions the latter might be discharged and the silver
deposited. A preliminary trial with such a solution
gave a gray powder appearing somewhat metallic.
The solutions of silver salts, left over from the stud-
_ ents’ experiment, were collected and the silver precipi-
tated by an excess of hydrochloric acid. After washing
_ . the silver chloride it was dissolved in rather concen-
_ trated ammonia, making a nearly saturated solution.
_ To this was added granulated zine. Almost immediately
_ the gray deposit formed, together with some gas, prob-
ably hydrogen, and towards the end of the experiment
Pye) 6
os
there were formed beautiful silver-white metallic erys-
tals. Much of the gray powder was rather soft and
malleable and when rubbed gave a metallic luster. Al-
ways there was a larger or smaller amount insoluble in
dilute nitric acid, and this appeared to be silver chloride
which had been affected by light. After some hours only
the smallest traces of aS chloride remained in the
solution.
These results were so encouraging that it was felt to
be worth while to study the effect of various metals on
solutions of the halides of silver, not only in ammonia
solutions but in other solvents, especially in the ‘‘hypo’’
of the photographer. It is known that large quantities
of the spent ‘‘hypo’’ liquors are discarded without the
recovery of the silver contained in them, thus involving |
a great economic loss of silver as well as of ‘‘hypo’’.
While a method is in use for the recovery of the silver
- it is felt by some photographers that it is more trouble —
than it is worth and the use of the recovered ‘‘hypo’’,
if such it is, is not undertaken because of its possible in-
- jurious effect on the pictures. )
When the silver halides, silver bromide especially, is
dissolved in ‘‘hypo’’, sodium silver thiosulphate is
formed. The solution may contain silver ions and the
fact, as we show in this paper, that metals cause a de-
position of the silver in a very pure condition is eyi-
dence that such is the case.
At this point the investigation was taken up by the
junior author. The results, while only of a preliminary
nature, are interesting, and we hope to extend the scope
of the work at an early date.
After most of the results, here reported, were seas
there appeared in pipet Abstracts, page 1094, (April,
1924) an abstract of an article in Cherhische Zeitung by
A. Steigmann, describing ‘‘A New Method of Precipi-
tating Silver and Gold.’’ In his method the solution of
silver halide in ‘‘hypo’’ is treated with sodium hypo-
sulphite Na.S.O., in the presence of soda which reacts
with the sulphur dioxide produced during the chemical
action. The abstract states that the fixing bath can be
regenerated five or six times, but he recommends only
132 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
- PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 133
Haiece times. Since the hyposulphite is usually made by
reduction of the sulphite with zinc, and since soda must
be used to neutralize the sulphur dinaale which is con-
verted into sulphite and this in acid solution, in which
the ‘‘hypo”’ is always used, produces sulphur dioxide
_ which might act in an injurious way upon the picture, it
- seems a more direct and better method to use the zine
- directly with the ‘‘hypo”’ in recovering the silver. This
_ would be especially true if, as seems evident from our
- results, the hypo is as good and safe a fixing agent after
treatment with the zine as when freshly made.
_ In order to study in a more nearly quantitative way
the action of several metals on solutions of silver chlo-
_ ride in ammonia, a nearly saturated solution of the chlo-
_ ride was made and one-half of it was diluted with an
_ equal volume of distilled water. In separate portions
_ of both the concentrated and dilute solutions were placed
= weighed amounts of the metals, zinc, aluminum, copper
and iron and then these were kept in a dark room until
all the silver had been precipitated. Before the metals
_ were introduced their surfaces were well cleaned. With
all the metals except iron precipitation of silver began at
once and all the silver had left the solution within twenty-
_ four hours (the first. test was made at the end of this
time). In the case of iron in the dilute solution the
action had started only slightly at the end of the first
hour and was complete only after forty-eight hours.
In the concentrated solution the iron remained perfectly
bright for the first day, and not a trace of silver had de-
posited. On being brought into the light, however, ac-
tion began within fifteen minutes and seemed to con-
tinue after it had been replaced in a dark room. When
the action had become complete the metals were re-
moved, cleaned and weighed, and the precipitate treated
with quite dilute nitric anak: In the case of zine quite a
large amount of material was not dissolved in the acid
_ and appeared like darkened silver chloride. With the
other metals only a trace of material was found to be
msoluble. In the case of zine it was found that 54%
more went into solution than was equivalent to the silver
formed. . This might be anticipated from the fact that
134 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
water acts slowly on zine to form the hydroxide. In the
ease of the other metals the excess loss was not deter-
mined.
Since the recovery of silver. from ‘‘hypo’’ fixing baths ©
is of commercial importance, most of the time was spent .
in its study. For this purpose a spent ‘‘hypo”’ solution
was obtained from a local photographer. Before using
this solution, however, preliminary experiments were
performed with a fairly concentrated solution of silver
chloride in sodium thiosulphate solution. The method
used followed very closely that with ammonia solutions,
using the same metals. With all of the metals it was
found that the precipitation of silver began very slowly,
only after two or more hours, and that it proceeded regu-
larly to completion. With iron the end was reached
only after forty-eight hours, but with the others twenty-
four were all that was needed. Only slight traces of the
precipitate were insoluble in dilute nitric acid. In the
case of copper the silver deposited as a smooth layer
upon the surface of the copper sheets; with the other ~
metals the silver deposited very smoothly on the glass
walls of the containing vessels, forming a mirror more
or less perfect.
After this preliminary experiment a liter of the spent
liquor, mentioned above, was treated with small rectan-
gular chunks of pure zine lying at the bottom of the flask.
The silver slowly deposited as a mirror on the walls.
About four grams of silver were deposited for three
grams of zine disappearing into the solution. This is
far less silver than is theoretically possible (3.3 :1), but
by using a larger surface of zine suspended in the solu-
tion and by stirring the solution it is believed the amount
might be increased nearly to the theoretical.
After the silver had become completely precipitated
from the spent liquor a part of it was treated with sod-
ium carbonate to separate the carbonate of zine. After
filtration of the carbonate it was found that the slightly
acidified solution (with acetic acid) dissolved 62 grams
of silver chloride per liter. The part of the silver-free
solution from which the zine had not been removed was.
found to dissolve 70 grams of silver chloride per liter.
ce es
- PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 135
- This would indicate that the zine salt in the solution had
- no injurious effect on the solubility of the silver halides,
but rather improved it slightly,
In order to test the qualities of the treated ‘‘hypo’’ as
3 a fixing agent the solution from which the zine had been
Temoved as well as that containing this metal was sub-
mitted to an expert student photographer for use in his
fixing bath. He reported that both solutions worked in
a perfectly normal manner, and that he could observe
no decrease in efficiency as compared with the ordinary
solution and no difference in the quality of the product.
It is planned to continue the investigation along sev-
eral related lines and to the end of making the process
a commercial success.
136 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHOTO-
CHEMISTRY
W. Avpert Novss, Jr., UNiveRsity or CHICAGO
The advent of the quantum theory has givenus ameans
of applying some of the principles of thermodynamics to
photochemical reactions. According to this theory; the
energy of frequency v incident upon a given system is
necessarily some multiple of an energy unit, hv. The
Bohr theory of atomic structure has successfully applied
this idea to the spectrum lines of hydrogen and to X-ray
data. According to this theory there are several pos-
sible ‘‘energy states’’ or ‘‘stationary states’’ for an
atom. When the atom is in its normal state it does not
radiate energy, but if energy is added to the atomic sys-
tem either by electron impact or by radiation, the total
energy of the system is now greater than for the normal
atom by a definite amount. This energy may be repre-
sented by E. If now the atom returns to its original
energy state, light of frequency given by the simple
equation H=—hv is radiated, where h is Planck’s con-
stant. 7
Several attempts have been made to apply the ideas ©
of the quantum theory to photochemical processes. Ejin- .
stein’ has derived a photochemical equivalence law,
which, briefly stated, equates the radiant energy neces-
sary to cause a mol of substance to react to the heat of
reaction
AH = Nhv
In the case of a system A’ capable of changing by the
action of radiation of frequency v into a system A’,
radiation of frequency v’ being re-emitted in the process
according to the scheme
A + hv — A’ + hv’
‘then the heat of reaction would be given by the. expres-
s1on
AH = Nh(v—v’)
It should be noted that radiation of frequency v’ would
cause the reverse reaction to take place if it were al-
lowed to act on the system A’.
1 Einstein, Annalen der Physik, 87, 832 (1912).
'
:
‘PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 137
~ One other important attempt has been made to apply
- the quantum hypothesis to photochemical processes. Per-
rin? has proposed a theory which has been discussed in
_ detail and modified to a certain extent by Tolman®. The
- classical 22 Sates equation
dink E
dT BT?
connects the constant in the equation for a monomole-
cular reaction
dx
—— = k(A—x)
dt
with a quantity E which has the dimensions of energy.
Perrin states that this term represents an energy of
“‘activation’’, and writes H= Nhv. Thus a molecule
might absorb an amount of energy hv and subsequently
either decompose or return to its original state. This
formula has been applied to the decomposition of nitro-
gen pentoxide with great care by Daniels and Johnston‘
and roughly to the decomposition of solid oxalie acid’.
In neither of these cases was the formula found to agree
with the experimental facts.
It is obvious, of course, that an idea such as that pro-
posed by Pes could at best hold true in an ideal case.
For the ordinary photographic action of light on the
silver halides all wave lengths of light seem to be active
from the .red end of the spectrum to hard X-rays, a fact
which could not be explained by Perrin’s hy pothesis :
Berthelot® has suggested that the effect of radiation
would increase with increase in frequency according to
an exponential law, in much the same manner that the
rates of thermal reactions increase with the tempera-
ture. In the case of the decomposition of a crystalline
body by the action of radiation, it would seem that Per-.
rin’s formula should fail for the following reasons’: a
molecule in a crystal lattice is held to the other mole-
? Perrin, Annales de Physique, 11, 5 (1919).
2 Tolman, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 42, 2506 (1920); 45; wee el
* Daniels and Johnston, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 48, WZ. (1921).
®' Noyes and Kouperman, ibid., 45, 1398 (1923).
* Berthelot, Bull. de la Soc. chimique, $5, 241 (1924). This article sums
up mony of Berthelot’s views
™ Noyes, Comptes Rendus, 176, 1468 (1923).
138 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
cules in the lattice by definite forces. A certain amount
of energy must be added, therefore, in addition to the -
energy necessary to decompose a given molecule, in
order to separate it from its fellows. Moreover, if pres-
ent ideas of molecular structure are accepted, the action
of light may be to set up vibrations of the atoms with
reference to each other, or to cause a separation to a
given distance of an electron. According to Perrin’s
theory the molecule would either decompose or return
to its initial state. It would seem that the probability
of decomposition would depend on the extent of the
separation. Bearing this in mind, a formula analagous
to that for the photoelectric effect would be obtained in
which the rate of reaction is a linear function of the
frequency
dx
—— = kIT h(v—w)
dt
In this formula the rate is assumed to be proportional
to the intensity of the radiation, I, in the same manner
as in most of the other theories.
The most general fallacy in reasoning connected with
photochemical processes seems to be in making the as-
sumption that one general theory can be found which
will account for all reactions affected by radiation. It
is well known that a catalyst will not cause a reaction to
take place unless the reaction has a tendency to take
place without the cataly st. In other words if a reaction
leads to a decrease in free energy, as in the combination
of hydrogen and nitrogen to form ammonia, a proper
catalyst should greatly increase the rate of reaction,
even though the rate of reaction is immeasurably slow
under ordinary conditions. On the other hand if a re-
action involves an increase in free energy, as in the com-
bination of nitrogen and oxygen to form nitrogen diox-
ide, the mere ‘use of a catalyst will not cause the reac-
tion to take place. In the case of photochemical react-
ions, it seems that a similar distinction should be made.
Bodenstein® has classified photochemical reactions as
8 Bodenstein, Zeit. phys. Chem., 85, 333 (1913). For a good summary see
Lind, The Chemical Effects of Alpha Particles and Electrons, The Chemical
Catalog Company, 1921
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 139
either ‘‘primary’’ or ‘‘secondary’’. For ‘‘primary’’
light reactions the number of molecules reacting per
quantum absorbed is either one or some small number.
In this series of reactions the free energy change is
either positive or very slightly negative (See Table I)
for those reactions for which the free energy change is
known. It seems probable that this could be stated as a
general law.
TABLE I.
Primary Light Reactions (Bodenstein)
: - AF°,., —= —630
3 O, = 2 0, ae —= +64800
+ 7820
; + 109014
Si! Sp ~ —1 (?)
In the case of ik sadary ’? light reactions, one
quantum causes a large number of molecules to react.
These reactions are almost always those which involve
a large decrease in-free energy, and the light seems
more to Me the role of a catalyst.
im
TABLE II.
Secondary Light Reactions (Bodenstein)
Phe eR = 2 FGI > AF°oog == — 45384.
2 O, = 3 0. : = — 64800
S7F@, =o He ake: = — 56660
eo eloes oF Pans @ 6 et Bes: 1G G0
It would seem safe to predict, then, that only those re-
actions which involve a slight negative or a positive free
energy change will follow a photochemical equivalence
law. For the other reactions light seems to be capable of
starting a chain process which continues until it comes
to an accidental end. As Nernst® has pointed out an
‘‘aeceptor’’ which neither multiplies nor diminishes the
products of the primary reaction, but transforms them
directly into the equivalent quantity of finally measured
product should give rise to a reaction which obeys the
photochemical equivalence law. This point has been
studied by Pusch’’, who studied the action of bromine on
®° Nernst, Zeit. Elektrochem., 24, 335 (1918).
10 Pusch, ibid., 24, 336 (1918).
140 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
hydrogen, heptane, hexane, toluene and hexahydro-ben-
zene under the influence of light. The first took place
much less than was predicted by theory, several quanta
being required to cause one molecule to react; the next
three took place more than was predicted by theory and ©
hexahydrobenzene reacted according to theory. Since the
free energy changes in organic reactions are little known,
it is impossible to correlate these results with the rule
enounced above. | os
The action of light on the hydrogen-chlorine reaction
has formed the subject of many studies. As a result, it
is impossible to state at present what the function of the
light really is. Stark™ suggests that the action of light
is to loosen the valence electrons. It is impossible to—
make any generalization of this sort, and it is probable
that the action in the hydrogen-chlorine reaction is not
connected with the valence electrons as such but with the
molecule as a whole. In some recent experiments” it has
been shown fairly conclusively that a mereury surface
which-has been acted on by wave lengths below the pho- —
toelectric threshhold reacts more readily with nitrogen
dioxide and with oxygen than an unactivated mer-
cury surface. Since fields which would tend to hinder the
elimination of electrons from the surface caused the .
speed of the reaction to become normal, it seemed that
the emission of the electrons was the deciding factor. A
large number of molecules of HgO were formed for each
electron emitted, and since the free energy change is
negative, this reaction should be classified as a ‘‘second-
ary’’ light reaction.
In conclusion, it seems that the field of photochemistry
is in a rather unsatisfactory state from a theoretical
standpoint. Much work is being done on synthesis of or-
ganic compounds, especially those compounds formed in
plants by the action of sunlight and of certain carbohy-
drates from formaldehyde, and these reactions may lead
to very important conclusions from the standpoint of the
biologist. ;
11 Stark, Atomdynamik, Leipzig, 1911, Vol. II, p. 207.
122 Moore and Noyes, to appear in the June number of the Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc.
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 141
A LABORATORY EXPERIMENT FOR TESTING
THE EFFICIENCY OF A SCREW JACK
A. P. Carmen anv R. F. Paton, Untversiry or ILuinois
Our object in devising this experiment has been to get
a feasible quantitative college experiment which would
fix the principle of work and the concept of efficiency of
amachine. We chose as the machine a small screw jack,
the particular jack being an inexpensive one used to lift
light weight automobiles. The apparatus is shown in
Figs. 1 and 2. The hand lever was removed from the gear
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
wheel of the jack and a disk was substituted. The
‘‘nower’’ force is applied as a weight hung by a wire cord
which is wound in a groove on the periphery of the disk.
This applies a moment of force to the small gear wheel
142 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
which acts in turn on the gear turning the screw on the
jack. The ‘‘weight’’ force which is overcome consists of
a number of large iron weights hung on the end of a lever.
The fulcrum of this lever is at the opposite end of the bar
and the ‘‘power’’ force on the lever is the force exerted
by the jack. .The lever as constructed by us consists of
an oak beam 1.5 inches thick, about 4 inches wide and
about 70 inches long. The upper end of the jack screw
was fitted with a wedge-shaped piece and this rests on an
iron plate screwed on the lower part of the oak beam.
The point of application of this ‘‘power’’ force can thus
be shifted along the lever bar. This point of application
will not in general be under the center of gravity of the
lever bar so that the work done in raising the center of
gravity must be taken into account in the final caleula-
tions of the efficiency of the machine.
The following is a sample set of readings made with
this apparatus.
WELZIE. Of TVG de. ere oie Loser Merk aral chovals lesa be dst w taco rin otonare teks Se none 6490 grams
DITCH OLASELEW: 2/5) Me eye ceo Pos RI ese ne et nace .847 cm
distance: of = filer) tO! jae
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 159
determined. Now oxidation is based on the ability to
lose electrons so that whether it will take place in a given
case can be predetermined by referring to the electro-
motive series which lists metals in the order of their
ability to lose electrons.
Helium is an element which forms no compounds. The
chemist would say that this is because it is inactive, but
the physical chemist has gone much farther when he ex-
plains it as due to the inability of helium to lose electrons
and thus gain a positive valence, while the phenomenon
is entirely accounted for by the sub-atomic physicist who
says that the helium atom is composed of a positive neu-
cleus and negative electrons which swing in an orbit
which is in perfect equilibrium, so that there is no ten-
dency for an electron to leave it.
Probably the most obvious contribution of physics to
chemistry is in apparatus embodying physical principles.
Whenever chemical changes or properties are not direct-
ly observable by the senses, the physical instrument is a
necessary medium. When the hands cannot detect heat
we use a thermometer; when the eyes cannot perceive the
arrangement of the atoms within a crystal, we use X-ray
diffractions to interpret this arrangement.
The spectroscope is a true product of the inter-relation
of physics and chemistry, first because it was the out-
come of joint research by a physicist, Kirchoff, and a
chemist, Bunsen, working together in the same labor-
atory, and second because it has found application in
both fields. To illustrate, Bunsen applied it to the analy-
sis of water of certain springs and thereby discovered
two new elements, caesium and rubidium. In the hands
of Kirchoff it explained the dark lines in the sun’s spec-
trum as being due to absorption, and as a result it became
the means of determining the composition of other plan-
ets.
Another physical instrument of value to the chemist. is
the polarimeter. This apparatus is used for measuring
the degree which an optically active substance will rotate
the plane of polarized light. Its importance to chemis-
try came when it was found that some substances with
160 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
the same formula, which had hitherto been considered
identical, differed in their effect on polarized light.
For example, lactic acid from beef extract rotated the
plane to the right, being dextro-rotatory ; lactic acid from
the fermentation of milk sugar, with a certain ferment,
was levo-rotatory, while the synthesized. product was in-
active. The chemist usually explains such isomers by
a difference in arrangement of the atoms, but in the case
of lactic acid only one structure could be conceived, un-
less, as Van’t Hoff suggested, spatial relations were con-
sidered. So the immediate importance of: the polari-
meter was the incentive to study organic structure.
The inactive lactic acid referred to was found to be a
mixture of the dextro and levo forms, so that the problem
arose of separating them. In most cases the chemical
and physical properties of two optically active isomers
are the same except in their effect on polarized ight, and
so the usual method of separation based on differences
of properties was difficult to apply. But here biology
made an important contribution in the form of ‘certain
bacteria, which, when introduced into the mixture, would
destroy one and leave the other. These living cells se-
crete complex proteins called enzymes which catalyze or-
ganic decomposition in order to use the energy liberated.
Now in accordance with laws of evolution each organ-
ism will be provided with the enzyme which can attack
the substances it finds in its environment, and conse-
quently one which will be indifferent to most other sub-
stances. The mould penicillum glaucum is thus capable
of destroying levo-lactic acid but is indifferent to the
dextro-form, so that when it is introduced into the mix-
ture, it will leave only the latter acid.
Aside from this practical value the study of enzyme
catalysis is of the greatest importance in biological chem-
istry. The value of a compound as a food is largely de-
pendent upon its ability to undergo decomposition, and
since these decompositions are brought about in many
cases only through the agency of certain enzymes, the
question of food value becomes largely one of whether
the necessary enzyme is present. The enzyme’s selection
of compounds has been shown to be according to the
PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 161
stereochemical structure of the molecule, and so one of
nature’s most fundamental. processes, that of digestion
and metabolism, may be quite as much chemical as bio-
logical. :
Other complex problems of biology ean often be simpli-
fied by resolving them into their physical and chemical
components. Professor Lillie has shown that nerve cur-
rents, the biological basis of psychology, are essentially
electrical and chemical in nature. Also, Sir Wm. Bate-
son, an eminent authority on evolution, believes that all
its theories must be in accordance with facts of physics
and chemistry. It is from this point of view that muta-
tion, the act of differing from parent to offspring, has
been resolved into problems of these two departments.
Crystallization, diffusion, electric or magnetic lines of
force, and harmonic vibration are factors which make for
similarity between organisms from the same source; so
that to find conditions which would modify these factors
is to form a basis for the explanation of mutation. The
contribution of physics has been such conditions as tem-
perature and pressure, while the chemist has been study-
ing the effect of colloids on erystallization, all of which
show that mutation is not as obscure a process as it ap-
pears on the surface.
The biological discovery of insulin as a eure for dia-
betes had little practical value until the chemist had
worked out a method of preparing it in quantity. The
biological method was to extract it from the pancreas
of a dog, by first destroying the pancreatic juices in order
that they would not digest the insulin. Since this proc- —
ess required six months it was impractical, and the prob-
lem was turned over to chemists. After a year of re-
search they were able to prepare it from the sweetbreads
of cattle so that now the industry is able to supply the
18,000 people in the U. S. who take insulin daily. The
function of insulin is to destroy the excess sugar in the
blood, and the amount administered must be exactly in
proportion to this excess, for an overdose of insulin is
harmful to the patient. The difficulty is that in a given
dose the amount of pure insulin is not known, so that its
strength has to be determined by injecting it into a
162 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
rabbit and measuring the amount of sugar destroyed.
The present problem of the chemist is to prepare a com-
pound of such purity that its strength will be known
directly, thus eliminating the trial and error method. —
We have thus shown how each science is dependent
upon the others. It may have become evident that when-
ever one science has contributed to another, the contribu-
tion comes back much more useful to its original depart-
ment. The chemist borrowed the electron theory from
the physicist, developed it as an explanation of oxidation,
then returned it to the physicist much more valuable be-
cause now he could use it in explaining the Voltaic cell
and the storage battery. In the same way the spectrum
came back to the physicist in the form of the spectro-
scope which he could use in explaining the dark line spec-
- trum of the sun and in determining the composition of
other stars. The biologist’s knowledge of enzymes was
greatly increased by loaning them out to the chemist for
use in stereochemistry. Biological methods could never
have found that the ferment’s choice of foods depends
upon so insignificant a thing as the interchange of a few
hydrogen and hydroxyl groups.
It is such illustrations as these which show that if the
inter-relation of the sciences is put to practical use, as is
being done in the border-line sciences, it will lead to a
greater exhaustiveness and accuracy im scientific re-
search.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 165
THE AIM IN TEACHING FOREIGN GEOGRAPHY
Herman T. Lukens, Francis W. Parker ScHoo.,
CHICAGO
Traveling is likely in the future to become increas-
ingly frequent, as governments will cease to hinder and
will begin to recognize that it is to the public interest
for more people to meet and mingle with those of other
nations. Seeing this, the authorities will begin to aid
travelers to remove natural obstacles, instead of putting
artificial ones in our way.
The greatest need for all travelers is knowledge of
every kind. He who knows the most before he starts
will learn the most on the way. Over the door of the
Union Station in Washington is this inscription: ‘‘He
-who would obtain the wealth of the Indies must carry
it with him to the Indies.’’
2. The study of foreign peoples should develop the
appreciation of the real brotherhood of mankind, our
mutual interests, and our true interdependence.
3. The course should make plain and rather dwell
upon points in which other peoples excel our own. There
should be much comparison of natural resources, cli-
mate, and manufactures. Our geographies make the
United States too much the center of the world and mini-
mize the relative importance of other countries. It does
us good, therefore, to get hold of a British atlas, or to
refer to a Japanese chart, or a German guide book, or a
French or Dutch colonial publication with a different
world view. It is something to stir us out of narrowness
to realize that every new day starts in Japan, while
Kurope and, later still, America are finishing up the pre-
ceding day.
4. Differences of religion, custom, and faith should
be presented without bias or prejudice, as likewise differ-
ences in climate, dress, resources, and manufactures.
Somehow or. other, most of our pupils get the idea that
foreigners are ignorant and stupid, inferior to ourselves
in ability and inheritance. Perhaps ninety percent of
what we teach about other races involves the assump-
_ tion that they are inferior to our own, and is more cal-
166 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
culated to instill Beer: than to lay the foundation for
mutual understanding.
5. All of our ideas of the shapes of countries come
from maps and models, and likewise nearly all our ideas
of their size. While, hawever, we learn the shapes cor-
rectly, we fail woefully in getting a correct idea of the
relative or the actual size of foreign countries or of dis-
tances between places. This is due directly to having
such a variety of scales to our maps that our resultant
memory image has shape only, but no seale by which we
can calculate or think size adequately.
To most of us, our Western States are thought of as
too small and New England as too large; we think Great
Britain as relatively too large and Russia as too small.
Kurope is too large and Asia is too small in our mental
- map to enable us to make true comparisons. Tor illus-
tration, Missouri and Washington are each larger than
all of New England, but do they seem to have that size
in our thought? The Yellowstone National Park is about
the size of Porto Rico and is larger than Rhode Island
and Delaware combined. Java has the same area as
England, and Ceylon is half as large. Maine is larger
than Ireland. New Zealand is considerably larger than
the Island of Great Britain, with England, Scotland, and -
Wales. Formosa is larger than either Maryland or Hol-
land. Borneo is larger than Texas. India stretches as
far as from the mouth of the Chesapeake to Panama.
Korea is larger than either Idaho, Minnesota, or Utah.
From Peking to Canton, China, it is about as far as from
Duluth to New Orleans.
How many of us think of these countries in their true
size? It is a great deal as tho we used a pair of field
glasses in looking at part of the earth’s surface and
then reversed the glasses and looked thru the other
end at other countries. It is thru this sense impres- |
sion from maps of varying scales that our minds are
furnished with memory images that are inconsistent
with reality. The scale of the maps in our atlases and
on our wall charts is determined chiefly by the con-
venience of the printer and the cost in making the pages
of uniform size and therefore of varying scale. The
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY “SE
price we pay is utter confusion in our source impres-
sion of size.
Scales should be standardized into one uniform set of
scales, easily transferable from one into another; e.g. 100
miles to an inch, 50 miles to an inch, 20 miles to an inch,
10 miles to an inch, and 1 mile to an inch. It should be
possible to get a map of any country in any of the stand-
ard scales. This would make possible direct comparison
of size by superposition of the maps. Such scales as
6144 miles to an inch and 2214 miles to an inch, simply
should not be used, because the distances on such a map
will not be translated into miles. Recent publications
are moving in this direction, but confusing scales are
still very abundant.
168 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
STREAM POLLUTION, A GROWING MENACE TO
WATER SUPPLIES
Frep R. Jevuirr, Prestpent Knox Country ACADEMY OF
ScIENCE
The pollution of the streams of Illinois by sewage and-
factory waste has reached a point where a statewide pro-
test should be formulated and a campaign organized to
reduce the present evil and to prevent further increase.
The public must be informed and positive action must
be taken. We seem to have ample law and no fault is
found on this score; we have a State Board with power
to act, and we have no desire to criticize the Board.
Stream pollution is largely the result of indolence and
ignorance, which do not take into account the effects,
and which seek the easiest way of getting rid of waste
and sewage. A.late report of the Illinois Department of
Health says: ‘‘Contaminated water is a mighty danger-
ous enemy.’’ It is time that attention be given in every
institution and every commercial body of the State to .
the menace that this indiscriminate practice constitutes.
First I will emphasize the fact that the time is ap-
proaching when as much as possible of the water that
falls from the clouds must be conserved for animal and
vegetable and industrial consumption.
In my own county last year a great railroad company
was forced to haul water from an artificial reservoir
forty miles away; an electric light and power company.
-was reduced to an extremity to procure an adequate sup-
ply of the right kind of water; farmers were compelled
to haul water for stock, streams were so dry that one
could walk on their beds, and municinalities were at their
wits’ ends to obtain water fit to use and in ample quan-
tity. The procuring of unspoiled supplies is each year
becoming more difficult.
The source of our supplies is the rain. Is it possible to
formulate a policy by which a larger quantity of this
may be made available before it is contaminated with
organic, animal or mineral impurities? Authorities give
the average annual rainfall for the State at thirty-five -
inches. In years of maximum rainfall, a total of fifty
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 169
inches or more may be precipitated, while in years of
least rainfall the total may not be more than twenty-four
inches or even less. It is in these years of least rainfall
that the need of conservation of water becomes most ap-
parent, and when the effects of pollution become most
acute and dangerous.
Drift formations of various depths cover most of our
State and the yellow clays, sands and gravels absorb
water which is diffused through their layers. Below the
yellow clay lies.a blue or bowlder clay that as a rule is
impervious to water. Part of the rain sinks through the
soil and subsoil into this yellow clay, which thus over a
large area is a water bearing stratum. Water is re-
tained in it because of blue clay underneath. This under-
ground reservoir is not by any means inexhaustible, al-
though our State report properly calls it our largest and
most valuable supply, and surface wells over much of the
State extend into it. The level in this formation has been
lowered, and it can no longer be relied upon, as in pioneer
days, to meet the increasing demands. Professor J. A.
Udden in one of the early Bulletins says: ‘‘The general
‘level of the ground water is being lowered.’’ As early
as 1908, the Bulletin spoke of the insufficiency of the yel-
low clay supply. —
Another important consideration is that the wide-
spread tile drainage of the surface has accelerated the
run off so that not.so large a quantity of water as for-
merly reaches the yellow clay. In a general way one can
figure this run off at nearly one-third of the precipitation.
It is estimated that nearly one-third is evaporated and
at some seasons the proportion is greater. This leaves
about a third to sink into the water bearing clays, sands
and gravels, and a portion of this seeps out along the
edges of the blue clay into the streams or breaks out in
springs. Or very great economic importance, therefore,
is what becomes of the portion that seeps into the clays
or runs into the streams. It is on this that man and all
other animal and even vegetable life must depend for
most convenient supplies.
In the State Bulletin of 1913 it is stated that ‘“With
very few exceptions there are no sources of water supply
170 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
in Illinois that are free from possible contamination.”’
Again it is declared that ‘‘all running streams are in dan-
ger of pollution.’”’? To this it can be added that many of
our streams are now polluted.
The report of 1917 listed 433 municipalities with water
supplies, of which 189 are from rock wells; 149 from drift -
wells; 67 from streams; 22 from Lake Michigan, and 10
_ from springs. To these must be added the tens of thous-
ands of drift wells on private premises. One must also
consider the hundreds of municipalities that do not yet
have public supplies and whose needs must be kept in
view.
Let us take first the pollution of the run off as ex-
hibited in our streams. This is accomplished by the con-
tamination of watersheds as well as by the discharge
of waste and sewage into the channels. Cedar Fork, a
small stream that flows through Galesburg, furnishes an
illustration. Untreated sewage and much waste go into
this and render the water foul and exceedingly offensive.
These putrid discharges poison the water for eight to ten
miles below the city. Estimating the watershed of the
creek at seven square miles, when it crosses the west city
limits, this ereek would have in a year of average rain-
fall a run off of 1,500,000,000 gallons of water, with seep-
age of possibly a quarter of a billion more. Sewage ren-
ders all this absolutely unfit for use. If this water were
conserved and impounded the gas company and other
industries along its banks would have an ample supply.
As it is; not a frog will venture into it for miles below the
city and fish life was long since extinguished. Live
stock will not drink the water and the stream, which
might be an asset,-is changed into a liability to the farm-
ers.
This is not an isolated case by any means. Because
it is easiest and cheapest, cities and factories all over the
the State are using streams as open sewers and recep-
tacles for waste. Neither lake, river or creek is spared.
When we are discussing this, we naturally think of Chi-
cago, but after an investigation I am convinced that most
of the cities of the State, little and big, are equally guilty
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 171
and that poisoning of the water that falls pure from the
clouds is nearly a general practice.
Let us take the pollution of the Illinois river, a stream
once renowned for its beauty and charms. Through the
drainage canal it receives much of the sewage of Chicago,
and is so befouled by this that even the bottom of Lake
Peoria, far down the river, has its blanket of filth. The
main tributaries of the Illinois are the Kankakee, Des-
Plaines, Fox, Vermillion, Mackinaw, Sangamon, and
Spoon rivers and Crooked creek. The report of 1921-2
says: ‘‘The conditions of the sewage of the Illinois
river are more pronounced than ever before.’’
‘The Fox river valley is quite thickly populated. The
large cities of Elgin, Aurora and Ottawa use this as a
sewage channel, not to mention smaller towns that find
it a convenient depository. The discharges of twelve
Hilgin sewers pass into the river. Elgin is, however,
building a sanitary sewer system. Aurora has nine sew-
ers connected with the channel and there are sewer out-
lets from various private and manufacturing plants along
the river, without treatment. Aurora is said now to be
agitating a drainage district. An effort was made by the
Rivers and Lakes Commission several years ago to abate
the nuisance but the war interfered.
The DesPlaines river is polluted by the sewage of Joliet
and by its factory waste. The corrupt condition of the
Sangamon river is in the reports deemed a special object
of concern. The sewage of Springfield and Decatur
goes into it. The report of 1918-19 declares that Sanga-
mon river is greatly polluted below Decatur. Decatur
now has a million dollar sanitary sewer system, just com-
pleted, and that will take care of raw sewage and waste
save in times of flood. Jacksonville and Bloomington
empty their sewage into creeks but it finds its way into
the Illinois river. The Kankakee river receives the sew-
age of Kankakee and there are other towns along it that
may contribute toward fouling it.
Both Streator and Pontiae on the Vermillion river use
it for sewage and waste purposes. In the State report
of 1920-21 special mention is made of the foul condition
of the river at Pontiac. Another comment is that ‘‘Dur-
172 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ing a large part of the time, the Vermillion river below
Streator consists only of sewage, industrial waste and
mine water.’?’ We understand that Pontiac has built a
disposal plant and that Streator is considering one.
Peoria is on the Illinois river, and its sewage and waste
go into it. We have the authority of a fish and game
official, familiar with the condition of the river there,
that when the water is low the stream is in a foul condi-
tion and that the fish are liable to be affected injuriously.
It seems unnecessary to multiply instances, for this is
enough to indicate the extent to which the Illinois river
system is being used for sewage purposes. Practically
all the large streams that flow into it receive more or less
sewage. Although a state wide, detailed survey has not
been made there is reason to believe smaller municipali-
ties also are polluting the tributaries, so that from all
parts of the river basin filth and industrial waste are
being conveyed to the main streams and thence to the
river itself. In its 1921 report the Commission says:
‘‘During the last year complaints have been received ©
from numerous farm organizations, where streams have
been so polluted by industrial waste or city sewage as to
prevent their natural and lawful use for agricultural or
other legitimate purposes.’’
Specific mention is made of conditions at Joliet, Ot-
-tawa, Seneca, Morris and Elgin. It is’ stated that the
Desplaines and Illinois rivers are badly polluted and
for years have been unfit for bathing or domestic uses,
or for stock, and the fish industry has been completely
destroyed as far down as Peoria. The stench at times
in the summer is offensive and also a.damage to naviga-
tion. Several States have laws regarding sewage treat-
ment to avoid stream pollution. Such a law would bea
progressive step in Illinois of a great public benefit.’’
The Mississippi river we have heard referred to as
an open sewer. One will not allude to what other States
are doing to it. It is enough to speak of the offenses
against it in our own commonwealth. The Father of
Waters must forsooth be forced to hold his nose when a
whiff comes his way.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 173
At Quincy, the sewage is emptied into the river above
the city water intake, which, however, is far out in the
channel. The sewage and factory waste of Moline, par-
tially treated, go into the tail race and then into the
Mississippi river channel at Rock Island. Rock Island
pours the contents of its sewers into the Mississippi.
The sewage and waste of the large city of Kast St. Louis
are conveyed into the Mississippi river below the city.
Alton finds the river a convenient receptacle for its
waste and sewage. Cairo’s sewage and waste .peur into
the Ohio and then into the Mississippi river. Other
cities along both sides of the river from the north end
of the State are abusing this magnificent waterway and
contributing to its contamination. In low water the
river is for weeks and even months likely to be a foul
and filthy stream. .
Tributaries that flow into the Mississippi river are
- polluted also. Take Rock River, one of the most pictur-
esque rivers in the state, whose banks have been noted
as picnic grounds. One of its tributaries is the Peca-
tonica river, and within the city limits of Freeport raw
sewage flows into it in five places. This includes factory
waste. Rockford, the main city on the river, known for
the extent of its industries, turns its sewage into the
river, and the report for Sterling, another good sized
city, is of the same nature. All this sewage must tend to
make the river less desirable and a menace. Belleville,
not far from the Mississippi, uses a small creek for
sewage in part, although it has a disposal plant. Shelby-
ville reported, ‘‘We are emptying everything into the
Kaskaskia’’, and a similar answer came from Vandalia.
On the other side of the State one finds Danville empty-
ing its sewage into the Big Vermillion.
In nearly every case the reports make the statement
that the rivers and streams are too foul to use as sources
of supplies without treatment. In the state department
report for 1919-20 we find this strong statement:
‘*Stream pollution is depriving the public of the legiti-
mate use of the water therein. For years streams not
only in Illinois but in many states have been accepted as
a natural means of sewage disposal. Increased develop-
174 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ment and growth of population have resulted in a load
of sewage or industrial waste that the streams can no
longer carry with due regard to public health or to the
use of the streams for stock on the farm’’. It is but
simple justice to say that several of these cities are
taking steps that may lead to the installation of disposal
plants. Decatur and Elgin are leading the way, and my
own city is agitating this question. One of the chief
difficulties is in getting the people to vote the necessary
funds. | |
In the 1923 report of the proceedings of the annual
meeting of the civil engineers of the State is found an
address by Paul Hansen who enumerates 103 disposal
plants, and makes the comment that many of the plants
are neglected, ten of them abandoned and eleven over-
loaded, disclosing that efficiency in many instances is far
from maintained.
Thus is the run off from practically one-third of the
rainfall, expedited by tiling and sewers, seriously affect-
ed, and the citizens of our State are being deprived of
many billions of gallons of water annually. Cities are
finding it increasingly difficult to find a stream of suffic-
ient size to serve as a supply, when impounded, owing
to the unsanitary condition which may extend even to
the watershed.
Judging from the reports at hand it is the common
practice of cities to create a reservoir on a’ stream and
empty the sewage into the. stream at some point below
the reservoir. The next town below finds itself short of
water and becomes aware. that the city above is using
the river for a sewer. But it builds its dam, and erects
an extensive purifying plant, expecting that chlorine and
other chemicals will protect the lives of the people, and
in turn conveys its sewage to a point below its dam,
thus contaminating the water for the next town below.
This goes on for the length of the stream. The health
of each of these places depends upon the efficacy of the
purification plant, and any imperfection in this that
causes raw water to get into the distributing system is
likely to result in serious epidemics. Some of our I[lli-
nois cities have had sad experiences along this line. Pol-
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 175
luting a river for the city next below is a great deal like
poisoning your neighbor’s well. Cities that have deep
wells or spring supplies are likely to show least responsi-
bility. One might cite Rockford, Freeport, Peoria,
Aurora and Joliet.
Illinois is not all equally favored. South of a line
running east and west through Champaign, water, ac-
cording to the 1914 Bulletin, is seldom obtained in large
quantities either from deep rock or the drift, and such
ground water usually is very hard. Some exceptions
exist in Southern [lnois; but it is frequently the case
that there is no choice but to adopt a surface supply in
the south half of our State. This means the impounding
of water, and this enhances the importance of main-
taining the streams in an uncontaminated condition.
On the other hand many of the cities in the north half
of the State are not obliged to resort to ground water
due to the accessibility of deep rock supplies. These
waters, as a rule, while fit for domestic uses, are not
adapted to industrial purposes without treatment, due
to the mineral content. Impounded surface water is gen-
erally much preferred and hence the large use of im-
pounded water for boiler and other mechanical uses.
In the north part of the State two formations are
recognized as fairly sure sources of supplies, and water
-may be found in others but not with the same degree of
certainty. Sometimes it may be too heavily charged
with minerals even for domestic uses. These two form-
ations are the St. Peters and the Pottsdam. The former
underlies much of six states and is regarded as one of
the most remarkable water rocks in the world. Scores of
municipalities procure their supplies from this forma-
tion, but the State reports indicate that constant pump-
ing is gradually lowering the water level. The Potts-
dam formation lies below the St. Peter’s and is sepa-
rated from it by the Lower Magnesium. Observation,
however, indicates that the water level in this is also
being slowly lowered.
Thus there is raised the question whether these rock
supplies are inexhaustible and whether finally a dense
population will not even in the north part of the State
176 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
have to rely upon the surface and ground supplies; in
other words on the rainfall. The question in view of the
possible decline and the often quick exhaustion of the
ground supplies in a dry season relates not merely to the
preservation of the purity of the surface water but a
its conservation.
Take Knox, my own, county. In it are 440 streams,
little and big, enclosed between ranges of hills. Many
of these streams could be dammed and the water pre-
served. We have built up a wonderful system of surface
drainage that empties the surface layers of their water, —
more rapidly than formerly, and hastens exhaustion of
the moisture so that crops suffer. Last year the drouth
cost Knox county farmers a third of their corn crop.
With reservoirs there could be at least partial irriga-
tion. Hven Congress has considered means of impound-
ing water so as to prevent destructive floods. It is esti- —
mated that in Knox county, an annual rainfall of thirty
six inches means the precipitation of four hundred and
fifty billion gallons of water on its surface, and the im-
mense run off of 150,000,000,000 gallons, if not more in
flood years, goes on its way to the ocean, while during
‘the dry season the beds of the streams may be dry. It
goes without our making use of it.
Illinois has some good laws on the subject of stream
pollution but in view of existing public sentiment it is
difficult to apply them. For instance, the Statute pro-
vides that, ‘‘It shall be the duty of the Department of
Public Works and Buildings to see that all the streams
and lakes of the State of Illinois, wherein the State of
Illinois or any of its citizens have any rights or inter-
ests, are not polluted or defiled.
‘‘Tt shall be unlawful for any persons, firm or corpo-
ration to throw, discharge, dump, or. deposit, or cause,
suffer or procure to be thrown, discharged , dumped or
deposited any acids or chemicals, industrial wastes or
refuse, poisonous effluent, or dye stuff, clay or other
washings, or any other substance deleterious to fish life,
or any refuse matter of any kind or description contain-
ing solids, substance discoloring or otherwise polluting
any navigable lake, river or stream in this state, or lake,
:
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ea a (age
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y
fw
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Wet Amung
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fs. OAS
The state map in a general way shows the drainage system of Illinois
and the cities that are the principal sources of stream pollution.
The deep well geological section shows the formations passed through
in borings at Galesburg and vicinity that reach to the Potsdam. The other
section is of the surface formations in Knox county, and with some varia-
tions will apply to much of the State.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY . VT
river or stream connected with or the waters of which
discharge into any navigable lake, river or stream of
this State or upon the borders thereof, or any water-
- course whatsoever.’’ The drainage district for Chicago
and the Desplaines river are made exceptions. —
It was also provided by the Fifty-second General As-
sembly that it is necessary to submit plans and obtain a
permit from the Division of Waterways before any work
can be done legally toward the construction of a sewer
outlet for the discharge of sewage into a lake, stream
or water course of the State.
In all this I have been trying to show:
First—That under the present methods, ground sup-
plies are not adequate the year around.
- Second—That the usability of our surface waters rep-
resented by our streams is lessened by their pollution
by sewage and factory waste. |
Third—That the available supply could be increased
by the suppression of such pollution and the enforcement
of a law that would compel cities or permit them to pro-
vide for the disposal of sewage and waste. For the good
of all, municipalities must be taught to observe sanitary
law.
Fourth—That sewage and waste pollution of the
streams is a menace to health, a source of disease, and
-renders water unfit for use, and constitutes a public nuis-
ance, besides killing aquatic animal life and making the
water a possible source of disease to domestic animals,
which may communicate it to man.
Fifth—That conservation, checking flood waste, would
probably carry the supply through the heated season and
save much expense and trouble.
Sixth—That the uncertainty attending the life of deep
-well supplies makes the saving of surface supplies all
the more important.
It seems to me that it would be well for us to urge the
legislature to provide the State Water Board with an
‘ appropriation sufficient to enable it to make a compre-
hensive survey of the extent of pollution of Llinois
streams and to formulate the most practical remedies.
In the meantime, I believe that the systematic education
2 A ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
of the public should be undertaken and that they should
become informed not only of the dangers of the indis- —
criminate use of our streams as open sewers and waste
receptacles, but also of methods of conserving rainfall
and making more of it available. It is a subject that
could be pursued to advantage in our schools. Our
streams should not continue to serve as cess pools, but
should be converted back to their original state of whole-
someness.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 179
COAL BALLS HERE AND ABROAD
A. C. Not, Universtry or Curcaco
A coal ball is a caleareous or siliceous coal seam con-
eretion which frequently contains recognizable plant
fragments.* These plant fragments have furnished our
entire knowledge of the inner structure of paleozoic
plants. They have been observed since 1835 in England
where Williamson used them in his monumental studies
‘of fossil plants since 1875, a work which was continued
by D. H. Scott in England, C. D. Bertrand in France,
and many others.
‘The existence in America of coal balls was suspected
by the author who succeeded in obtaining in 1922 the
first specimens of genuine American coal balls. These
came from Harrisburg, Illinois; later good specimens
were found in Danville, Illinois, in Calhoun (Richland
County), Illinois, and in Streator, Illinois. Other Ameri-
ean deposits are in Iowa where coal balls showed up at
DesMoines, Indianola, and Chariton. Good specimens
were also collected by the author near Sturgis, Ken-
tucky, and at Cayuga, Indiana. They were found outside
of England, France, and America in Austria, Germany,
Russia, Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, and Australia.
Of the American coal ball specimens from Harrisburg,
Danville and Calhoun thin sections have been made in
the botanical laboratory of the University of Chicago.
The following genera of fossil plants were observed and
their structure carefully examined:
Harrisburg— P Fern sporangia
Sphenophyllum stem Root with spongy cortex
Lepidodendron stem Peculiar leaf
Lepidodendron sporangium Calamites leaf
Stigmaria and rootlets Calhoun—
Anachoropteris — Sphenophyllum stem
Angiospermophyton Calamites stem
Root with spongy tissue Bothrodendron stem
Fern sporangia and spores Microsporophyll and
Calamites leaf, probably in all sporangium
three places. Megosporophyll and
Danville— sporangium
Lepidodendron stem Stigmarion rootlets
Lepidodendron sporangia Numerous multeseriate fern,
Stigmaria and rootlets (few) sporangia with spores
Sturiella minor Lyginodendron stem
* Jose Maria Feliciano, The Relation of Concretion to Coal Seams
(Journal of Geology, Vol. 32, pp. 230-239, 1924.
180 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
The results of these investigations are being published
by Dr. G. H. Hoskins and Miss Fredda Reed in the Botan-
ical Gazette. The most important of these discoveries
was the appearance of a paleozoic angiosperm in one of
the Harrisburg Coal Balls.* Among the unpublished
‘material are several other angiosperm specimens which
make the existence of angiosperms in the paleozoie be-
yond question. |
Our entire knowledge of the inner structure of pale-
ozoic plants has been based upon English and French
coal balls. It is to be hoped that the American coal balls
which have come under observation will contribute in the
near future as rich material as was obtained formerly
from Kngland and France, and that our knowledge of
plant structure will in this way be greatly enriched from
American sources.
* J. Hobart Hoskins: A Paleozoic Angiosperm from an American Coal
Ball, The Botanical Gazette, Vol. 75, pp. 390-399.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 181
GLACIAL PHENOMENA IN THE VICINITY OF
CARBONDALE
J. HE. Lamar, Iuurnois State GroLocicaL Survey, URBANA
The area particularly discussed in this paper is that of
the Carbondale quadrangle, in the northwest corner of
which the town bearing the same name is located. This
quadrangle may be roughly divided into three topo-
graphic units according to the bed rock formations which
underlie these units respectively, as shown in the accom-
panying figure. The northern unit is that underlain by
the Carbondale formation, composed of sandstone and
shale, which when eroded, gives rise to a gently rolling
surface. The central unit, which is by far the largest
of the three, is underlain by the massive sandstones and
shales of the Pottsville formation. This part of the
quadrangle is very rugged and constitutes a portion of
the [llinois Ozarks. Sandstone bluffs and cliffs are
numerous. The southern unit of the quadrangle is that
underlain by the limestones, shales, and sandstones of
the Chester group. It has a varied topography. In
places it is like the northern unit, and elsewhere like the
central unit, particularly in the areas where some of the
prominent cliff-forming sandstones are well developed.
The north three-fourths of the quadrangle drains to the
north; the south one-fourth to the south.. The north-
ward drainage eventually merges in Craborchard Creek,
which flows westward across the northern part of the
quadrangie, but turns abruptly to the north in the north-
west corner to join Big Muddy River.
The Ilinoian glacier spread over the northern half of
the region just described. It came dominantly from the
north and perhaps a little from the east. The ice of the
glacier was probably porous and much crevassed from
the buffeting against the hills of the country over which
it had passed, and its advance was seemingly very slow.
The rapid melting and pronounced deposition which ac-
companied the formation of the terminal moraines of the
Wisconsin ice were essentially missing. The melting of
the Illinoian ice seems to have been comparatively slow.
The ice moved over the rolling topography of the north-
182 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE .-
ern unit of the quadrangle without great difficulty, but
when it encountered the rugged upgrade slopes of the
Pottsville unit, the forces which were pushing it ahead
seem to have been insufficient to send it completely up
the grade. The southward progression of the glacier,
therefore, is thought to have ceased more because of a
lack of motion of the ice itself rather than to the predom-
inance of melting over ice advance. There was probably
a geologically brief period when the advance and the
melting back of the ice were equal and the margin there-
fore maintained a fairly constant position. During that
time deposits accumulated at the ice front in ‘thickneaade
somewhat in excess of those formed elsewhere in this
region, but in this rough topography did not form a
pr ominient moraine.
The first important event in thie general glacial history
of the region was the shutting off of the drainage of
Craborchard Creek from Big Muddy River. It is not
known where the ice first Gee the drainage of the
creek, whether near Big Muddy River or farther up
stream, but eventually the result was the same. All the
precipitation as well as the water from the melting of the
glacial ice was therefore ponded in that part of the val-
ley of Craborchard Creek not occupied by ice and its
tributaries until it became high enough to eross the di-
vide at the headwaters of the creek some 20 miles east
of Carbondale near New Dennison. Just how high the
water stood in the valley can now only be approximated,
but it certainly stood as high as 435 feet above sea level,
for that is the present height of the New Dennison col.
The maximum depth, of the lake was about 100 feet.
With the continued advance of the ice, certain northward
flowing tributaries of Craborchard Creek were cut off
from the main stream and became local lakes. Some of
these lakes at times found exit across divides into neigh-
boring valleys which still discharged into Craborchard
Creek. Two cols which were produced in this fashion,
but probably during the early stages of Lake Craborch-
ard, occur in Secs. 1 and 2, T.10 S., R.1 E., where the
waters of Little Grassy and Caney creeks probably
crossed the divide into Sugar Creek and thence joined
the main drainage.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 183
During the existence of these lakes, deposition of ma-
terials from the melting ice was constantly going on. In
the Craborchard lake, which was probably by far the
largest on this quadrangle, it’seems possible that un-
stratified gray clay accumulated in portions of the lake
basin where deposition was continuous. From time to
time boulders and pebbles fell from bergs and ice blocks
floating about on the lake and became imbedded in this
lake bottom clay. Thus it is possible that some of the
gray clay till-like material which contains sparse pebbles
may have originated. This method of origin does not,
however, preclude the probability that the greater part
of the gray till was formed in the commonly accepted
fashion, but is merely a suggestion as to how a very simi-
lar sort of deposit might have been formed under special
conditions.
In the smaller lakes and the larger lake alike there
were deposited in considerable thicknesses statified ma-
terials composed for the most part of sand and silt.
There is some gravel found with these sands and silts,
but it occurs in lens-like deposits, some of which seem
to have been built up as small deltas where comparative-
ly rapid moving water entered a quiet body of water. In
some of the smaller valley lakes in the central part of the
quadrangle, fifty or more feet of these sands and silts
accumulated. They are commonly underlain by pebbly
clay till, and in places have this material intercalated
with them. The valley of Sycamore Creek, in the east-
ern part of T. 10 S., R. 1 W. particularly, has excellent
exposures of these sands and silts.
In two of the lakes the water seems to have become
high enough to have spilled across the divide and found
an outlet to the south to Ohio River. These lakes oc-
curred in the valleys of Drury Creek and Little Grassy
Creek respectively. The former lake had its inception
when the ice shut off the drainage of Drury Creek from
Craborchard Creek. By the time the ice had advanced
south to a point about a mile and half south of Bosky
Dell, the lake was about eight miles long and the water
in it at that point was about 200 feet deep. The surface
elevation of the lake was about 600 feet. Some of the
184 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
water spilled over a small col in See. 20, T.10 S., R.1 W.,
thence into Cedar Creek, and eventually into Mississippi
River. The farther advance of the glacier, however,
eventually shut off this exit and the water found its way
across the divide to the south through a col just north
of the town of Cobden. The elevation of this col is a
little over 600 feet and drainage through it, and the pre-
viously mentioned col, may have been contemporaneous
for a time. The Cobden col is not a particularly large
col, its size suggesting that the quantity of the water
passing through it at any time was not large. The col
is cut in formations of the Chester group which are not
particularly resistant to erosion. The character of the
bedrock, therefore, would not have been a particular
hindrance to the enlargement of the col had it contained -
a torrential stream. Glacial boulders have been found
in the valley of Cache Creek south of the col, and though
the presence of some of them doubtless may be assigned
to transportation by human agencies, it is probable that
most of the larger boulders were carried over the Cob-
den co! in floating blocks of ice, and later left stranded
farther down-stream.
It is a matter of interesting Sadnawitiens whether with
a head of 200 feet of water in Drury Lake some of the
water of the lake may not have followed the natural
trend of drainage to the north through the much crev-
assed glacial ice, eventually to find a mode of egress into
the Mississippi or its tributaries; also, whether in
places sedimentation may not have been going on within
the body of the ice where it was saturated with water.
The lake in the valley of Little Grassy Creek was not
as large as that in the valley of Drury Creek. Its maxi-
mum length was about three miles and it probably began
when the ice blocked the valley in See. 19, T.10 S., R.1 EK.
The water in this lake stood at least as high as 570 feet
above sea level. This is the present elevation of the
Water Valley col over which the water from this lake
found its way southward into Bradshaw Creek and even-
tually into Ohio River. The col is cut through a faulted
area in which the Kinkaid limestone of the Chester group
and a massive sandstone of the Pottsville formation are
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 185
exposed. The fractured character of the bedrock -form-
ing the floor of this col is a factor favoring rapid erosion.
The eol, however, is only about an eighth of a mile wide
and does not itself seem likely to have carried a great
volume of water, nor does Bradshaw Creek, into which
the waters entered after crossing the col, show evidence
of having carried an abnormally large volume of water.
Most of the materials which were presumably de-
posited in Little Grassy Creek lake have been eroded
away, but in places in the valley a deposit of gray clay
containing much rotted limestone boulders is found
which was probably formed during the existence of the
lake.
Very little outwash seems to have been developed in
front of the margin of the ice after it had reached its
maximum southern extent. Igneous boulders are found
in places for distances of two miles or more south of the
margin of the glacial deposits, but they are merely loose
in the beds of the creeks and were not seen in any defin-
ite arrangement that could be considered characteristic
of outwash deposits. The absence of these deposits is
probably due to the rapid and pronounced erosion which
has taken place since glacial times, and also to the ten-
dency of the present drainage to transport the debris in
the valleys to the north. Outwash boulders transported
in this direction soon become mixed with other glacial
material and are indistinguishable from it.
The retreat of the Illinoian ice seems to have been in
a measure a replica of its advance in so far as the de-
posits which the ice left are concerned. Local lakes were
formed in valleys, and Drury and Little Grassy lakes
extended to the north until the ice ceased to obstruct the
drainage in that direction. In these lakes more silt and
sand accumulated, and elsewhere where water sorting
was not active, a deposit of more or less heterogeneous
materials.
_ To summarize, then, the outstanding features of the
glaciation of the Carbondale quadrangle are as follows:
1. The advance of the ice to its maximum southern
limit was accompanied by the formation of lakes in the
valleys of many streams draining toward the ice. In the
ease of two lakes water rose high enough to cross the
186 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
divide of the Illinois Ozarks and to find an outlet to the
south.
2. In these lakes were deposited primarily sand aa
silt. The silts are in some cases stratified, in others not
stratified.
3. In an environment of such rough topography the
terminal morainie deposits are not pronounced.
4. Outwash deposits are essentially lacking because
they were either not formed or have been subseqneney
obliterated by erosion.
CaRBONDALE QUADRANGLE
TT Sa eT EET
is a breaking face on that side. The reason that chatter
marks are scoop shaped is because there is no vertical
breaking face, and the plane of fracture returns to the
surface, which is the only avatlable breaking face.
The granitic rocks are pitted with shallow depressions
in many places after the fashion of pot-holes.* (Figure
2.) Pot-holes are usually thought of as those depres-
sions which are worn by swirling boulders or pebbles
eT
? E
196 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE —
below the falls of a rapid river or in other eddying
streams, but the great abundance of concave surfaces on
the Killarney granite and gneiss makes any reasonable
observer at once give up any such explanation for the
thousands of ‘‘pot-holes’’ in this district, unless indeed
he believes that the whole area was at one time over-
flowed by a huge and very widespread torrent. Streams
doubtless followed the glacial period, but such an expla-
nation does not fit all the cases because many of the de-
pressions have the smooth, polished surface character-
istic of glacial polishing. Many of these depressions
antedate the last glacial sheet which covered the land.
Observations show that a variety of causes has brought
about similar products in different manners.
The granite at Killarney has a nearly horizontal sheet-
ing. It tends to break off in rather irregular and shal-
low slabs of rock as a result of frost work. Glaciers
riding over these granite surfaces broke out some of these
slabs and carried them away. The place left, in several
cases found, is almost scoop shovel shaped. (Figure 3.)
The glacier chipped out a piece of rock, which broke in
a vertical direction down to the sheeting plane in a curv-
ing surface which was convex toward the direction from
which the glacier came, provided the breaking surface
was on the sheltered side of the rocky knob or roche
moutonnée. In some other cases the granite broke out
from the bed rock on the downstream (stoss) side of the
outcrop, concave towards the direction from which the
ice was coming, as a sort of giant chatter mark. In-
either case, the passing ice in time smoothed off the
edges of the broken rock, and left a polished depres-
sion in the midst of an otherwise convex surface, looking
something like a pot-hole. (Figure 4.)
-
In other cases the primary depression was made by |
the conjunction of three or more joint planes which -
loosened upwards a piece of rock of pyramid shape.
After frost had heaved this piece loose, and passing ice
had earried it away, the place from which it came pro-
vided the start of another polished depression which
looks like a pot-hole. Near Killarney these joints were
3 Pot-holes have been described and classified in detail by EB. D. Elston.
The Scientific Monthly, Vol. V pp. 554-567 and Vol. VI pp. 37-51 (1918).
Fig. 3. Potholes due to removal of granite sheeting slabs.
Fig. 4. Glaciated depression made by intersecting joints.
Fig. 5. Coneave fractures of Killarney granite.
Fig. 6. Solution cavities in pegmatitic granite.
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PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 197
found to have the following positions; strike N. 180°
E., dip 40° W; strike N. 15° E., dip 39° S; and strike
N. 85° E., dip 87° S. A similar process is responsible
for some of the so-called rock ‘‘tanks’’ in arid ‘regions’.
Again it happens that the Killarney granite has a
natural conchoidal fracture in some places, and (Figure
5) under any stress, such as that, for instance, of a pass-
ing glacier heavily loaded with locally burdensome drift,
itis likely to break along curved surfaces. A piece which
breaks out of a plane face naturally leaves a concave
surface, and after such a surface has been glaciated,
that too is like a pot-hole.
There are porphyritic phases within the granite and
the gneiss which are not of the same fine, even grain
characteristic of the rest of the rock, and the parts
which are weaker than others weather more readily and
leave hollows in the surface, which are likely to have
been smoothed off by glaciation. (Figure 6.)
In the side of a nearly vertical surface facing north-
ward, on the north side of an island south of Philip Ed-
ward Island, there is a cavity, over a foot deep, which
penetrates a glaciated surface, and which seems to be
‘in part of age greater than the last ice sheet. This hole
is gradually growing larger by a sort:of spherical scal-
ing within the hole. The hole is growing on opposite
sides of a narrow crack in the rock. The crack appears
to be the thoroughfare by which ground water works
into the rock, oxidizes the minerals, and causing them to
expand in volume, creates a pressure sufficient to crack
the rock. The shape and position of the hole is such
that pieces which break off fall out of the hole into the
lake; thus fresh rock is repeatedly exposed to the agency
of disruption. Of course this is not a pot-hole, for it is
quite impossible for a pot-hole to form in the side of a
vertical cliff, yet it is a hole, and after glaciation such
a hole would be distinguished with difficulty, in some sit-
uations, from a real pot-hole made by swirling boulders.
(Figure 7.)
igen Bryan, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply, Paper No. 498, (1923),
198 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
In the immediate neighborhood of Killarney, in the
village itself, one may see all but the last type of glaci-
ated rock hole. At the rocky point, at the west end of
the channel, on the north side of the water, one may see
the depressions formed by two types of giant chatter
marks. In the walk outside the MacDonald Hotel one
may see the depressions formed by the intersection of
joints, and by the conchoidal fracture of Killarney gran-
ite, and there are excellent illustrations of the way im
which the glacial abrasion truneated and. partly de-
stroyed some depressions which had been made at an
earlier time. Only those which came in the later period
of glaciation are preserved intact. In a garden near the
store of Mr. T. Jackman there is a rock exposure which
shows admirably the way in which some of the pegma-
titic and miarolitic material in the granite weathers into
pitted shapes something like pot-holes.
A significant argument that the pot-holes are indige-
nous to the granite and not the result of any outside
agency is the fact that the quartzites of the same district
contain almost no such depressions. Photographs show
the peculiar shape of the glaciated surfaces of the granite
rock moutonées. Almost all of these peculiarities are |
due to a normal glaciated surface, which is convex up-
wards in the direction of glacial movement, truncating
a smooth surface which has been glaciated, although not
fashioned by glaciation, and which is concave upwards.
Some of these concave surfaces were in existence before
glaciation, some came into being during glaciation, and
others came after glaciation. (Figure 8.)
Thus it is stupid to suppose that all concave surfaces,
or even holes, in glaciated rocks are due to the work of
subglacial streams. It is quite clear at Killarney that
several other agencies made such depressions, and there
is no evidence that any of these ‘‘pot-holes’’ were really
made by the spinning and swirling of boulders ¢aught in
an eddy of a subglacial stream or at the bottom of a
moulin in a glacier. Striking as these holes are, they do
not seem to have been bored by any natural gimlet, such
as a spinning boulder in running water. Indeed, this
area provides the evidences of ‘‘pot-holes’’ of hitherto
undescribed methods of development.
eathering.
dal w
i
sphero
granite due to
In
Cavity
potholes.
c= 4
5
imulatin
s
e surfaces of glacial erosion,
Concayv
ig. 8
F
¢ we
i
Wie pares aM
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 199
SOME QUESTIONS IN GENERAL AND PETROLEUM
GEOLOGY WHICH ARE SUGGESTED BY OIL
OCCURRENCES IN CRAWFORD COUNTY,
PENNSYLVANIAN BEDS
JaMeEs H. Hance, Srare GrotocicaL Survey Division,
URBANA
SUMMARY
Over a considerable part of Crawford County, oil pro-
duction from Pennsylvanian sands is conditioned by
other factors, perhaps as important as the LaSalle Anti-
cline. Certain features indicate a nearby source for the
oil and this may be important in future exploration work.
GENERAL
One of the controlling features, perhaps the most im-
portant, of the oil fields in southeastern Illinois is the
LaSalle Anticline which extends from the vicinity of La-
_ Salle southeast nearly to the Wabash River at St. Fran-
cisville. Productive territory has been developed
through Clarke, Crawford, Lawrence, and Wabash Coun-
ties for a distance of seventy miles, and although this
area of production varies in width up to sixteen miles,
commercial accumulation of oil extends to a distance of
eleven miles northeast from the axis on the less steeply
dipping flank. ;
Thus far production has been developed from Pennsyl-
vanian sands on down to the Trenton limestone, but the
development in any one place is limited to a small por-
tion of the vertical range. (Martinsville area excepted.)
Thus in Lawrence County most of the oil produced comes
from rocks of Mississippian age. In Crawford County
production is chiefly from Pennsylvanian and Mississip-
pian rocks, and in Clarke County, the Pennsylvanian,
-Mississippian and Ordovician rocks are each important
locally.
All of this production is along the LaSalle anticline
and is clearly related to it. During the past eight years
detailed studies have brought to light certain features,
which when better understood may assist greatly in
200 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
further development. In 1915, Rich’ made a careful
study of the Birds Quadrangle in Crawford County, and
noted the allignment of the Pennsylvanian sand produe-
tion at right angles approximately to the axis of the anti- ~
cline. He concluded that the Pennsylvanian beds were
essentially flat-lying over this area, and that oil accu-
mulation in the Robinson sand seemed to be conditioned
on its thick and massive development. Differences in
elevation of the sands due to arching and folding are less
in amount than differences due to irregularities in the
sand lenses themselves. oo.
Later work by Mylius’ in Clarke County disclosed cer-
tain features in the northern part of the field, to account
for which he hypothecates cross folding. As some of the
production includes pre-Pennsylvanian rocks, the prob-
lem is modified somewhat, but the fact is noted that
something other than the LaSalle anticline is involved in
the oil occurrences in this part of the field. Recent field
work, as yet incomplete, in the north one-half of Craw-
ford County is adding its quota to the information rel-
ative to our south-eastern oil fields and furnishes some
conspicuous contrasts between Pennsylvanian and pre-
Pennsylvanian production. Here the upper sands (Rob--
inson) are elongated in a direction approximately N. 52°
Hi, whereas upper Mississippian production (Chester),
developed here in only a small way, follows the direction _
of the anticline. As noted by Rich in the Birds Quad-
rangle, differences in elevation of the top of the Robinson
sand are influenced less by folding and warping than by
lensing. Some of these areas are irregular in shape with
no conspicuous or symmetrical elongation. Others are
several miles in length, and these longer dimensions are
in the northeast-southwest direction. Another note-
worthy feature is the occurrence of all of these elongated
areas on the northeast side of the axis of the anticline.
In no instance have they been reported or observed on
the west flank of the fold. The most prominent develop-
ment of this nature occurs between Birds and Annapolis,
a distance of about twenty miles.
1 Rich, J. L., Oil and Gas in the Birds Quadrangle, Ill. State Geol. Sur-
vey, Buil. 33, pp. 105-145.
2Mylius, L. A., Extract from Bulletin 44, Ill. State Geol. Survey.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 201
Summing up the observations to date, we have the fol-
lowing:
1. Robinson sand production is commonly elongated
in a northeast-southwest direction. This does not hold
true for the Chester. Perhaps correlation is at fault.
2. These elongated areas are all east of the fold, but
are found very close to it.
3. The sand top drops less rapidly from west to east
than to the north or south. Available data, though too
meagre to be very satisfactory, indicate overlapping sand
lenses. . .
QUESTIONS
Since these occurrences are somewhat independent of
the general structural conditions along the LaSalle anti-
cline, they raise some interesting questions.
1. Are these transverse elongations due to cross folds,
faults, sand lenses, or some other agency?
2. Why are’they confined to the east side of the anti-
cline? Perhaps the final solution will show that they are
not so confined.
3. Are they limited in occurrence to the immediate
vicinity of the-anticline, and if so, why?
4. Do these occurrences suggest certain phases of
Paleogeography? What are some possibilities?
-5. What and where is the probable source of this
oil? Isitlocal or may it be remote? Has any of the oil
migrated very far?
6. What is the general artesian circulation of the
Illinois basin? Is there a critical relation between the
oil accumulation and the present artesian circulation
through the basin? If so, what?
7. How are these questions related to future explora-
tion?
SOME TENTATIVE SUGGESTIONS
At present studies are too incomplete to answer finally
most or all of these questions, but some points seem
reasonably clear.
Cross folding is not apparent here because the sands
appear to be missing where the synclines should be found.
Contours on the top and the bottom of the Robinson sands
202 _ ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
would be at variance. Is cross folding known to occur
anywhere? pi
Displacement or faulting of the sands does not seem ~
to be shown from a study of the well logs. This hypothe-
sis, however, is not untenable so far as the writer knows.
Sufficient confirmatory evidence is lacking.
A study of the well logs indicates the existence of
elongated sand lenses and bodies. This material ‘is
somewhat variable, and shale or lime breaks are com-
monly reported within such sand bodies. :
Studies of present development fail to show these
transverse zones on the west side of the anticline, al-
though recorded dry holes indicate a fairly thorough
testing of the west flank. The Pennsylvanian beds are
more nearly flat on the east flank than on the west. Per-
haps this is sufficient reason -either for occurrence of the
sand lenses or for their gathering oil. Only the higher
portions of such sand lenses might favor commercial ac-
cumulation of oil, and hence the importance of a position
near the crest of the anticline. Do these sand lenses indi-
_ cate near-shore phases of Pennsylvanian geography? No
fossils from them are available for study, but the inter-
spersed limestones are marine. This is demonstrated by
a study of samples from outcrops and from diamond
drill cores. Were the sand lenses formed as off-shore
bars, beaches, dunes, river channel fillings, or composites
on a delta? Rich favors the delta hypothesis for the
Birds Quadrangle, and it seems in harmony with condi-
tions to the north and northwest of that area. If this
were the case, was the shore line parallel approximately
to the LaSalle anticline as has been commonly supposed?
Did a large river discharge its debris into the sea in or
near Crawford County, and in what direction did it flow?
Some differences of opinion are held as to the probable
source of the oil, but greater favor is now accorded the
idea of a local source and of limited migration to the
present sand reservoirs. Abundant organic material was
present in the muds (both lime and siliceous) at the time
of deposition, and only a small fraction of this would be.
needed to furnish the amount of oil now known to have
been present. Most of the geologic section is made up of
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 203 —
shales and limes, and as most if not all of these were ma-
rine, the local supply of organic material was perfectly
adequate.
Present conceptions of artesian circulation, in a basin
such as our Illinois Paleozoics form, favor the idea that
marginal movements are much more rapid than are those
in the deeper part of the basin. Such circulation doubt-
less has been changed many times since the Illinois
Paleozoics were deposited as rock debris, but most of
this circulation has probably moved southward. During
Pennsylvanian time the LaSalle anticline formed a
structural high, along both sides of which there may have
been relatively rapid movement of meteoric water. If not
too rapid this would favor oil accumulation in suitable
reservoirs. With an oil content in some of the shales of
12 to 16 gallons per ton*® the adequacy of material is no
problem. If this hypothesis. should prove correct, the
oil now developed is local in origin and large areas to the
west of the fold may justify test drilling where struct-
ural and textural conditions can be determined as favor-
able. Similarly, reserves in the Mississippian and lower
rocks were developed under physiographic conditions
unlike those of the Pennsylvanian, and for obvious rea-
sons may be expected to conform more closely to the
larger structural features. -
? Ashley, G. H., Bulletin 641, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 314-319.
204 _ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN AS A
GEOGRAPHIC STUDY
Wiiiiam H. Haas, NortHwesterN UNIVERSITY
South America offers many surprises to the traveller,
but none of them is more arresting than those which re-
late to the Indian. He gives an atmosphere to the west
coast countries which has no counterpart anywhere. At
first sight of some of the world’s famous ruins, such as.
Sacsahuaman, Ollantaytambo, Tiahuanaco, and others,
there comes an almost irresistible conviction that the
builders of these tremendous structures with their huge
blocks of stone were of a better blood than that of the
modern Quechua or Aymara with his sullen and hope-
lessly sad hang-dog expression. Nevertheless, the near
ancestors of these spiritless people were a part of the
proud and powerful Inca Empire.
The contrasts between a brilliant past and a sordid
present is in constant juxtaposition. The resoureeful-
ness of the ancestors, their activity, application, and con-
‘ceptions of big things are everywhere as evident as the
filth, the poverty, and the degradation of the descendants,
making the contrasts all the more striking. It is hard
to believe that living in the same general physical en-
vironment in contact with a superior, at least a more ad-
vanced race, should have produced such a marvelous
change in such a remarkably short time.
It is not surprising, therefore, that for many years the
belief existed among most investigators that the Ineas;
the Chibchas, the Mayas, the Aztees, and our own Mound-
builders were of a different racial stock than that of the
Indian of today. Little by little, however, an overwhelm-
ing mass of evidence has accumulated, which shows that
all belong to the same stock, and that practically all their
cultural evolution, as shown in major and minor antiqui-
ties, has taken place in the New World. This has been
done in a comparatively short time, for we have no undis-
puted evidence of glacial man in America. Various evi-
dences tend to show that the American Indian came to
this continent shortly after the stone polishing stage had
been inaugurated in the land from which he came.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 205
To the student of geography these facts are interesting
and vital, for this means that the progress evolved in the
New World has been, very probably, as distinct from any
Old World development as though it had originated on
_ another planet. The Indian is a product, therefore, of the
American environment, and the differences in advance-
ment can be explained only by the differences in the nat-
ural conditions which made certain advances possible. A
study in this field ought to be productive in working out
fundamental geographic relationships, which here should
be found in their simplest forms.
The field of investigation, however, is not an easy one,
for much is still unknown. The student of geography
needs to know, rather definitely, how much of the de-
velopment of this culture was accomplished under the
Asiatic and how much under the American environment.
What cultural elements did this migrant bring with him
on which to start? Have all the cultural elements of both
continents come from the same or from different groups, ~
or migrations? After their arrival on these shores, did
their dispersal come at once before a local development
had taken place, or was the dispersal due to slow spread-
ing from the periphery of the group? Can certain simi-
lar elements of culture originate simultaneously in far
distant places, or when such are found, may they have
been transmitted by contiguous groups and may they be
traced to an original center? These and a host of other
questions must be answered before the Geography of the
American Indian can be written. -
The non-Anglo-Saxon sections of the New World offer
by far the best conditions for such study. Even in the
regions north of the Rio Grande much still can be found
out concerning the life relationships of the American-
Indian, but it is to be regretted that so little attention is
paid along lines of investigation where facts readily at-
tainable now will disappear most probably in this genera-
tion. However, in South America the general lack of
white development in many sections offers possibilities
of study entirely unknown here, for even now some of
the countries are more Indian than white.
-When one speaks of the American Indian in South
America, it becomes necessary to explain the term used.
206 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
In the Indian countries little or no distinction is made as
to blood relationships. The distinctions arise from the
great contrasts among the people in wealth and social
position, and are very sharply drawn. To find statistics
on the ‘‘Indios’’ or ‘‘Mestizos’’ does not mean Indians
or mixed bloods but merely those of the lowest and next
lowest rank, those without wealth and social position.
Anyone with sufficient leisure, who can maintain his
family without work, belongs to the white class. Possi-
bilities of change from one class to another are rare, as
opportunities for the accumulation of wealth by the poor -
are few. A class division, therefore, may be made, into
one with opportunities and into one without hope.
The latter group for want of a better name may be called
Indian. |
Mixing of bloods has gone on without any sentiment
against it ever since the time of the ‘‘Conquistadores”’,
so that there are, very probably, few native whites with-
out some strain of Indian blood, and likewise few Indians,
except in some of the undeveloped sections, that are free
from admixtures. The number of pure blood Indians in
the plateau countries is much greater than pure blood
whites. The Bolivian census for 1900 gives the Indian
population as 48.42 per cent of the total and the white as
14.64 per cent, the rest being mestizos. These figures
representing classes may be fairly correct, but the abso-
lutely pure white population is probably less than two
per cent of the total. The figures show, however, the
dominance of the Indian blood in the life of the Republic.
If there is such a thing as cultural evolution con-
trolled or modified, at least largely, by the environment,
then there should be such a thing as regional cultures
brought about by regional activities,—in other words, a
regional geography of the American Indian. South
America has been divided into four major cultural areas
on the assumption that the activities based on the getting
of food are the most fundamental. These culture groups
are as follows: (1) the Chibeha in Colombia, agricul-
turists of the upland type; (2) the Manioe in the Amazon
basin, agriculturists whose main food was the roots of
the mandioca; (3) the Guanaco, in the Pampas of Argen-
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 207
tina, hunters whose activities were much like those of our
plains Indian; and (4) the Inca, on the high plateaus of
Peru and Bolivia, agriculturists whose progress far out-
stripped that of any others.
If such a classification is legitimate from a geographie
point of view, then the geographer has a large field be-
fore him and some serious problems. Why was the evo-
lution so slow here even in the most progressive sections
when compared to Old World development? It seems in-
credible that the Indian lived here without much progress
while civilizations in the Old*World rose and fell. The
natural environment of the western world, for the most
part, seems to be stimulative enough now. Climate and
topography were then much the same as now. The
available resources, of course, are immensely greater
now than then, and probably will continue to multiply as
methods are discovered to use the resources locked up
for the present. Were the migrants a dullard group,
driven from their old environment by the more progres-
sive and thus in their wanderings reached a new world?
The evolutionary trend has not been in that direction, for
many a full blooded Indian has shown great brilliancy
along certain lines.
Whatever the geographer of the future will find, one
of the most striking facts is that the descendants of that
most advanced group, the Incas, are at present in the
most pitiable condition of any group in either continent.
Their poverty is great, with little or no possibility of
changing their status under present conditions. This is
not due to laziness or lack of energy, but largely due to
a vicious system in which they find themselves. Their
condition is well nigh hopeless and if they have a philos-
ophy it is one that accepts the inevitable. Their ‘‘chicha’’
is their curse as it undermines their physical and moral
welfare. It is also a blessing in that it enables them to
forget a sordid world and to conjure up a new one with
hope. Their ‘‘coca’’ dulls their minds and sensibilities
and makes of them little else than a beast of burden.
However, it also dulls the gnawing pains and the recol-
lections, if there are any, of ancient splendor. The en-
vironment is powerless now to stimulate for there are
other forces which dominate.
208 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
PALEOZOIC KARST TOPOGRAPHY
Grorce KE. Exsiaw, State GroLocicaL SuRVEY
Karst topography is that unique physiographic ex- -
pression which.is characterized by surficial sinks, ‘‘lost’’
rivers, natural tunnels or bridges, subsurface solution
channels, and subterranean caverns. The name ‘‘Karst’’
was applied because of the remarkable development of
this type of topography in the Karst or Carso plateau
of Austria.’
Since it results from isin karst topography can
occur only in areas that are closely underlain by thick
beds of limestone, dolomite,. gypsum, salt, or other sol-
uble rock formations. Most of the known areas of karst
topography are underlain by limestone or dolomite.
Many karst areas occur in the United States and other
countries.
In many Petrie such as northwestern Illinois and
southwestern Missouri, valuable mineral deposits have
been described as filling ancient solution channels and
cavities. This is indirect proof that karst topography
existed in geologic periods other than the present.
Unique and direct evidence of this fact was obtained last
~ summer in the vicinity of Kankakee, Illinois, which area
is underlain by Niagaran limestone or dolomite at a very
shallow depth.
In the quarry of the Lehigh Stone Company, seven
miles west and one mile south of Kankakee, are ‘‘clay
pockets’’ which on examination proved to be ‘deposits of
shale in cavities that are clearly fossil sinks. All of the
cavities have the shape of a funnel or a cone with the
apex downward. In some of them the walls have a
gentle average slope; in others they are precipitate.
_ Again, regardless of the degree of their slope, the walls
have a constant and consistent pitch from top to bottom,
or they may be made up of alternating projecting and
receding layers when the slope is precipitate or of
alternating pitches and flats when the average slope
is gentle. Except where the wall has collapsed
before or during deposition of the shale, it has gen-
1Sanders, E. M., “The Cycle of Erosion, in a Karst Region (After
Cvijic)’’, Geog. Review, v. 11, No. 4, p. 593-604, 1921.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 209
erally a smooth surface, which is apparently the re-
sult of solution. Im size the cavities vary from ten to a
hundred feet in diameter and from twenty to forty feet
deep; and their outlines may be circular, oval, or irregu-
lar. They are not arranged regularly relative to one an-
other, but they do show a rude parallelism, controlled
probably by joint-planes where solution would be
favored. Occasionally two or more cavities may be so
close that their upper portions coalesce to form one large
pit with several separate downward projections. Along
the joint-planes are many smaller vertical tubular solu-
tion channels, also filled with shale.
The shale which now fills the cavities is of bet general
types. The more abundant type is usually light | green-
ish-gray, non-laminated, silty, and contains much crys-
talline iron-sulfide. It also contains rounded pebbles of
limestone and chert. Frequently it is laminated, in which
case some of the laminae are either fine, gray sandstone,
or thin, black layers of carbonized plant fragments.
Rarely the laminae are of variegated colors of purple,
blue, green, and gray. This shale has a sub-conchoidal
fracture; it weathers rapidly to a non-plastic, non-tena-
cious silty, gray mud. It fills all the cavities except that
_ portion in each of a few of the larger ones which is oe-
cupied by the second type. The second and less common
type of shale found in these cavities is black, laminated,
carbonaceous, full of carbonized, well-preserved plant
fragments and brown spore-cases or seeds, and with an
abundance of botryoidal nodules of iron-sulfide that are
of all sizes up to about three inches in length. When
fresh, this shale has a conchoidal fracture that contin-
ues across several laminae. It weathers rapidly on ex-
posure, first dividing into sub-conchoidal, lamellar flakes —
and then further disintegrating into a black, non-plastic
mud. Two or three showers with intermissions of but a
few days afford sufficient opportunity to reduce the fresh
shale to mud.
Where both types of shale occur in the same ‘‘pocket’’
there is a sharp line of contact between them, and the
green shale contains weathered masses of the black, in-
dicating decisively that the green is younger than the
210 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
black shale and that there have been at least two separate
generations of sinks in this one area. In addition to these
two types of shale, there are rare occurrences of a granu-
lar, fine or coarse grained, calcareous sandstone that is
made up of grains of quartz and of the surrounding lime-
stone. In several cavities there are deranged masses of
limestone that are collapsed portions of the walls, and
around these masses the shale is practically undisturbed
from its horizontal position, showing that the collapse
occurred contemporaneous with the deposition of the
shale. Similarly, where there are irregularities of the
walls or recessive channels, they are filled by shale that
is stratigraphically continuous with that in the main pit.
Some idea of the extent of the area which exhibits
this phenomenon may be gained from the following facts.
The Lehigh Stone Company abandoned an-old quarry two
miles west of the present one because of the prevalence
of ‘‘clay pockets’’. While testing prospective areas on
which to locate the present plant, they found similar
‘clay pockets’’ abundant over a wide expanse of this
region. In an old quarry on the west side of the Kanka-
kee River at Kankakee it is reported that there were
found ‘‘soapstone pockets,’’ which are doubtless the
same as the usual ‘‘clay pockets’’, containing good shale.
Several of the farm wells in the intervening territory
have been drilled through ‘‘mud’’ for many feet instead
of the usual rock, and this fact, considered in the light
of the chance location of well sites, indicates that the
shale-filled cavities must be numerous, to say the least.
In the eastern part of Bradley, two miles north of
Kankakee, are two small circular swamps overgrown
with willows, which probably mark the location of large —-
shale-filled sinks like the others. Dr. D. J. Fisher of the
University of Chicago reports that in the quarries about
Joliet are similar cavities filled with green clay or shale,
but there the evidence was insufficient to warrant any
positive statement as to their origin or age. Smaller
cavities in the Niagaran limestone, filled with Devonian
shale or clay, have been reported from a quarry near
Elmhurst and from McCook, near Summit?.
1 Weller, Stuart: A Peculiar Devonian Deposit in Northeastern Illinois;
Journal of Geol., v. VII, No. 5, 483-488, July-August, 1899.
* Personal communication from G. W. Hawley, State Geological Survey:
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 211
There is no reason to believe that these cavities are
anything but sinks; every geologist who has seen them
agrees to that. The only other possible explanation is
that they are pot-holes, but their shape disposes of that
possibility without argument. Their age can be deter-
_mined from the deposits that fill them; all geologists who
have examined them believe that the green shale or clay
and sandstone is Pennsylvanian in age, but the age of
the black laminated shale is in doubt. An authority to
whom the material was shown has suggested that it may
be Devonian; another, that it may be Pennsylvanian; but
neither of these has yet had opportunity to study the
deposits or the plant fossils sufficiently to make a defi-
nite statement. The color of the shale and the occur-
rence of Devonian shale in cavities in the Niagaran lime-
stone near Chicago tend to strengthen the possibility
of Devonian age. If it proves to be Pennsylvanian, the
marked difference in character of the two shales and
their abrupt contact where they occur together are ample
proof of two distinct epochs of deposition.
Two hypotheses may be offered to explain the condi-
tions under which the sinks were filled by shale. One is
that after the sinks were formed the outlet at the bottom
of each became choked and the pits gradually filled up
with material washed into the resulting ponds by surface
run-off, in which may have been included much organic
debris. The possibility that some of the debris is the
residue of plants growing in the sink itself is untenable
because the shale is in horizontal layers as is found only
in subaqueous deposits, shows no old soil or peat or coal,
and contains no plant remnants in place. The other
hypothesis is that the area was completely submerged be-
neath the sea, and there filled with silt, sand, and organic
debris. The regularity of the deposits seems to indicate
the latter hypothesis the more probable, in which case the
abundance of plant remnants indicates that the area
was near the shore of that sea.
It is safe to state that at some time after the deposi-
tion of the Niagaran limestone or dolomite in the Silur-
ian sea over this area and preceding either the Devonian
or the Pennsylvanian period, there was relative emer-
212 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
gence of sufficient relief to permit ground water to de-
velop subsurface channels and- caverns with surficial
sinks. Then there was a complete relative submergence,
during which the sinks were filled with black shale, but
whether this relative submergence was of Devonian or
Pennsylvanian age must yet be determined.
Fig. 2. Southeastern Minnesota. The major portion of the wheat produced in
Southeastern Minnesota has been grown on the broad, nearly-level, loess-
covered, upland into which the deep, steep-sided valleys of Root, Whitewater,
Zumbro and Cannon rivers are cut.
Wheat culture in the area began in 1853 when a crop
of winter wheat was raised on the alluvial terraces in
Rollingstone Valley in Winona County,® and probably
also in-some of the terraces in Houston and Fillmore
counties. Such alluvial terraces rise in many places
above the flood plains of the streams, and comprise the
principal areas farmed in the valleys. Wheat raising
spread to the upland somewhat slowly because the valley
®ibid., p. 262.
218 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
walls of the Mississippi are so steep that the upland
farms were not readily accessible, until roads were built
to them. Southeastern Minnesota is a region of nearly
horizontally bedded limestone, sandstone, and shales,
dissected to topographic early maturity by the Missis-
sippl River and a number of its tributaries. It consists
of nearly level upland tracts, the surfaces of which are
about 1,150 feet above sea level, and of the valley floors
of the Mississippi River and its tributaries, which lie
from 350 to 400 feet below them. The upland corresponds
in surface to most of southeastern Minnesota, and it con-
stitutes the larger part of this area. The Root, White-
water, Zumbro, and Canyon rivers flow across the area
from west to east (Fig. 2). The deep valleys of these
streams divide the upland into wide, flat-topped ridges
which, like the rivers, extend from west to east across the
area. The broad summits of these ridge-like remnants of
the upland are fine farm lands, but their margins are not
because they are too greatly dissected by the head ra-
vines of the streams. The following table shows that
SHIPMENTS OF FARM PRODUCE FOR RIVER POINTS IN SOUTH-
EASTERN MINNESOTA IN 18597
(Bushels)
Ports Wheat . Oats Corn Barley Potatoes
FUE Wa a eck ie reece 30,000* ern er ee Ere iia
Raker City, eee. SO. 0D) Sin mepeieesel! nL lets re hes chereoees ; 3,400
Wabasha: aio aoe apes 4.800 LOO On Soap cece po. ol ror 2,000
Reed’s Landing ..... 3,000 BOOO Fares aN me aah one 1,000
Minneiska sith eases DEO OOF esta. sy ieee se Oats ale oe eon a
MitanViernon' issn ZO00F ea eee ty Oe ee ee
Winona. “soos eee 177,000 SoLOO0iaw meee < 9,000 6,000
Ba Crescent, .i0). on ee 15,000 1,000 2,000 Aspnes 2,000
Hokahli | eS n eee S000 ee en no
Brownsville occ. fete ee 32,000 A000. taecan 1000): «oe
in 1859 wheat had already attained first place among
the crops.
The large shipments of wheat from Winona were due
to the fact that Winona County was settled early, and
that a larger tract of undissected upland suited to farm-*
ing is tributary to Winona by wagon haul than to any
other point along the river. A road was built at an early
7 Robinson, E. V.: Early Economic Conditions and the Development of
Agriculture in Minnesota (Minneapclis. 1915), p. 45. as corrected from
- 1st Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics for Minnesota (Hartford,
1860), p. 155.
* All grains, but principally wheat.
a i in a i
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 219
date from Wabasha Prairie, a river terrace on which the
city of Winona is located, to the upland along each of .
the several small valleys which focus on the terrace.
During the pioneer years some attempts were made to
grow winter wheat on the upland prairies. Of those in
Olmsted County local reports state that winter wheat
Was a success only once in three years*, and this experi-
ence was found to hold on other prairies. In most years
the wheat was killed during the winter because the prai-
ries were so broad, open, and windswept that the snow
was blown off, leaving the wheat exposed to the alter-
nate freezing and thawing occasioned by diurnal and
cyclonic temperature changes. In some years the fall of
snow was too light or came too late in the season to pro-
tect the wheat®. In other years a warm spell melted the
snow and covered the fields with water, which if it be-
came ice killed the wheat.
In the valleys and timbered tracts, snow drifts much
less than on the prairies, so that winter wheat was grown
successfully. In 1859, the commissioner of statistics ad-
dressed specific inquiries to the different counties, ask-
ing for reports on the success of winter wheat. The re-
plies showed that it was a failure in the counties which
were mainly prairie, but was a success in those which in-
cluded large areas of bluff lands or timber*’. Until the
improved methods of milling were introduced, the
winter wheat crop in the valleys and wooded tracts in the
southeastern part of the state was important. Good
flour was made from it in the small water-power mills
located near rapids or falls in the streams. Some of these
mills gained a considerable local reputation for their
flour. A few of them have been in business for more
than fifty years, grinding the small amount of wheat
annually produced in the communities tributary to them.
The pioneers shortly discovered that spring wheat is
adapted admirably to the conditions on the upland prai-
ries. The crop seldom is damaged by frost, as the
growing season, varying from 140 to 150 days, is ade-
§ First Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics (Hartford, 1860).
* Ibid., - 94.
3° Tbid., 94,
a Cares, V. G.: Climatic para of Minnesota, Minnesota Geologi-
cal Survey, Bull, No. 12, pp. 19-21
220 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
quately long for this crop. Wheat is sown in the latter
' part of April or early in May, and grows rapidly through
May, June, and the early part of July, which are the
months of greatest rainfall. It ripens and is harvested
in August, in which month hot, dry spells of weather are
characteristic. The farmers have discovered that if
sowing is delayed by a late spring or by other causes,
-tthe crop may come into ‘‘the milk’’ during a late sammer
dry spell and be injured. Judging by a comparison of
crop yields with the weather records’ spring wheat has
done well in most seasons since its culture began in this
area. However, the decrease in yield per acre after 1875
was attributed incorrectly, by some writers, to vagaries
of the weather”. . .
By 1860, in the river counties of Minnesota, houses
and barns were built and other improvements made,
so. that the farmers had time to cultivate more of
their farms. In that-year fifty per cent of the improved
land in the counties facing on the Mississippi, and thirty
per cent in the counties remote from the river but still
within hauling distance, were planted to wheat’. As it
became evident that wheat was the most profitable crop,
more and more land was devoted to it. A man’s income
increased with the size of his crop, and consequently
large acreages were planted.
The establishment of the one-crop system in this area
was favored by the large yields of wheat produced from
the fertile soils. The average yield per acre for the
state as a whole was 22.05 bushels in 1860**. With the
exception of Houston County, all of the counties in this
area had an average yield per acre greater than that for
the state. In some townships in these counties the aver-
age yleld per acre was exceptional. In New Hartford
township in Winona County it was 33.2 bushels, in
Douglas township in Fillmore County, 27.7 bushels, and
in Goodhue township in Goodhue County, 27 bushels”.
In the next decade the average yield per acre varied from ~
time to time, according to the season, but in 1875, twenty
2 History of Winona County (Chicago, 1883), p. 99. ‘
1% Second Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics, pp: 128, 129, 131.
“Second Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics of Minnesota
(St. Paul, 1861), p. 57.
aSipids, “Dp. 5S:
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 221 -
years after settlement, the average yield per acre was
21.08 bushels in Goodhue, 18.02 in Fillmore, 19.64 in
Olmsted, 18.06 in Wabasha, 17.55 in Winona, and 17.34
in Houston County*®. After 1880, however, the average
yield rapidly decreased. While statistics are not avail-
able to show which type of soil maintained high yields
for the longest time, there is little doubt that the yield
on the loess soils was satisfactory for some years after
other soils were exhausted.
The searcity of labor which prevailed in these early
years somewhat retarded the increase of wheat acre-
ages. Land was so cheap that nearly every man owned
or hoped to own a farm rather than to work for some one .
else. Other parts of the West were developing at the
same time, and the immigration of laborers into any one
area seldom equalled the demand for them. As a result
of this labor shortage and the profits in wheat farm- .
ing, labor-saving farm machinery was adopted rapidly.
Sulky plows, disk harrows, seeders, reapers, binders,
threshing machines, fanning mills and other machines
found a ready sale when they were put on the market.
In southeastern Minnesota the use of farm machinery
was favored by the nearly level surface and the fine text-
ured, well-drained loess and weathered drift soils of
the upland prairies. Moreover the shortage of-labor
during harvest, when it was most acute, was solved, in
part at least, by the importation of gangs of men who
had previously worked in the wheat fields in states to
the south. The extension of the wheat growing area
northward simply prolonged the working period of these
men and brought them near the Minnesota and Wis-
consin forests where many of them were employed in
the winter. |
The use of this machinery and the adoption of this
harvesting practice so increased the acreage of wheat
on many farms that the profits earned enabled many men
to increase the size of their farms. Consequently hold-
ings of from 300 to 1,000 or more acres were not uncom-
mon. The profits were so great in many instances that
78th Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics for Minnesota (St.
. Paul; 1877), p. 36. c
222 i]LLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
nearly every man in a community tried to own a piece of
land. Storekeepers, shopkeepers, mechanics, and profes-
sional men bought farms which they partially worked
themselves or rented ‘‘on shares’’ to farmers*’. Quick
returns led to speculation. Threshing outfits costing
about $800 in some instances paid for themselves in two
years’. Farmers ran store bills and bought machinery
on time, and in many instances the returns from their
crops more than warranted the outlay. There was small
incentive for the farmers to use either their land or
machinery carefully. Straw stacks were burned as the
easiest way to dispose of them. Binders costing more
than $200, and other machines and tools, in many in-
stances were left in the field until wanted in the next
season. As a result they rapidly depreciated in utility
and value**. The prairie soils yielded so readily to the
plow, wheat was relatively such an easy crop to grow,
and yields were for the most part so satisfactory, that it
is no wonder that farmers became a bit careless about
expenses.
The acreage and production of wheat in southeastern
Minnesota and elsewhere in the Spring Wheat Belt in-
creased rapidly after certain developments in the market-
ing phase of the industry occurred. A notable one was
the introduction of the ‘‘middlings-purifier’’ and other
milling improvements which made it possible to produce
a high-grade flour from the hard spring wheat”. The
improvement of transportation to eastern markets was
even more important. This was accomplished by (1)
an increase of the number of steamboats on the river,
(2) the introduction of river barges especially designed
for carrying wheat, (3) the erection of warehouses and
elevators along the railroads and at the steamboat land-
ings, (4) the establishment of rail connection between
the Mississippi and the Great Lakes, and (5) the con-
struction of railroads westward from the Mississippi.
The importance of these developments is reflected in the
fact that in 1865, sixty-five per cent of the land under
17 Schatzel, G. W.: Among the Wheat Fields of Min cdatas Harper’s
MeSarie, XXXVI, January: 1868, p. 197.
Ibid.
19 Tbid., p. 200.
20 Robinson, Op: .Cit., (De 7%
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 223
cultivation in Olmsted County was planted in wheat”,
and that in 1870, Fillmore, Goodhue, Wabasha, and Wi-
nona Counties, each produced more than 1,300,000 bush-
els of wheat, and Olmsted County more than 2,000,000
bushels (Fig. 1). The relative importance of the south-
eastern counties is indicated by the fact that with one ex-
ception the counties mentioned were the only ones in the
state to raise more than 1,000,000 bushels”.
Climax of wheat raising. Bonanza farming in the
southeastern counties culminated in the five years from
1875 to 1880. The largest acreage in the state as a whole
occurred in 1878, when wheat was grown on 68.98 per
cent of all cultivated land*®*. In the southeastern coun-
ties the largest crop was produced in 1875, when these
counties produced 38 per cent of the state’s crop. The
production and distribution of the. crop in that year by
counties and townships clearly reflects the natural in-
vironment. In that year, Wabasha and Winona counties
each produced more than 1,000,000 bushels of wheat,
Olmsted and Fillmore counties more than 2,000,000 bush-
els, and Goodhue County more than 3,000,000 bushels*
(Fig. 1). The three counties last named owe their large
production to (1) their large size, (2) their nearly level
surface, being much less dissected than Houston, Winona
and Wabasha counties, and (3) their fertile loess and
glacial soils.
In Goodhue County wheat was raised on 30 per cent
of its area and occupied 81 per cent of its cultivated land.
‘Such a production led early writers to deseribe Minne-
sota as one continuous wheat field* and to claim that
Red Wing was the ‘‘leading primary wheat market in
the world*®’’. Vasa, Belle Creek, Goodhue, Wanamingo
and Zumbrota townships each produced more than 199,-
000 bushels of wheat in the year in question. All of
them have a nearly level surface, a loess soil, and little
waste land. In the northern part of the county the pro-
7? Annual Report of ‘the State Auditor, Session of 1867, Minnesota Ex.
Docs. for 1866, p. 61.
Sth Census of the United States; Robinson, op. cit., pp. 260, 261.
#iebicoe op. cit., 79.
A 8th Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics (St. Paul, 1877),
p.
75 Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minn., Vol. I, aate
7s Hancock, R. W.: Past and Present in Ganikia County, (Red Wing,
1893), p. 187.
224 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
duction was small, reflecting the dissected surface and
less productive soils of that section. Likewise the acre-
age and production of wheat was relatively small in
northwestern Olmsted County where the surface is dis-
sected by the South Branch of Zumbro River, the drift
is thin, loess is absent and the soil derived from the sand-
stone or limestone formations is poor*’. The two leading
townships in wheat production in the‘state in that year
were Farmington township in the northeastern part of
Olmsted County and Elgin township in Wabasha County,
which joins it on the east, each of whieh produced more
than 200,000 bushels. These townships cover a broad
and nearly level stretch of prairie with a deep and fertile
loess soil’.
In Fillmore County the townships in which the yield
was less than 100,000 bushels were in the dissected lands
contiguous to Root River and its tributaries. In Winona
and Houston counties the townships along the bluff lands
of the Mississippi and Root valleys, and the. upland
ridges produced less than 100,000 bushels. The town-
ships of maximum production were those occupying
Wilmington Prairie in Houston County and Lewiston
Prairie in Winona County”. In all of these counties,
the townships in which more than 100,000 bushels of
wheat were raised are on the uplands. In general, the
greatest yields came from townships with a minimum of
dissection, and from those which have loess over much
of their surface.
After 1880 the acreage and production of wheat in
southeastern Minnesota declined rapidly and the acreage
and production of oats, corn, and barley, and the num-
ber of livestock increased. Although this change in
the farm system was due to several conditions, the most
important were the low price for wheat which prevailed
after 1880 and a gradual decrease in the yield per acre.”
The average yield per acre for the six counties in this
area in 1875 was 18.6 bushels; by 1880 it had dropped to
11.5 bushels. Moreover, weeds became such a menace
27 Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minn., Vol. I, pp. 337-338.
28 8th Annual Report of Commissioner of Statistics, pp. 29-34.
29 Tbid.
80 Robinson, op..cit., p.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 225
on account of consecutive wheat crops on the same land,
that it was necessary to plant other crops in order to
get rid of them. The locust plague, which partially
destroyed the crop in the central and western parts of
Minnesota from 1872 to 1877, did not affect the south-
eastern counties in any large way.* On the other hand,
the chinch-bug appeared first in the southeast, and in
1877 destroyed two-fifths of the crop in Houston
County.** The ravages of this insect were sufficient to
make profits from the wheat crop uncertain.
By the middle of the decade, from 1880 to 1890, railroad
mileage was extended so that most farms were within 10
miles, or nearer, of a station, and it was possible to
market other farm products profitably. During the same
decade, breweries began business in LaCrosse, Winona,
Wabasha, and Red Wing, and a local market for barley
was created. In addition, the losses incurred in wheat
farming had led many farmers to mortgage their farms,
so that progressive farmers realized that a change must
take place. The Commissioner of Statistics and other
state officials, the scientists from the State Agricultural
College, the State Dairy Commissioner, the State Dairy-
men’s Association and other agricultural societies com-
bined with the state press in a protest against the old
method of farming. Gradually the change to a more
diversified crop system took place.
31 Bull, C. P.: Barley Investigations, University of Minnesota Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bulletin 148, p. 7.
22 Statistics of Minnesota, 1873, p. 192; 1874, pp. 7-9; 1875, pp. 19-22;
1876, pp. 49, 80, 88; 1877, pp. 17, 19; 1878, p. 9. Fifth Report of Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, pp. 96-97.
3% Statistics of Minnesota, 1877, pp. 18, 94.
226 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE COTTON INDUSTRY OF SOUTHERN
ILLINOIS
Frank H. Cotyer, State NorMat UNIvErsity,
C'ARBONDALE
COTTON GROWING AN EARLY INDUSTRY IN ILLINOIS
While the exact date of the first cotton grown in JIl-
nois is perhaps unknown, yet it could not have been many
years after the first permanent English settlements. As
proof of this, Governor John Reynolds, in speaking of
the early cotton industry in Illinois says: ‘‘The first
gin was established in 1813.’ This statement of Rey-
nolds is in complete accord with that of J. M. Peck, who
wrote his Gazetteer of Illinois in 1837. In this book
Peck says: ‘‘Cotton, for many years, has been success-
fully cultivated in this state (Illinois) for domestic use,
and this branch of business admits of enlargement; and
invites the attention of eastern manufacturers with
small capital.’ Peck further states: ‘‘A few factories
for spinning cotton yarn have been put into operation
in several counties on a small seale of from one hundred
to two hundred spindles each.’”
H. L. Ellsworth in his book, ‘‘Tlinois In 1837,’’ makes
this significant statement concerning early cotton manu-
factures in Illinois: ‘‘Coarse clothing from cotton is
manufactured in the southern portion of the state, where
the article is raised in small quantities. Woolen cloth,
and jeans, a mixture of wool and cotton, is made for
ordinary wear, as is cloth from flax.’* From these
early writers it is clear that cotton was not merely grown
in Illinois at a very early date, but cotton yarn and cotton
cloth were made for commercial purposes in addition to
that made and consumed in the homes of the early set-
tlers.
It is also quite probable that available statistics do not
show the entire amount of cotton raised, for the reports
show the amount of lint by bales. Baled cotton was for
1 Reynolds, John: Pioneer History of Illinois: Page 398.
2Peck, J. M.: Gazetteer of: Illinois. Page 22.
3 Peck, J. M.: Gazetteer of Illinois. Page 32.
* Ellsworth, H. L.: Illinois in 1837. Page 59.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 227
*fexport’’ and did not represent that used in the home,
for such cotton was evidently not baled.
AMOUNT OF BALED LINT PRODUCED FROM 1839 to 1880
In 1839 amount of lint produced in Illinois was 402 bales.
a3 1859 ce “ee se se 73 oc “ 1186 ae
“ce 1860 “e “e 73 “e “ oc cas 1482 “
ce 1865 oe a7 oe * oe ce Tc 7609 “
“ 1870 ce “ “c ce oe ce “ 465 «ce
ce 1875 ec “ ce oe ae = “ 13 27
ae i876 cc ae “ce “ “ce ce cs) about t “ec
ce 1877 a4 “ ce ee ae ec “ae a Hibbs “e
a 1878 a3 af ce ee ae cc “ce 6 “ce
ce 1879 se aa ce e “ ce ia) 18 “e
oc 1880 ce “ce ce ce a3 ce “ 95 “
While available statistics do not show the production
for each year, yet they do show that cotton was probably
continuously grown from the period of the early English
settlements of Illinois to at least 1880. It is quite prob-
able that cotton continued to be grown on a small scale
till about 1910 or even later. The writer distinctly re-
members seeing a field of cotton between Mound and
Mound City about 1910.
COTTON INDUSTRY DURING CIVIL WAR
In 1865 cotton culture in Illinois reached its high water
mark for the 19th century. This was due almost wholly
to the changed economic conditions caused by the war
itself. President Lincoln’s proclamation closing the
southern ports to all foreign trade, together with lack of
labor on many southern plantations near the close of the
COTTON PRODUCTION IN 13 ILLINOIS COUNTIES IN 1865.
No. of No. Price
acres Yield of bales per lb. Amount
Counties planted peracre of lint in seed realized
WEESOW Se? aid 2 ss 3,280 800 Ibs. 1,876 10¢ $378,065
inion <5... .< fie oes 2,700 800 “ 1,458 10¢ $199,757
Williamson ...... 1,678 800 -“ 1,000 10¢ $141,750
Sounsow oo. 3. 2S 2 1,000 900 “ 800 916¢ $136,800
IMASBAG (io chs" 2 es 728 800 “ 370 914¢ $ 55,361
(Ec ae es, Ae 661 800 “ 639 9¢ $ 56,563
Brankdins so... o's. 625 800. “ 356 91%4¢ $ 47,500
SEPOTAON Co: s ..2 sss 435 306. ** 240 . 9¢ $ 27,920
ODE. peer eens 350 800 “ 190 9¢ $ 22,680
Alexander ....... 310 B00)=:* 250 9¢ $ 18,700
Gallatin si sek' 7: 300 800 “ 200 9¢ $ 21,600
Pulagha ee eres ¢ Fas AIO. 200 1014¢ $ 13,500
RAP AITE) io 5 5 wih as 45 800 “ 30 8¢ $ 4,200
OGRA a5. 2! share 12,835 7,609 $1,125,396
228 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
war, caused a very serious shortage of raw cotton both
in America and western HKurope. Thus the price of
eotton was high and many southern Illinois farmers
found cotton the most profitable crop they could raise.
These statistics show some rather remarkable things.
In the first place, the largest producing counties in 1865
were not the extreme southern counties of Alexander,
Pulaski, Massae, and Pope, but Jackson, Union, William-
son and Johnson counties, somewhat farther north.
Jackson county alone produced more than twice as much
as the five southernmost counties combined. In the second
place most of the cotton was not produced in the more —
fertile bottom lands of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers,
but on the warmer south and east slopes of the hill lands
of Jackson, Union, Williamson, and Johnson counties.
Even the hill county of Massae produced more than twice
as much cotton as the two counties of Pulaski and Alex-
ander with their much larger proportion of river bottom ~
land. The explanation of this is that the river bottom
lands in 1865 were still largely in timber, poorly drained,
and not well protected from floods, while the hill lands
still retained much of their virgin fertility of soil, were
warmer, and much better drained. Cotton needs warm
and well drained lands quite as much as lands of high
fertility.
Owing to the fact that the Illimois Central railroad was
the only road having a direct outlet to the north and
thence east to New York City, nearly all the cotton was
marketed in towns along the Illinois Central railroad.
Of all these towns Carbondale was the most accessible to
the chief cotton producing counties and as a consequence
became the chief cotton market in Illinois. In 1865 there
were 11 cotton gins in and near Carbondale. Carbon-
dale was the shipping point for most of the cotton of
Jackson, Williamson, Saline, Gallatin, northern Hardin,
Pope, and Johnson counties,
The importance of Carbondale as a cotton ieee ean
be gained also from this statement of Newsome, who
says: ‘‘At one time there were about a dozen cotton gins
5 Pearcy, A. J.: Transactions of Ill. State Agr. Society. Vol. 6, 1865-6,
Page 66. :
pe
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 229
- in town (Carbondale), so in the autumn, the place had
very much the appearance of a southern town, for the
~ eotton was everywhere, and the bales were piled upon
the depot platform ready for shipment. The price was
high, money was plenty, and business lively®.’’ It is
quite probable that more than one-half of the 1,125,396
dollars worth of cotton shipped from Illinois in 1865 was
shipped from Carbondale. For a few years after the
Civil War cotton continued to be one of the leading
money crops in several southern Illinois counties; but as
the South gradually recovered from the war, cotton
growing increased, prices grew less and Illinois being
unable to compete with the southern cotton grower, the
industry gradually declined and finally ceased entirely
about 1910 or soon thereafter.
REVIVAL OF COTTON GROWING IN 1923 anp 1924
Perhaps at no time in the history of Illinois has more
been said and done to revive cotton growing in this state
than has been the case in the last two years. Bankers,
farm advisers, lawyers, merchants, farmers and others
have been persistently advocating the possibilities of cot-
ton production, particularly in the counties of Pulaski,
Alexander, Union, Massae, and Johnson. Bankers and
lawyers have visited the southern cotton growing states
to study how best to start the industry. Experienced
cotton men from the South, and the national government
have been brought to these counties where large and
enthusiastic meetings with prospective growers have
been held. At these meetings such questions as these
have been discussed: the time to plant cotton, the type
of soils, the best kinds of cotton for southern Illinois,
manner of preparing seed bed and of cultivating cotton,
the amount one man ean plant, cultivate and pick, and
finally how and when best to pick and how to sell the
crop.
CHIEF CAUSES THAT HAVE PRODUCED THIS REVIVAL
Chief of the causes that have contributed to this
renewed interest in cotton growing is the destruction due
¢ Newsome, E. “Historical Sketches of Jackson Co. Ill,” Page 124.
230 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
to the ravages of the boll weevil in the southern cotton
growing states. Second, there is a general belief among
experienced cotton growers that the boll weevil will not
be a serious menace to cotton growing in southern Ilh-
nois, due to the colder winters of this section of the coun-
try.
The third reason for this revival in cotton growing
is the development, by careful seed selection, of earlier
maturing varieties of cotton that can mature a paying
crop in these more northern regions with their shorter
growing seasons. Such early varieties as trice, acula,
delfos and express can mature an early crop of high
grade cotton in latitudes of southern Illinois. :
The fourth reason is that cotton has been successfully
grown in southern Illinois for a great number of years.
Added to this is the influence of the largely increased
growing of cotton just across the state border, in south- -
eastern Missouri. This rather large scale production
in southeastern Missouri has been so pronounced that
it has attracted the attention of business men and farm
advisers in adjoining sections of southern Illinois.
There are other, but perhaps more temporary, causes
for this recent activity in cotton planting. These last
may even be the greater stimuli to many farmers who
will plant cotton this season. The greatest of these
stimuli is the present high price of cotton. Very close-
ly connected with this is the fact that farmers generally
have made but little out of wheat, corn, alfalfa, and live
stock in the last few years and are as a consequence
ready to listen to any suggestion. of some farm product
that promises better money returns than the present day
staple crops. Experience alone must in the future deter-
mine whether these. stimulating causes have sufficient
merit to justify present expectations. They certainly
seem to have. While there is still some uncertainty as
to the cotton acreage for 1924, yet conservative estimates
place the amount somewhere between 15,000 and 18, 000
acres. It may go to 20,000. These estimates are based
on amounts of cotton seed already purchased through
farm advisers in the various cotton producing counties.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 231
The accompanying table shows approximately the
chief cotton planting counties for 1924 and the amount
to be planted in each.
Pulaski and Alexander, together, estimated from 10,000 to 12,000
acres. :
Union County estimated acreage about 2,500 to 3,000 acres.
Massac “ 750 “ 1,000 “
Johnson “ a 5 ae SO
Jackson “ “ake - “ 2b S00 a
For Williamson, Pope, Saline, and perhaps other coun-
ties, no definite figures are available, but each will plant
asmall amount. Pulaski probably will have the largest
acreage, which will = closely followed by Alexander
county.
In contrast to the cotton growing counties of the Civil
War period, it will be noticed that the extreme south-
ern counties, with their larger share of bottom lands,
will lead; and the more hilly lands to the north will take
a decidedly lower rank. The explanation of this con-
trast with 1865 is that the river bottom lands are much
more fertile, they are now much better drained than
formerly, and the construction of levees in recent years
gives greater protection from floods.
In the larger producing counties of Pulaski, Alexander
and Union the labor in the cotton fields will be done chief-
ly by negroes from the South. These are experienced
cotton raisers who have left the South because of the
ravages of the boll weevil and are as a rule very poor.
The land owners lease the land, furnish food, imple-
ments, seed, teams, and get one half of the crop. In the
other counties the labor will be largely performed by
native white labor on their own farms.
This seasons trial of cotton growing will be watched
eagerly, particularly by southern Illinois farmers, and
upon its success the future of cotton growing in this sec-
tion will largely depend.
The chief hope of southern Illinois becoming again a
part of the cotton growing region rests largely upon the
oft repeated statements of experienced cotton growers
from the South who declare to prospective Illinois grow-
ers, ‘‘You are on the same footing as we of the Gulf
States because we must plant early maturing varieties
to get the crop far enough advanced before the boll wee-
232 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
vil becomes sufficiently numerous to effect the crop seri-
ously.’’ In other words, the growing season for these
early maturing varieties is about the same in southern
Illinois as in the Gulf States.
PAPERS ON GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 233
THE CORRELATION OF THE MAQUOKETA AND
RICHMOND ROCKS OF IOWA AND ILLINOIS
- JT. KE. Savace, University oF [n.rots
The rocks of Richmond age in southeastern Iowa have
been called the Maquoketa formation, or Maquoketa
shale, from the Little Maquoketa River in Dubuque
County, Iowa, along which they are well exposed. Cor-
responding strata also outcrop in the northwest part of
Jilinois.
The lower strata of Richmond age in southern and
eastern Illinois have been correlated with the Fernvale*
limestone. They are exposed in a number of places along
the Mississippi River in the southwest part of the State,
for example, near Thebes in Alexander County, and near
Val Meyer in Monroe County. Outcrops of this lime-
stone also occur in adjacent portions of Missouri, as at
Cape Girardeau. Strata of corresponding age also out-
crop in Will and Kendall counties, in the northeast part
of the State. One of the localities in which they furnish
an unusual number of bryozoa and other fossils in an
excellent state of preservation is in the banks of Kanka-
kee River at Wilmington, Illinois, where the exposed sec-
tion is as follows:
SECTION OF RICHMOND STRATA IN THE VICINITY OF
WILMINGTON
emetic y
Ok.
.
th
ley
=
a
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 251
HUMANIZING MEDICAL EDUCATION
FrRepericK R. Green, M. D., Cuter, Eprrortan Dep’ oF
** Heatru,’’ CHICAGO
In one of his historical essays, John Fiske says that
the increased geographical knowledge of the European
world in the fifty years immediately following the dis-
covery of America by Columbus was so great as to re-
quire the next two hundred years to digest, assimilate
and utilize this knowledge. This statement may with
equal truth be applied to our present-day knowledge of
the human body and its diseases, their diagnosis, preven-
tion, and treatment. In the last half century, modern
medicine and surgery have developed. More has been
learned regarding the human body and its diseases than
in all the preceding centuries of civilization. Our profes-
sion has been so busy learning newly discovered facts
that there has been little or no opportunity in this era of
analysis and investigation for synthesis or generaliza-
tion. New discoveries have crowded so fast on each
other that there has been no time for taking stock or for
adjusting educational methods to meet new conditions.
The medical school has, through force of circumstances,
become a part of the modern university. But the mod-
ern university has become something radically different
from the university of yesterday.
In his ‘‘ History of Mankind’’, Dr. Henry Van Loon
gives an interesting account of the medieval universities.
‘‘They were found’’, he says, ‘‘wherever a few teachers
and a few pupils happened to find themselves together.
Now-a-days, when a new university is built, the process
is as follows: Some rich man wants to do something for
‘the community in which he lives, or a particular religi-
ous sect wants to build a school to keep its children under
supervision, or a state realizes the need of educating doc-
tors, lawyers, and teachers. The university begins as a
large sum of money which is deposited in a bank. This
money is drawn out to construct buildings and labora-
tories and dormitories. Finally, professional teachers
are hired, entrance examinations are held, and the uni-
versity is on the way. But in the Middle Ages things
252 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
were done differently. A wise man said to himself, ‘I
have discovered a great truth. I must impart my know-
ledge to others.’ And so he began to preach his wisdom
whenever and whereever he could get people to listen to
him, like a soap-box orator. If he was an interesting
speaker, the crowd came and stayed; if he was dull, they
shrugged their shoulders and continued their way. By
and by, certain young men began to come regularly to
hear the words of wisdom of this great teacher. They
brought copybooks with them and little bottles of ink and
goose quills, and they wrote down what seemed to them
to be important. One day, it rained. The teacher and
his pupils retired to an empty basement or to the room of
the professor. The learned man sat in his chair and the
boys sat on the floor. That was the beginning of the uni-
versity, the ‘universitat’—a college of professor and
students in the Middle Ages, when the teacher counted
for everything and the building in which he taught
counted for very little.’’
So the university was originally built around a man
who had a new idea which he wished to impart to others.
It was said in New England a hundred years ago that a
college consisted of Horace Bushnell sitting on one end
of a log and a student with a Greek textbook on the other.
Here were all the essentials for the college of that day—
the learned teacher and the responsive student, who by
personal contact with his teacher absorbed his wisdom
and profited by his experiences. But the modern college
teaches more than the ‘‘humanities’’. With the develop-
ment of the natural sciences in the latter half of the 18th
century and the first half of the 19th, and the applica-
tion of scientific discoveries to industrial life, came the
demand for technical training in laboratories and work-
shops. .
Naturally, this had a marked effect on our universities.
Law and theology, which consist of principles, preced-
ents and moral maxims, can be taught from textbooks
today, just as they were two hundred years ago, but the
development of the natural sciences and the addition to
the university curriculum of courses in mechanical, elec-
trical, and mining engineering and other technical sub-
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 253
jects has made the university of today a gréat workshop
instead of the quiet and secluded retreat which it was a
century ago.
On no other profession has this development of mod-
ern science had so marked an effect as on the teaching
and practice of medicine. In the last hundred and fifty
years has developed practically all of our accurate know-
ledge of physics, chemistry, and biology, the three sci-
ences fundamental to a knowledge of the human body
its workings, and diseases. The modern microscope, as
perfected by Lister and Amici in 1836, has, in less than a
hundred years, developed the new sciences of histology,
pathology, biology, and bacteriology. So that instead of
a medical training of one or two short courses of lectures,
- the medical student of today must have the most thor-
ough preparation and must undergo the longest, the most
severe and the most expensive training required of any
present-day profession.
Medical education has undergone a complete revolu-
tion and has produced changes not only in edueational
methods, but also in the character and type of physician,
that have not as yet been fully realized.
During the Colonial period of our history, the only
trained physicians in this country were men who had
gotten their medical education in England or on the Con-
tinent and who had later come to this country. Naturally,
such men were few in number. The searcity of physi-
cians in the growing colonies led to the custom of a young
man who desired to become a physician ‘‘reading medi-
cine’’ with an older and established practitioner and
fitting himself to treat the sick through personal instruc-
tion by his preceptor and the study of the medical text-
books in the physician’s library. Such an arrangement
was not only the best that could be made under the ex-
isting conditions, but it was also by no means an ineffec-
tive system of training. The young man of seventy-five
years ago who ‘‘read medicine’’ with his preceptor and
who. incidentally, took care of the horses, put up and de-
livered the medicines, and acted as general office boy,
while he received a quality of instruction along scientific
lines which would not be recognized today by any medical
254 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
school, also received something which the medical student
of today lacks. He was in constant and every day con-
tact with his preceptor. He saw the patients who came
for diagnosis and treatment. He assisted often in their
treatment. He rode for miles in the old-fashioned doc-
tor’s gig with his teacher, and from the older man, with
his years of experience and trained observation, he ac-
quired all of his scientific knowledge and in addition his
knowledge of the practical or applied side of medicine
as a profession. He learned how to handle not only the
patient, but, what is often more difficult, the patient’s
relatives and friends. He learned not only all that the
doctor knew of medicine as a profession, but aiso all that
he knew of medicine as a business. He acquired, in a
word, that personal knowledge based on individual ex-
perience that can not be taught in laboratories or by text- _
books, but that can only be acquired from man to man.
It was this crude but essentially human training which
made the old-time family doctor the confidant and father
confessor of his patients, as well as the man of influence
and leadership in the community, an essential factor in
medical education which the highly scientific, thorough
and exhaustive present-day medical curriculum has not
yet. been able to supply. The doctor of fifty years ago
was essentially human, even if he was not always highly
educated. The doctor of today, with his exhaustive and
expensive training, his highly technical ability, his
thoroughly equipped office and laboratory, and his equal-
ly fully equipped hospital around the corner, is not in as
close contact with his patients, either individually or
collectively, as his professional forefather of half a cen-
tury ago who did not have one-tenth of the medical know-
ledge of today but knew far better how to use, effective-
ly, sympathetically, and understandingly the knowledge
which he did possess. The human element is lacking in
the training and is consequently lacking in the product.
The story of the development of medical education in
this country is an intensely interesting one. But it is
not possible at this time to consider it in detail.
- The problem today is not how to raise the standard
of scientific instruction (that is practically solved), but
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 255
how to adapt our present-day educational methods so
that the medical graduate of today may be as capable
and efficient along practical lines as was his professional
forefather of two generations ago, who, with a far less
comprehensive and adequate training, was able to exer-
. eise a far greater personal influence. Everyone agrees
that physicians today do not have the influence or enjoy
the public confidence of their predecessors, though they
are much better educated and far more capable. How
can this confidence be restored without sacrificing our
high scientific standards?
The defects of our present-day medical education are
widely recognized. At the alumni dinner of the Car-
negie Institute of Technology, Dr. Thomas S. Baker, the
president, said, ‘‘We are giving too much importance to
methods and not. enough to substance; too much im-
portance to courses of study and not enough to the indi-
vidual teacher. College and school executives are so
enmeshed in a maze of administrative details that they
are in danger of building up systems rather than in build-
ing up faculties. The greatest need of American educa-
tion is simplification.’’ Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur, presi-
dent of Leland Stanford University and president of the
American Medical Association, says, ‘‘The social re-
sponsibilities of the profession are enormous. Are we
going to fit in or be fitted? The social aspects of medi-
cine are inevitable. We need to smash the present cur-
riculum and revamp it to bring it up to the medical re-
quirements of modern knowledge. Present medical
courses are in some ways ridiculous. We now take
twenty-five years of the life of the best young men in
the country preparing them to become physicians. We
standardize the work so that when they have finished
they are all alike.’’ Dr. Richard C. Cabot of Boston
says, ‘‘The psychical side of practice is more than half
of the practitioner’s job and makes or mars him. Men
intending to study and practice medicine must face the
fact that medical schools give practically no attention to
the psychic side of the doctor’s work. How to deal with
people,—that is the problem. The doctor must learn the
256 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
psychology of human approach. This is absolutely neces-
sary in his education, but he is never taught it.’’
Nor are such views confined to the leaders in medical
thought in this country. Sir James Mackenzie, probab-
ly the leading English authority on diseases of the heart,
in his recent book on “‘The Future of Medicine’’ says,
‘«The chief difficulty is in the fact that there is no teacher
with a broad outlook on medicine who ean see all the
different branches in their proper perspective. Fifty
years ago, progress was being made on certain lines _
which tended to a clearer conception of what medical
education was, because the teachers were men who had
taken a broad outlook. At the present day, there is not
a single teacher in a school of medicine capable of taking
that broad outlook. When any attempt is made to
modify the instruction necessary for the general prac-
titioner, every kind of individual connected with edu-
cation is consulted except the one individual capable of
showing from his own experience where medicine fails,
that is, the general practitioner himself.’’
The situation, today, is radically different from that of
fifty years ago. In those days, the surgeon taught anat-
omy, operative surgery, surgical diagnosis, and operat-
ive technique. The medical student who worked with
Sir Astley Cooper, John Hunter, Everhard Home, Syme,
or any of the other great surgeons of that day, learned
from them, not every anatomical fact regarding the hu-
man body, which it is not possible for anyone except the
professional anatomist to learn or retain for any length
of time, but those anatomical facts which are necessary
and essential for the proper practice of surgery, and he
learned them with an exactness and a thoroughness
which remained with him through life. From the same
teacher, he learned his surgical diagnosis and his oper-
ative technique. He stood beside and assisted him in
the operations. He learned the after-care of his surgi-
eal patients but, most important of all, he learned from
these great leaders not only how to handle surgical con-
ditions, but also how to handle patients suffering from
surgical conditions. Just as the student of the early
days who ‘‘read medicine’’ with a preceptor learned the
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 257
practical and applied side of medicine, so the student of
surgery learned courage, self-control, and resourceful-
ness from the greatest men of his day.
Today, the medical student learns his anatomy from
a bachelor or a master of science whose work has been
limited entirely to the dissecting-room and the labor-
atory. He learns his histology from another laboratory
man; his pathology from a teacher, most of whose time
has been spent in the morgue and in the preparation-
room; his physiological chemistry from a professional
chemist; his X-ray diagnosis and treatment from the
electrical specialist. The eye he studies under an oph-
thalmologist; the ear under an aurist; the throat and
nose under a laryngologist and nervous diseases from a
neurologist. Nowhere at any stage of his long, expen-
sive and crowded course is there any opportunity for
him to come in contact with some broad mind which will
help him to digest this tremendous mass of information
pouring in on him from all sides and many sources. No-
where on the faculty is there a single man who is inter-
ested in the problems which will confront the doctor in
the first few years of his professional career. Above
all, nowhere in the curriculum is any attempt made to tell
him anything about the practical, everyday problems
which are going to confront him. He is taught all about
the human body, but he is taught nothing about human
beings. ;
As a result, he leaves his alma mater, even after an
internship in a hospital, loaded down with the very latest
knowledge of all the innumerable branches of present-
day medicine and surgery, full of information given him
by experts who are twenty or thirty years ahead of him
in point of experience, equipped with all of the technical
knowledge of tests, examinations, analyses, methods of
diagnosis and methods of treatment, without having had
a single hint during the entire six years of his course as
to how he can secure patients on whom to exercise this
enormous accumulation of knowledge, how he shall keep
them after he has gotten them, or how he can collect
enough money from them to pay his professional ex-
penses and make a living for himself and his family. In
258 ILLINOIS STATEH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
a word, the science of medicine is taught today as never
before, but practically everything that could possibly
help the student to a knowledge of the practice of medi-
cine has been eliminated. He is taught all about medi-
eine except how to practice it.
The result is that the young medical man goes into
practice without any clear ideas of the relations between
himself and his patients individually; between the doctor
and the public, either individually or as a class; between
- the doctor and his professional associates. No one has
told him of such things in medical schools. He soon gets
some amazing shocks. He believes that the so-called
‘‘regular’’ school, to which he of course belongs, is not
only the only one which has a right to exist, but the only
one which is accepted by the public as reputable or hon-
est. Yet he sees great lawyers, judges and business men
patronize osteopaths and chiropractors, Christian Sei-
ence healers and nature doctors. Naturally, he is con-
fused and irritated. He was taught nothing in his medi-
cal course regarding the history or development of his
profession, and, of course, nothing regarding the numer-
ous sects, cults and so-called schools of medicine which
have always existed. He knows, in a contemptuous and
superior way, that homeopaths believe in ‘‘similia simili-
bus eurantur’’ and that the only medicine they are sup-
posed to give is little sugar-coated pills. He knows that
Christian Science was founded by Mrs. Eddy. He knows
that osteopathy and chiropractic consist in using mas-
sage or some modification of it in strange and wild ways,
but who is responsible for these sects, how they origi-
nated and why intelligent people support them, he does
not know. He has never been told anything about the
history of sectarianism or its various manifestations.
He regards all sectarians as quacks and fakirs and looks
with contempt on any layman who would patronize them.
He feels, and rightly, too, that a medical man should
be judged by the quality of his work, the standing of the
college from which he graduated, and the hospital in
which he served as an intern. He can not understand
why intelligent laymen should pass him by and patronize
a Christian Science healer or a nature doctor. He is
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 259
amazed, hurt, and disappointed because no one has ever
told him anything about popular psychology, the eternal
appeal of the charlatan or pseudo-scientist. His college
professors should have told him something about the
various cults and sects and how to meet them, but they
were all far too busy lecturing on pure science to waste
time on such absurd subjects. So he has to learn by
hard knocks because no one has ever told him how his
own profession reached its present state.
When the young practitioner considers his legal status,
he is also puzzled. He believes that his diploma, and
especially his state license, constitute him a privileged
individual, and that he is ‘‘recognized by the state,’’
whatever that may mean. He believes that a medical
practice act exists for the purpose of protecting him from
competition by preventing everybody except regular
physicians from treating the sick. He regards all health
laws as commendable or desirable. If some of these laws
impose compulsory restrictions on laymen, it is neces-
sary for them to submit for the public good. He views
compulsory vaccination and quarantine regulations as
perfectly proper restrictions on the layman. So far he
is right. But when the state or federal government im-
poses regulations or restrictions on him, in the form of
laws for the restriction of the use of alcohol or habit-
forming drugs, his wails of protest are heard afar, be-
cause his professional and personal liberty is thereby
interfered with. No one ever told him in his medical
course that medical practice acts are for the protection
of the people and not the doctor, and that his cherished
state license is in no sense a ‘‘recognition’’ or endorse-
ment but is simply a police permit to do business and
legally is in the same class with an automobile license.
So again he has to learn by hard experience or remain in
ignorance, because no one has ever told him anything
about. his legal relations.
Early in his practice, the young doctor comes in con-
tact with some one of the many medico-social bodies
which have developed so numerously in the last twenty-
five years. The Red Cross, the National Tuberculosis
Association, the Cancer Society, the Society for the Pre-
260 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
vention of Blindness, ask him to support them or work
with them. Again, he is confused. What are laymen
doing in the field of medicine? What ought they to do?
' What should be the doctor’s attitude to such bodies?
What are the social relations of the doctor and the medi-
cal profession? What is State Medicine and what effect
will it have on him? What are Health and Industrial
Insurance? What is Contract Practice? What shall he
do about all these things that surround him every day
and that his teachers never told him about? He doesn’t
know because during all the years of his training he
never knew there was such a thing as medical sociology
—that great field that has developed so rapidly in the
. last twenty years. His teachers were all too busy to tell
him anything about it. And again he has to suffer be-
cause no one has told him.
Then practical and financial questions arise. How
much should he charge for his services? How can he
collect his accounts? Who is liable, in complicated and
perplexing cases, for payment for his services? How can
he, an expensively and thoroughly educated technician,
develop into a successful business man, as well? He has
the technical training for his work. How ean he suc-
ceed as a practitioner? Has any one told him? No.
There is not a medical school in this country where any
instruction is given on how to practice medicine as a
business. Yet the most highly trained man will be a
failure and a dead loss to himself and society unless he
can make enough to support himself and family, pay his
bills, and save enough for postgraduate work and invest
enough to secure him for old age. Is any medical school
teaching medical economies? If they are, it isn’t men-
tioned in the catalogues. Yet the business side of a pro-
fession is quite as important as the technical side, if one
is to be successful. The practical advice that the medical
student formerly got from his old preceptor has no
counterpart in the present-day medical curriculum. He
not only makes mistakes but he loses money because no ©
ene has ever told him how to manage his business.
After the young doctor has been in practice for any-~
where from one to five years, some other doctor asks him
=
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 261
to join a medical society. This is the first time he has
heard it mentioned. In the last twenty-five years, our
medical organizations have increased in membership,
efficiency and influence more than in the preceding
seventy-five years. Has the medical student been told
anything about medical organizations, their purposes
and advantages, and that it is his duty and privilege to
join the county, state, and national bodies just as soon as
he is eligible? Not that I have ever heard. I recently
had occasion to talk to a senior medical student of one
of the leading medical schools of the country. In the
course of the conversation, I mentioned the American
Medical Association. To my surprise, he hadn’t the
slightest idea what it was. I said to him, ‘‘In the four
years you have been in college have you never heard the
American Medical. Association mentioned?’’ He said,
‘““No, Doctor, except I remember one spring one of our
professors dismissed his class early because he had to
catch a train to go the American Medical Association
meeting, but I hadn’t any idea what it was. That’s the
only time I heard it mentioned.”’
Christ said to his disciples, ‘‘The children of this
world are wiser in their day and generation than the
children of light.’’ B. J. Palmer, the founder of chiro-
practic, may be short in science but he’s long in common
sense. Every student who matriculates at the Daven-
port Chiropractic School joins the National Chiropractic
Association the day he enters the school. We let four
thousand of the brightest and best trained of young men
spend from four to seven years in school studying medi-
cine, and send them out to become the doctors of the
future and never tell them a word about our own organi-
. zations. After they have had four or five hard years of
bumps and mistakes we go around and try to organize
them. Brilliant idea! But why not begin to organize
the medical profession at the door of the medical school?
Common sense, isn’t it?
Finally, after enduring all the knocks and rude awak-
enings incident to the first years of practice, comes the
last straw. The young doctor is sued for malpractice.
It may be inspired by a jealous business rival, stimulated
Ries
262 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
by a firm of ambulance-chasing lawyers, brought by a
dead-beat patient to scare the doctor from collecting his
bill, or the consequence of an unforseen but unfortunate
outcome of a complicated fracture or a wilful and diso-
bedient patient. Does the doctor know his own rights,
responsibilities, and liabilities before the law, so that
he can protect his own interests? Not from anything he
has learned in college. Yet the principles of the common
law as applied to professional responsibility are com-
paratively simple and could easily be presented in such
a way as to be of enormous value to the student. ‘‘But,”’
you say, ‘‘most medical colleges give a course in medical
jurisprudence.’’ True. But most, if not all the time for
such a course is devoted to criminal law and the legal
aspects of insanity. Few doctors, even after they have
been practicing for years, have any clear ideas regard-
ing a physician’s rights, obligations, and responsibilities
as applied to the problems of everyday practice.
What does the student learn in our present-day medi-
eal school? He learns the science of medicine. Nowhere,
so far as I know, has any attempt been made to teach
him or even advise him on the applied art of the practice
of medicine. When the University of Pittsburgh Medi-
cal School, a few years ago, decided, what was perfectly
true, that their graduates were being turned out without
any knowledge of the history of their profession, a course
in medical history was added to the curriculum. But
who gave the course? The professor of history in the
University, a non-medical man, whose only knowledge
of the history and development of the medical profession
was gained from textbooks. In order to cure the danger |
of specialism, another specialist was added.
Our present-day medical curriculum, then, is deficient ©
in that it lacks a humanizing influence at three points of
contact.
First, the instruetion, today, is exclusively by special-
ists, each interested in his particular line. The student
does not anywhere come in contact with a broad, highly
trained mind, capable of synthetizing the entire field of
medical knowledge for him, adding the experience and
practical knowledge that has been gained through years
s
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 263
of effort, giving the medical student the sound, practical
advice which he needs, especially in the first few years
of his medical career. There is nothing in our present
medical curriculum to bridge the gap between the medi-
cal student of today and the well-grounded medical prac-
titioner of ten years from now.
Second, the student, both in college and in the hospital,
looks on the patient simply as one unit in a large mass
of clinical material. Himself a machine-made product,
with but little individuality in his training, he regards
the patient in much the same light. Nowhere is he
taught to consider the patient in the hospital or in the
elinie as an individual entity which he must learn to
understand quite as thoroughly as he does the disease
from which the individual patient is suffering. He is
taught to treat diseases rather than human beings.
Third, and most important of all, the medical student
at no time during his four-year course receives any in-
struction or even any advice regarding his own individual
place in society, his relation to his patients, the public, or
the medical profession as a whole, the personal relations
of the medical profession, or how the present-day situa-
tion came about. Yet all this knowledge, which would
make possible an entirely different social viewpoint from
that now held by most physicians, could be made a valu-
able part of the present-day medical curriculum. Even
if it were necessary to sacrifice some of the numerous
specialties which now occupy so much time, such a course
would be well worth the while. But such a sacrifice is
_ not necessary. One hour a week, during the four-year
course. is ample for this purpose.
During the first or freshman year and before the stud-
-ent has had his mind distracted by a multitude of other
subjects, one hour a week, throughout the freshman year,
should be given to the history of medicine. This import-
ant subject should be taught, not in the perfunctory and
dry manner in which most historical matter is presented,
not in the fragmentary and divided way in which some
of the special departments present the history of their
own subject. It should rather be given as a series of in-
_ formal talks on the early history and development of
Ver
is
; “
264 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
medicine among primitive peoples; its growth among the -
Greeks, the Jews, the Egyptians, the Romans, and the
Arabians; its condition and limitations during the Mid-
dle Ages; with a summary of the important advances
which were made; an account of the development of the
natural sciences in the 17th and 18th centuries and the
influence of the development of physics and chemistry
on medicine; an account of the slow development of the
microscope and its final perfection; of the influence which
this discovery had on biology; of the development of
organic chemistry by Liebig; of cellular pathology by
Virchow; of.bacteriology by Pasteur; and of present-day
surgery by Lister; of the marvelous development of the
last fifty years and of the men who made this develop-
ment possible, with a summary of the leading men in the
different fields who are at present regarded as leaders.
Such a course would not only be intensely interesting, if
illustrated with lantern slides and moving picture films,
but it would also give the young medical student the his-
torical background which he is, today, entirely lacking.
In connection with each epoch or period of medical de-
velopment, attention would be called to the different
sects, cults, and schools which prevailed at that time.
Most physicians, I have found, are familiar with and
bitterly hostile to the cults of their own day, which they
regard as entirely unique, present-day phenomena.
They do not realize that every period in medicine has
had its own peculiar brand of pseudo-medicine; that
every generation has had its fads and its sects; that be-
fore the chiropractor was the osteopath; before the os-.
teopath, the eclectic; before the eclectic, the botanical
doctor and the Thompsonian; before that, the homeo-
path; before Hahnemann, the Perkins’ traetors, Bishop
Berkeley’s tar-water, and the stone extractors of previ-
ous generations. There has always been the sectarian,
the faddist, and the follower of fantastic cults. Attempt
to suppress him is the breath of his nostrils and only »
gives him so much free advertising. The only way to
combat him is to learn his own particular fad more thor- ~
oughly than he knows it himself so that he can be the
more readily refuted and discountenanced. This would
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 265
avoid the spectacle which we often see of learned physi-
cians, known throughout the country, appearing before
legislative committees and being made monkeys of by
shrewd, adroit quacks who did not have a fraction of
their knowledge but far exceeded them in ability to
present a subject to a lay audience.
In the second year, an equal amount of time—one -hour
a week—should be devoted to a discussion of the social
side of medicine. Under this head would be discussed
the relation of the individual physician and the medical
profession to society as a whole, both in previous genera-
tions and today; a discussion of the relation of the medi-
eal profession to other professions, as lawyers, ministers,
ete.; the relation of the allied professions of dentistry,
pharmacy, trained nursing, and the midwife; the growth
of the social public health movement of the last twenty-
five years, including such organizations as the National
Tuberculosis Association, the American Society for the
Control of Cancer, the American Child Health Associa-
tion, and all of the other organizations, nearly one hun-
dred in number, which have developed in this field since
‘the beginning of the present century. The lack of reliable
knowledge on these subjects has not only caused much
eonfusion and division of opinion among physicians, but
has prevented the profession from exerting its united in-
fluence for the guidance of public: opinion and the pro-
tection of the public health, as well as its own legitimate
interests. . ;
In the third year, an hour a week should be devoted ta
- the economic side of medical practice. Business methods,
systems of bookkeeping, and cost accounting, correct
methods of charging and collecting, as well as advice on
investments, would betaken up. Here, also, would be dis- —
cussed the advantages and disadvantages of government
service, the Army, Navy, and United States Public
Health Service, public health and industrial work, as
well as such important economic problems as health in-
surance, contract practice, fee splitting, group practice,
ete. .
The fourth, or senior year, should have an hour a week
devoted to the instruction of the graduating class in medi-
266 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
cal ethics and organization for half the year, the remain
der to be devoted to a course of lectures on medico-legal
problems of the physician, telling the men about to enter
the actual practice of medicine what the law provides
and the courts have ruled regarding a physician’s rights
and special privileges, liability for professional services,
the law of expert testimony, of malpractice, of privileged
communications, of birth, death, and marriage registra-
tion, of legitimacy, insanity and criminal procedure, so
far as it touches the everyday problems of medicine.
Only one who has followed the subject for many years
has any idea how diverse and perplexing are the prob-
lems that arise in the physician’s daily life, how sorely
he needs advice on these problems and how to meet them,
and how much annoyance he could be spared by practical
instruction at the beginning of his professional career.
The adoption of such a course, covering a large and im-
portant list of subjects not found today in any medical
curriculum, would only require one hour a week through-
out the four years. It would not be necessary to omit or
greatly curtail any of the courses now being offered. In
the hands of a teacher who understood his subject and
who put into it vitality and human understanding, it
could easily be made one of the most valuable and popu-
lar courses in the entire schedule.
It is impossible to turn back the hands of time. The
old preceptor with his wise, kindly, practical advice is
gone forever. Our medical schools are today giving
better, more scientific and valuable training than ever |
before. But with all their highly specialized courses, ©
expensive laboratories, and expert teachers, they fail to
provide any substitute for the old preceptor or any hu-
manizing touch by which the medical graduate of today
is qualified to deal with and solve not only scientific prob-
lems, but human problems as well. If to the thorough-
ness and accuracy of the present-day curriculum the sav-
ing grace of personality and human experience can be
added, the medical graduate of tomorrow can begin his
professional work with a far greater assurance of real
success than is possible today.
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 267
Universities are something more than buildings; teach-
ing is something more than laboratory equipment; pro-
fessional training, in the highest sense, is more than
technical instruction. Our medical schools must not be
satisfied with anything short of that training which is
not only of the highest scientific quality, but also of the
broadest practical value. While the curriculum in our
medical schools today is perhaps more crowded and over-
weighted than that of any other course of technical in-
struction, a place must be made in the four-year medical
course for instructing the physician of the future in the
spirit as well as in the letter of his work. He must be
told the history of his profession, not in a perfunctory
recital of names and dates, but so as to make him under-
stand the heritage of effort, experience, knowledge and
sacrifice which the great men of previous generations
have handed on to him. He must be taught his duties
and his responsibilities to his patients and to his com-
munity with as much care as he is now instructed in
anatomy, bacteriology, and chemistry. He must be
shown his duty and his responsibility to his profession
and to his individual professional associates, and he must
be given as sound instruction in the business of his pro-
fession as he is now given in its science. In a word, he
must be taught the vastly increased scientific knowledge
of today, plus the practical, personal inspiration of the
old system, so that each graduate of our vastly improved
medical colleges of today may be not only the best trained
man in his community, but also the man with the largest,
broadest, and deepest human understanding and sym-
pathy.
268 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
REMARKS UPON THE TREATMENT OF PARKSIS.
Cuartes F’. Reap, M. D., State Atmnist—CHIcaco .
On June 30, 1923, there were 920 cases of general
paralysis of the insane enrolled in the various state
_ hospitals of Illinois. Of the 4770 patients admitted dur-
ing the year of 1922-1923 for the first time to any insti-
tution, 560 were suffering from this same disease. Of
the 1919 patients who died during this same year, 425
were cases of general paralysis. The average hospital
life of patients admitted with this disease and who
die in our state hospital is 1.11 years. Although over 500
patients were discharged as recovered, from the various ~
state hospitals of Illinois during this same year, there
was not one ease of paresis—a slenter term for — same
disease—among them.
The statistics of the state of Illinois are true for those
of the United States in general, and even the enormous
ageregate thus revealed does not account for all the ray-
ages produced by this dread disease. Many patients
doubtless die in private institutions or in the home be-
fore their conduct has become so bad as to necessitate —
hospitalization. Upon the average they are men in early
middle life, men who have arrived at the most product-
ive time of life, and have assumed the responsibilities of
wife and children. In a recent study made by a social
service worker in the Hast, it was found that the major-
ity of the families of these patients became dependent
upon charity or the earnings of the wife and mother who
was forced to go to work when her husband went into
the hospital.
Of the 560 patients admitted in 1922-1923 only 95 were
women, thus leaving 465 men representing, at a valua-
tion of $10,000 each, a loss to the state of Illinois of
$4 650,000—aside from the cost of maintaining them in
an institution for a year and a month, an expenditure
which would run the total figure well up to $5,000,000.00!
This is a problem with which we have to deal in our
state hospitals—a problem of the end results of syph-
ilitie infections dating back from 10 to 20 years prior to
the patients commitment as insane. It is said that
~ —_——
.
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 269
about 5 out of. every 100 syphilitics develop loco-
' motor ataxia or general paralysis of the imsane.
Obviously the rational way in which to deal with
this problem is along the lines of prevention; first, the
prevention of infection, and secondly, the prevention of
the involvement of the central nervous system. But the
prevention of venereal disease is a problem of social ~
hygiene, while the prevention of an involvement of the
central nervous system belongs for the most part to the
syphilographers. What the state hospitals must en-
deavor to do is to make what repairs are possible to the
damaged human mechanisms committed to our institu-
tions for care and treatment.
By general paralysis of the insane, or paresis, we
understand a disease of the central nervous system
especially affecting the cortex of the brain itself, as
differentiated from other syphilitic conditions involving
the meningeal coverings of the brain or the walls of the
blood vessels or the production of new growths, gum-
mata, in connection with the meninges or blood vessels.
Formerly it was thought that while syphilis had some-
thing to do with laying the general foundation for par-
alysis, other factors such as over work conditioned its
development.- This opinion, however, has of late years
been revised by the discovery of Moore and Noughchi
(in 1911) of the spirochaeta pallida in the brain sub-
stance of these patients. There is still, however, con-
siderable discussion as to what determines this invasion
of the brain. Some, notably Levaditi, contend that there
are strains of this organism which are neurotrophic, hav-
ing a predelection for nerve tissue, while others, derma-
trophic in nature, by preference locate in other parts of
the body and produce visceral syphilis: Certain experi-
ments of Levaditi would seem to corroborate his views.
As a matter of fact, it is quite commonly accepted that
patients developing paresis have suffered few if any of
the secondary and tertiary lesions common to ordinary
syphilitic infection.
It has been well established by many observers that
about 20 per cent of infected patients show early in the
course of the disease some changes in the spinal fluid,
270 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
indicating an early involvement of the central nervous
system, and it is probable that patients who later suffer
from disease of the central nervous system are recruited
from the ranks of those who suffer such early involve-
ment; hence the necessity of examination of the spinal
fluid in all cases of syphilis, with treatment espenaa
directed to combating this invasion.
Unfortunately for our problem as to the treatment of
paresis in state hospitals, the patients do not come to us
until their behavior as the result of brain involvement
has become so bad as to necessitate their separation from
home and society.. This means that, given an average
duration of.three years from the appearance of symp-
toms to the death of the patient, the state hospital has
to deal with patients who are well along in the course of
the disease, probably two years at least upon the aver-
age. Obviously considerable structural change has taken
place and therapy is thus rendered so much the more
difficult. The infected organism lies in the brain sub-
stance itself and is exceedingly difficult to reach with
any drug known to us at the present time.
The history of the treatment of paresis is one of many
therapeutic gestures and relatively small accomplish-
ment. Fortunately for the paretic and unfortunately for
the establishment of facts concerning cures, the disease
is subject to spontaneous remissions in from eight to ten
per cent of cases. Thus the patient who is apparently
quite demented and about ready to die may without ap-
parent cause or following an attack of erysipelas or other
intercurrent infection, make a remarkable improvement
which may last anywhere from a few months to many
years, but inevitably the patient dies of his disease sooner
or later—unless intercurrent disease carries him off
meanwhile. For this reason statistics concerning the re-
sults of various treatments are unreliable unless observa-
tion is carried on over a long period of years, or a very
high percentage of remissions are secured in a consider-
able group of treated cases.
It is unnecessary to recite the long history of the treat-
ment of paresis here. Very naturally the discovery by
Ehrlich of the arsenical known as salvarsan aroused
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 271
great hopes, and many favorable reports were received
- following the treatment of patients in various ways with
this and allied drugs. Of late years, however, pessimism
has again evidenced itself in numerous reports of con-
siderable numbers of cases in which the results have been
disappointing. This is notably true of various observers
‘working in the state hospitals of New York State,
where the number of patients benefitted, as quoted by
Mills and Vaux (Archives Neurology and Psy. Vol. 9,
-No. 4) was only 15.9 per cent in 1920 and 13.8 per cent in
1921. Intra-spinal treatment was taken up with great
enthusiasm at the time of the announcement of Swift and
Ellis that favorable results had been obtained by the
introduction into the subdural spaces of the patient’s
own blood serum following the intravenous injection of
salvarsan. At the present time, however, but few clin-
icians are using this form of treatment in state hospital
practice—and it must be understood that in this discus-
slon we are limiting ourselves to such cases. Only a
trace of arsenic can be found im the spinal fiuid follow-
ing intravenous injections of the arsenicals,-and none
whatever in the brain substance (animal experiments
‘and investigation of cases dead from arsenical poison-
ing).
In 1917 Wagner-Jauregg of Vienna began to treat par-
esis with malarial infection upon the theory that the
violent reactions thus obtained in some manner mobilize
the defense resources of the organism, and reports a
number of patients treated at that time to be still out of
the hospital and doing well. At the present time reports
upon this method of treatment claim a high percentage
of remissions especially in the more incipient cases.
In May, 1923, Dr. Lorenz of Wisconsin with a group
of workers (Journal of A. M. A. May 26th, 1923) reported
as high as 50 per cent of institutional cases showing great
improvement after treatment with tryparsamid, an ar-
senical derived from arsenic pent-oxide. Eighty per cent
of the blood Wassermanns and thirty per cent of the
spinal finid Wassermanns became negative,—results
heretofore not obtained with any type of treatment.
272 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY. OF SCIENCE
These findings were later confirmed by Moore of Johns
Hopkins (Journal A. M. A., Feb. 16, 1924).
Following this inspiring report letters poured into our
state institutions from anxious relatives inquiring if this
new treatment could not be given to their patients, and
accordingly in July, 1922, arrangements were made
through the courtesy of Dr. Lorenz for a supply of this
new arsenical, not yet upon the market, which can be
given in very large doses—three grams each week intra-
venously, associated with a mercury salicylate. At the
same time another group of similar patients was placed
upon a modification of arsphenamine known as sulphar- —
sphenamine. It is mainly with the results obtained with
these two groups that this report has to do, although
various other modes of therapy are being tried. At this
same time 60 patients are under intensive treatment at
the Elgin State Hospital with these and other remedies,
notably new mercurials that can be given intravenously,
a new arsenical allied to tryparsamid and a form of non
specific treatment less dangerous than malarial infection.
We let the slides speak for themselves as to the exact
results obtained, and summarize them in general as fol-
lows:
Remissions thus far secured in either group do not
surpass the percentage that may be expected in eases
treated in the usual manner with arsphenamine. The im-
provement in physical health in the tryparsamid group
has been notable and many negative bloods have also
been obtained, but no negative Wassermann in the spinal
fluid as yet.
Several cases of apparent early optic atrophy (one or
two of them very evident) have been found in both these
treated groups, though the patients in the tryparsamid
group were the only ones examined at the beginning of
treatment.
Some of the sulpharsphenamine treated cases have also
made marked improvements (one remission) but 25 per
cent are worse than at the beginning of treatment, where-
as none in the tryparsamid group have apparently de-
teriorated.
.
g
}
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 273
Though somewhat disappointed in the present results,
_ the reporters realize that they have had to do with very
unfavorable types for treatment and that it is really too
early to draw worthwhile conclusions as to the results of
this effort. In justice to the remedies employed another
six months must elapse before publishing results in de-
tail.
The reporters are grateful to Dr. Hinton, Superintend-
ent of the Elgin State Hospital for his most cordial co-
operation, to Dr. Hughes of Elgin for his painstaking
examination of the fundi, and to Dr. Lorenz through
whose courtesy a supply of tryparsamid has been re-
ceived until quite recently.
The writer is continuing, in collaboration with Dr. Pas-
kind of the Elgin State Hospital staff, this rather intens-
ive piece of therapeutic research and hopes in another
six months to have some very definite conclusions for
publication.
274 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE RELATION OF ANIMAL DISEASES TO
PUBLIC HEALTH
THomas G. Hutu, Curer, Dracnostic Laporatoriss,
Iuurnois DEPARTMENT OF Pusiic Heatran,
SPRINGFIELD
‘‘Man is his own worst enemy”’ in the spread of com-
municable diseases, but the lower animals are a close
second. It is only necessary to cite bubonic plague, a
disease of rats, which carried off 25 percent of the
world’s population not so long ago and which is today
costing the United States Government large sums of
money in preventive measures. Another instance is
sleeping sickness, a disease primarily of animals and
transmitted by the tse-tse fly, which makes certain parts
of Africa actually uninhabitable for either white man
or native. Some prominence has been given this ques-
tion lately through the offer of the Germans to give to
the world a cure for sleeping sickness in return for cer-
tain territory. a
But to get nearer home, take our own domestic cow.
Tuberculosis is by far the most. serious problem, ranging
in extent from 2 to 3 per cent of the cattle in the southern
part of Illinois to 50 per cent or more of the animals in
the intensive dairying districts of the northern part of
the state. The hogs that follow the cows, and the chick-
ens that follow the hogs may also become infected with
bovine tuberculosis and be incidental sources of danger.
The chief source of danger is through milk to children.
In surveys made some years ago in several large cities
about 10 per cent of milk samples were found infected
with tubercle bacilli, and this figure probably holds good
today in the average small city of Illinois. Efficient and
compulsory pasteurization has eliminated danger in the
large cities. While 25 per cent of tubercular children
formerly were infected with the bovine type of the dis-
ease, recently bone and gland tuberculosis (evidence of
the bovine infection) have been rare occurrences in cities
like Chicago. Dr. Lorenz on his last visit to this country
cried, ‘‘Where is your bone tuberculosis?’’
ee ee hes
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 275
Two other diseases, anthrax and foot and mouth dis-
ease, may be spread not only by cattle, but also by the
other domestic animals which are subject to infection.
There occurred during the calender year 1922 in the
United States 89 cases of human anthrax, of which I[lli-
nois had four. The disease is well under control, al-
though present in various parts of the country. Foot and
mouth disease is rather rare in man, due principally to
the immediate destruction of infected animals. Milk is
a possible source of danger, but proper pasteurization
will prevent infection.
Contagious abortion among cattle is very prevalent,
but its relation to human welfare is not yet settled.
Huddleson has shown the presence of abortion bacilli in
milk from infected cattle, and Park and others have
shown as high as 25 per cent of individuals giving agglu-
tination reactions to this organism. In several states the
problem is considered of public health importance and
tests for the disease in cattle are performed by the
laboratory of the State Board of Health. The writer at
one time observed a herd of cattle badly infected with con-
tagious abortion where the wives of three successive
‘ herdsman gave premature births to children. Pasteuri-
zation of milk is a proper safeguard to the public.
Trichiniasis, primarily a disease of hogs, has played
a considerable part in the world’s history. The old Jew-
ish law against eating pork was in all probability the re-
sult of havoe wrought by this disease. Great epidemics
in Europe have been caused by the parasite, trichinella
spiralis, and some forty years ago it caused international
complications between this country and Germany, with
the result that American pork was barred from German
markets. The danger from eating raw pork is today
common knowledge, yet from 0.5 per cent to 2 per cent
of the population of civilized countries show trichina
embryos at post mortem examinations.
Glanders, very common in horses, is rather rare in
man. The two classes of persons likely to be infected are
hostlers and laboratory workers. Recently a case in IIli-
nois was drawn to the attention of the writer through
laboratory examinations. The disease was not suspected
276 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
previous to this time. Often the symptoms are very ob-
secure, and it is possible many more cases may occur than
are recognized.
Rabies is spread usually by our good friend, the dog,
though all other animals are susceptible and if infected
are sources of danger. The disease for centuries was the
dread of all peoples, in some communities the unfortunate
person bitten by an infuriated animal being put to death
immediately. Not till fifty years ago did Pasteur discoy-
er a preventative which has greatly reduced the mortal-
ity. In 1922, 50 deaths were reported in the United
States. At the present time there amounts to what is.
almost an epidemic of rabies among dogs in the southern
part of Illinois. )
Of all useless animals on earth, the rat is the most de- -
testable. As a marauder he is bad enough, as a murderer
he excels. Reference has already been made to bubonic —
plague, which has swept the world in three great pandem-
ics. The first authentic epidemic originated in 542 A. D.
in Pelusium, Egypt. It spread by trade routes over
the then known world, till at its height the morality was_
5,000 persons a day and rose to 10,000 persons some days.
According to Procopius, a witness of the epidemie, ‘‘It
spared neither island nor cave nor mountain top where
man dwelt—. Many houses were left empty and it eame
to pass that many for want of relatives and servants were
left unburied for several days. At that time it was hard _
to find any one at business in Byzantium. Most people
who met in the streets were bearing a corpse. All busi-
ness had ceased, all craftsmen had deserted their erafts.’’
The second epidemic, known in history as the Black
Death, originated in Mesopotamia about the middle of
the eleventh century. Again the disease spread by trade
routes over the entire known world, carrying off 25,000,-
000 people, or one-fourth the population of Europe. The
third epidemic had its origin in China in 1871, coming to
the ports of Europe and America. Due to advancement
of the sanitary sciences and their strict application in
war upon rats and fleas, the world epidemic never
reached beyond isolated cases at seaports in Europe and
America. The disease is of especial importance to Ilhi-
‘
4
J
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 277
nois because of the water ways from the two coasts, and
will be of increasing importance as these waterways are
improved for ocean-going vessels.
Of lesser importance are infectious jaundice and rat
bite fever. Rats in many cities in the United States have
been shown to harbor the Spirocheta icterohemorrhagiae,
causing infectious jaundice in man. In [Illinois several
‘epidemics have been reported. Rat bite fever is less
prevalent in this country than in other parts of the world,
though some cases have occurred here. The causative
agent is Spirocheta morsus muris harbored by rats.
Very recently the United States Public Health Service
has been making an extended investigation of tularemia,
a disease of rats transmitted by the rat fleato man. Man
seems very susceptible to the disease. The bacteriolo-
gists in Washington who were working with the causative
agent, Bact. tularense, one after another became infected
till everyone connected with the problem had had the dis-
ease. The Lister Institute in London then requested a
culture of this virulent organism, which was sent, togeth-
er with a warning that great care must be used in hand-
ling it. In spite of this warning, word was received two
months later that the bacteriologist working on tula-
_ remia had contracted the disease. Added interest was
lent to the subject when many rabbits for sale in Wash-
ington markets were found infected with tularemia.
Goats are subject to a disease known as malta fever,
which may be transmitted to man through goat milk. In
Texas considerable trouble has been caused in this man-
ner. Guinea pigs usually are harmless little creatures,
but recently an epidemic of ‘‘guinea pig plagne’’ was re-
ported in man. The infection was spread to bakeries by
rats.
The domestic fowl is especially subject to a disease
known as ‘‘white diarrhea’’. The writer some years ago
found the disease especially fatal to young rabbits, young
kittens and young guinea pigs. The eggs from infected
hens contain large numbers of the organisms,—Bact. pul-
lorum,—which are not destroyed by usual methods of
cooking eggs. The relationship of the disease to man is
problematical, but there is little doubt that a severe
278 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
gastro-intestinal upset if nothing worse might be caused
by a young child eating infected eggs. This disease is
very prevalent in poultry in Illinois.
Another problem that keeps recurring is the relation
of paralized animals to poliomyelitis. In Lllinois a few
years ago the writer had the opportunity to study several
outbreaks of paralysis among animals which epidemio-
logically were closely related to poliomyelitis among chil-
dren. Laboratory studies however were negative. The
animals included in these studies were colts, hogs, and
chickens.
Brief mention should be made of intestinal parasites.
Tenia saginata, the beef tapeworm, Tenia solium, the
pork tapeworm, and Dibothriocephalus latus, the fish
tapeworm, all infect man. Belascaris mystax is a com-
mon parasite of the dog and cat and hence found in chil-
dren.
Some of the arthropods are subject to diseases quite
fatal to man. Among these are ticks, transmitting re-
lapsing fever and rocky-mountain spotted fever, lice,
which spread typhus fever, mosquitoes whose bite causes
malaria, yellow fever, dengue and filaria, and the flies es-
pecially in regard to sleeping sickness.
This paper must not be closed without including an
animal disease which is not fatal to man, but which has
actually been the means of saving a countless number of
human lives. This is cowpox, infection with which will
prevent the fatal smallpox in human beings.
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 279
MOSQUITO AND MALARIA CONTROL IN
ILLINOIS
Harry F'. Fereuson, Corer Sanitary Encryesr, Division
oF Sanitary ENGINEERING, State DEPARTMENT
oF Pusiic Hearty, SPRINGFIELD
All counties in Illinois suffer more or less from malaria
and mosquitoes. In the northern and central portions
of the State where much of the land has been fairly well
drained for agricultural and other purposes, malaria is
much less prevalent than in the southern counties, and
the mosquito pest has been greatly reduced except in
certain special areas. The death rates from malaria are
especially high in the southern counties, and that portion
of the State has been termed the ‘‘malaria belt of Illi-
-nois’’.
The accompanying map of Illinois shows the malaria
death rates by counties for the fiscal years from June 1,
1919, to June 30, 1922. When it is considered that for
each death from malaria there are approximately 300
cases of that disease, the case rate in the southern coun-
ties will be seen to be quite high. Moreover, many deaths
are caused by illnesses which would not have been incur-
red if the individuals had not previously been infected by
malaria and left in a weakened physical condition. This
is especially true of children, for if children are infected
by malaria in their growing years their growth and vital-
ity are probably greatly reduced.
As an example of the economic loss from malaria, ref-
erence may be made to Jackson County. Vital statistics
show that there are occurring in Jackson County between
2,700 and 3,000 cases of malaria a year. Assuming that
the economic loss per ease is $100, which would be a con-
servative figure, and include the cost of medicine, doctor
bills, and loss in productive earnings, the economic loss
to Jackson County is over $250,000 yearly. Thus that
eounty and other similar counties could well afford to
spend considerable sums yearly until mosquito-breeding
places have been eliminated.
Drainage work that has been going on for many years
in Illinois to reclaim land or make it more productive for
280 : ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
oa = ——
JO DAVI pssloTEPHENSONWi
STATE OF ILLINOIS et
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH aa a eal
DIVISION OF ENGIMEERING AND SANITATION j
DIVISION OF VITAL STATISTICS
MALARIA IH ILLINOIS
FISCAL YEARS
1919-20, 1920-21 AMD 1921-22
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[Me DONOUGH |!
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MALARIA DEATH RATES
PER 100,000 POPULATION
EaG ALLATI
DEATH RATES BASED UPON RECORDS
OF THE DIVISION OF VITAL STATISTICS AND
THE AVERAGE OF FEDERAL CENSUS POPULA
TIONS FOR 1920 AND ESTIMATED POPULA-
TIONS FOR JAN. 1, 1922 S
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Malaria death rates in counties in Illinois.
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 281
agricultural purposes has resulted in a great decrease in
the amount of malaria among the inhabitants because
malaria is spread only by the bite of a certain type of
- mosquito, and this mosquito, like all types of mosquitoes,
can breed.only when stagnant water is available in which
to lay eggs and in which the wiggler stage of the mos-
quito’s life can be passed. The economic saving from
decreased sickness and deaths from malaria, and also
other diseases which may have attacked individuals when
in a weakened condition from malaria, is not generally
taken into consideration in drainage projects, but it real-
ly should be included as a benefit as well as the increased
productiveness of the land. In some instances the eco-
nomic saving from decreased illness alone has been un-
doubtedly far in excess of the cost of the complete drain-
age work.
In 1916 the chief sanitary engineer of the State Depart-
ment of Health called attention in an article in ‘‘ Health
News’’ (the monthly publication of the department) to
. the heavy economic losses caused by malaria in Illinois,
especially in the southern portion. No systematic ma-
laria-prevention work by mosquito eradication was
undertaken in Illinois, however, until 1922, but in the
meantime the matter was given consideration by the
Southern Illinois Medical Society, and as the result of
a resolution of that society, studies of mosquito-breeding
places and the types of mosquitoes prevalent in some
southern Illinois communities were made by entomolo-
gists of the State Natural History Survey.
With the 1916 report of the State sanitary engineer,
the resolution of the Southern Illinois Medical Society,
and the studies of the State Natural History Survey en-
tomologist as a background, the question of systematic
malaria-mosquito eradication was presented on several
different occasions, as opportunity offered, by-the State
Division of Sanitary Engineering to the city officials and
interested civic organizations and citizens at Carbondale.
It was considered that Carbondale presented, for various
reasons, the best place to demonstrate what could be
done in the way of mosquito eradication and that cities
would benefit by such work.
282 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
As a result the Lion’s Club of Carbondale went on
record on January 27, 1922, guaranteeing to raise a fund
of $2,000 in order to carry on systematic malaria-mos-
quito control during 1922. The International Health
Board had previously tentatively agreed to furnish
$1,000 and the Illinois Central Railroad had given favor-
able consideration to the draining of many acres of
swamp land adjoining the city on the north. The State
Department of Public Health had agreed to provide the
services of a sanitary engineer to supervise the work,
and the assistance of the State Natural History Survey
and the U. S. Public Health Service were also assured.
Proposed and recommended by the State Department
of Public Health, sponsored by the Lion’s Club of Car-
bondale and receiving financial assistance from that elub,
the International Health Board, and the [Illinois Central
Railroad, and directed by the Sanitary Engineering Di-
vision of the State Department of Public Health, Car-
bondale carried on systematic mosquito-control work for
the season of 1922, and for the first time in the history
of the city enjoyed practically complete relief from the
pestiferous insects. The results from the standpoint of
reduction in malaria cases were equally gratifying. Vital
statistics and house-to-house canvasses had shown that
prior to 1922 the city suffered an average of over 2950
eases of malaria a year (267 during 1921). Following
the close of the mosquito-control work for 1922 it was
found by a house-to-house canvass that only 19 cases of
malaria had occurred during that year in the entire city.
It is quite probable that some of those few cases were
recurrent cases or may have received their infections
elsewhere.
The results were so satisfactory to the city officials and
civic organizations that had participated in the work,
and the economic saving to the community was so appar-
ent that arrangements were made to carry on similar
control work during 1923. During 1923 the city was
again practically free from mosquitoes and only 11 cases
of malaria were found by a house-to-house canvass. With
these two successful seasons’ work as a_ practical
example of what can be done, the city is making arrange-
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 283
ments to carry on mosquito control during 1924 and pro-
‘vision wiil probably be made in the city budget for such
work each year in the future. The work has been found
to save lives, to eliminate the pestiferous mosquito, and
to make a considerable economic saving to the commun-
ity. The cest of the work at Carbondale for 1922, not
including the supervision by a State sanitary engineer,
was about $2,600. At least 250 cases of malaria were
prevented, and considering the economic loss as $100 per
case, the net economic saving to the community for the
mosquito-control work was over $20,000. The cost for
the second season’s work (1923) was only about $800 and
thus the economic saving was even greater.
Following the example set by Carbondale, the city of
Belleville undertook complete malaria-mosquito control
during 1925. The work was assured by the interest and
financial assistance of the local Lion’s and Rotary Clubs,
the Board of Trade, and the city officials. Financial as-
sistance was also given by the International Health
Board and a State sanitary engineer directed the work.
From vital statistics for previous years and a house-to-
house canvass at the beginning of the control season of
1923 and another canvass at the end of the year, it was
found that the mosquito-control work reduced the ma-
laria in the city to about one-eighth of what had existed
- im previous years.
Malaria had not been quite as prevalent in Belleville
as in Carbondale, but nevertheless the control work re-
sulted in preventing at least 110 cases and made the city
practically free from the bothersome mosquito. The
season’s control work cost $3,020 and from the record
of the number of malaria cases during previous years
and during the control year it is conservatively esti-
mated that the net economic saving to the community
was over $8,000. The cost of control work for future
years will be less because of some permanent work done
during the first year, and thus the economic saving will
be correspondingly greater.
The work at Belleville was locally considered very
beneficial and profitable and provision is being made in
the city budget, with some additional financial assistance
284 . ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
by interested civic organizations, for the 1924 season’s
work and probably for future years the city may finance
the entire work.
Malaria and mosquito surveys have been made by State
sanitary engineers at Herrin and Pekin in response to re-
quests from interested citizens and organizations and at
a few other Illinois communities. Herrin will undertake
systematic control during 1924 the same as Carbondale.
and Belleville. The work at Pekin may be delayed until
1925 because of certain local conditions.
It is unwise to spend money for mosquito control un-
less the control is planned in a systematic manner and
will extend over a suitable area, and such work can not
be really successful unless a community is thoroughly
interested and the individual citizens cooperate. The
State Department of Public Health is desirous of assist-
ing communities in malaria and mosquito control, and
will arrange to have a survey made of malaria and mos-
quito conditions in any community and direct the control
work wherever a community is sufficiently interested.
Before discussing the control measures used at Carbon-
dale and Belleville it may be well to review the life hist-
ory of the mosquito, the manner in which malaria is
spread by one type of mosquito, and then outline the
various methods that can be used to eradicate malaria
and to prevent mosquito breeding. Because many of the
persons attending this meeting are undoubtedly some-
what familiar with the life history of the mosquito the
matter will be presented very briefly.
Two types of mosquitoes may be mentioned: the Ano-
pheles, the female of which can spread malaria, and the
Culex or ordinary pestiferous mosquito. The life eycle
of a mosquito is divided into four stages, the first three
of which are entirely dependent upon water for their
continuance. The entire cycle from the egg to the adult
requires from 7 to 10 days, depending upon climatic
conditions and water temperature.
The mosquito lays her eggs on water. The eggs of the
Anopheles are laid shies as distinguished from the
eggs of the ordinary Culex which are jaa in rafts, each
raft containing from 200 to 300 eggs. In two or three
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 285
days’ time, the eggs hatch into the larvae or ‘‘wigglers’’.
_ Anopheles wigglers swim horizontally on the surface of
the water and when disturbed, dart laterally. Culex
A raft of culex ova. (After Dead-
Patterns assumed by rick.)
Anopholes ova.
(After Deaderick.)
Larva of Anopholes mosquito. (Castel-
lain- and Chalmers. Modified after
Howard.)
Larva of a culex mosquito. (After
owar'
d.) ; .
|
3
Hi
; ‘3
1
i
2
Pupae; i, Culex; 2,
Anopholes; 3, Resting posture of mosquitoes: 1 and 2,
Aedes colspus. anophoies; 3, culex pipiens. (After Sam-
(After Howard.) bon.)
Fig. 2. Life cycle of Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes.
wigglers hang head down, with their tails protruding
, through the surface, their bodies at an angle of about
- 60 degrees with the surface, and when disturbed, dart
downward. Although living in the water and feeding on
small organisms and plant life, the wigglers are at all
286 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
times true air breathers, securing their supply of air
through respiratory siphons located on their tails. In
two or three days, the wigglers or larvae develop into
pupae. Both types of pupae resemble very closely the
figure of the comma (,). In two or three days the shell -
of the pupa splits and the adult mosquito emerges.
The Anopheles mosquito may be distinguished from
other types of mosquitoes by the definite markings on
the wings and by the position it assumes when resting
or feeding. When resting or feeding its proboscis and
body are in the same line, and at an angle from 45 to 90
degrees with the surface upon which it is resting. The
ordinary Culex mosquito has transparent wings and
when resting, keeps its body parallel with the surface.
The life habits of the two types of mosquitoes are dif-
ferent in a great many respects. The Anopheles appar-
ently has the better taste and will not breed abundantly
in sewage-polluted water. Anopheles ecrucians “breed
most abundantly in swamps and fresh marshes; Ano-
pheles punctipennis prefer slowly moving streams, while
Anopheles quadrimaculatus choose woodland pools and
the shallow portions of lakes and ponds. The Anopheles
mosquito very seldom bites in the daytime and its song
is much quieter and less annoying than that of other
types. It does most of its work between the hours of
sunset and sunrise. The Culex mosquito is very annoy-
ing both as to song and bite, and will make its attacks
in the daytime as well as at night.
Only Anopheles mosquitoes, and only the females of
that species, can spread malaria. In the ‘‘dark ages’? of
malaria it was commonly believed that the disease was
caused by breathing or contact with air in low places or
which had passed over swamps or stagnant ponds, espe-
cially at nighttime. Whence the name malaria from two
Latin words, ‘‘mal’’ meaning bad and ‘‘aria’’ meaning
air. There was a grain of truth to this unscientifie but
popular understanding of the cause of malaria, for it is
true that the Anopheles mosquito that can spread ma-
laria breeds in swamps and stagnant waters and flies
almost entirely after dusk or dark.
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 287
To spread malaria, the female Anopheles must first
bite and suck the blood of a person infected with the
disease. Then after the parasites of the disease have
undergone certain changes while in the body of the mos-
quito and have passed through its stomach walls and
reached its salivary glands, the mosquito can spread
malaria to the persons it thereafter bites.
Malaria is caused by the animal parasites that are in-
jected into the blood stream by the biting mosquito. The
chills and fever accompanying the disease are the result
of the multiplication of these parasites and the simul-
taneous liberation of millions of daughter parasites from
their parents.
Malaria control may be conducted along three general
lines, any one or combination of which will meet with a
fair measure of success: (1) by the prompt and proper
medical treatment of infected persons so as to eliminate
sources of infection for the mosquitoes; (2) by sereening
houses and the sick bed and otherwise preventing the
mosquito from becoming infected, or an infected mos-
quito reaching well persons; and (3) by eradicating the
mosquito primarily through the destruction or proper
treatment of mosquito-breeding places. The eradication
of mosquitoes is the most effective, and besides prevent-
ing malaria gives relief from annoyance. It is a problem
for the sanitary and drainage engineers.
The fight against the mosquito must be directed
against its water stages, particularly against the wigg-
lers. The mosquito must be killed while in the process
of developing and before it takes the wing. All types
of mosquitoes invariably make use of all the natural pro-
tection afforded for breeding. Along streams the wigg-
lers may be found close to the shore, among the protect-
ing grass and weeds, in the vicinity of drifts, close to
logs, among fallen leaves and other accumulations of a
like character. The same is true of ponds and pools, the
wigglers always being found in the shallow portions
among the marginal growths that furnish such excellent
protection.
Drainage as an antimosquito measure is the most ef-
fective. To remove the water is to eliminate the breed-
ry.
a
hoe
.
288 _ JLLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ing place. Drainage of swamps, marshes and ponds can —
be effected by the construction of open ditches or tile
drains, preferably the latter because of their perman-_
ency. In some cases ponds can be drained by vertical
drainage. Old ditches with numerous potholes should .
be regraded and cleared in order to drain the potholes
and keep the grass and weeds away from the water. A
small trench cut in the bed of an old ditch or stream will
confine the dry-weather flow and do much to keep the
grass and vegetation from encroaching. A tile laid in
the bed of an old ditch will remove the trouble entirely.
Small depressions and pools can sometimes be more eco-
nomically filled than drained.
The work of clearing as an antimosquito measure can
not be over-emphasized. The work appears of little con-
sequence perhaps, yet in many instances at least 90 per
cent of the breeding can be destroyed by this work alone.
If stagnation of the water is prevented and the marginal
vegetation removed, there can be but little breeding.
Places that can not be drained or filled in should be
treated in-some manner. Oil is the most efficient as well
as the cheapest larvicide known at the present time. In
some cases lime, hog dip, niter cake, and other com-
pounds can be used to good advantage. The oil, in addi-
tion to creating a thin film over the water surface
through which the wiggler can not penetrate its breath-
ing tube, acts as a poison and kills the wiggler much
more quickly than by suffocation. Kerosene is effective
and easily spread, but evaporates comparatively rapidly. —
Kerosene mixed in the proportion of about 4 to 1 with
erude oil makes the best mixture. The oil may be ap-
plied by sprinkling oil-soaked sawdust along the edges
of lakes or streams, by oil drips, swabs, or sprayers. The
sprayer is considered the most effective implement, the
Panama knapsack sprayer being the one more widely
recommended. Because the oil evaporates or after a
while separates so as not to form a continuous film over
the surface of the water, oiling must be done at regular
intervals of about 7 days.
Paris green is strictly a malarial mosquito larvicide.
When mixed in the proportions of about 2 parts Paris
come infected from
sucking the blood of malaria victims: they then spread malaria by bit-
ing well persons; and thus the vicious circle continues. To break the
circle eradicate the mosquito.
The vicious circle. Mosquitoes breed in water: they bec
— —— -— oe 7
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 289
green and 100 parts of road dust, and strewn with the
wind over marshes and swamps, a great reduction in
anopheline breeding can be noted. This is explained by
the fact that the Anopheles wigglers or larvae, swim-
ming on the water surface, come in contact with the
arsenic flakes, while the other larvae do not.
The stocking of ponds and lakes with the top minnow
known as Gambusia affinis, is an important means of
control, for these little fishes swimming near the surface
of the water and near the banks devour the mosquito
wigglers. If the fish are present in sufficient numbers,
namely, about one minnow for each yard of shore line,
and no protection is afforded the wigglers by grass and
‘other growths through which the minnows can not pene-
trate they will establish complete control. Rain barrels
and other man-maintained mosquito-breeding places in
cities can be controlled by rigid house-to-house inspec-
tions, by the passing’ of mosquito ordinances and educa-
tional measures.
For the control work at Carbondale a working map
was prepared showing all ditches, streams, lakes, ponds,
depressions, and other possible mosquito-breeding places
in the area to be controlled. The area comprised all land
within the city and one mile in each direction from the
city limits. The mosquito-breeding places included about
60 acres of cat-tail swamps on the north side, a 40-acre
lake on the south side, a number of small ponds and
about 6 miles of ditches and streams, all within mosquito-
flight distance of the city. The trouble was augmented
by an enormous number of rain barrels and open wells
and cisterns.
The control of the natural breeding places was com-
paratively easy, and the greatest difficulty was the breed-
ing in rain barrels and other man-maintained places.
Control was carried on by means of drainage, clearing
of existing ditches, oiling, use of top minnows in ponds,
open wells and cisterns, and the scattering of Paris green
and road dust. The Illinois Central Railroad constructed
by use of dynamite 9,000 feet of ditch for the drainage
of the swamps. The first estimate of cost for draining
and clearing the swamps was $8,000, of which $2,500 was
290." ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
— << — =e ee oe ee oe Ls
[ os 4
2 NSz
f -
| LEGEND _OF
MOSQUITO BREEDING PLACES
AND MALARIA CASES
STATE OF ILLINOIS
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH
DIVISION OF ENGINEERING AND SANITATION
CAA ORO NDAL all :
SMALL PONDS ode
DITCHES AND STREAMS(SMI.) ——>~
OPEN WELLS AND CISTERNS(584) *Segeses
LAKES (40 ACRES) eAed
As
=
apa
© S80
a Seasieae
e288) °
ase, (wstavon) |v 40 coo
ago 08
BOUNDARY OF AREA CONTROLLED |
— —_ =. — —=—=—-—— SS
Malaria-mosquito control area at Carbondale, 1922.
| RAIN BARRELS, TUBS ETC. (831) %23888 |
| ALARIA CASES IN 1921 (267) —-gies8e
i nN.
r 1
J Les
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 291
for the ditch to be constructed by hand labor. By use of
dynamite the ditch was actually constructed for about
$1,200. ;
The 40-acre lake on the south side was abundant with
eat-tail growth and pond lilies in a number of small bays,
and there was also a fine growth of grass around the edge
of the lake, making it an ideal breeding place for mos-
quitoes. The water level in the lake was dropped 18
inches by cutting the outlet wall, and a great reduction
in breeding was at once apparent. The bays were cleared
of the cat-tails and pond lilies, and portions of the sur-
face and the edges oiled throughout the season. A care-
ful examination in September failed to find any breeding,
when in May before the work started as many as 200
larvae could be secured in a single dip with a small dip-
per. All ditches and streams in the area were carefully
_ regraded, cleared and kept in a proper condition through-
out the season for oiling. All ditches and other collec-
-tions of water in the area were oiled once each week.
Frequent inspections showed that almost perfect control
was established on natural breeding places.
The most troublesome part of the campaign was the
control of rain barrels and other man-maintained breed-
ing places. In June, out of 664 open wells and cisterns,
breeding was found in 391, and 584 were immediately
stocked with Gambusia. A later inspection of 60 wells
and cisterns showed that the fish were performing their
duties well, only two cisterns being found breeding, and
the fish had apparently been removed from these. The
vontrol of rain barrels and tubs was accomplished by
regular house-to-house inspections. In June the first in-
spection showed 1,030 containers, 831 being rain barrels
and tubs which were found breeding mosquitoes. The
second inspection in June caught 296 containers breed-
ing, the third inspection 154, and the fourth inspection
206. For the fifth inspection every container holding
water in the city was oiled. The sixth inspection caught
19 containers breeding, the seventh 7, and the eighth 11.
By the height of the mosquito season, almost perfect con-
trol had been established.
292 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
The control work at Belleville was somewhat similar
to that at Carbondale. The greatest trouble at Belleville
was a sewage-polluted stream flowing through the city.
The city is now planning a sewerage improvement which
will remove the pollution from that stream and thus
greatly reduce Culex mosquito breeding and also make
possible the clearing and maintaining of the stream in
such condition as to promote the development of top min-
nows, and thus the control of all mosquito breeding. ~
In addition to the mosquito-control work in southern
Illinois earried on under the supervision of the Division
of Sanitary Engineering of the State Department of Pub-
lic Health, mention should be made of the mosquito-con-
trol work carried on during 1922 along DesPlaines River,
. within the limits of the Chicago Sanitary District. At
the request of persons residing in some of the communi-
ties in the towns along that river, a preliminary inspec-
tion was made of mosquito-breeding conditions and it
was decided that the greatest source of the trouble was
the sewage-polluted DesPlaines River. Because of the
pollution carried by that river the mosquitoes breeding
in it were Culex and thus not malaria carriers.
Mosquitoes were found to be breeding in the river by
the millions, and the interested parties were advised that
satisfactory control would not be possible unless the va-
rious adjoining communities joined together in a syste-
matic control program. At this time the Chicago Sani-
tary District agreed to undertake mosquito-control work
in that area, and although.the mosquito-breeding season
had already started before the field-control work could be
started, Joseph F. Base, engineer engaged by the Sani-
tary District to supervise the work, carried on a very suc-
cessful season’s control and decreased the mosquito
nuisance in that area to a very small fraction of what had
prevailed during the previous years. The control work
was not continued by the Sanitary District during 1923,
but some work was done by the communities and it is
understood that the Sanitary District will possibly earry
on the work during 1924.
The mosquito-and-malaria-control work in Illinois has
been merely an application of the scientific knowledge
Malaria-mosquito control at Carbondale, 1922.
we
i}
ntr¢
quito co
S
ia-m¢
alar
M
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH _ 293
that has been developed by entomologists, biologists,
physicians, sanitary engineers, and other scientists, and
many cities in Illinois would do well to make use of simi-
lar knowledge. Mosquito-control work, when properly
planned and carried out, not only prevents sickness and
deaths from malaria, but eliminates the mosquito pest
and actually benefits a community financially by reducing
the large economic loss suffered because of sickness and
deaths from malaria. The mosquito-control work al-
ready done is an instance of what really can be accom-
plished by the proper application of scientific knowledge,
and the malaria death-rate map of Illinois shows the
large amount of work remaining to be done and only
awaiting the realization of the communities and counties
of the benefits to be derived from such work.
294 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
PRACTICAL VALUE OF FULL TIME HEALTH
OFFICERS
K. W. Wers, M. D., Director, Hyerentc Institute
+] >] =) “4
LaSaue
It seems superfluous to attempt to advance any argu-
ments in favor of a proposition that is obvious to any
one that will give it a moment’s attention. Unfortunate-
ly, however, people are so constituted that they will not
give serious consideration to the apparent, simple things
of hfe whose results stand for everything that we would
lke in the way of better health, increased longevity,
greater physical efficiency, and more happiness. Prob-
ably the reason for the great indifference of the people
at large is due to the fact that the ordinary individual
depends upon the State or the Municipality to provide
whatever protection is necessary. While this is now’
true, in the main due to our more thorough knowledge
of the cause of deteriorating conditions, it has become a
question of individual as well as State responsibility.
The individual, however, does not like to sacrifice his
convenience for the public good; therefore the Public to
defend itself must resort to preventive measures, mak-
ing observance of well known rules and regulations com-
pulsory, and for the better carrying out of these prinei-
ples men trained specifically to this work emphasize the
practical value of a full-time health officer.
That this condition has been appreciated 1s proven by
the fact that many colleges now give special courses and
training in public health work, many societies have been
organized whose deliberations are only on this line.
Many journals now devote all of their pages to preven:
tive medicine and to public health endeavors. Yet with
all of this we are woefully lacking in sufficient good ma-
terial to present the message properly. Public health
service for years and years has been dealt with in a hap-
hazard sort of fashion, and because of the fact that we
are not daily threatened by an epidemic that takes a
large toll of lives, we become indifferent, and the custom
has grown to employ some man with a slight knowledge
to carry on this work. This means the part-time man.
2
I know whereof I speak, as at one time I enjoyed this
position at the munificent salary of $300 per annum, and
now I know that I was overpaid. I am safe in saying
right now that the same is the case anywhere where a
part-time man is employed; in other words, there is no
value under these conditions. Owing to the fact of re-
markable discoveries being made of the causes of dis-
ease, especially of communicable diseases, and also owing
to the fact that the laity reads and digests this knowl-
edge, a demand has been created for Directors who will
devote their entire time and energies in this field; hence
the full-time man, and just now physicians are beginning
to appreciate this work because more men are entering
this field than ever before.
Physicians have been very slow to do health work;
first, because the compensation has been very small;
second, the prospect of advancement beyond a certain
point has also been small; but we are beginning to rea-
lize that a good salary regularly received is worth more
than the general compensation of an uncertain practice.
Another factor may enter into this problem and that is
the absence of mathematical demonstration of the re-
sults, nor have we patience enough to allow a period of
years to elapse to prove the benefits received. As an
example, and this has occurred often, a case of infectious
disease arrives in a town, is laxly controlled and fifty
other cases result. Ina neighboring city the same origi-
nal ease arrives, is thoroughly controlled and no other
ease results. Is there a benefit credited or claimed?
Now this is going on all the time.
Dr. McCullough of Ontario in an address recently read
before the American Public Health Association says,
“‘Considering the situation at the present time, the con-
clusion has been reached that our greatest need is a com-
petent full-time directing head of a health department
with an efficient organization, whether it be in the state,
the county or the municipality. Public health is a large
business, and some of us at least may be of the opinion
_ that the advancement of public health is one of the most
important if not the most important business of the
state’’. According to the figures collected by Dr. Fer-
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 295
296 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
rell in 1914, there were but three full-time health officers
in the United States. At the present time there are close
to 250, and the figure is being added to rather rapidly.
In Illinois the County Health Officer Bill failed of pass-
age in the last Legislature. In spite of that we now have
two, Morgan and Jacksonville combined and Cook
County. There are only three full-time municipal health
officers, exclusive of Chicago, in the state. These figures
taken collectively prove that the sentiment in favor of
full-time men is being rapidly appreciated.
The trend of medicine today is toward prevention, and
it depends upon the trained hygienist and sanitarian to
spread the knowledge that is necessary in this preven-
tive work. What was formerly considered the ravages
of time we now know are the ravages of bacteria and an
unphysiological manner of living. With the adoption
of safety measures, thus avoiding accidental conditions
including those producing malignancy, it would be in-
teresting to note just what the limit of life would be. To
this particular phase of work the full-time man should
devote considerable attention. Seven years ago I de-
voted considerable time to training trees with results
that were remarkably gratifying, and we all know what
Burbank has done both by careful selection and culti-
vation. As the secret of our education is to begin with
the young, it is evident that the Hygienist and the Sani-
tarian should be ones who can impress upon impression-
able minds the lessons of prevention and proper methods
of living. A full-time man proves his value in propor-
tion to his knowledge and application of it to the on-
coming generation. The part-time man has neither the
ability nor the inclination and certainly not the time if
he is in active practice. Therefore he is not to be con-
sidered in this connection at all.
There are two problems, and very serious ones, in the
appointment of full-time health officers; one is the ten-
ure of office and the other is his political associations.
It is apparent that any full-time man who must rely on
political influence to continue in office is not the man who
should be employed. It is unfortunate that at the pres-
ent time most of the appointments are political, and as
Ruhland of Milwaukee has observed, ‘‘Under these cir-
cumstances it is not difficult to see that those who are
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 297
asked to take the responsibility of public health service
will treat that appointment somewhat as a side issue and
not as the issue.”’
The great objection to the employment of full-time
men has been the supposed inability to pay a requisite
salary. This objection is overcome in the State of Illi-
nois and in several other States by the adoption of the
law wherein two or more towns can join together and
form a public health district and levy a small tax for
the maintenance of the health department. If this is
properly presented there should be very little difficulty
in securing public health departments in any number of
eommunities, for the benefits conferred are far greater
than can be had by any other investment. To nullify as
much as possible political influence, the law of Illinois
provides that appointments should be made from a list
of eligibles from the State Department of Public Health,
and this list is made up by a competitive examination.
The law that I refer to was caused to be placed upon
our statute books by the late Mr. F. W. Matthiessen of
LaSalle, a man of remarkable vision and fortunately as-
sociated with it the ability to determine its expediency.
He endowed the Hygienic Institute for LaSalle, Peru and
_ Oglesby with sufficient funds, the income of which pays
the necessary expenses. The Hygienic Institute is a
corporate body operating solely for the benefit in pub-
lic health service for the three cities mentioned. The
Institute employs a Director who is Health Commis-
sioner of each city and a member of the board of health
of each respective city. The Hygienic Institute is con-
trolled by a Board of five Trustees and is perpetual in
character. Besides the Director it employs necessary
assistant Health Commissioners, Bacteriologist and
Chemist, three school Nurses and an Infant Welfare
Nurse, a Veterinary for inspection of dairies, Stenog-
rapher and assistant Technician, and owns and operates
one of the finest Isolation Hospitals for contagious dis-
eases. All of these at its own expense, and the price is
not prohibitive to any community of our size. Our
records prove that our morbidity and our mortality and
our longevity are of a better percentage than communi-
ties who do not operate with a full-time health officer.
298 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
SOME COMMENTS ON THE PHYSICAL FINDINGS
IN HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES
J. Howarp Brarp, M. D., Untversiry Heatrx OFricer,
URBANA
The generalizations made herewith are based directly
upon 2955 medical examinations of high school gradu-
ates made in September, 1922, of which 885 were of wom-
en and 2070 were of men. They are further supported
by similar approximate findings in a total of 12,000 medi-
cal records of high school graduates, of which 9000 are
of men and 3000 of women. As one group of 26 physi-
cians and 18 specialists and dentists assisted in examin-
ing the men, and another of 11 physicians and 4 special-
ists assisted in examining the women, the total defects
considered represent a composite opinion rather than
that of one individual with a preconception or a fixed
idea.
The most important deduction, in my judgment, to be
drawn from the findings of the medical examination of
high school graduates is that physically, mentally, and
morally, they are unsurpassed by any group of similar
age of which there is record for comparison. It should
be pointed out at the outset that a large proportion of
the mechanical defects noted are minor and are not, in
reality, a serious handicap in civil life. Impairments of
the special sense organs and of the teeth are to such a
large degree correctible, as, in the vast majority of cases,
not to interfere markedly with effective living.
GENERAL DEVELOPMENT
Slightly more than one-half of the high school gradu-
ates examined in 1922 received a classification of good
in their physical development at the time of their physi-
cal examination. About one-third were recorded as fair,
3.2% of excellent development, and 5.2% of poor develop-
ment. .
The relative general development of men and of wom-
en differs but little. A slightly larger per cent of the
men are classified as good; a somewhat greater per cent
of women than of men, as fair. This difference in
physique of men and of women may be influenced, in a
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 299
measure, by the opinion of different groups of examin-
ers, but it has tended to become less each year. This de-
crease in the variation in classification in the physical
development of men and women parallels the progress
of physical education in the grammar and in the high
schools.
. The general nutrition of the group is very close to
average, but with a slight tendency towards thinness.
Men are more apt to be average than women, who seem
to show a slightly greater tendency to approach the ex-
tremes of either slenderness or obesity. The finding of:
a greater tendency of women than of men toward either
overweight or underweight when registered is consistent
with a similar finding of girls and boys from nine to six-
teen years inclusive. The causes of underweight consid-
ered broadly may be elassified as those of race and those
of malnutrition. There is a greater general tendency for
_ high school graduates from the city to be underweight
than from the rural districts. This is chiefly due to the
fact that such small races as southern Europeans and
Polish Jews tend to locate in the towns rather than in
the country. Shortness of stature is largely independent
of environment. It is a characteristic of the above races,
and in this country has a geographical distribution sim-
ilar to them.
Unhealthy environment, bad habits of eating and exer-
cise, and physical handicaps are productive of underde-
velopment. Defective vision, deafness, large tonsils, ade-
noids, nasal obstruction and communicable disease are
also preventives and deterrents of growth.
It is the general observation, however, that high school
graduates presenting themselves for physical examina-
tions at the time of registration are yearly showing bet-
ter posture and general physique. The publicity of the
physical findings of the draft and the consequent growth
in interest in Hygiene and Physical Education is now
bearing fruit.
DEFECTS OF THE EYES
Without the use of a eycloplegic, 25% of the men and
32% of the women applying for registration in the fall
- 300 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
of 1922 were found to have errors of refraction of a
handicapping severity at the time that they were exam-
ined. About 91% of the men and 92% of the women with
defective eyesight had their condition wneorrected.
Myopia was the most common error of refraction ob-
served. It is more frequent in students from the city.
This is due primarily to the racial constitution of the
population of large cities, and secondarily to the exces-
sive eyestrain incidental to study, and to clerical ane
industrial occupations.
As causes of impaired vision, uncorrected astigmatism,
short-sightedness and squint aggravated by. close work
are of the first importance. Dufour has shown that the
number of pupils with myopia and the average degree of
short-sightedness increases from class to class and with
the addition in school demands. This form of myopia
is usually primarily due to congenital astigmatism, a
very common condition, and to the consequent strain
‘upon the accommodation of the eye in the effort to see.
Risley has reported a series of cases in which astigmatic
eyes had passed, while under his observation, from
hypermetropic to myopic refraction.
Neglected squint is an important factor in the serious
impairment and destruction of vision. The bad advice
to parents that the child beginning to squint will grow
out of it, frequently has led to delay until the eye was
practically blind. If the serious consequences of pro-
erastination were known, children would be no more
neglected than if they had appendicitis or diptheria.
EAR
Exxeessive wax in the ear, ceruminosis, W was rather a
common finding, being present in 16% of the men and
8% of the women. Chronic suppuration of the ear was
found in the total of ten cases. This is a very important
finding since the condition impairs hearing, is a center
of infection that may produce serious complications, and
is rarely cured without a surgical operation for the re-
moval of decayed bone.
Middle-ear disease, which causes eighty-five to ninety
per cent of all deafness, usually has its origin in the naso- -
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 301
pharynx and the Eustachian tube. Approximately
thirty per cent of the deafness in the United States is
due to the suppuration of the middle-ear during child-
hood. Ten per cent of the discharging ears of children
are complications of scarlet fever, measles, or other com-
municable diseases; in ninety per cent diseased tonsils
and adenoids are predisposing causes. In a systematic
oral examination of patients with adenoids, Tomlinson
found some grade of ear involvement in seventy-five per
cent.
Where the function of hearing is impaired, the men-
tality of the child suffers. He becomes inattentive, in
many instances diffident, and frequently a class repeater.
‘Partial deafness, especially when it dates from child-
hood, is a disadvantage that seldom permits the indi-
vidual to attain the efficiency of which he would be
otherwise capable.
Much deafness would be avoided if ice of the ear
were promptly treated by specialists and if parents
would see that the adenoids and enlarged tonsils
of their children received proper attention. Medical in-
spection of schools and free treatment for children with
disease of the nose, throat and ear whose parents are
unable to provide medical care for them should be an
important part of any program for the ph ape of
deafness.
NOSE AND THROAT
Twenty-six and two-tenths per cent of the students ex-
amined showed some abnormality of the nose. In the
vast majority of cases the conditions were not of patho-
logical significance. Approximately 43% of the defects
were due to deviation of the septum and 33% to nasal
spurs. Enlarged adenoids showed a very low instance
due to removal before examination at registration, the
age of the individual, and possibly to being overlooked
in rare instances by examiners when rushed. Of the
2955 students examined 17.6% had had their tonsils re-
moved. This is an indication of the greater knowledge.
of the danger of diseased tonsils. This large per cent of
302 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
the removal of the tonsils is a preventive measure of
great economic, social, and hygienic significance.
The public is beginning to appreciate more and more
that although tonsillitis is generally a mild disease it is
not one whose effect upon the patient is always local and
one from which the victim always recovers quickly. If
it is as Felty believes, a specific streptococcus disease
caused by the hemolytic strain of this bacterium, it is a
menace to health locally, by extension through the blood
stream, by way of the lymphatics, and through the respi-
ratory ‘and intestinal tracts.
Bloomfield and Felty have shown that 40% of the indi-
viduals of a large group examined by them when tonsil-
litis was not prevalent were found to be carriers of the
hemolytic streptococcus. Later when certain members
of the group developed tonsillitis, the investigators were
surprised to find that the ill were among those of the
group who were not carriers of the organism. These ecar-
riers seem to enjoy immunity during the period of har-
boring the streptococcus. Spontaneous termination. of
the carrier state is followed shortly by relatively hyper-
sensibility to tonsillitis. The organisms present in the
tonsils of carriers seem to have produced a protective
immunity which lasted but a short time after the re-
moval.
From the standpoint of resistance individuals may be
divided into two groups; those naturally resistant, who
rarely have the disease, and susceptibles who have fre-
quent recurrences with intervals of immunity due to a
previous attack and its associated carrier state.
The 17.6% of the prospective students examined who |
had their tonsils removed had not only gotten rid of a
menace to their health but had made conditions in the
throats less favorable for the growth for the hemolytic
streptococcus. Removal of the tonsils, therefore, would
seem to be justified under two conditions; namely, re-
peated attacks of tonsillitis, and possibly to prevent the
individuals from remaining carriers and infecting others.
The mere appearance of the tonsils would not neces-
sarily be an indication for excision.
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 303
TEETH
The dental examination revealed that every third man
examined had defective teeth. In most instances these
defects were only slight cavities requiring fillmg. Ina
few cases a number of teeth had been lost and conse-
quent facial asymmetry was present. The findings of the
dentist emphasize the importance of the care of the teeth
to insure proper alignment of the permanent set. It is
indeed a rare thing to find perfect teeth in high school
graduates. Most of them give their teeth proper atten-
tion; a very small per cent are careless of their oral
hygiene.
While dental caries is primarily due to bacteria of the
mouth acting in the presence of food debris and to cer--
tain elements in the saliva which lead to the formation of
acid which attacks the enamel, many other factors are
predisposing causes. The teeth may have little resistance
to decay because of developmental defect, faulty diet,
neglect as result of ignorance of parents, cost or lack of
dental facilities so common in rural communities.
The ill effects of carious or defective teeth reach be-
yond the mouth. Decayed teeth may prove the gateway
through which pathogenic bacteria reach the blood
stream and a root abscess may be the source of arthritis,
valvular heart lesions or Bright’s disease. Poor teeth
are often the cause of indigestion and improper assimila-
tion of food.
With the exception of certain professions and a few in-
dividuals in whom the sense of the cosmetic is highly de-
veloped, the majority of men and women do not seek their
fortune through their faces. The average man or woman,
however, desires a symmetrical face. Yet, few parents
give sufficient attention to their children’s first set of
teeth to prevent asymmetry by insuring proper align-
ment of the permanent set.
GOITER
Thirty-one and eight-tenths per cent of the women and
4 per cent of the men high school graduates showed some
enlargement of the thyroid gland, when examined in the
304 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE :
fall of 1922. This gland tends to enlarge during adoles-
cence, but as this swelling seems to be influenced by the
locality from which the individual comes, a particular age
is not the important factor responsible for the increased
size of the thyroid observed. It has been known for a
number of years thatin certain regions of the world
swelling of the thyroid gland was common, and it has
been known for a century or more that in America this
enlargement is pre-eminently a disease of the Great
Lakes’ Basin, and its greatest incidence corresponds
rather well with that of the hard waters of the Niagara
limestone. It is only comparatively recently, however,
that this enlargement of the neck was known to occur so
extensively in this region and to be common in men, al-
though much less frequent than in women.
Goiter is a disease usually characterized by the enlarge-
ment of the thyroid gland which occupies the lower por- —
tion of the neck, anterior-laterally. There are two forms
of this disorder; simple goiter which is primarily a
swelling of this gland, and exophthalmic goiter, an en-
larged thyroid accompanied by a distention of the eye-
balls, anemia, overactivity of the heart, tremor, muscle
weakness, mental irritability, and general organic dis-
turbance.
In the three groups of men and women examined in the
falls of 1920-21-22 simple enlargement of the thyroid
gland was found to be a health problem of importance
in this state. As it is due apparently to iodine insufh-
ciency, it is preventable by the administration of this ele-
ment, either through such foods as cereals, beets, pota-
toes, and sea-water salt, or of iodine or its compounds.
Prevention of goiter reduces the death rate, increases
resistance of the individual to disease, improves his eco-
nomic status, and promotes his mental, moral, and physi- —
eal efficiency.
HEART DISEASE
If the hearts of individuals of high school age are eare-
fully ausecultated both in the erect and recumbent posi-
tion and before and after exercise, definite murmurs that
are not cardio-respiratory in origin may be heard in from
——_ ss ve
PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 305
10 to 15 per cent of those examined. In the great ma-
jority of such cases the heart is of normal size, reacts
properly to exercise and position, and the diastolic and
systolic blood pressure will be found to be within the
range of normal. Such individuals enjoy the usual ac-
tivities of their age without imconvenience or without
showing cardiac symptoms of any kind. If this group is
earefully observed and repeatedly examined, it will be
difficult in most cases to discover anything more indica-
tive of heart abnormality than the murmur. Such con-
ditions are probably functional.
There are, however, of all those examined from 2 to 4
per cent with definite organic heart disease. This latter
group is showing a small increase year by year and un-
doubtedly will eventually go to make up a part of the
increasing death rate from organic heart disease in early
middle life, unless measures are adopted to protect their
hearts.
Heart disease is generally a reminder that entire re-
covery from infection is often only apparent. The great
destruction of life caused by it is usually not the immed-
iate result of acute infection, but rather a slowly pro-
gressive failing of the cardio-vascular mechanism due to
injuries received originally from such diseases as rheu-.
matism, chorea, tonsillitis, scarlet fever, diphtheria, in-
fluenza, or pneumonia. Dublin, in comparing the life
expectancy of those who have had typhoid fever, for the
three years immediately following the disease, with those
who have not had the disease found the death rate in the
first group doubled as compared with those who have not
had typhoid. It was remarkable that 14.8% of the deaths
were due to heart disease, showing that although recoy-
ery was apparent the heart was so injured as to cause
' death ina few years. Lues, of course, plays a great role
in the production of heart disease in middle life but was
not an apparent factor in any of the cases that came
under our observation.
The prevention of heart disease in youth i is largely a
problem of the elimination of communicable disease. The
general adoption of the usual means for the control of
epidemic diseases whose complications are involvements
306 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF: SCIENCE
of the heart would undoubtedly be followed by a de-
crease in the number of cases of this disease found in high
~ school graduates. The high death rate from organic
heart disease demands renewed emphasis upon the im-
portance of routine medical examination of the heart and
chest. Much will be done in the prevention of this disease
when parents, as well as physicians, appreciate the close
relation of rheumatism, chorea, and tonsillitis to endo-
carditis.
It should be generally understood that the symptoms
of rheumatism vary in severity from so-called ‘‘ growing
pains’’ to obvious acute rheumatic fever with an immed-
iate, impending dissolution. The publiic must be so edu-
cated as to understand that repeated sore throat and St.
Vitus’ dance are truly menaces to life, because of the fre-
quent damage to heart valves and to the cardiac muscle.
Both parents and physicians should be on the alert for
diseased or permanently enlarged tonsils and adenoids,
and should have them removed. The child complaining
of tiredness, aching limbs, or who is fidgety or does not
desire to work or play should be given a medical exami-
nation. Children with even the mildest attack of rheu-
matism or chorea should receive medical attention and
should be watched most carefully to prevent, if possible,
the development of inflammation of the heart. The child
with an impaired heart should be given close supervision
and special school work. Finally, parents as well as the
victims of heart impairment should know that a damaged
heart, properly treated and cared for in its earliest
stages and guarded intelligently through life, is not in-
compatible with old age and many useful years of service.
HERNIA
The average incidence of hernia among the men gradu-
ates of high school registering at the University for the
first time over a period of four years is approximately
one in twenty-five examined, or 3.7%. A number of these
cases observed are of congenital origin or are superin-
duced by anatomical abnormalities. This condition is
also in evidence of the inability of the lower abdominal
muscles and fascia to withstand the extraordinary ab-
- PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 307
dominal strain of modern civilization. It may also be
considered an indication of man’s ia aaa adaptation
to the erect position.
Chronic constipation, faulty posture, lack of exercise
and improper clothes, with the resulting flabby abdominal
musculature and sudden strain, are factors in its produc-
tion. Hernia, to a considerable degree, is preventable.
Its presence in young adults is proof of neglected sur-
gery.
SPINAL CURVATURE
While heredity may produce conditions favorable to
the development of curvature of the spine, faulty posture
is the most frequent cause. Abnormalities of the spine
are more common among girls than boys, due, to a large
degree, to the differences of dress and the manner of
- living. Curvature of the spine is part of the price paid
by man for the ability to stand erect. The force of
gravity is both a predisposing and an exciting cause.
Curvature may be secondary to disease and deformity,
both of the spine and of other parts of the body.
As only a very small per cent of the eases under con-
sideration are structural in origin, we wish to eall atten-
tion to them, particularly, as defects of carriage and
posture. Happily, the great majority of abnormalities
are correctible by physical training and individual atten-
tion. Only about 10% of the women and 7% of the men
show anatomical abnormalities of the spine that are
eorrectible by gymnastics with difficulty, if at all.
There has been a slight tendency to increase in curva-
ture of the spine among high school graduates during
the last four years. This rise, we believe, to a consider-
able degree is explainable by more careful record of
slight deviations from normal. Many of these postural
deformities might be described as a slouch or sag and
are correctible by the individual himself when his atten-
tion is called to it. As his musculature is weak, he needs
exercise, otherwise he will resume his old position as soon
as his attention is diverted.
In the comparison of the relative frequency of lateral
curvature, stooped shoulders, and swayback, scoliosis
308 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
is by far the most common deviation of the spine. It con-
stitutes about two-thirds of all spinal abnormalities
noted among high school graduates. The comparison
also shows that lordosis, or swayback, is more common
than kyphosis, or stooped shoulders.
FLAT FEET
While our records show that 35% of the high school
graduates examined have some abnormality of the feet,
it-should be noted that only about 7% of the men and 10%
of the women have frank flat feet. Undoubtedly, our sta-
tistics include some instances of flat feet that are normal,
as it is characteristic of certain races to have flattened
arches. It should also be borne in mind that this large
per cent is more apparent than real, because it includes
a large number of cases of defects in standing and walk-
ing that are potential, and not actual signs of pes planus.
We have attempted to discover and to treat flat feet
with reference to their predisposing causes by recogniz-
ing pes planus as weak feet before flattening of the long
arches has developed and the usual train of symptoms
are present. The body weight normally passes slightly
to the inside of the center of the knee, through a line pro-
longed from the crest of the tibia, through the ankle, over
the dorsum of the foot to the second toe. With the be-
ginning of eversion of the foot and the change of direc-
tion of the body weight, it is only a question of time be-
fore the symptoms and signs of fiat foot become evident.
The importance of muscle insufficiency, improper nu-
trition and communicable disease in the production of
flat foot are shown in the following table, taken from
the statistics of Ehrenfried:
Children under twelve years of age examined..................- 1,000
Children ‘with debility. of the) feet...;.. <..\sclee cite sie teeters «sine ee 440
Congenital-—eltib-fo0t: yeeros wee © hse tarce ok a cools ore oeeise eee eee 18
Idiopathie—physieal> debility |. sires si. Siete sais oe eras © wha ——.----- SS '"”- _
Lowest 2d. Middle 4th Highest
fifth * fifth fifth ~ fifth ~= fifth) ioral
Test G-1 (numbers)....... 12 9 9 9 7 45
Test G-2 (numbers)....... 8 6 13 8 10 45
Test G-1 (per-cent)....... 26.7. 720.0 1728" $20.0: * bso annie
Test G-2 (per-cent)....... L758 “A823. 92829 747.8. 22.2 aero
* Series I Dearborn Group Tests of Intelligence.
* TABLE 10
Showing the correlation between (a) the intelligence of pupils as
measured by the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Tests, given in terms of
the Intelligence Quotient (I. Q.) and (b) the teachers’ judgments con-
cerning the pupils’ intelligence, (given from E lowest to A highest).
130 cases.
Read as follows:
Of pupils having intelligence quotients between .50 and .55, twe
were judged by teachers to be in the lowest fifth of their classes, in
intelligence. Of pupils having intelligence quotients between .56 and
.60 one was judged by the teacher to belong in the lowest fifth of the
class and one was judged by the teacher to belong in the next to the
highest fifth. Of eleven pupils who had intelligence quotients between
.61 and .65 three were judged to belong to the lowest fifth, three to be-
long to the next to the lowest fifth, three were judged to belong to the
* Wducational and Psychological Tests in the Public Schools of Win-
chester, Va., University of Virginia Record Vol. 6, No. 6, January, 1922.
-
, | :
PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 385
middle fifth, one was judged to belong to the next to the highest fifth,
and one was judged to belong to the highest fifth. .
Teachers’ judgments
Intelligence
quotient BE fi 3 Wee oa, @ B A Total
eine ee eter ers wore is Brads Oe 2 ‘A ae ee - 2
EES Ue SRS Se SPS, 5 PIR a te eS i te ee 1 2
Ree E oe ct sta ahve o otaee eer sre wen 3 3 3 1 1 11
TLE CUBS Sew eae dO ee 1 5 2 ee 8
Ti EY ASE is ee Seat ee SEBO MOO SE mn Ce tage hs, ERA 2 7 3 1 13
A= UL Ra, SMS ee |e ea 3 4 4 Ke ace
BNR e Bate Nea ae, SRM teh here Oe 2 4 7 5 2 20
Os Se ck Metre eee 5 1 5 3 3 aE 12
JES ENS ee ie Spt ae Pa ee st 4 2 a! 1 9
ANE Yeh ee tc MRE ee CoS ce 1 3 2 5 2 13
TRUDE 1 RPO ORE 9 or Mae ar are 1 1 a 1 4
NO PADS os LI AS os ate ve ghee 2 i Z 1 6
DEBS Se Seite Cyarenr yah peevete a oak oe 1 ae 1 2 3 7.
LLY STI, EA a emer REA. SNe eae oa 2 1 3
FRE EO Nae ents Porch is. «, =) Wh del Wie WG ie at 2 2
DSU TUS) UO Ge Ree ao 2 Sant Ars eh eae 1 1 2
LS LR Es REE coterie rea rae 2 1 3
Bg FAN ena ee eee ec atacdi ye ors = ae
Di eS IL et Cangas ee se ee, See, ee ans iw es it 2 oA cm
Tics (ESSE Ot ine OAR Serco Ve ie Sa ‘ake ose ap i a 1
OTe LST Sst eet NN ey el Re aa ee - a if
MGS re betes a ete ariel 19 38 29 Zt 17 130
TABLE 11
A Comparison of an Allocation of ACCELERATED Pupils According
to I. Q.’s and According to Teachers’ Judgments
Number of pupils in
Middle eee high. Highest | Total
fifth of fifth of fifth of | est fifth of} fifth of
class | ae class class | class
|
Below 50. 0 | 0 0 | a 0 0
50-59 0 | 0 0 0 0 0
60-69 0 0 2 | 0 0 2
70-79 Al | 3 5 2 3 14
80-89 0 q 20 15 4 46
90-99 0 | 5 27 31 14 17
100-109 si«i 2 36 54 13 105
190-139 | a 4 4 30 34 21 90
120-1290 0 5 24 14 43
130-139 | 0 0 3 6 10 19
140-1499 0 0 2 ac 6
Over 149 | 0 0 0 0 2 0
Totals 2 21 128 168 =| 86 404
386 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
TABLE 12
A Comparison of an Allocation of NORMAL Pupils According to I. Q.’s
and According to Teachers’ Judgments :
Number of pupils in
TQ | Lowest | jose, | Middle |Next high) Highest | 70%
fifth of fifth of | est fifth of} fifth of
class fifth of class class class
class
Below 50 0 0 0 0 0 0
50-59 “0 0 1 0 0 ak
60-69 0 6 6 2 0 14
70-79 ih 11 22 7 0 41
80-89 1 18 55 25 0 99
90-99 2 14 60 26 3 105
100-109 0 8 36 21 3 68
110-119 0 3 10 9 3 25
120-129 0 0 2 5 3 10
130-139 0 0 0 0 0 0
140-149 0 | 0 0 0 0 0
Over 149 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totals 4 60 192 95 12 363
TABLE 13
A Comparison of an Allocation of RETARDED Pupils According to
I. Q.’s and According to Teachers’ Judgments
Jumber of pupils in
1.Q. Lowest eat Middle |Next nien| Highest Total
fifth of fifth of fifth of |est fifth of) fifth of
class iene class | class | class
Below 50 3 2 5 4 0 14
50-59 3 12 5 2 0 22
60-69 4 13 1 3 0 en
70-79 9 35 32 4 0 80
80-89 3 41 38 2 0 84
90-99 0 15 ey 10 20 42
100-109 0 6 15 2 0 23
110-119 0 0 3 2 0 5
120-129 0 0 1 0 0 al
130-139 0 0 0 0 0 0
140-149 0 0 0 0 0 0
Over 149 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totals 22 124 123 29 0 298
;
ad
Last Name, First Name
PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION
TEACHER’S ESTIMATE—PUPIL ABILITIES
November, 1921
pos ae
ship seed
| Years in
| school | ship | gence| try school
li
Age Last Name, First Name| Age | Grade Grade
——
387
ae
388 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
IS EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH YIELDING
APPROPRIATE DIVIDENDS?
Water §. Monroz, University or ILnrots
It may perhaps appear suggestive of heresy to an-
nounce a title which raises the question of the value of
educational research, but the experience of several years
devoted largely to this field and my contacts with other
investigators have convinced me that this is a question
of vital importance. About ten years ago there began
to be established in colleges and universities explicit or-
ganizations for the avowed purpose of conducting edu-
cational research. Several of these research organiza-_
tions now enjoy liberal appropriations for this work. .
Somewhat similar research departments have been estab-
lished in a number of public school systems. At the
present time the number of such organizations in exist-
ence is probably one hundred. In addition there are a
large number of workers who are carrying on educa-
tional research as personal projects. The Commonwealth
Fund, General Educational Board, and other educational
foundations are making generous donations to both in-
dividuals and research bureaus. The total annual ex-
penditure for educational research is unknown, but un-
doubtedly it amounts to several hundred thousands of
dollars.
The amount of educational research is also indicated
by the large number of published reports. In the ad-
vance sheets of the biennial survey of education for 1920-
22, a summary of certain phases of educational research
for that period includes bibliographies totaling 518 titles.
School surveys and mental tests are not included. Fur-
thermore, it is announced that only the principal con-
tributions are given in. these bibliographies. Beginning
in 1917, the Bureau.of Educational Research at the’ Uni-
versity of Illinois has compiled a list of masters’ and
doctors’ theses in Education. Although the compilations
are not complete, as all the institutions have not reported
their titles, 410 doctors’ and 1896 masters’ theses have
been listed during a period of six years. All doctorial
dissertations are expected to be significant contributions
»
ra
PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 389
to our knowledge about education. Many masters’ theses
- make minor contributions. -
What are the net results of all this activity? What
additions have been made to our knowledge of educa-
tion? What has been the effect of educational research
upon school practice? Are we developing a group of
competent and reliable research workers? Is the work
being done increasing in quality as well as in amount?
What has been the effect of educational research upon
the attitude of teachers and of others not engaged in
carrying on investigations? It would be presumptious
for me to attempt a final answer to these questions, but
a number of facts which have seemed significant and
perhaps indicative of a general trend have recently come
to my observation. Some of these facts I shall pass on
to you with the hope that I may stimulate you to think
about some vital questions. In the time at my disposal,
I propose to cite illustrations of four sources of waste
in educational research.
In a doctorial dissertation recently accepted and pub-
lished by one of our foremost graduate departments in
education, the investigator set for herself the problem
of making an inventory of the content of the minds of
children of six and seven years of mental age. Obviously
the first step in dealing with this problem was to locate
a representative group of children whose mental ages
fell in the interval from six years and no months to seven
years and eleven months. This was done by administer-
ing the Stanford Revision of the Binet Test to certain
groups of children. Later they were given also the Her-
ring Revision of the Binet Test. The average of the two
measures was used as the criterion of mental age, al-
though the results of the second test do not appear to
have been used in. determining what children should be
chosen for the investigation. For reasons which are not
made clear in the report, the investigator later adminis- _
tered four group intelligence tests and eleven specialized
individual tests, and caleulated from the scores thus ob-
tained a number of coefficients of correlation and regres-
sion coefficients.
390 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
A careful reading of the monograph fails to reveal any
use which was made of the additional data secured from
these tests or of the derived measures which were calcu-
lated from the resulting scores. Two tables of coefficients
of correlation are presented with the statement that
the relations and inter-relations shown are ‘‘food for
thought,’’ but the report contains little or no evidence
that the investigator made any effort to masticate or
digest this ‘‘food.’’ In fact, it is difficult for the reader
to conceive how these correlations might have’ contrib-
uted to the study of the problem under consideration.
One gets the impression that the giving of the tests and
the subsequent calculations are for ornamentation rather
than for any useful purpose. If one may be permitted to
read between the lines, he might say that the investi-
gator or her advisers believed that an acceptable doctor-:
ial dissertation must contain some coefficients of corre-
lation and statistical formulae, and that in this case these
features were added somewhat as an afterthought in
order to meet these requirements. At least the reader
cannot escape the conviction that the returns upon a cer-
tain portion of the investment in this investigation yield-
ed only very meager returns if any at all.
It is not always possible for an investigator to esti-
mate correctly in advance the value of all data collected,
and of the calculations which he may make. There will
necessarily be some scrapping of material in’ pioneer
work, but this published report has been described as
illustrative of a source of waste in educational research
which unfortunately is more prevalent than seems to be
justified. A careful definition of the problem and a
strict adherence to the limitations of this definition will
result in a mental reduction in the amount of useless data
collected and tabulated. 3
The writer of a recent article gave a tabulation of the
intelligence quotients derived from a group intelligence
test. Several of the I. Q.’s were so low and others were
so high as to suggest the presence of errors in the scores
from which they were calculated. In the original article
no mention had been made of this possibility, but a few
months later a criticism was published in which the point
PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 391
was made that the investigator should have considered
these limitations in preparing his report of the study.
In a reply the author of the original article criticised his
critic. Among other things he said, ‘‘Nor can there be
any question about the reliability of gathering the data.
The tests were given by two experienced examiners and
scored by trained scorers under supervision.’’
This statement expresses what appears to be a pre-
valent attitude toward the measures yielded by standard-
ized educational tests. If the tests were administered by
experienced examiners and if there is reason to believe
that no errors were made in marking the test papers,
then the scores may be considered accurate measures of
the traits or abilities which the tests were designed to
measure. If specifically interrogated, most test users
would probably admit that our present standardized
tests are imperfect, but a large number disregard pos-
sible limitations when they are using these instruments
of educational research. Variable errors are always
present in test scores and constant errors are frequently
introduced even when the tests have been carefully ad-
ministered. Critical studies of standardized tests have
demonstrated that the possibility of errors in test scores
is sufficiently great to make the investigator assume the
responsibility for proving that his data are accurate
when there is any reason for suspicion. Failure to do
this means that the investigator is building upon a sus-
_ picious foundation which may result in the collapse of
his conclusions. The conclusions reached by educational
research cannot be more dependable than the weakest
step in the study.
In view of the frequent failure of investigators to be
critical of their data, it is then not inappropriate to raise
again the question, ‘‘Are we receiving adequate divi-
dends for the time and money which is being invested in
educational research in the United States?’’
There are literally hundreds of persons putting time
and money in educational research, but with few except-
ions they are working independently and with little
reference to what other workers have already done. If
one examines the voluminous literature in the field, he
392 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
will find relatively few attempts to summarize and or-
ganize previous contributions. As a result there are sey-
eral sources of waste. Most of the educational research
which has been done is fragmentary. ‘The studies have
been based upon too few cases, or have included only
minor aspects of the problem, or have not been carried
on long enough to lead to dependatle conclusions. Be-
‘cause it is fragmentary much of this work will natu-
rally be lost unless steps are taken to conserve it. |
Cooperation has been urged as a means of coordinating
and unifying educational research. Workers within cer-.
tain areas have formed associations and provided faeili-
ties for exchanging information in regard to the prob-
lems which they are studying or which they expect to
study sometime in the future. In this way they believe
that duplication of effort ean be avoided, or at least mini-
mized, and that when two or more persons are engaged
in studying the same problem or related problems, co-
operation is mutually advantageous. Some leaders have
taken the initiative in organizing those interested in a’
particular field into a cooperative group and have claim-
ed that such ‘pooling of abilities and resources will re-
sult in superior work.
In certain types of studies, cooperation in the form of
assistance is necessary and in other cases it has doubt-
less been beneficial, but it will not correct certain waste-
ful tendencies. This can be accomplished only by
changes in the attitude and interests of those engaged in
educational research. Instead of emphasizing ‘‘orig-
inal’’ research they must develop an interest in studying,
in summarizing and in organizing the published reports
of the work of others. In my experience with graduate
students, I have found them much more eager to attempt
an ‘‘original’’ study than to inquire into what has already
been done. Recently I inquired of the departments offer-
ing graduate work in education concerning the types of
theses which they urged students to undertake, or which
they found most satisfactory. ‘‘Summaries of other in-
vestigations,’’ were reported as being among the least
satisfactory types of theses. On the other hand, the
types most frequently mentioned as being encouraged,
PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 393
or considered most satisfactory, included original in-
vestigations, surveys of a school system, or causal in-
vestigations. The popularity of such studies appears to
be due to the ease with which they may be made; and
the unpopularity of a summary of the work of others is
due in part to the fact that such work is difficult and
when well done requires a higher degree of ability. One
of my correspondents made this illuminating statement,
‘‘According to present-day standards anything with
tables and statistics seems to be most satisfactory. It is
questionable, however, whether they really mean very
‘much in most cases.”’
The prevailing attitude is reflected also in the prefer-
ence for studies involving the use of a questionnaire, or
of standardized tests rather than for those based upon
data to be found in records or published sources. In
far too many cases this preference is indicative of men-
tal laziness. It is easy to ask questions for other people
to answer. It is also easy to administer a standardized
test. No particular ability or acquaintance with the field
of education is required to do either of these things.
Frequently I have received a number of questionnaires
calling for information which was available in reason-
ably accessible published sources. These questionnaires
have come not merely from graduate students who might
have been unacquainted with the field, but in some cases
from men who were acknowledged leaders and who have
been identified with educational research for many years.
I do not wish to be understood as condemning the ques-
tionnaire as an instrument of research. Its use is in-
evitable for certain types of studies and there will always
_be occasions when a questionnaire will be appropriate,
but I am citing the misuse of it as evidence of an unde-
sirable attitude on the part of what I fear is a large
number of persons. They seem to be most interested
in doing something that will attract attention because
of some special feature or of its newness rather than in
making comprehensive and permanent contributions to
our knowledge of education. Until there is a changed
attitude with reference to the purpose and ideals of edu-
cation research, and I am convinced that the responsibil-
394 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ity for this change rests with those of us who are college
teachers of education, most of our research will be frag- -
mentary with resulting waste. As long as present cond1-
tions prevail we should ask ourselves, ‘‘Is educational
research paying appropriate dividends upon its invest-
ment?”’
When the proposal was first made that mooted ques-
tions relative to school practice could be answered by
scientific methods, there were-many unbelievers. For
years the conservatives far outnumbered the progres-
sives, but gradually the skeptics have been converted to
the belief that educational experimentation is possible.
Today these same people are among those who are ac-
cepting the fragmentary and imperfect findings of edu-
cational research as comprehensive and final. It is not
at all unusual for a person who avows a belief in educa-
tional research to make dogmatic endorsements of the
results of studies which meet few if any of the require-
ments of scientific procedure. For example, a teacher
in a certain city school system recently asserted that the
teachers of that system had solved the problem of con-
structing a curriculum in history. It was obvious that
this teacher believed the work was finished and, because ~
methods called scientific had been used, nothing more
was to be said in the matter. This is not an isolated
case, but unfortunately it is typical of the attitude of
many toward educational research. |
As I talk with superintendents and others, imelud-
ing university professors, who have not had intimate
experience with educational research, I am surprised
and distressed by their childlike faith in the con-
clusions based upon very imperfect studies. It
appears that in our effort to convert those who
hesitated to believe in educational research as a
means of answering questions that we have over-
done the matter. The possibilities of educational re-
search have been advertised, and like all good advertis-
ers we have extolled the good features and have failed
to mention the limitations, or if mentioned we have sug-
gested that they could easily be overcome. The result
of our selling campaign begins to be apparent. In gen-
PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION | 395
eral, educational research may be said to be sold to the
public and to the greater majority of teachers and ad-
ministrators, but educational research itself is failing to
deliver the goods. There is being engendered a dogma-
tism which will exert a deadening influence upon our ef-
forts to study educational problems scientifically. Again
Wwe may appropriately ask ourselves the question, ‘‘Is -
educational research yielding appropriate dividends
’ upon its investment?’’
This recital of waste in educational research might be
greatly extended, but perhaps enough has been said to
demonstrate that the title of my paper represents a very
real question. There are those who are watching edu-
cational research to see what we make of it. Some day
they will say, ‘‘What have you given in return for the
generous investment which has been made in your work?
Exactly what have you discovered about education?’’
They will expect an answer, not in terms of possibilities
but of findings which may be considered as conclusive.
They will not be satisfied with results that are merely
fragmentary. When that day comes we shall need to be
able to show that educational research has yielded and
will continue to yield adequate dividends upon the in-
vestment. At the present time we may point with pride
to certain notable achievements, and there is rapidly
accumulating a commanding body of scientific informa-
tion about education, but a few notable achievements will
not be accepted as sufficient evidence that the present
confidence and support of educational research should
be continued. In closing, I command to your earnest
consideration the question with which I started.
are closely related at many points. But in all our teach-
ing let us emphasize the doing of the things that need to
be done rather than the don’ts with their vicious suggest- |
iveness and their appeal to the daring of youth. The
common, everyday conditions of living seem here to de-
mand a new stating in terms of what biology has taught
us. This applies to both the moral and the health as-
pects of our problem.
It seems needless to enumerate here all the elements
which center around this particular phase of science
teaching. They are well known to us all. What we should
strive for is to give to our pupils a consciousness of real
objectives to be attained if they are to live their lives to
the greatest advantage for themselves and for posterity. -
Where we have been failing in this particular is in not
making any clear and definite use of what science has al-
ready taught us. To quote from the same source as
above: ‘‘Hardly a trace of this scientific knowledge has
been applied, positively or negatively, to the betterment
of the human stock. How long a scientific civilization,
making ever increasing demands upon the ability of the
people, can be maintained under such conditions is be-
coming a pressing issue.’’
That is another way of saying that it is the mission of
the school, as far as the teaching of science is concerned,
not only to instruct youth in the principles of biology and
physics, but to introduce them, as far as possible, to the
practical applications of these principles in the home,
in the community, in business and in industry. And
the more nearly such scientific attitudes become habitual
the more successful will be our teaching. Sanderson of
Oundel had the right idea when he set out to teach his
boys science by attacking the problems of daily life in
his school community. As a result, and also as an acid
test of the sanity of his method, when the world war
came on, his boys thus trained were able at once to as-
PAPERS CN HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE 423
sume tasks of grave responsibility in applying science
to the many hurried readjustments that the modern con-
ditions of warfare into which the British nation was
plunged demanded.
The principle is no less true under peace conditions.
How urgent are the needs of many readjustments of the
rank and file of our citizenry in these days of radical in-
novations in all the fundamental aspects of living! And
how true it is that in our haste for material development
we have forgotten the corresponding need of applying
the latest word in science to the conservation and im-
provement of the human biological factor. We see this
in the risk to lives that comes along with the invention
of complex machines. This is notably true of the auto-
mobile now in common use, and yet a large percentage
of the users know little of the mechanism they undertake
to direct in the midst of ever increasing traffic. For the
driver who takes the trouble to know and master his ear,
and to consider the risks, the danger is always from the
‘other fellow.’’ Thus both in education and in the moral
sense of responsibility for others our biological advance-
ment is far behind the demands of this age of the appli-
cation of physics and chemistry in doing the world’s
work. : :
We need a different literature of science, one that may
_ be broadeasted with the hope that all who listen in may
comprehend. We need more of such material as Slos-
son’s ‘‘Creative Chemistry,’’ of Hunter’s ‘‘Civie Biol-
ogy,’’ in order that the masses, through our schools, mav
learn the language of science as applied to living. We
need more teachers of science like Miss Smallwood and
Miss Loomis of Chicago, Miss Huffman of Woodstock,
and Clarence Bonnell of Harrisburg,—teachers who
make science a living thing that vibrates throughout all
that is important and vital in our social and civie life.
As has been suggested, we have been stressing too
much the material benefits of science as applied to com-
merce and industry to the serious neglect of its appli-
cation to the biological wellbeing of our people. It is not
enough to assign text-book lessons and perform a few ex-
periments in the laboratory in order to ‘‘pass’’ and earn
424 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
a ‘‘credit.’’ We need to teach the language of science so
that our youth may be able to read intelligently and also
with interest the results of research as they apply to the
great fundamental interests of life. The vast expendi-
tures of the national government and of institutions in
conducting experiments and research are still failing of
accomplishment with the majority of those who should
profit by their published results because they are unable
to read the literature of science with understanding and
appreciation. As one illustration, note the premium that
men still put upon the services of the chef who can most
skillfully concoct the dishes that, because of their delect-
able qualities that tickle men’s palates, lead to a stuffing
and gormandizing that end in premature death or incom-
peteney. On the other hand, men listen, how grudgingly,
to the trained dietician who seeks to enlighten them on
the relation of food elements to normal bodily function-
ing and consequent health.
We hear much these days about conflicts between re-
ligion and science. This because we, as science teachers,
have failed to compare the eternal verities of science
with the fundamental teachings of religion. Yet what
more important relationship to life than this does science
hold for us as individuals and as a Christian nation?
I can do no better than to quote here from an article
by Professor T. E. Savage in the March number of ‘‘The
Open Court.’’? Professor Savage is a Geologist of no
mean ability and his word may well command our atten-
tion. He says:
“Tf God’s presence permeates nature in such an inti-
mate way, we should expect to find nature’s laws teach-
ing the same moral lessons as the Bible, and working
along lines parallel with it in bringing about righteous-
ness in the earth. In a very large way this is true. The
Bible says, ‘Prove all things, hold fast to that which is
good.’ Science has accepted this rule as one of its funda-
mental principles. The Bible says, ‘The Wages of sin is
death.’’ Science repeats the same warning and shows
us how nature works to bring about this result. When
a man indulges in evil practices and persistently trans-
gresses the laws of health, his physical vigor and power
PAPERS ON HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE 425
of resistance are lessened thereby, and he falls an early
victim to disease. Nature detects even those who ap-
pear to be sound, but are rotten at the core. The Bible
says, ‘The iniquities of the fathers are visited upon the
children to the third and fourth generations.’ Science
shows clearly the truth of this statement. Where par-
ents are dissolute and victims of sinful habits, the chil-
dren also possess weakened constitutions as well as sin-
ful tendencies, either as a result of inheritance, or of
early environment and neglect. Where for only a few
generations parents are persistently vicious the stock
grows weakened, idiotic, and eventually becomes ex-
tinct. Persistent sinfulness is stamped out in a few years
by natural selection acting through heredity. In the
language of science the sinner is out of harmony with
his environment, and if he and his posterity will not or
can not change, natural selection will as surely cut off
his race as in the case of any other animal not in ad-
justment with its environment. This is ‘the power not
of ourselves that makes for righteousness.’ Happily, in
a similar way the higher qualities of character developed
by the parents are also impressed upon the children by
early education and example. The Bible says, ‘The
righteous shall inherit the earth,’ and science assures us
that righteousness or right living makes for health and
length of life.’’
Surely in this grossly materialistic age we may well
stress such ideals in our teaching of the fundamentals of
science to those who are the hope of the future.
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‘
NSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS
Co
CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS . 429
CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS
Illinois State Academy of Science
CONSTITUTION.
ARTICLE I. NAME.
This Society shall be known as THe ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE.
ARTICLE II. OBJECTS.
The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific
research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and
the unification of the scientific interests of the State.
ArtTicte III. MeEnseERs.
The membership of the Academy shall consist of two classes as
follows: National Members and Local Members.
National Members shall be those who are members also of the
’ American Association for the Advancement of Science. Each national
member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission
fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of five dollars.
Local Members shall be those who are members of the local Acad-
emy only. Each local member, except life members of the Academy,
shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of
one dollar.
Both national members and local members may be either Life
Members, Active Members, or Non-resident Members.
Life Members shall be national or local members who have paid
fees to the Academy to the amount of twenty dollars. Life members,
if national members, shall pay an annual assessment of four dollars.
Active Members shall be national or local members who reside in
the State of Illinois, and who have not paid as much as $20.00 in fees
to the Academy.
Non-resident Members shall be active members or life members
who have removed from the State of Illinois. Their duties and privi-
leges shall be the same as active members except that they may not
hold office.
Charter Members are those who attended the organization meet-
ing in 1908, signed the constitution, and paid dues for that year.
For election to any class of membership, the candidate’s name
must be proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the
committee on membership, and receive the assent of three-fourths of
the members voting.
ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS.
The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a 1st Vice-
President, a Librarian, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. The Chief of
the Division of State Museum of the Department of Registration and
Education of the state government shall be the Librarian of the Acad-
emy. The other above officers shall be chosen by ballot on recom-
mendation of a nominating committee, at an annual meeting, and shall
hold office for one year or until their successors qualify.
A 2nd Vice-President, who may be a resident of the town in which
the next annual meeting is to be held, may be appointed by the council
each year when the next meeting place shall have been decided upon.
They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respec-
tive offices.
430 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an address
which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at
which his term of office expires. :
The Librarian shall have charge of all the books, collections, and
material property belonging to the Academy.
ARTICLE V. COUNCIL.
The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Secre-
tary, Treasurer, Librarian, the retiring president and his immediate
predecessor. To the Council shall be entrusted the management of
the affairs of the Academy during the intervals between regular
meetings.
At the Annual Meetings the presiding officer of all the affiliated
scientific societies of the State shall meet with the Academy Council
for the discussion of policies.
ARTICLE VI. STANDING COMMITTEES.
The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on
Publication, a Committee on Membership and a Committee on Affilia-
tion and such other committees as the Academy shall from time to
time deem desirable.
The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the
Secretary and a third member chosen annually by the Academy.
The Committees on Membership and Affiliation shall each consist
of five members chosen annually by the Academy.
ARTICLE VII. MEETINGS.
The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time
and place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be
called by the Council, and shall be called upon written request of
twenty members.
ARTICLE VIII. PUBLICATIONS.
The regular publications of the Academy shall include the trans-
actions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the
Committee on Publication.
All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy
ARTICLE IX. AFFILIATION.
The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with
other organizations of appropriate character as may be recommended
by the Council and may be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the mem-
bers present at any regular meeting.
ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS.
This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the
membership present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the
desired change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least
twenty days before such meeting.
BY-LAWS.
I. The following shall be the regular order of business:
Call to order.
Reports of officers.
Reporis of standing committees.
Election of members.
Reports of special committees.
Appointment of special committees.
Unfinished business.
New business.
Election of officers.
Program.
Adjournment.
fe die Me eM to)
i
CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 431
II. No meetings of the Academy shall be held without thirty days
previous notice by the Secretary to all members.
III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy
A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council.
IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order
signed by the President and Secretary.
V. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for
three years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the
Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll.
VI. The Librarian shall have charge of the distribution, sale,
and exchange of the published Transactions of the Academy, under
such restrictions as may be imposed by the Council.
VII. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint
a committee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon
the account of the Treasurer.
VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program un-
less the manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previ-
ously delivered to the Secretary. No paper shall be presented at any
meeting, by any person other than the author, except on vote of the
members present at such meeting.
IX. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall have their expenses
paid from the Treasury of the Academy while attending council meet-
ings and annual meetings. Other members of the council may have
their expenses paid while attending meetings of the council, other than
those in connection with annual meetings.
X. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the
members present at any regular meeting.
LIST OF MEMBERS
LIST OF MEMBERS 435
List of Members
Note—The names of charter members are starred; names in black-
faced type indicate membership in the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. ;
LIFE MEMBERS.
*Andrews, C, W. LL. D., The John Crerar Library, Chicago, Ill. (Sei.
Bibl.)
a ee G., M. D., St. John’s Hospital, Springfield, Ill. (Bacter-
iology.
Barber, et D., M. S., Illinois State Normal University, Normal, ll. (Phy
sics.
Barnes, R. M., LL. B., Lacon, Ill. (Zoology.)
Barnes, William, M. D., 320 Millikin Bldg., Decatur, Ill. (Lepidoptera.)
*Bartow, Edward, Ph. D., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.
Chamberlain, C. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
TE T. C., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geol-
ogy
Cowles, H. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
Crew, Henry, Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Physics.)
*Crook, ‘An ty PRs DD, Chief State Museum, Springfield, Ill. (Geology.)
Deal, Don W., M. D.. Leland Office Building, Springfield, Ill. (Medicine.)
Farrington, O. C., Ph. D., Field Museum, Chicago, Ill, (Minerology.)
Ferriss, J. H., Joliet, Ill. (Conchology.)
*Fischer, C. E. ML, M. D., Marshall Field Annex Bldg., 25 E. Washington
St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.)
*Porbes, S. A., LL. D., Chief, Natural History Survey, Urbana, [Iil.
(Zoology.)
Fuller, Geo. D., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
*Gates, Frank C., Ph. D., State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas.
(Botany.)
Hagler, E. E., M. D., Capitol Ave. and Fourth St., Springfield, Ill. (Ocu-
ist.)
Hankinson, Thos. L., B. S., State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. (Zo-
ology.)
*Hessler, J. C., Ph. D., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Hinkley, A. A., Dubois, Ill. (Conchology.)
Hoskins, William, 111 W. Monroe St., ee Til. (Chemistry.)
Hunt, Robert I., Decatur, Ill. (Soils.)
Jordan, Edwin O., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Se Till. (Bacteri-
ology.) Skea e te orator ate
Kunz, Jakob, Ph. D., 1205 S. Orchard St., Urbana, tl. Physics.)
Latham, ae A., M. D., D. D. S., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Micros-
copy.
Lillie, F. B., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Marshall, Ruth, Ph. D., Rockford College, Rockford, Iil. (Zoology.)
Miller, G. A., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathematics.)
Moffatt, Mrs. Elizabeth M., Wheaton, IIil.
Moffatt, Will S., M. D., 105 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
Mohr, Louis, 349 W. Illinois St., Chicago, Ill.
*#Noyes, William A., Ph. D., LL. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, I1l.
(Chemistry.)
*Oglevee, C. S., Sc. D., Lincoln College, Lincoln, Ill. (Biology.)
Payne, Edward W., First State Trust & Savings Bank, Springfield, Ill.
(Archeology.)
*Pepoon, H. S., M. D., Lake View High School, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology,
Botany.)
pee Ie aan K., B. A., Peabody Normal College, Nashville, Tenn.
iology.
*Smith, Frank, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.)
*Smith, Isabel Seymour, M. S., Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill. (Botany.)
Smith, L. HL, Ph. D., Univ ersity of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Plant Breed-
ing.)
Stevenson, A. L., B. S., Field School, 7019 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago, Il.
Stillhamer, A. G. 705 N. East St., Bloomington, Il. (Physics. )
Sykes, Mabel, B. S., South Chicago High School, Chicago, Ill. (Geology.)
Trelease, William, pAyy D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany.)
Ward, Henry B., Ph. D., ‘University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.)
Washburn, E. W., Ph. D., National Research Council, Washington, D. C.
(Chemistry.)
Weller, Annie L., Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Il.
*Weller, Stuart, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, II. (Paleon-
tology.)
Zeleny, Charles, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Experimental
Zoology.)
436 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ANNUAL MEMBERS.
Abbott, Howard C., University of Illinois, Urbana, Il.
Fagen eka A. C. E., Lewis Institute, Chicago, Ill. (Structural Ma-
erials.
Adams, i. A., 605 W. Indiana Ave., Urbana, Ill.
Adler, Herman M., M. D., 721 S. Wood St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.)
Alexander, Alida, M. A., Illinois Woman’s College, Jacksonville, IL
(Botany.)
Alexander, C. P., Ph. D., Fernald Hall, Mass. Agri. College, Amherst,
Mass. (Mntomology.) ;
pe Samuel M., A. B., P. O. Box 682, Johnston City, Ill. (Chem-
istry.
Allee, W. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Ames, E. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Psychology.)
Anderson, H. W., 811 Michigan Ave., Urbana, Ill. (Plant Pathology.)
Anderson, S. L., M. D., DeKalb, Ill. (Medicine.)
Andras, J. C., B. A., 540 S. Main St., Manchester, Ill. (Astronomy, Botany.)
Armstrong, Christie, A. B., Princeville, Ill. (Physiography.)
Ashman, George C., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria, Ill. (Chemistry.)
ea B., Ph. M., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Bot-
any.
Augur, eee W., M. A., 11859 S. Irving Ave., Chicago, lll. (Phys-
ics. :
Bacon, Chas. Sumner, Ph. D., M. D., 2156 Sedgwick St., Chicago, Ill.
Bailey, Wm. M., M. S., 701 S. Poplar St., Carbondale, Ill. (Botany.)
Saeco Frank C., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology, Con-
chology.)
Balduf, W. V., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Entomology.)
Ball, John R.,M. A., 820 Hamlin St., Evanston, Ill. (Geology.)
Bangs, Edward H., 212 W. Washington St., Chicago, Ill. (Agriculture,
Electricity.)
_ Barnes, Cecil, LL. B., M. A., 1522 1st National Bank Bldg., Chicago, Ill.
(Physical Geography.)
Barwell, John Wm., Madison and Sands Sts., Waukegan, Ill. (Anthrop-
ology.) ©
Bastin, E. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, lll. (Geology.)
Bayley, W. S., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Beal, James Hartley, Sc. D., 801 W. Nevada St., Urbana, Ill. (Pharma-
ceutical.)
Behre, Chas. H., Jr., University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bentley, Madison, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Psychol-
ogy.)
Benton, Curtis, B. A., McComb, Ill. (Entomology.)
*Betten, Cornelius, Ph. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., (Biology.)
Bevan, Arthur, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Black, Arthur D., M. A., M. D., D. D. S., Northwestern University, Evans-
ton, Il. (Dentistry.)
Blake, Anna M., B. S., 203 N. School St., Normal, Ill. (Botany, Physi-
ology.)
Blake, Mrs. Tiffany, 25 East Walton Place, Chicago, Ill.
Bleininger, A. V., B. S., Care of Homer Laughlin China Co., Newell, W. Va.
Ceramics.)
Bohannan, F. C., B. S., Galesburg High School, Galesburg, Ill. (Ge-
ology, Geography.)
Bonnell, Clarence, Township High School, Harrisburg, Ill. (Biology.)
Boomer, S. E., M. A., 207 Harwood St., Carbondale, Ill. (Physics.)
Boot, G. W., M. D., 813 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Medicine, Geology.)
Boys’ Science Club, Galesburg High School, Galesburg, Il.
Breed, Frederick S., Ph. D., 5476 University Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Educa-
tion.)
Brennan, George A., 24 W. 110th pl., Chicago, Ill. (Principal Van
Viissingen School.
Bretz, J. Harlan, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geology.)
Brink, Chester A., M, D., Apple River, Ill. (Medicine.)
Brophy, Truman W., D. D. S., M. D., 81 E. Madison St., Chicago, Till.
(Medicine. )
Brown, Agnes, 1205 West State St., Rockford, Ill.
Brown, George A., 304 E. Walnut St., Bloomington, Ill. (Education.)
Brown, Howard C., B. S., 409 Hamilton St., Geneva, Ill. _(Botany.)
Brown, Walter J., M. D., 151 N. Vermillion St., Danville, Ill. (Medicine.)
Browne, George M., 902 S. Normal St., Carbondale, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Buckingham, B. R., Ph. D., Director of Bureau_of Educational Research.
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. (Education.) ‘
Burmeister, Wm. H., M. D., 536 Deming Place, Chicago, Ill. (Exp. Medi-
cine.)
Buswell, A. M., Chief, State Water Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana,
Til.
Buzzard, Robt. G., M. S., State Nermal University, Normal, Ill. (Geog-
raphy, Geology.) ;
LIST OF MEMBERS 437
Cahn, Alvin R., M. S., University of Iliinois. (Zoology.)
Caldwell, Delia, M. D., 590 W. Main St., Carbondale, Ill. (Medicine.)
Campbell, Ian, M. A., 11 Conant Hall, Cambridge, Mass. (Geology.)
Carlson, A. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Physiology.)
Carlson, Fred, Ed. B., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Geography.)
Carmen, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physics.)
*Carpenter, Chas. K., D. D., 311 Park St., Elgin, I11.
Causey, David, University of California, Berkley, Cal. (Biology.)
Challis, Frank E., 121 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Analin Dyes.)
Chandler, S. C., B. S., R. R. 5, Carbondale, Ill. (Entomology.)
*Child, C. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Christie, J. R., B. S., M. S., East Falls Church, Virginia. (Biology.)
Clark, Albert Henry, B. S., 701 W. Wood St., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Clark, H. Walton, M. A., Steinhardt’s Aquarium, Golden Gate Park, San
Francisco, Cal. (Biology.)
*Clawson, A. B., B. A., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Biology.).
Clement, John A., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Psy-
chology, Education.)
Cletcher, J. O., M. D., 10 N. Main St., Tuscola, Ill. (Medicine.)
Clute, W. N., Editor ‘“‘The American Botanist”, Joliet, Ill. (Botany.)
Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph. D., Lake Forest, Ill. (Physical Chemistry.)
Coggeshall, Ruth, B. S., 3927 Hamlin Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Biology.)
Colby, Arthur Samuel, Ph. D., 413 University Hall, University of Illinois,
Urbana, Ill. (Pomology, Pathology, Medicine.)
Colby, Chas. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geography.)
Colyer, oy =o M. S., State Normal University, Carbondale, Ill. (Geog-
raphy.
Combs, Ralph Marion, 706 W. Main St., Decatur, Ill. (Biology.)
Compton, James S., Eureka College, Eureka, Il.
Cone, Albert Benjamin, 5245 Magnolia Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Forestry,
Microscopy.)
*Coulter, John M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
*Crandall, Chas. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany.)
Crathorne, en R., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathe-
matics.
_Creager, Gail, Ed. B., Pinckneyville, Ill. (Biology.)
Crocker, William, Ph. D., Care of J. M. Arthur Thompson Institute. Yonk-
ers, N. Y. (Botany.)
Crosier, W. M., M. D., Alexis, Ill. (Medicine.)
Cross, Chas. H., Science Teacher, ¥. M. C. A., Freeport, Ill. (Biology,
Chemistry.)
Crowe, A. B., M. A., Eastern State Teachers College, Charleston, [1].
(Physics.)
Cullison, Aline, 1735 E. 67th St., Chicago, Ill.
Culver, Harold E., Ph. M., State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Ge-
ology.)
Danville Science Club, High School, Danville, Ill. (General.)
Darling, Elton B., Ph. D., 1345 West Macon Ave., Decatur, Ill.
Dart, Carlton B., 706 Greenleaf Ave., Wilmette, Ill.
Davenport, Eugene, LL. D., Woodland, Mich. (Agriculture.)
Davies, D. C., Director Field Museum, Chicago, Ill.
*Davis, J. J., B. S., Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. (Entomology.)
Deam, Hon. Chas. C., M. A., Bluffton, Ind. (Forestry, Flora.)
Dean, Ella R., B. Ed., 310 E. Elm St., Olney, ll. (Chemistry.)
DeLee, Jos. B., M. D., M. A., 5028 Ellis Ave., Chicago, Ill.
Dempster, A. J., Ph. D., Ryerson Physical Lab., University of Chicago,
Chicago, I11. (Physiecs.)
DeTurk, Ernest E., Ph. D., 707 W. Green St., Urbana, Ill. (Agriculture.)
Dilts, Charles D., A. B., 3121 Fairfield Ave., Fort Wayne, Ind. (Chemis-
trv.)
Doll, Theodore, M. A., Nova Springs, Floyd Co., Iowa. (Mathematics.)
Downie, Thomas R., 1216 N. Kellogg St., Galesburg, Ill. (Geology.)
Downing, ea R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zo-
ology. 4
Dufford, BR. T., 104 Physics Bldg., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo
(Physics.)
Dunn, Charles F., 1912 S. 9th Ave., Maywood, II].
Dye, Marie, M. S., 1700 E. Michigan Ave., Lansing, Mich. (Chemistry.)
Earle, C. A., M. D., DesPlaines, Ill. (Botany.)
East, Clarence W., M. D., F. A. S. C., 326 W. Jackson St., Springfield, Ill.
(Preventive Medicine.)
Ehrman, E. H., M. E., Homan Ave. and Fillmore St., Chicago, Ill.
Eifrig, C. W. G., 504 Monroe Ave., Oak Park, Ill. (Ornithology, Botany,
Zoology.) j
Ekblaw, George E., A. M., State Geological Survey Division, Urbana, Ill
(Geology.) :
Ekblaw, W. E., Ph. D., 711 W. Nevada St., Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Eldredge, Arthur G., Physics Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, IIL
(Photography.)
Eller, W. H., S. B., State Teachers College, Macomb, Ill. (Physies.)
438 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Elliott, A. T., B. S., P. O. Box 1221, East Chicago, Ind. (Science.)
Englew ood High School General Science Club, 62nd St. and Stewart Ave.,
Chicago, Ill.
Englis, Duane T., Ph. D., 358 Chemistry Bldg., University of Illinois,
Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Eureka Science Club, Eureka Twp. High School, Eureka, Il.
Ee Dee. Dept. of Insectology, Smithsonian Institute, Wash-
gton, D. C. (Biology.)
Farwell, Mrs. Francis C., 1520 Astor St., Chicago, Ill.
Featherly, H. I., Waterloo, Ill. (Biology, Agriculture. ) ‘
Feuer, Bertram, B. S., M. Ss. 2634 Argyle St., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry,
Bacteriology.)
Finley, C. W. M. A., The Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York. (Zoology.)
eee pee Asst. Curator, State Museum, Springfield, Ill. (Gen.
nterest. 4
Flint, W. P., Asst. State Entomologist, 1006 South Orchard St., Urbana,
Foard, Castle W., M. S., 990 E. Brooks St., Galesburg, Ill. (Physics.)
Foberg, J. Albert, B. S., Camp Hill, Pa. (Mathematics. )
Ele rcatin w., Se: D; University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Ento-
mology.
Franing, =. C., M. D., 404 Bank of Galesburg Bldg., Galesburg, Ill.
(Medicine. )
Franing, Russell, A. B., Elgin Academy, Elgin, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Frank, O. D., 5825 Drexel Ave., Chicago, Ill. . (Biology.)
Franklin Science Club, Community High School, Pleasant Hill, I.
French, G. H., M. A., Herrin Hospital, Herrin, Ill. (Botany, Entomology.)
Frison, Theodore H., Natural History Building, University of Illinois,
Urbana, Ill. (Entomology, General Riology.)
Fuller, Margaret B., Ph. D., 14 University Hall, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Ill, (Geology.)
Gantz, R. A., 411 N. Talley St., Muncie, Ind. (Botany.)
Gault, B. T., 564 N. Main St., Glen Ellyn, Ill. (Ornithology.)
Geauque, H. A., 531 Lombard St., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Gerard, R. W., B. S., 2811 Cottage Grove Ave., Chicago, Ill.
Gerhard, Wm. J., Field Museum, Chicago, III.
Gerould, T. F., M. D., 115% N. Locust St., Centralia, Ill. (Medicine.)
Glattfeld, J. W. E., Ph. D., Kent Chemical Laboratory, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Goode, J. Paul, Ph. D., 6227 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Geography.)
Gore, G. W., M. D., 231 N. McCleamsboro St., Benton, Ill. (Internal
Medicine.)
Gorrell, T. J. H., M. D., Chicago Heights, Ill. (Medicine.)
Gould, William C., A. B., M. A., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill.
epee,
Gradle, Harry S., M. D., 22 E. Washington St., Chicago, Ill. (Ophthal-
mology.)
Graham, R. 105 Animal Pathology Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana,
1H
*Grant, U. S., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Geology.)
Green, Bessie, M. A., University of Tennessee, Knoxv ille, Tenn.
(Zoology.)
Greenman, J. M., Ph. D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo.
(Botany.)
Griffith, C. R., Ph. D., 209 University Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana,
Ill. (Psychology.)
Gronemann, Carl F., 310 N. Liberty St., Elgin, Ill. (Artist, Naturalist.)
Guberlet, John E., Ph. D., Okla. A. & M. College, Stillwater, Okla. (Zo-
ology.)
Gurley, William F. E., 6151 University Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Paleon-
tology.)
Haas, William H., M. A., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Geog-
raphy.)
Hadley, Geraldine, B. A., Bradley Polytechnic Inst., Peoria, Ill. (Domes-
tic Science.)
*Hale, John A., M. D., Bush, Ill. (Medicine.)
Hall, Earl H., 998 Spring Garden St., Greensboro, N. C.
Hance, James H., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Hanna, Joseph V., A. M., Joliet High School and Junior College, Joliet,
aH (Psychology.)
Hansen, Paul, 39 W. Adams St., Chicago, Ill. (Sanitation.)
Hanson, Alyda C., B. S., Chicago Normal College, 68th St. and Stewart
Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Geography, Geology.)
Hardin, Sarah M., Ph. B., 402 W. Walnut St., Carbondale, Ill. (Biology.)
Harding, H. A., Ph. D., P. O. Box 834, Detroit, Mich. (Bacteriology.)
Harkins, William D., Ph. D., 5437 Ellis Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Hartsough, Ralph C., B. S., A. M., Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloom:
ington, Ill.
Hauberg, John H., B. S., LL. B., 23d St. Hill and 13th Ave., Rock Island,
Ill. (Botany.)
LIST OF MEMBERS 439
Hauberg, Mrs. John H., 23d St. Hill and 13th Ave., Rock Island, Ill.
Haupt, Arthur W., St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y. (Botany.)
Hawthorne, W. C., B. A., B. S., Crane Junior College, Chicago, ITIL
(Physics. )
Heflin, H. N., M. D., Kewanee, Ill. (Medicine.)
eee B., M. D., 620 Amos Ave., Springfield, Ill. (Public
ealth.
Henning Community High School Science Club, Henning, Il.
Herrick, C. Judson, Ph. D., Dept. of Anatomy, University of Chicago,
Chicago, Ili. (Anatomy, Neurology.)
, D. F., B. S., M. S., Claremont, Tl. (Geology.)
Higgins, George M., Ph. D., Inst. Experimental Medicine, Rochester,
Minn. (Zoolegy.)
Hildebrand, L. E., M. A.. New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth,
Ill. (Zoology.)
*Hill, W. K., Carthage College, Carthage, Ill. (Biology.)
Hinchliff, Grace, 715 N. Broad St., Galesburg, Il.
Hines, Murray A., Ph. D., 1610 Oak Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Hoffman, Prank F., M. D., 3117 Logan Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Phys-Surg.)
Holgate, T. F., LL. D., 617 Library St., Evanston, Til. (Mathematies.)
Holmes, Manfred J., B. L., 703 Broadway, Normal, Ill. (Social and Edu-
cation.)
Honey, Edwin E., B. S., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y¥. (Plant Path-
ology, Botany, Entomology.)
Hood, Frazer, Ph. D., Davidson, N. C. (Psychology.)
Hoover, Harvey D., Ph. D., S. T. D., Carthage, Il.
Hopkins, B. Smith, Ph. D., 706 W. California St., Urbana, Ill. (Inor-
ganic Chemistry.)
Hottes, C. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.- (Botany.)
Houdek, Paul, Rantoul, Ill. (Biclogy.)
Huey, Walter B., M. D., Elgin, Joliet, and Eastern Ry., Joliet, Il.
(Medicine.)
Hull, Thos. G., Ph. D., State Board of Health, Springfield, Ill. (Health.)
Hunter, Geo. W., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Biology.)
*Hutton, J. Gladden, M.-S., State College, Brookings, S. D. (Geology.)
Illinois Nature Study Society of Elgin, 310 N. Liberty St., Elgin, [il.
Illinois State Library, State House, Springfield, Il.
Isenbarger, Jerome, B. S., 2200 Greenleaf Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Jane, Wm. T., Room 905, 122 S. Michigan Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Bausch
& Lomb Optical Co.)
Jelliff, Fred R., B. A., Editor, Daily Republican Register, Galesburg, Il.
(Geology.)
Jenks, Ira J., M. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Jensen, Jens, Ravina, Ill. (Geology, Botany.)
Johnson, George F., 625 Black Ave., Springfield, Ill. (Astronomy.)
Johnson, John H., B. Ed., Sup’t. of: Schools, Tremont, Ill. (Biology.)
Johnson, T. Arthur, M. D., 7th St. and 4th Ave., Rockford, Ill. (Medi-
cine.)
Jones, Elmer E., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Men-
tal Development, Heredity.)
Jurica, Hilary S., St. Procopius College, Lisle, Ill. (Botany.)
Karpinski, Louis C., Ph. D., 1315 Cambridge Road, Ann Arbor, Mich.
(Mathematics.)
Karraker, Edward L., Jonesboro, Til. (Forestry.)
Kauffman, J. S., M. D., 233 York St., Blue Island, Ill. (Medicine.)
Kempton, F. E., M. S., Bureau of Plant Industry, Dept. of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C. (Plant Pathology, Botany.)
Kennicott, Ransom, 547 Cook Co. Bldg., Chicago, Ill. (Forestry.)
Kerr, Charles Roy, M. D., Chenoa, Ill. (Medicine.)
Kibbe, Alice, Carthage, I11.
King, R. S., 304 W. Bennett St., Pontiac, Ill. (Biology, Chemistry.)
Kirn, George wy) Mi. S., ME -A:, Ph. D., D. D., Northwestern College, Nap-
erville, Il. (Psychology, Philosophy.)
Kline, R. G., M. D., Hoopeston, lll. (Medicine.)
*Knipp, Charles T., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physics.)
Knox County Academy of Science, Bae ort as Til.
Koch, Fred Conrad, Ph. D., 1903 E. 72d St., Chicago, Ill. (Physiological
Chemistry.)
Krey, Frank, B. S., State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Krueger, John H., M. D., 118 Ellinwood St., DesPlaines, Ill. (Medicine.)
Kuderna, J. G., M. S., Normal, [il. (Physical Science, Education.)
Kudo, Rokusabtro, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.)
Euh, "Sidney, M. D., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.)
Kurz, Herman, B. S., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee, Flor-
ida. (Botany.)
Lamar, J. Everts, B. S., State Geological Survey Division, Urbana, III.
(Geology.)
Lambert, Earl L., B. S., Dakota, Ill. (Botany, Zoology.)
Land, W. J. G., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
440 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
sponses George, B. S., McKenna Process Co., Joliet, Ill. (Paleontol-
ogy. :
Lanphier, Robert C., Ph. B., Sangamo Electric Co., Springfield, fIIl.
(Electricity.)
Larson, Karl, B. A., Augustana College, Rock Island, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Lathrop, W. G., Principal Twp. High School, Johnston City, Ill. (Ge-
ology, Geography.)
Laves, Kurt, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Astronomy,
Mathematics.) .
Lawson, Edwin W., 400 Jefferson Ave., Elgin, Ill.
Lawrence, Nathan A., 6639 S. Lincoln St., Chicago, Ill. (Biology.)
Leighton, Morris Morgan, Ph. D., Chief, Illinois Geological Survey Divi-
sion, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Lerche, Thorleif I., D. D. S., 3012 E. 92d St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.)
Lewis, Howard D., Ph. D., University of Michigan Medical School, Ann
Arbor, Mich. (Physiological Chemistry.)
Lewis, Julian H., D. D., Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago,
Chicago, Ill. (Pathology.) -
Linder, O. A., 208 N, Wells St., Chicago, Il.
Linkins, R. M., M. A., 706 Broadway, Normal, Ill. (Zoology.)
Logsdon, Mrs. M. I., S. B., A. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago,
Tll, (Mathematics.)
Longden, A. C., Ph. D., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Physics.)
Lukens, Herman 1., Ph. D., 330 Webster Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Geography.)
Lutes, Neil, 1595 Atlantic St., Dubuque, Iowa. (Chemistry.)
eT W. D., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Astron.
omy.
Maddock, Rosa G., B. S., 9648 Vanderpool Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Madison, Wm. D., M. D., Eureka, Ill. (Medicine.)
Magill, Henry P., 175 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Sociology,
Finance.)
Malinovsky, A., Chemical Engineer, Washington Iron Works, Los Ange-
les, California. (Chemistry.)
Mann, A. L., M. D., 392 E. Chicago St., Elgin, Ill. (Medicine.)
Mann, Jessie 1g es B. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Biology.)
Marks, Sarah, Pecatonica, Ill. (Biology.)
Martin, Geo. W., B. S., Ph. D., Washington and Jefferson College, Wash-
ington, Penn. (Biology.)
Mason, J. Alden, Field Museum, Chicago, Ill. (Anthropology.)
Mason, Arthur J., 5715 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill.
Mathews, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Cincinnati, College of Medi-
cine, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Biochemistry.)
McAuley, M. Faith, S. M., Home Economics Dept., University of Chi-
cago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
McClure, S. M., McKendree College, Lebanon, Ill.
eee gee N., Ph. D., 1623 Hyde Park Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Chem-
istry
McDougall, W. B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany.)
McEvoy, s. Aleta, B. S., Rockford High School, ‘Rockford, Ill. (Chemis-
try.)
McGinnis, Helen A., 6400 S. Maplewood Ave., Chicago, Ill, (Gen. Sci-
ence.)
McKee, W. A., D. D. S., Hast Side Square, Benton, Ill. (Dentist.)
carpal Archie J., 600 Ravine Ave., Peoria, Ill. (Physics, Chem-
istry.
Mecham, John B., Ph. D., 118 S. Center St., Joliet, Tl.
Metcalf, C. S., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ul. (Enfomology.)
Metzner, Albertine E., M. S., 24 Marshner St., Plymouth, Wis. (Geol-
oy, Physics.)
Michelson, A. A., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Physics.)
Miller, Harry Milton, Jr., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. (Zo-
ology.)
Miller, Isiah Leslie, M. A., Station A, Box 53, Brookings, South Dakota,
(Mathematics, Chemistry.)
Miller, P. H., High School, Henning, Ill. (Biology.)
Miller, R. B., M. F., 223 Natural History Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Forestry,
Ecology.) :
Milton, Charles, B. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Mitchell, Catherine, A. B., 144 Fairbank Road, Riverside, Ill. (Botany,
Ornithology.)
Mongerson, Oscar V., B. S., State Normal University, Normal, Ill.
(Physics.)
Montgomery, C. E., M. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Biology.)
Morgan, Wm. E., M. D., 1016 Hyde Park Blvd., Chicago, bust (Medicine. )
Moulton, F. R.., Ph. 1D. University of Chicago, Chicago, Tll. (Astronomy.)
Mullinix, Raymond C., Ph. D., Rockford College, Rockford, Ill. (Chem-
istry.)
Mumford, H. W., B. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Animal Hus-
bandry, Agriculture.)
Murrah, Frank C., M. D., 105% N. Park Ave., Herrin, Ill. (Medicine.)
LIST OF MEMBERS 441
Mylius, L. A., S. B., M. E., 312 N. Neil St., Champaign, Ill. (Geology.)
- Nadler, Walter H., M. D., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.)
Neiberger, William E., M. D., Bloomington, Ill. (Eugenics.)
Neifert, Ira E., M. S., 806 E. Knox St., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Nelson, C. Z., 534 Hawkingson Ave., Galesburg, Ill. (Botany.)
Newcomh, Rexford, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Engineer-
ing we i SOE
Newell, M. J., M. A., 2017 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill.
Newman, H. H., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Nicholson, F. M., 66th St. and Avenue A, New York City. (Anatomy.)
Nirdlinger, Sidney, Ph. D., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Noé, Adolf Carl, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
Normal Science Club, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Ill.
(General.)
North, E. M., B. A., 694 Garland Place, DesPlaines, Ill, (Geology, As-
tronomy, Pedagogy.)
Obenchain, Jeanette Brown, Ph. B., 6130 Dorchester Ave., Chicago, Ill.
(Anatomy.)
paket Robert S., 807 Crescent Building., Glen Ellyn,
Ondrak, Ambrose L., B. A., St. Procopius College, rae: ‘Til. (Physics.)
Ozment, Arel, 806 W. ashington Ave., Johnston City, Ill. (General.)
Serres hoe He, et, | Os, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, Ill. (Bi-
ology
Paddock, Walter R., M. D., 904 State St., Lockport, Ill. (Medicine.)
Parker, George T., 185 N. "Kellogg St., Galesburg, Ill. (Chemistry.)
*Parr, S. W., M. a.’ University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Parson, S. F., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. (Mathematics.)
Patterson, Alice J., Illinois State Normal University, Normal, [ll. (En-
tomology, Nature Study.)
Patterson, Cecil F., B. S., University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
(Horticulture. )
Patton, Fred P., M. D., Glencoe, Ill. (Medicine.)
Pearsons, H. P., 1816 Chicago Ave., Evanston, Il.
Peterson, Harvey A., 502 Normal Ave., Normal, [Ill.
Phipps, Charles Frank, B. S., M. S., State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill.
(Physics, Chemistry.)
Pieper, Charles J., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (General Science.)
Plapp, F. W., 4140 N. Keeler Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany, Geology.)
Platt, Robert S.,; Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geog-
raphy.)
Poling, J. A., M. D., Crum-Forster Bldg., Freeport, Ill.. (Medicine.)
Pollock, M. D., M. D., Powers Bldg., Decatur, Ill. (Medicine, Surgery.)
Porter, Charles L., A. B., B. S., 828 N. Main St., W. Lafayette, Ind.
(Botany, Plant Pathology.)
Porter, James P., M. A., 1085 Sheridan Road, Hubbard Woods, Ill. (Zo-
ology.)
Quirke, T. T., Ph. D., Room 234 Nat. Hist. Bldg., University of Illinois.
Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
*Radcliffe, H. H., Principal of Night School, 1346 W. Macon St., Decatur,
Ill. (Physics, Chemistry.)
Ransom, James H., B. S., James Millikin University, Decatur, Ill. (Chem-
istry.)
Rauth, Andy Fred, R. F. D. No. 9, Boonville, Ind. (Biology.)
Reagan, Albert B., A. B., A. M., Cornfields, Arizona. (Paleontology, Eth-
nology, Botany, Geology.)
Redfield,.Casper L., 526 Monadnock Block, Chicago, Ill. (Evolution.)
Renich, Mary E., Ph. D.,.355 Jefferson Si., Galesburg, Ill. (Botany.)
Rew, Irwin, Fh. D., 217 Dempster St., Evanston, Ill.
Rice, Arthur L., M. M. E., 537 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. (Engineer-
ing.)
Richardson, Baxter K., A. B., Dept. of Public Health, Springfield, Ill.
(Public Health.)
Richardson, R. E., Ph. D., Vivarium, Cor. Wright and Healy Sts., Cham-
paign, Ill. (Zoology 7)
eae ST vs fee arg M. S., 1030 S. Morgan St., Route 7, Olney, Ill. (Orni-
thology
Rinker, Jacob Arron, B. S., Eureka, Ill. (Physics.)
Rockford Nature Study Society, 210 N. Avon St., Rockford, Il.
Bodebush, W. H., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Romer, A. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Paleontology.)
Root, Clarence J., U. S. Weather Bureau, Springfield, Ill. (Climatology.)
Ss aT SE A., Ph. D., Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. (Psy-
chology.
Budnick, Paul, 10640 S. Seeley Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Salter, Allen, Lena, Ill. (Medicine.)
Sampson, H. C., Ph. D., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Savage, T. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Stratigraphic
Geology.)
onan Orpheus M., Room 1649, 10 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, Ill. (Birds,
lants.)
442 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
panes mere L., Ph. D., 2437 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Ill. (Psy-
chology.
Schmidt, Otto L., M. D., 5 So. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (History.)
Schmoll, Hazel Marguerite, ye sr sa OE M. S., 14837 Pennsylvania Ave.
Denver, Colo. (Botany.)
Schneider, Nora, B. S., 403 W. Washington Blvd., Urbana, Ill. (Chemis-
tary)
Schreiber, Geo. F., 80 Illinois St., Chicago Heights, [1].
Schulz, W. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physics.)
Scott, Re nACE SMO Ss, State Normal University, Carbondale, Ill. (Chem-
istry.) f
Sears, O. H., 606 E. Chalmers St., Champaign, III. Chee
Shamel, C. H., Ph. D., 802 Massachusetts Ave., N. E., Washington, D. C.
(Chemistry.)
Shank, ne os M., A. M., 42 W. Walnut St., Carbondale, Ill. (Geog-
raphy.
Shelford, V. E., Ph. D., Vivarium Bldg., Wright and Healy Sts., Cham-
paign, Ill. (Zoology, Ecology.)
Shinn, Harold B., 3822 Lowell Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Shull, Chas. A., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany,
Plant Physiology.)
Siedenburg, Frederic, M. A., 1076 West Roosevelt Road, Chicago, Ill.
(Sociology.)
Simmons, Marguerite L., B. S., M. A., 325 Melrose Ave., Centralia, TL
(Biology.)
Simonds, O. C., 1101 Buena Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany:)
Simons, Etoile B., Ph. D., 7727 Colfax Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
*Simpson, Q. I., Bear Creek Farm, Palmer, Ill. (Hwugenics.)
Singer, H. Douglas, M. D., 6625 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Psy-
chiatry.)
seagate boa ni Ph. D., Se. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Mathe-
matics
Slocum, A. W., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
Slye, Maud, A. B., 836 Drexel Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.)
Smallwood, Mabel =. 550 Surf St., Chicago, Tl. (Zoology.)
eae Seley 3 Bessey, B. S., 2324 Hartzell St., Evanston, Ill. (Tele-
phony.
*Smith, C. HL, M. E., 5517 Cornell Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Physics.)
Smith, Clarence B., B. S., Aurora College, Aurora, Ill. (Physics.)
Smith, Mrs. Eleanor C., B. S., 104 Winston Ave., Joliet, Ill. (Biology.)
Smith, Grant, M. S., 1738 W. 104 St., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Smith, James W., M. D,, Cutler: Perry Co., Ill. (Medicine.)
Smith, Jesse L., Supt. Schools, Highland Park, Ill. :
Smith, JK sks, “Ph! D:; Northwestern Univ., Evanston, ill. . (Physics)
Smith, Merlin G., A. B., A. M., Ph. D., Greenville College, Greenville, Tl.
(Mathematics.)
Smith, RB. S., Ph. D., 653 Agricultural Bldg., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana,
Ill. (Chemistry and Physics of Soils.)
Smith, ey S., Galconda, Pope Co., Ill. (Vocational and Physical Educa-
tion.
Snider, Alvin B., M. D., Blue Island, Ill. (Medicine.)
Snider, H. J., B. S., College of Agri., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
(Soils, Agri.)
= craves gel Bobert, M. D., 4518 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medi-
cine.
Speckman, Wesley N., Ph. D., Elmhurst College, Elmhurst, Ill. (Biology.)
Spicer, C. E., 100 Sherman St., Joliet, Ill. (Chemistry.)
Stark, John Thomas, ge iA, 749 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Geology:)
Steagall, Mary M., Ph. 808 S. Illinois Ave., Carbondale, Ill. (Botany.)
Stevens, F. L., Ph. >, Tuiwcrares of Illinois, Urbana, Til. (Plant Path-
ology, Botany.)
Stillians, A. W., M. D., 819 East 50th St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine.)
Stover, E. L., State Teachers College, Charleston, Ill. (Botany.)
Stover, Mrs. EB. Ee, MSS. 2930 Second St., Charleston, Ill. (Botany.)
* Strode, W. S., M. D., Lewiston, I11. (Medicine. )
Strong, Harriet, B. S., 192 E. Maple Ave., Downers Grove, Ill. (Biology.)
Struble, R. H., A. B., 4481 Sheridan Ave., Detroit, Mich. (Physics.)
Swan, W. S., M. D., Cor. Main and Walnut Sts., Harrisburg, Ill. (Medi-
cine.)
Tatum, Arthur L., Ph. D., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
(Physiology, Pharmacology.)
Taylor, Mildred E., A. B., A, M., Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. (Mathe-
matics.)
Tehon, Leo. R., A. B., M. A, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Til. (Botany,
Plant Pathology.)
Tharaldsen, C. E., M. A., 719 Emerson St., Evanston, Ill. (Zoology.)
Thomas, E. T., M. A., Haven House, Northwestern University, Evanston,
Ill. (Geology.)
ae L. J., 301 Natural History Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana,
11.
LIST OF MEMBERS 443
eee ae Tt. E., Ph. D., Naval Proving Station, Dahlgren, Va.,
ysics.
Ree ay O. B., M. D., 201 S. Washington Ave., Carbondale, Ill. (Medi-
cine.
Thurlimann, Leota, 3856 Gladys Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
Thurston, Fredus A., 1361 E. 57th St., Chicago, Il.
Tiffany, L. Hanford, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio. (Botany.)
*To EB. J., Ph. D., Univ. of [llinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathematics.)
Townsend, ML. T., B. S., St. John’s College, Annapolis, Md. (Animal
Ecology.)
Townsley, Fred D., B. A.. James Millikin University, Decatur, Ml.
Trapp, A. R., M. D., Illinois National Bank Bldg., Springfield, Il. (Medi-
cal Diagnosis.)
Turton, Chas. M., M. A., 2055 E. 72d Place, Chicago, Ill. (Physics.)
Ulrich, Katherine, Ph. B., 304 N. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park, Ill. ( Geology,
Geography, Botany.)
Van Cleave, H. J., Ph. D., University of DTllinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology.)
Van Cleet, Eugene, B. S., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. (Com-
mercial and Hceon. Geography, Climatology.)
Van Tuyl, Francis M., Ph. D., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo.
(Geology.)
Vestal, A. G, Ph. D., Stanford University, Cal. (Ecology.)
VonZelinski, Walter F., M. D., Ph. D., Station Hospital, Camp Bragg, N. C.
(Biology, Physiology.)
Waldo, B. H., E. E., Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Ili-
nois, Urbana, Til. (Eleciricity.)
Waldo, Jennie E, 1204 Third Ave., Rockford, Ill. (Biology.)
Walker, Ellis David, M. D., B. Se, Litchfield, Dll. (Pedagogical Med,
Biol., Agri.)
Walsh, John, 1120 S. West St., Galesburg, Il. (Water Supply.)
Wandless, Harold R., Ph. D., 1003 W. Oregon St, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Warbrick, John C., M. D., M. C., 306 E. 43d St., Chicago, [1l. (Birds, Na-
ture Study.) i
Ward, Harold B., B. S., Northwestern Univ., Evanston, fll. (Geology,
Geography.)
nino + oaaaioa G., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Il.
otany
‘elronerri ¥. B, Ph. D., Dept..of Physics, University of Illincis, Urbana,
Weaver, George H., M. D., 629 S. Wood St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine,
Bacteriology.)
Weaver, H. E., Raymond, Il.
Weber, H. C. P., Ph. D., Westinghouse BDlectric Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.
(Chemistry.)
Weckel, Ada L., M. S.. Twp. High School, Oak Park, Til. (Zoology.)
Weese, Asa Orrin, James Millikin University, Decatur, IL
Weicholt, A., M. D., Barrington, Ill. (Medicine.)
Welker, William H., Ph. D., Univ. of Illinois College of Medicine, 508 S.
Honore St., Chicago, lll. (Biological Chemistry.)
Wells, M. M, Ph. D., General Biological Supply House, 1177 E. 55th St.,
Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.)
Wentworth, Edward N., B. S., M. S., Armour’s Bureau of Agricultural
Research and Economics, Chicago, Ill (Genetics and Economics.)
Wever, Ernest Glen, A. B., 15 Wendell St., Cambridge, Mass. (Biology.)
Whitmore, Frank C., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, Il.
(Organic Chemistry.)
Whitney, Worallo, A. M., 5743 Dorchester Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
Whitten, J. H., Ph. D.,_ 7111 Normai Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
Wilczyncki, E. J.,; Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Math.)
Williams, E. G. C., M. ine 316 The Temple, Danville, fll. (Medicine,
Clinical Pathology.)
Willier, Benj. H., Ph. D., Zoology Bidg., University of Chicago, Chicago,
Il. (Zoology.)
Wilson, J. Gordon, M. A., 5755 Kenwood Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Otology.)
Windsor, Mrs. P. L., 701 Michigan Ave., Urbana, T1l. (Entomology:)
*Winter, S. G., M. A.. Lombard College, Galesburg. Ill. (Histology.)
Witt, Dr. J. C., 881 Cordelia Ave., Chicago, Til. (Chemistry.)
Witzemann, Edgar J., Ph. D., 321 S. Ridgeland Ave., Oak Park, TIL
(Chemisiry.) i
Wolkoff, M. Z, Ph. D., Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, Il
(Soil Fertility.)
Wood, F. E., 804 N. Evans Sit., Bloomington, Ill. (Biology.)
beg ea cing M., Chicago Academy of Science, Chicago, Ill. €Taxi-
ermy.
Woods, F. C., 100 N. Cherry St., Galesburg, Ill. (Physics.)
Worsham, Walter B., A. B., Paris, Ill. (Physics.)
Wright, a M. D., 5 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Biological Chem-
istry.
Wright, Paul R., B. A., Michigan Ave. and Oak St., Highland Park, DL
(Geolosy.)
444 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Wynne, Ross B., A. B., 250 B 111th St., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)
Young, Mrs. J. D., M. S., Windermere Hotel, 56th St. and Cornell Ave.,
Chicago, Ill. (Zoology.) é
Young, Paul Allen, A. B., 204 Vivarium Bldg., University of Illinois,
Urbana, Ill. (Botany.)
Zehren, Karl C., Flanigan, Ill. (Agriculture.)
*Zetek, James, A. M., Box 245, Ancon, Panama Canal Zone. (Hntomology.)
Zimmerman, Augustine G., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Biologi-
cal Science.)
Zoller, C. H., M. D., Hughes Bldg., Litchfield, Ill. (Medicine.)
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AFFILIATED WITH THE ACADEMY.
Tllinois Nature Study Society of Elgin, 310 N. Liberty St., Elgin, Illinois.
Knox County Academy of Science, Galesburg, Illinois, Fred R. Jelliff,
President.
Normal Science Club, Tlinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois.
‘Rockford Nature Study Society, 210 N. Avon St., Rockford, Illinois.
HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE CLUBS.
Boys’ Science Club, High School, Galesburg, Illinois.
Danville Science Club, High School, Danville, Illinois.
Englewood High School General Science Club, Chicago, Ill.
Eureka Science Club, High School, Eureka, Illinois.
Franklin Science Club, Community High School, Pleasant Hill, Illinois.
Henning Community Science Club, High School, Henning, Illinois.
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