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FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING
CHICAGO, ILL., FEB. 17 AND 18, 1911

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VOLUME IV

1911 i

Published by the State
January 25, 1912

linois Academy of Science

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Illinois Academy of Science

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING

CHICAGO, ILL., FEB. 17 AND 18, 1911

VOLUME IV
911 im
r@ak
‘Fi AMBRAL
UARDEN,

Published by the State

January 25, 1912

¢ R333
wet 4-6

EDITED BY
THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE

ara +;TAMIGAL

2s
CONTENTS
PAGE
RIE PT AIM So Ok oe oe cate cae a Cae aw eke aeceigh aah ce sow h' 5
ees ae Comauntices tor 1919-13; .- 5 6k a ae nc cet e cee st aenss 7
PMD AME “EAMES. 5 cee dpa canada sow es op ceweuiy keegan fam 8
Session of Friday, February 17—Morning:
Address of Welcome, by Dean R. D. Salisbury of the University
MAI Ss dese em cen heme ee Wes eR aes Pe eee Ree 11
Pee y KMRL oo Uh am 5 ooK se ASo wa den ope ae eee eee ees 12
Mreishrers Report... ~.\s.cc-<0 nesasannd Ee Cr ee eet 14
enert of Membership Cominittee...3- < 2528) ..2.- oe omakew ec nee st 14
Report of Committee on Deep Drilling. -......2.. 20. s02.0-20--- 15
Report of Committee to Influence Legislation to Restrict Collec-
Honor Hinds and: Peps?) oo. 35 eo. bao oles ease meee eae 16
Report of Committee on Co-operation with Existing Nature-
eeiy? AEM «bas oh bates ws Sones co go ee ae eee Ree 18
Session of Friday, February 17—Ajfternoon:
Demonstration of the Use of Oxygen in Mine Rescue Work..... 20
Address on the Metallic Colors of Insects, by Prof. A. A. Michelson 20
Session of Friday, February 17—Evening:
Address by the President, Prof. John M. Coulter................ 21
Session of Saturday, February 18—Morning:
Eeeegmee eID, Spin ME NOMIEG IE Vi oo ian asp was wees Se A= ee 21
Address on The Relation of the Soil to Plants................... 22
Session of Saturday, February 18—Afternoon:
Report of the Committee on Assistance of the Academy to High
Schools an Science -Leachtmrcc. =. - 2 oe. ave scan teenee seek oe 22
Report of the Committee on Ecological Survey................-- 24
Report of the Committee to Influence Legislation in Favor of
Increased Protection for Game Birds.....................-.- 26
Publication of the Academy Transactions by the State........... 27
Report of the Nomination Committee...............2.2..-----0-- 27
HE SRLesIdehp S WAMGTESS oc che wesc naan ku cmc Se setwanpeeme ns 28
I. SymposiuM ON RADIOACTIVITY:
I. Physical Properties of Radium, by Henry Crew............ 43
II. Radium from the Astronomical Point of View, by Edwin B.
SOSEere ee een aaa cts Nias Dae mie Raia as kine Sera are 52
III. Radiochemistry, by William A. Noyes...................--- 55
IV. Radioactivity and Geological Phenomena, by Thos. C.
RelrbeT ithe Coens tee ee te om cu do sac aomam arses 57
V. The Biological Effect of Radium, by William A. Pusey...... 75
II. GeotocicaL PAPERS:
Oil Investigations in Illinois, by Raymond S. Blatchley........... 85
The Channahon and Essex Limestones in Illinois, by T. E. Savage 97
The Eastward Extension of the Sweetland Creek Shale in Illinois,
ag GP" ee err rer ere ero ya 103
An American Lepidostrobus, by John M. Coulter and W. J. G.
LOST US VAN TS ing es Senet Se eee mR of ta Smee 107

Post-glacial Life of Wilmette Bay, Glacial Lake Chicago, by

eee AER 9 oe once Se oh ies wo Pe ee teria eee ere ote 108

III. EcotocicaL PAPERS:
Evaporation and Planet Succession on the Sand Dunes of Lake

Michigan, by ‘George Ds Putlet so... daioe es coesco ase
Seasonal Succession in Old Forest Ponds, by W. C. Allee........
Reproduction by Layering in the Balsam Fir and Other Conifers,

by William ‘S: ‘Cooper 3 Absttaets ss wot suwa on cas cca ks see ee
Ecological Studies of the Prairie and Forest in Illinois, by C. C.

Adams: Abstract ir: Sete aecicee te meee Ae Lee
A Handbook for Students of Animal Ecology, by C. C. Adams;

OUbME os eeehe no Ss oe ee Skee sl FR See ee eee

IV. BrioLtocicAL PAPERS:
A Preliminary List of the Ants of Illinois, by Maurice C. Tanquary
The Mollusca of Piatt, Champaign and Vermilion Counties,

Tilinois, by James Zetek;. Abstract:.:. is .22.....dnds «os ae
The Occurrence of the Rare Alga Gloeotaenium in Illinois, by
BN: fanseatts:cacc ete oe cise ore icc are acisteie eiare ae eee

Structure of Adult Cycad Stem, by C. J. Chamberlain; Abstract. .
Demonstration of the Movement of the Water in Leaves, by
Aaron Hi. Colexc Abstracts ts isk case se den melee occa nena ee
V. MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS:
Present Condition of the State Museum of Natural History,
Bye ie, UGLOUK ose c caeses ate otas tine dees eh sce. eee
VI. NEcROLOGY :
Chatles‘Reid Barnes, by John M. Coulter. 2.253. cnn. oh oc noe
iy. AL eWwest, oy So AL POrbes 2 yoo, acir ew eines Sorensen =e ee
Paseo Putian |. coi pelican sown ees cieisas derechos ak 5 See
ola. J. shetty, Be. ib. Gaus cons s2% bs c(sietor nes s4 as ae ritas <eee
TE 1S text, SIV CEIMD ERS vi oie roceyeves Sve iake oie Sieh wilsie ate Serer d bkevet ite ele Ve isuatorsieke ioe
AVSERLES Ram Weed es Srasaslace rasan ei where. uelTovavecetacegel eve saree taysvaasobasctts ake ihe dnd face ar Seas tote eros

119
126

132

133

133

137

142

143
144

145

151

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE
Plate I. Map of Illinois, showing oil fields, cross-section lines, posi-
tion of structural terraces and of the La Salle anticline........... 89
Plate II. General cross-section, A-A, from St. Louis, Mo., to Vin-
ee SS Se a SE ate A! eee iS he Se ee In pocket
Plate III. General cross-section, C-C, from New Athens to Eldo-
RNR RN rire OEE Ria CE ete Se eid wisi ee A Ad atid Sop In pocket
Plate IV. General cross-section, D-D, from Marion to Salem,
I alae ee Se Sree as Sak eRe ms Ns ean ors wh es Wes In pocket
Plate V. General cross-section, E-E, from Beardstown to the
RNG NMCMESS + BEN al eee als Se Ne eR i ee ae, In pocket
Plate VI. A coal-contour map, showing geologic structure and
development in the Marion County oil fields................ In pocket
Plate VII. View of exposure of Essex limestone near Essex, IIl.... 100
Figure 1. Section through post-glacial fluviatile deposits of Wilmette
SE a ee ey ee ee a OR a 109
Figure 2. Mean daily evaporation rates in the sand dune plant asso-
ciations and in the beech-maple forest.................. ee ae, 121

Figure 3. Diagram showing the comparative evaporation rates in
different associations on the basis of the average daily amount
Se a Sos aie | ne | En a a a 124

Figure 4. Diagram showing the comparative evaporation rates in
different plant associations on the basis of the maximum average
amount per day for any week between May 6 and October 31,
ERERM N IS a ble ten ee eg ee RE no Gera wee Lena Gwaaas ce 125

Figure 5. Variation curves of pond snails and crustaceans........... 130
Note.—Plates I-VI were loaned by the Illinois Geological Survey;

Figures 2-4 were loaned by the University Press, University of Chicago.

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR THE YEAR 1911-12.

President, W. A. Noyes, University of Illinois, Urbana, III.
Vice-President, J. C. Uppen, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
Secretary, Frank C. Baker, The Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University, Decatur, IIl.

The Council.
PRESIDENT, Past PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENT, SECRETARY, TREASURER.

Publication Committee.
PRESIDENT, SECRETARY and A. R. Crook, State Natural History Museum,
Springfield.
Membership Committee.
H. C. Cow es, University of Chicago, Chicago.
Marion WELLER, Northern Illinois State Normal, De Kalb, IJ.
EL. N. TRANSEAU, Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston, Ill.
C. C. Abas, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.
J. W. Reap, Illinois College, Jacksonville, IIL

Committee to Investigate the Status of High Schools as to Practical Science.
Worratto WHITNEY, Bowen High School, Chicago.

Otis W. CALDWELL, School of Education, University of Chicago.

J. P. Givsert, College of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl.
1 HESSLER, James Millikin University, Decatur, Ill.

oa. JOHNSON, Macomb, IIl

Committee to Co-operate with Existing Agencies for Advancement of
Nature Study in Elementary Schools.

F. L. CuHarres,* University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

IrA Meyers, University of Chicago, Chicago.

RutH MarsHALtt, Rockford College, Rockford, II.

Committee to Arrange for the Editorship and the Publication of a Series
to be Known as the State Academy Leaflets on High School Science.

T. J. McCormack, Principal, La Salle-Peru High School, La Salle, IIl.

ae m C. Bactey, Director of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana,

JoHN C. Coutter, Illinois State Normal University, Bloomington, III.

H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago.

R. D. Sauispury, University of Chicago, Chicago.

Committee on Ecological Survey.
STEPHEN A. Fores, University of Illinois, Urbana, III.
T. L. Hanxinson, Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston, IIl.
V. E. SuHetrorp, University of Chicago, Chicago.
E. N. TRANSEAU, Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston, II.
Cwartes C. ApAms, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
Frank C. BAKER, Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago.

Committee to Influence Legislation to Restrict the Collection of Birds and

Eggs to Institutions and Accredited Individuals.

Frank C. Baker, The Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago.
J. E. Hess, Philo, Il.
F. L. Cuarzes,* University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

*Deceased.

8 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS
ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLE I. NAME.
This Society shall be known as Tue ILLIno1s ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ArticLe II. Objects.

The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific
research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the
unification of the scientific interests of the State.

ArTIcLe III. MEmpBeErs.

The membership of the Academy shall consist of Active Members,
Non-resident Members, Corresponding Members, Life Members, and Hon-
orary Members.

Active Members shall be persons who are interested in scientific work
and are residents of the State of Illinois. Each active member shall pay
an initiation fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of one dollar.

Non-resident Members shall be persons who have been members of
the Academy but have removed from the State. Their duties and privileges

shall be the same as those of active members except that they may not
hold office.

Corresponding Members shall be such persons actively engaged in
scientific research as shall be chosen by the Academy, their duties and
privileges to be the same as those of active members, except that they may
not hold office and shall be free from all dues.

Life Members shall be active or non-resident members who have paid
fees to the amount of twenty dollars. They shall be free from further
annual dues.

Honorary Members shall be persons who have rendered distinguished
service to science and who are not residents of the State of Illinois. The
number shall not exceed twenty at one time. They shall be free from
all dues.

For election to any class of membership the candidate’s name must be
proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the committee on
membership, and receive the assent of three-fourths of the members voting.

All workers in science present at the organization meeting who sign
the constitution, upon payment of their initiation fee and their annual dues
for 1908 become charter members.

i

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 9

ArticLeE IV. OFFIcers.

The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice-Presi-
dent, a Chairman of each section that may be organized, a Secretary, and a
Treasurer. These officers shall be chosen by ballot on recommendation of
a nominating committee, at an annual meeting, and shall hold office for one
year or until their successors qualify.

They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective
offices.

It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an address
which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at which
his term of office expires.

The secretary shall have charge of all the books, collections, and
material property belonging to the Academy.

ARTICLE V. CoUNCIL.

The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Chairman
of each section, Secretary, Treasurer, and the president for the preceding
year. To the Council shall be entrusted the management of the affairs of
the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings.

ArticLe VI. StTanpinc CoMMITTEES.
The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on
Publication and a Committee on Membership.
The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the
Secretary, and a third member chosen annually by the Academy.
The Committee on Membership shall consist of five members chosen
annually by the Academy.

ArticLteE VII. MEETINGs.
The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time and
place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be called
by the Council and shall be called upon written request of twenty members.

Articte VIII. Pustication.
The regular publications of the Academy shall include the trans-
actions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the
Committee on Publication.

All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy.

Articte IX. AFFILIATION.

The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with other
organizations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the
Council and be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the members present
at any regular meeting.

ArtictE X. AMENDMENTS.

This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the
members present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the desired
change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least twenty
days before such meeting.

10 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

BY-LAWS.

I. The following shall be the regular order of business.
1. Call to order.

Reports of officers.

Reports of standing committees.

Election of members.

Reports of special committees.

Appointment of special committees.

Unfinished business.

New business.

part aa pr we

Election of officers.

par
S

Program.
Adjournment.

II. No meeting of the Academy shall be held without thirty days’
previous notice being sent by the Secretary to all members.

III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy. A
majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council.

IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order
signed by the President and Secretary.

V. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for three
years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer,
shall have their names stricken from the roll.

VI. The Secretary shall have charge of the distribution, sale, and
exchange of the published Transactions of the Academy, under such
restrictions as may be imposed by the Council.

VII. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint a
committee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon the
account of the Treasurer. -

VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program unless the
manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previously delivered
to the Secretary.

IX. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the
members present at any regular meeting.

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 11

Minutes of the Fourth Annual Meeting

Botany BuILDING, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
Cuicaco, FEBRUARY 17 and 18, 1911.

SESSION OF FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 17.

MornING.

President Coulter called the meeting to order at ten o'clock a. m.

Dean R. D. Salisbury, of the University of Chicago, then wel-
comed the members of the Illinois Academy of Science to the
University.

“It is in full appreciation of the fact that the University of
Chicago and the Illinois State Academy are one in their general
purpose, namely, the spreading of scientific knowledge among
the people, that we are met here today. We are co-workers in
the same general field. Although the Academy is young, it has
already accomplished much, and has laid the foundation for
greater things in the future. Their publications are worthy publi-
cations and have established a feeling of fellowship among the
men of science, a community of interest, which must result in
good in the days to come. Especially is this feeling perpetuated
by the stimulation to scientific work, which is the natural result
of the greater communication which is thus offered among the
men of science.

“I think that another of the great services performed, is the
encouragement of the younger men. My first paper was delivered
before a state academy of science, and I still remember very well
the feeling of encouragement which I felt at the time. I suppose
the same thing holds to this day, and it seems to me, therefore, that
this stimulation of young men and women within the field of
science, is one of the greatest functions of this organization.

“Any organization which encourages work on the part of many
men; which stimulates and arouses a widespread interest; any
organization which has for one of its purposes the spreading of
useful information among the people of the state; and any organi-
zation which promotes intercourse among men of science, must
be welcome at this University—or at any other university. I
assure you that the authorities of the University are more than

if? ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

glad to welcome you here, and to put at your disposal any facili-
ties which we may have. And although we are way off in the
corner of the state, I assure you that you will always be welcome
here. Speaking for the University, I hope you will have a most
successful session.”

President Coulter—‘We shall now proceed to the business
matters which precede our more serious purpose in being here,
and the first is the report of the secretary.”

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY:

Minutes oF Previous MEEetTiIncs.—The minutes of the third
annual meeting held at Urbana, February 18 and 19, 1910, ap-
proved by the council, were published in Volume III of the
Transactions and sent to members in good standing on June 20th,
and thereafter to members as rapidly as their annual dues were
paid.

Report of the meeting of the council held at Decatur June 14th
was sent to members in the latter part of that month.

MemBersHIP.—The secretary records with regret the death
of Charles Reid Barnes, Ph.D., Professor of Plant Physiology
at the University of Chicago; Frank G. Barnes, D.D., ex-president
of Wesleyan University, Bloomington; J. Carl Stine, Superin-
tendent of Public Schools, Virden, and J. A. West, A.M., of the
State Entomologist’s office, Urbana.

It happens that all of these gentlemen were personally known
to the secretary and all had shown some especial interest in the
State Museum by personal visits or by letters written in behalf
of the museum. Memoirs will be presented by members of the
Academy intimately acquainted with them.

It is a matter of gratification that our list of members now
contains 371 names. A hasty estimate shows the distribution to
be about as follows: Normal, 2; Charleston, 4; St. Louis, 6;
Field Museum, 9; Decatur, 10; Evanston, 10; University of Chi-
cago, 20; Springfield, 29; Chicago, 68; scattered localities, 103;
Urbana, 110; total, 371. The greatest following is at Urbana,
due, no doubt, to the large number of scientific workers at the
State University, to the enthusiasm of certain gentlemen there for
the Academy and the meeting of the Academy at Urbana last
year. There is reason to expect that our presence in this locality
will cause Chicago to surpass all other portions of the State in
the number of members.

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 13

Letters addressed to the following have been returned marked
“address unknown”: Leo P. Baird, E. H. Barber, James H.
Browning, L. L. Burgess, C. E. Burke, E. B. Collett, J. S. Collier,
Wm. E. Davis, L. A. Dawson, C. A. Fry, Stella H. Hague, C. F.
Knirk, O. C. Montgomery, O. F. Sevrens, H. S. Swarth. The
secretary will appreciate information concerning them.

It is advisable that all who present names of candidates, and
especially the membership committee, furnish complete data con-
cerning candidates presented. This will save much labor subse-
quently since for the purpose of promoting the acquaintance of
the members with each other the attempt is made to not only
give names and addresses, but the chief lines of work, position
and degree of each member.

PusLicaTions.—Of the three volumes of the Transactions pub-
lished, Volume I appeared in an edition of 500, Volumes II and III
in editions of 1,000 each. Fifty copies of each volume were
bound in cloth and can be furnished to members instead of paper
bound volumes, for 25 cents extra, as long as the supply lasts.
Sale of previous volumes is a slight source of income to the
treasury.

The call for the publications of the Academy is increasing.
Thus far it has been impossible to respond to numerous requests
from scientific institutions and libraries both in this country and
Europe, because of lack of funds to pay postage on exchanges.
Publications of various institutions are coming in and a valuable
library will result.

In view of the low annual fee charged our members, it is diffi-
cult to conduct the business of the Academy. There are many
things which could be done to arouse interest of the members and
to promote the welfare of the Academy which are now impossible
because of lack of funds. The neglect of members to promptly
pay their dues causes the treasurer much annoyance and work
and hampers the organization. In many cases the fee is spent in
postage before the fee is paid.

There is good reason to hope that the present session of the
state legislature will provide for the publication of our Trans-
actions, thus relieving our treasury of a burden which it is hardly
adequate to bear and at the same time make it possible for the
people of the state to more thoroughly profit by the activity of
the membership in contributing to scientific knowledge both in
its theoretical and practical phases.

14 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

If publication by the state can be brought about, the Academy
will be able to pay the expenses incurred by future secretaries and
treasurers, at least in attendance upon meetings, and to pay as well
for the large amount of clerical work incident to the office of
the secretary.

Your secretary is convinced that by this time he has contributed
his full proportion of time and money to the Academy and trusts
that his successor elected at the meeting may be less burdened,
both to his own advantage and to that of the society.

Respectfully submitted,
February 17, 1911. A. R. Crook, Secretary.

The report of the secretary was approved and ordered placed
on file.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER.

Balance on hand Feb.45; 1900..02- uae ee es $202.00
Receipts, Feb. 15, 1910, to Feb. 16, 1911....... 377.50
Totabsc 0. Sack, eee eee ee ee eee $579.50
Expenditures, Feb. 15, 1910, to Feb. 16, 1911.. 551.94
Cash on hand Feb. 16; 19100 322 2 2ena ce eee $ 27.56

Respectfully submitted,
Joun C. HeEsster, Treasurer.

The report of the treasurer was ordered placed on file and the
chair appointed the following auditing committee: Mr. Weller,
chairman; Dr. Pepoon and Mr. Slocum.

In the absence of the membership committee, Mr. Cowles as-
sumed the duties of this committee. The following names were
presented for membership in the Academy and on motion, duly
seconded, were unanimously elected:

Barger, Thomas M., 2725 South Fifty-ninth Court, Cicero, IIl.

Braun, H. M., 1618 Belmont Ave., East St. Louis, Ill. (Archaeology.)

Cady, G. H., Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)

Carlson, A. J., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. ( Physiology.)

Chamberlain, C. J., A.B., A.M., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago.
(Botany. )

Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph.D., Lake Forest, Ill. (Physical Chemistry.) }

Cole, A. H., A.B., A.M., 6022 Monroe Ave., Chicago. (Biology, Biological
Projection. )

Eikenberry, W. L., B.S., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Ewell, Marshall D., A.M., M.D., LL..D., 59 Clark St., Chicago. (Metrol-
ogy, Microscopy. )

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. er ar

Fuller, Geo. D., A.B., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Plant Ecology.)

Givens, H., Paris, Ill. (Botany.)

en, J. M., B.S., M.S., Ph.D., 5731 Madison ioe Chicago. (Botany.)

Harris, Norman MacL., M.B., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Bac-
teriology.)

Hildebrand, L. E., A.B., A.M., 808 Hamlin St., Evanston, Ill. (Zoology.)

Hill, E. J., 7100 Eggleston Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

Jackson, Miss Nell, B.S., 7524 Harvard Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

Jordan, Edwin O., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. ( Bacteriology.)

Land, W. J. G., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Lillie, F. R., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology.)

Locke, J. R., B.S., 212 Sixth St. Streator, Ill. (Botany.)

McCabe, E. L., Martinsville, Ill. (Botany.)

McCormack, Thomas J., La Salle, Ill.

MacFarland, D. F., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.)

Mance, G. C., 302 Maple Ave., Blue Island, Ill. (Science.)

Nef, J. U., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Percy, J. F., M.D., Galesburg, IIl.

Pfuffer, Miss W. M., S.B., Ph.D., University of Chicago. (Botany.)

Replogle, P. S., M.D., 80 North Neil St, Champaign, Il. (Medicine. )

Reynolds, Carrie, B.S., Lake View High School, Chicago. (Botany.)

Sherff, E. E., B.S., 421 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Botany.)

Sims, J. P., 851 South Lincoln St., Springfield, Ill.

Smith, Wilbur, 5636 Kenmore Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

Stowe, Herbert, M.D., 4433 Lake Ave., Chicago. ( Medicine.)

Strong, R. M., A.B., A.M., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zo-
ology.)

Taggart, Miss Margaret, 805 West Oregon St., Urbana. ( Chemistry.)

Webb, J. M., U. S. Bureau of Mines, Urbana, IIl.

Young, Mrs. J. D., B.S., 4752 Vincennes Ave., Chicago. ( Biology.)

The report of the COMMITTEE ON DEEP DRILLING was called
for and was presented by the Chairman, Mr. J. A. Udden.

Rock Island, Ill., February 16, 1911.

To the President of the Illinois Academy of Science,

Dear Sir: The Committee on Deep Drillings wishes to report
that it has had no meeting during the last year. We would ask
to be relieved from further service.

The State Geological Survey has made arrangements to continue
the work of collecting well records and we believe that this organi-
zation can well attend to the entire correspondence. Such mem-
bers of the Academy as have opportunity to furnish new data on
wells will, without doubt, be glad to communicate with the survey,
which keeps permanent files on all such information.

The committee wishes to express its sincere thanks to Dr. A. R.
Crook of the State Natural History Museum in Springfield, Illi-
nois, for his kindness in placing at the disposal of the committee

16 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

the entire archives of his office, which have been examined and
from which have been extracted a great deal of valuable informa-
tion relating to deep wells in the state.

Yours very truly,
J. A. Uppen, Chairman.
F. W. DEWoLr,
U.. |S. Granc
It was moved, seconded and unanimously carried, that the
report be accepted and the recommendation adopted.
Mr. Frank C. Baker presented the following report, which was
accepted and the committee was continued for another year:

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE TO INFLUENCE LEGISLATION TO RESTRICT
THE COLLECTION OF BIRDS AND EGGS SOLELY TO
ACCREDITED INSTITUTIONS.

Your committee has carefully gone into the subject of the
present law governing the collecting of birds and their eggs for
scientific purposes. A number of collectors, as well as profes-
sional naturalists connected with museums, have been seen or
corresponded with. The general consensus of opinion is to the
effect that it would not be wise, nor would it benefit science, to
restrict the collecting of birds and their eggs to accredited institu-
tions. Many valuable facts have been gathered by amateur
collectors, and it is quite probable that ornithological information
from many obscure parts of the state can only be obtained through
these enthusiastic collectors.

Statistics concerning permits in Cook County show that up-
wards of twenty-one have been issued, divided as follows:

4 Museum men.

2 Egg collectors.

6 Ornithologists.

2 Taxidermists.

1 Hunter.

6 Unknown to the committee.
21 Total.

Some of these collectors should probably not receive permits
as their work is not in any way scientific. It is noteworthy that
but three persons of the twenty-one are members of the State
Academy.

The law under which the collectors’ permits are issued appears
to the committee to be faulty in that there is no centralized office

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 17

for this purpose, each county clerk having authority to issue a
permit. It is apparent, also, that no effort is made by the county
clerk to verify the certifiers of the qualifications of the applicant.
It would seem that any one having a letter signed by two men,
and who furnishes the required bond, can easily secure a permit.

The committee believe that the law might be changed in the
following particulars: That the permits be issued only by the
State Game Warden and that the applications be approved by the
State Academy of Science. By such a change the law of Illinois
would conform more closely to that of Indiana, in which state
the Commissioner of Game and Fisheries issues all permits.

This committee believes that the State Academy should con-
serve all of the scientific interests of the state and the protection
of the wild life is one of our most valuable assets. Therefore, it
does not appear at all out of place for the State Academy to
exercise an approving function in matters of this kind.

Should the State Academy deem it of enough importance, this
committee might be continued and empowered to obtain from
each county clerk a list of the permits issued for collecting pur-
poses. By such a canvas, exact statistics might be gathered con-
cerning the amount of abuse under the present method of issuing
permits, and at the same time much information would doubtless
be secured concerning the ornithological strength of the state.

A revision of Section 14 of the game laws, as suggested above,
is appended. Respectfully submitted,

FRANK C. BAKER, Chairman.
Frep L. CHARLES,
Isaac E. Hess.

Chicago, February 17, 1911.

GAME LAWS OF STATE OF ILLINOIS.
(As revised by committee.)
Page 14.

Sec. 14. Certificates may be granted by the State Game Com-
missioner to any properly accredited person of the age of eighteen
years and upward, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds,
their nests and eggs for strictly scientific purposes only. In order
to obtain such certificate the applicant for the same must present
to the State Game Commissioner written testimonials from two
well-known scientific men, certifying to the good character and
fitness of said applicant to be entrusted with such privilege; the

18 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

applicant, as well as the certifiers of the same, must be approved
by the Illinois Academy of Science; the applicant must pay to said
State Game Commissioner one dollar to defray the necessary
expenses attending the granting of any such certificates, and
must file with said State Game Commissioner a properly executed
bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, signed by two responsible
citizens of the State as sureties. This bond shall be forfeited to
the State and the certificate become void upon proof that the
holder of such certificate has killed any bird or taken the nest or
eggs of any bird for other than the purpose named in Sections 3
and 13 of this act, and shall be further subject for each offense
to the penalties provided therefor in Sections three (3) and
twelve (12) of this act.

Mr. Ira Meyers presented the following report of his committee,
the chairman, Mr. Charles, being absent on account of illness.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CO-OPERATION WITH EXISTING
NATURE-STUDY AGENCIES.
We recognize the following agencies whose co-operation is
desirable :
Teachers’ Associations—
State,
Sectional (6),
Country Teachers’ Association.
County Superintendents.
State Superintendents.
City and High School Superintendents.
Secondary School Conferences.
Conference on Nature-Study-Agriculture (U. of I.).
Normal Schools.
Farmers’ Institutes—
State, county, local.
Women’s Clubs.
Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers.
Chicago Academy of Sciences.
Audubon Society.
Humane Society.
Higher Institutions in Illinois (to give culture courses, pro-
fessional and extension work).
State Penal and Charitable Institutions.
Industrial Organizations.

WieabAI.

vere

FOURTH AN-NUAL MEETING. 19

Household Science.

Manual Training.

American Nature-Study Society.

N. E. A.

ees AAS. ;

Educational and Scientific Journals.

{llinois Federation for Rural Progress.

_ Co-operation to the end—

, 1. That nature-study be given more serious consideration in
teachers’ gatherings.

2. That it be given a definite place in the program and a definite
course of study in all elementary schools.

3. That nature-study values be more fully recognized in the
home.

4. That scientific research upon the problem of nature-study
teaching be stimulated.

5. That high school teachers of science be more generally inter-
ested to lend a helping hand in the elementary school.

6. That various organizations now working independently and
perhaps, in some cases, at cross purposes, be brought to-
gether for united effort.

7. That culture courses in nature-study or popular science be
introduced into colleges and universities.

8. That nature-study values be recognized in state penal and
charitable institutions.

9. That the attention of men of science be directed to the great
importance of fostering in the young, through successful
teaching, that native spirit of inquiry so essential to scien-
tific achievement.

10. That men of wealth be attracted to the benefits which would
result from the endowment of agencies for the promotion
of nature-study teaching and the nature-study movement.

a, ne

FREDERICK L. CHARLES, Chairman.
TRA MEYERS,
RutTH MARSHALL.

President Coulter, in announcing that the time had arrived for
the reading of stated papers, said:

“T want to call the attention of the Academy to the condition of
the program. You will recognize that there have been one or two
changes in connection with the preliminary announcement. These
changes I think have chiefly to do with the place of meeting. I

20 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

think I ought to explain why the Saturday afternoon meeting is
not to be held at the Field Museum. In communicating with
Director Skiff it was found that there would be no available room
for such a conference, and therefore it was found impossible to
hold a session there. It was through some misunderstanding that
the meeting was so announced. There will be an opportunity on
Saturday for personal visits, but this will be a personal matter
and not a matter for the Academy as such.

Mr. Farrington.—‘We regret very much that it is impossible
to hold the meeting in the Field Museum, but we certainly hope
that you will feel that this is a cordial invitation to visit the
museum, and if you will try to arrange for one o’clock Saturday
afternoon, we will have an hour together which we can spend in
a way that will accomplish more than if we go individually. We
sincerely hope that you will accept this invitation.”

The following papers were presented:

Post-glacial Life of Wilmette Bay, Glacial Lake, Chicago, by
Frank Collins Baker. (Illustrated. )

Structure of the Adult Cycad Stem, by C. J. Chamberlain.
(Illustrated. )

A Preliminary List of the Ants of Illinois, by Maurice Cole
Tanquary.

The Eastward Extension of the Sweetland Creek Shale in
Illinois, by J. A. Udden.

The meeting adjourned at twelve o'clock, noon.

AFTERNOON.
Botany Building, 2 p. m.

President Coulter called the meeting to order.

Mr. J. M. Webb, of Urbana, demonstrated the use of oxygen
in mine rescue work. An oxygen helmet was shown and the
method of its working was graphically explained.

Prof. A. A. Michelson of the University of Chicago, addressed
the Academy on “Metallic Colors in Birds and Insects.” The
stereopticon was used for the purpose of illustration and several
boxes of insects and birds showing metallic colors, procured by
Prof. Michelson in Brazil, were exhibited.

The following papers were presented:

The Mollusca of Piatt, Champaign and Vermilion Counties,
Illinois, by James Zetek. (Illustrated).

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 21

Oil Investigations in Illinois, by Raymond S. Blatchley. (Illus-
trated.)

Seasonal Succession in Old Forest Ponds, by W. C. Allee.
(Illustrated. )

The Occurrence of the Rare Alga, Gloeotenium, in Illinois,
by E. N. Transeau.

Present Condition of the State Museum of Natural History,
by Alja R. Crook.

Demonstration of the Movement of the Water in Leaves, by
Aaron Hodgman Cole. (lIllustrated.)

The meeting adjourned at five o'clock, p. m.

EVENING.

At eight o’clock, Professor S. A. Forbes called the meeting to
order in Mandel Hall, when the presidential address was delivered
by Prof. John M. Coulter.

Following the presidential address, a social hour was spent in
Hutchinson Hall.

SESSION OF SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 18.

MornIne.
Mandel Hall, 9:15 a. m.
Symposium on Radioactivity.

President Coulter in announcing the Symposium said that the
order of presentation would not be as shown on the printed pro-
gram, but would be such as to show the development of the situa-
tion. The addresses were accordingly delivered in the following
order:

1. Some of the Physical Properties of Radium, by Prof.
Henry Crew of the Northwestern University.

II. Radium from the Astronomical Point of View, by Prof.
Edwin B. Frost of the Yerkes Observatory.

III. Radiochemistry, by Prof. William A. Noyes of the State
University of Illinois.

IV. Radioactivity and Geological Phenomena, by Prof.
Thomas C. Chamberlin of the University of Chicago.

22 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

V. The Biological Effect of Radium, by Prof. William A.
Pusey of the University of Illinois.

Following the symposium Prof. Henry C. Cowles addressed the
Academy on the subject, “The Relation of the Soil to Plants.”

AFTERNOON.
Botany Building, 2:00 p. m.

The meeting was called to order by President Coulter.

Delayed committee reports were called for, the first from the
Committee on Assistance of the Academy to High Schools in
Science Teaching, was presented by the chairman, Cyril G.
Hopkins.

Mr. A. H. Conrad, in moving the adoption of the recommenda-
tions of the committee, said it was an admirable communication
and represented work as projected or could be done in the interest
of scientific education.

Mr. Caldwell moved an amendment to the recommendation,
raising the committee to five members and striking out the clause

excluding from membership the editorial committee. Seconded
by Mr. Forbes.

Mr. Hopkins.—‘‘The committee feels that it has performed the
functions laid upon it. It provides here for the appointment of
two committees; there was no thought at all that this committee
was to be extended. The committee thought the Academy would
endorse it, and there should be absolute freedom from the sus-
picion that this committee has anything to do with the endorse-
ment.”

Mr. Caldwell—‘‘According to the recommendations this com-
mittee is to be selected so that it will be made up of those people
who will know what will be advisable to present to the schools.
If this committee is made up of people who are informed, so that
they can stimulate the production of these things, they might be
able to produce some of these things themselves. It is merely a
committee and nothing else to date.”

Mr. Pricer—‘It seems to me that as long as there is only one
member on the committee who will produce a paper, and there
are four other members there who will pass upon it, he will be
Bare.

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 23

The question of the amendment involving the striking out of
the limitation on membership was now put and unanimously
carried.

The motion adopting the recommendations thus amended was
put to vote and carried.

The report as amended is as follows:

COMMITTEE ON ASSISTANCE OF THE ACADEMY TO HIGH SCHOOLS
IN SCIENCE TEACHING.

Your committee on aid to high schools was directed:

1. To discover whether the Academy may be of assistance to
the high schools of the state in the teaching of science and, if so,

2. To report at this meeting a plan of action.

First, it appears to the committee that there exists a wide-
spread and increasing demand upon the part of high school
principals, city superintendents, and the general public that high
school science be made more “practical” and less “‘theoretical’’
and “technical.” Science teachers are being pressed upon, espe-
cially in the biological sciences in the lower years of the high
school, to include in their courses material which was not in-
cluded in their own formal training, and which is not yet or-
ganized for high school teaching. It is believed that the Acade-
my may properly have a useful part in contributing to what
comes from this movement to modify the high school science
courses. It is also believed that something may be accomplished
through this undertaking in the way of enlisting more high
school teachers as interested and active members of the Academy ;
in short, that the general influence of the Academy in the inter-
est of popular science in the State of Illinois will be import-
antly extended thereby.

As a plan of action, your committee recommends:

1. That a committee of five be appointed to arrange for the
editorship and the publication of a series to be known as the
State Academy leaflets on high school science.

2. That this committee prepare a list of subjects and a gen-
eral plan for the treatment of these subjects, and invite mem-
bers of the Academy to prepare mss. for these leaflets, subject to
the editorial revision of the committee.

3. That this committee be authorized to make such arrange-
ment for the publication of this series as shall relieve the Acade-
my from financial responsibility in this connection, properly
safeguard the use of its name, and insure to the authors of such

24 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

leaflets a royalty of at least 10% on the sale of such leaflets,
and such compensation for editorial services rendered as the
committee may decide.

Second: Inasmuch as the demand for industrialism in
education has become widespread and is causing the addition of
many new courses in applied science to the curriculum of the
high schools and the readjustment of the established courses in
pure science; and,

In view of the fact that there is little data at the command
of educators which might enable them to reorganize the work
in science on correct lines without risk of serious mistakes
fraught with danger or disaster to both the pure and applied
sciences,—

Your committee recommends that the Academy appoint a com-
mittee of five members to investigate the practice of secondary
schools in:

1. The organization of the applied sciences.

2. The correlation of the pure and applied sciences.

3. The adjustment made in the pure sciences to meet local
conditions and satisfy the demand for practical courses.

It is further recommended that this committee prepare a re-
sume of their findings for report to the Academy at its next
meeting together with a more detailed report of its investiga-
tions for publication and circulation. This detailed report
should be published in convenient form for the use of school
officials and others who may wish information.

If the funds are available, it is recommended that the council
be authorized to provide for the necessary expense of corres-
pondence of the committee.

Cyrit G. Hopxins, Chairman.
Joun G. COULTER,
WorRALLO WHITNEY,

Joun F. Hayrorp,

W. S. STRODE.

The report of the committee on Ecological Survey was next
presented.

COMMITTEE ON ECOLOGICAL SURVEY.
To the Illinois Academy of Science:
Your committee on an ecological survey has merely to report

the progress of work on the ecology of the state by various more
or less definitely organized agencies now active in that field.

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 25

The State Laboratory of Natural History, acting in co-opera-
tion with the Forest Service of the United States Department of
Agriculture, has finished, during the past year, a forestry survey
of the state, and has published its report on “Forest Conditions
in Illinois” in the form of a bulletin of the State Laboratory, now
available for general distribution.

The Laboratory has also been continuously at work upon the
Illinois River, engaged especially in the study of the fishes and
the plankton, with main reference to an analysis of changes in
the physical and biological system of the stream and its depen-
dent waters due to the opening of the Chicago Drainage Canal.
We have also undertaken to bring the Illinois River into compari-
son with the Mississippi, and even with the Ohio, by means of
plankton collections, continuous for all practical purposes, made
lengthwise of these great rivers. Our collections were made
over distances aggregating 1,000 miles for the Illinois, 1,200 miles
for the Mississippi, and forty-six miles for the Ohio.

C. C. Adams, representing the State Laboratory, and E. N.
Transeau and T. L. Hankinson, of the Eastern Illinois Normal
School, spent some weeks of the summer vacation together in
the neighborhood of Charleston, in Coles County, making a sys-
tematic study, from the ecological standpoint, of the plant and
animal life of certain areas chosen as representative remnants
of the original prairies and forests of the state. This work was
undertaken primarily as an example of the objects, methods, and
results of local ecological work, and had also a special value as a
test of the possibility of reconstructing the primitive ecology of
Illinois by a careful selection and expert study of the remaining
tracts of native prairie and forest in different parts of the
state. The results of the reconnaissance encourage us to believe
that, although this task is becoming yearly more difficult, it can
still be accomplished, and we hope to be able to set on foot dur-
ing the coming year operations to this end in various parts of
the state. These Charleston studies have resulted in two papers
by Mr. Adams, presented at this meeting of the Academy, and a
full report will be published in the bulletin of the State Labo-
ratory.

What amounts to co-operative work on the ecology of the
Chicago area, although done by various individuals independently,
has been far advanced by the personal studies of V. E. Shelford
and Frank C. Baker, and by two Chicago University men, one

26 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

of whom, Mr. Sherff, is studying the plant ecology of the Skokie
region, while the other, Mr. Geo. D. Fuller, is making transpi-
ration studies in the Chicago area. Mr. Shelford has completed
his elaborate work on the animal ecology of that entire area,
and his paper is presently to be published by the Chicago Geo-
graphical Society. Mr. Baker has lately published a monograph
of the Limnaeidae of North America, which contains a large
amount of ecological material applying to that family of mol-
lusks in Illinois. Mr. Transeau has continued his studies on the
Algae of the Charleston region, and Mr. Hankinson has con-
tinued work on the aquatic animals of this region, with special
attention to the nesting habitats of fishes.

The principal publications on the ecology of the state issued
since our last meeting, are six bulletins of the State Laboratory
of Natural History containing 441 pages of text and seventy
half-tone plates. The topics are the ecology of the Skokie Marsh
area, by Mr. Baker; a study of the mammals of Champaign
county, by F. E. Wood; two papers on the shrew-mole in IlIli-
nois, by Mr. Wood and J. A. West; the vegetation of the inland
sand deposits of Illinois, by H. A. Gleason; a report on forest
conditions in Illinois, by R. Clifford Hall and O. D. Ingall, and
two papers on our biological investigations on the Illinois river,
by S. A. Forbes.

Respectfully submitted,
S. A. Forpes, Chairman.
V. E. SHELFORD.
H. A. GLEASON.
E. N. TRANSEAU.
C. C. ApaAms.
FRANK C. BAKER.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE TO INFLUENCE LEGISLATION IN FAVOR
OF INCREASED PROTECTION FOR GAME BIRDS.

Dr. S. A. ForBEs.

Unfortunately we have nothing definite to report. We faced
one State Legislature, but with no definite success. One reason
is that hunters are not, as is popularly supposed, the limiting
factor. It is the increasing agriculture, making constant inroads
on the available nesting places. It seems that we cannot culti-
vate or rear any of these birds under the present cultural condi-

re“ ory

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 27
tions. Consequently, the work of this committee seems to us
rather a hopeless task.

The chairman of the committee recommended that this com-
mittee be discharged. The report was accepted and the commit-
tee discharged.

Mr. Forbes—‘Two years ago we took up the matter of the
publication of the transactions of the Academy by the State. We
consulted a number of the representatives in Springfield and
under the conditions which prevailed at that time, we deemed it
unwise to bring this bill forward. We felt practically certain
that this bill would not be allowed, and we did not wish to sub-
ject the Academy to the experience of having its first request
refused.

“So far as we can now see, conditions are more favorable, and
we have drawn up another bill based on that which was passed
in Indiana, and I have placed this bill in the hands of our sec-
retary.”

The action of Mr. Forbes and the secretary was unanimously
approved.

Report of the Nomination Committee:

President—W. A. Noyes, of Urbana.

Vice President—J. C. Udden, of Rock Island.

Secretary—F. C. Baker, of Chicago.

Treasurer—J. C. Hessler, of Decatur.

For member of the publication committee—A. R. Crook, of
Springfield. é

For the membership committee—H. C. Cowles, of Chicago;
Marion Weller, of DeKalb; E. N. Transeau, of Charleston; C. C.
Adams, of Urbana; J. W. Read, of Jacksonville.

The report of the committee on nominations was adopted.

The secretary reported that there was but one life member,
Dr. V. A. Latham, and suggested that the number of these mem-
berships might be largely increased.

The reading of papers was now resumed.

The Channahon and Essex Limestones in Illinois, by T. E.
Savage.

Ecological Studies of the Prairie and Forest in Illinois, by
Charles C. Adams.

A Handbook for Students of Animal Ecology, by Charles C.
Adams.

28 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Reproduction by Layering in the Balsam Fir and other Coni-
fers, by William S. Cooper. (Illustrated. )

Evaporation and Plant Succession on the Sand Dunes of Lake
Michigan, by George D. Fuller. (Illustrated.)

An American Lepidostrobus, by John M. Coulter and W. J. G.
Land. (Illustrated.)

On motion, duly seconded, the 1911 meeting of the Illinois
Academy of Science was adjourned.

The President’s Address
THE PROBLEMS OF PLANT-BREEDING.

By Joun M. Coutter.

A conspicuous function of such an organization as the State
Academy should be the diffusion of knowledge in reference to
the subjects called sciences. It is a notable fact that there are as
yet no adequate means for this purpose. The public is left to
the newspapers and the magazines, and through these channels it
is anything but scientific knowledge that is diffused. It is not my
purpose to suggest a remedy. We are all too much engaged with
our own immediate interests to give this problem the attention it
would demand. I have mentioned it simply as an excuse for my
subject.

Perhaps no part of the field I represent has had more misin-
formation diffused concerning it than plant-breeding, for it deals
very directly with important human interests, and the public has
been like an unwary fish in the presence of some flashy arti-
ficial bait. Very probably I would not present this topic to a
group of botanists, for they are familiar with it; but my mission
here is to represent the botanists before other groups of scien-
tific men, and before the public so far as it will give us a hear-
ing.

The science of botany has had a remarkable history. Begin-
ning with the investigation of plants for what were called their
medicinal virtues, it developed with various progressions and
retrogressions, until the botanist came to be regarded as about
the most useless intelligent member of society. His chief con-
cern seemed to remove him so far from the general human in-
terest, that he was regarded as a harmless crank, at best a man
only of ephemeral interest. No such opinion could have devel-

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 29

oped unless there had been some basis for it. It is entirely for-
eign to my purpose to discover this basis; the situation is sim-
ply to be recognized as a fact.

The most unfortunate result of this public estimation of bot-
any was that it lingered much longer than it was deserved; and
consequently, when the other so-called sciences had won public
esteem either through their services or their appeal to the won-
der-instinct, Botany lagged behind in public recognition, and in
most educational institutions was the latest born into the family
of the sciences. But finally it also began to render signal service
and to appeal to the wonder-instinct.

Without attempting to disparage the wonderful recent devel-
opment of several phases of botanical activity, phases that have
become so developed as to endanger the federal interests of bot-
any as a unified science, there is certainly no one that is attract-
ing more attention at this time, both in its scientific and in its
practical aspects, than plant-breeding.

It is not my purpose to recite the notable achievements that are
to be grouped under this title, for most of them have been widely
published, and are the common property of the scientifically in-
telligent. Nor is it my intention to make any contribution to the
rapidly accumulating store of knowledge in reference to this
aspect of plants, for I am simply an intensely interested spectator,
sitting on the bleachers but not getting into the game. It is the
editor’s point of view rather than the investigator’s that I can
bring to bear upon the subject. Just because so much has been
done recently, and because so much of it has been exploited with
wide variation in accuracy, I have thought it might be useful to
analyze the situation briefly, and to develop some facility in dis-
tinguishing between the probable and the improbable. In this
country of irresponsible and irrepressible newspapers, magazines,
and public addresses, one needs to accumulate a workable collec-
tion of antidotes.

The practical aspect of plant-breeding, in a certain sense, is as
old as the culture of plants. Long experience in the handling of
plants slowly developed a kind of knowledge that became formu-
lated in empirical practice. The general purpose was to improve
old forms and to develop new ones. The improvements were
numerous, and apparently were possible in any direction deter-
mined by the need or taste of man. It was learned that improve-
ments must be kept improved; in other words, that they would

30 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

not remain constant if left freely to nature. This was a labori-
ous, but profitable method of plant-breeding, the method known
in general as mass culture. The most desirable individuals were
selected and guarded through a series of generations, until the
desired character was built up sufficiently for commercial pur-
poses. This is the oldest and still the most widely used method
of practical plant-breeding, begun by unconscious selection and
merging into intelligent selection. Its limitations are the time and
continuous care involved, the lack of constancy in inexperienced
hands, and the failure to produce new and constant forms.

In these days of the rapid evolution of the technique of plant-
breeding, there is danger of regarding the old method as out-
grown and therefore to be discarded. So far as we can see, it will
never be outgrown; for general improvement will always be
profitable. The newer methods are concerned chiefly with ex-
tending the range of our power to secure new forms for im-
provement.

During all this period of plant improvement by mass culture
and continuous selection, the so-called science of Botany was cul-
tivating a singularly distant field. In short, Botany was not
practical, and plant-breeding was not scientific. Therefore, bot-
anists on the one hand, and agriculturists, horticulturists, floricul-
turists, etc., on the other hand, were as distinct from one another
as if they had nothing in common. It so happened that the
botanists were dealing with very superficial problems in a scien-
tific way, and that the plant-breeders were dealing with the most
fundamental problems in an empirical way.

As in any other practice, plant-breeding developed now and
then a very successful practitioner, who made distinct contribu-
tions in the form of important results; but this represented no
more of an advance than does the fact that one cook can surpass
another cook in the art of making bread. This caution is neces-
sary, for the results obtained empirically by skillful plant-breed-
ers are too often ascribed to unusual scientific insight. The re-
sult is important enough without reading into it what it does not
contain.

What may be called the. second period of plant-breeding was
ushered in when organic evolution began to be put upon an ex-
perimental basis. Plant-breeding had been practical, but with no
scientific basis; now a new plant-breeding was established, which
was scientific, and with no practical motive. The new motive

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 31

was the accumulation of data bearing upon the problems of in-
heritance and the origin of species, probably to be regarded as
the most important and most difficult of the biological problems.
From the formulation of Mendel’s law, to its resurrection in con-
nection with DeVries’ mutation theory, a decade ago, and on to
the present day, the work of scientific plant-breeding has in-
creased in intensity. It would be bewildering even to outline the
results, and to do so would not aid the purpose of this address
in any material way.

The general result is what might have been expected. We have
been plunged into such a maze of facts bearing upon inheritance
and the origin of new forms, that the non-partisan is at a loss
what to believe. Many of the investigators are so competent that
we cannot doubt their data; it is only when they begin to inter-
pret them that we grow cautious. In such a situation, the judi-
cial equipoise can be maintained by several considerations. Such
vast and difficult problems as inheritance and the origin of new
forms can be solved only by an amount of experimental work
that makes the work accomplished seem almost as nothing. It is
natural, therefore, that the few points of attack should reveal
confusing results. It is also natural for each investigator to
extend his own interpretation far beyond the facts upon which it
is based. All the facts cited may be true, and all the inferences,
when restricted to their facts, may be true also; but the time is
yet far distant when we can weave them all together, and many
more besides, into a common web, and get some adequate impres-
sion of the scheme as a whole. And still, the game is worth all
the effort, and those of us who are merely spectators must cheer
on the combatants, even to the point of seeming to be partisans.

Out of the maze of data and interpretations, however, certain
conceptions are assuming a more definite form. The most sig-
nificant of these may be stated briefly. The advocates of Mende-
lism seem to have explained away the majority of cases, among
plants at least, that appeared to be contradictory, and in so doing
have brought out with much more definiteness that elusive con-
ception called the “unit-character.”” It is much more evident now
than it was a few years ago that the phrase “unit-character”
really stands for something that can be manipulated. It is a situ-
ation that needs much fuller analysis than it has received, espe-
cially from the standpoint of physiological chemistry; and in all
probability it must be defined presently in terms of chemistry
rather than in terms of external morphology.

32 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Another significant and clarified conception is that of Johann-
sen’s genotypes. In brief, it is directly opposed to the idea of
gradual change through selection, each genotype being permanent
and unchangeable. Any selection, therefore, in connection with a
single genotype, is ineffective; and when selection has been ef-
fective, it means that work was begun with a mixture of geno-
types. The practical application of this conception is obvious,
and will be referred to later.

What seems to be another very significant result of the scien-
tific work of the last few years, is that obtained by Shull in his
work on corn, showing that physiological vigor and yield are de-
pendent upon the degree of hybridity. This is related directly
to the genotype situation, and is of very large practical import.
ance.

The third phase of plant-breeding can hardly be called a third
period, for it is practically synchronous with the second. As a
by-product of the work on inheritance and evolution, some of the
scientific results have been applied to practical plant-breeding;
and the result has been an expansion of its possibilties that may
well be called marvelous. In short, practical plant-breeding is
now on a scientific basis; and botany has at last attacked the
fundamental problems and may be of some practical service, for
it includes plant-breeding.

Perhaps it may not be out of place to remind you of the large
importance of this combination, for it underlies the welfare of
human society. It is a combination of scientific research and its
practical application in maintaining an ever-increasing food sup-
ply over ever-extending areas. If it is the function of medical
research and its aplication to provide for the welfare of a cer-
tain per cent of the population, it is one of the functions of
botanical research and its application to provide for the welfare
of the whole population. Nor is scientific plant-breeding, in its
restricted definition, the sole contributor to this end, but bound
up with it are physiology, ecology, soil investigations, pathology,
and the whole round of interests that touch living plants. In short,
there is now possible, for the first time, such a co-ordination of
scientific results towards a definite end as to make rapid progress
possible.

It may be of service to indicate, by a few illustrations, some of
the results of the combination of science and practical plant
breeding. One of the first applications to be developed was the

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 33

production of hybrids. This term is used without reference to
the degree of relationship between the crossed individuals. They
may be merely different strains or they may be different species;
in any event, the result is a hybrid progeny. The original pur-
pose of hybridizing was simply-to multiply new forms and thus
to increase the range of selection. It was largely chance work,
and plants were crossed indiscriminately. So far as practical
plant-breeding was concerned, it simply increased the chances for
desirable results. So far as scientific plant-breeding was con-
cerned, it accumulated a large mass of facts in reference to the
possible range of crossing, the relative facility with which various
plants can be crossed, the general features of hybrids, etc.

With increasing practical experience, and with a certain amount
of co-ordination of the scientific results, hybridizing gradually
became more definite and approximately precise. It was in devel-
oping this technique that plant-breeding was said to have passed
from chance to certainty. This claim sometimes took the more
picturesque form of statement, especially in connection with
floriculture, that one could order any kind of plant and the order
could be filled within a year. The technique of ordinary hybri-
dizing probably has been exemplified most fully in the opera-
tions of Burbank.

The definiteness of highly developed hybridizing consists in the
purposeful combination oi desirable characters. For example,
the size of the Lawton blackberry was combined with the whitish
color of a small native blackberry. The purpose and the process
were entirely definite, and the result was assured. That the unin-
formed may not be led astray, it should be said that the resultant
hybrids exhibit every combination of parental characters, and it
is only when these hybrids are produced by the thousands that
there will be any assurance that some one of them will possess
the desired combination. In this case, chance is reduced to cer-
tainty simply by multiplying the chances. A breeder handling
a few hundred plants may get his result, or he may not; but one
handling thousands of plants may be sure of it. This multipli-
cation of chances to such an extent that the result is certain is
probably the principal reason for such success as Burbank has
had. It is needless to say that any control of combinations has
not come within the range even of scientific imagination.

It ought to be understood, however, that in most cases hybri-
dization is a process that may put what may be called the finish-

34 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ing touches upon forms already well-developed. It does not pro-
duce new forms, but combines old ones. The combination may be
very desirable, but the range is restricted, because the process is
always working over the old material.

There is a still more fundamental limitation to the usefulness
of hybridization as a permanently useful process. Mendel’s law
has shown that the progeny of hybrids split up in certain simple
and definite ratios. In many cases, one half of these plants of
the second generation are pure parent forms, and only one half
retain the hybrid combination, and so on for each succeeding
generation. This means that approximately only one half of the
progeny of hybrids come true, a percentage of loss that does not
commend the process as one of permanent value. However, there
are two facts that save the situation and may save the process as
a useful adjunct to more important ones. A few hybrids have
been developed that do not seem to split; this is notably true of
Burbank’s famous triple hybrid, the Shasta daisy. If it is true
that some hybrids are not Mendelian, such can be made perma-
nently useful.

The other saving fact is much more important. Very many
cultivated plants are not propagated by seeds, and therefore their
hybrids are not subject to the Mendelian splitting. Propagation
by bulbs, tubers, slips, grafting, etc., includes such a wide range
of plants that the sphere of useful hybridization is extensive
enough. It will be noted that most of Burbank’s combinations
are plants that fall within this category. It touches flowers and
fruits, chiefly; that is floriculture and horticulture; but not the
far more important field of agriculture, where lie the fundamental
problems of practical plant-breeding.

Within the last three or four years, a remarkable field of
hybridization has been opened by the researches of Winkler and
Baur. Ordinary hybridization is effected by the sexual method,
which means actual fusion of parental cells, and the development
of the hybrid from a single fusion cell. All of the behavior of
hybrids noted above is based upon this method.

The new field introduces the production of hybrids by grafting.
The influence of the stock on the scion is as old a question as is
the process of grafting, but the recent researches referred to
have uncovered the situation. If a hybrid is to be defined as the
result of the fusion of cells from dissimilar parents, then it
remains to be proved whether graft hybrids are true hybrids.
But if it is to be defined as a form exhibiting a combination of

ae eo re ee

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 35

the characters of dissimilar parents, then grafting often results in
hybrids. Those who object to this use of the word hybrid call
these combination forms chimeras.

The subject is too new, and the facts are as yet too perplexing,
to give to the situation its biological meaning or its possible
practical application. One striking feature, however, may be
mentioned as an illustration. In some of these graft hybrids, or
chimeras, the tissues of the two parent forms remain entirely
distinct, and are related to each other concentrically. For ex-
ample, all of the interior of the body of a chimera may be dis-
tinctly that of one parent, and all of the peripheral structures
that of the other parent. In other words, such a chimera con-
sists of one parent ensheathed by the other. The superficial
aspect, therefore, is that of the parent form furnishing the mantle ;
and since the sexual cells are derived from the cells of the mantle,
sexual propagation from such a hybrid results in progeny consist-
ing of pure forms, through and through, of the peripheral parent.
This carries the recognition of hybrids out of the reach of
superficial appearance or even of seedling production. Such a
combination would stand the test of constancy applied as final
in determining a pure race. It can hardly be doubted that we
have been introduced not only to a fertile field for the investiga-
tion of problems of heredity, but also to great practical possibili-
ties in the manipulation of plants.

A more recent application of scientific results to practical plant-
breeding, and one that has extended its possibilities enormously,
is the replacement of mass culture, with its continuous selection,
by pedigree culture. This method is directly related to DeVries’
mutation theory, and has been developed most notably by Nilsson
of Sweden. Not only is it really scientific plant breeding, but it in-
cludes our fundamental agricultural crops. Nilsson found that his
oat and barley crops, grown from pure seed in the market sense,
which means seed developed by the old method of mass culture,
were very complex mixtures. That is, there was such an amount
of variation among the individuals that they seemed to represent
many distinct races. Among these individuals, he found repre-
sented all the characters he had been trying to build up by the
old method of continuous selection, and many more besides.
Accordingly the desirable individuals were selected and pedigree
culture was established. The selection of a single individual
resulted in a progeny that usually came true. The laborious

36 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

method of continuous selection and building up inconstant forms
seems no longer necessary, for the desirable forms already exist,
and are constant; and they do not need to be built up, but only
discovered and propagated. There is no doubt as to the enormous
success of Nilsson with the oats and barley of Sweden; but it
is too early to predict the applicability of this beautifully simple
method to all other crops.

No citizen of the United States, and especially of Illinois, could
fail to raise the question of corn-breeding, perhaps the most
difficult of all plant-breeding operations. Does pedigree culture
apply here, and if so, has it achieved any important results?
The answers to these questions are well-known to plant breeders,
but perhaps it may not be inappropriate, in a meeting of the
Illinois Academy, to call attention to the extremely important
work that has been done in this state in connection with our
greatest crop. It was one of our own colleagues, Professor
Hopkins, who nearly fifteen years ago proved the individuality
of ears of corn, both in physical features and in chemical compo-
sition. That is, all the kernels of an ear have the same character-
istics provided, of course, cross-pollination has been excluded, and
these characteristics are constant. This is certainly individual
selection in the strictest sense. Moreover, the range of selection
is remarkably wide, for corn is an exceedingly variable plant,
probably much more so than are the other cereals. This breeding
of corn on the principle of single ear selection, through the wise
organization of interest by Hopkins, has resulted in a great
increase in the total yield of the state. It ought to be recognized,
however, that while selection is made easier than in other cereals,
on account of the great number of kernels upon a single ear,
it is more difficult to obtain the desired result because of the
open and prolonged pollination. With freely exposed “silk,”
widely carried pollen, and a pollinating period of four or five
days for a single ear, it is to be expected that some of the kernels
will be hybrids, and these hybrids usually cannot be recognized
unless contrasting colors are involved. This means more or less
continuous selection in subsequent generations to eliminate the
hybrids. It is an interesting obstacle to work against, to know
definitely the pedigree on the female side, and to know only
vaguely the pedigree on the male side.

Still more recent work in the breeding of corn has developed
some new situations. The fact has been emphasized that a field

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 37

of corn is perhaps the most extensive and complex mixture of
elementary forms exhibited by any cereal crop. It is also found
that selection down to a single elementary form, followed by rigid
pedigree cultures through self-pollination, results in deterioration
to a fixed level, which probably represents the normal level of
that form. The explanation seems to lie in the fact that hybrids
from nearly related parents are more vigorous than either parent;
and therefore an isolated form that does not enter into a hybrid
deteriorates to a certain point. This work suggests, therefore,
that while pedigree culture is essential to isolate elementary forms,
to obtain what the bacteriologist would call pure cultures, so that
they may be recognized and manipulated with intelligence, the
ideal second step would be approved combinations of elementary
forms, to obtain the increased vigor of a hybrid. In other words,
it is first isolation, which means individual selection and pedigree
culture, and second recombination.

This local illustration from our own dominant crop indicates
that the method of individual selection, or pedigree culture, is
sound in principle, but that its application to any particular crop
is a special problem, involving a special technique.

An illustration or two of the possibilities of pedigree culture
may be of interest. The problem of resistance is one of the most
important in connection with plant-breeding. For example, it is
most desirable to secure resistance to such things as disease and
drought, and individual selection has suggested a method of
attack.

The original method of combatting the destructive diseases of
culture plants was to determine the parasitic form inducing the
disease, learn its life history, and discover some means of killing
it or of preventing its development. The incidental result of this
method has been a gain to science in a greatly increased knowl-
edge of the life histories of a most interesting group of organisms.
It can hardly be claimed that there has been any gain of equal
value to practical plant-breeders. The introduction of individual
selection suggested a new method. It was observed that after
the most destructive attack of a given disease, certain individuals
would remain unattacked; and it was inferred that one of the
characters of such individuals was immunity to this disease.
Pedigree culture should perpetuate this character and establish
an immune race. A certain measure of success has followed the
experimental work undertaken to demonstrate the possibilities,

38 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

but new situations have developed that lead to other complications.
For example, it is discovered that an immune race growing on
one area may not be immune when grown upon another area; also
that an immune race may not always be immune on the same
area. This probably means that the tone of the plant is not the
same under all conditions, and that as this varies the power of
resistance varies. In this way investigations lead back to the
physiology of the plant that is to be guarded against attack. As
is so often said in these days, we must shift our attention a little
from the disease-producing organism to the physiology of the
patient, both normal and pathological.

The original method of combatting drought was to irrigate in
regions of perennial drought, and to take the chances in regions
of possible drought. Pedigree culture suggested the possibility
of discovering drought-resisting races. A case in point is the
recently discovered wild original of the wheat in Palestine. This
plant is certainly more resistant to drought than are any of our
strains of wheat, which have probably been derived from it
through many centuries of culture. It would seem easier to
select a race already hardy, than to induce a pampered race to
become hardy. Aaronsohn, therefore, in his Palestine experiment
station, proposes to propagate this hardy race and distribute it.
The interest of our country lies in the fact that such a wheat
would not only mean a surer crop in the present wheat areas,
with their possible drought, but would also enormously extend
the wheat area into regions of well-nigh perennial drought. A
vision such as this is most attractive, for it deals with extremely
important facts, with values of the highest order to the general
welfare of the country. But it must be remembered that we are
not cultivating wheat for its hardiness, and the first question to
ask is as to the quality of the grain that this hardy plant produces.
It certainly must be improved before it can replace the strains
we have learned to depend upon, in spite of their sensitiveness to
the accident of drought and their restricted range. This means
long and patient and scientific cultural experiments, such as are
being conducted by Buffum in Dakota, in the attempt to secure
a combination of hardiness to drought, which we desire, and
quality of grain, which we possess. I see no reason why the
vision should not be realized, but you need not invest in arid
land for immediate use as wheat fields.

And now within two or three years there has come a race of

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 39

corn from China that is peculiar in its drought-resisting structure.
If we know anything about the wild ancestry of corn, this Chinese
race has arisen from American stock; and since the Chinese
records show that it was in cultivation at a time preceding the
“discovery of America” that we celebrate, it lies outside the field
of a botanist to explain the method of its arrival in China. In
any event, its peculiarities are very striking, emphasizing the
divergent evolutionary results that may be obtained by the
geographical isolation of a single strain or of a few elementary
forms. The drought-resistant structure developed is of such an
order that it would not only insure corn crops against the occa-
sional untimely drought, but also would present the possibility of
extending the corn area into drier regions.

But this again is only the vision of a possibility that lures the
plant breeder on to investigation. As in the case of the Pales-
tinian wheat, we are not breeding corn for drought resistance
alone, and it will take many plant-generations of the highest type
of scientific plant-breeding to determine whether we can combine
this drought-resistant structure with the high grade quality and
yield we have obtained already in our cultures.

In presenting these fleeting glimpses of the problems and the
accomplishment of plant-breeding, I have intended to emphasize
not only its fundamental importance to both biological science and
agricultural practice, but also the inextricable entanglement of the
two. Any result of scientific plant-breeding, representing as it
must additional knowledge of the processes of evolution and of
heredity, may become of practical service; and any result of
practical plant-breeding, involving as it does extensive experi-
ments with plants, may prove to be of great scientific importance.
They are mutually stimulating, and both are necessary to the most
rapid development of knowledge.

It is the proper balance betwecn the two that must be main-
tained. The physical needs of man, great as they may be, must
never obscure the intellectual needs of man, especially as the
trained intellect is the speediest agent in meeting physical need.
On the other hand, the intellectual needs of man, noble as they
may be, must never lose sight of the fact that the speediest results
are obtained by the enormous increase of experimental work
under the pressure of physical necessity.

1

Symposium on Radioactivity

ae

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 43

I. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIUM.
By Henry Crew,
Northwestern University, Evanston.

When the President of this Academy invited me, or rather
commanded me—for an invitation implies the opportunity of
sending one’s regrets, and this opportunity I did not have—I say,
when the President of this Academy commanded me to say some-
thing concerning the physical properties of radium, he was
courteous enough and clever enough to add that no special knowl-
edge of the subject was needed for participation in this sympo-
sium; and said that the smaller the amount of one’s first-hand
information, the better prepared he would be to give the desired
“editorial point of view.” So that explains why I am here
instead of Professor McCoy or Professor Millikan, or some other
man who has furnished real contributions to knowledge on this
subject, and who has thereby acquired that splendid perspective
in science which is obtained only from one’s own individual re-
search, a fact with which no one here is better acquainted than
our distinguished president.

If any one ever dreamed of any sharp boundary between the
various physical sciences, the rise of physical chemistry, the more
recent developments of dynamical geology and astro-physics. the
entire history of radio-activity, and the award of the Nobel prize
in chemistry to the Professor of Physics at the University of
Manchester, must certainly have dispelled the illusion. At the
Same time, there is a general and valid distinction between those
properties which we call physical and those which we denote as
chemical. This distinction rests upon the definition of physics
as the science which deals with three groups of “over-individual
objects,” namely, ether, electrons and matter, except in so far
as changes of composition are involved. I shall try to confine
myself, therefore, to such properties of radium as may be called
“physical,” in this narrow sense of the term.

If the discovery of a new substance were reported today, some
of the most fundamental questions which might be asked con-
cerning its physical properties are:

(i) Has it weight and inertia, and do these bear to one another
the same constant proportion as in ordinary matter?

4d ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

(ii) Does it exhibit elasticity of both bulk and shape? Or
does it exhibit only one of these?

(iii) Is it, like ordinary matter, a vehicle of energy; and how
is its radiant energy distributed?

(iv) How does it behave as regards heat conduction?

(v) What are its electrical properties?

(vi) What are its magnetic properties?

(vii) What are its optical properties?

(viii) Has it a characteristic spectrum?

Instead of attempting the impossible by considering all these
various questions seriatim, many of which, in the case of radium,
have not been answered at all, I shall ask you to consider with
me, first, those three properties which serve to define a radio-
active substance and which are perhaps quite as fundamental
as any, and later, to consider some three or four properties which
are of interest, not so much because they surprise us, as because
they are the fundamental phenomena of radio-activity, the phe-
nomena upon which Rutherford has established his disintegration
theory.

DEFINITION OF RADIO-ACTIVITY.

The three defining properties which apply not only to the four
radio-active elements, but also to their various products, are:

(1) The ability to blacken a photographic plate in the dark.

(11) The ability to produce phosphorescence and fluorescence
in any appropriate body placed near the radio-active substance.

(111) The ability to transform our most important insulators
of electricity—gases—into conductors of electricity.

The first of these properties is so familiar as to need no illus-
tration. The second is simply and clearly shown by the spinthari-
scope of Sir William Crookes.

The third of these defining properties is perhaps the most
simply demonstrated in a manner suggested by Soddy. This silk
tassel is really nothing more than a multiple electroscope, and as
such is at least as early as the time of Benjamin Franklin. You
observe that in ordinary air it remains charged for a long time;
during an interval of one minute the amount of discharge is not
perceptible.

When, however, a small bit of radium—certainly not as much
as a 1/10 milligram—is brought underneath the tassel, you
observe that it at once begins to collapse—just as if it were sud-
denly immersed in a conducting medium.

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 45

Passing now to some of the properties of radium other than
those which are employed to define it, let us consider first its
spectrum.

SPECTRUM OF RADIUM.

It was on the day after Christmas, 1898, that Demarcay*
found in the spectrum of a few milligrams of very pure radium
chloride, submitted to him by the Curies, a strange line, of wave
length 3814.8 Angstrom units, a line which he was unable to
find in the spectrum of any other substance. Later measures by
Demarcay disclosed some ten or fifteen lines which he considered
characteristic of radium.

But it was not until a year later that Runge, working with
larger dispersion and higher accuracy, banished the last doubt
as to the elemental character of radium.

A few weeks ago, at Minneapolis, Professor Minot defined
science as “knowledge which has acquired impersonal validity.”
Now while everyone entertained the highest regard for Demar-
cay’s work, yet I believe all felt that this independent determina-
tion of Runge’ was just what was needed to give the result
“impersonal validity.”

Still later Runge and Precht? mapped no less than 40 lines
in the spark spectrum of radium-bromide, and showed that it is
a strict analogue of the spectrum of the alkaline earths, mag-
nesium, calcium; strontium and barium.

The strong blue radium line at 4826. is, for instance, the
analogue of one of the best known of all spectral lines, Fraun-
hofer’s g, Ca 4226.; while the radium pair {$82! constitute the
analogue of Fraunhofer’s H and K.

So strongly did chemists feel that the proper test for an ele-
ment is the discovery of a characteristic spectrum that it was
decided at the Paris Congress of Chemists in 1900 that no element
should receive a name until its spectrum had been mapped.

SELF-LUMINOSITY OF RADIUM.

But radium emits other light than that of its spark spectrum.
Even in its purest state, a radium salt is self-luminous in the dark.
By placing a small particle of radium at the slit of a quartz
spectograph and leaving it there for several days, Sir William
and Lady Huggins® succeeded in obtaining the photograph of the

*Demarcay, C. R. 127, 1218 (1898).

1Runge; nn. der Physik., 2, 742 (1900).

2Runge and Precht; Ann. der Physik, 12, 407 (1903).
—— Astrop. Jour. 18, 395 (1903), and 23, 153 (1906).

46 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

spectrum of this faint light, which you now see upon the screen.

As you observe it is practically identical with the banded spec-
trum of nitrogen as seen about the negative pole, the cathode of a
vacuum tube.

The natural inference, that this spectrum is due to the cathode.
that is, to the 8 rays which radium emits, has been disproved ;
not only so, but it has been shown that when radium is placed in
an atmosphere of hydrogen it does not yield the hydrogen spec-
trum, but continues to give that of nitrogen.

Indeed, the origin of this nitrogen spectrum is, so far as the
speaker is aware, an unsolved problem. It is a spectrum of very
considerable interest, as pointed out by Sir William Huggins,
because it is the only known case in which the ultraviolet lines
of a gas have been obtained without the use of an electric
discharge.

Dr. Gordon Fulcher of the University of Wisconsin is now
preparing to examine the effect of bombarding a fine capillary
jet of air with a stream of canal rays. It will be interesting to
learn whether he obtains, in this manner, the same luminosity as
that produced by radium in the air immediately surrounding it.
If he does, it would seem at least probable that this nitrogen
spectrum is due, not to the B but the a rays of radium.

SPECTRUM OF RADIUM EMANATION.

But radium has many ways of affecting the “outside world.”
Beside its well known a, 8, and y radiation, its arc, spark and
flame spectra, and its self-luminosity, any one of which is suffi-
cient to confer distinction upon an element, it gives off a heavy
gas which Rutherford first called an emanation—and which is
transported through the surrounding air, ionizes the air, and
finally disintegrates into a solid, called the active deposit, at such
a rate that in four days the activity of the gas has diminished to
one-half. Rutherford and Royds* have taken great pains in pre-
paring a spectrum-tube of very pure radium-emanation, and they
find that the heavy inert gas has a characteristic bright line
spectrum of its own, quite different from that of radium and
quite similar to that of Helium, Neon, Argon and Krypton.

In 1903 Ramsay and Soddy went one step further; they pre-
pared a spectrum tube, filled it with radium emanation, condensed
it in a side tube in liquid-air so as to avoid getting any helium

‘Rutherford and Royds Phil. Mag. 16, 313 (1908).

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 42

with it; and in this manner succeeded in preparing a tube which
showed no trace of helium when traversed by a spark discharge.
But on allowing this tube to stand for several days, distinct evi-
dence of helium appeared. The well known D, line appeared,
followed by other less conspicuous lines. Later Dr. Giesel was
able to photograph this spectrum which is now shown on the
screen. The helium and hydrogen spectra are given on the out-
side for comparison. Note that D,, which is very bright in the
visual spectrum, is scarcely seen in the photographic spectrum;
also that H@ and Hy are present, probably in consequence of
moisture.

It had been already noted by Ramsay that there was evidence
of a mineralogical nature for thinking that helium might be a
product of uranium and radium; but I believe it is generally
conceded that the evidence of Ramsay’s spectrum-tube and the
photographs of Giesel first furnished the “impersonal validity”
required for a satisfactory demonstration of this fact.

This instability of the radium emanation which will doubtless
be discussed by Professor Noyes, is hardly surpassed in interest
by any recent discovery in science. Considering the emanation
as a disintegration product of radium, one might well apply to
it that line of Macbeth which has already been applied to
Charles I, “nothing in his life became him so much as his leaving
of it.”

SPEED OF a AND 6 RAYS.

From a mechanical point of view there is perhaps no property
of radium which is of more interest than the deflection which its
alpha and beta radiations suffer when placed in an electric or
magnetic field. For it is this very deviation which, when once
measured, enables one to determine, in a very simple way, the
enormous speed with which the radium atom can expel those
minute material bodies which Rutherford has called a-particles.
For the B-rays, this deflection was simultaneously discovered by
three investigators in the autumn of 1899; for the a-rays by
Rutherford in 1902. It may, therefore, be worth while to con-
sider the nature of the evidence for thinking that these a-particles
—which are in all probability helium atoms—are projected with a
speed no less than 25 million meters per second—a speed
nearly one-tenth that of light,—a speed so stupendous that, in
comparison with it, the projectile leaving a 13-inch rifle would
appear to be standing absolutely still.

48 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

The argument, first employed by J. J. Thomson in 1897, is
very simple and makes only the following assumptions:

(i) Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

(ii) The ordinary equation for centrifugal force acting on
a particle.

(iii) The usual expression for the distance traversed by a
particle starting from rest, and acted upon by a constant accel-
eration; and

(iv) The result of Rowland’s Berlin experiment.

Let us imagine a small particle of matter of mass m, carrying
an electric charge e, to be fired with speed v into a magnetic field
of strength H. If the direction of motion of the particle is per-
pendicular to the magnetic field, the path of the particle will be a
curved line whose radius of curvature we may call r.

Now the result of Rowland’s Berlin experiment may be
expressed as follows:

——————_—_—_—_——_
e
ev = — dx = tdx us H
dt
ral
ooo,

so far as the magnetic effect of a convection current is concerned.

And hence, in the case of this minute charged projectile we are
practically dealing with an element of an electric circuit idx, at
right angles to a magnetic field H.

As we know from the behavior of the ordinary electric motor,
the force on such an element—such an “inductor,” if you
please,—is Hid sx, or Hev, dynes in a direction perpendicular
to the vectors H and v. This same force, the force which com-
pels the particle of mass m to travel in a curved path, may be

m v2
1e

called its centripetal force, and as such is measured by
Equating them we have:

Next let us suppose one of these charged particles to be fired
into an electric field, in a direction at right angles to that of the
field.

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 49

Here, if we call F the strength of the electric field, the particle
will be accelerated, along the direction of the electric field, with
a force F e, that is with an acceleration =

The time occupied by the particle in moving across a length |
of the field with a speed vw is, of course, x,

Now knowing the acceleration and time, we may at once com-
pute the measurable displacement x of the particle along the direc-

tion of the field; for
pled age 33 = SSE mere eats ee Eq. (ii).

2. 00
This is the whole story. The rest is the simplest of algebra; for

we have here two equations each connecting the ratio — and the

velocity v with measurable quantities. If we eliminate — and
v alternately, we obtain

F 1?
ne 2 Hrx
and
e F ??
m ae 2H? r? x

The same set of measurements enables one therefore to deter-
mine the speed of these rays and the ratio of the charge to the
mass for the particles which constitute them. There is therefore
nothing whatever mysterious or recondite in the determination of
this stupendous velocity, except in so far as all the invisible pro-
cesses of nature are both mysterious and recondite.

For the a-particles Rutherford found

v7 ==0:25x10"° cm/sec;
and e/m = 6000.

For the B-rays from radium, observers have found

v= 0.2 to 0.9 speed of light.
and e/m 10,000,000. + 107-4.

Before leaving this part of the subject it may be remarked
incidentally that all experimental evidence, of which an enormous
quantity has been furnished by Sir J. J. Thomson and his school,
by Professor R. A. Millikan and others, goes to show that the
charge of the electron, the numerator of this ratio, is constant.
But experimental evidence® equally conclusive shows that the

ratio e/m varies with the velocity of the particle. It is difficult

SKaufmann Phys. Zeit. 4, 54 (1902).

50 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

therefore to avoid the inference that inertia is a function of the
speed of the charge.

One of the possibilities of the future—one that must be impar-
tially faced—is that of establishing a science of mechanics purely
upon the dynamics of a system of positive charges surrounded
by disembodied negative charges in rapid motion.

HEAT EMISSION OF RADIUM.

Time remains to mention only one other phenomenon connected
with this bewildering element. The imagination is at once stimu-
lated and baffled in trying to picture a mechanism capable of
ejecting a material particle with a speed which, if maintained for
a single second, would carry it more than half way around the
world. And yet, I believe it will be generally conceded that of
all the facts connected with radium and radio-active substances
the most striking and the most fundamental—the most marvelous
and the most interesting—is that discovered by Curie and
Laborde® in 1903, namely, that a radium compound has the ability
to maintain itself permanently at a temperature several degrees
higher than that of the surrounding neighborhood. Experiments,
carefully verified by German and English investigators, show
that this spontaneous heat generation goes on at the rate of about
100 gram-calories per hour for each gram of radium.

At first, it appeared as if a coach-and-four had been driven
through the law of the Conservation of Energy. But men were not
long in recovering faith in that great generalization; and at once
began asking whether the radium atom was a mere transformer
for energy, or whether it was really a magazine of energy. The
discovery of radium emanation and its brief existence, the emis-
sion of a-particles of enormous energy, not only by radium but
by its products, and the absence of any other plausible source of
energy soon led nearly everyone to view the atom as a storehouse
of energy, a view which lies at the very bottom of Rutherford’s
theory of disintegration.

The upshot of the whole matter is then to leave the Energy
Principle unimpeached as one of the postulates of all the physical
sciences; while, on the positive side of the account, a new item
has been added to the list of our energy sources, viz., the internal
_ energy which the radio-active atom possesses independently of
its motion or position. Rutherford has shown that the excess of

Curie & Laborde C. R. 136, 673 (1903).

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 51

temperature in radium compounds is due practically entirely to
the internal bombardment of the mass by the a-particles.
SOUTHERNS EXPERIMENT.

Thomson has shown that the apparent mass of a moving elec-
tron is

m* 2/3 2
where
e= change in e. s. units.
#==permeability in e. m. units.
a= radius of electron.
v = speed of light.

Hence, if the electron moves with the speed of light its kinetic
energy, in so far as tt ts due to electro magnetic mass, is just equal
to its electrostatic energy. And in general he showed that the
electro magnetic mass of any system is proportional to its poten-
tial energy.

But Rutherford’s measures have shown that in the process of
disintegration a mass of radium gives out an amount of energy
equal to 1/13,000. of the energy which this mass would have if
it were moving with the speed of light. Hence one might expect
its mass to be increased by 1/13,000. over that of an equal WEIGHT
of non-radio active substance.

These considerations led Southerns to swing a pendulum under
two conditions as nearly identical as possible in all respects save
one: in the first case the pendulum bob was filled with some
two pounds of uranium oxide (which is about 85 per cent ura-
nium, and supposedly about 80 per cent radium), and in the
other case the pendulum bob was filled with lead oxide. South-
erns”™ results show that if the ratio of mass to weight for ura-
nium oxide differs from that for lead oxide, then the difference
is less than one part in 200,000.—and very much less than that
predicted by the theory outlined above.

|
A
+

CONCLUSION.

In concluding let me say that nothing could be wider of the
mark, nothing more false, and therefore nothing more unfortu-
nate, than to imagine that since our ideas of the conservation of
energy have been widened, since our notions of atomic individ-
uality have been enlarged, since our belief regarding the inde-
pendence of the elements has changed, and since our conceptions

TSoutherns Proc. Roy. Sec. A. 84, 325 (1910).

52 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

of inertia have become that of an electrical effect rather than
that of an inexplicable datum of experience; I say nothing could
be more unfortunate than for us to hastily conclude that scientific
truth is something transient, or to think that the facts of the
case are, as Heraclitus might say, “in a flux.”

The granite blocks that were put in position by Lavoisier and
Dalton, by Faraday and Helmholtz, by Joule and Maxwell, are
just as essentially a part of the foundations of physical science
as ever.

Other stones have been added to the building by Roentgen,
Goldstein, Becquerel, the Curies, Thomson, Rutherford; but
practically nothing has been torn away from the structure erected
out of “knowledge which has acquired impersonal validity.”

II. RADIUM FROM THE ASTRONOMICAL POINT OF
VIEW.

By Epwin B. Frost,
University of Chicago.

When I was requested by Dr. Coulter to take part in this
symposium my reply to him was that my remarks would be as
brief as the chapter on “Snakes in Ireland.”

There is no direct evidence of radium or the other radio-active
metals, uranium and thorium, in the spectrum of the sun or in
the spectra of other celestial bodies. But it is proper that I
should explain why there are no snakes in Ireland. I must also
refer to the indirect evidence of the presence of radium inferred
from the abundance of helium in certain celestial spectra.

The critical test for the presence of elements in celestial bodies
is given by their spectra. If all or most of the characteristic lines
of an element are found in the spectrum of a celestial body, we
feel justified in asserting with great positiveness that that ele-
ment is present. The converse, however, is not true: the absence
of the lines of a given element from a celestial spectrum does not
prove that the element may not be present in the body, but that
its spectrum is for some reason suppressed. Hence the fact that
no lines of the three elements referred to have yet been proven
to exist in celestial bodies by no means justifies us in stating that
those elements are not present in celestial objects.

Professor Crew has shown you the spectrum of radium and
of the radium emanation in the slides that he has thrown upon
the screen. Although there were some inaccuracies in the deter-

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 53

mination of the lines on the part of the eminent investigators,
particularly in England, chiefly due to the presence of impurities
due to barium (for radium) and hydrogen and xenon (for the
emanation), it is nevertheless established that there are two char-
acteristic and distinct spectra for radium and for the emanation.
There seem to be no lines common to the two spectra. But these
lines, with all those impurities eliminated, do not correspond to
unknown lines in celestial spectra. Hence, if radium or its
emanation are present in the sun and stars, the conditions are not
suitable for the development of their luminosity to an appreciable
extent.

The close connection of helium with radium is very remarkable,
and may be of significance here. It seems to be established with
almost perfect certainty that the a rays, which are spontaneously
emitted by radium with an average velocity of some six thousand
miles per second, actually consist of atoms of helium. Further-
more, a quantity of the emanation which at first gives its charac-
teristic spectrum begins in a few days to show the helium spec-
trum. Hence helium is also developed by the emanation.

Helium is present in the sun, as has been known since its
discovery there in 1868, more than a quarter of a century before
it was found on the earth. Its appearance on the sun is peculiar
in that it is seen only as a bright line at the edge of the sun with
the spectroscope, and does not produce dark lines, as do the other
elements which appear as bright lines when viewed at the sun’s
limb. Helium is also found in large prominences viewed at the
edge of the sun wich the spectroscope, but it does not rise as high
in the solar atmosphere as do hydrogen and calcium vapors.

If the sun were one hundred times as far away from us as it
actually is, we should probably be unable to detect the bright
radiations of helium in its spectrum; they would be totally invisi-
ble at the distance of the nearest fixed star.

There is a certain class of stellar spectra, however, of which
helium is the principal characteristic (in addition to hydrogen,
which is found in every celestial spectrum with hardly an excep-
tion). These stars are called helium stars, or stars of the Orion
type, and they are found chiefly in or near the Milky Way. When
a series of different stellar spectra are arranged in a sequence
merely by the similarity of spectra and gradual change from one
type to another, without involving any theory of stellar evolution,
these helium stars are placed by all investigators at the beginning

54 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

of the series. They may be called blue stars, which precede the
white stars in the sequence. Inasmuch as the helium found in
the earth is attributed to the radium and uranium which are in
a sense its parents, it might be regarded as a fair inference that
radium must also be responsible for the abundance of helium
in spectra of this type. I do not regard this as a necessary
assumption, however, inasmuch as helium is a gas in some
respects similar to hydrogen, and perhaps we are therefore not
obliged to account for its presence as due to some other element
any more than we are in the case of hydrogen. ie

It should be pointed out here that if radium were present in
the sun or stars, and were giving out the alpha, beta, and gamma
rays, it is unlikely that they would be able to penetrate either the
atmosphere of the sun or star, or the atmosphere of the earth.
As I understand it, the alpha rays penetrate but a few inches in
air at atmospheric pressure; and the beta rays are soon absorbed.
The gamma rays may readily be passed through a block of iron
one foot thick, but the thickness of the reversing layer in the sun,
while regarded as a very narrow stratum, will be for iron vapor
probably at least two hundred miles, and for the gaseous elements
many times this, up to five thousand miles or more. Hence it is
clear that none of these rays would be expected to penetrate even
the thinnest stratum in the atmosphere of sun or star.

It is an interesting fact that helium is found with hydrogen in
the spectrum of the temporary stars, or novae, which flash out
occasionally in the sky. We now know that they are not very
uncommon, and perhaps, if we could observe them all, there
would be found at least one (or more) each year. For instance,
a nova was discovered in Lacerta on December 30th last. It has
been shown that it was previously a star as faint as the thirteenth
or fourteenth magnitude. It suddenly increased probably a hun-
dred times in brightness and was of the seventh magnitude when
it was first observed. On February 21, 1901, there suddenly
developed a brilliant nova in Perseus, which was for a few days
the brightest star in the northern sky. Various hypotheses of
collision have been advanced to account for the extraordinarily
sudden development of these stars, but it seems to me that we
ought to take into account the possibility that some of the immense
amount of energy which the study of radio-activity has shown
to be present in the molecules of even the light gases has suddenly
been released. We do not dare to say offhand how vast the

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 55

amount of this intermolecular force is, but if it could be converted
into the energy of moving masses, it would probably account for
the forces which seem to be involved in temporary stars.
Similarly it seems to me that we ought to take account of such
possibility in our theories of cosmogony. We endeavor to account
for the momentum and energy we now find in our solar system
and in stellar systems purely on the basis of masses of matter.
If it shall ultimately be shown that conditions may arise which
release the immense amount of energy in every molecule, it might
assist in our understanding of the processes of cosmogony.
Finally, the tests thus far of the amount of helium in the
earth’s crust have indicated, on the assumption that all the helium
has been produced from radium, an almost over-abundant
amount of radio-active elements to account for the observed heat
within the earth. The accepted view of the maintenance of the
sun’s heat is that it is due to the contraction of a gaseous body
at a rate of about three hundred feet in diameter per annum.
While this theory is in accordance with the laws of gaseous bodies
and is also in agreement with the views of many as to the evolu-
tion of the solar system, nevertheless if the amount of radium in
the sun is in proportion to that on the earth, as inferred from the
abundance of helium in the earth, no doubt the supply of radium
would fuily account for the maintenance of the heat of our sun.

III. RADIOCHEMISTRY.
By WiLiiAmM A. Noyes,

University of Illinois, Urbana.
( Abstract.)

While radiochemistry as a distinct branch of science has devel-
oped almost exclusively during the last decade, the beginnings
which led to this development go back more than a century.

Toward the close of the 18th century Cavendish, by mixing air
with oxygen, and subjecting the mixture to the action of electric
sparks from a friction machine found, after a tedious experi-
ment, that 1/120 of the volume of nitrogen, which he used, could
not be converted by this method into oxides of nitrogen. He
had in reality discovered argon, though it was a century later
before the discovery was recognized. In 1868 Lockyer discovered
helium by the spectroscope in the sun. Both discoveries fore-
shadow the discovery of the noble gases by Rayleigh and Ramsay,
and these in turn prepared the way for the recognition of helium

56 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

as one of the disintegration products of radium. During the
seventies Crookes devised a large number of extremely interesting
experiments with electrical discharges through rarefied gases, and
laid the basis for the discovery of the ROntgen rays and many
of the phenomena connected with electrons and radioactivity.

In 1889 Hillebrand in Washington discovered nitrogen in
uraninite and missed by only a hair’s breadth the discovery of
argon and helium. In 1894 Rayleigh and Ramsay discovered
argon and shortly afterward Ramsay completed the discovery of
helium from terrestial materials. In 1895 Rontgen of Wirtzburg
discovered the penetrating radiations from Crookes tubes. The
following year Becquerel in Paris discovered the Becquerel rays
emanated by compounds of uranium and noted the effect upon
photographic plates, the ionization of gases through which they
pass and the effect upon a screen of zinc sulphide. This led in
the hands of the Curies two years later to the discovery of radium.

During the four years following Rutherford worked at McGill
University, partly upon radio-active thorium, which led to the
proposal of his disintegration theory of chemical elements, a
theory which has since been established on a very firm founda-
tion. Rutherford discovered in the course of his work that a gas
with the properties of one of the noble gases results from the
breaking down of radium. Shortly after this, in 1903, Soddy
who had been at work with Rutherford, and who went to the
laboratory of Ramsay in London to secure his aid in working out
the difficult problem of identifying the disintegration products,
succeeded in conjunction with Ramsay in establishing the fact
that helium results from the spontaneous decomposition of radium.

Rutherford and others have also shown that radium as it
decomposes evolves a large amount of heat, one gram of radium
giving 118 gram calories of heat per hour. In this way chemists
have become acquainted with a source of energy which is enor-
mously greater than any form of chemical action hitherto known.
For instance, a given amount of radium emanation evolves during
its decomposition two million times as much heat as would be
evolved by the same quantity of electrolytic gas.

From this time on there have been very many workers in the
field of radiochemistry, and it has been established that the phe-
nomena of disintegration is much more common than was at first
supposed. The rate of disintegration is measured in the period
required for one-half of a given element to disappear. This

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 57

-

period varies very greatly for different elements. For uranium
it is estimated at 6,000,000,000 years, for radium 1,760 years, for
radium emanation 3.86 days, while for the actinium emanation it
is only 3.9 seconds.

Recognizing that in radium emanation we have a source of
energy of an entirely new order, Ramsay conceived the bold idea
that it might be made use of to bring about the disintegration of
other elements, and in 1907 he announced that potassium and
lithium may be formed by the action of radium emanation on
copper. A repetition of his experiments by Madame Curie has,
however, thrown some doubt upon this conclusion.

The discovery of radioactivity has opened up to the vision of
chemists a whole new field of work and has introduced many
new points of view in the science. It has also given very strong
support for the much older notion that there is some sort of
genetic relationship among the chemical elements. It has com-
pelled us to revise our definition of elements and compounds, and
to recognize that what we have called an atom is in some cases,
and probably always, composite. The last ten years have brought
such varied and startling discoveries, in bewildering rapidity, that
it seems certain that we are only at the threshold of a new epoch
in the physical sciences.

IV.
THE BEARINGS OF RADIOACTIVITY ON GEOLOGY?
By THomMas CHROWDER CHAMBERLIN,
University of Chicago.

To the geologist interest in the phenomena of radioactivity
centers in the spontaneous evolution of heat that accompanies
atomic disintegration. This interest is the more piquant because
the source of the internal heat of the earth is one of the oldest of
its problems and the discovery of radioactivity brings into the
study an unexpected element. During the last century there was
a rather general consensus of opinion that the earth’s internal heat
was derived from the condensation of the nebula from which the
earth was then commonly supposed to have taken its origin. This
nebula was usually regarded either as a gaseous body or as a
quasi-gaseous meteoritic swarm, and in either case its condensa-

?The discussion before the Academy was extemporaneous and this paper written
out long after is only a substitute —T. e

58 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

tion was thought to have given rise to intense heat. The primitive
hot and gaseous or quasi-gaseous earth-mass was held to have
passed later into a molten globe, and the subsequent encrusting
of this entrapped in the interior the heat supply of subsequent
ages. This older view was still in general possession of the field
when the apparition of radioactivity forced a new line of thought.
But there was also an alternative view built on the belief that the
earth grew up gradually by the slow accession of discrete orbital
matter in distinction from the direct condensation of a gaseous or
quasi-gaseous mass. In this view, the internal heat arose mainly
from the self-compression of the earth-mass as it grew. This
view had its origin in the grave cosmogonic difficulties that had
been discovered in the gaseous and quasi-gaseous theories of the
earth’s origin. Of the two rival views thus already in the field,
the one postulated a plethora of heat at the outset and a gradual
loss in all later time, the other postulated at the outset a more
limited supply of heat which was increased as compression pro-
gressed. The adequacy of such compression to give a sufficiency
of heat was a subject of debate from the inception of the view.”
To the interest that naturally attaches to the discovery of a wholly
unexpected agency, already acute because of the agent’s singular
qualities, there was thus added piquancy in view of its inevitable
bearings on the thermal problem of the earth’s interior and on the
hypotheses of the earth’s origin.

An even more fundamental though less imminent interest was
awakened by the discovery that some of the atoms of the earth-
substance are undergoing spontaneous disintegration and that all
atoms may possibly be doing so and that even the permanency of
terrestrial substance may be brought into question. However,
matters of this ultra-radical nature cannot be discussed with
advantage as yet for little light has been shed on the broad ques-
tion whether all terrestrial substance is in process of disintegra-
tion and on the complementary question whether atoms are some-
where and somehow undergoing integration.

If the general tenor of the studies thus far made is to be trusted,
nothing in the field of common experience seriously inhibits the
dissolution of the radioactive substances. It does not appear that
even the greatest heightening or lowering of temperature or pres-
sure that can be brought to bear either stays or hastens, in any

2The status of the problem of the earth’s heat as it stood near the opening of
the twentieth century is sketched more fully in Year Book No. 2, Carnegie Institu-
tion, 1903, pp. 262-265, and in Chamberlin and Salisbury’s Geology, Vol. 1 (1904),
pp. 533-547.

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 59

material measure, the progress of atomic disintegration. Nor do
any known changes of chemical union or disunion, of concentra-
tion or diffusion, or of freedom or confinement seem materially
to retard or accelerate the spontaneous dissolution. There is
probably no warrant for an unqualified affirmation that neither
temperature, pressure, concentration, exposure, nor combination
affects the progress of radioactive decomposition, but no specific
effects of a critical value have been certainly disclosed by experi-
mentation. These conditions that so much qualify most geologic
processes must apparently be regarded as negligible for the present
so far as radioactivity in the earth’s crust is concerned. It 1s
thought by the leaders in radioactive science permissible to treat
radioactive substances as undergoing disintegration persistently
and uniformly under all known terrestrial conditions. In the ther-
mal problem of the earth radioactive particles may be dealt with
tentatively as centers of heat-generation whose efficiency and
endurance are conditioned simply by their atomic constitutions
and their mass values. In so far as these remarkable deductions
from experimentation may be thought to fall short of full warrant.
weakness in equal degree must of course be held to enter into the
geological inferences based on them; and in view of the radical
nature of the conclusions to which they lead, we cannot perhaps
too constantly bear in mind that the postulate of immunity to con-
ditions is the main basis of the geologic contributions credited to
radioactivity. But the remarkable verifications of skill and accu-
racy that have followed the multiplication of tests furnish an
ample warrant for a serious discussion of present deductions.
There is strong presumption that future tests will further sub-
stantiate present conclusions so far as their main bearings on
immediate terrestrial problems are concerned, whatever interro-
gations one may be disposed to indulge in regarding ulterior
problems.

The clue to this extraordinary tenacity of radioactive dissolution
in spite of conditions that profoundly influence most terrestrial
processes, probably lies in the fact that the action springs from the
internal motions of the atomic constituents and that these are of
such an intense nature and are actuated by such prodigious ener-
gies that the influences of ordinary chemical and physical condi-
tions are relatively insignificant.

At the same time, the radioactive substances show a decided
aptitude to enter into chemical combination under common condi-

60 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

tions. None of the parent radioactive metals is known to occur
in the earth in a native state. In the form of compounds they
have become widely distributed over the face of the globe in the
course of the surface changes it has undergone. Radioactive sub-
stances have freely entered into solution in the natural waters and
have thus been carried wherever the hydrosphere reaches, and in
turn they have been deposited therefrom. Their singular property
of passing spontaneously from certain states into gaseous forms
(emanations) and then back into the solid or liquid form, on
definite time schedules, has caused them to be given forth freely
into the atmosphere, and, drifting in this, to be later precipitated
in the solid or liquid form, and this has naturally been dispersive
in an extreme degree. Radioactive matter is therefore found in
practically all the rocks of the surface of the earth, in practically
all the waters, and in practically all the atmosphere.

But this highly diffusive distribution has not been uniform.
There have been special tendencies toward concentration running
hand in hand with the general tendencies to diffusion, and these
concentrative tendencies constitute a critical element in this dis-
cussion.

So far as the accessible part of the earth is concerned, the
igneous rocks may be taken as the original source of the radio-
active substances. How the igneous rocks themselves came to
have their present content will be considered later. Whence the
radioactive substances came still more remotely is problematical.
There may be even now accessions of radioactive substances from
without the earth for aught that is known, and indeed this is
probable, but, except in the form of meteorites whose content
appears from the few tests made to be relatively meager,® such
accessions are not yet demonstrated.

The cycle of distribution on the earth’s surface is simple. From
the igneous rocks the radioactive substances are dissolved and
disseminated through the waters and carried wherever they go;
while from both the rocks and the waters the emanations are
given forth into the atmosphere. From the air and the waters
in turn the radioactive derivatives are reconcentrated into the
earth, except as their disintegration becomes complete and they
pass permanently, in the form of helium, into the atmosphere or
are lost from the atmosphere into the cosmic regions outside.

The special distribution of the radioactive substances among

8Strutt, Proc. Roy. Soc. 77A, p. 480.

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 61

the different kinds of igneous rocks is no doubt full of meaning,
but as yet the determinations have not been sufficient to justify
more than a few broad generalizations, and these must be held
subject to revision. It may be said safely that the igneous rocks
carry a higher ratio of radioactive substance than the average
sediments. The reason for this is simple. The sediments are
derived from the igneous rocks, and in the process of derivation
some of the radioactive matter inevitably goes into the waters
and into the atmosphere, and this diversion leaves the content in
the derivative rocks lower than that of the original rocks. If all
the radioactive matter that is lost into the waters and the air
were gathered into the derivative rocks, their content should equal
that of the igneous rocks from which they came, if no account
be taken of the loss by dissolution.

The earlier determinations of the amounts of radium in the
igneous rocks by Strutt seemed to show that the acidic class hold
more radioactive matter, on the average, than the basic class, and
a portion of the later determinations seem to support this generali-
zation, but the determinations of Eve and Joly, which have been
important, seem to bring the richness of the basic class into some-
what near equality with that of the acidic, and even to make the
preponderance of the one class over the other doubtful. The
point of special interest here lies in the inference that, if the
liquefaction and eruption of the igneous rocks is dependent on
the heat derived from radioactivity, the distribution of radio-
active substances in the erupted rocks should be inversely propor-
tional to their temperatures of mutual solution or of fusion. But
it must be observed that even if such a causal distribution pre-
vailed in the rock-matter when first it took the liquid form, this
distribution might not persist indefinitely, for selective segrega-
tion has apparently taken place during the later processes. It is
quite clear that the radioactivity is concentrated in some constitu-
ents rather than others, as for example in zircon, pyromorphite,
apatite and some other minerals, and in pegmatite and some other

4The larger number of determinations of radioactivity in rock have been made by

STRUTT: Proc. Roy. Soc. 76A, 1905, pp. 88 and 312; 77A, 1906, p. 472; 78,
1906-7, p. 150; SOA, 1907-8, p. 572.

EVE: Phil. Mag., Sept. 1906, p. 189; Feb. 1907, p. 248; Aug. 1907, p. 231;
Oct. 1908, p. 622; Am. Jour. Sci. 22, Dec. 1906, p. 477; Bull. Roy. Soc. Con., June
1907, pp. 3 and 9; July 1907, p. 196. f

JOLY: Nature, Jan. 24, 1907, p. 294; Phil. Mag., March 1908, p. 385. Radio-
activity and Geology, 1909, general treatment with references.

ELSTER AND GEITEL: Phys. Zeit. 2, 1900-1, p. 590; 3, 1901, p. 76.

For the physics of radioactivity see J. J. Thomson: The Conduction of Elec-
tricity through Gases; E. Rutherford: Radioactivity, 1904, Radioactive Transforma-
tions, 1906; F. Soddy: Radioactivity, 1904, The Interpretation of Radium, 1909;
R. J. Strutt: The Becquerel Rays and the Properties of Radium, 1904, and the
papers of Boltwood, McCoy, and many others.

62 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

rocks. The pegmatitic material, in segregating from a granitic
magma, seems to have gathered into itself an unusual proportion
of the radioactive substance of the parent mass. In the details
of final distribution, therefore, the different parts of the segre-
gated rock-material may rationally be expected to differ from one
another and from the parent magma in radioactive content. The
determinations thus far made, though not adequate to demon-
strate this, seem to be in consonance with it. Much interest wiil
therefore gather about the forthcoming determinations as they
multiply and contribute their quota of evidence bearing on the
radioactive qualities of the various species of igneous rocks.

Among the derivative and sedimentary processes it seems clear
that there are modes of concentration also which have given to
different sediments different contents of radioactive substances.
It appears from the determinations already made that the radio-
active substances are leached out of the parent igneous rocks
faster than the average minerals of those rocks, for weathered
igneous rocks are found to carry less radioactive matter than fresh
rocks. This is in accord with the aptitude for chemical change
already noted; and yet soils which are almost the type of ultra-
weathered material still retain notable radioactivity, but a part
of this is probably a redeposit from the atmosphere. In general,
it appears that the clayey element carries more radioactive mate-
rial than the quartzose sands or the calcareous derivatives.

In the deep sea deposits, radioactive matter is higher than in
the deposits of the shallow parts of the ocean. In the red clays
and radiolarian oozes of the abysmal depths the content is
markedly greater than in the land-girting muds and sands, or the
calcareous oozes of mid-depths. This is assigned in part to the
removal by solution of the lime from the original matter of the
abysmal deposits, leaving them residual concentrates, and in part
to the collection in the depths, in relatively high proportions, of
phosphate-bearing relics (teeth, bones, etc.) with which radio-
active substances are associated. It is a suggestive fact that the
phosphatic nodules of the great deeps are highly radioactive com-
pared with ordinary sedimentary material. A part of this is
clearly due to the concentration of the radioactive substances
after the phosphates were deposited, for fresh phosphatic material
is notably less radioactive than fossilized phosphates.®

It appears, then, that the radioactive substances on the surface

®Strutt: Proc. Roy. Soc., 80A, p. 582.

7?

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 63

of the earth are subject to special agencies that lead in part to
greater concentration and in part to wider distribution, and that
these act co-ordinately with the general dispersing agencies that
give radioactivity to the derivative rocks, to the waters, and to
the air.

If it were permissible to reason from what is known of surface
phenomena, particularly from the broad fact that radioactivity
increases as we go from air to water, from water to sediment,
and from sediment to igneous rock, it might be inferred very
plausibly that radioactivity would be found to reach its maximum
concentration in the heart of the earth, and certainly that the
deeper parts would be as rich as the superficial ones. This pre-
sumption might very justly be felt to be strengthened by the fact
that the atoms of uranium, radium, and thorium are among the
heaviest known and that if the earth were ever gaseous or liquid,
these heavy atoms might naturally be expected to be concentrated
toward its center unless the viscosity of the fluid mass were too
great to permit this, in which case the distribution should be
either equable or indifferent to depth.

But Strutt® early called attention to the fact that if such an
increasing abundance exists toward the center of the earth, or
if there were an equable distribution in depth, the heat gradient
as the earth is penetrated would be higher than observation shows
it to be. By computations on the data then available he concluded
that a distribution of radioactive substance equal to that of the
surface rocks for a depth of only 45 miles would give the rise of
heat actually observed in wells, mines and other deep excavations.
Later data and closer scrutiny seem to confirm the general sound-
ness of Strutt’s inference, and to make the limitations even more
narrow. Joly, approaching the problem from the geological as
well as the physical point of view, and with the advantage of later
data, reached the conclusion that radioactivity of the amount
observed at the surface, if continued to a depth ranging from
27 to 37 kilometers (17.2 to 23.5 miles) would give rise to heat
equal to that implied by the loss at the surface." According to
Joly, however, a complete concentration of radioactivity in a
shell of this depth does not meet the apparent requirements of
igneous phenomena if this be assigned to radioactivity. A deeper
distribution of a part of the radioactive matter and a less concen-
tration in the lower part of the crust is felt by Joly to be required

€Proc. Roy. Soc. 77A, 1906, p. 472, and 78A, p. 150.
TRadioactivity and Geology, 1909, p. 175.

64 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

and he was led to this final statement: “If we said that the richer
part of the crust must be between 9 and 15 kilometers deep, we
cannot be far from the truth. This appears to be the best we can
do on our present knowledge.’*® It is to be noted that these
deductions are reached on the supposition that all the internal
heat given out arises from radioactivity; no margin is left for
any original heat or for secular heat from any other source. On
the other hand, the computations seem to take no account of loss
of heat by means of igneous extrusions.

These remarkable deductions raise two questions of radical
import:

(1) If supplies of heat are generated currently by radioactivity
in such abundance that it is necessary to put these severe limits
on the distribution of radioactive substances, must we abandon
entirely all further consideration of supposed supplies handed
down from a white hot earth or from any other form of the
primitive earth?

(2) Is there among the internal processes previously postu-
lated any that provides a way in which such a concentration at
the surface might naturally have taken place, or must we find a
new geological process to fit the new thermal difficulty ?

The rigor of the dilemma is softened somewhat by noting that
the deductions of Strutt, Joly, and their colleagues are based
simply on comparisons between the heat-generating power of
radioactive substances in the crust and the conductive power of
the crust. The functions of igneous extrusion as a mode of trans-
fer of internal heat do not seem to be taken into account. This is
not unnatural since the heat carried out by extrusive matter and
by waters heated by igneous intrusions has not usually been
regarded as an important factor in reducing the high temperature
inherited by the earth under the older view. But the movement of
igneous matter and of waters and gases heated by it has been
made to play an essential part in the working concepts that have
been based on the planetesimal hypothesis. There will be occa-
sion to return to this critical difference of view.

When the apparent excess of thermal riches arising from the
new source was first realized an escape from the dilemma raised
by it was sought in the natural supposition that the disintegration
of uranium and thorium was restrained by pressure in the depths
of the earth, and that, though present there, their activity was

BEoc, ‘cit., p. 183:

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 65

greatly subdued or possibly inhibited altogether. This plausible
explanation was diligently tested ; but the general tenor of experi-
ments on the effects of pressure, notably those of Eve and
Adams,? in which the pressures were carried to intensities suffi-
cient to cover earth-pressures to the depths supposed to limit
radioactivity and beyond, showed no appreciable restraint on the
disintegrating process. It seems necessary, therefore, in the
present state of evidence, to accept the inference that the radio-
active substances are really concentrated toward the surface, and
that the radioactive content in the depths of the earth is of a
much lower order.

It does not fall to me to adjust the new requirements to the
older view of the earth’s internal temperatures based on a molten
earth, for other considerations led me to the abandonment of this
view before the advent of the new issue. I must leave to those
who hold to the molten hypothesis to battle with its new perils.
With such a plethora of heat at the start as a molten earth implies
and with a new agency whose current production of heat would
seem to be excessively great if its prevalence were not construc-
tively minimized, it is not with regret that I feel absolved from
the task of finding a reconciliation between this venerable view
and the requirements of juvenile discoveries.

The discussion of Professor Joly,’® though not explicitly based
on the theory of a molten earth, is sympathetic with the general
tenets associated with such an earth, and his treatment may be
taken as offering the best approach to a reconciliation that seems
now possible.

It is interesting to note, however, that when Professor Joly
reached the critical question of a possible mode by which the
surface concentration of radioactivity could have come about
(Radioactivity and Geology, p. 184) he turned to the accretion
or planetesimal hypothesis. While he indicated the central line
of action on which the concentration might have been accom-
plished he left without elucidation the line of reconciliation be-
tween the heat gradient postulated by the planetesimal view and
the gradient he deduces from radioactivity.

It is the chief purpose of this paper to set forth what seems
to me to be the true harmony between the new light shed by radio-
activity and the tenets of the planetesimal view as shaped by me
before the discovery of radioactivity and to show the co-ordina-

*Nature, July, 1907, p. 269.
Radioactivity and Geology, pp. 154-183.

66 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

tion of the planetesimal and radioactive agencies in jointly leading
to the results observed. To this end it is necessary to sketch with
some care the thermal features of the planetesimal view in the
form to which preference was given from the start, so that it may
be clear just what part radioactivity plays in the assigned co-
operation.

On the assumption that the earth grew up by the accession of
planetesimals, whatsoever heat arose from the condensation of the
nucleus about which the growth took place centered in the inner-
most parts and can affect present surface phenomena only by
transfer. The infalling matter that is supposed to have built up
the earth to its mature size must have generated much heat by its
impacts, but as the infall is held to have been slow and as this heat
was superficial, it may be assumed that it was largely radiated
away before it became so deeply buried as to be permanently
retained, and so the most of the heat of impact may be regarded
as negligible” In the original shaping of the planetesimal
hypothesis (before the discovery of radioactivity) the main
source of internal heat was made to spring from the compression
which the deeper parts of the earth underwent by the increase
of its mass as the planet grew to maturity. This chief source was
supposed to be abetted by heat springing from the rearrangement
and recombination of molecules within the mass as time went on.
Changes in the distribution of the heat after it was developed were
supposed to follow by means of conduction and especially by the
transfer of hot fluid matter carrying latent heat.

It is important to the present discussion to note that the heat
generated by pressure did not affect the outer part and that it
only began to be sensible when those depths were reached at
which the rocks suffered appreciable compression from the weight
of the rock-mass above them. Thus the heat gradient so gen-
erated would rise only slowly in the outer part of the earth and
faster in a systematic way toward the center for a considerable
depth, if the compressibility of the rocks remained uniform to
indefinite depths. If the compressibility fell off as compactness
increased the rate of thermal rise toward the center would have
been slower. Compressibility at the surface seems to be nearly
proportional to pressure, but the compressibility of rocks after
they have been compacted by such pressures as are attained at
considerable depths is unknown, and it is necessary to proceed

UGeology, Vol. I, p. 533, Chamberlin and Salisbury.

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 67

here by alternative hypotheses.. The extrapolation of the known
fact under experimental pressures is of course entitled to prece-
dence and this alternative was used as the basis of the first
approximation to the heat curve of the earth’s interior. For the
other factors, such as specific heat, necessarily taken into account
in the computation, assumptions as near to known facts as possi-
ble were made. On these assumptions it was found that the heat
generated between the surface and the center of the earth may
be represented by a curve which rises at a very low rate near the
surface and is followed by a slowly increasing rate for about one-
third the distance to the center, beyond which it rises at a decreas-
ing rate to the center; or, if traced from the center outward, this
computed curve of temperature declines faster and faster at every
step for about two-thirds of the distance and then declines less
and less rapidly to a vanishing point near the surface. Hence, if
conductivity be assumed to be the same at all depths, the outward
flow of heat on such a gradient would increase in rate from the
center to the two-thirds point and then grow slower toward the
surface, from which it follows that, on these assumptions of uni-
form compressibility and uniform conductivity taken by them-
selves, the internal heat should have been progressively lowered
in the deep interior and raised in the more superficial parts. The
conductivity of rocks is so very slow, however, that its effects at
the surface under the conditions named cannot have been large
up to the present unless the earth is much older than even radio-
activity seems to imply.

This first approximation to a theoretical curve of heat, even
when modified by conduction, has not been supposed to represent
the actual distribution of heat at the present time, for reasons
that follow.

There is ground to think that compressibility falls off as
increased degrees of compactness are attained. In working out
the curve which was published in Vol. I of Chamberlin and Salis-
bury’s Geology, p. 566, Dr. Lunn used as a guide the Laplacian
law of density which postulates that density varies as the square
root of the pressure. This distribution of density harmonizes
fairly well with such astronomical tests as are available and gives
a mean density for the earth which is near that required by the
earth’s total weight. The assumption that the increased density
of the interior is all due to compression, however, makes no
allowance for the probable transfer of lighter matter to or toward

68 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

the surface by extrusive action which would tend to increase the
mean specific gravity of the residue. The curve of Dr. Lunn may
be regarded as a second approximation.’? But this, as noted, does
not take into consideration the effects of liquefaction and extru-
sion and these, in the planetesimal view, are of the first order of
importance. The theoretical curve mathematically deduced by
Dr. Lunn is, however, an indispensable basis for a third approxi-
mation in which the effects of liquefaction and extrusion are
taken into account.

Before passing on to consider liquefaction and extrusion, it is
well to note that the Lunn curve based on the Laplacian law of
density also is low near the surface and that its rate of rise is
much below that of the temperature gradient observed in wells and
mines. Dr. Lunn, on assumptions carefully specified in his dis-
cussion in the paper cited, found the rise in the first 200 miles
only 330° C.

This low development of heat in the outer part of the earth
seemed at first thought to present a difficulty of a rather serious
nature, but it was believed to be met by the effects of liquefaction
and extrusion, and these were made the chief basis of an addi-
tional approximation to the actual temperature curve (Vol. I,
Chamberlin and Salisbury’s Geology, pp. 265-67). It was held
that the rising heat of the interior would reach the temperatures
of fusion or of mutual solution of some ingredients in the mixed
material much earlier than that of other ingredients, and that the
ascent of the portion that became molten carrying its latent as
well as sensible heat into the cooler outer zone would necessarily
raise the temperature of that zone. It was held that the continua-
tion of this process served as a constant influence tending to retard
the rise of temperature in the deeper zone where the partiai
liquefaction was in progress while it progressively raised that of
the outer zone into which the liquid rock was intruded, whether it
lodged in the crust or passed through it to the surface. This
extrusive process was supposed to have continued to the present
day and to have resulted in a permanent adjustable working curve
of accommodation between thermal, fluidal and mechanical condi-
tions. This curve, except in the cool crust, was essentially identi-
cal with the fusion-solution curve, whatever that might happen

Year Book No. 3, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1904, p. 156; also Geo-
hysical Theory Under the Planetesimal Hypothesis, Section IT of Tidal and Other
Deabicme Publication No. 107, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1909, pp. 169-

231; for a summary and figure "of curve see also Geology, Chamberlin and "Salisbury,
Vol. I, p. 566, 1904.

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 69

to have been for the time being under the local conditions of
pressure, state of strain, nature of material, means of escape, and
other properties that affected liquefaction and extrusion. It was
regarded as essentially a curve of equilibrium between solidity
and liquefaction accommodated to the conditions present at each
depth and at each stage and was maintained automatically. The
actual curve as thus assigned continued always to be essentially
the liquefaction curve after that was once attained** The view
excludes automatically all internal temperatures higher than the
local liquefaction temperatures and of course excludes all perva-
Sive gaseous conditions except that of the interspersed and
occluded gases of the mixed mass. These interspersed gases
assisted extrusion and hence were among the parts most freely
extruded. All theoretical inferences based on temperatures
higher than the temperatures of liquefaction are excluded from
consideration under this view by its very terms.

Certain structural conditions postulated by the planetesimal
hypothesis greatly favored this automatic action. The infalling
matter was assumed to have built itself up in a very heterogeneous
manner with the result that the mass of the earth was an intimate
mixture of all the kinds of material that made up the spiral nebula
from which it was supposed to have been gathered. As this mixed
matter was heated by compression, some parts of it must certainly
have reached temperatures at which they could go into mutual
solution or into fusion while as yet other closely associated parts
had not reached temperatures that permitted such action, and as
the rise of temperature was very slow by the terms of the hypoth-
esis the passage of successive parts into liquefaction was widely
separated in time. Fluid parts thus came temporarily to be inti-
mately mixed with solid parts. These fluid parts, in the act of
passing into solution or fusion absorbed the necessary energy of
liquefaction at the expense of the increasing supply. On their
ascent into the crust they heated it. If they lodged there and
resolidified they gave up their heat of liquefaction. If they
reached the surface the residue of heat, both sensible and latent,
was lost. By such liquefaction and transfer these portions served
to protect the residue in the deeper parts from liquefaction for
the time being and the continuation of the process extended the
protection to such residue as continued to persist.

It is not necessary to offer evidence that ascent of liquid rock

BLoc. cit., p. 567.

70 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

took place in great quantities in the early geologic ages and has
been more or less active in all ages down to the present. One
of the extraordinary facts of the Archean terranes is the extensive
lodgment of liquid rocks in the crust, and even in later ages batho-
litic phenomena have attained surprising magnitudes. The extru-
sion of molten rock at the surface was a very pronounced
phenomenon as late as the Tertiary, and is still an active process.
As this extrusive action was widely distributed over the surface
at various altitudes and at various stages through great lapses of
time, and yet was never really very massive when measured in
terms of earth-volumes at any one time or place, it is of critical
value here to note that the view built on the planetesimal hypothe-
sis appeals to a special set of conditions of liquefaction and
extrusion which are peculiarly favorable for selective work in
small masses and unfavorable for general liquefaction. In this
respect the conditions it assigns stand somewhat in contrast with
the conditions usually asumed to be the natural inheritances from
a general molten condition. The inference that general liquefac-
tion would take place on any general rise of heat is natural enough
in a case in which the whole mass has been solidified from a pre-
vious molten state, for such a mass might be presumed to return
massively into its former state on a reversal of conditions; but
the heterogeneous condition of the mixed matter of the interior
postulated by the planetesimal view is not favorable to a simul-
taneous fusion of the whole mass or any large continuous part of
it unless extrusion be restrained until a high temperature is
attained. Such restraint is here held to be dynamically incon-
sistent with the mechanism and the stress conditions of the earth
body. In addition, therefore, to such a mixed state of material
in the interior as to peculiarly invite selective liquefaction as the
temperature slowly rose, the planetesimal view postulates a set
of stress agencies that worked co-operatively to effect extrusion
as fast as liquid matter accumulated in workable volume.

In considering stress effects, it is necessary to scrupulously dis-
tinguish between hydrostatic stresses which operate equally on all
sides of a given unit and so only produce compressive and like
effects, and differential stresses which promote movement and
change of form. The effect of differential stresses on the solid
parts of the earth is primarily to produce strains; the effect on
liquid parts is primarily to produce flow and relocalization. And
so by reason of this difference of effect, a general differential

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 71

stress on any large part of the earth is apt to become locally sub-
differentiated when solid and liquid parts are intermixed, especially
if the liquid and solid states of these parts are partially inter-
changeable because their temperatures lie so close to the line of
equilibrium between solidity and liquidity. Tensional strains
promote liquefaction in bodies constituted as most rocks are; com-
pressive strains resist liquefaction in such bodies. And so general
differential strains co-operate with temperature in promoting or
in restraining the passage of matter from the one state to the
other, according to the nature of the strain, and thus have some
influence in directing and facilitating movement as well as in
forcing it.

Some of the differential stresses in the earth are essentially
fixed and constant, such as the direct pressures that arise from
the action of gravity. These stresses range from one atmosphere
at the surface to about three million atmospheres at the center.
Such pressures tend to force lighter bodies toward the surface
while heavier bodies seek the center in ways so familiar that we
need not dwell on them, nor on the fact that, since molten rock is
usually lighter than the same rock in a solid state, this static
differential stress of gravity presents a general condition that
favors the ascent of liquid rock. So also the incorporation or gen-
eration of gases in liquid rock tends to lessen the specific gravity
and increase the mobility and hence the gaseous element adds
another general influence that favors ascent.

In addition to these very general and persistent stresses, more
special differential stresses have arisen at various times from
inequalities of accession, from transfers of matter, from loss of
heat, and from other varying agencies and these have been present,
in one form or another, at nearly all times in the earth’s history.
They have often been cumulative until they reached diastrophic
intensity and manifested themselves in impressive deformations.
That these have been effective agencies in forcing the movement of
liquid parts within the earth in the lines of least resistance and
of best accommodation to existent conditions, is scarcely debatable.

In addition to the simple stresses of gravity and to the diastro-
phic stresses, there have been superposed at all times a series of
stresses of a rhythmical pulsatory nature acting throughout the
body of the earth. The nature and function of these have not been
so generally recognized. These stresses are derived from the
differential action of the gravity of neighboring bodies, particu-

72 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

larly that of the moon and of the sun. Tidal and tide-like stresses
and strains have swept through the earth’s body in a constant
cycle bringing to bear on each part a perpetual succession of com-
pressive and tensional stresses and strains alternating with one
another. The effect may be pictured as that of a minute knead-
ing of the earth-body. There is not only a superposition of pul-
sating strains on the more static strains, but a superposition of
pulsating strains on pulsating strains. The pulses of the twelve-
hour body tides are overrun by tides of longer periods, and these
are attended by shifts of direction of strain, all of which tend to
knead the mixed matter to and fro and promote insinuation of the
liquid part along the lines of escape.

Underlying all these rhythmical strains there has been ever
present a variation in intensity from center to surface. Sir George
Darwin has shown that the tidal stresses generated by the moon at
the earth’s center are eight times as great as those at its surface.
Each compressive strain squeezes the lower part of each liquid
vesicle or thread more than the upper part.

The co-existence of these pulsatory and periodic strains with
the simple static stresses of gravity and the less constant dias-
trophic stresses sufficiently implies their co-operative nature. All
these three classes are either differential stresses or have factors
or phases that are differential, and so, in specific local application
they are all transformed into sub-differentiational effects on the
liquid and solid parts.

Under the planetesimal view the joint effect of these differential
stresses and their resulting strains has been at all times to force
toward the surface liquefied rock as fast as it gained workable
volume. Much aid in insinuating itself along liquid lines and in
fluxing a more open path until the fracture zone was reached, was
assigned to the mixed nature of the material and to the local
strains imposed by the stress agencies. The whole picture centers
on the fundamental dynamic proposition that energy in mobile
and expansive embodiments seeks the surface, while its fixed
embodiments are forced more firmly together toward the center.

The extrusion is held to have begun as soon as the susceptible
matter took the mobile form. Possible exception is admitted in
the case of matter that may have been too dense to be forced to
the surface. However, a high density of small masses enmeshed
in masses of less density could only contribute to an average effect
so long as a high state of viscosity was retained, and a relatively

A ae®,

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 73

high viscosity for the small mobile masses naturally arose from
the close balance between the liquid and solid states. Such a con-
dition seems equally to be implied by the remarkable mixtures of
dense and light matter often seen in the igneous rocks.**

The matter forced early to the surface is held to have been
buried by later accretions to the growing planet, to have later
been subject to a second liquefaction and extrusion, a second
burial and so on. Progressive selection and reselection are postu-
lated until the growth essentially ceased. Since then a more
complete selection and concentration of the eutectic material at
the surface has been in progress as far as further generation of
internal heat has furnished the actuating agency.

Now ii this picture in its working details and in its rather
sharp antithesis to the older view is clearly in mind, the part
which the radioactive substances may be supposed to play in
co-operation with this mechanism without changing the general
conception is little less than self-evident. The radioactive particles
are sources of self-generated heat. Under the planetesimal view
the radioactive substances were promiscuously scattered through
the mixed mass as it was gathered in heterogeneously from the
nebula by the crossing of the planetesimal orbits. No original
segregation of this class of matter more than of any other heavy
material is assignable. The relative amount of the radioactive
matter, at least of the classes now known to be radioactive, must
have been extremely small and its influence on the specific gravity
of the matter with which it was mixed must have been negligible.
The self-heating effects of these disseminated particles were neces-
sarily expended first upon themselves and next upon adjacent
matter and, other things being equal, this home-made heat should
have given these parts precedence in passing into the mobile state.
Normally the mixed units that enclosed a radioactive particle
should have been as susceptible of partially passing into the liquid
state as similar units that were free from radioactive matter. The
special source of heat should have turned the balance in favor
of the unit immediately surrounding the radioactive particle.
Thus the radioactive matter normally became involved in the
mobile matter and passed with it to or toward the surface.

With every stage in the growth of the earth and with every
reburial of the radioactive material, a second similar preferential
action should have followed. On the essential completion of the

“Chamberlin and Salisbury’s Geology, Vol. II, pp. 121-2.

74. ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

growth of the earth a more complete concentration of the self-
heating matter should have followed for additional weighting by
accretion had essentially ceased and compression had become
essentially static while the self-heating competency of the radio-
active matter, though no doubt somewhat reduced by consump-
tion, was probably more efficient relatively in the production of
heat than it had been during the more active stages of growth.

It seems clear, therefore, that at all times after the volcanic
process was well under way, radioactivity should have been rela-
tively most active in the outer part of the earth and should have
become especially so in the latest stages of the earth. It is there-
fore not too much, perhaps, to claim that a specific basis in favor-
able conditions and a definite working mechanism for an effective
concentration of self-liquefying matter at the surface was postu-
lated in a singularly apt way before radioactivity was discovered,
and quite irrespective of the dilemma which its discovery has
involved.

Reciprocally, radioactivity greatly eases the burden laid on
compression in the outer part of the earth where it is least compe-
tent and where resort was had to igneous intrusions from below
to give the crust its observed temperatures. With the addition of
the new thermal agency the intrusions are presumed to play much
the same part as before, but more actively, as they must now be
supposed to meet the liquefying effects both of compression and
of radioactivity. If there was ground before to question the
efficiency of compressional heat, aided by such other sources as
were formerly assignable, to give rise to the high degree of igneous
activity that marked the Archean ages and to sustain the lesser
igneous action of later periods down to the present, this doubt is
amply resolved by the combined efficiency of compression and
radioactivity. In any case it is certain that a large amount of
energy has been brought to the surface and radiated into space.

Radioactivity also comes to the aid of other agencies of extru-
sion in the peculiar service it renders in opening a path for the
outward movement of the liquid matter. In the liquefying
process, as we have seen, the radioactive particles should have
been gathered by their self-heating action into the liquid vesicles
and have been forced outward with them. The self-heating prop-
erty thus became an endowment of the liquid and gave to it
thermal efficiency in dissolving and fluxing its way. This efficiency
was continually renewed by the progressive disintegration of the

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 75

radioactive atoms. It is not improbable that the liquid threads
were thus aided in a very special way in boring upward, for it
seems obvious that the part of the liquid which carried most of
the self-heating constituent would come to have the highest tem-
perature, the lowest specific gravity, and the largest gaseous fac-
tor—for the disintegration produced gas emanation and helium
in addition to the gases generated by the heat alone—and would
hence take the uppermost position and bring its liquefying influ-
ences to bear on the solid matter which lay between it and the
surface toward which it was pressed. The very mechanism may
thus have kept the most effective part at the point most critical to
its ascent.

While this outline falls far short of an adequate discussion of
the relations of radioactivity to the planetesimal hypothesis, it will
perhaps suffice to point out the line of co-operation of the new
thermal agency with the new genetic hypothesis. The two seem
to co-operate happily. Jointly they seem to furnish a promising
basis for a revised thermal geology in harmony with accumu-
lating geologic data in various lines and with the growing evidence
of the elastic rigidity of the earth body as a whole. At least the
concentration of the radioactive substances at the surface seems
to be aptly explained, and the mechanism that conserves the solid-
ity of the earth falls into consonance with the new experimental
evidence of an elastico-rigid body-tide which seems scarcely less
than decisive.

V. THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIUM.
By WILLIAM ALLEN PUSEY,
University of Illinois.

Among the first discoveries made after the production of con-
centrated radium salts was that radium is capable of causing
intense effects upon living tissues. We were not unprepared for
such a discovery in the case of radium, because similar phenomena
had been observed early in the study of X-rays. In the case of
X-rays the discovery had been totally, and very unfortunately,
unexpected. The early burns from radium were of the same
character as X-rays burns, and later detailed study has shown
that the effects upon tissues of the two agents are practically
identical. An appreciation of this fact is useful at the outset of
a consideration of the biological effects of radium; it gives one at

76 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

once a large number of analagous facts that have been well studied
and, because of the more extensive study that has been made of
the biological effects of X-rays, enables one to correlate more
satisfactorily some of the isolated observations upon the actions
of radium. Because the gross effects of radium, which furnish
us many valuable facts, can be studied in the skin, and because
the effects upon the various tissues of the skin give us the most
comprehensive view of the biological effects in general of radium,
it is conducive to clearness to consider first the effects of radium
upon the skin, meaning by the skin in this connection the human
skin or skin of similar structure of other animals.

When the human skin is exposed for a sufficient length of time
to an active radium salt a peculiar and definite reaction is set up,
of which the first striking feature is that it does not develop until
after a relatively long period of quiescence—as a rule about two
weeks. In a skin containing a considerable amount of pigment,
there is first an increase of pigment, shown by an ordinary
“tanning” of the exposed surfaces. If there are any freckles or
pigmented spots in the exposed area, these become darker. Along
with this pigment stimulation there occurs a reddening of the
skin, with a feeling of irritation and burning such as one has from
sunburn. The reaction may stop at this point and after a few
days gradually subside; the redness and irritation diminish, there
is some scaling from the surface, and in a few days more no evi-
dence of the reaction remains, except the increased pigmentation
which, like other pigmentation, is very slow to disappear.

In this reaction we have had simply the familiar picture of
sunburn. But the process, in many cases, goes much farther, and
there occurs a reaction which is peculiar to X-rays and radium.
After the development of an inflamed, reddened area of skin the
surface becomes intensely congested, purplish, and blisters form.
At the same time, or before, the hairs loosen and fall out. Next,
the blisters rupture and leave a surface covered by a necrotic
pellicle, like a diphtheria membrane. And the reaction may go
still further, with the formation of an ulcer whose striking char-
acteristics are its painfulness and its extreme indolence, showing,
it may be for months, no tendency to regeneration. The process
may stop at any of the stages described above. If subsidence
occurs short of ulceration the skin may again become normal, but
after the severe reactions without ulceration, and after ulceration,
when healing takes place there may be very distinct permanent

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. V7

changes in the skin. The hairs grow sparsely or not at all; the
pores are very fine or absent, from destruction of the glands of
the skin; the skin is thinned, with here and there roughened,
horny points or patches up to the size of a finger nail, and the
surface is reddened from numerous dilated capillaries which
show through the thinned horny epidermis.

We have here as a result of these powerful forms of radiant
energy, a picture of extreme interest. The condition is in fact
an exact, sometimes an exaggerated picture of the atrophic senile
skin, with its dilated blood vessels and senile keratoses. As a
matter of fact the picture is so nearly that of senile skin that I
was able, in the case of X-ray lesions, to predict that cancers of
the skin would be found to develop in them because the keratoses
of old age are so frequently the starting point of cancers. It
would take us too far from our subject to give all the reasons for
the idea, but the identity of chronic radium and X-ray changes
in the skin with those of the senile skin, strongly indicate that the
senile changes of the skin are in good part the result of the less
powerful action over a long period of years of sunlight. Another
fact, that is beside our topic, is highly interesting in this connec-
tion. Cancers develop in the keratoses of X-ray and radium
dermatitis, and in them we have one form of carcinoma which is
directly traceable to its exciting cause; and only by bringing in a
deus ex machina in the form of later infection can one avoid the
conclusion that at least in these lesions we have cancer which is
not of microbic origin.

When radium is applied to various pathological lesions in the
skin the same phenomena occur that are seen in healthy skin, with
the addition that under proper precautions selective destructive
effects may be produced upon the diseased tissues. Take for
illustration, nodules of tuberculosis or of carcinoma or sarcoma
(cancer) in the skin. With proper care in grading the applica-
tions a reaction may be produced which will cause these tissues to
be entirely destroyed, while this reaction is not sufficient to destroy
the normal stroma in which they are situated, or, if it does destroy
the normal tissues in the involved area, they will regenerate with
the formation of healthy scars. It is also found in itching and
painful conditions of the skin that the applications have a definite
anaesthetic effect.

The microscopic changes in tissues undergoing a radium reaction
are even more interesting than the gross changes. In the early

78 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

stages of radium irritation sections show evidences of prolifera-
tion of the tissue elements, such as indicate an over-stimulation of
the cells by a peculiar irritant. These changes are most marked
in the tissues of greatest functional activity. At first there are
an increased production of pigment, and an exaggerated prolifer-
ation of the germinal and younger (deeper) cells of the epidermis,
and especially of the follicles of the epidermis; in the corium, or
body of the skin, there are dilatation of the capillaries, an infiltra-
tion of round cells, and oedema—the changes of inflammation.
Later the changes become exaggerated; there is proliferation of
the inner layer of the blood vessels (an obliterating endarteritis) ;
the round-cell infiltration becomes intense; the connective tissue
fibres are oedematous and stain poorly. In the epidermis the
eells show extreme degenerative changes ; they become vacuolated,
the nuclei are fragmented, there is degeneration of the cytoplasm
so that stains are taken poorly, and complete breaking down of
many cells; these changes are especially intense in the highly
specialized and active cells of the appendages of the skin—the
hair follicles and the sweat and sebaceous glands—and they may
result in the obliteration of these structures, a phenomenon which,
occurring as it may without destruction of the surrounding tissues,
is not produced by any other known agent. In the last stage in a
radium reaction there is necrosis of the affected tissues, the con-

nective tissue stroma being the most resistent and last to break
down.

In diseased tissue in the skin such as epithelioma (cancer) ana
lupus (tuberculosis), there is the same sort of reaction; it is also
found that the pathological tissues which are composed of grow-
ing cells, often of embryonic type, react in the same way as the
active sensitive tissues of the normal skin. They are more sensi-
tive to the effects than the stroma in which they are growing,
disintegrate or degenerate readily, and are destroyed before or
without destruction of the connective tissue around them.

It is evident in this process that we are dealing with an agent
whose results are produced by influencing the biological processes
of the cells themselves. The effects are not produced by an
immediate destructive action of the rays, as a heat burn for
example is produced. There is no immediate effect from the
application of radium; it is only after days, it may be two or
three weeks, that the effects appear. The inference is that the
radiations set up some process in the tissues which itself ends in

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY. 79

their destruction. The whole process is one of exaggerated stim-
ulation of the activity of the cells of the tissues; a stimulation
which varies in degrees with the degree of specialization or func-
tional activity of the different type of cells. In its slightest
degrees it is the ordinary protective process that occurs under
exposure to sunlight, but under the unusual and extreme irritation
of this artificial form of radiant energy the reaction becomes
destructive.

Since the effects of radium have had therapeutic application,
it may be interesting to pause to consider briefly this aspect of
the subject.

As I have suggested, the effects of radium are to a degree
selective, in that they excite the intensest reaction in the cells of
great functional activitiy, whether this be in the exercise of a
special function or of the simpler function of growth. Thus
there is produced by radium:

(1) An exaggerated effect upon the highly specialized struc-
tures of the epidermis, viz., the hair follicles, and the sebaceous
and sweat glands, and likewise upon the basal or germinal layer.

(2) An endarteritis or proliferation of the lining membrane of
the blood vessels, which may lead to obliteration of many blood
vessels.

(3) Destruction of masses of diseased tissues, which are com-
posed of young growing cells or immature cells.

These effects upon tissues suggest the possible use of radium
for various therapeutic purposes, as follows:

(1) To effect the tissues by stimulating them. This has been
used in an empirical way in the treatment of various chronic
inflammatory processes in the skin, usually of uncertain origin.

(2) To destroy or diminish the follicles of the skin, particularly
the hair follicles. This principle has had practical application
with X-rays, but because of the small quantities available, not
with radium, except in the treatment of hairy naevi or birthmarks.

(3) To obliterate blood vessels in the skin. This has had
practical application, with very successful results, in the treat-
ment of vascular naevi or birthmarks.

(4) To destroy pathological tissues. This use is of course
possible of wide application, and has been successful in various
diseases of the skin and the adjacent underlying structure, espe-
cially in carcinomas and sarcomas (cancers). Its limitation in
cancer is that it is only effective upon such lesions as can be

80 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

directly exposed. As the action is to a degree selective, radium
and X-rays have had very valuable practical uses in these diseases.

(5) Finally the anodyne effect of radium has had some appli-
cation in the relief of itching and of pain.

The therapeutic uses of radium are obtained from the above
indications. The indications which might seem to be derived from
the effect upon other organisms, especially upon bacteria, yet to
be considered, have not increased the practical application of
the agent.

Experiments upon other mammals have added little to the facts
given above. Experiments on rabbits have shown that exposure
to the radiations cause anaesthesia in peripheral nerves (Beck),
confirming a fact established by clinical experience. Danysz and
Bohn have shown that the nervous system of certain young ani-
mals is peculiarly sensitive to the effects of radium, exposures so
arranged as to reach strongly the cerebrospinal axis causing pare-
sis, ataxia, convulsions and death. These phenomena, with nega-
tive controls, were elicited in mice, which proved most sensitive,
and in guinea pigs, and in rabbits. The sensibility is very much
greater in the very young animals, persists in older mice, but dis-
appears in great degree in adult guinea pigs and rabbits. Similar
effects upon the nervous system of man either from radium, or
X-rays do not occur from their external applications.

I cannot take more than enough time to refer very briefly to
the effects of radium upon micro-organisms, upon development,
and upon plants. The knowledge upon these subjects has been
carefully summarized in a paper by Hussakof of Columbia Uni-
versity which is readily available.

Several experiments have shown the inhibitive or, under
stronger exposures, destructive effect of radium rays upon vari-
ous bacteria in cultures—the bacillus prodigiosus, colon bacillus,
typhoid bacillus, anthrax bacillus and the spirillum of cholera.
These are the only biological findings differing from those with
X-rays, and are probably due to the greater superficial effects of
the Alpha and Beta rays because of their very slight penetration
as compared with the softest X-rays. They indicate a close sim-
ilarity, with a difference chiefly in degree, in their biological ef-
fects between Alpha and soft Beta rays and ultra Violet rays.
Similar results have been obtained by several observers from ex-
posures of numerous forms of protozoa. Their growth is at first
stimulated, then inhibited, and after intense exposures they are

Ww
i

SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOACTIVITY.

destroyed. Experiments on various eggs, embryos, and larvae
have shown, as would be expected, in these embryonic tissues, a
high degree of susceptibility. Growth is retarded, monstrosities
develop, and, from prolonged exposure, death occurs.

In lower forms of plants and seeds the results of experiments
may be summarized briefly as, first stimulation of growth, and
under stronger application, retardation or complete inhibition of
growth.

This consideration has been directed to the effects of radium
rays. As to the emanations, it may be stated briefly that experi-
ments with the emanations upon young mice, upon bacteria, and
upon protozoa show results quite like those from exposure to
the rays.

There is apparently no difference in kind in the effects upon
tissues between the different radium rays. Alpha rays have so little
penetration that their effect is expended entirely upon the most
superficial tissues, but when they are screened out the only dif-
ference in the reaction is one of intensity and depth. Exner, in
a repeated experiment, by deflecting the Beta rays by an electro
magnet directed them upon a white mouse while the Gamma raye
fell upon another mouse equidistant from the radium. Fifteen
days after exposure, which had been for 18 2/3 hours, a similar
ulceration appeared on the tails—the exposed areas—in both
mice. All three forms, of radium rays then, are physiologically
active. This fact might fairly be inferred from their actinic
properties. For the biological effects of all forms of radiant en-
ergy, there seems every reason to believe, are a manifestation of
the same actinic effects that we have long been familiar with in
certain inorganic substances. Indeed beginning with the red rays
of light at one end of the scale and ending with the hardest X-
rays and Gamma at the other; we find physiological effects dif-
fering chiefly in degree and corresponding in intensity with the
actinic strength of the respective rays.

What the bio-chemical processes are that are set going by rad-
ium, or by the more familiar forms of actinic energy, we are in
no position to say. From experiments with radium upon eggs
Schwartz proposed that all of the effects of radium upon tissues
were due to decomposition of lecithin. Hussakof suggests from
experiments of Willcock, Zuelzer, and Kornicke that oxygen in
some not understod way seems to play a part in the process.
There is every reason to believe that the process is not explicable

82 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

by any simple chemical reaction. Radium rays do not produce
an immediate effect upon living tissues, similar to the reduction
of silver salts, for example. They have an effect upon the life
processes of the cells, and these after a relatively long time pro-
duce the results that we recognize as a radium reaction. In other
words the process is a vital process, and one, doubtless, involving
all of the chemical complexity of cell life itself.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Hatxin, Archiv. f. Dermat, und Syph. 1903, LXV, p. 201. (Histology.)

Hussakor, Louis, Medical Record, July 20, 1907. Action of Radium
on Plants and Animals. (Full summary and bibliography.)

DoMINICI AND BarcatT. Archives des Maladies du coeur, des vaiseux
et du sang, 1908. ( Histology.)

Dominici. Archives Générales de Médicine, July, 1909. (Histology.)

GuILLEMontT. Archives of the Rontgen Ray, Vol. XV, No. 3, August,
1910. (Effects on seeds and plants and bio-chemistry. )

Barinc. British Med. Jour., July 30, 1910. (Effects on malignant
tumors. )

1:

- Geological Papers

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 85

OIL INVESTIGATIONS IN ILLINOIS.

By Raymonp S. BLATCHLEY,
Geologist in charge of oil studies, State Gelogical Survey.

INTRODUCTION.

In the short time available, it is possible to outline only very
briefly the investigations by the State Geological Survey, cover-
ing the present immense oil fields and other prospective oil areas.
I will give first, a brief history of operations in Illinois, then a
short statistical statement, an account of the origin and accumu-
lation of oil, and finally an outline of the investigations.

HISTORICAL STATEMENT.

The first oil excitement spread over the eastern United States
in the early part of the “sixties” and extended westward to IIli-
nois. In 1865 the first “wild-catting” took place in Clark County,
about eight miles north of Casey. Here several wells were
drilled in attempts to locate oil and gas but the work was aban-
doned. A very small amount of oil was found, which, perhaps,
would have been greater had proper casing been used. Water
drowned out the oil and prevented an earlier discovery of the
present extensive field. Oil was found about this time in a sump
in a mine near Litchfield, Montgomery County, but its exploita-
tion was delayed until 1882. A small field of 30 wells, that pro-
duced several hundred barrels annually, was outlined between
1882 and 1889. Production is wholly abandoned at the present
time. The oil came apparently from the Pottsville sands.

A gas field was discovered along an anticline in the Niagara
limestone near Pittsfield, Pike County, during 1886. About 30
wells have been drilled and 24 found to be productive in an area
covering 4 by 10 miles. Similar prospecting took place near
Sparta, Randolph County, in 1888. Several good gas wells were
found in the Chester formations of the Mississippian series of
rocks. The field was further extended in 1906 and 1908 to the
north of Sparta where about 6 wells produced small amounts of
oil. Production is all but abandoned now.

Further “wild-catting” took place in Crawford County between
1900 and 1904, but this field was not opened until 1906. The
Casey region was re-drilled in 1904-1905 and oil was found in
commercial quantities. The field spread rapidly and gradually
merged into the deeper and deeper pools of Crawford and Law-

86 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

rence counties, until at the present time, they cover a narrow
strip from 2 to 8 miles wide and about 60 miles long, with an
area of about 240 square miles.

Oil was found early in 1908 in a mine near Centralia, Marion
County. Prospectors were attracted to the territory and several
shallow productive wells were drilled. Later, in 1909, an oil and
gas area was tapped north of Sandoval in the same county. This
developed rapidly in 1910 and promises at the present time to be
an important producer of oil in Illinois. The oil comes from a
depth of about 1600 feet in a sand that corresponds to the Kirk-
wood of Lawrence County. There are now about 40 producing
wells which yield over 3500 barrels daily.

Oil and gas have been found in small quantities at other points
over the State at Greenville, Carlinville, Jacksonville, Pocahon-
tas, Marissa, Mascoutah, Eldorado, etc. Active drilling is now
going on at Duquoin, Nashville, Greenville, Carlyle and other
localities.

RANK OF ILLINOIS.

Illinois gained ninth place for production and value of oil in
1906, and third place for both in 1907. Since then the State has
held third place for production and second for value and has
been excelled only by California and Oklahoma. Up to January
1, 1911, about 18,636 wells had been drilled for oil and gas in the
State, of which 15 per cent were barren. The remaining 85 per
cent have produced since 1905, about 128,000,000 barrels of oil,
valued at about $82,000,000. The present daily output of the
fields is about 85,000 barrels. The Ohio O11 Company (Stand-
ard) controls most of the production.

THE ORIGIN AND ACCUMULATION OF OIL.

The origin of oil is uncertain, but two general theories, called
the inorganic and the organic, attempt to explain it. One is large-
ly unacceptable and even the other has many faults. The inor-
ganic theory attributes the origin of petroleum to the breaking
down of certain carbides of metals by the action of water in the
interior of the earth. It assumes a later condensation of the re-
sulting gases as they arose to cooler strata near the surface.
This hypothesis does not apply to all oil fields as well as the
organic theory. This second theory is based on the decomposi-
tion of vegetable and animal matter, particularly in the limestone
and shales near the porous sandstones which now contain the
oil. It is recognized that plants and animals were deposited in

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 87

the accumulating muds and silts of centuries. These were shut
off from the oxygen of the air and other destructive agents, so
that, eventually, a peculiar distillation converted the carbon, and
other constituents of the once living matter into oils and gases.
The distillation was a matter of long ages and the migration of
oil to more porous reservoirs than the limestones and shales, was
a secondary step.

This circulation and accumulation of oil, was accomplished by
agents such as capillarity, gravity, and gas or rock-pressure. As
the minute distillation proceeded the oil was taken up under the
influence of gravity and capillarity, and passed into the porous
sandstones. An important factor in the accumulation was the
“lay” of the rocks. The sedimentary strata were deposited under
water horizontally, or practically so, and the natural distillation
of oil probably began while the beds were in that position. Sub-
sequent folding of the strata formed series of arches or domes
offset by corresponding troughs or basins. The arches are known
as anticlines while the depressions are called synclines. When
this folding took place, the water, petroleum, and gas within the
sandstone formations were forced to move according to the laws
of gravitation and hence to distribute themselves according to
their specific gravities. The water was the heaviest of the three
fluids, and, therefore, sought the synclines as far as possible, de-
pending of course, upon the porosity of the sands. Its tendency
was to displace the oil and gas, forcing the oil to float on the
water and the gas to rise still higher. The oil was enabled to
rise as far as the water extended up the slopes of the synclines,
while the gas was able to free itself and rise to the highest place
in the porous bed, usually the crest of the anticlines. The sur-
face of the oil sand on the anticline may be pitted or undulating
and this condition may affect an extensive area or only a few
acres of ground. Though the general accumulation of oil and
gas is governed by the anticline proper, covering many miles, the
segregation of pools may be caused by smaller folds on the large
one. This intricate system of synclines and arches on the parent
fold is coupled with variation in the porosity of the sands and
the two conditions greatly affect the distribution of oil and gas.
It is readily recognized that either factor may explain the local
presence of dry holes within productive territory.

A segregation of oil may take place along a bench or some-
times called a structural “terrace”, much in the same manner as

88 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

in the anticlines and synclines. The “terrace”, strictly speaking,
is an interruption in the uniform dip of the sides of a basin, giv-
ing rise to an approximately horizontal plane. Such benches are
to be found upon the sides of the great structural basin in south-
ern and central Illinois. The water in the basin enables the oil
to rise to the “terrace”, where it is trapped by friction. Any oil,
originally in the sloping sand above the bench, may migrate farth-
er up the general incline until it is caught by some other bar-
rier.

In studying the theories and the actual facts in the oil fields it
is found that the oil and gas in the main fields occur along the
crest of the LaSalle anticline. That in Marion County occurs on
a “terrace” or irregular dome. Enough information is at hand
to show that wet sands predominate in Illinois and that the oil
and gas are captive in the highest portions of raised structure,
according to the theory stated. It has been further shown that
practically all localities in Illinois, yielding oil and gas to date, lie
along anticlines, domes, or terraces. Therefore, the general con-
clusion follows that any area within the State, or out of it, for
that matter, underlain by suitable formations and these structural
features, will bear investigation for the presence of oil and gas.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The Survey began an investigation of the main fields in 1908,
with a view of determining certain peculiar conditions existing in
the oil horizons. The elevations above sea level and logs of
about 5,000 wells were taken in the southern half of the produc-
tive area. These records were plotted and contour maps were
made upon each sand. The maps, about 15 in number, are being
studied at the present time and an effort is being made to find
the relation of the quantities of oil, salt-water, porosity of the
sand, etc., to the structural features of the sand. It is believed
that these maps will be of large service in the further develop-
ment of this important field and also that they will yield valuable
data for the study of the laws governing the genesis and accumu-
lation of oil and gas. The report will include also the commer-
cial features peculiar to the Illinois fields.

The work upon the report of the main fields has been inter-
rupted to prepare a paper in response to many inquiries received
by the Survey, relative to the conditions and localities favorable
for the accumulation of oil and gas outside of the main fields.
They have been, chiefly, questions regarding structural features,

Pte La ft

Ff . Fea a
7 ¥

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a ioe itad ed ite @ Fe 4

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Plate I.

AUKEGAN

p\North Chisage
ndout
ike Porest

PAM! Lake
Nui inhtand

WEsTp
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0" DAVEN PORT

— JOCK ISLA

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kg : ONO ON
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ay a WY LA VERMONT

By ObASTORIA

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HIPMAN eed

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4< =
a é

AX.
sala ror
i %

CROSS SECTION LINES

LA SALLE ANTICLIN SCOBDEN }

SUGGESTED TERRACES
Ott PRODUCING AREAS

LAL
TEN

20)

ri ~ <4 Brodkpf Te. ) yx é
Ni & PRINCETON Ne
WN = 1°

Longitude West 14° from Washington 13°30”

Map of Illinois showing oil fields, cross-section lines, position of structural
terraces and of the La Salle anticline.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 89

such as anticlinal folds, dips of coals, oil seeps, depths to the oil
sands, etc. The determination of structural features outside of
the main fields seemed formidable because of the immense ex-
panse of flat territory, so covered with drift as to conceal the
sequence of formations and practically all evidence of folding
and faulting. The only means available was to construct several
geological cross-sections of Illinois and to point out the irregu-
larities occurring in some key horizon. The folds serve to out-
line prospective drilling areas to the oil operators but the adjoin-
ing basins or slopes are not so favorable.

Plate 1 indicates the location of the sections which were con-
structed.

The general sections were chosen along lines showing the
greatest number of wells and coal bores and at the same time
crossing the great structural basin of Illinois. The identification
or correlation of various beds in each section presents a general
idea of the stratigraphy and structure of the lower portion of the
State. The four sections presented here include only a portion
of the work accomplished by the Survey. The cross-sections
were constructed by plotting records with uniform symbols and
scale. They are located with respect to their distance from the
nearest town and to their position above sea level. Correlation
lines, drawn between similar formations in adjoining records,
picture any rise or fall. Thus section A-A, (plate II.) giving
the most complete geological data across the State, presents a
complete picture of the great structural basin of central Illinois.
The section is drawn from St. Louis, Mo., to Vincennes, Ind.,
and crosses the Sandoval and Lawrence County oil fields. In
this and the other sections, there is indicated a conspicuous
spoon-shaped basin, with its long axis paralleling the LaSalle
anticline and extending from the north line of Stephenson Coun-
ty past LaSalle, Cerro Gordo, Lovington, Olney, and continuing
to the southwest county of Indiana. The deepest part of the
basin lies in the vicinity of Wayne, Hamilton, Edwards, and
White counties, where the rocks lie comparatively flat and the
basin broad. Towards this basin, with local exceptions, all the
rocks of Illinois and of Western Indiana, dip gently. Attention
is called to the key horizon or the No. 6 coal, which is definitely
known over about one-half the section, while in the remainder, it
is doubtfully identified.

The accompanying printed sections indicating the order and

90 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

character of the strata, were published by Bain*, and are modi-
fied slightly to agree with later conclusions.

Overlying the consolidated rocks of the State except in the
extreme southern and the northwestern counties, there is a vary-
ing thickness of glacial deposits or “drift.” These clays, sands,
gravels, etc., are commonly encountered in drilling before hard
rock is reached. Locally, they contain gas, but the pressure is
usually slight and the life of the individual wells is short. While
it is not possible in every case to absolutely exclude the possibil-
ity of these wells representing leakage from lower reservoirs, a
sufficient explanation of them is believed to be found in the de-
cay of woody material buried in the drift itself.

The stratigraphic section for southern Illinois is most import-
ant in the study of oil possibilities. The formations promising
best production are indicated by italic and occur chiefly in the
Carboniferous system. Possible oil “sands” are suggested also
in the Ordovician and Silurian systems, especially in central and
southern Illinois.

Northern Illinois Section.

This section is intended to be representative for that portion of the
State lying north of Rock Island, La Salle and Kankakee.

“Coal measures,” mainly middle part; consisting of

Carboniferous. coal, shale, sandstone, and limestone; 575 feet
(Pennsylvanian. ) thick; no known gas or oil.
Unconformity.

Limestone; 150 feet thick.
Unconformity.

A nnn nnn nnn EIT ISIn IEEE SEES

Devonian.

Niagara limestone; dolomite; 335-388 feet thick;
containing frequent seepages of bitumen in the
vicimty of Chicago.

Unconformity.

Silurian.

a

Cincinnatian shales and limestone; 68-250 feet thick.
Unconformity.
Galena-Trenton; mainly dolomite, a little limestone
and shale at the base; 300-440 feet thick; a very
Ars persistent “oil rock” or petroliferous shale in the
Ordovician. lower portion. St. Peter sandstone; friable sand-
stone 150-275 feet thick; heavily water-bearing.
Lower Magnesian dolomitic limestone; 450-811 feet
thick; all but upper part known from well records;
rests on Potsdam sandstone, known only from
well records.

ee ee ee

*Bain, H. Foster, Petroleum fields in Illinois in 1907: Bull. Tik State Geol.
Survey No. 8, pp. 273-312.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 91

Central Illinots Section.

For the region south of Rock Island, LaSalle and Kankakee, and
north of the mouth of the Illinois River and Danville.

“Coal measures,” upper part; coal, shale, limestone,
and sandstone; 600-700 feet thick.

“Coal measures,” middle part; shale, sandstone, and
coal including approximately from “No. 2 coal” to
“No. 6 coal;” 300 feet thick.

; “Coal measures,” basal part; (Pottsville equivalents),

Carboniferous. including coal, clay, shale, and sandstone; mainly
(Pennsylvanian.) | the beds associated with the “No. 1 coals” of the

| western part of the State, and of irreguar thick-
ness, found in deep borings elsewhere; 50-150 feet

| thick; small amounts of oil and gas reported, but
| origin not certain.

| Unconformity.

|
|
|
|

Chester; irregular thickness of sandstone, shale
and limestone, recognized in a few borings; gen-
erally absent in this territory; 0-50 feet thick.

Unconformity.

St. Louis, Salem, Ste. Genevieve; limestone, non-

2 magnesian, partly cherty and partly oolitic; 50-100

Carboniferous. feet thick. Osage group, Warsaw, Keokuk, and
(Mississippian. ) Burlington; shales and limestone, the latter often

cherty; 250-350 feet thick; crude petroleum sn
geodes near the top of the Keokuk.

Kinderhook; shales, limestones, and sandstones; 80-
150 feet thick.

Unconformity.
Pivonian Limestone; 15 feet thick.
: Unconformity.
Niagara; dolomite; 50-120 feet thick; gas at Pitts-
Silurian. field in Pike County, and oil seepage in Calhoun
County.
Cincinnatian; shales; 40-100 feet thick.
Unconformity. ; : :
Oelovican Galena-Trenton; dolomite; 300-400 feet thick; os/

seepage at Calhoun County. é
St. Peter; sandstone; 130 feet exposed; heavily
water-bearing.

Southern Illinois Section. ; ;
For the area south of the mouth of the Illinois River and Danville,
including the principal oil and gas producing districts.

Lafayette, Porters Creek and Lagrange; sands, clays,
Tertiary. and ferruginous conglomerate found in extreme
southern counties only; 150 feet thick. }

Ripley; sands and clays in extreme southern portion
Cretaceous. of the State only; 20-40 feet thick.
Unconformity.

92 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

“Coal measures,” upper part; coal, shale, sandstone,
and limestone; 500-700 feet thick; contains the oil
pes sands of the Westfield, Siggins and Casey
pools.

“Coal measures,” middle part; coal, shale, sandstone,
and limestone; 400-650 feet thick; including prob-
ably the lower pay of the Johnson Townsiip pool

Carboniferous. in Clark County, and possibly the Robinson sand.
(Pennsylvanian. ) “Coal measures,” basal part (Pottsville equivalents) ;
sandstone, conglomerate, shale, and thin coals;

50 to 500 feet thick; including the Buchanan sand

and probably the Robinson and Bridgeport sands,

with the greater part at least of the productive

sand of Montgomery County. The oil sand of

Princeton, Ind., may possibly belong in this group.

Unconformity.

i ——————————

Chester group; limestone, shales and sandstones, usu-
ally three well defined limestones (non-cherty)
and generally with red shale at the base; 500 feet
thick; includes the Kirkwood oil sand of Lawrence
County; a gas sand at Vincennes, Ind.; the gas
and oil sands at Sparta in Randolph County; the
Stein and Benoist oil sands of Marion County; the
Lindley gas sand of Greenville, Bond County, and
the oil sand of Oakland City, Ind.; the three latter
sands being the equivalents of the Kirkwood sand.

Carboniferous. Cypress; sandstone, massive, coarse-grained; fairly
(Mississippian. ) regular in a thickness of 80 to 150 feet; not known
to have been prospected for gas or oil; Tracey
sand.
Unconformity.

Ste. Genevieve, St. Louis and Salem; limestone,
partly cherty and partly oolitic; 250-400 feet thick;
McClosky sand.

Osage group (Burlington, Keokuk, Warsaw) ; lime-
stone often cherty with some shale; 200 feet thick.

err ies mainly shale, some limestone; 50 feet
thick.

. Limestone, sandstone, shale; limited in outcrop to
Devonian. | southern counties; 500-700 feet thick.
Stsrian Niagara and Clinton; limestone; in southern coun-
: ties only; 100-110 feet thick.
Cincinnatian; limestone, shale, and sandstone; 100
feet thick.
Ordovician. Unconformity.
Galena-Trenton; limestone, non-magnesian; 80 feet
thick.

It is not necessary to present the details of the stratigraphy
along the A-A section. There is plainly shown the varying
thickness of drift deposits, and particularly the thickening of the
“Coal Measures” or Pennsylvanian rocks, toward the basin. The

———

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 93

upper rocks are characterized by coals, thin limestones, and shale.
They are shown to be thickest in the south-central part of the
State along the axis of the main basin or syncline. From this
region they become thinner as the formations rise towards the
borders of the State. This due partly to surface erosion and
partly to variation in original deposition.

The massive Pottsville sandstones underlie the “Coal Meas-
ures” proper and are a part of the Pennsylvanian series. The
Pottsville sands are often interbedded with shales and hence the
top is difficult to identify, owing to the merging of the sends with
overlying shaly rocks. The correlations in the cross-sections
were based, for the most part, upon the top of the thick sand,
immediately underlying the conspicuous shaly rocks. There is
also a usual absence of limestone strata in them, thus differing
distinctly from the underlying Mississippian rocks. The several
sections show that the Pottsville is practically absent west of an
irregular line drawn from Springfield through Carlyle to Coul-
terville. It is also absent north of Springfield, except possibly in
the vicinity to the northeast. A thickness of 450 feet along the
C-C section, presented later, decreases to 300 feet along the A-A
section, and to 50 or 100 feet along the E-E. These sandstones
are very productive in the main fields, and are called the Bucha-
nan from the name of the farm on which oil was first found in
that sand.

The Mississippian series lying in the Carboniferous, next be-
low the Pennsylvania, contains the most widely productive oil
sands in the State. The upper part of the Mississippian includes
the Chester rocks, characterized by a succession of limestones,
red shales, and sandstones. The top of these rocks is marked by
the first limestone below the Pottsville. The red shales are im-
portant horizon markers with the oil men, signifying the ap-
‘proach to such sands as the Kirkwood, Tracey and McClosky.
The Kirkwood sand of Lawrence County, the Benoist sand of
Marion County, Lindley sand of Bond County, and the Sparta
sand of Randolph County, all belong to the same horizon and
underlie the Chester red shales. Oil men scarcely ever drill be-
low the Chester rocks and into the massive St. Louis limestones,
the “big line.” In several cases, however, deep wells have been
drilled in search of the Trenton or Niagara.

The oil of the main fields comes from the following sands:

County. NAME OF SAND DrEPTH—FEET.

Clark

Edgar Shallow 375- 500
Cumberland

Coles

Crawford Robinson 750- 950
Lawrence Bridgeport 850-1000
Lawrence Buchanan 1300-1400
Lawrence Kirkwood 1450-1600
Lawrence Tracey 1690-1750
Lawrence McClosky 1800-1890

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

The structure of the cross-section is indicated by the “lay” of
the coal. The coal outcrops several miles east of St. Louis, along
the bluffs of the Mississippi. It dips gently from that point but
irregularly at several places along the section. In the vicinity
of Sandoval the coal is seen to lie rather flat and then dip sud-
denly into the deeper part of the basin. The new oil field at
this town lies along this deformation, which extends southward
to Duquoin and possibly northward between Brownstown and
Vandalia, Pana and Tower Hill to Niantic. The rocks rise from
the axis of the basin to the LaSalle anticline at a fast rate and
then decline gently and rise again into Indiana. The main oil
fields of Southeastern Illinois lie at the top of the anticline. The
formations below the No. 6 coal rise in a similar fashion and
corroborate the structure. The Kirkwood sand correlation line
indicates the sharp rise over the LaSalle anticline.

It may be mentioned at this point that the survey has collected
complete samples from about 20 wells over the main fields, from
depths of 800 to 2000 feet. Studies of these will almost certainly
identify the No. 6 coal over the anticline and permit closer classi-
fication of all the oil producing formations.

The promising structural features along the A-A section are,
the flat “terrace” at O’Fallon, the mild arch at Aviston, the slight
arch at Carlyle, the irregular Sandoval and Odin “terrace” and
the Iuka fold.

The C-C section (plate III) is plotted along a line from New
Athens to Duquoin, Benton, Rileyville and Eldorado. It follows
the Illinois Central railway closely between these points and is
especially valuable since it is based on a large number of coal
bores and mine records. There are several attractive structural
features exhibited, especially one at Duquoin. After passing the

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 95

Coulterville syncline, the coal rises toward Pinckneyville and
forms an anticline between there and Duquoin. This is about 8
miles wide. The coal presnts a remarkable dip of over 400 feet
in about 214 miles, immediately east of Duquoin. This offers ex-
cellent opportunity for the migration of oil into the anticline and
as several wells already drilled indicate, the sands on the slope
are thoroughly saturated with water. The Duquoin anticline
extends to the southwest towards Murphysboro and is shown
by the coal contours recently published by E. W. Shaw on the
Murphysboro quadrangle. From Duquoin northward it probably
passes west of Tamaroa and Dubois, and between Nashville and
Ashley. It is considered to be a continuation of the Sandoval
“terrace,” already spoken of. The crest of this structure 1s
higher at Duquoin than at Sandoval and hence has a slope down-
ward to the north of Duquoin. At Duquoin the dip is from about
400 feet above to several feet below sea level, while at Centralia
the dip is from sea level downward. The fold is narrowing in
its axial width northward from Duquoin.

The most promising structural features along this section are
enumerated as follows:

1. The Marissa flat.
2. The Tilden anticline.

3. The Duquoin anticline.
4. The second Duquoin arch.

The D-D cross-section (plate IV) was drawn from Marion in
Williamson County to Salem in Marion County. It crosses the
southern slope of the Illinois basin and shows the position of the
coal from south to north. The dip along the southern slope
of the basin is about 50 feet per mile. There is a slight flattening
of the coal between wells 5 and 6. A “terrace” occurs between
wells 8 and 9, south of Benton, and a slight bench is shown
at well No. 11.

The E-E cross-section (plate V) is the most northern one and
is plotted along a line from Beardstown in Cass County to the
State line near Danville in Vermilion County. The section reveals
the relations of the lower rocks on the western side of the State;
the shallow character of the Illinois basin in the northern part
of the State; and the La Salle anticline. It is particularly valu-
able from a stratigraphical point of view, since the Chester rocks
are shown to be absent around Springfield and present to a small
degree in the basin at Decatur. The Pottsville is very thin along
this section. The only significant feature in the structure exists

96 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

at Niantic. A very small arch is shown in the No. 6 coal. It is
noticeable that from this point eastward there is a rapid dip of
the coal into the basin. It is suggested that the Niantic deforma-
tion may be a continuation of the Sandoval-Duquoin “terrace.”
All the formations show a decided rise into the La Salle anticline
at Tolono. The crest of this arch is thought to be west of Tolono
in the vicinity of Sadorous.

Other sections, not presented here, show similar features in the
key horizon and seem to corroborate the presence of the previ-
ously mentioned minor folds along the broad western flank of
the Lllinois basin.

Besides structural cross-sections, detailed contour maps on the
No. 6 coal have been made of some areas. (plate VI, coal con-
tour map of Marion County.) That for the new Sandoval oil
field is presented here. The position of the coal in the several
mines and wells along the western side of the county were noted,
and also the surface elevations at each. Contours of 25 feet
interval were made from these data. The dips in the various
directions are portrayed and warrant definite conclusions regard-
ing the present and future drilling. The structure of the coal is
further shown by the use of profiles drawn between prominent
points on the contour maps, in such position that they are at right
angles to the dip. They are intended merely to make clear the
mental picture to those who are not familiar with contouring.

The present active oil field near Sandoval seems to be bounded
by the-125-foot coal contour, and the best area to further develop
that field lies within the confines of that line. This includes the
town of Sandoval and the area southeast of it. The most prom-
ising area, however, is in and about the crest of the dome-like
structure in section 29. Oil has already been found in shallow
sands in this structure, but the lower sands are even more
promising.

The similarity of the structure south of Centralia to that of
Duquoin leads to the conclusion that a structural ‘terrace’ exists
slightly to the west of Centralia, and hence offers prospective terri-
tory. The so-called “terrace” is irregular but possibly continuous .
throughout Fayette, Marion, Washington and Perry counties.

Reference to plate I indicates the position of various deforma-
tions discussed. It will be readily seen that the western flank of
the Illinois basin holds promise of new oil fields and that possibly
the northern portion of the La Salle anticline will bear investiga-

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 97

tion in the older formations. The center of the basin or main
syncline of the State is not promising for prospectors. It has
been sufficiently drilled at an aggregate expense that is astounding,
to corroborate the theories just explained. Future drilling should
be based on the scientific investigation which has been outlined
here.

THE CHANNAHON AND ESSEX LIMESTONES IN
ILLINOIS.*

By T. E. Savace,
Illinois State Geological Survey.

The Channahon and Essex limestones represent certain early
Silurian strata that have a restricted distribution in northern IIli-
nois and in the Mississippi valley. Small remnants or outliers
of these rocks have been found only in the counties of Will and
Kankakee. This paper is based on field studies and fossil collec-
tions made by Mr. A. J. Ellis and the writer for the State
Geological Survey.

THE CHANNAHON LIMESTONE.

The rocks referred to as the Channahon limestone outcrop in
the south bank of the Des Plaines River, about one mile southeast
of the village of Channahon, in Will County. They also underlie
the surficial materials over a limited area on the north side of the

river. A section of the strata exposed at the former locality is
as follows:

SEcTION OF CHANNAHON LIMESTONE. Feet.
3. Dark gray to brown, rather fine-grained, impure limestone in layers
3-6 inches thick, containing many fossils....................-- 1%

2. Dark colored limestone, consisting of a fine-grained matrix in which
are imbedded numerous simple corals, besides the fossils
Leptena rhomboidalis, Schucheriella curvisiriata, Pterinea ele-

_ gans, Metapolichas ferriss and others..............-- Peery Pe 234
1. Fine-grained, yellowish-gray, laminated sandstone, without fossils,
to the level of the water.im the river.................-2------- 5

In the foregoing section there is no apparent unconformity
between the different members, although the lithology of the
sandstone at the base is markedly different from that of the over-
lying limestone, and the numerous corals occurring in the second
member are absent in the upper bed. The contact of the rocks
described in the foregoing section with the Maquoketa shale
below, or with the Niagara limestone above, cannot be seen at the
point where the section was made. However, normal lower

*Published by permission of the Director of the Ill State Geol. Survey.

98 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Niagara strata, carrying the common fossils of that horizon, are
well exposed a few rods east of this point, at a level only four
or five feet higher than the top of the uppermost member of the
section. A blue plastic shale, that doubtless represents the
Maquoketa, outcrops in the bank of the river about one-half
mile further east, at an altitude slightly above that of the top of
the section. At two points in the vicinity of Millsdale, where the
contact of the lower beds of the Niagara limestone with the
underlying Maquoketa shale is well exposed, the Channahon
limestone is absent, and there are present no intervening strata
of any kind.

The limestone members of the foregoing section furnished the
following very interesting assemblage of fossils:

FossILs FROM THE CHANNAHON LIMESTONE.

*Zaphrentis channahonensis, n. sp.
Zaphrentis stokesi Edwards and Haime?
Atrypa putilla (Hall and Clarke) ?
Dalmanella elegantula var.
Homoeospira channahonensis n. sp.
Gypidula cf. simplex Foerste.
Leptaena rhomboidalis (Wilckens).
Leptobolus illinoisensis n. sp.
Pholidops channahonensis n. sp.
Rhipidomella hybrida (Sowerby).
Rhynchotreta intermedia n. sp.
Schuchertella curvistriata n. sp.
Whitheldella acuminata n. sp.
Whitfeldella ovoides n. sp.
Holopea illinoisensis n. sp.
Pterinea elegans n. sp.
Dawsonoceras tenuilineatum n. sp.
Cyphaspis intermedia Weller.
Metapolichas ferrisi Weller.
Proetus channahonensis Weller.

CoRRELATION: In the foregoing list of fossils, the species
Dalmanella elegantula var., Gypidula cf. simplex and Rhipidomella
hybrida indicate a Silurian age, but the fauna as a whole cannot
be directly correlated with that of any known Silurian horizon.
The greater number of the species have been found at no other
place. Out of twenty species in the list, only two species of corals
and four of the brachiopods have been described from other
localities. The remaining fourteen species are known only from
the strata under consideration at this place, and so are of no
help in the correlation of the bed. Of the old species, the corals
are not definite markers of any Silurian horizon. Of the brachio-

2. Note: The species of fossils in this paper designated as mew, have

been described by the writer in a paper that will soon be published in the
Bulletin of the Geological Society of America.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 99

pods, Dalmanella elegantula and Rhipidomella hybrida are com-
mon Niagara species; Gypidula simplex was described by Foerste
from the Waldron bed at Newsom, Tennessee; Atrypa putilla
was described by Hall and Clarke from very early Silurian strata
in Pike County, Missouri, which have been correlated with the
Edgewood! formation in Alexander County, Illinois. Several of
the other species in this list, while not specifically identical with
forms occurring in the Edgewood formation of southwest Illinois,
have very close affinities with species found in that formation.
These are shown in the following comparative table:

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF FOSSILS.

Fossils from the Channahon Lime- Fossils from the Edgewood Forma-

stone in Will County. tion in Alexander County.
Zaphrentis channahonensis. Zaphrentis channahonensis
Atrypa putilla? Atrypa putilla
Dalmanelia elegantula var. Dalmanella elegantula var.
Leptaena rhomboidalis Leptaena rhomboidalis
Rhynchotreta intermedia Rhynchotreta thebesensis
Schuchertella curvistriata Schuchertella propinqua
Whitfeldella acuminaia Whitheldella billingsana
Pterinea elegans Pterinea thebenensts
Dawsonoceras tenutlineatum Dawsonoceras cf. tenuilineatum
Cyphaspis intermedia Cyphaspis intermedia
Metapolichas ferriss Metapolichas clintonensts
Proetus channahonensis Proetus determinatus

While the correspondence of the respective species of fossils
compared from the two areas is not identical, yet the differences
between them are slight. The fauna from the Channahon locality
is more closely related to that of the Edgewood formation than to
any other known fauna.

It is thought that the strata in the two areas represent about the
same general period of deposition; and that the differences in
the specific characters of the forms above compared are largely
due to local differences in the marine environments of the faunas
in the respective regions.

Whether the sea in which the Channahon limestone accumu-
lated was connected southward with the Pike County, Missouri,
and Alexander County, Illinois, basin, or whether it had a
northern connection as did the sea in which the overlying Niagara
limestone was deposited, cannot be determined until other
exposures of these early Silurian beds are discovered and their
faunal relations are better known.

iSavage, T. E.: Ill. State Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 16, 1911.

100 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

THE ESSEX LIMESTONE.

The strata comprising the Essex limestone overlie the Maquo-
keta shale in an exposure along the north bank of Horse creek,
about one and one-half miles east of the town of Essex, in Kan-
kakee County. Plate VII. shows the character of the rocks at
this place, and a detailed section of the strata is given below:

SecTIonsS oF RocKs Outcroppinc ALonNG Horse CREEK.

Feet

3. Yellowish-brown, magnesian limestone, containing small nodules
and masses of chert, and bearing Pentamerella ? manniensis and

OtHEL TOSSES) dn vec cite won ne bya eek ea eb eee Cee ae eee

2. Yellowish-brown, thin bedded, magnesian limestone, in layers 3 to 5

inches thick, with numerous fossilSas-. ho eco ten eee 84
1. Rather hard, bluish colored, barren shale, in layers 2 to 6 inches
thick, exposed above the level of low water.............ssee0e 2

The lowest member of the foregoing section represents the
Maquoketa shale. This shale is better exposed a few rods fur-
ther down the stream, where a thickness of eleven feet may be
seen, with no trace of the overlying limestone. The dolomitic
limestone, comprising the second and third members of the sec-
tion, constitutes the Essex limestone and contains the following
fossils :

FossILs FROM THE ESSEX LIMESTONE.

Zaphrentis sp.

Favosites cf. niagarensis Hall.
Halysites catenulatus Linn.
Atrypa marginalis (Dalman).
Atrypa putilla (Hall and Clarke).
Atrypa sp.

Camarotoechia near acinus Hall.
Camarotoechia? cliftonensis Foerste.
Dalmanella elegantula var.
Gypidula sp.

Leptaena rhomboidalis (Wilckens).
Pentameralla? manniensis Foerste.
Rhipidomella hybrida (Sowerby).
Rhynchotreta simplex Foerste.
Rhynchotreta thebesensis Foerste.
Schuchertella sp.

Schuchertella subplana (Conrad).
Strophonella sp.

Whitfeldella cylindrica Hall.
Whitfeldella sp.

Bellerophon sp.

ef. Cyclora alta.

Conularia sp.

Platyostoma sp.

Pleurotomaria sp.

Loxonema sp.

Modiolopsis sp.

Mytilarca mytiliformis (Hall).
Pterinea sp.

Il

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*

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 101

CorRELATION: In the foregoing list of fossils only thirteen
species are certainly identified. Of this number, Halysites caten-
ulatus and Leptaena rhomboidalis have no definite stratigraphic
value. Atrypa marginalis, Atrypa putilla, Dalmanella elegantula
var., and Rhynchotreta thebesensis occur also in the Edgewood
strata of southwest Illinois. Atrypa marginalis and Dalmanella
elegantula have also been reported from the Clinton bed at Clif-
ton, Tennessee.

Of the remaining seven identified species, Camarotoechia ?
cliftonensis, Pentamerella ? manniensis and Rhynchotreta simplex
were described by Foerste from strata that he considered of
Clinton age, at Clifton and near Riverside, in western Tennessee,
where they were said to occur with such other typical Ohio Clin-
ton species as Triplecia ortoni, and Illaenus daytonensis. Whit-
fieldella cylindrica and Mytilarca mytiliformis were described by
Hall from the Clinton strata of New York. Rhipidomella hybrida
and Schuchertella subplana are common species of the Niagara
limestone.

The above analysis of the fauna of the Essex limestone would
seem to indicate a Clinton age for these strata. However, in this
fauna, the typical species of the Ohio Clinton fossils are wanting,
and the characteristic fossils of the New York Clinton are absent.
In southwest Illinois there are present normal Ohio Clinton strata
containing fossils similar to those found in the corresponding beds
in Ohio; but such characteristic fossils of the Essex limestone, as
Camarotoechia ? cliftonensis, Pentamerella ? manniensis, and
Rhynchotreta simplex do not occur either in southwest Illinois or
in the Clinton beds in Ohio. Since the normal Ohio Clinton fauna
is present in the Clinton strata of Ohio and southern Illinois, but
is absent in the Essex limestone in which Camarotoechia ? clif-
tonensis, Pentamerella ? manniensis and Rhychotreta simplex are
common, it seems strange that the faunas of the Ohio Clinton
and of the Essex limestone should be intermingled in the Clinton
bed at Clifton, Tennessee. That the Essex fauna entered the
Mississippi valley from the south, as did also the Ohio Clinton, is
indicated by its presence in Illinois and in western Tennessee, and
its absence east of the Cincinnati arch. The Pentamerella ? man-
niensis horizon has also been found at an intervening point in
Jersey county, Illinois.

In view of these facts, it is difficult to understand how such an
important element of the Essex fauna could be mixed with the

102 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Ohio Clinton fauna in the more southern locality, and the two
faunas occur so distinctly separated further north in Illinois. This
difficulty was called to the attention of Dr. Foerste,? who replied
that he was now inclined to consider the strata at Clifton, Tennes-
see, that has been referred to the Clinton, as consisting of two
distinct horizons ; the upper part being coarser grained, and carry-
ing the Ohio Clinton fauna, while the lower part is more cherty
and contains the fossils Rhynchotreta simplex, Camarotoechia ?
cliftonensis, Pentamerella ? manniensis and their associates, but
not bearing the typical Ohio Clinton fauna. If this is the true
interpretation of the so-called Clinton strata in western Tennessee
it would indicate that the Essex limestone fauna was to be corre-
lated with that of the strata immediately below the layers
representing the normal Ohio Clinton at Clifton, Tennes-
see. The presence of the Edgewood species, Atrypa putilla,
Dalmanella elegantula var., and Rhynchotreta thebesensis in the
Essex limestone is further evidence that this fauna is older than
that of the Ohio Clinton, which, in Alexander County, Illinois,
overlies the Edgewood formation.

The above facts indicate that neither the Niagara limestone,
nor even the Clinton, represents the earliest Silurian strata that
were deposited in northern Illinois ; that the Channahon and Essex
limestones represent pre-Clinton beds of Silurian age that were
probably spread over considerable areas in the Mississippi valley,
but were later mostly removed by erosion prior to the deposition
of the overlying Niagara strata.

The term Alexandrian* has been proposed as a geological series
to receive all of the early Silurian strata in the Mississippi
valley that are older than the Ohio Clinton beds and younger
than the Richmond. The Girardeau limestone and the Edgewood
formation of southwestern Illinois were assigned to this series.
If the correlations of the Channahon and Essex limestones, sug-
gested above, are correct, the Essex limestone would belong above
the Edgewood, near the top of the Alexandrian series. The
Channahon limestone should probably be referred to a horizon
corresponding in general with that of the Edgewood formation,
while the Girardeau limestone, in southwestern Illinois and south-
eastern Missouri, continues to hold a place in the lower part of
the series.

*Savage, T. E., Am. Jour. of Sci., Vol. 25, p. 434, 1908.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 103

The presence of such remnants of pre-Clinton Silurian forma-
tions as the Channahon and Essex limestones furnish abundant
evidence that, even where apparently conformable, the Niagara
limestone in northern Illinois is separated from the underlying
Maquoketa (Richmond) beds by an important stratigraphic break
of very considerable length.

1. Note: In a private letter in which the statement credited to Dr.
Foerste was made, he says that this suggested differentiation of the faunas
in the strata at Clifton, Tennessee, was from memory only, this subdivision
of horizon not being suspected at the time the fossil collection was made.

THE EASTWARD EXTENSION OF THE SWEETLAND
CREEK SHALE IN ILLINOIS.

By J. A. UpbpDEN,
University of Texas, Petrolia, Tex.

In 1898 I had occasion to examine and describe a deposit of
shale which occurs under the Pennsylvanian, in Muscatine Coun-
ty in Iowa. It overlies unconformably the Cedar Valley limestone
in this locality and its entire thickness is only about forty feet.
It is a shale that is quite distinct from any shale in the coal meas-
ures. It is more evenly developed than the latter, and single layers
in it, only a few inches thick, may be traced for several miles.
The upper part of the shale has a grayish green color. The lower
part is dark, and it contains some strata of dolomitic limestones
at the base. These basal layers contain teeth of Ptyctodus eal-
ceolus, often in abundance. The lower half of the formation as
here developed also contains other fossils, such as:

Lingula, sp. undet.

L. cf. melie Hall.

Lingula, cf. nuda Hall.

Lingula subspatulata M. and W. (?)
Spathiocaris emersoni Clarke.
Solenocaris strigata Meek.

Ptyctodus calceolus M. and W.
Rhynchodus, cf. excavatus Newb.
Syntheiodus.

Gasteropods.

There is also present in considerable abundance the fossil known
as Sporangites huronense. This fossil is supposed to be a spore
of some paleozoic tree, and consists of brown circular discs
nearly too small to be seen by the unaided eye. In some layers this
is present in such abundance as to give the shale a brownish color.
The spores consist of a bituminous substance, and when submitted
to a distilling heat the shale gives out a considerable percentage of

104 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

gas and oil. The best exposures are in Sweetland Creek, and
hence the name, the Sweetland Creek Shale.

Under the Kinderhook limestone at Burlington in Iowa, there
are some 300 feet of shale overlying the Devonian limestone. In
this locality this shale has usually been referred to the Kinderhook
group. Whether these two shales are different formations, one
overlying the other unconformably, or whether they belong to the
same formation, is at present an undetermined question. The
lower part of the shale at Muscatine was referred to the Che-
mung by Prof. Hall long ago, and its fish and crustacean fauna
support this view.

During the progress of some examinations of samples of well
drillings in the north and central parts of Illinois, I have found a
shale resembling the Sweetland Creek shale in several wells. The
identification of this shale with the Sweetland Creek is believed to
be sufficiently certain. It is based upon the similarity in texture
and general appearance of both shales, on the presence in both of
Sporangites huronense, in the presence of certain fossil fragments
resembling denticles of annelids, and in the presence in some well
samples of a Lingula. The formation varies in thickness from less
than a hundred to 300 feet, owing no doubt to an unconformity.
The observations made on the shale in several of the wells are
as follows:

GALESBURG CITY WELL NUMBER 3.

In the Galesburg city well number 3, made in 1906, there was
a light gray shale underlying the coal measures at a depth below
the surface of 245 feet. With this shale were some pieces of white
chert, evidently from a remnant of the Burlington limestone
above. Some more shale was taken from 330 feet below the sur-
face. This was labeled “brown shale.” It contained Sporangites in
abundance, well preserved. When crushed by the drill it no doubt
gave a brown color to the shale, that otherwise is gray. The next
sample below this was from 380 feet below the surface and con-
sisted of a soft shaly limestone, probably Devonian. The shale at
this place may be a hundred feet thick.

THE OLD MONMOUTH CITY WELL.

In the well drilled in 1887 at 410 North Sixth Street, in the
city of Monmouth, a greenish gray shale, no doubt equivalent to
the Kinderhook shale at Burlington, in Iowa, extends from 168 to
299 feet below the surface. Under this there is a dark gray shale

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 105

extending down to 427 feet below the surface. From this bed
nineteen samples were taken about five feet apart, and in more
than half the number of these samples Sporangites huronense is
present. Some annelid denticles were also noted in one of these
samples, taken 313 feet below the surface. The two shales together
have a thickness of 261 feet.

THE HENRY CITY WELL.

From the old city well in Henry, made in 1886, in Marshall
County, one sample of drillings was taken representing the strata
from 325 to 402 feet below the surface. A part of this sample
consists of shale belonging to the coal measures, which in this well
extend down from 130 to 325 feet below the surface. But the
greater part of the sample consists of a faintly brownish gray
shale, in which Sporangites huronense occurs in abundance. The
next sample taken below this represents the ground from 402 to
426 feet below the surface. This is mostly white, finely graular
limestone, probably Devonian.

THE SCHUYLER OIL AND GAS COMPANY WELL.

This well was made in 1909 on a farm belonging to Mr. W. B.
Manlove, in Birmingham township in Schuyler County, about
four miles southeast of the town of Plymouth. The Mississippian
limestones in this boring continue down to 240 feet below the sur-
face and are underlain by 450 feet of shale. The description of the
samples from 246 to 683 feet below the surface is as below:

Light shale, with fragments of limestone. ...............-0--2-2-00005 246
Light blue shale, with much pyrites in small crystals. Fragments of
SAAT eos HINneSHNe IRCRHENE. oe dee cee oe ee ee ee ee eee tak. 280
Light blue shale, with pyrites and calcareous fragments............... 292
Pieht. ercemsh blue shale, with pyrites.........-.-.2..-<-..0--0250+> 295
Light, greenish blue shale, with only infrequent cystals of pyrites.... 302
Light, greenish blue shale. No pyrites noted..................-.---- 302
SER CSUNSIS RARIGE™ SERRE sc Sohn Siew a ego a nls nae MS wi ae ae eS 310
ee eee a MERE CREME Og ye id oe ais < Sash am amare b= Feo Sige e ie 320
Greenish gray shale, with poorly preserved specimens of S$ porangites,
TERI GT ESE a eye eS Se ie ee ere re 330
Greenish gray shale, with Sporangites....--..--..-+..2+--.. eee teeee 340
Greenish gray shale, with poorly preserved specimens of S pense: 345
Gray shale, faintly micaceous, with Sporangties....--..........++-+-- 355
Gray shale, with abundant Sporangites and occasional crystals of pyrites 365
Gray shale, with Sporangites poorly preserved...............--.-.---- 400

Light gray shale, micaceous, with comparatively thick specimens of
Sporangites, and shapeless fragments of resinous material which
fpens fe he shreds of Sporaapiles. 1. 02. o6.c0 00s sds saneuesese 415

Shale, almost black, showing reflections of minute scales of mica. A
highly bituminous rock which burns for a few moments after it
has been thoroughly ignited. On the split surfaces of some large
fragments several small specimens of Lingula were noted, about
one millimeter in diameter. The distance from the umbo to the

106 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ventral margin of the valves was slightly greater than the trans-
verse measure. Faint lines radiated from the umbo and distinct
concentric lines of growth are seen. Irregular minute tubercles
appear on the outer part of the valves. This black shale appears
as a yellow translucent mass in transmitted light under the lens... 511
A highly bituminous limestone, most of which effervesces briskly with
acid. Some effervesces hardly at all. Some of the sample is
crystalline calcite, and some bituminous fragments burn, when
ignited, for a few seconds. The label on the sample was blurred,
5?1, but its highly bituminous character makes it probable that it is
from about the same depth as the previous sample. Near (?)..... 511
Green clay shale, not effervescing in acid... . tcc os. nc cibeee sp ace 600
Greenish gray shale of very fine plastic texture, effervescing slightly
with acid, containing a valve of an Estheria? Label indistinct;
GSOVGT GB Siaters site a eters as ele concicevan sya eves ay eene\/e ml elaysaNolin (ab met atta Velo tela) atelonie)ieleintetae 683

Under this there was 270 feet of limestone, probably partly
Devonian and partly of Trenton age.

THE PEORIA GLEN OAK PARK WELL.

This well shows 150 feet of drift, 250 feet of coal measures,
125 feet of Mississippian limestone, and under this 195 feet of
shale, of which at least the lower 70 feet are to be correlated with
the Sweetland Creek shale. This rests on calcareous limestone
believed to be of Devonian age. The samples examined were as
below:

Depth from below Surface

from to
Greenish gray shale with fragments of sponge spicules.
Some fragments of a bluish translucent rock
show a network of imbedded spicules (Kinder-
181310) .<079 Jel CSCO rcicars Ake ae arenes NOOR oir 525 590
Gray, slightly micaceous shale with crystals of pyrite
and indistinct specimens of Sporangites huronense 590 650
Like the preceding, with frequent specimens of Spor-
ONDALES HUTOMENS EDA. arian aes eee ela ene ee €50 720

THE JUNCTION MINING COMPANY DRILL BORE NEAR SPRINGFIELD.

A core from a diamond drill coal test sunk 1,500 feet below the
surface near Springfield shows the presence of 231 feet of shale,
underlying a reddish limestone recognized as the Kinderhook
shaly limestone. The uppermost 97 feet of this shale contains
some fine oolitic rock and has been referred by Prof. J. E. Savage
to the Kinderhook. The lower 133 feet is no doubt to be corre-
lated with the Sweetland Creek shale. It contains Sporangites
huronense and also a Lingula. It is separated from an underlying
limestone by a sharply defined limit, and the uneven upper surface
of this limestone bears a striking resemblance to the unconform-
able upper surface of the Cedar Valley limestone, in Muscatine
County in Iowa, including the presence of worn fragments of
indistinct fish teeth.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 107

It is believed by the writer that the Sweetland Creek shale is a
western extension of the “Black shale” in Ohio and that it is
identical with the Devonian shale at Milwaukee. From these
scattered wells, in which it has been identified by the examination
of drill cuttings, it seems likely to be continuous under the Miss-
issippian in the central part of the state, and it was once probably
a continuous deposit, laid down in a sea extending from Ohio to
Iowa. Its uniform development and its limited thickness indicate,
as Professor Dana has stated, nearly uniform conditions of level
over a great extent of the surface of the interior of this continent.

AN AMERICAN LEPIDOSTROBUS.
By Joun M. CouLTer anp W. J. G. Lanp,
University of Chicago.

( Abstract.)

Our knowledge of the structure of coal measure plants has been
derived chiefly from English and French material in which the
structure has been preserved, American coal measure plants hav-
ing been found only as impressions or casts. Recently there came
into our possession a specimen of Lepidostrobus (the strobilus of
Lepidodendron) from a coal pocket in Warren County, lowa,
whose structure is admirably preserved. The specimen is not a
complete strobilus, the lower portion being missing, so that all
evidence as to the heterosporous condition is gone.

Sections were made of the strobilus, and a complete description
of its structure became possible, even many of the spores (pre-
sumably microspores) being well preserved. The general struc-
ture of Lepidostrobus is well known from foreign material, the
most characteristic feature being the radially elongated sporan-
gium, which extends along the whole adaxial face of the stalk of
the sporophyll. A curious method of dehiscence was discovered,
the sporangium opening by a longitudinal slit along the median
line for a little more than half its length from the base, and then
the slit forks and is represented in the distal half of the sporan-
gium by two diverging slits, which leaves between them a large
triangular flap of the sporangium wall.

The strobilus was evidently a mature one which had fallen and
remained in water or moist soil, for rootlets had penetrated
between the sporophyll here and there, and the rootlets in turn

108 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

had been attacked by a fungus, whose mycelium and sex organs
were plainly visible.

The full paper, with illustrations, is published in the Botanical
Gazette 51: 449-453. pls. 28, 29, figs. 3. 1911.

POST- GLACIAL LIFE OF WILMETTE BAY, GLACIXAE
LAKE, CHICAGO.

By Frank Co.tiins BAKeEr.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.

About two years ago the writer’ announced the discovery of
certain strata west of Bowmanville, Chicago, which quite fully
revealed the faunas as well as the history of Glacial Lake Chicago.
During 1910 a complete biological and stratigraphical survey was
made throughout the length of the drainage canal (over eight
miles) and sixty-three separate sections were made, besides sev-
eral hundred additional examinations between these section sta-
tions. The information obtained in a measure corroborates the
statements set forth in the preliminary announcement. It also
makes it evident that several statements made therein need some
modification. The deposits referred to represent the floor of
Glacial Lake Chicago and the variation in these strata quite vividly
reflect the changes which took place from the time the glacial
waters first appeared until the formation of the present Lake
Michigan. As the general history of the great lakes is so well
known, it will not be referred to here.”

The interpretation of these deposits, viewed in the light of
later and more extensive information, may be outlined as follows:
Above the bowlder clay or till there is a bed of sand from two
to twelve inches in thickness (Fig. 1). This represents the Glen-
wood stage of Lake Chicago and no life is present, as would be
expected. During the Glenwood stage the lake stood at from
fifty to sixty feet above the present level of Lake Michigan. This
places the shore line between the 630-640 foot contour lines. It

1Science, n. s., XXXI, No. 801, May, 1910, p. 715.

2See the following works where the history is very fully worked out:

The Geography of Chicago and Its Environs, by Rollin D. Salisbury and W. C.
Alden. Bull. Geog. Soc., Chicago, No. 1, 1899.
a Geological Atlas of the United States, Chicago Folio, No. 81, by W. C. Alden,
1902.
Physical Geography of the Evanston-Waukegan Region, by W. W. Atwood and
J. W. Goldthwait, Bull. 7, Ill. State Geol. Survey, 1908. The Pleistocene Features
and Deposits of the Chicago Area, by Frank Leverett, Chi. Acad. Sci., Bull. II,
Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv., 1897.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 109

is probable that the sand found in the canal, which is 4¥4 miles
east of the Glenwood shore line, was deposited just previous to
the first low water stage, as a bed of sand of this thickness would
scarcely form in fifty to sixty feet of water nearly five miles
off shore.

STATION |6
Suarace 585
19 = _._GLATEY LOAM
Lower TOLLESTON
9% : eS S JO FEET DEEP
= --. WILT @xtorze£o} NIPISSING GREAT LAKES
Swamp MoucwusKs
_._Peat Lymnaea, Phy sa, Amnicola.

tees See ee ee ee Oe WRT
_.. DILT(ox012£0)

4 : as Bas aap Mippb
” re ——-Mar DLE TOLLESTON
SHALLOW WATER Mozcusaxs
ae Sitt Lymn2a, Planorbis, Amnicola

Se et nn Low WATER (possible land surtace)
nen eee UPPER ToLLESTON
ZOFEET DEEP FisH-BiaD REMAINS

HEavy Uutos, Cam PELOMA, SpaARiuM,
U. caase1oens

g}— Gwe SAND CALUMET
ie ; steels

No Lire

oe Tea (weop)__. _ Post GLENWoOD
Low Water (5-10 FEET)
SHALLOW WATER Moiusks
(Ansdowta Ancylus, Camgeloma)

Sano GLENWOOD a
S5-60O FEET DEEP
NoLtFe

Bow per cuay | DRIFT (Gaounp Moraine)

Figure 1. Section through post-glacial fluviatile deposits of Wilmette
Bay, Glacial Lake Chicago.

Above the sand deposit occurs a bed of silt ten to eighteen
inches in thickness. This deposit is filled with molluscan remains
of species which live in shallow water usually not exceeding ten
feet in depth. The following species are represented by thou-
sands of individuals, showing that life was notably abundant:

110 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Anodonta grandis. Ancylus sp.

Pisidium (several species). Physa ancillaria warreniana.
Sphaerium simile. Planorbis trivolvis.
Gonitobasis livescens. Planorbis campanulatus.
Amunicola lustrica. Planorbis bicarinatus.
Amnicola limosa. Planorbis deflectus.

Valvata tricarinata. Lymnaea stagnalis appressa.
Campeloma integrum. Galba reflexa.

The presence of this life in a silt deposit, overlying a sand
deposit, is conclusive evidence that the early statement of Dr.
Andrews* concerning a post-Glenwood low-water stage was cor-
rect, although this is questioned by Dr. Goldthwait in a recent
paper in which this deposit is referred to the Calumet period.*

That this stage was one of very low water is apparently proven
by the fact that these shell deposits do not extend far beyond
the 585 foot contour or about a mile and a half north of Foster
Avenue. As the leaves of an oak and the cones and wood of a
spruce are also found in these strata, it would seem that this
deposit represents mainly shallow ponds formed, possibly, in large
kettle holes in the ground moraine. The ground moraine at this
point, as seen in cross sections, is strikingly undulating, forming
depressions from six to ten feet in depth, and of a sufficient size
to form a pond of good area. It is interesting to note that at
Lemont a bed of silt with shells is encountered overlying the
Niagara limestone, which may represent this stage. It is over-
laid by six feet of carbonaceous soil and peat containing mollusks.
As both deposits contain the same genera and nearly the same
species, it seems evident that the fauna near Foster Avenue
migrated thence by way of the Des Plaines outlet.

It must be borne in mind that during the several advances of the
ice all life was either exterminated within the englaciated area,
or was driven south of the ice border. Consequently, a return
of life to the country left by the receding ice sheet could only be
from the south. The aquatic life could return only by way of the
natural waterways provided by the glacial streams issuing from
the ice-bound lakes. The oak (Quercus marceyana) and the
spruce (Picea evanstoni—=canadensis?) probably grew on the
higher ground. The latter does not at the present time grow
within about one hundred miles of this locality. The spruce cones
are notably abundant in deposits near Devon Avenue.

8Trans. Chi. Acad. Sci., II, pp. 1-24, 1877; Leverett, Bull. Geol. Sury. Chi.
Acad. Sci., II, p. 71, 1897; Alden, Chicago Folio (81) p. 9, 1902.
*Bull. 7, Ill. Geol. Surv., p. 61, 1908.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 111

Following the post-Glenwood stage, the water again rose and
flooded the area above the 610 foot contour. This is marked by
a heavy deposit of sand and gravel of an average depth of a foot
(2-19 inches). It was at this time that the Rose Hill bar was
formed. It seems evident that if the entire length of this bar
was formed at the 615 foot level it was constructed largely under
water as this depth of water (thirty-five feet) would submerge
the greater part of the bar from five to fifteen feet. It seems
more probable that the greater part of this bar south of North
Evanston was largely formed during the Upper Tolleston stage,
at which time a beach ridge was formed on the submerged off
shore barrier, which was doubtless built up to a considerable size
during the Calumet stage. Resting on the Calumet gravels is a
large bed of Unios and other mollusks comprising the following
species :

Unio crassidens. Quadrula trigona.

Unio gibbosus. Quadrula pusiulosa.
Obliquaria reflexa. Quadrula undulata.

Plagiola elegans. Quadrula verrucosa.
Lampsilis ventricosa. Quadrula lachrymosa.
Spherium sitamineum. Ouadrula coccinea paupercula.
Amunicola letsont. Campeloma integrum.
Amnicola limosa. Pisidium (several species).

Goniobasis livescens.

These mollusks evidently lived during the Upper Tolleston
stage when the water had fallen to a depth of twenty to twenty-
five feet and flooded everything below the 600 foot contour. At
this time the area behind the Rose Hill bar was a large bay seven
miles long, from one to 2% miles in width and from five to
twenty feet in depth, except near the shore, where it doubtless
formed an extensive marsh. The beach ridge called the Rose
Hill bar was probably built up during this stage, as was also a
part of the Graceland barrier and beach, extending from Rose
_ Hill cemetery to Lincoln Park. Above the Unios follows a de-
posit of silt about a foot in depth which contains the remains of a
bird (humerus of a duck) and the bones of several species of fish.
This deposit is highly oxidized and probably was a land surface
recording the low water stage preceding Lake Algonquin. The
presence of fish remains in these deposits clearly indicates the
means by which the Unios were brought to Wilmette Bay from
the populated regions south of the Valparaiso moraine.

Above this stage occur deposits aggregating twenty-two inches
in thickness, composed of silt, peat and marl beds, containing such
mollusks as

112

Lampsilis luteola.
Spherium striatinum.
Spherium rhomboideum.

Pisidium (several species).

Campeloma integrum.
Gonitobasis livescens.
Valvata tricarinata.

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.
Physa integra.

Planorbis trivolvis.
Planorbis campanulatus.
Planorbis bicarinatus.
Lymnaea stagnalis appressa.
Galba reflexa.

Amnicola limosa.

The marl deposit is nearly five inches in thickness and is a
solid mass of shells. These deposits probably represent the
Middle Tolleston stage, which corresponds with the Lake Algon-
quin stage of the Great Lakes. At this time Wilmette Bay was
three miles long, a mile wide and five to twelve feet in depth
behind the Rose Hill bar. It extended, however, five miles south
of this bar and was protected from Lake Michigan by the Grace-
land bar, upon which Clark Street is constructed, which rose above
the lake nearly ten feet. This bay south of Foster Avenue was
five miles long and about one mile wide, with a depth of water of
five to twelve feet. The shallowness of the bay is attested by the
presence of Potamogeton and Chara, plants which live in com-
paratively shallow water. The Middle Tolleston lake bed above
the 590 foot contour was an extensive marsh nearly three miles
long and over a mile wide, in which the following mollusks lived
abundantly :

Succinea ovalis.
Succinea avara.
Physa gyrina.
Planorbis trivolvis.

Segmentina armigera.
Galba caperata.
Galba reflexa.
Calyculina securss.

The upper deposit of the Middle Tolleston is oxidized and
contains the burrows of crayfish, indicating that this deposit was
for a time a land surface. Above this land surface occurs a
deposit of peat over five inches in thickness overlaid by twenty-
eight inches of silt. This doubtless represents the Nepissing
Great Lakes and the Lower Tolleston stage. The water is believed
to have been from three to ten feet in depth and the area flooded
was probably nearly equal to that of the Middle Tolleston.? The
life of this stage was the same as that of the Middle Tolleston.
Following this stage the lake fell to its present level.

The interpretation of these deposits is not in accord with that of
Dr. Goldthwait,® who places the peat and silt beds found beneath
the Rose Hill bar in the period previous to the Upper Tolleston

5Goldthwait, Bull. 7, Ill. Geol. Surv., p. 64; Bull. 11, p. 56, p. 81; Bull. Wis.
Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv., XVII, p. 6, 7, et. seq.

®Bull. Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. XVII, p. 4; also Bulls. 7 and 11, IIL.
Geol. Surv.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. 113

gravels. The evidence offered by the study of the canal section
seems to point to the conclusion that the post-Glenwood and pre-
Calumet interpretation is correct, since the whole history of
Wilmette Bay corroborates it. The strata near Evanston which
underlie the Rose Hill Bar contain no evidences of life (excepting
the remains of wood) and probably represent a land surface
(Goldthwait, Bull. 7, Ill. Geol. Surv., p. 65) bordering a swamp.
It has been stated by several writers’ that at the time of the
post-Glenwood deposits a climate and flora existed similar to that
of Alaska. The presence of the spruce (Picea evanstoni or cana-
densis), which does not now grow within about one hundred
miles, seems to afford ample evidence of a colder climate.

The presence of Unio crassidens in the Upper Tolleston deposits
is of great interest. This has been thought’ to indicate a warmer
climate than now prevails, especially in view of the fact that the
species has also been found in deposits near Green Bay.® It may
be, however, that this is a case in which the mollusk was not able
to adapt itself to a new environment and so became extinct so
far as these regions are concerned. The Green Bay fauna evi-
dently followed the Wisconsin River-Lake Nicolet route. The
northern limit of this species at present is as follows

South of
Green Bay
Record.
Wisconsin, between Prairie du Chien and De Soto”............. 80 miles
Minnesota, not recorded.
Ieee NTSTI en As es Che ea crt Ae clare hs Tae Oetker 80 miles
Michigan, not recorded.
Mire Cited. Pa alle YCadnty ). 3.4 /< soo axek cea enate wo ys 220 miles
RO STEVE SL? 27 cog pean Se Re pe ge BPA lett cern Pag 260 miles
MMEMET. STIRBECHUGE HIWEE flee ee: qoenie cw xe s on eee oaks 230 miles

Of the other species represented in this deposit, all are now
living in the Chicago area excepting Amnicola letsoni,> which
was first discovered in the gravel deposits of Goat Island, Niagara
Falls.*° Quadrula coccinea is also quite different from the usual
form as found in northern Illinois and appears to be the same as
the variety paupercula of Simpson. As the species enumerated as
having been found in the Upper Tolleston deposit also live as

7For example, Higley and Ta Bull. Chi. Acad. Sci., II, No. 1, p. XIV.
8Science, n. s., XXXI, p. 716

®Wagner, Nautilus, XVIII, pp. 97-100, 1905.

10Chadwick, Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc., IV, p. 95, 1906.

Museum record.

18Baker, Bull. Ill. State Lab. N. H., VII, p. 77, 1906.

18Sterki, Proc. Ohio Acad. Sci., IV, p. ne 1907.

14Daniels, 27th An. Rep. Dept. Geol. Ind., 650, 1902.

Bull. Buf. Soc. N. Sen, .Viil, No, 1, p: adi, fig. 165.

18This species has since been found living by Mr. Bryant Walker.

4 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

far south as Texas and as far north as southern Wisconsin and
southern Michigan, it is perhaps unwarranted to infer that because
of the presence of Unio crassidens there was a warmer climate at
this time, yet this seems not at all improbable in view of the
Green Bay record.

It is interesting to note that the interglacial beds of the Don
Valley near Toronto, Canada, contain several of the species which
occur in the Chicago deposits. As these are mostly Mississippi
Valley species they must have reached this point by way of the
southwest and they possibly migrated through an ancient water-
way near the present site of Chicago. For comparison, the Unios
of the two regions are placed in parallel columns."

Don. CHICAGO.
undulatus. undulatus.
FECTUSE Fe 8 Se TS A 9 he Re ee
luteolus. luteolus.
gibbosus. gibbosus.
phaseoitsrs <hr OOM 8 On Sa
trigonus. trigonus.
coccineus. coccineus.
QUAHOMSET A OMe eels, > OO er
SAIS Sao EIN! Se aby era, ye. of Ls Rae
CLLTUSIIU dee Se) th ie Mita ht ha a ee
pyramsdatus. yo 5) LLY 2 UR eats eee
Bi tattos < biomtaare crassidens.
PS eee reflexa.
es: BORA e elegans.
eet SE ventricosus.
OR Adicts, Se io pustulosus.

Sie ide Bias ps lachrymosus.

It will be noted that but five species are common to both
deposits, while six species are found in the Don beds which are
absent from the Chicago beds, and six species found in the Chi-
cago beds are absent from the Don beds. The Don deposits are
believed to have been laid down in a comparatively warm climate,
as indicated by both the plants and animals.

It is important that post-glacial deposits on both the east and
the west shores of Lake Michigan should be carefully studied
and their biologic contents accurately noted, to the end that these
facts may be correlated with those herein presented. Sedimentary
deposits are known to exist at Green Bay and at Milwaukee, and
these should contain ample evidence of post-glacial life. Studies
now in progress in other parts of the Chicago Lake basin are
expected to add much evidence confirmatory of the interpretation
herein presented.

171See Coleman, Interglacial Periods in Canada, p. 16, 1906.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS. eS

SUMMARY.

The study of the strata deposited in post-glacial Wilmette Bay
has led to the following conclusions:

1. There was but slight deposition during the GLENWOOD STAGE
and no life.

2. A post-GLENWOOD LOW-WATER STAGE ensued in which the
level of the lake dropped to about the 590 foot contour, the water
being from five to ten feet in depth. There was a rich and abund-
ant fauna of mollusks, and the neighboring shore supported a
vigorous growth of spruce and oak.

3. The lake level rose to the 610-620 foot contours (CALUMET
STAGE ), flooding the silt deposits and burying them under a heavy
deposit of sand and gravel. The Rose Hill bar was extended
from the shore near Wilmette, southward below North Evanston,
as a huge bar, the southern portion forming a submerged reef.
No life present. Wilmette Bay was at this stage an open bay
from five to thirty feet in depth, protected on the north by the
Rose Hill bar and on the east by the submerged reef, rapidly
forming.

4. The water fell to about the 600 foot contour (Upper TotL-
LESTON STAGE), the Rose Hill bar extended southward and was
built up on the reef formed during the Calumet stage. The beach
ridge, upon which Graceland cemetery is located, was probably
formed during this stage, first as a submerged reef, and later as
a beach ridge. A rich fauna at this time migrated up the Des
Plaines River and formed the heavy Unio beds which are found
on the surface of the Calumet gravels. This bay was nearly ten
miles long, two to three miles wide and from five to twenty feet
deep.

5. A low water stage followed the Upper Tolleston. This is
indicated by the oxidized character of the deposit overlying the
Unio bed.

6. During the next stage, which may be called the M1ppLe
TOLLESTON, the water level again rose to a point somewhat above
the 590 foot contour, forming a shallow bay about three miles
long, one mile wide and five to twelve feet deep. A rich fauna
and flora of swamp and shallow water mollusks and plants devel-
oped in this bay, forming deposits aggregating twenty inches in
thickness. This stage forms part of LAKE ALGONQUIN.

%. A third low water stage followed the Middle Tolleston.
Evidences of this are seen in the oxidized character of the stratum

116 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

overlying the Middle Tolleston marl beds and also in the presence
of crawfish burrows.

8. Following the low-water stage the water again rose and
flooded the bay to the depth of ten feet, producing an embayment
nearly equal in area to that of the Middle Tolleston stage. This
(Lower To.tieston), the last of the Lake Chicago stages, was
characterized by an abundant fauna consisting of swamp and
shallow water types. This stage must have been of considerable
duration as silt was deposited to a depth of over two feet.

9. The water fell to the level of Lake Michigan and the bed
of Wilmette Bay became a marsh, wet during the spring and dry
in the fall. This condition prevailed until the region was drained
by man during the past century.

My thanks are due the following gentlemen for assistance:

Dr. Rollin Chamberlin, University of Chicago.

Mr. C. A. Davis, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Bryant Walker, Detroit, Michigan.

Mr. A. S. Lewis, Superintendent, Lincoln Park.

Dr. V. Sterki, New Philadelphia, Ohio.

Dr. A. E. Ortman, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa.

U. S. Naval Station, Illinois.

DISCUSSION.

In answer to a question Mr. Baker said:

“The spruce is probably the same as Penhallow’s Picea Evans-
tomi, which may be the same as Picea Canadensis. I have not yet
received identifications of the other plants found in these strata.
I know only of the spruce, oak, Chara, and Potamogeton.”

Mr. Cowles.——Do you know what species the oak is?”

Mr. Baker.—‘I think it is Quercus Marceyana. The question
at issue is the stage during which the lower marsh deposits were
deposited. Are they post or pre-Calumet? If post-Calumet, as
some geologists would have us believe, then what is the heavy
deposit of gravel above these marsh deposits? I think there is no
escape from the conclusion that they are pre-Calumet.”

inet:

Ecological Papers

SS

= eh

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 119

EVAPORATION AND PLANT SUCCESSION ON ‘THE
SAND DUNES OF LAKE MICHIGAN.

By GeEorGE D. FULLER,
University of Chicago.

The porous cup atmometer as used today was devised by Dr.
B. E. Livingston in 1906. It consists of a hollow cup of porous
_ clay 12.5 cm. high, with an internal diameter of 2.5 cm. and a
thickness of wall of about 3 mm. It is filled with pure water and
connected by means of glass tubing to a reservoir usually consist-
ing of a wide mouthed glass bottle of one-half liter capacity. The
water, passing through the porous walls, evaporates from the sur-
face, the loss being constantly replaced from the supply within
the reservoir. Readings are made by refilling the reservoir from
a graduated burette to a certain mark scratched upon its neck.
For convenience in handling a portion of the base of the cup is
coated with some impervious substance and before being used in
the field the instrument is standardized by comparing its loss of
water with that from a free water surface of 45 sq. cm., exposed
under uniform conditions. As a further check against error this
standardization is repeated at intervals of six to eight weeks
throughout the season.

The instrument thus briefly described is designed to be used
by ecologists in measuring the evaporating power of the air in
plant habitats. This power varies with changes in temperature,
humidity, and rate of motion of the atmosphere, and with the
intensity of the illumination. The readings of the atmemeter, there-
fore, express a summation of the various atmospheric factors
which combine in making demands upon the water contained in
the aerial portion of plants. By careful experiments it has been
found that there is a close relationship between transpiration and
this evaporating power of the air. The atmometer, therefore, gives
a convenient and accurate means for the quantitative determina-
tion of those atmospheric factors which affect the water supply
of plants, or in other words, it affords a means of exactly meas-
uring the comparative xerophytism of plant habitats in so far
as it is determined by atmospheric conditions. The importance
of such measurements may be imagined when it is recalled that
ecologists are agreed that water is by far the most important
factor in determining the character and extent of the various
plant associations.

120 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

During the spring and summer of 1910, an attempt was made
to obtain such a quantitative determination of the atmospheric
conditions within the vegetation upon the sand dunes of Lake
Michigan, in order to discover any existing causal connection
between such conditions and the plainly marked succession of
plant associations within these areas. The region selected for
study was about twenty miles south and east of Chicago, near the
little village of Millers, Ind. Here typical localities in each of
the several plant associations were carefuly chosen for the evap-
oration stations which were maintained from May 6 to October 31,
readings being made weekly.

On the moving dunes the pioneer tree association is one of the
cottonwood, Populus deltoides, with a scanty undergrowth of two
species of willow, the sand cherry and various xerophytic grasses,
In this association three stations were established about 100 meters
apart, nearly 200 meters south of Lake Michigan and 12 meters
above the level of its waters. At each the instruments were some-
what shaded during a few hours of the day; one possessing some
shelter from the northwest wind and another from the southwest.
The mean of the standardized readings were plotted with the daily
average evaporation in cubic centimeters as ordinates and the
intervals between the weekly readings as abscissae. The graphs
for the cottonwood stations were found to agree in their general
direction and in the time of their maxima and minima, the minor
differences being probably due to the differences in the direction
of the winds to which the stations were unequally exposed. The
mean of the readings of these stations is used in comparing the
cottonwood dune with the other plant associations. (Fig. 2.)

The maximum average evaporation for any week is just above
35 cc. per day and the minimum less than 10 cc., while the average
for the 178 days is 21.1 cc. per day.

As the dunes become fixed, a pine association succeeds the
cottonwood. Here it is composed principally of Pinus Banksiana,
Juniperus virginiana, and J. communis with an undergrowth of
Arctestaphylos Uva-ursi, Rhus canadensis, seedlings of black oak,
and various other shrubs and xerophytic herbs. Within it sta-
tion No. 4 was located about 50 meters south of stations Nos. 2
and 3. The instruments were shaded for about two-thirds of
the day. The resulting graph is much lower than that of the
cottonwood dune, the maxima are smaller but occur at the same
time. The minima are also synchronos but smaller, especially

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 121

during October. (Fig. 2.) The maximum rate never reaches
20 cc. per day, the minimum falls below 4cc. while the average
for the season is 11.3 cc. daily.

Following the pines upon the fixed dunes comes Quercus

Cele ts fe Fd |
Ba eed TPs ek eee ae sales ae ae
a See pai

re es )
POPPE rep
ee Se Rese a A

23a

S0SGSe 0 e006 oe
aan 5 Es SS Be es
EERE
REe 2 Sh eae sna Sa

Ag GE aes Le

1 EWN a
eer is ets bel ees
TE ane eae eee
SIS Sh Se SaaS Rees
psf Pn oe

“ooo MENS Go as CS ee
= SEETEEaT EEE Cae hE Cea

Cottonwood dune

Sea
EEE soe am

Oakidune seocsoe Soe us

PEE] teem EE Eee
RSQ rseeeee ttt reas

Figure 2. Mean daily evaporation rates in the sand dune plant asso-
ciations and in the beech-maple forest.

velutina, finally forming at a distance of some 600 meters from
the last station an almost pure stand of black oak, here referred to
as the “oak dune.” In the undergrowth are Viburnum acerifo-

122 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

hum, Prunus virginiana, Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, Quercus alba
(seedlings), Ceanothus americanus, Asclepias tuberosa and other
characteristic shrubs and herbs. Three stations were placed here
about 50 meters apart, No. 6 on a fixed dune 12 meters high,
No. 7 on a slope 5 meters above the general level and No. 8 on
the floor of the forest. All were about equally exposed and
shaded. The resulting graphs show differences corresponding
closely to the elevation of their respective stations. The com-
paratively great elevation of the curve during the months of May
and October when the oaks were not in full foliage is worthy
of notice. The maximum for the summer months is 16 cc. per
day and the average for the three stations for the 178 days is
10.3 cc. per day.

At Millers the vegetation exhibits no successional stages beyond
the oak dune, but 15 miles farther east, near the village of Otis,
Ind., there is a comparatively undisturbed tract of the climax
deciduous forest here dominated by the beech, Fagus grandifolia.
In parts of the forest sugar maple is fairly abundant, with occa-
sional trees of Tilia americana, Ostrya virginiana and Prunus
serotina. The undergrowth is principally seedlings of the trees
mentioned, Viburnum pubescens, Asimina triloba, together with
the usual mesophytic herbs. Here three stations were established,
but on account of the poor train service, readings were made
only every second week from May 30 to November 1. Station 11
was well surrounded by maple seedlings and largely shaded by
maple trees, station 12 was near a large beech tree on a slope
covered with a growth of Impatiens, and station 13 was in the
midst of beech seedlings between two large beech trees. To-
gether they seemed to well represent the average conditions of the
beech forest. The resulting graphs were very similar and their
mean is used in comparison with those from the other associations.

The maxima are in July and August, and amount to little more
than 12 cc. daily, the minimum occurs in September and is scarcely
3 cc. per day, while the average for the 155 days is 8.1 cc. per day.

Several methods may be employed in comparing the data
obtained from the various evaporation stations. Perhaps the best
is to plot upon the same chart graphs representing the mean daily
evaporation by weeks from the several stations in the different
associations (Fig. 2). It will be seen that the graphs show several
similarities, but more differences. The maxima and minima are
generally coincident in time and proportionate in amount. All

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 123

show great irregularity during spring and autumn and a compara-
tively high rate during July and August. The general height of
the different graphs probably expresses the most instructive and
intresting differences in the different habitats. That of the cotton-
wood dune is farthest removed from those of the other associa-
tions and shows a habitat not only with great evaporating power,
but one of great extremes, the difference in rate between two con-
secutive weeks being nearly or quite 10 cc. per day during May
and the first part of June, and on two occasions amounting to an
increase of 100 per cent in one week as compared with the pre-
ceding. This occurring early during the growing period would
doubtless be very unfavorable for the development of any seed-
lings, especially as it was followed by the very high rates of the
succeeding months. The high maximum occurring at midsummer
would probably prove the excluding factor for all mesophytic
plants even if not combined with such other factors as the defi-
ciency of soil water at the same time. Such a graph seems to
depict rather well a habitat of atmospheric extremes, making large
demands upon all available water, and naturally and necessarily
resulting in a xerophytic plant association, with a very limited
undergrowth and an almost entire absence of herbaceous plants
and seedlings. Perhaps nowhere could an association be found
so entirely dependent upon vegetative reproduction for its main-
tenance, as almost without exception any increase in vegetation
is the result of development from subterranean branches.

The graph for the pine dunes is decidedly lower and more
regular in its contour than that of the association which it suc-
ceeds. Its four nearly equal maxima would indicate that within
its limits there was throughout the summer season a continuous
stress rather than a series of violent extremes. On the whole it
shows a water demand of little more than half of that occurring
in the cottonwood dunes. Its greatest divergence is plainly due
to the evergreen character of its vegetation and is seen on its low
range in May and the first part of June, and again in October
when it falls below that of the oak dunes and is even less than
that of the beech-maple forest. This would give good reasons
for expecting to find within this association truly mesophytic
plants whose activities are limited to the early spring.

The graph from the oak dune stations shows two surprisingly
high points; one during May that may be partially explained by
the absence of foliage; and the other near the end of June which

124 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

seems to coincide with maxima in the other associations. On the
whole, it is more moderate during the summer months than that
of the pine dune, but the difference is not so great as to make
it surprising that its undergrowth differs but little from that
found in the pine dune association.

The graph from the beech-maple forest stations is one of mod-
erate height and great regularity. At no point does it reach to
half the height of that from the cottonwood dune but surpasses
that of the pine dune in October.

The data of these observations relate only to the stratum of
vegetation immediately above the surface of the soil and would
be quite different at a height of one or two meters. This lower
stratum is, however, the critical one for a forest association for
the development of tree seedlings occurs within its limits and it

1 2
Tr) | ee

Cottonwood dune
Pine dune
Oak dune
Beech-maple forest

Figure 3. Diagram showing the comparative evaporation rates in
different associations on the basis of the average daily amount from
May 6 to October 31, 1910.

is therefore the portion of the habitat which determines the forest
succession and hence the most important ecologically.

The rates of evaporation in the different plant associations may
be compared in other ways. If the average amount of water
lost by the standard atmometer daily throughout the season be
taken as a basis represented in a diagram giving the loss in cubic
centimeters (Fig. 3), a graphic representation results which, how-
ever, tells little more than what has been shown differently in
the graphs. Likewise, the maximum daily rates for the week
of greatest evaporation during the season gives a similar repre-
sentation of the conditions in the several plant associations
(Fig. 4). Upon a percentage basis, with the average rate per day
throughout the season in the beech-maple forest as a unit, the
comparative evaporation rate in the oak dune is 127 per cent;
in the pine dune, 140 per cent, and in the cottonwood dune, 260
per cent. As the months of July and August probably represent

ee

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 125

the critical portion of the growing season with reference to its
water supplies, a comparison like the preceding might be made
for those months only, when it would be found that the compara-
tive evaporation in the oak dune would be 173 per cent, in the
pine dune 146 per cent, and in the cottonwood dune 230 per cent.

0 10 20 30
SS) SR ay ED es A es a es PO
Cottonwood dune.

&

: ==SUE===55RRWROo
Pine dune

ek dune pms | | | | | | | | | |

memes | | | | | | | | | | | | Ct I

SaaS

Figure 4. Diagram showing the comparative evaporation rates in
. different plant associations on the basis of the maximum average amount
per day for any week between May 6 and October 31, 1910.

Beech-maple forest

SUMMARY.

1. These data represent the evaporation rates in the lower but
critical stratum of the plant associations.

2. Evaporation at different stations in the same plant associa-
tion exhibits variations similar in character and degree.

3. The rate of evaporation in the cottonwood dune association
both by its great amount and by its excessive variation seems a
quite sufficient cause for the xerophytic character of the vegeta-
tion and for the absence of undergrowth.

4, Evaporation in the pine dune association exceeds that in the
oak and beech associations except when the latter are devoid of
foliage.

5. The vernal vegetation of the pine dune is quite as meso-
phytic as that of the succeeding association, thus agreeing with
its lower evaporation rate during that portion of the year.

6. Evaporation in the various association varies directly with
the order of their occurrence in the succession.

%. The differences in the rate of evaporation in the various
plant associations studied are sufficient to indicate that the atmos-
pheric conditions are most efficient factors in causing succession.

126 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

SEASONAL SUCCESSION IN OLD FOREST PONDS.
By W. C, ALLEE,
University of Chicago.

The phenomenon of seasonal variation in animal habitats has
long been recognized, yet I have been unable to find any exact
data on the subject in ecological literature. The investigations of
which this is a preliminary report are being carried on with a
view to help fill this deficiency. The results given are based on
collections which have been made regularly since the summer of
09:

DEFINITION.

Seasonal succession may be defined as the gradual replacing of
one complex of animal life by another. These different complexes
may be designated in terms of the species or taxonomic group of
animals that are dominant at any given time. This dominance is
composed of two factors: (1) pure numerical dominance, and (2)
distribution in the pond. Either of these may vary without notice-
ably affecting the other. But since many of the forms never rise
to a dominant position, seasonal succession requires a study of the
seasonal development of each member of the complex.

This work on seasonal succession is important because of its

bearing on ecological succession. The animal associations in one:

pond vary more at different times of the year than the associations
of many ecologically related habitats studied at the same season.
The seasonal changes have brought the same errors into the study
of ecological succession that a disregard of daily migration would
bring into work on seasonal succession.
AREA.
The ponds under consideration are in the oldest part of the
slough system at the south end of Lake Michigan, where the
subsidence of the lake has exposed a series of long sloughs and
ridges. There are about one hundred of these between the lake
and the last of the old Lake Chicago beaches. The ponds most
carefully studied are in the ninety-third depression back from the
lake. A part of this depression which has been isolated from the
rest of the slough by artificial grades, has been the basis of most
of the collections. In this pond the marginal areas are being
invaded by bushes; the shallower part of the open water is over-
grown by equisetum in the summer, and a smaller zone of lilypads
occupies the deeper water.

eS

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 127

Ecological conditions similar to the various habitats in Slough 93
were found in the fifty-sixth, ninety-second and _ ninety-fifth
sloughs and a series of collections has been made in each of these.
The plans for the work this spring include the making of a topo-
graphical map of this region. The mapping of the sloughs is to be
based largely on new surveys made for that purpose.

QUALITATIVE SUCCESSION.

The first work attempted was to find the qualitative succession
during the year. The results so far obtained are listed in Table I.
Animals may have been present when they are not recorded in the
list, but if they were, they must have been much restricted in
numbers as well as in habitat.

TABLE I
SES EYE EE OR
GROUP NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME. pf ‘. 2Sscane a g
PE PTAGING OO WAVES ot Suwa cehima.cieleNenle nt c.cie slows acess sme e pe *
PeitenIGee AGUIES s | Sie cigaaie <idamiacia aloas Danie ceaaecwe ws +5
Backswimmers Plea siniolal Chet)... chee ee ee + 7S: 2 32ers
Notonecta undulata (Say)......... oto oe
FESTA DETAR) ee 78 patesigcoctecc seseope nee seater: >
Caddice fly Lea ste ORES Sait Osim osciers a Olgra Ons nat
GPRS wer ed esoc cess Sse Set Seba bese eS,
Chauliodes Chauliodes rastricornis (Rambur).... * be |B: .
Sehe OHMS larvee ono Sa cm sale oe S aloie b.craiwie ccc ele te a. miwrare a eo AE
MG CETae | fe Smee Oot eke archon. ieee 2 ==
Crayfish Cambarus immunis (Hagen)....... Sy Ne ee Ee ee
IES SS Sct cad cndsdae se pon tho ener Pe eS ee eee
IDeA Be ESos of LSE Soden oa nse eoeee eee tt ee
Diptera Corethra glatgae sees ce. sels aaa one ~ + * =
Pir ationiy dee! lcctse veae's eibre. sxsiel deter 28
IR SEE OSHC BOs Sono dO CC eae EO IOSoE *
Dragonflies Anax gunius -CDriry)\.c.2ce > oss 0. a
Libellula pulchella (Drury)........ a >
Lestes vigilax CHagen) 3.5... 050.06. em
Lestes rectangularis (Say)......... =
Sympetrum obtrusum (Hagen).... 2g Rs
Sympetrum rubicundulum (Say).... 278
Acschntday Marge occ 2b anise omahiate.c + *
Rabellatidee larvae ince cave os eke ean Se ae ee *
Dytiscideze TV UIIS Splat falc es emiete cin iaotae alee ore *
Hydroporus modestus (Aube)...... i ==
Desmopachria convexa (Aube)..... oe Se
Colymbetes sculptilis (Harr.)...... ——
BaCCOppilyS SSD en eibrars cs eic/e ow a ie.e evs *
Graphoderes! {Sp Woe cee s eee ete ot ss
Ear 92S SB ee icles fol wa tice Wier ere ete atets ROE Ok.
Ephemeride Sages Ate SEN ets ee at otso. oie wie <ia cle les he pe one ba
PiatwormMSie | © Y Sitios sie crc oa. OS a thee cle cleroute wisetiele *.* +
Frog Reatiay JSPs AGU terse sie s, hema e nas ~s +. %.%
RACs: aL Ver colin sews's ohio cs» Ges * bmg eh
Acwsrervius (ise Garte)ic ccs ssics e's “3
Gammaridea Eucrangonyx gracilis (Smith)..... oe Pee ey RIOR
Giant water bug Amorgius americanum (Leidy)..... ate SAP
Gyrinide Dinentes hornii (Roberts).......... Bi oad Seg
TAPTET ORICA) MEP Gai ep Ee acto se win twraik scl wie s aie-arieeeres oe
Hydrophyllidze PGLOSHS I SU ein cies e1aiz/ se) sicisl clone 6 c)ainter cer ns
Lae) Hine Spe Sone Cr Onn ae ° LL,
Isopoda Asellus communis (Say).......... 2 ee ee ee
Mancasellus danielsii (Richardson)... pe ee IE
Leech Erpobdella punctata (Leidy)....... Pate Soe eS a *
Glossiphonia heteroclita (Lin.)..... .
Lymneide ibymnvea’ reflexa (Say)ic. = ce cs ale ots ery BY ee
Planorbis exacutus (Say).......... site tac Meee es ge pec
Planorbis trivolvis (Say)......... Ses RR ee ee
Planorbis deflectus (Say).......... : : .

Segmentina armigera (Say)....... a7 = oe ee

128 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

*

Miscorodnilec aise covet fe.ocsters Core siete Seiaivavela rs wiseoeeele witie
Mollusca IADCYMIS CALAIS) MCSAY islets atetarsiecestere *
Mosquito Culex spadult.340sccccnie stone eee ati tee te
Culex isp: Waryee sic hatin eects AES oh
ORC CRIES pea chapa oc anegarion adc yadacdes isncc = =
Ostracoda s feiss. se oem baieewnsloee soe tise creas oe st edy SAW 32
ParAMOR Cth of Ah aieiciaie ee onietclotets\ oranstettalofateteeiatetems te noueahya Nee
Physide Physa seyrina, (Saya siets wietacieeie otmiacte £28 SS eee
LElwaibeeiicmeba | BS asc e aa sen ooss na sbanooaons sade 7 SES eee
Salamander Amblystoma tigrinum (Green)...... =
Spheeride Musculium securis (Prime)........ +8
Musculium truncatum (Lins.)...... BSP! ops ee a
Spiders Pilzus militaris (Hentz).......... ee
Chibonta | spac Weiss see teen e Ces + =
Sponge Spongilla fragilis (Leidy)......... Ft See) ne
Tighten) 1. Grodesbooabs th soosgcunnoonusesonee 2 eee ee
NiOLtiCel liars Lt ecb tbe ere eatot spare Slee nus erons iets nictoume tieteimece erere *
Water boatmen COmxaSp -cisiete ets che eloeers aetna SAR ESD
Water striders Gerris marginatus (Say).......... * aot
Water scorpion Ranatra) fusca (PP). Sess eaten x
Hydrometri martini (Kirk)......... +=
Zaithae a 1) nal sh Sisrsige ea un eporere ac nlatere ic einjeis atetomeeete ets edad
SE GUAIS YA crajsuaie ce Rieietse sterereie eres 5 2423 2540 5664 2519 15

As would be expected, the number of species present is greatest
in mid-summer. The culmination in number of forms living in
the water comes in July. The greatest invasion of land forms
into the pond area occurs in August when the water level is low
and the pond is more nearly choked with vegetation.

QUANTITATIVE SUCCESSION.

Qualitative work, however, is not sufficient ground on which to
base exact conclusions. It is also necessary to have exact data
regarding the abundance of each of these species throughout the
year. In order to obtain this information quantitative collections
must be taken. The quantitative work carried on so far has been
done by means of nets of a known size operated through like dis-
tances in as nearly like conditions as possible. It may be added
that in order to do away with the obvious sources of error arising
from collecting with nets, a galvanized iron cylinder should be
used. This should be sunk into the mud for each collection and
the animals contained in it counted and their position noted.

Table II] shows the results of quantitative tow-net collections
made at the surface of the lilypad region. In these the net used
was of millers’ bolting cloth, with an opening one foot in diameter.
The net was slowly hauled a distance of forty feet with the top
of the opening at the water’s surface. The collections were made
in the early morning or late afternoon to guard against errors due
to the daily vertical migration, which was very pronounced. In all
instances the figures show the result of one typical haul taken
near the close of the month. Unfortunately, the collections for
July were made under too diverse conditions to be comparable to

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 129

those of the other months. Only some of the most typical species
are listed. TABLE II.

QUANTITATIVE SURFACE COLLECTIONS.
e>eB TELS
Group NAME. Screntiric NAME. ope Ds,
a) wn
Snail Lymnaea reflexa (Say)....... £03, 22,45 et
Planorbis exacutus (Say)..... 55-10) 8 test
Physa gyre’ (Say)- 2322205 = : 12 5 ee
Segmentina armigera (Say)... 1 10 4
Planorbis trivolvis (Say)..... 9
Sphaeridz Musculium truncatum (Lins.). Pon Tb 3
Isopoda Asellus communis (Say)..... 330 25 2
Mancasellus danielsii (Rich-
ALASGM Paice Ses care ee a iae i Oe AB ee |
Amphipoda Eucrangonyx gracilis (Smith) 3 4 1 8
ep RAMA R MAREE i whic Fare oo tae oS A See 2 6
Mpa ERAS MAEM ite ce oka phe ea wins & ase 2 20
PPE LAGCIE © eR re ee Se ee hn aA Ne eee eleine oo Oso js ae |
REE EAE Ve we 1a en eae den Pes vidi 2 ga
TIRE GRMMM Voy Shas Mima tne etamigx’s abiaxs? 22 4 te AT
Dytiscide Sbytiseusepe oi ao se ss ee 2 42 bee eee

The table shows that the number of individuals ences at the
surface increases and decreases in much the same manner as the
number of species. This is best shown by the snail Lymnaea
reflexa, whose relative abundance gives data for an almost perfect
seasonal curve. Pronounced cases of seasonal change due directly
to breeding habits are shown by the Ephemeride and Agrionide
larve.

In midsummer this lilypad region was the most thickly popu-
lated of any part of the pond, but earlier in the spring animals had
been most abundant at the bottom along the pond margin. Table
III shows the results of dredgings made at the margin during this
season of marginal dominance. These collections were made with
a dip net one foot in diameter, with all variable features made as
comparable as possible. Each number is the result obtained from
three consecutive dredgings.

TABLE III.
QUANTITATIVE Bottom COLLECTIONS.

ae

Group NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME. = & =
Snails Planorbis trivolvis (Say).......... 5
Planorbis deflectus (Say).......... 5
Segmentina armigera (Say)....... 3 11

Physaveyrina (Say). . o-jeere nace 1

Sphariide Musculium truncatum (Lins.)...... 8

Isopoda Asellus communis (Say).......... 54 48 57

Mancasellus danielsii (Richardson). 20 13 x!

Amphipoda Eucrangonyx gracilis (Smith)..... 49 62 4
Dytiscide RVGESSENS SE ais See ding hs cinco a 1 1
Leech Prpepdels) spo ccs c.c8e8 2 ce eee Se 2 1 1

SPM MOR Ceo Si. yw hs wie ew Scho Hoek aie « 1

130 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

The figures show the decrease of the crustacean complex in
this region and a start toward the summer increase among the
molluscs. They also show that the margin does not lose its
ascendency so much on account of a mid-summer decrease in the
forms present in this part of the pond, but rather because of the
amount of animal life among the lilypads.

The same state of affairs is shown by the relation between the
pond crustaceans and the pond snails. The crustaceans remain
near the same number throughout the year, while the snails are
represented by only a few forms in the spring and autumn, but are
more abundant than any other group in mid-summer. This makes
the crustaceans the dominant group in spring and autumn, not

ees eel a bs
“a
Ae

Figure 5. Variation curves of pond snails and crustaceans.

because of any decided difference in their own numbers, but be-
cause of the scarcity of the snails. The relation existing between
the two forms throughout the year is illustrated by the curves
plotted in Figure 5. The longer curve represents the seasonal
development of the molluscan group. The strong increase in the
spring is due at first to their coming out of hibernation and later
to the progress of the new generation. The rapid decrease is due
both to death and to hibernation. With the /sopods the breeding
season culminates much earlier and the old generation tends to
die off, leaving a fairly constant midsummer line. Both com-

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 131

plexes end higher in the autumn than they start in the spring—a
condition which must be due to the effect of winter killing.

SUMMARY.

The results so far obtained in this investigation may be briefly
summarized as follows:

(1) The phenomena of seasonal succession holds, both in
regard to succession of species and to the number of individuals
in a species.

(2) The position of dominance in point of numbers and of
distribution is held by crustaceans in the spring and autumn, with
Asellus commuuis as the dominant species; and by molluscs in
midsummer, with Lymnaea reflexa dominant.

(3) The most crowded habitat is on the bottom along the pond
margin in spring, on the surface or in the mid-depths of the deep-
est water in midsummer, and near the green water plants in
autumn.

(4) The forms tend to distribute themselves over the whole
pond, but are much more restricted during part of the year, espe-
cially during the breeding season.

The external factors influencing seasonal succession may be
summarized as: temperature, amount of water, chemical compo-
sition of water, amount and character of food and the physical
condition of the habitat. In seasonal succession the dynamic
effect of the animals themselves upon their own habitat is not
nearly so marked as in ecological succession; yet this dynamic
effect can be demonstrated to be present so that the phenomena
of seasonal succession may be regarded as the cyclic or slightly
spiral process, by means of which ecological succession is carried
on. It therefore presents a minute unit for the study of the gen-
eral succession problem. While no attempt has been made as yet
to analyze the causes of seasonal succession into their ultimate
factors, still, by careful quantitative collecting of animals and by
complete chemical analysis of the pond water we may hope to find
these factors. At least we can approximate them with much more
certainty than in ecological succession, where the time element
presents a great complication.

The writer is indebted to Dr. V. E. Shelford for help and kindly
criticism during the continuance of this work.

132 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

REPRODUCTION BY LAYERING IN THE BALSAM FIR
AND OTHER CONIFERS.

By WitirAm S. Cooper,

University of Chicago.
(Abstract. )

During ecological studies on Isle Royale, Lake Superior, many
balsams were found which were producing young trees by the
layering of the lower branches. The process was found to be
usually as follows. A lower branch, becoming more or less soil
covered, produces roots from its under side, and the tip then
becomes erect and takes on radial symmetry. The erect portion
derives practically all of its sustenance from its own root system,
the portion connecting it with the parent not developing further.
Connected groups of several were frequently seen, and the com-
monness of the habit is partially responsible for the great pre-
ponderance of balsam in the young growth. The young tree-like
branch may sooner or later be detached from the parent, and when
this takes place the former becomes an independent tree. One
case was seen in which the tip of a lower branch had taken the
erect position without the production of roots. The habit was
also observed, though less commonly, in all the other coniferous
species growing on Isle Royale.

There is here an excellent opportunity for investigation of the
causes of orthotropism and plagiotropism, and their mutual rela-
tions.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Cowles.—‘This is interesting from two or three stand-
points. In the first place, it casts discredit on a great many eco-
logical works of the past, in that we have not been subterranean
enough in our habit. We have got to use the spade a great deal
more than we have been doing. Another point of interest is that
here we find the possibility for a greater lease of life for our forest
succession—much greater than we had believed possible. A plant
which would give so much shade that the seedlings did not germi-
nate is naturally limited, and one that can reproduce by layering
of this sort is naturally much better provided for.”

Mr. Hessler—‘T have seen that similar method of reproduction
in Arbor Vite.”

ECOLOGICAL PAPERS. 133
7

ECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE PRAIRIE AND FOREST
IN ILLINOIS.

By CHARLEs C. ADAMS,
University of Illinois, Urbana.

( Abstract. )

During August, 1910, the writer, representing the Illinois State
Laboratory of Natural History, T. L. Hankinson of the Eastern
Illinois Normal School, and E. N. Transeau, co-operated in an
ecological reconnoissance of the vicinity of Charleston, Coles
County, Illinois. Representative patches of prairie and forest
were examined, described, photographed ; the plants and animals
were studied and their inter-relations were studied as fully as
time would permit. A report on the work is in preparation, in
which Transeau describes the vegetation, Hankinson the verte-
brate, and Adams the invertebrate associations. It is planned to
make this report an example of what kind of work may be
expected from local studies in which only a limited amount of time
is available.

A HANDBOOK FOR STUDENTS OF ANIMAL ECOLOGY.

By CHARLES C. ADAMS,
University of Illinois, Urbana.

(Outline. )

The plan of this handbook may be indicated by its contents as
follows: Aim, methods, points of view, ecological survey, work-
ing plan, field study, taking notes, collecting and preserving speci-
mens, determination of specimens, sources of facts needed in
ecological studies, and concluding with a selected annotated list
of papers dealing with the laws of change in the environment, in
the organisms and the relative adjustment between the organism
and the environment.

IV.
Biological Papers

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS. 137

A PRELIMINARY LIST OF ANTS FROM ILLINOIS.

By Maurice Cote TANQUARY,
University of Illinois, Urbana.

Some time ago I began work on the life history and ecology of
our common corn-field ant, Lasius niger var. americanus. At the
time I did not expect to study ants from the systematic standpoint,
but on numerous field trips in search of colonies of L. americanus,
I collected a great many ants belonging to other species, and was
thus naturally led to take up a study of the occurrence and distri-
bution of the various species of ants.

The following list is not assumed to be by any means complete
for the ants of Illinois. In fact, the object of this paper is not
so much to list the species already collected as to secure any possi-
ble co-operation on the part of members of the Academy in
obtaining material for identification, and data from different parts
of the state. As I understand it, one of the objects of this Acad-
emy is to enable investigators working in different parts of the
state, especially those working on ecological and distributional
problems, to co-operate in their work in such a way as to bring
about the greatest mutual benefit. As a matter of fact, a certain
amount of co-operation is necessary in order to work up the dis-
tribution of species over an area of any considerable extent.

The following list of ants I obtained from three sources:
(1) my own collection, containing fifty-one species from this state ;
(2) from the collections of the Illinois State Laboratory of Nat-
ural History [including the Nason collection, the ants of which
were determined by Prof. W. M. Wheeler] ; and (3) the last thir-
teen species were kindly added by Prof. W. M. Wheeler from the
list of species which he has taken in Illinois. Some of the ants
of the State Laboratory collections were determined a number
of years ago by Pergande, but the bulk of the material is as yet
undetermined.

SUBFAMILY PONERIN#.

This subfamily is represented by two species belonging to dif-
ferent genera.

1. Stigmatomma pallipes Haldeman.

2. Ponera coarctata Latreille.

These two species are the most primitive of our ants, and
as a rule are found in rather low, moist situations. Their colonies
are always small, most of them containing less than a dozen indi-
viduals.

138 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

SUBFAMILY MyRMICIN&.

This subfamily is apparently the richest in number of genera,
there being eleven in my list, most of them, however, being repre-
sented by but a few species.

Myrmecina sp. I have not taken this genus in Illinois, but find
it represented by one specimen in the collection of the State
Laboratory, taken on the University farm at Urbana in 1887.

Monomorium. This genus is represented by two very common
species.

M. pharaonis L., the little red house-ant.

M. minimum Buckley, a small black ant found along roadsides
and in meadows.

Solenopsis molesta Say, one of the smallest ants we have, the
tiny yellow ant found commonly in fields and sometimes in houses.

Pheidole pilifera Roger.
P. vinelandica Forel.

Of these two species the first is apparently much more widely
distributed in Illinois. P. vtinelandica is found in sandy situations
especially. Both species are quite small, and have major workers
with enormously enlarged heads.

Cremastogaster lineolata Say is a common and very widely dis-
tributed species. It nests in fields under stones, in logs and
stumps, under bark, in hollow stems of weeds, etc. It seems to
be quite a variable species. I have one distinct variety so far,
C. lineolata lutescens Emery.

C. victima F. Smith. A few specimens of this species were
found in the Nason collection.

Stenamma. One species of this genus.

S. brevicorne Mayr.

Aphenogaster.

A. fulva Roger.

A. fulva aquia Buckley.

A, tennesseensis Mayr.

The above two species and variety of Aphenogaster are quite
common in timber. They are the slender, reddish ants found
under bark and in decaying wood.

A. lamellidens Mayr. I find this species represented in the State
Laboratory collection by one specimen, taken at Aurora, IIl., in
1883.

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS. 139

Myrmica.

M. scabrinodis sabuleti Meinert. This is the commonest species
of this genus found here.

M. scabrinodis schencki Emery. Taken near Chicago.

M. brevinodis canadensis Wheeler.

Leptothorax. Two species of this genus are fairly common.

L. curvispinosus Mayr.

L. fortinodis melanoticus Wheeler.

Both of these species live in such protected situations, as under
bark of trees, in stems of weeds, etc. I have found entire colonies
of the first species passing the winter on the inside of dried apples
which had fallen to the ground and were protected by dead leaves.

Strumygenys. This genus is rare. I have two specimens taken
near Bloomington, IIl., by Messrs. W. P. Flint and G. E. Sanders,
the species of which I have not yet determined.

S. clypeata Roger. A number of specimens of this species was
found by Mr. James Zetek in a wood near Urbana.

Trachymyrmex. This is a southern genus, and I have but one
vial of it in my collection.

T. septentrionalis McCook. This was taken at Elizabethtown,
Ill., by W. P. Flint. It is one of the fungus-growing ants.

SUBFAMILY DOLOCHODERIN.

This subfamily is represented by two species belonging to differ-
ent genera.

Tapinoma sessile Say. A small, black ant having the odor of
rancid butter. Rather common.

Iridomyrmex analis André. I have taken this ant in but one
situation, near Urbana. This is the same genus as the introduced
ant that is proving to be such a pest at some places in the southern
states.

SUBFAMILY CAMPANOTIN2.

While this subfamily is represented in the collections by fewer
genera than the Myrmicine, it contains our three most dominant
genera, Lasius, Formica and Campanotus.

Brachymyrmex heeri subsp. depilis Emery.

Prenolepis imparis Say.

P. imparis testacea Emery.

Lasius.

L. niger americanus, the small, brown, corn-field ant, the most
common of all our ants.

140 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

L. umbratus subsp. mixtus var. aphidicola Walsh, fairly
common.

L. umbratus minutus Emery. This ant is not at all common.
I have never taken it in Illinois myself, and have never seen more
than one nest. This was one I found near Boston, Mass. It was
a large mound nest about two and a half feet high, and contained
many thousands of individuals—males, females, and workers. The
specimens I have from Illinois were collected by Dr. C. C. Adams
from a mound nest near Chicago.

L. (Acanthomyops) claviger Roger.

L. (Acanthomyops) latipes Walsh.

L. (Acanthomyops) interjectus Mayr.

These three species of the subgenus Acanthomyops are rather
common in Illinois. They may be distinguished from the other
yellow Lasu by having an odor something like that of oil of
citronella.

Formica. In my own collection and that of the State Labora-
tory I have found fifteen species and varieties of this genus.

F. sanguinea rubicunda Emery. Slave-making species.

FP, sanguina subintegra Emery. Slave-making species.

F. rufa obscuriventris Mayr.

F. rufa obscuripes rubiginosa Emery.

F, rufa obscuripes melanotica Emery.

F. exsectoides Forel. A very large red and black mound-build-
ing ant. Not so common here as in the east.

F. ulkei Emery. Closely related to F. exsectoides ; not common.

F, pallide-fulva schaufussi Mayr.

F. pallide-fulva schaufussi incerta Emery.

These last two are the common, rather large, slender, yellowish
brown ants found in the open fields.

F, pallide-fulva nitidiventris Emery. Darker and not quite so
common as the two preceding species.

F, fusca subsericea Say. This is the common large black ant
which so often disfigures lawns with its nests.

F. fusca argentata Wheeler, a less common variety.

F, subpolita Mayr.

F. subpolita picea Emery.

F. cinerea neocinerea Wheeler. I have one vial of this species
from New Bedford, collected by G. E. Sanders.

- BIOLOGICAL PAPERS. 141

Polyergus rufescens breviceps Emery. I have one vial of this
slave-making ant, taken with its slave, F. subsericea, at Wyoming,
Ill., by G. E. Sanders.

Campanotus. I have nine species of this genus.

C. castaneus Latr.

C. castaneus americanus Mayr.

C. herculanus pennsylvanicus De Geer.

C. herculanus ferrugineus Fabr.

The two preceding species are our common carpenter ants.

C. ligniperdis noveboracensis Fitch.

C. fallax minutus Emery.

C. fallax subbarbatus paucipilis Emery.

C. fallax tanquaryi Wheeler.

C. (subgenus) Colobopsis sp.

The following species were added to my list by Prof. W. M.
Wheeler.

Pheidole bicarinata Mayr. (The type locality of this species is
“Tilinois.’’)

Aphenogaster fulva aquia var. rudis Emery. Rockford, II.
(W. M. W.)

A. fulva aquia var. picea Emery. Rockford, Ill. (W. M. W.)

Dolichoderus (Hypoclinea) plagiatus Mayr. The type locality
is ‘“‘Tllinois.”” I have taken it at Rockford, Ill. (W. M. W.)

Dorymyrmex pryamicus Roger var. niger Pergande. Rock-
ford, Ill. (W. M. W.) :

Prenopelis parvula Mayr. Rockford, Ill. (W. M. W.)

Lasius flavus L. subsp. nearcticus Wheeler. Rockford, IIl.
(W. M. W.)

L. (Acanthomyops) claviger Roger subsp. subglaber Emery.

Rockford, Ill. (W. M. W.)

- Formica pallide-fulva Latr. subsp. fuscata Emery. Rockford,
iil, (W. M. W.)

F. fusca L. var. subenescens Emery. Rockford, Ill.
(W. M. W.)

F, subpolita Mayr var near perpilosa Wheeler. Rockford, IIl.
(W. M. W.)

Polyergus lucidus Mayr. Rockford, Ill. (W. M. W.)

P. rufescens Latr. subsp. bicolor Wasmann. Rockford, III.
(W. M. W.)

I take it that there are probably people in various parts of
the state who are doing ecological work or perhaps merely making

142 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

entomological collections who may have ant material they would
like to have identified. If so, I should be very glad to determine
the material for them for the sake of getting data on the occur-
rence and distribution of the various species in the state. With
such help and with the opportunity which Professor Forbes has
allowed me of working over the large amount of as yet undeter-
mined material of the State Laboratory, I hope some time in the
future to be able to publish a complete annotated list of the ants
of the state.

In building up my own collection I am indebted to a number of
friends and co-workers, but especially to Messrs. W. P. Flint and
G. E. Sanders, assistants to the State Entomologist. I am also
indebted to Prof. S. A. Forbes for permission to use the extensive
collections of the State Laboratory, and to Prof. W. M. Wheeler
for making many determinations for me and for adding materially
to my list.

THE MOLLUSCA OF PIATT, CHAMPAIGN AND VER-
MILLION COUNTIES, JELINOIS,
By JAMES ZETEK,
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana.
(Abstract. )

The paper records the result of a molluscan reconnoissance of
Piatt, Champaign and Vermilion counties. Previous to 1907 but
twenty-eight species had been recorded from this area. The
work of the past four years has raised this number to 116, dis-
tributed as follows: Piatt county, 52; Champaign county, 78;
Vermilion county, 67; total 116. Of this number, 44 are pelecy-
pods, 9 are prosobranchiate gastropods, 20 are aquatic pulmonata,
and 43 are terrestrial pulmonata.

Fourteen different localities were visited and more or less
extensive ecological observations were made; ten of these locali-
ties were in Champaign County, and two each in Piatt and Ver-
milion counties. Of the localities visited only two, the Brown-
field and Cottonwood groves, three and one-quarter and four
miles northeast of Urbana, were systematically searched for mol-
lusks. It is believed that an equally careful study of the other
localities will materially add to the number of species herein re-
corded.

The finding of Paravitrea significans (Bld.) in the Brownfield
and Cottonwood groves is of great interest, extending the range
of this species 300 miles northward.

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS. 143

THE OCCURRENCE OF THE RARE ALGA, GLOEOTAE-
NIUM, IN ILLINOIS.

By E. N. TRANSEAU,

Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston.

This Alga, Gloeotaenium Loitlesbergerianum Hansg. was first
described by Hansgirgt in 1890 from material collected in Aus-
tria. It has since been found at other places in Austria, Italy
and the East Indies.* In the “Pflanzenfamilien,” Wille gives a
description which is incorrect in several respects and places it
among the doubtful genera of the Desmidiaceae.* In 1905 it was
described by G. S. West* from the island of Trinidad, and classi-
fied near the genus Gloeocystis, among the Chaetophoraceae.
Collins® follows the description of West and gives Trinidad as
the only station in the western hemisphere.

During the summer of 1910, the writer collected numerous
specimens of this plant at Charleston. The habitat is an area of
about two square meters on the northeast corner of a small arti-
ficial pond made by the removal of clay for the manufacture of
tiles. The water is very shallow, not over a foot in depth when
the water is highest. Although numerous collections have been
made at other points in this pond and adjoining ponds, no other
station was found. The collections made later than September
have thus far yielded no specimens. A point of additional inter-
est in connection with the habitat is that the pond has been in
existance about twenty years. The alga as found here consists
of two or four celled families. It is of such size and striking
appearance that it is not likely to be overlooked when even a
picture of it has once been seen. Here is an opportunity for the
imagination to account for the introduction of this plant in this
far remote habitat.

1Hansgirg, A. Ueber neue Susswasser und Meeresalgen. Sitzber. K. Bohm. Ges.
1890, p. 10.

2DeToni, G. B. Frammenti algologici VIII. Sopra la sinonimia e la distribu-
zione geographica del Gloetaenium Loitlesbergeruabum Hansg. Rev. Bot. Cent. 62:
110. 1895.

$Wille, N., in Engler und Prantl. Pflanzen familien I, 2, p. 159. 1897.

*West, G. S., West Indian Fresh Water Algae. Jour. Bot. 42: 281. 1904.

5Collins, F. S. The Green Algae of North America. Tufts College Studies II,
p. 310. 1909.

144 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

STRUCTURE OF THE ADULT CYCAD SfERE

By CuHarLes J. CHAMBERLAIN
University of Chicago.

(Summary.* )

1. The paper deals with field material of adult stems of Dioon
spinulosum, D. edule, Ceratozamia mexicana, and Zamia flori-
dana, particular attention being given to Dioon spinulosum.

2. In Dioon spinulosum the xylem zone in a plant 6 meters in
height reaches a width of 10 cm., far exceeding the extent of any
xylem zone previously described for any cycad.

3. Dioon spinulosum and D. edule have growth rings, which in
D. spinulosum correspond to the periods of activity which result
in the formation of crowns or cones, but which in D. edule do
not correspond to such periods. No growth rings were found
in Ceratozamia mexicana or Zamia floridana.

4. Cone domes in the pith were studied in the four species.
5. The histological character of the adult stem was studied in
Dioon spinulosum. The protoxylem consists of scalariform
tracheids, from which there is a gradual transition to the trach-
eids with miultiseriate bordered pits, constituting the principal
part of the wood. There are also cells with the same origin as
the pitted tracheids, but with transverse walls which may remain
thin-walled and contain starch or may become lignified. Besides
the leaf trace bundles, scalariform tracheids are found in the
large medulary rays.

6. Both in the general appearance of the transverse section
and in histological characters the adult trunk of Dioon spinulo-
sum resembles that of Cycadeoidea.

DIscussION.

Mr. Coulter—‘It is a matter of considerable interest, if I
might emphasize, to discover in Mexico a Cycad which has con-
tradicted one of the best established distinctions of the Cycads
as distinct from the Conifers, and it suggests a possibility that no
one had thought of before. It is an absolutely new thing among
Cycads to have such massive wood, and wood of this kind.”

Mr. Caldwell—‘Just what is the connection between that
hump of wood that bears the cone, and the cylinder rings?”

*Published in full in the Botanical Gazette, under the title ‘““The Adult Cycad
Trunk,” 52: 81-104, Aug., 1911

—s

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS. 145

Mr. Chamberlain—*Every dome, at the time it is produced, is
the apex of the plant, and that passes down, with very complex
anastomosing into those of the leaf traces. It is, therefore, re-
lated directly to one of the cylinders.”

DEMONSTRATION OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE
WATER IN LEAVES.

By Aaron HopGMAN COLE.
Chicago Teachers’ College, Chicago.
( Abstract. )

A brief statement of the present state of knowledge of trans-
piration in plants will furnish an appropriate setting for the

-demonstration of the moving stream of water as it traverses the

veins of leaves. We have not seen a clearer statement than that
of Dr. C. R. Barnes in his admirable “Physiology of Plants,’*
from which we quote as follows:

“The ultimate cause of the ascent of sap is transpiration; but
how it acts is entirely unknown.”

“The evidence that the xylem is the path of the transpiration
stream rests in part upon direct observation, but mainly upon
inference from the effects of cutting the xylem strands or block-
ing the tracheae.”

“It is fairly certain that the transpiration stream traverses the
xylem strands and that it is the lumina of the tracheae that form
the conduits for the water.”

“The xylem strands form a connected series, extending from
the root-hair region to the mesophyll of the leaves, among which
they branch so extensively that there is scarcely a cell which is
separated from a strand by more than a half dozen of its neigh-
bors. Here the first branches end blindly or join their fellows.”

It is my purpose to demonstrate briefly a method which I have
recently developed for making visible to the eye, either without
or with the aid of magnification, the actual movement of the
transpiration stream along the xylem strands of live leaves. My
investigation was undertaken in the hope that my students might
see the movement of the sap when demonstrated with a projec-
tion microscope or by direct observation. The use of translucent
plant stems and modified leaves gave negative or unsatisfactory

4 *Text Book of Botany, (Coulter, Barnes and Cowles) pp. 351, 347, 348, 342
and 343.

146 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

results, but led to experiments with normal green leaves in which
the veins and veinlets appear white when seen by transmitted
light. Positive results have been obtained with leaves of bean,
corn, barley, turnip, lettuce, Easter lily, Chinese sacred lily,
freesia, and lilac. Leaves of corn and barley grown in the labo-
ratory are preferred for use by students in simple demonstrations
and also for projection experiments. For study under the com-
pound microscope leaves of the bean and lilac are preferred.

The rate of movement in the veins varies greatly, but, in gen-
eral, appears to be more rapid than has been observed in stems.
I have repeatedly noted a rate of 30 mm. in fifteen seconds, but
the maximum rate observed by my students seems to be consid-
erably faster. These measurements were made by direct observa-
tion. For observing the phenomenon as it is related to the lumen
and walls of the tracheae it is necessary to use the compound
microscope with a power as high, at least, as a quarter inch
objective and one inch ocular. It is possible to identify the
tracheae in the smaller xylem strands and note the normal con-
ditions of the lumen and wall and a moment later observe the
movement of the colored liquid through the lumen of the cell.

Troublesome conditions are met with in the manipulation of
the leaves under the compound and projection microscopes.
New forms of apparatus, devised by the author, for the control
of these conditions are not yet sufficiently perfected for publica-
tion but will be included in a report of further researches.

The laboratory demonstration included, first, the methods of
preparation of the leaves for direct observation with the eye
alone or aided by a hand magnifier and, second, the exhibition
and description of a special cell for use in projecting the moving
stream, the method of mounting a leaf in this cell and the dem-
onstration of the movement by projection on a screen.

The first method, as used by students in the biological labora-
tory of the Chicago Teachers’ College was worked out and the
specimens passed to members of the Academy. The leaves used
were from barley plants from six to ten inches high, grown in
the biological laboratory of the college. A few drops of a strong
aqueous solution of eosin were placed in either a small homeo-
pathic vial or in a watch glass. A leaf was cut, with a sharp
knife, at a right angle to its length and at a half inch or more
from its attachment to the stem. The cut end was immediately
placed in the solution of eosin and the specimen held between

i

a

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS. 147

the eye and any strong light. The upward movement of the red
liquid began at once and continued until the veins were colored
to their tips at the apex of the leaf.

In the second method of demonstration by projecting the pre-
pared leaf on a screen a special glass and metal cell was used.
This cell is so constructed that it does not interfere with the nor-
mal activity in the loaf, but keeps the leaf flattened under the
objective, prevents the upward flow of the eosin solution on the
surface of the leaf next to the glass, and permits any necessary
movements for accurate adjustments on the stage of the projec-
tion microscope. As a large field and low magnification are
desirable conditions in this demonstration, a regular lantern slide
projection apparatus was used as a low power projection micro-
scope... A vertical glass plate was attached to the slide stage
which was then moved away from the condenser lenses a few
inches and the lamp was so adjusted that the light was focused on
the vertical glass plate. The quarter size projection lens was
moved to such a point that it projected on the screen a clear pic-
ture of an object held against the vertical glass plate which was, in
effect, the stage of the projection microscope. A cooling tank of
distilled water was placed between the condenser lenses and the
glass stage to prevent undue heating of the leaf. A drop or two
of water was then put into the special cell. A barley leaf, cut as
described above, was placed in it, the cell placed on the glass
plate and the transparent veins of the leaf sharply focused on the
screen. The normal colors of the leaf having been seen, a few
drops of strong eosin solution were added to the water in the
cell and the movement of the colored liquid along the veins was
immediately visible as far as to the rear of the room or forty
feet from the screen.

1Cole’s Manual! of Biological Projection and Anasthesia of Animals, p. 38.

L

x.

Miscellaneous: Papers

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. od

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE STATE MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY.

By A. R. Crook.
Illinois State Museum of Natural History.

In view of the interest which the Academy has taken in the
State Museum, it may be well at this time to call attention to
progress recently made at the museum—progress which, though
slight is nevertheless gratifying.

One of the most important pieces of work accomplished has
been that in connection with the arrangement of the library.
More than 1,500 books have been bound, sets have been com-
pleted, several hundred books have been added, all have been
arranged on accessible shelves, and about 12,000 cards have been
written for card catalogue.

A card catalogue of the specimens on exhibition in the museum
is being rapidly brought to completion. During the past six
months more than 4,000 cards have been written.

The space at the disposal of the museum has been more than
doubled, permitting a slight expansion and some addition to
the exhibits. But the floor space for exhibition and for work
should be at least four times what it now is, in order to ade-
quately represent the things which as soon as possible should be
collected for the sake of preservation, study and exhibition.

There are at this time special reasons for hoping that in-
creased space will soon be obtained. It is becoming widely real-
ized that at least $100,000 worth of material is now inadequately
cared for in the museum. Among this material are about 700
type specimens. The present quarters are unsightly. The loca-
tion, directly at the intersection of two busy streets, renders the
dust nuisance almost unbearable. The danger of fire is great
because of inflammable materials of which the building is con-
structed and because of storage of such materials therein. The
loss which a fire would cause would be irreparable. If new quar-
ters can be provided as is the earnest wish of practically all con-
versant with the situation, the present material can be safely
housed and properly used; and the value of the collections can
in a short time be doubled. More than $25,000 worth of speci-
mens have already been offered the museum on the condition that
a new building be secured, and it will be easy to increase these
gifts.

152 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

It is impossible for a museum to work effectively without
proper quarters. When needed space is provided, the exhibits
which now represent the work of collection covering more than
half a century, can become of great value to three classes of citi-
zens: first, men of science who wish to use material (notably
type specimens) for research work; second, men of business,
who wish information concerning raw materials, and third, the
casual sightseer and even the unlettered man who, in the museum
can find entertainment of the finest type.

In the matter of collecting, the attitude of the present curator
is that there is a vast field in the state yet uncovered by existing
agencies, and that there is ample room for all institutions doing
work of this character. The one care should be to see that for
our own people are preserved records which otherwise would be
transferred to other regions of the country or, far more unfor-
tunately than that, lost to science entirely. The chief aim of the
institution is to be of direct value to all who may be assisted.
It should be in a position to represent the excellent work which
is being done along scientific lines notable at the University of
Illinois and by workers in other localities of the state. Situated
at the center of the state geographically and at some distance
from the great intellectual center which Chicago always will be,
it has a large field of usefulness.

Imperfect as the institution now is, it was visited last year by
more than 31,000 people by actual count and judging by the in-
crease in the early part of this year that number will probably
approach 50,000 this year.

Exhibits furnished by the State Geological Survey, State Ento-
mologist, the Highway Commissioner, the Department of Soils,
the Bureau of Mines, the Department of Health, etc., would be a
means of spreading abroad concrete knowledge of the work along
these lines.

The museum being in a somewhat isolated position, may very
well become a special protegé of the State Academy of Science
to the advantage of all concerned. And it is to be hoped that
individually and collectively, the members of the organization will
interest themselves in the furthering of the interests of the
museum. Sixty members of the academy wrote clearly stated
and urgent letters to the governor and legislators asking that a
new building be provided at Springfield for the museum. These

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. 153

letters and the resolutions of the academy* will aid materially
in securing an adequate building for which there is now a bright
prospect.

REPORT OF ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE ON
RESOLUTION CONCERNING THE STATE MUSEUM.

March Ist, 1909.

WHEREAS, the Illinois State Museum of Natural History in its more than
fifty years of existence has become the repository of many thousand valuable scien-
tific objects.

WHEREAS, the present housing of these objects is inadequate, unsightly and
dangerous, since they are crowded, exposed to dust and in danger of fire.

WHEREAS, the museum should preserve and exhibit material showing the
work of many scientific departments, such as the Geological Survey, Soil Survey,
Water Survey, Laboratory of Natural History, Highway Commission, etc.; and
should preserve the records of vanishing animals and plants and exhibit the oils,
coals, clays, cements, fluxes, abrasives, metals and other minerals of the state which
thoveh so abundant are absolutely limited and capable of exhaustion.

WHEREAS, the museum thus gives a forcible and concrete appeal for the con-
servation of our natural resources, and is an institution of great importance, both
from an educational and practical point of view.

BE IT RESOLVED by the Illinois Academy of Science that an institu-
tion of such scientific and commercial importance should be adequately cared for
by the State, and that commodious quarters should be provided as soon as prac-
ticable in a new building in Springfield.

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Illinois Academy of Science, as
an organization and as individuals, hereby expresses its earnest wish that the present
state legislature take steps to provide such a building for the museum either alone
er with other appropriate State Departments.

S. A. FORBES.
A. R. CROOK.
J. C. HESSLER.

Committee.

*The resolutions were as follows:

Vi...

Nessaleds

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES. 157

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.

Since the last meeting at Urbana, death has claimed several
members of the Illinois Academy of Science, and it is fitting to
record briefly the lives of these men, several of whom died while
in the midst of an illustrious career. We are called upon to
mourn five members who have been thus taken from our number.

IN MEMORY OF CHARLES REID BARNES.

By JouHn M. CouLter.

The death of Charles Reid Barnes, on February 24, 1910, re-
moved from the Academy a man whose services in scientific or-
ganizations have been conspicuous, and who would have proved a
most efficient member of this young organization.

His relations to his science were varied and important. He
was always active in scientific societies, and was held in high
esteem by his colleagues as an unusually efficient administrator.
As a teacher he had few equals. There was a clearness and pre-
cision in his statements, a keen critical sense, an unvarying frank-
ness, and a winning personality that always attracted and held
students. For twenty-seven years he was co-editor of the Botan-
ical Gazette, possessing to an unusual degree the editorial genius,
which entered into every detail, from general policy to printing.
As a reviewer he achieved high reputation, for he grasped the
significant things, and let no doubtful results or inferior work
slip by without incisive comment. His publications were not
voluminous, but they include text books, taxonomic work dealing
with mosses, morphological work dealing with liverworts, and
critical papers on plant physiology.

To his comrades in American botany he was more than a com-
panion in work. He was a loyal friend, whose sweetness and
largeness of spirit bound them to him in bonds of no common
strength. The memory of his quiet animation of bearing and
cheerful vigor will not pass away from the minds of his asso-
icates.

The Illinois Academy of Science desires to record upon its
minutes, along with its deep sense of loss, its gratitude that the
life of the society has been enriched, even for a short period,
by the presence of this strong, unsullied, and devoted nature.

158 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

J. A. WEST: IN MEMORIAM.
By S. A. Fores.

Mr. James Alexander West, a charter member of this Academy,
was born March 29, 1874, at Nokomis, IJ]. His father, Rever-
end James M. West, was a clergyman in the Methodist Episcopal
Church. He took his first degree in a scientific course at the IIli-
nois Wesleyan University, at Bloomington, in 1899, and received
the master’s degree from the same college in 1904. In the mean-
time he had taken a theological course at Boston University,
from which he graduated in 1903.

After preaching for two years, he returned to scientific work as
an assistant in the State Entomologist’s office, located at the Uni-
versity of Illinois, under an appointment dated September 1, 1905,
and entered also upon a graduate course in entomology for which
he would have received his doctor’s degree at the commence-
ment of 1910 except for the failure of his health in September,
1909. He died of tuberculosis April 17, 1910, at Ottawa, III, in
the thirty-fourth year of his age, leaving a wife, Mrs. Mary
Josephine (Varty) West, to whom he was married in 1901, and
two children aged 6 years and 15 months, respectively.

Mr. West was a painstaking, thorough, and accurate student,
and a faithful, loyal, and unselfish gentleman. He was a clear
writer, and an unusually acceptable speaker to general audiences.
He made friends easily, was highly regarded by his entomological
associates, and was rapidly becoming widely and favorably known
throughout his state. Although at the very beginning of his sci-
entific career, he had won sufficient recognition and appreciation
to bring him, in 1909, an appointment as head of the department
of entomology in an important technical college—an appointment
which he declined in order to complete his graduate course. He
left several papers on scientific subjects in form for publication,
one of which has been recently printed as a bulletin of the Illi-
nois State Laboratory of Natural History.

JOSEPH R. PUTNAM: IN MEMORIAM.*

The death of Joseph R. Putnam, September 7, 1910, removed
from the active members of the academy one who has long been
identified with the society and who had served as a member of
the Board of Trustees for the preceding eighteen years.

*Reprinted from Bulletin No. 5, Vol. ITI, of The Chicago Academy of Sciences.

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES. IBS,

Mr. Putnam was born in 1835, at Houlton, Maine. He spent
his boyhood days in New England, and graduated from Williams’
College in the year 1858. At the opening of the Civil War, Mr.
Putnam enlisted in the Third Minnesota Infantry. In 1862 he
was made lieutenant of that infantry, and in 1864 lieutenant-
colonel of the Forty-Third Colored U. S. Infantry. Soon after
that he was taken prisoner. While on parole on account of ill-
ness, he served in General Sibley’s staff in the Sioux Indian
campaign. Later, upon his return to his own company, Mr. Put-
nam served on the Signal Corps until the close of the war. He
served in the battles of Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge and
Lookout Mountain.

Following the close of the Civil War, Mr. Putnam came to
Chicago and soon established himself in the real estate business.
As a citizen of Chicago he took an active interest in the general
welfare of the community. He became a member oi the Chicago
Academy of Sciences before the great fire in 1871, when the
records of the Academy were destroyed. He was among the
most enthusiastic members in the re-establishment and growth of
the Academy after the fire, and up to the time of his death gave
a great deal of attention to the welfare and development of the
institution.

In the year 1892 he was elected to membership on the Board
of Trustees, and in 1899 chosen as the president of that Board,
in which capacity he served until the time of his death. During
Mr. Putnam’s association with the Academy he endeared himself
in many ways to the members of the Society.

JOHN FARWELL FERRY.*
By Benjy. T. GAw_t.

The sudden and untimely death at St. Luke’s Hospital, Chi-
coga, February 11, 1910, from acute pneumonia, of our fellow
member, John Farwell Ferry, came as a great surprise and shock
to his many friends in and about the city and throughout the
country at large.

Born October 12, 1877, Mr. Ferry developed early in life a
fondness for natural history pursuits and, before entering the
preparatory school at Andover, Mass., had gathered together a
collection of North American birds that would have done credit
to a much older person.

160 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Graduating with the engineering class of the Sheffield School
of Yale in 1901, he later became Secretary of the Sheffield Branch
of the Y. M. C. A. at New Haven, Conn. In 1902 he took up
the mercantile calling and acted as a traveling salesman for two
years. During the summer of 1905 he received an appointment
with the Biological Survey and collected that season in California.
February 1, 1906, he joined the staff of the Field Museum of Chi-
cago, under Prof. Chas. B. Cory, curator of the Department of
Zoology, which institution he served faithfully and well up to
the time of his death.

His museum experience being the longest was perhaps most
prolific of results, several trips of some duration being planned
and executed by him during that time, chief among which may be
mentioned an expedition to Central America and northern South
America during the winter of 1907-08.

This was followed the succeeding year by another to the islands
of the Caribbean Sea, which proved unusually successful, adding
several novelties new to science among the birds, a honey creeper,
Coereba ferryi, being named by Prof. Cory in honor of the
collector.

The readers of the Bulletin will remember the subject of this
sketch by the very excellent paper of his, “The Spring Migration
of 1907 in the Vicinity of Chicago,” appearing in the March
number of 1908. Additional articles have been published by him
in “The Auk” and “The Condor,” and at the time of his death he
was working out a paper based upon the results of the Costa
Rican, or Central American, trip previously mentioned. Tall in
stature and of a dignified and courteous bearing, Mr. Ferry
united to these an amiable turn of mind. He was a young man of
exemplary habits and high ideals, and bid fair to achieve distinc-
tion as well in the science of birds. His loss to Illinois and to
ornithology, therefore, will be keenly felt.

*Reprinted from The Wilson Bulletin XXII, No. 1, March, 1910.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 161

List of Members

HONORARY MEMBER
Trelease, Wm., LL.D., Mo. Bot. Garden, St. Louis, Mo. (Botany.)

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Abbott, J. F., A.M., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. (Zoology.)
Coulter, S. M., Ph.D., 3883 Juniata St., St. Louis, Mo. (Botany.)
Eycleshymer, A. C., Ph.D., St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo. (Anatomy.)
Lyon, E. P., Ph.D., St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo. (Physiology.)
Turner, C. H., Sumner H. S., St. Louis, Mo. (Invertebrate Zoology.)
Widman, O., Ph.D., 5105 Morgan St., St. Louis, Mo. (Ornithology, Bot.)

LIFE MEMBER.
Latham, Vida A., M.D., D.D.S., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago. (Microscopy.)

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

*Abbott, G. A., A.M., 945 Marquette Bldg., Chicago. (Ornithology.)
Ackert, J. E., A.B., University of [llinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

*Adams, C. C., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Biology.)

Akeley, C. E., Field Museum, Chicago. (Taxidermy.)

*Andrews, C. W., A.M., The John Crerar Library, Chicago. (Sci. Biblio.)
*Atwell, Chas. B., Ph.M., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Botany.)
*Atwood, W. W., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.)
Babcock, Oliver B., M.D., 1100 S. Second St., Springfield. ( Physician.)
*Bachmann, Frank, State Water Survey, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Bagg, R. M., Jr., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)
Bagley, W. C., Ph.D., Uni. of Illinois, Urbana. (Educational Psychology.)
*Bain, H. Foster, Ph.D., 667 Howard St., San Francisco, Cal. (Geology.)
Bain, Walter G., M.D., Prince Sanitarium, Springfield. (Bacteriology.)
Baird, Miss Grace J., A.B., 608 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana. (Biology.)
Baird, Leo P., A.B., (Eugenics). Address unknown.

Baker, Chas. L., B.S., Uni. of Chi., Chicago. (Paleontology and Geology.)
Baker, Frank C., Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago. (Conchology.)
Baker, I. O., C_E., 702 W. University Ave., Champaign. (Civil Eng.)
*Balke, Clarence W., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Barger, Thomas M., 2725 South Fifty-ninth Court, Cicero, Il.

*Barnes, H. O., A.B., High School, Springfield. (Mathematics. )

Barnes, R. M., LL.B., Lacon. (Oology.)

Barnes, Will F., M.D., Decatur. (Medicine.)

Barrett, J. T., Ph.D., 403 E. Chalmers St., Champaign, Ill. (Botany.)
*Bartow, Edward, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Barwell, John William, Waukegan. (Anthropology.)
*Bayley, W. S., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)
Bement, A., M.E., 2114 Fisher Bldg., Chicago. (Mining Engineering.)
*Bennett, A. N., B.S., 1623 Manhattan Bldg., Chicago. (Asst. State Analyst.)
Benson, Peter, A.B., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Mathematics.)
Berg, E. J., Sc.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Electrical Engineering.)
Berry, Daniel B., M.D., Carmi. (Medicine)

Berry, Rufus L., 511 North Side Square, Springfield.
*Betten, Cornelius, Ph.D., Lake Forest College, Lake Forest. (Biology.)
*Birdsall, L. I, A.B., 1212 Hartford Bldg., Chicago. (Chemistry.)
*Bjorkland, Alfred, M.S., Michigan City, Ind. (Chemistry.)

Blair, J. C., M.S.A., 810 W. Oregon St., Urbana. (Horticulture)
Blatchley, R. S., Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana. (Geology.)
Bleininger, A. V., U. S. Survey, Pittsburg, Pa. (Ceramics.)

Boerner, Wunibald R., Ravinia, Lake County. (Biology.)

Braun, H. M., 1618 Belmont Ave., East St. Louis, Ill. (Archaeology.)

*Charter members.

162 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

*Bretnall, G. H., A.M., Monmouth College, Monmouth. (Botany.)
*Bryan, T. J., Ph.D., 1623 Manhattan Bldg., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Bryant, Earl R., A.B., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Biology.)
*Burchard, E. F., M.S., U. S. G. S., Washington, D. C. (Econ. Geology.)

Burgess, L. L., Ph.D., 409 E. Green St., Champaign.

Burke, C. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Burrill, T. J.. Ph.D., LL.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Cady, G. H., Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)

Caldwell, Otis W., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Carlson, A. J., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. ( Physiology.)
*Carman, Albert P., Sc.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physics. )
*Carpenter, Chas. K., D.D., Aurora. (Ornithology. )

Carpenter, F. W., Ph.D., 1008 W. Oregon St., Urbana (Zoology)

Carus, Paul, Ph.D., Editor Open Court Pub. Co., La Salle. (Philosophy.)
*Carver, Albert, B.S., Springfield High School, Springfield. (Physics. )

Cederberg, Wm. E., Ph.D., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Math.)

Chamberlain, C. J., A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi. Chicago. (Botany.)
*Chamberlin, T. C., LL.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.)

Child, C. M., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)
*Clawson, A. B., A.B., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. (Biology.)

Coad, Bert R., 1817 Spruce St., Murphrysboro. (Entomology.)

Coe, Chester M., Danville. (Entomology. )

Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph.D., Lake Forest, Ill. (Physical Chemistry.)

Cole, A. H., A.B., A.M., 6622 Monroe Ave., Chicago (Biology, Biological

Projection)

Collier, J. S., B.S., Stuttgart, Ark. (Biology.)

Collins, J. H., A.M., Supt. City Schools Springfield. (Nature Study.)

Conrad, A. H., Crane Technical High School, Chicago. (Biology.)

Coonradt, J. H., High School, Decatur.

Cooper, Wm. S., B.S., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Cort, W. W., A.B., 1206 W. Springfield Ave., Urbana (Zoology.)
*Coulter, John G., Ph.D., Illinois State Normal Univ., Normal. (Biology.)
*Coulter, John M., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)
*Cowles, H. C., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)
*Crandall, Charles S., M.S., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)
*Crew, Henry, Ph.D., Northwestern University, Evanston. ( Physics.)
*Crook, A. R., Ph.D., Curator State Museum, Springfield. (Geology.)

Crowe, A. B., A.M., Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston. ( Physics.)
*Curtiss, R. S., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chemistry.)

Daniels, Hon. F. B., 1892 Sheridan Road, Evanston.

Daniels, L. E., La Porte, Ind. (Conchology.)

Davenport, Eugene, M.S., Champaign. (Agriculture-Thremmatology. )
*Davis, J. J., B.S., Experiment Sta. Bldg., La Fayette, Ind. (Entomology.)

Davis, N. S., M.D., 291 Huron St., Chicago. (Medicine.)

*Dawson, L. A., A.B., Address unknown. (Chemistry. )

Deal, Don W., M.D., Ferguson Bldg., Springfield. (Medicine. )
*Denoyer, L. P., A.B., 391 E. Sixty-first St., Chicago. (Phys. Geography.)
*Derick, C. G., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

DeWolf, F. W., B.S., Director State Geological Survey, Urbana.
*Didcoct, J. J.. A.M., 207 Pleasant Ave., Streator. (Chemistry.)

Dietrich, Wm., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Animal Nutrition.)

Egan, Jas. A., M.D., Sec. State Board of Health, Springfield. ( Medicine.)

Egan, J. E., A.B., 906 S. Fifth St., Champaign (Chemistry. )

Eikenberry, W. L., B.S., University of Chicago. (Botany.)

Ekblaw, W. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)

*Elliott, C. H., Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, III.

Ellis, A. J., Township High School, Joliet. (Geology. )

Emmett, A. D., A.M., 707 W. Illinois St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Emmons, W. H., Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago (Economic Geology.)

*Charter members.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 163

Engberg, Martin J., 258 W. Chicago Ave., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Ernest, T. R., Ph.D., 605 E. Springfield Ave., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Ewell, Marshall D., A.M., M.D., LL.D., 59 Clark St., Chicago. (Metrol-
ogy, Microscopy.)

*Ewing, H. E., Arcola. (Zoology.)

*Farrington, O. C., Ph.D., Field Museum, Chicago. (Mineralogy.)

Ferguson, J. J., Superintendent Public Schools, St. Anne.

Ferris, J. H., Editor “Joliet News,” Joliet.

Finley, C. W., 5620 Kimbark Ave., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Finney, Marion, 907 S. Raynor Ave., Joliet. (Geology and Paleontology.)

*Fischer, C. E. M., M.D., 1922 W. Chicago Ave., Chicago. (Biology.)

*Fisher, Fannie, Asst. Curator State Museum, Springfield. (Gen. Int.)

*Forbes, S. A., Ph.D., LL.D., State Entomologist, Urbana. (Zoology.)

*Fry, C. A., A.B. Address unknown. (Zoology.)

Fuller, George D., A.B., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Plant Ecology.)

Gale, H. G., Ph.D., Ryerson Lab., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. ( Physics.)

*Galloway, T. W., Ph.D., James Millikin University, Decatur (Zoology.)

*Gardner, B.C., B.S., 1623 Manhattan Bldg., Chicago. (Asst. State Analyst.)

*Gates, Frank C., A.B., 4540 N. Lincoln St., Chicago.

Gault, B. T., Glen Ellyn. (Ornithology.)

Gerhard, Wm. J., Ph.D., Field Museum, Chicago.

Gilbert, J. P., A.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Biology.)

Girault, A. A., M.S., Urbana. (Entomology.)

Givens, H., Paris, Ill. (Botany.)

Glasgow, H., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

Glasgow, R. D., A.B., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology.)

*Gleason, H. A., Ph.D., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. (Botany).

Gooding, Chas. W., High School, Champaign. (Biology and Chemistry.)

Gordon, H. B., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Gordon, W. O., 905 S. Sixth St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Goss, W. F. M., D.Eng., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Steam Engineering.)

Graham, R. O., Ph.D., Illinois Wesleyan Univ., Bloomington. (Chemistry. )

*Grant, U. S., Ph.D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Geology.)

Green, Bessie, A.B., 401 S. Wright St., Champaign. ( Zoology.)

Greenman, J. M., B.S., M.S., Ph.D., 5731 Madison Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

Grindley, H. S., Sc.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Animal Chemistry.)

*Gross, A. O., Harvard Univ., 99 Wendell St., Cambridge, Mass. (Ornith.)

Gunther, C. F., Majestic Bldg., Chicago. (General Interest.)

Gurley, Wm., F.E., 6151 Lexington Ave., Chicago. ( Paleontology.)

Haddock, F. D., A.B., Supt. Schools, Sioux City, Ia. (General Interest.)

Hagler, E. E., M.D., Capitol and Fourth, Springfield. (Physician, Oculist.)

Hague, Stella M., M.S., 805 S. Lincoln Ave., Urbana. (Botany.)

*Hale, John A., M.D., Editor “The Enterprise,’ Alto Pass.

Hammond, H. S., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.

Hancock, J. L., M.D., 3757 Indiana Ave., Chicago. (Entomology.)

Hand, E. E., Wendell Phillips H. S., Chicago. (Zoology, Conchology.)

Hankinson, Thos. L., Eastern Ill. State Normal, Charleston. (Zoology.)

Harper, E. H., Ph.D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Zoology.)

Harris, Norman MacL., M.B., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Bacteriology.)

*Hart, C. A., Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., U. of I., Urbana. (Entomology.)

Hawk, P. B., Ph.D., 801 W Nevada St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Hawthorne, W. C., Central Y. M. C. A., Chicago, 153 La Salle St.

Hayford, John F., C.E., Northwestern University, Evanston. ( Physics.)

Head, W. R., 5471 Jefferson Ave., Hyde Park, Chicago. (Nat. History.)

Healey, John L., 1620 Morse Ave., Chicago.

Henriksen, Martin E., B.S., 509 E. Univ. Ave, Champaign. (Zoology.)

Hess, Isaac E., Philo, Ill. (Ornithology.)

*Hessler, J. C., Ph.D., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Chemistry.)

Hildebrand, L. E., A.B., A.M., 808 Hamlin St., Evanston, Ill. (Zoology.)

Hill, E. J., 7100 Eggleston Ave., Chicago (Botany.)

*Charter members.

164 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Hill, N. Wm., 303 W. Oregon St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

*Hill, W. K., Carthage College, Carthage, Ill. (Biology.)

Hinkley, A. A., Dubois. (Conchology.)

Holgate, T. F., Ph.D., LL.D., 617 Library St., Evanston. (Mathematics.)
Homberger, A. W., A.M., 508 E. Daniel St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)
*Hood, J. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology.)

*Hopkins, Cyril G., Ph.D., U. of Ill, Urbana. (Agronomy and Chemistry.)
Hoskins, William, 111 W. Monroe St., Chicago.

Hottes, C. F., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Howe, P. E., A.M., 10233 Wood St., Chicago. (Physiological Chemistry.)
*Hummel, A. A., B.S., High School, Redlands, Cal. (Botany.)

Hunt, Robert I., Decatur. (Soils.)
*Hutton, J. Gladden, M.S., State College, Brookings, S. Dak. (Geology.)
Iddings, Joseph P., Ph.D., Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C.

Jackson, Miss Nell, B.S., 7524 Harvard Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)
*James, Benj. B., A.M., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Physics.)
Jessee, R. H., Jr., Ph.D., 1001 W. California Ave., Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Jessup, J. M., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology and Paleontology.)
*Johnson, A. N., B.S., State Highway Commission, Springfield.

Johnson, Frank Seward, M.D., 2521 Prairie Ave., Chicago.

Johnson, H. W., Mt. Olive. (Psychology and Biology.)
*Johnston, J. A., B.S., Beardstown. (Chemistry and Physics.)

Jones, G., Ph.D., 409 E. Green St., Champaign. (Chemistry. )

Jordan, Edwin O., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Bacteriology.)
Keppel, H. G., Ph.D., Gainesville, Fla. (Mathematics. )

Kindred, Granville L., Illinois Watch Co., Springfield. (Mech. Engineer.)
Kingsbury, H. B., A.B., 607 S. Sixth St., Champaign. (Mathematics.)
Kinnear, T. J., M.D., 400 Myers Building, Springfield. (Medicine. )
Kirk, Howard R., 225 Hinckley Ave., Rockford.
*Kneale, E. J., State Register, Springfield. (Physiology and Astronomy.)
*Knipp, Chas. T., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Physics.)
Knodle, E. A., M.D., Ferguson Building, Springfield.

Kressman, F. W., M.S., Madison, Wis. (Chemistry Forestry Products.)
Kuh, Sydney, M.D., 103 State St., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Land, W. J. G., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)
Langelier, W. F., B.S., 1005 W. Illinois St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

LaRue, Geo. R., A.M., 612 S. Coler Ave., Urbana. (Zoology.)

Laughlin, E. V., High School, Champaign. (Physio. and Physiography.)
Lehenbauer, P. A., A.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Botany.)

Lillie, F. R., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)

Lindahl, Josua, Ph.D., 7734 Chauncey Ave., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Linder, O. A., 208 Fifth Ave., Chicago. (Ed. “Svenska Amerikanaren.”)
Lingren, J. M., A.M., 306 S. Fourth St., Champaign (Chemistry.)

Locke, J. R., B.S., 212 Sixth St., Streator, Ill. (Botany.)

Lyons, Thos. E., B.S., LL.B., Hay Bldg., Springfield. (Lawyer.)
MacFarland, D. F., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.)
MacInnes, D. A., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

MacNeal, W. J., Ph.D., Urbana. (Bacteriology. )
*Magnusson, J. P., Ph.D., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Chemistry.)
Mance, G. C., 302 Maple Ave., Blue Island, Ill. (Science.)

Mansfield, G. R., Ph.D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Geology.)
Marshall, Ruth, Ph.D., Rockford College, Rockford. (Biology.)
McAllister, H. T., 1002 W. California St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

McCabe, E. L., Martinsville. (Botany.)

McConn, C. M., A.M., 10021%4 W. California Ave., Urbana. (Education.)
McCormack, Thomas J., La Salle.

McDunnough, Dr. J., Decatur. (Lepidoptera. )

McGinnis, Mary O., A.B., 1004 W. Edwards St., Springfield. (Zoology.)
Meyers, Ira, Ph.D., Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. ;
Michelson, A. A., LL.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. ( Physics.)

*Charter members.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 165

Miller, G. A., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Mathematics. )
Mitchell, H. H., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Mohr, Louis, 349 W. Illinois St., Chicago.

*Moore, J. G., Superintendent City Schools, Lexington. (Physics.)
Morrison, H. T., M.D., First and Miller, Springfield. (Medicine.)
Mortenson, Henry T., Francis W. Parker School, Chicago.

Mumford, H. W., Champaign. (Animal Husbandry.)
Munson, S. E., M.D., 712 S. Second St., Springfield. (Medicine.)
Nason, Wm. A., M.D., Algonquin. (Entomology.)

*Neal, H. V., Ph.D., Knox College, Galesburg. (Zoology.)

Nef, J. U., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Chemistry.)

' *Nehis, A. L., A.M., 4652 Malden St., Chicago. (State Analyst.)
Nickell, L. F., A.B., 617 S. Wright St., Champaign (Chemistry. )
Nichols, H. W., B.S., Field Museum, Chicago. (Geology.)

*Noyes, Wm. A., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Nuttall, J. T., B.S., 926 Ella St., Birmingham, Ala. (Chemistry.)

*Oglevee, C. S., Sc.D., Lincoln College, Lincoln. (Biology.)

Packard, W. H., M.D., Bradley Institute, Peoria. (Biology.)
Palmer, Geo. Thos., M.D., 1733 S. Fourth St., Springfield (Medicine.)

*Parr, S. W., M.S., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Partridge, N. L., 611 W. Illinois St., Urbana. (Agriculture.)

Patterson, Alice J.. Normal. (Entomology, Nature Study.)

Payne, Edward W., Pres. State Nat. Bank, Springfield. (Archaeology.)
Percy, J. F., M.D., Galesburg, III.

Peet, C. E., Lewis Institute, Chicago. (Geology and Geography.)

*Pepoon, H. S., M.D., Lake View H. S., Chicago. (Zoology and Botany.)
Perrine, Chas. H., 4527 Forrestville Ave., Chicago.

Pfuffer, Miss W. M., S.B., Ph.D., University of Chicago. (Botany.)
Pinckney, F. L., Dundee. (Zoology.)

Poling, Otto C, Quincy.

Pricer, J. L., A.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)
Pruitt, Edgar C., Supt. County Schools, Court House, Springfield.
Radcliff, H. H., Taylorville. (Biology.)

*Ray, Verne, 860 S. Lincoln Ave., Springfield. (Physics.)

Read, J. W., M.S., Illinois College, Jacksonville. (Chemistry.)
Replogle, P. S., M.D., 80 North Neil St., Champaign. (Medicine.)
Reynolds, Carrie, B.S., Lake View High School, Chicago. (Botany.)
Reynolds, E. S., A.M., Univ. of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. (Botany.)

*Reynolds, O. E., College, Albion.

Rice, Wm. F., Wheaton.
Ricker, N. C., D.Arch., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Architecture.)
Riddle, Oscar, University of Chicago, Chicago.

*Roark, Ruric Creegan, A.B., 900 Fourteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C.
Roberts, H. L., Cape Girardeau, Mo. (Geography.)

*Rogers, J. S., B.S., 712 21st St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (Chemistry.)
Rolfe, C. W., M.S., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)

*Rutherford, T. A., M.D., Hillside Home, Clark Summit, Pa. (Chemistry.)
Salisbury, R. D., LL.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.)
Savage, T. E., Ph.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Stratigraphic Geology.)
Sawyer, M. Louise, Elgin High School, Elgin.

Schulz, W. F., Ph.D., 926 W. Green St., Urbana. ( Physics.)
Sevrens, O. F. (Zoology.)

Shaw, J. B., Sc.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Mathematics.)
Shelford, V. E., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)
Sherff, E. E., B.S., 421 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Botany.)
*Simpson, Jesse P., M.D., Palmer, Ill. (Medicine.)

Simpson, Q. I., Palmer, Ill. (Eugenics.)

Sims, J. P., 851 South Lincoln St., Springfield, Ill.

Slocum, A. W., Field Museum, Chicago.

Smallwood, Miss Mabel E., 550 Surf St., Chicago.

*Charter members.

166 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Smith, Alexander, Ph. D., University of Chicago. (Chemistry. )
Smith, A. L., 205 E. Stoughton St., Champaign. (Zoology.)

*Smith, C. H., M.E., Hyde Park High School, Chicago. (Ed. School Sci.)
Smith, Frank, A.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

Smith, G. McP., Ph.D., 708 S. Fourth St., Champaign.
Smith, Huron H., Field Museum, Chicago. (Dendrology.)

*Smith, Isabel Seymour, M.S., Illinois College, Jacksonville. (Botany.)
Smith, Jesse L., Supt. of Schools, Highland Park.

*Smith, L. H., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Smith, Orrin H., High School, Champaign. ( Physics.)

Smith, Sidney B., B.S., 710 S. Sixth St., Springfield. (Farming.)
Smith, Wilbur, 5636 Kenmore Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

Snyder, John F., M.D., Virginia. (Archaeology.)

Southgate, Helen A., Champaign. (Biology.)

Spicer, C. E., Township High School, Joliet.

*Starr, Frederick, Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Anthropology.)
Stephenson, E. B., M.S., 617 S. Wright St., Champaign. (Physics.)
Stevenson, A. L., Principal Lincoln School, 1308 Morse Ave., Chicago.

*Stewart, H. W., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Agronomy.)
Stieglitz, Julius, Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Chemistry.)
Stillhamer, A. G., Bloomington. (Physics. )

Stoek, H. H., E.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Mining Engineering.)
Stowe, Herbert, M.D., 4433 Lake Ave., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Strachan, E. K., B.S., 410 E. Chalmers St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

*Strode, W. S., M.D., Lewiston. (Medicine. )

Strong, R. M. A.B, A.M., Ph.D., University of Chicago. (Zoology.)
Swisher, C. L., Georgia Polytechnic School, Atlanta, Ga. (Physics.)
Sykes, Miss Mabel, B.S., S. Chicago High School, Chicago. (Geology.)
Taggart, Miss Margaret, 805 W. Oregon St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Talbott, Eugene S., M.D., LL.D., 198 Goethe St., Chicago. (Stomatology.)

*Tanquary, M. C., A.B., Univ. of Ill, Urbana (Zoology and Entomology.)
Tatnall, Robert R., Ph.D., 624 Lincoln St., Evanston. (Physics.)

Test, F. C., M.D., 4318 Grand Blvd., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Thomson, Frank D., A.M., Principal H. S., Springfield (Economics-Hist.)
Tower, W. E., Englewood High School, Chicago.

*Townsend, E. J., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Champaign. (Mathematics.)
Transeau, E. N., State Normal, Charleston. (Botany.)

Treadwell, C. H., John Marshall High School, Chicago.

Turck, Fenton B., M.D., 1820 Michigan Blvd., Chicago. (Medicine.)
Turton, Chas. M., A.M., Bowen High School, Chicago. (Physics.)
Udden, Anton D, Rock Island H. S., Rock Island. (Phys. and Math.)

*Udden, J. A., Petrolia, Texas. (Geology. )

Umbach, L. M., Naperville. (Botany. )

Van Cleave, H. J., B.S., 809 Nevada St., Urbana. ( Zoology.)

Vestal, A. G., 901 Green St., Urbana. (Ecology.)

Wainwright, Jacob T., C.E., P. O. Box 774, Chicago. ( Physics.)

Ward, H. B., Ph.D., Urbana. (Zoology, Parasitology.)

Wshburn, E. W., Ph.D., 210 W. Park St., Champaign (Chemistry)
Watson, F R., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Physics.)

Watt, L. A., 405 E. Green St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Webb, J. M., U. S. Bureau of Mines, Urbana, II].

Webster, G. W., M.D., 32 N. State St., Chicago.

Welch, Paul, A.B., University of Illinois, Natural Hist. Bldg., Urbana.
Weller, Annie L., Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston.

Weller, Marion, Ph.D., North. Ill. State Normal, De Kalb. (Geography.)

*Weller, Stuart, Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. ( Paleontology.)
Westcott, O. S., Waller High School, Chicago.

White, E. C., M.D., Monroe and First Sts., Springfield. ( Psychiatry.)
Whitney, Worallo, Bowen High School, Chicago. (Botany.)
Wilczynski, E. J.. Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago, Urbana. (Mathematics.)

*Charter members.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 167

Williams, R. Y., M.E., State Geological Survey, Urbana.
Williamson, Warren, A.B., University of Illinois, Urbana.

*Williston, S. W., M.D., Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. ( Paleontology.)

*Winter, S.G, A.-M. Address unknown. (Histology.)

Wirick, C. M., A.M., Crane Technical H. S., Chicago. (Chemistry.)
Wolcott, A. B., Field Museum, Chicago. (Entomology.)

*Wood, F. E., A-B., Wesleyan University, Bloomington. (Zoology.)
Woodruff, E. C., Ph.D., James Millikin Univ., Decatur. (Elec. Engineer.)
Woodruff, Frank M., Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago. (Taxidermy.)
Young, Mrs. J. D., B.L., 4752 Vincennes Ave., Chicago. (Biology.)
Zelany, Charles, Ph.D., 606 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana. (Ex. Zool.)
*Zetek, James, State Lab. Nat. Hist., Urbana. (Entomology.)

*Charter members.

INDEX

Acris gryllus, 127.
meams, C. CC, 25, 27, 133.
Aeschnidae, 127.
Agrionidae, 127, 129.
Algae, 26.
Allee, W. C., 21, 126.
Amblystoma tigrinum, 128.
American Lepidostrobus, 28, 107.
Amnicola letsoni, 111, 113.

7 limosa, 110, 111, 112.

~ lustrica, 110.
Amorgius americanum, 127.
Anax junius, 127.
Ancylus, 110.
Ancylus tardus, 128.
Anodonta grandis, 110.
wor een aquia, 138.
fulva, 138,
lamellidens, 138.
picea, 141.
rudis, 141.
tennesseensis, 138.
Arctestaphylos uva-ursi, 120.
Asclepias tuberosa, 122.
Asellus communis, 127, 129, 131.
Asiminia triloba, 122.
Atrypa marginalis, 100, 101.

= putilla, 98-102. -
Auditing committee, 14.
Baker, F. C., 16, 20, 25, 27, 108.
Barnes, C. R., 157.
Bellerophon, 100.
Berosus, 127.
Biological Effect of Radium, 22,

73.
Biological papers, 135.
Blatchley, R. S., 21, 85.
Brachymyrmex heeri, 139.
Branchipus, 29, 127,
By-Laws, 10.
Caldwell, O. W., 22, 144.
Calyculina securis, 112.
Camarotoechia acinus, 100.
* cliftonensis, 100-101.

Cambarus immunis, 127.

Campanotus americanus, 141.

. castaneus, 141.

ferrugineus, 141.
herculanus, 141.
ligniperdis, 141,
minutus, 141,
noveboracensis, 141,
Paucipilis, 141.
pennsylvanicus, 141],
subbarbatus, 141.
tanquaryi, 141,

Campeloma integrum, 100-112.

Canthocampus, 127.

Ceanothus americanus, 122.

Ceratozamia floridana, 144.

5) mexicana, 144.
Chamberlain, C. J., 20, a 145.
Chamberlin, T. C., 21,

Channahon and Sra eee
in Illinois, 27, 97.

Chara, 116.

Chauliodes rastricornis, 127.

Chibonia, 128.

Chironomidae, 127.

Cladocera, 127.

Coereba ferryi, 160.

Cole, A. H., 21, 145.

Colobopsis, 141.

Colymbetes sculptilis, 127.

Committee on Assistance to High
Schools, 22, 23.

Committee on Co-operation with
Nature-Study Agencies, 18.

Committee on Deep Drilling, 15.

Committee on Ecological Survey,
24.

Committee to Influence Legisla-
tion in Favor of Protection of
Game Birds, 26.

Committee to Restrict Collection
of Birds, 16.

Conrad, A. H., 22.

Cooper, W. S., 28, 132.

Constitution, 8.

Conularia, 100.

Corethra, 127, 128.

Coryxa, 128.

Coulter, J.°M., 11, 12, 19, 20, 21,24,

28, 107, 144, 157.

Cowles, H. C.,. 14, 22, 27; 132.
Cremastogaster lineolata, 138.

t lutescens, 138.
victima, 138.
Crew, Henry, 21, 41.

Crook, AwiR,; Tl; 21, 27, 151.
Culex, 128.

Cyclops, 127.

Cyclora alta, 100.

Cyphaspis intermedia, 98, 99.
Dalmanella elegantula, 98-102.
Dawsonoceras tenuilineatum, 98,

99,

Demonstration of Movement of

Water in Leaves, 21, 145.
Demonstration of Use of Oxygen

in Mine Rescue Work, 20.
Desmopachria convexa, 127.
Diaptomus, 127.

Dineutes hornii, 127,
Dioon edule, 144.

“ spinulosum, 144.
Dolichoderus plagiatus, 141.
Donacia, 127.

Dorymyrmex niger, 141.
Dytiscus, 129.
Eastward Extension of Sweetland

Creek Shale, 20, 103.
Ecological papers, 117.

Ecological Studies of Prairie and

Forest in Illinois, 27, 133.
Ephemeridae, 129.

Erpobdella punctata, 127.
Estheria, 106.

Eucrangonyx gracilis, 127, 129.
Evaporation and Plant Succes-

sion, 28, 119.

Fagus grandifolia, 122.
Farrington, O. C., 20.
Favosites niagarensis, 100.
Ferry, J. F., 159.
Forbes, S. A., 26, 27, 158.
Formica argentata, 140,

2 cinerea, 140.

“ce

Formica exsectoides, 140.

= fuscata, 141.
incerta, 140,
melanotica, 140.
neocinerea, 140.
nitidiventris, 140.
obscuripes, 140.
obscuriventris, 140.
perpilosa, 141.

v9

2 picea, 140.
e rubicunda, 140.
ee rufa, 140,

sanguinea, 140.
ts schaufussi, 140.
subaenescens, 141.
subintegra, 140.
a subpolita, 140.
subsericea, 140.

= ulkei, 140.
Frost, E. B:,:21,/50;
Fuller, G. D., 26, 28, 119,
Galba caperata, 112.

*. reflexa, 110; 112.
Gault,; B:- T3159:
Geological papers, 83.
Gerris marginatus, 128.
Gleason, H. A., 26.
Gloeotaenium, 143,
Gloeocystis, 143,
Glossiphonia heteroclita, 127.
Glyphidula, 100.
Goniobasis livescens,
Graphoderes, 127.
Gypidula simplex, 98.
Halivaik, C2026:
Halysites catenulatus, 100, 101.
Handbook for Students of Animal

Ecology, 27, 133.

Hankinson, T. L., 25.
Hessler, §C., 14, 27,. 132:
Holopea illinoisensis, 98.
Homeospira channahonensis, 98.
Hopkins, C. G., 22, 24.
Hybius, 127.
Hydrochinidae, 128, 129.
Hydrometri martini, 128.
Hydrophyllidae, 129,
Hydroporus modestus, 127.
Illaenus daytonensis, 100.
Iridomyrmex analis, 139.

100-112.

Ingall, O. D., 26.
Juniperus communis, 120.

in virginiana, 120.
Lacrophilus, 127.

Lampsilis luteola, 112, 114.

occidens, 114,

rectus, 114.

yentricosa, 111, 114.

Land, W. J. G., 28, 107.

Lasius americanus, 137, 139.

claviger, 140.

interjectus, 140.

* latipes, 140.

minutus, 140.

mixtus, 140.

nearcticus, 141.

niger, 140.

*subglaber, 141.

umbratus, 140.

Lepidostrobus, 28, 107.

Lepidodendron, 107.

Leptaena rhomboidalis, 97-101.

Leptobolus illinoisensis, 98.

Leptothorax curvispinosus, 139.
melanoticus, 139.

Lestes rectangularis, 127.

“ -vigilax, 127.

Libellula pulchella, 127.
Lingula, 103-106.
Loxonema, 100.

Lymnaea appressa, 110 112,

Fs reflexa, 127, 129, 131.
Mancasellus danielsi, 127, 129.
Members, new, 14.

Membership list, 161.
Metallic Colors of Birds and In-
sects, 20
Metapolichas clintonensis, 99.
ferrissi, 97-99.
Meyers, Ira, 18.
Michelson, A. A., 20.
Microdrilae, 128.
a of 4th
Modiolopsis, 100.
Mollusca of Piatt, Champaign and
Vermilion Counties, 20, 142.
Monomorium minimum, 138.
pharaonis, 138.
Musculium securis, 128.

3 truncatum, 128, 129.
Myrmecina, 138.

Myrmica canadensis, 139,

sabuleti, 139.

= scabrinodis, 139.

4 schencki, 139.
Necrology, 156
Nomination Committee, 27.
Notonecta undulata, 127.
Noyes, W. A., 21, 27, 53.
‘Obliquaria reflexa, 111, 114.

“

“

Annual Meeting,

Occurrence of Rare Alga, Gloeo-
taenium, 21, 143.
Oil Investigations in Illinois, 21,

Oligochaetae, 128.

Ostracoda, 128.

Ostrya virginiana, 122
Paramoecium, 128.

Paravitrea_ significans, 142.
yagi manniensis, 100, 101.
Pepoon, H, S., 14.

Pheidole bicarinata, 141.

*; pilifera, 138.

a vinelandica, 138.
Phenolepis imparis, 139.

- testacea, 139.
Phenopelis parvula, 141.
Pholidops channahonensis, 98.
fei hy ancillaria warreniana, 110,
Physa gyrina, 112, 128, 129.

“integra, 112.

Physical Properties of Radium,
21, 41.

Picea canadensis, 110, 113, 116.
* evanstoni, 110, 113, 116,

Pilaeus militaris, 128.
Pinus banksiana, 120.
Pisidium, 110, 111, 112.
Plagiola elegans, 111, 114.
Planorbis bicarinatus, 110, 112.
campanulatus, 110, 112.
deflectus, 110, 127, 129.
+ exacutus, 127, 129.
© trivolvis, 110, 111, 112,
127, 129.
Platyostoma, 100.
Pleo striola, 127.
Pleurobema clavus, 114.
Pleurotomaria, 100.
Poly ergus bicolor, 141.
breviceps, 141.
s lucidus, 141.
as rufescens, 141.
Ponera coarctata, 137.
Populus deltoides, 120.
Post-glacial Life of Willmette
Bay, Glacial Lake, Chicago, 20,
108.
Potamogeton, 116.
Preliminary List of the Ants of
Illinois, 20, 137.
Presidential ‘address, 21, 28.
Present condition of the State
Museum of Natural History, 21,
151.
Pricer, J. L.,
Problems of Pe breeding, 28.
Proetus channahonensis, 98, 99.
Prunus serotina, 122.
“ virginiana, 122.

“

Pterinea elegans, 97, 98, 99.

* thebesensis, 99.
Ptychobranchus phaseolus, 114.
Ptyclodus calceolus, 103.

Pusey, W. A., 22, Vos
Putnam, Joseph R., 158.
Quadrula coccineus, 114.

3 “ paupercula, 113.

is lachrymosa, 111, 114.

sh pustulosa, 111, 114.

. pyramidatus, 114.

ss solidus, 114.

SS trigona, 111, 114.

i undulatus, 111, 114.

% ea la 111.

uercus alba, H
2 e marceyana, 110, 116.
$ velutina, 121,
Radio-activity | and
Phenomena, 21, 55.
Radio-chemistry, 21, 53.
Radium from the Astronomical
Point of View, 21, 50.

Rana, 127.

Ranatra fusca, 128.

Read, J. W., 27.

Relation of the Soil to Plants, 22.

Reproduction by Layering in the
Balsam Fir and Other Conifers,
28, 132.

Rhipidomella hybrida, 98, 100, 101.

2 simplex, 100.

Rhus canadensis, 120,

Rhynchodus excavatus, 103.

Rhynchotreta intermedia, 98, 99.

Geological

simplex, 101, 102.
thebesensis, 99, 100,
101, 102.
Salisbury, R. D., 11.
Savage, T. E., 27, 97.

Schuchertella curvistriata, 97, 98,

‘s propinqua, 99,
subplana, 100, 101.

Seasonal Succession in Old Forest
Ponds, 21, 126.

Secretary’s report, 12.

Segmentina armigera, 112, 127.

Sephlurus, 127

Shelford, V. E., 25.

Sherff, E. E., 26.

Slocum, A. W., 14.

Solenocaris strigata, 103.

Solenopsis molesta, 138.

Spathiocaris emersoni, 103.
Sphaerium rhomboideum, 112.

x simile, 110.
stamineum, 111.
striatinum, 112.
Spongilla fragilis, 128.
Sporangites hhuronense, 103,

105, 106.
Stenamma brevicorne, 138.
Stigmatomma pallipes, 137.
Stratiomyiidae, 127,
Strophonella, 100.
Structure of the
Stem, 20, 144.

Strumygenys clypeata, 139.
Succinea avara, 112

iY ovalis, 112.
Sympetrum obtrusum, 127.

cae rubicundulum, 127.
eT aphcates on Radio-activity, 21,

Synthetodus, 103.
Tanquary, M. C., 20, 137.
Tapinoma sessile, 139,
Thysanura, 128.
Tilia americana, 122.
Transeau, E. N., 21, 25, 27, 143.
Trachymyrmex septentrionalis, 139.
Treasurer’s report, 14.
Triplecia ortoni, 101.
Udden, ‘J.. Ay 15,20; 27, 163,
Unio crassidens, 111, 113, 114.
“ gibbosus, 111, 114.
Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, 122.
Valvata tricarinata, 110, 112.
Viburnum acerifolium, 121.
5 pubescens, 122.
Vorticelli, 128.
Webb, J. M., 20.
Weller, Marion, 27.
Weller, Stuart, 14.
West, J. A., 26, 158.
Whitfieldella acuminata, 98, 99.
y billingsana, 99.
i cylindrica, 100, 101.
= ovoides, 90.
Wood, F. E., 26.
Zaphrentis, 100.
a channahonensis, 98, 99.
stokesi, 98.

ini

“ce

104,

Adult Cycad

“

Zaetha, 128.
Zetek, James, 20, 142.

Iiniwors AcAneaty or Science.

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General crowesection, DD, from Marion to Salen, Il

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Contours, 25 ft. intervals, showing distance of coal below sea level
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LINTO! = z 2 Coal shaft, with number referring to table of data,

' R 2 Producing oil well.
a x Producing gas and oil well.
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——--—Profile lines on No. 6 coal.

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A coal-contour map showing geologic structure and development in the Marion county oil fields.

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General cross-section, C-C, from New Athens to Eldorado, Til.

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Illinois Academy of Science

FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING

BLOOMINGTON, ILL., FEB. 23 AND 24, 1912

VOLUME V
1912
LIBeRAPFY
NEW YORE
SUT ABIGAL

————_ GARBER,

PUBLISHED BY THE STATE
November, 1912

EDIT E.D BY,
THE SECRETARY.

CONTENTS

PAGE
DELS Pe ee ane one ee ee ee ne ee ee eo 5
Sricees, and Conmmittees: for 1912-13 2. se eck os oe wd ad ean eeeee 6
Nieas SETECIF ICI «ANIL Pog= PAWS hoor as ciao 5a oe a eicisianwawhe See Rew ee 8
Session of Friday, February 23—Aiternoon:
Address of Welcome, by Senator Frank Funk................... af]
Bay uy © restacnt- WA. Noyes. srt usSh ris 20 Y i gearecn ciel. 11
Reports:
EES ROP See Oe RC ene te gee ee eT Gon, ae Mn eee, Sao 11
CULCASHECT Estee ok cSt aoae Mois ote his Se mies eta sae ee cee 13
Micmuctsuip Camiunttes! 2 29.2 22a 238 a ae st Sa 13
Sipe WERSetitn 26. Sah ee ee eee ee =. ee ae 15

Committee to Influence Legislation to Restrict the Collection
of Birds and Eggs to Institutions and Accredited Indi-
FL Lee ee eee ee Re ae RE eae oh eR ee 7 Oe ees 15
Committee to arrange for the Editorship and Publication of
a Series to be known as the State Academy Leaflets on
Ee HOME SIE re oe oc och walechnteh & 2cacsecde oie 16
Memorial to Professor F. L. Charles... : 0.2.20... 0ceeees sae 16, 175

Session of Friday, February 23—Evening:

Seeisn HOTT aint DAHNTEES cco crc cc tae an oka oe abet. ce eee eee 18

Pears Pye Rese, NOYES. 5.55 ccm o tances owe aisedasareeaee te 18, 20
Session of Saturday, February 24—Morning:

Report of the Nominating Committee........................22. 18

meett Or the Avdnine Conmiittee: 2-22 nasi. oases tess oo ewe ee "18

PUSH MSEELEICTIC: 434° CAMIMPMLECCS Oho os LO aie ods a ea ears Se ced akee 18

SSRN (GT M OlSeTeALIOn. sot won ete vse aks eee ee 18, 29

Session of Saturday, February 24—Afternoon:

Report of Committee appointed to Investigate the Relations of the
Pure and Applied Sciences in High Schools................ 19

Reconmendations, From, the, Cotineil . .. 55. sacs 4 oo cede dante 19
I. THe Erecrron THeory (The President’s Address), W. A. Noyes.. 20

II. Symposium ON CONSERVATION:

Conservation of the Human Race, J. N. Hurty.................. 31
The Native Animal Resources of the State, S. A. Forbes......... 7
Conservation of Our Forests, Henry C. Cowles................. 48
Conservation of Our Oil Resources, F. W. DeWolfe............ 53

Conservation Ideals in the Improvement of Plants, H. J. Webber, 67

III. Geotocrcat Papers:

The Structural Relations of the Oil Fields of Crawford and Law-
roe Comunes. Tmo. fe S. Bistehleyg: 2. 2... 5.3...... 22 81

PAGE
Geological Sequence in the Vicinity of LaSalle as Revealed by

Recent’ Drilling: (Gilbert i Gadyw. 7 ae vee np seein ee oe 87
Correlation of the Devonian System of the Rock Island Region,

W: Elmer‘ Ekblawe eviceds ab aoe aera ties Seles eee eee 96
A Tufa Deposit near Danville, Illinois, Charles E. Décker........ 109
On the Earthquake of January 2nd, 1912, in the Upper Missis-

sippi Valley, Anton D. Udden. ....05.06 20s. ss sacs nee ene 111
Notes on Sangamon County Limestones, A. R. Crook............ 115

IV. BuroLocicAL PAPERS:

Notes on the Forests of Ogle County, Illinois, W. L. Eikenberry.. 121

Competition and General Relationships among the Subterranean
Organs of Mafsh. Plants, Earl. E.Sherff....3. 12743. .5.eeeee 125

The Range of Evaporation and Soil Moisture in the Oak-Hickory
Forest Association of Illinois, Wade McNutt and Geo. D.
Baller ona cease ea Ad shies ie nw s iotorcustas late ts ene oo 127

Germination and Growth of the Cottonwood upon the Sand Dunes
of Lake Michigan, near Chicago, Geo. D. Fuller.............. 137

Recent Additions to the Catalog of Illinois Mollusca, F. C. Baker. 143
Earthworms from Illinois, Frank Smith............... ag See 145

V. ScIENCE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS:
Relation of Pure and Applied Science in High Schools of Ordinary

Type, Worallo Witney ..008:.65..20.0c0 6. oe alesse eee 157
Relation of Pure and Applied Science in the Agricultural High
School: JP Johnson 22 es 2 5s aise ne este ae ele tee een oe eee ae 168
VI. NeEcROLOGY:
Fred Lemar Charles by Elliot R. Downing....... = dune ots ee ee LTS
Teist;ot Wlembers. Fs sss s cs oe eee oka inlet Bhs Riel Acie oe eee 177

Ted Ore Sos eet ain ec Aes eis, hee OE Ble bike e Tee be RE RICE OTTO eee 185

a fAR Y
“A Y@RE

se) AMIGAL
£2 OS TERL,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE
Distribution of Petroleum and Natural Gas Fields in the United States, 55
Animal Production of Petroleum, 1859 to 1910 ..................5..- 56
Distribution of Coal Fields in the United States..................3.. 59
Average Yearly Production of Coal in decades for the United States, 60
Average Yearly Production of Coal in decades for Illinois.......... oy ed
pation lew a aeestone Ch yo. o5 1. a5 eens oe SR Aes woo wae oh Os Soe ee 98
ETRE (01 FEL vos 0 i) gee an ae ae ie ei ee D 98
TLE EPSSR E72 PS I eek ra Se Sea ht) eee Mee ee one ob 110
Miley: cite tated tila alepestt lose «fete... dew ne Eds oe wae oe 110
Wain.ot Barinuquake of Jantiary 2, 4912) ose os5 5 cas sane see ene ess 112
Grove of Wintes © neon Pte (Creer sa 02S ates wines win MO o's De Hee 122
Bid POvenkaneinp. Ewe ve Leeicas fo. dats is clon Recs eealow fee ve eS oe 122
Evaporation Power of Air in Depression.in Oak-Hickory Forest..... 129
Evaporation Power of Air in grazed and undisturbed forest......... 131
Peeore Lyvnnetainy Lawer wis Alts 220-5) = nas ce ots x oda deaes os Senne 132
Range of Soil Moisture in Depression in Oak-Hickory Forest........ 134
Range of Soil Moisture below Surface in Forest...................-- 135
Range of Soil Moisture below Surface in Grazed Forest............. 136
LET Paes gM or Ribs col it! Fei a) by ce ae A Sie, SA RR er a AE eR A 139
Range of Soil Moisture in Cottonwood Dune........................ 140
Cottonwood with roots uncovered by wind......................0000: 140
eh ta MINE ere ts so oe ak So ero tacit Meee scene ch Ne coro c 142
Dine Moving Across Calumet Lakes. asad 0 cca bok oecieted 6 tes toe 140
EER En eee A Og Be a lel Rg 142
Per cans on tae- it ols. Anmeune ood otc otis leon Sek oe oe we 90
Meri cna twee Pee ta gee ero inc es Ue et dese Cie whe cut om eid Sasietess,amatee 92

Cross Section for Northern Illinois from Rock Island to Joliet along
the line of the Chicago and Rock Island Railroad................ 94

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR THE YEAR 1912-13.

President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University, Evanston. :

Vice-President, A. R. Croox, State Museum of National History, Spring-
field.

Secretary, Otis W. CALDWELL, University of Chicago, Chicago.

Treasurer, J. C. HEssLer, James Millikin University, Decatur.

The Council.
PRESIDENT, PAst PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENT, SECRETARY, and TREASURER.

Publication Committee.
PRESIDENT, SECRETARY, and W. A. Noyes.

Membership Committee.

T. W. Gattoway, Chairman, Decatur.
Marion WELLER, De Kalb.

C. C. Apams, Urbana.

Joun G. Courter, Bloomington.

W. L. EIKENBERRY, Chicago.

Committee on Legislation or Agreements Which Would Set Apart Cer-
tain Waste Lands, Railway Rights of Way, Etc., for the
Conservation, Propagation and Study of the
Common Wild Flowering Plants.

H. S. Peroon, Chairman, Chicago.
Joun G. CouLter, Bloomington.
E. N. TrRANSEAu, Charleston.

Comnuttee on Legislation.

T. W. Gattoway, Chairman, Decatur.
Otts W. CALDWELL, Chicago.

E. W. Payne, Springfield.

Ex_mMer J. KNEALE, Springfield.

Committee on Calendar Reform.

T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Chairman, Chicago. .
F. R. Movtton, Chicago.

A. R. Croox, Springfield.

C. G. Hopkins, Urbana.

E. J. TowNsenp, Urbana.

Commnuttee to Arrange for the Editorship and the Publication of a Series
to be Known as the State Academy Leaflets on High School Science.
Jeep es Chairman, Principal, La Salle-Peru High School, La

alle.
Wuiu1aM C. Bactey, Director of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Joun G. Coutter, Illinois State Normal University, Bloomington,
H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago.
R. D. SAtisBury, University of Chicago, Chicago.

Committee on Ecological Survey.

STEPHEN A. Forses, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana.
T. L. Hankinson, Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston.
V. E. Suerrorp, University of Chicago, Chicago.

KE. N. Transeau, Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston.
CuaArLES C, ADAMS, University of Illinois, Urbana.

FRANK C. BAxkeEr, Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago.
H. S. Peproon, Lake View High School, Chicago.

PAST OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

1908.
President, T. C. CHAMBERLIN, University of Chicago.
Vice-President, HENry Crew, Northwestern University.
Secretary, A. R. Croox, State Museum of Natural History.
Treasurer, J. C. HESsLER, James Millikin University.

1909.

President, S. A. Forses, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, JoHN M. Coutter, University of Chicago.
Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.

1910.

President, JoHN M. Coutter, University of Chicago.
Vice-President, R. O. GRAHAM, Illinois Wesleyan University.
Secretary, A. R. Croox, State Museum of Natural History.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.

1911.
President, W. A. Noyes, University of Illinois.
Vice-President, J. C. UppEN, University of Texas.
Secretary, FRanK C. BAKeEr, Chicago Academy of Science.
Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University.

8 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

Illinois Academy of Science
CONSTITUTION.

ArTicLe I. NAME.
This Society shall be known as Tue ILtinors ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ArticLte II. Obsyjects.
The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific
research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the
unification of the scientific interests of the State.

Articte III. MeEmpbers.

The membership of the Academy shall consist of Active Members,
Non-resident Members, Corresponding Members, Life Members, and Hon-
orary Members.

Active Members shall be persons who are interested in scientific work
and are residents of the State of Illinois. Each active member shall pay
an initiation fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of one dollar.

Non-resident Members shall be persons who have been members of
the Academy but have removed from the State. Their duties and privileges
shall be the same as those of active members except that they may not
hold office.

Corresponding Members shall be such persons actively engaged in
scientific research as shall be chosen by the Academy, their duties and
privileges to be the same as those of active members, except that they may
not hold office and shall be free from all dues.

Life Members shall be active or non-resident members who have paid
fees to the amount of twenty dollars. They shall be free from further
annual dues.

Honorary Members shall be persons who have rendered distinguished
service to science and who are not residents of the State of Illinois. The
number shall not exceed twenty at one time. They shall be free from
all dues.

For election to any class of membership the candidate’s name must be
proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the committee on
membership, and receive the assent of three-fourths of the members
voting.

All workers in science present at the organization meeting who sign
the constitution, upon payment of their initiation fee and their annual dues
for 1908 become charter members.

FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 9

ArTicLE IV. OFFICERS.

The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice-Presi-
dent, a Chairman of each section that may be organized, a Secretary, and
a Treasurer. These officers shall be chosen by ballot on recommendation
of a nominating committee, at an annuab meeting, and shall hold office
for one year or until their successors qualify.

They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective
offices.

It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an address
which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at
which his term of office expires.

The Secretary shall have charge of all the books, collections, and
material property belonging to the Academy.

Articte V. Counctr.

The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Chairman
of each section, Secretary, Treasurer, and the president of the preceding
year. To the Council shall be entrusted the management of the affairs of
the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings.

ArticteE VI. STANDING CoMMITTEES.
The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on
Publication and a Committee on Membership.
The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the
Secretary, and a third member chosen annually by the Academy.
The Committee on Membership shall consist of five members chosen
annually by the Academy.

ArticLeE VII. MEETINGs.

The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time and
place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be called
by the Council and shall be called upon written request of twenty
members.

Articte VIII. Pustication.

The regular publications of the Academy shall include the transactions
of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the Committee
on Publication.

All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy.

Articte IX. AFFILIATION.

The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with other
organizations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the
Council and be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the members present
at any regular meeting.

ArticLe X. AMENDMENTS.

This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the
members present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the desired
change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least twenty
days before such meeting.

10 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,

BY-LAWS.

I. The following shall be the regular order of business:

1. Call to order.
2. Reports of officers.
3. Reports of standing committees.
4. Election of members.
5. Reports of special committees.
6. Appointment of special committees.
7. Unfinished business.
8. New business.
9. Election of officers.
10. Program.
Adjournment.

II. No meeting of the Academy shall be held without thirty days’
previous notice being sent by the Secretary to all members.

III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy. A
majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council.

IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order
signed by the President and Secretary.

V. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for three
years, “having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer,
shall have their names stricken from the roll.

VI. The Secretary shall have charge of the distribution, sale, and
exchange of the published Transactions of the Academy, under such
restrictions as may be imposed by the Council.

VII. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint a
committee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon the
account of the Treasurer.

VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program unless the
manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previously delivered
to the Secretary.

IX. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the
members present at any regular meeting.

:

FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING PE

Minutes of the Fifth Annual Meeting

BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS, FEBRUARY 23 AND 24, IQ12.

SESSION OF FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 23, 2:00 P. M.

Address of Welcome, by Senator Frank Funk, President of the
McLean County Academy of Science.
Reply by President W. A. Noyes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

MINUTES OF THE Previous MEETING—The minutes of the
fourth Annual Meeting, held at Chicago, February 17 and 18,
1911, have been published in Volume IV of the Transactions.
The Council has held two meetings, one in Chicago, Novem-
ber 4, 1911, and one in Bloomington, February 23, 1912. The
Council has considered all matters touching the policy of the
Academy, including the time and place for the 1912 meeting, the
program for the same, and certain matters regarding the form of
Volume IV of the Transactions.

MEMBERSHIP.—Thirty-seven new members were elected at the
Chicago meeting, 34 of whom completed membership by payment
of dues. At the Chicago meeting the Secretary reported 371
names on the membership roll. The additions should, therefore,
make a total of 408 members. Nine members have resigned, and
41 have been dropped for non-payment of fees, leaving a total of
358 names on the membership roll, or a net loss of 13 during
the year. Thirty-five of the above failed to pay either annual
dues or matriculation fee, and were dropped by limitation of three
years, as provided in the constitution. It is evident that too great
care cannot be used in proposing persons for membership in the
Academy. No person should be nominated who has not indi-
vidually expressed a desire to become a member.

We have lost by death one of our most valued members, Pro-

i2 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

fessor Fred L. Charles, who died May 6, 1911. A memorial will
be presented at this meeting.

PuUBLICATIONS.—Volume IV has been sent to all members in
good standing. Believing that a more systematic classification
of the matter contained in the Transactions would make the
volume more useful to those consulting its pages, the Secretary
has, with the consent of the Council, departed somewhat from the
beaten path, and the new volume appears in topical form, the
business being concentrated in the fore part of the book, and the
papers appearing under their respective classifications.

Calls for the Transactions by libraries, academies and museums
continue to come in, as reported by the Secretary a year ago. It
is, Of course, impossible at present to carry on any system of
exchange: first, because our treasury cannot bear the expense of
the necessary postage; and, second, because there is no desig-
nated depository for the exchanges. The logical depositary would
seem to be the State Museum, as, also, the logical Secretary
should be the Curator of the State Museum.

ENLARGING THE FIELD OF THE ACADEMy.—The Secretary has
carried on a vigorous campaign during the past three months in
an endeavor to interest the scientific citizens of the State in the
Academy. Circular letters to the number of 1,000 have been sent
to all high schools, normal schools and other higher institutions
of learning, and to many of the teachers of science and mathe-
matics in these institutions. It is quite apparent that only by
this and similar means can the Academy hope to become promi-
nent in the scientific life of the State. If our teachers are con-
stantly reminded of the value of being members of this insti-
tution, many of them will ultimately take advantage of the oppor- -
tunity offered. To this end, upwards of 10,000 pieces of printed
matter have been distributed to teachers, institutions, the news-
papers and various individuals in the State who are, or ought to
be, interested in the advancement of science. To successfully
carry on this missionary work, a sufficient fund must be available
to provide for the very large amount of clerical work incident
to its accomplishment.

The Secretary expresses the hope that his successor may be
a man of some leisure, who will keep the members in touch with
the purposes of the Academy. It is confidently believed that the
“slogan,” 1,000 members, if kept persistently before the organiza-
tion, will ultimately bring the Academy to this high-water mark
of membership.

FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING I3

The Secretary wishes to express his appreciation of the assist-
ance rendered by the Council as well as by many members of
the Academy during his tenure of office.

Respectfully submitted,
FRANK C. BAKER,

Secretary.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
RECEIPTS.
oS ee DS Ty Ag 8 See geo $ 27.56
SREB ERNE Gioia oor ays =e tetra a a 2k aa 246.00
Lite membership, one member. .:.......--.----+---+-: 20.00
Semen ea ES CS 2k ates. crouch aint a 5x id hes le 46.00
PernGaE oF SM EL GIRS 4). 5 Bs ee Se. ae sae Paatk 6.75
SNe CEMRESS oni" s tu ira aie dl as a oh di ey $346.31
EXPENDITURES.
Balance paid on FLY Vad oa es Se eke $138.45
Repeat STE EEO se ays oa hae See es ene 27.65
To J. C. Hessler, Treasurer, postage and printing....... 14.25
To Frank C. Baker, Secretary, for postage and printing.. 55.41
DRIES Wht nse otis eer as Kms ye = ga Lc Sede Ea Aa lee 6.28
Srealat ISG SONICRI Ns Bae dure, «par oes cee oi. te ors ae $242.04
Balanee.on fsa, eli: 26. 19875 oe seks ok eases 2 - $104.2
(Signed) JoHn C. HEssSLER,
Treasurer.

On motion, the Treasurer’s report was accepted, and the Presi-
dent was instructed to appoint an Auditing Committee. The
following Auditing Committee was appointed:

A. R. Crook.

H. S. PEPoon.

W. S. STRODE.

REPORT OF THE MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE.

In the absence of Professor H. C. Cowles, Mr. George D.
Fuller reported for the Membership, Committee. The names of

14 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

the following persons were presented, and upon motion and
second, were elected to membership:

Abbott, Walter S., Nat. Hist. Bldg. University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
(Entomology. )

Adams, Howard W., Normal, Ill. (Chemistry.)

Allen, Mary S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology and Botany.)

Barber, Fred D., Normal, Ill. (Physics.)

Barnard, Edith Ethel, 410 West Sixty-second St., Chicago, Ill. (Chem-

* istry.)

Bassett, Herbert, Macomb, Ill. (Geography and Geology.)

Blount, Ralph E., 124 South Oak Park Ave., Oak Park, III.

Briscoe, C. F., 706 West California St., Urbana, Ill. (Bacteriology.) -

Bullard, James D., Equality, III.

Coe, O. J., Ottawa, Ill. (Chemistry and Biology.)

Colyer, Frank H., Carbondale, II.

Cook, Nettie M., 630 South Seventh St., Springfield, Ill. (Botany.)

Grizell, Roy A., Nat. Hist. Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, III.
(Entomology. )

Gutherlet, J. E., 308 Nat. Hist. Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, III.
(Zoology. )

Funk, Frank H., Bloomington, Ill. (Corn Breeder.)

Glenn, P. A., 809 West Nevada St., Urbana, Ill. (Entomology.)

Goode, J. Paul, 6227 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Geography.)

Haupt, Arthur W., 1321 Norwood Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)

Hitch, C. Bruce, Bloomington, Ill. (Biology.)

Huber, W. H. P., Jacksonville; Ill. (Physiology.)

Huffington, H. L., Normal, Ill. (Biology.)

Hurter, Julius, Jr., 2346 South Tenth St., St. Louis, Mo. (Herpetology.)

Johnson, J. T., Kent, Ohio. (Biology annd Agriculture.)

Lipman, Mayer, 1607 West Sixty-third St., Chicago, Ill. ( Physics.)

Lutes, Neil, 57 Broadway St., Freeport, Ill. (Chemistry.)

MacGillivray, A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Entomology.)

Matthews, Albert P., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Physiological
Chemistry. )

Matthews, Wm. C., Nat. Hist. Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.
(Scientific Drawing.)

McNutt, Wade, Township High School, Highland Park, Ill. (Botany.)

Moffatt, Will S., 105 South La Salle St., Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)

Neiberger, Wm. E., Bloomington, Ill. (Eugenics.)

Newman, H. H., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)

Perry, Edna M., Morton, Ill. (Zoology.)

Peterson, Alvah, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Entomology.)

Rentchler, Edna K., 305 North St., Normal, Ill. (Biology.)

Rich, John L., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physiology. )

Ridgley, Douglas C., Normal, Ill. (Geography.)

Sampson, Homer C., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Botany.)

Scheffel, Earl Read, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)

Spessard, Earl A., a M. C. A. Bldg., Aurora, Ill. (Biology.)

Tandy, M., Dallas City, Ill. ( Biology.)

———— 7

FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 15

Van Alstine, E., Experiment Station, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.)

Wager, R. E., De Kalb, Ill) (Biology.)

White, Kessack O., State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)
Windsor, Mrs. P. L., 704 South Lincoln Ave., Urbana, Ill. (Entomology.)
Woodburn, Wm. L., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Botany.)

REPORT ON STATE MUSEUM.

In view of the interest which the State Academy of Science
has taken in the State Museum, it is a pleasure to report that the
outlook is bright for the erection of a new building to be known
as the Educational Building, and planned with the intention of
caring for the State Natural History Museum, the War Relics,
State Historical Library, the State Library, the Department of
Public Instruction and a Memorial Hall.

The last legislature appropriated $5,000 for defraying the
expenses incident to securing plans, selecting site, etc. The State
Architect is at present at work draughting preliminary plans for
such a building.

The coming State legislature will doubtless be asked to appro-
priate money for the building. Various offers have been made
by friends of the museum to give a building site for such a build-
ing in Springfield. The urgent need of such a building, especially
from the view-point of the museum, is being more widely appre-
ciated. Valuable materials are at present being but partly used.
They are in some danger of destruction by fire. When the build-
ing is once completed the collections will be rapidly augmented
and by process of elimination the more valuable will be retained
and preserved.

With the securing of adequate and dignified quarters, a new
era of usefulness and activity will be inaugurated and this insti-
tution, which for more than sixty years has been representing
various scientific activities in this portion of the State, will enter
upon a period of greater usefulness. A. R. Crook.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE TO INFLUENCE LEGISLATION TO RESTRICT
THE COLLECTION OF BIRDS AND EGGS TO INSTITUTIONS
AND ACCREDITED INDIVIDUALS.

Your committee regrets to be compelled to report that it has
accomplished nothing during the year. Press of other duties has
so occupied the chairman that he has been unable to give the
matter any attention. It has been observed, however, that, par-
ticularly on the outskirts of Chicago, the game laws are defied

16 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

regularly. In the newly opened road through the Budlong woods
at Bowmanville, the chairman of this committee has encountered,
on a Sunday afternoon, as many as a dozen boys and men with
shotguns, sling-shots and air-guns, killing song birds. One such
party was interviewed and a hunting license was produced.
These men seemed surprised to know that this license did not
permit them to shoot song birds as well as game birds. Some
hunting of this sort has also been observed near Glencoe, High-
land Park and other places along the north shore.

It is quite evident that without an adequate deputy warden
force, it is practically impossible to prevent the killing of our
song birds by these people. It also seems useless to ask for
further legislation. The committee can only recommend the sug-
gestions made by it at the Chicago meeting, and as it can be of
no further use, asks that it be discharged.

FRANK C. BAKER, Chairman.
js Hess.

On motion, duly seconded, the report was approved and the
committee discharged.

A memorial to Professor Fred L. Charles, prepared by Pro-
fessor E. L. Downing, was read by the Secretary.

The President ape the following Nominating Committee:

U. S. GRANT.

FRANK SMITH.

T. L. HANKINSON.

DRAFT OF A REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION OF A
SERIES OF STATE ACADEMY LEAFLETS ON HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE.

Your Committee on Publications for High School Science, pur-
suant to its instructions, offers the following report:

In view of the demand that high school students, in connection
with their course in science, have opportunity to acquire informa-
tion of local character upon topics which come within the general
scope of these courses, your committee is of the opinion that a
series of publications, designed for selection as supplementary
reading in connection with these courses, and published under the
control of the Academy, would be of educational service, and
would be within the scope of the Academy’s proper activities.

The following is offered as a list of suggested topics:

(1) The mineral resources of Illinois.
(2) The soil of Illinois.

i Bh

FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 17

(3) The topography of Illinois.
(4) The geology of Illinois.
(5) The native mammals of Illinois.
(6) The birds of Illinois.
(7) The fish of Illinois.
(8) The insects of Illinois.
(9) The trees of Illinois.
(10) The Spring flowering plants of Illinois—April-and
May.
(11) The Summer flowering plants of Illinois—June, July
and August.
(12) The Fall flowering plants of Illinois—September.
(13) The edible fungi of Illinois.
(14) Plant breeding in Illinois.

As to plan of treatment, the committee reports that, in its
opinion, the interest and comprehension of sixteen-year-old boys
and girls should be determining factors. It is believed that a treat-
ment so determined will attract rather than repel the reading of
the publications by the general public. Following its instruc-
tions, the committee, if continued, will invite members of the
Academy to prepare MSS. for these publications.

Under its authorization by the Academy, the committee has
found assurance of an arrangement for the publication of this
series which will relieve the Academy from financial responsi-
bility, safeguard the use of its name, and insure to authors a roy-
alty of at least 10 per cent.

However, no such arrangement will be finally concluded until
some of the series are ready to print, which, in the opinion of the
committee, will be at least a year from date. Report on this
point is therefore deferred, in case the committee is continued,
until the next meeting of the Academy.

The committee recommends its continuance, and, if continued,
solicits codperation from all members of the Academy.

Suggestions as to topics and authorship will be welcomed.

Respectfully submitted,
T. J. McCormack.
WitiiaM C. BacGLey.
R: D. SALtIsBury.
H. S. Pepoon.
J. G. Coutter.
’ The report was adopted and the committee continued.

The presentation and discussion of scientific papers occupied

the remainder of the afternoon.

4
18 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

SESSION OF FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 23, 6:00 P_aMig |

6 :00-7 :00—Bloomington Club; social hour.

7 :00—Banquet (80 persons present).

8 :30—Presidential address, ‘““The Electron Theory,” by Presi-
dent W. A. Noyes.

SESSION OF SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 24, 9:00 Ata

Symposium on Conservation.

Professor E. O. Jordan was not able to be present, owing to a
sudden outbreak of typhoid fever at Rockford, which necessitated
his immediate presence. Brief remarks on Water Pollution by
President Noyes.

The other addresses were given in the sequences as printed.

The Nomination Committee presented the following list of
candidates:

Henry Crew, President.

A. R. Crook, Vice-President.

Otis W. Caldwell, Secretary.

J. C. Hessler, Treasurer.

Membership of Publication Committee—W. A. Noyes.

Membership Committee—T. W. Galloway, Marion Weller,
C. C. Adams, John G. Coulter, W. L. Eikenberry.

REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE.

We, the committee appointed by the Chairman of the Illinois
State Academy of Science to audit the accounts of the Treasurer,
John C. Hessler, find the same to be correct and true.

(Signed) A. R. Croox, Chairman.
W. S. STRODE.
H. S. PEPoon.

Dr. A. R. Crook moved that a committee of physicists and
mathematicians be appointed to consider the reform of the cal-
endar. Seconded and carried. The following committee was ap-
pointed: Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, Prof. F. R. Moulton, Dr. A. R.
Crook, Dr. C. G. Hopkins, Dean E. J. Townsend.

On motion of Dr. C. C. Adams, the chair was instructed to
appoint a committee of five members on legislation. The follow-
ing committee was appointed: Dr. T. W. Galloway, Chairman;
Dr. O. W. Caldwell; Mr. E. W. Payne, President State Bank,

|
|

FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 19

Springfield, Ill.; Mr. Elmer J. Kneale, office of State Register,
Springfield, Il.

Mr. J. W. De Wolf moved that a letter be sent to all members,
requesting their opinion relative to the kind of program favored
for the annual meetings. Unanimously carried.

Mr. Worallo Whitney moved that a circular letter be sent to
high schools, informing the teachers of the purposes of the
Academy and of the possibilities of the work in science. Seconded
and carried.

Dr. H. S. Pepoon moved that a committee of three be appointed
to secure legislation which would set apart certain waste lands
for the propagation and study of the common wild flowering
plants. Seconded and carried. The names and membership of
the committee are as follows:

Committee on Conserving Wild Flowering Plants on Waste
Lands, Right of Way of Railroads, Ete——Dr. H. S. Pepoon, Dr.
John G. Coulter, Dr. E. N. Transeau.

SESSION OF SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 24, 2:00 P. M.

Report of committee appointed to investigate the relations of
the pure and applied sciences in high schools.

Discussed by Baker, Burrill, Galloway, Coulter, Caldwell, and
President Noyes.

The Secretary reported the following recommendations from
the Council:

1. That the Illinois State Museum at Springfield be the desig-
nated depositary for the surplus stock of Transactions, and that
the exchanges derived from the Transactions be also deposited in
the library of the State Museum.

2. That the necessary expenses of the Treasurer and Secre-
tary, while in attendance at the annual meetings, be borne by the
treasury of the Academy.

On motion, duly seconded, the above recommendations were
approved and adopted by the Academy.
’ Dr. Crook presented resolutions as follows:

1. Thanks to local committee, Wesleyan University, and
J. F. Toldte and R. O. Murphy for lantern and operation.
2. Thanks to Secretary.

20 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Dr. S. A. Forbes gave a verbal report for the Committee on
Ecological Survey.

The remainder of the afternoon was occupied with further
scientific papers.

On motion, duly seconded, the fourth annual meeting of the
Illinois Academy of Science adjourned.

The President’s Address
THE. ELECTRON: CHEOR ¥.
W. A. NOYES. 4

The first fairly comprehensive theory of chemical combination
which bears some relation to modern views was proposed in a
rather informal way by Lavoisier. Shortly after Priestly had dis-
covered “dephlogistigated air,” in 1774, the great French chemist
came to recognize very clearly the fundamental part which the
newly discovered element plays in nature. Finding that it is an
essential element in the acids formed by the combustion of sul-
phur, phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon, he called it oxygen—the
acid-former—a name still appropriate, though I think that most
chemists to-day do not recognize how appropriate, so clearly as
did the chemists who lived a century ago. Lavoisier also recog-
nized that oxygen combines with metals to form what were then
called metallic calxes, and with the assistance of De Morveau and
others a nomenclature was introduced which was based on the
view that the oxides of the non-metallic elements, called acids,
combine with the oxides of the metallic elements, which had been
called calxes, to form salts. This nomenclature still clings to us
in such names as sulphate of potash. The thought expressed in
this nomenclature, that there is a dual nature in the salts, fur-
nished a very natural basis from which the electrochemical theory
of Davy and Berzelius was easily developed. According to this
theory, the atoms of the elements have two electrical poles, one
positive and one negative, and the properties of the element depend
upon whether the one or the other of these poles contains more
electricity, chemical combination depending on the discharge of
two poles of opposite signs when the atoms of two elements come
together, the heat of combination being caused by this discharge.
The resulting compound may still have an excess of positive or

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 21

negative electricity, and so a positive oxide like that of potassium
may- combine with a negative oxide such as that of sulphur to
form a salt. This theory dominated chemistry for nearly half a
century.

The next important step toward an insight into the nature of
chemical combination was the discovery of Faraday, in 1833, that
the same current passing through a succession of electrolytes lib-

- erates equivalent quantities of elements or radicals at the elec-

trodes immersed in the different solutions. This discovery points
very clearly to a definite unit quantity of electricity which is
directly connected with those primary units of matter which we
call atoms. It is not a unit of energy, since the energy absorbed
in the decomposition of the different electrolytes is different. The
fundamental conception which we are forced to, was stated very
clearly by Helmhotz in his Faraday lecture, in 1881: “If we
accept the hypothesis that elementary substances are composed of
atoms, we cannot avoid the conclusion that electricity, positive as
well as negative, is divided into definite elementary portions,
which behave like atoms of electricity.” Maxwell, too, spoke of
a “molecule” of electricity in 1873, but evidently had little sym-
pathy with such an idea. This idea is quite different from that
.in the theory of Berzelius, who considered that differences in
affinity were caused by differences in the quantity of electricity
in different atoms. The next advance, therefore, seems rather a
step backward than forward, as it consisted in the overthrow and
complete abandonment of the old electrochemical theory. In that
theory chlorine was always negative and hydrogen was always
positive in their compounds. But Dumas showed that three
derivatives of acetic acid could be prepared in which one, two or
three’ atoms of the positive hydrogen could be replaced by one,
two or three atoms of the negative chlorine, and yet the resulting
compounds. were monobasic acids resembling acetic acid in their
salts and in their decompositions. In his attempts to explain
these and other compounds on the basis of the electrochemical
theory, Berzelius found himself more and more in conflict with
well established facts of organic chemistry, and in spite of his
tremendous authority as one of the greatest chemists of his time,
the chemical world gradually abandoned the dualistic point of
view and accepted a unitary conception of chemical compounds.
Then, beginning in the fifties, there came the period of the rapid
development of the theories of valence and of structural organic

1In the formulas used by Dumas, two, four or six atoms.

22 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE:

chemistry. During this period, which lasts, with very little
change, to the present time, the attempt to connect the forces
which hold the atoms in combination with electrical forces in any
definite way was almost completely abandoned. It is true that
the terms “positive” and “negative” have been frequently used
throughout the period, but they have been used in a wholly vague
and indefinite way, with no real thought of electrical properties in
the groups. ;

As so often happens, the beginning of a return to an electrical
theory of combination came from the study of phenomena in a
different and, as it seemed at the time, wholly unrelated field.
During the late seventies, Crookes busied himself with the study
of electrical discharge through highly rarefied gases. The phe-
nomena which he discovered were so strange and startling that
he spoke freely of a “fourth state’ of matter. The physicists
and chemists of the time were disposed to look on the expression
as somewhat sensational, but the event has shown that he was
nearer right than his critics. The phenomena of most interest to
us are those of the discharge from the cathode, or negative pole,
through a tube in which the pressure of the residual gas has been
reduced to one-millionth of an atmosphere. Under such condi-

tions rays are shot out in straight lines perpendicular to the sur-

face of the cathode and when they impinge on the glass opposite
they produce a beautiful green fluorescence and give rise to the
X-rays, though those rays were not discovered till some fifteen
years later. Crookes showed that this “radiant matter,’ as he
called it, almost with the vision of a prophet, travels straight
across the tube, irrespective of the location of the anode. He
showed that an opaque object in its path will cast a sharp shadow
on the fluorescent glass; he showed that if it strikes the vanes
on one side of a little wheel suspended in its path the wheel will
rotate, and he showed that it can be deflected by a magnet. He
found, too, that this radiant matter came always from the negative
pole, never from the positive. He had discovered a stream of
electrons, but the world had to wait some fifteen years before the
X-rays emanating from the fluorescent glass were discovered, and
nearly twenty years before the real properties of the electrons
were established.

Meanwhile, during the eighties, the ionization theory of Arrhe-
nius was proposed, and with Ostwald as its Nestor, gained rapidly
in favor until it has become to-day the only logical basis which we
have for the accurate discussion of the properties of solutions.

i>

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 23

The development of the theory has demonstrated almost as cer-
tainly that atoms or groups of atoms carrying one or more units
of an electrical charge exist independently in a solution of an
electrolyte, as the study of gases has demonstrated that inde-
pendent molecules of nitrogen peroxide exist in the gas which
consists of a mixture of nitrogen peroxide, NO,, and nitrogen
tetroxide, N,O,. What becomes of these charges when the ions
reunite, is a question which has scarcely been raised till recently.
From the idea that the reactions between electrolytes in solution
take place between ions bearing electrical charges, it is a very
simple and natural step to the thought that other reactions may
occur in a similar manner. An application of this thought to the
reactions of the elements soon leads to the view that the molecules
of elementary substances may sometimes separate into positive
and negative atoms. This conclusion was, perhaps, first expressed
by Van’t Hoff in 1895, in an attempt to explain the formation of
ozone during the slow oxidation of phosphorus.t Similar views
were expressed by myself? in 1901, and were quickly followed by
a statement from Professor Stieglitz that he had presented the
same idea some time before at the University of Chicago. Three
years later Professor Abegg, of Breslau, published a remarkable
paper in which he developed the idea of the electrical polarity of
the atoms in considerable detail, and proposed his theory of
normal valences and of contra valences, the sum of the two kinds
of valences for any given atom being eight. Thus a nitrogen
atom may develop toward hydrogen three negative, normal val-
ances or toward oxygen it may assume five, positive, contra val-
ences. In this paper Abegg points out for the first time a probable
connection between his theory and the theory of electrons.
Lavoisier and many others of the earlier chemists seem to have
considered an atomic or molecular constitution of matter as prob-
able, but the first definite basis for an atomic theory was, of
course, laid by Dalton’s discovery of the laws of combining
weights and of miltiple proportion, in the early days of the
nineteenth century. He did not discover the law of constant pro-
portion, and the evidence which he gave for the law of miltiple
proportion was exceedingly crude from the quantitative stand-
point; indeed, there is to-day, as far as I know, only a single _
case for which the law has been demonstrated with an accuracy of
one part in a thousand, and the determinations for that single

1Z. physik. Chemie, 76. 411 (1895).
27. Am. Chem. Soc., 23, 460 (1901).
2 Tbid., 23, 797 (1901).

24 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

case are recent. For a genuine experimental basis we must treat
the law as a corollary of the law of combining weights. We all
remember that Dalton was not successful in selecting true atomic
weights, and while both Avogadro and Amprere suggested a cor-
rect basis for the selection very shortly after Dalton’s first publi-
cation, their suggestion did not meet with approval. So it hap-
pened that for the first half of the nineteenth century chemists
generally were confused about the atomic weights which they
should use, and many of them became skeptical about any possi-
bility of certain choice among tne miltiples which might be
selected and were disposed to content themselves with a system
of equivalents. In the late fifties, Cannizaro, who died only two
years ago in Italy, rescued the law of Avogadro from oblivion and
contributed very much to the general acceptance of a rational
system of atomic weights. A decade later the discovery of the
periodic system by Mendeleef and Lothar Meyer confirmed in a
most brilliant manner the truth and-.value of the principles on
which the new table of atomic weights was based. At the same
time the periodic system pointed, irresistibly, toward some com-
mon substratum or ultimate material from which the atoms have
been built up or into which they might be disintegrated, but this
remained for thirty years and longer only a tantalizing sugges-
tion. Meanwhile the insight which the development of organic
chemistry gave into the structure of molecules forced upon
organic chemists, at least, a growing conviction of the actual
existence of atoms and molecules. In spite of this, the close of
the nineteenth century saw the rise of an important school of
chemistry, under the lead of Ostwald, which apparently wished
to abandon the atomic theory altogether and would have been glad
to express all of the facts of chemistry in terms of energy and
in the language of mathematical equations. The discoveries of
the last decade seem to have convinced even the leader of this
school, and I think that to-day we may accept atoms and mole-
cules as actual existing entities with almost the same certainty
with which we accept the existence of the sun, moon and planets.
With the atomic theory goes, ‘almost of necessity, the kinetic
theory of gases. Indeed, some of the most convincing demonstra-
tions of the truth of the atomic theory have come along the lines

of the kinetic theory. I might say, in passing, that the second law

of thermodynamics, that the entropy of a system always tends to
increase, presupposes, almost of necessity, an atomic constitution
of matter.

—

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 025

As Helmholtz pointed out clearly in 1881, the acceptance of the
atomic theory forces upon us the recognition of a unit quantity
oi electricity which is just as definite as the atom itself and which
Helmholtz very properly said “behaves like an atom of elec-
tricity.” But the physicists of that day and for long afterwards
were accustomed to think of electricity from the standpoint of
energy, and the suggestion remained unheeded; indeed, it is very
doubtful if Helmholtz himself grasped its full significance. _

In 1897 Professor J. J. Thomson took up again the study of
the cathode rays in a Crookes tube. These rays had then acquired

an extraordinary interest from their use in the production of
X-rays. Professor Thomson devised a very ingenious experiment
in which he deflected the cathode rays into an insulated hollow
vessel by an electromagnet. Knowing the capacity of the vessel,
he could determine the quantity of electricity carried into it by the
electrons in a given time. He also arranged to have the electrons
fall on a thermocouple of known heat capacity, and determined
the energy developed on stopping them. From the data obtained
he calculated that the velocity of the particles was of the order
of ten thousand miles a second, or even as high as 1/1o the
velocity of light. The quantity of electricity carried by the par-
ticles was found to be very considerable in proportion to the heat
energy shown by the thermocouple. These facts seemed to allow
of only two alternatives: either the mass of the particles is
extremely small or each particle must carry an enormous charge
of electricity. Further experiments confirmed the choice of the
first of these possibilities, and physicists are generally agreed
that the mass of the electron is about one eighteen hundredth part
of the mass of a hydrogen atom. Physicists are not altogether
agreed, however, as to whether this electromagnetic mass is the
same in nature as the mass of an atom which may be measured by
reference to the force of gravity. If it is affected by gravity, an
electron having a velocity of 10,000 kilometers a second would
fall toward the earth possibly two millimeters in flying 800 kilo-
meters, say, as far as from here to Pittsburgh. The difficulty of
preparing a straight, evacuated tube of that length is evidently
rather great, and we shall probably have to wait some time for
experimental evidence on this point. The question has become
one of unusual speculative interest in the light of the discussion
by J. J. Thomson and the measurements of Kaufmann and
Bucherer, which seem to show that the mass of the electron is
wholly dependent on the velocity with which it moves.

20. ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

I will not attempt to discuss how the theory of electrons
explains the varied phenomena of electricity and magnetism.
Before passing on to its application in chemistry, I will speak
of only two or three of the conclusions which have been reached.
The electron may be defined as an atom of negative electricity
and the current through_a metallic conductor seems to be an
actual flow of electrons in one direction. In the vacuum tube
the electrons or cathode rays fly also only in one direction, but
if the cathode is perforated and a residual gas is present, posi-
tively charged atoms or molecules may be shot in the opposite
direction, of course at a much lower velocity because of their
enormously greater mass. These atoms form the canal rays of
Goldstein. In electrolytes the electrons no longer move independ-
ently as in metallic conductors, but attach themselves to the
so-called negative atoms or groups and move slowly in one direc-
tion, while the positive atoms or groups—those which have lost
an electron—move in the opposite direction. We have long known
the metals as the positive portion of electrolytes. It is only
recently that this property has been connected with the electrical
conductivity of metals. According to the electron theory, a
metallic atom forms the positive portion of an electrolyte because
it has lost one or more electrons. A metallic wire conducts elec-
tricity because it allows the electrons in or associated with the
atoms to slip along easily from one atom to another, since the
electrons easily escape from the individual atom.

Several authors have discussed the nature of chemical combina-
tion in the light of the electron theory. The most elaborate dis-
cussion is that of J. J. Thomson.’ His fundamental assumption
is that atoms are composed of a group of electrons within a uni-
form sphere of positively electrified matter. A single electron
would go to the center of such a sphere. Two electrons, owing
to their mutual repulsion, would be in equilibrium at a distance
from each other equal to the radius of the sphere. Three elec-
trons would form an equilateral triangle, four a tetrahedron, six |
an octohedron; but Professor Thomson says that he has been
unable to solve the general problem for m electrons distributed in
a sphere. He gives, however, a rather remarkable solution on the
supposition that the electrons are situated in a plane. In that
case they will arrange themselves in concentric rings and for a
given number of electrons there is only a single stable arrange-
ment. Further than this, with a given number in the exterior

1 Philosophical Magazine, March, 1904.

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 2/

ring, the number which can be placed within is limited by two
extremes. The most suggestive case of this kind is that with
20 electrons in the outer ring. The total number of electrons
with such an outer ring can never be less than 59 and can not
exceed 67. This might be supposed to correspond to a group of
nine elements of the periodic system from helium to neon or from
neon to argon. The arrangement with 59 electrons, if it lost one,
would be compelled to rearrange to a form having only 19 elec-
trons in the outer ring, but owing to the positive charge acquired
by the loss of the electron, it would immediately acquire another
and go back to its original form. Such an element would have a
valence of o for a positive charge, and Professor Thomson sug-
gests that this would correspond to such an element as helium or
neon. But he goes on to say that the element would have a
valency of 8 for a negative charge, which does not, of course,
correspond to the properties of the zero group. A group of 60
electrons might lose one electron and acquire a permanent positive
charge of one valence, which would correspond to such an element
as lithium or sodium. It ought, however, to be capable of gaining
7 electrons; that is, it should have a valency of seven for a nega-
tive charge. Here, again, the facts do not correspond to the
theory. It seems evident that the theory needs to be supplemented
by some explanation why electropositive elements lose electrons
but do not readily take them up, while it would seem that the
electronegative elements can do both. The facts seem to be con-
nected with the properties of metals as conductors and of non-
metals as non-conductors.

Lorenz in his explanation of the Zeeman effect seems to assume
that the electrons revolve around a nucleus of matter having a
positive charge. It seems possible that the idea of Lorenz is true
for metals, that of Thomson for non-metals.

Whichever theory is accepted, the notion that atoms may
acquire positive or negative charges by the loss or gain of an
electron and that the charged atom may then attract another atom
bearing a charge of the opposite sign seems likely to be a fruitful
one. I will give an illustration of possible application to well-
known facts. An atom of nitrogen may receive four electrons
from four hydrogen atoms if at the same time it gives one to the
oxygen atom of a hydroxyl group. But the hydroxyl group is
loosely held by the nitrogen atom with its four electrons and the
compound ionizes and reacts as though consisting of ammonium
and hydroxyl. One atom of nitrogen may also give five electrons
to three oxygen atoms in forming nitric acid. Here the nitrogen

28 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

atom, which has become strongly positive, holds the oxygen of
the hydroxyl group firmly, but the positive hydrogen is repelled.
And so nitric acid ionizes and reacts as though composed of
hydrogen and nitrate ions. This will be clearer from an inspection
of the following formulas: ;

= Os += +++ 0
H—O—N<y H—O——N €
N\B+

The facts referred to have, of course, been long known, but as
far as I know, this is the first attempt at a rational explanation.

In the development of the electron theory, the intimate connec-
tion between electrical phenomena and light, foreshadowed by
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, more than forty years ago,
becomes more and more apparent. The spectrum lines are, of
course, to be traced back to the motion of electrons, and it is not
an impossible dream that these lines may enable us to decipher the
structure of the atoms—that the atoms have a complex structure
no one can doubt in the light of radiochemistry.

The color of compounds and the rotation of the plane of polar-
ization are also connected with the electrons. Dr. Fry, of Cincin-
nati, has shown how the theory may help to a solutiorr of intricate
phases of the benzene problem.’ It seems very certain that it is
a theory with which we must reckon for some time to come. In
studying it we still feel keenly the need of some more fundamental
explanation. The elementary idea of attraction is just as difficult
to accept when applied to atoms bearing positive and negative
charges as when applied to the heavenly bodies at distances of
millions of millions of miles. In both cases the thoughtful mind
finds it impossible to believe in action at a distance without ‘some
medium or mechanism to connect them. And so I can not do
better than to close with the words of Professor Thomson: ‘The
theory is not an ultimate one; its object is physical rather than
metaphysical. From the point of view of the physicist, a theory
of matter is a policy rather than a creed. Its object is to connect
or coordinate apparently diverse phenomena, and above all to
suggest, stimulate and direct experiment. It ought to furnish a
compass which, if followed, will lead the explorer further and
further into unexplored regions. Whether these regions will be
barren or fertile, experience alone will decide; but, at any rate,
one who is guided in this way will travel onward in a definite
direction and will not wander aimlessly to and fro.”

1Z. physik. Chem., 76, 385, 398, 591.

Symposium on Conservation

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 31

CONSERVATION OF THE HUMAN RACE.
J: NN. oery,
State Health Commissioner of Indiana.

High authority says we are only 50 per cent efficient; that we
live out less than one-half the natural duration of life; that we
consume twice as much food as is needed to maintain efficient
life; that we waste as much as we use, and that one-half of all
human beings born either die before reaching maturity or fall into
the defective, delinquent or dependent classes. In these facts we
find reasons why we waste the major portion of all our resources
and call it development. In these facts we find reasons for the
existence of robber taxation and predatory business. For, a
people who waste themselves will, of course, waste their natural
resources. Therefore, the first, the most important, the funda-
mental, conservation is the conservation of human vitality. A
people who cannot be brought to a realization of the fact that
they lead only half lives, and who, realizing, will not mend, will
show the nations to come what fools the present mortals were.

LENGTH OF LIFE.

Length of life is a resultant of strength. Honor thy father and
thy mother that thy days may be long in the land the Lord thy
God giveth thee. It is an honor and it is a strength for a nation
to have a low sickness and a low death rate, with their consequent
lengthened average duration of life. In India the average length
of life is twenty-five years; in the United States, forty; in Eng-
land, forty; in Germany, forty-three, and in Sweden, forty-five.
The natural duration is one hundred years. Metchnikoff, after
thirty years of study of disease and death, says only a very few
die natural deaths; most of mankind commit suicide; that is,
most people do not know how, or will not, conserve their vitality,
and thus results a greater or less period of disability and inefh-
ciency, with premature death. Nature does no fooling; she has
her laws, and they are enforced up to the handle.

VITAL ASSETS.

Comparison of vital and physical assets as measured by earning
power shows that the vital are three to five times the physical.

32 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

The facts show that there is as great room for improvement in
our vital resources as in our lands, water, minerals and forests;
and furthermore, this improvement must come first, for through
human life only is natural conservation possible. The dead past
may bury the dead, but living and strong men, not the weakly
and sickly, must do the work of conservation. And the future
belongs to that nation which has the highest virility.

ILLNESS.

From our vital statistics, which constitutes the bookkeeping of
humanity, we learn that fully 150,000 people in Illinois are sick
at all times, 35,000 of whom are consumptives. Not less than half
of this is preventable, and three-fourths may be prevented by
strong effort. Eighteen experts in various diseases as well as
vital statisticians have contributed data on the ratio of preventa-
bility of the ninety different causes of death into which mortality
may be classified. From this data it is found that fifteen years at
least could be at once added to the average lifetime by practically
applying the science of preventing disease. More than half of
this additional life would come from the prevention of tubercu-
losis, typhoid fever and five other diseases, the prevention of
which could be accomplished by purer air, purer water and purer
milk. Let the business men, who are in the saddle and who run
our affairs, thoroughly consider this. They surely know that dis-
eases and premature death are drags to business. Fifteen more
years of life to each citizen means an enormous increase in the
strength and happiness of the people.

Minor Ailments must be thoroughly considered in any steps
toward the conservation of vitality. They are far more common
and farther reaching than is generally realized. They are chiefly
functional disorders, such as of the intestinal canal, heart, nerves,
liver, kidneys, etc. These disorders are gateways to the more
serious disorders. Those who neglect colds, or what seem to be
colds, will prepare the tissues of the respiratory tract for pneu-
monia and consumption.

Benjamin Franklin, wise and practical, successful as merchant,
scientist and statesman, said: “The having of colds is a great
drawback. I notice when I have one my efficiency is greatly
decreased. Thought, judgment and understanding are clouded.
Furthermore, I notice that colds follow excess in eating and
drinking and the much breathing of bad air. They are quite
unnecessary.”” The losses due to mistakes in business and in the

a

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 33

general conduct of life on account of minor ailments cannot be
estimated except perhaps as time lost. A study of the matter
shows that the time lost cannot be less than four days annually
to each supposedly well man. Applying this to the wage-earners
of Illinois, counting one wage-earner to each five people, making
650,000 in all, and this State has to pocket an annual loss of
2,600,000 days, or 7,150 years. This is certainly a prodigious loss
to suffer because of minor ailments, all of which can practically
be avoided by proper public and private hygiene.

Neurasthenia, so common in the United States, is one of the
most serious and insidious introductions to grave disorders, which
may be due to depraved nutrition, to needless worry, or failure to
have adequate recreation. '

SCHOOL HYGIENE.

In conserving vitality, the child must have physical defects
removed as far as possible, then must be brought up amidst
healthful surroundings and itself trained in all that conserves
health. Indiana has already taken steps in this direction. The
sixty-seventh General Assembly ordained that the schoolhouses
hereafter built shall be sanitary in all particulars. This means
that waste of money and waste of child strength and happiness
shall cease in this fair State, so far as this one matter goes. The
same assembly has given permission to school authorities to insti-
tute medical inspection of school children, that they may be
relieved of morbid physical conditions which cause pain, ineffi-
ciency, illness and early death. It was a marked forward step to
grant this privilege, but it was a mistake in favor of loss of vital-
ity not to make this care of children compulsory. Physical
strength is the fundamental requirement for the making of chil-
dren into educated and moral citizens. There is now a world-
wide movement, led by Switzerland and heathen Japan, to save
children and make them strong. A Japanese physician traveling
in this country said: “We have relatively fewer short graves in
our cemeteries.” The intelligence of a community could be accu-
rately measured by determining its relative number of short
graves. Youth is the time to serve the Lord. We must train the
body in youth as well as the mind, or the opportunity to conserve
vitality is largely lost. A far better business scheme than secur-
ing factories would be for the business men to turn their atten-
tion to the conservation of human vitality. The returns would be
immense; failure to score in such an effort is impossible.

34 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

SYPHILIS AND GONORRHEA.

Hygiene has been permitted to extinguish cholera and yellow
fever, and by the grace of private benefaction it will soon banish
hookworm disease, which now incapacitates 2;000,000 people.
And may God hasten the business men to permit hygiene to banish
those twin leprosies, syphilis and gonorrhea, which are important
factors in the causation of insanity, crime and pauperism, and
which so fearfully wreck the lives of so many innocent women
and children, as well as w recking the lives of the guilty. Syphilis
and gonorrhea are responsible for the existence of a large pro-
portion of defectives of various kinds which fill our institutions.
Let hygiene drive these plagues away, and Illinois, instead of
building more insane hospitals, could donate one or two now
existent to educational use of some kind

SAVING VITALITY.

Strength, endurance and fatigue are the three great elements to
be considered in conserving life. The measure of strength is the
force a muscle can exert once; the measure of endurance is the
number of times it can repeat an exertion. Fatigue is caused by
fatigue poisons, which must be removed from the body during
rest, principally during sleep.

Anything, therefore, which reduces strength and lessens endur-
ance and prevents removal of fatigue is inimical to vitality
conservation.

SCIENCE OF LIVING.

The science of living begins at the mouth. Barring the taking
of drugs, as a man eats and digests his foods, so he is. Owing to
drug-taking and errors in human feeding, disease is latent in
man at all times. Only a few escape sickness and pain and die
natural deaths. This is not as nature would have it. Josh Bill-
ings, recovering from heart trouble caused by tobacco, said:
“Nature made us all right; we make fools of ourselves.” Other
drugs which are of almost universal use, and which affect heart,
nerves or efficient elimination, are coffee, tea, spices, cocaine,
morphine, chloral and alcohol. All of these are drugs, and all
are poisons, and all more or less disturb the vital functions,
reducing vitality and efficiency.

Any departure from unstimulated nutrition works harm. Stim-
ulated nutrition is unnatural, and perforce is opposed to strength.

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 35

Immoderate eating—feasting and gluttony—reduce vitality and
induce disease with its consequent inefficiency. A very old adage
says: “Most men dig their graves with their teeth.” The old-
time writer of this was working for the conservation of human
vitality. Immoderate amounts of nitrogenous foods, exempli-
fied in white of egg and lean meats, cause auto-intoxication.
They do this by undergoing putrefaction in the digestive tract,
thus making toxins, which in turn, being absorbed into the body,
cause the following train of ills, which results in loss of vitality
and efficiency. Some of the auto-intoxication ills are: biliousness,
coated tongue, foul breath, clammy hands and feet, dry, lusterless
hair, putty complexion, dulled hearing, dulled vision, dulled taste,
dulled smell, loss of memory, loss of continuous thought and
attention, headaches, vertigo, dyspepsia, loss of weight, loss of
strength, rheumatism, insomnia, fugitive pains and aches, irregu-
lar heart, shortness of breath, brittle nails, dry, harsh skin, cancer,
and premature old age of the doddering and slobbering kind.

Until we learn and practically apply this science of living, we
cannot attain over 50 or 60 per cent efficiency and must continue
to live lives of sickness, pain and disease, and die before the
natural duration of life has one-half expired; and if this does not
hinder and delay the conservation of natural resources, nothing
will.

Over-fatigue is a cause of loss of vitality. The present work-
ing day, from a physiological standpoint, is too long. Over-
work, better expressed by the term over-fatigue, starts a vicious
circle leading to the craving of means for deadening fatigue, thus
inducing drug habits and drunkenness.

Experiments in reducing the length of the working day show a
great improvement in the physical and mental efficiency of labor-
ers and result in an increased output sufficient to pay the differ-
ence. However, the great justification of the shorter day is
found in the interests of the race and nation, not the employer.
Public safety requires, in order to avoid railway collisions and
other accidents, the prevention of long hours; lack of sleep and
undue fatigue is quite as great as the waste from serious illness.
A typical succession of events is: first, fatigue, then “colds,”
then tuberculosis, then death. In order to prevent in the begin-
ning this increasing line of destructive agencies, undue ae
must be prevented.

36 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

HEREDITY.

Vitality rests upon inherited qualities. A child born of weak
parents, those parents having received their weakness by inher-
itance, will itself be weak in the.same way. Idiots breed idiots.
Whatever improvement the child may enjoy must rest upon its
inherited foundations. If a child inherits brown eyes, they must
stay brown; but inherited weak sight may be improved to a
greater or less degree. Two forces, therefore, control vitality—
namely, conditions preceding birth and conditions during life.
In other words, the foundations of vitality are wholly inherited,
and may be cultivated to the degree the inherited foundations will
permit.

A perfectly sound physical and mental inheritance is rare, and
is the greatest of all assets. The highest development of a nation
will begin when the human law conforms to God’s law of devel-
opment and parenthood is denied the defectives. A defective has
no right to burden society with other defectives. Prisons and
asylums are now sufficiently numerous, and it is evidence of
defectiveness of the masses to conduct our affairs so as to neces-
sitate their increase. My State now has five great insane asy-
lums, each representing about one million dollars, and there are
enough insane in jails, poorhouses and in homes to fill another
one. Our population increased 7.6 per cent in the last decade,
and insanity increased 29 per cent.

To go along in the future as in the past, permitting—even fos-
tering—the production of the hereditary insane, of the hereditary
criminals, of the hereditary idiot and feeble-minded, and then
building great palaces in parks to care for them, will mean we
have not the sense necessary for the proper conduct of our
affairs.

HYGIENE.

We must look to hygiene, the science of health, to conserve
human vitality. The term includes every force necessary to pre-
vent disease, to increase strength and endurance, and to prevent
the production of the unfit.

The ponderous and oppressively costly courts have been grind-
ing for centuries, and crime increases. Punishment and fear of
punishment restrain evil-doing, but do not eradicate the tend-
ency to evil. This and other defects we must, as far as possible,
breed out of the race, and science can find a valid answer for

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 37

every objection which obstructionists can raise. Fostering insan-
ity, crime and imbecility is not evidence of understanding and of
high ability.*

The divisions of hygiene are: Federal, State, Municipal, Insti-
tutional, School, Domiciliary, and Personal.

Hygiene not only. makes for greater physical strength and
endurance but it makes for greater moral strength. It is the
essence of charity, kindliness, patience and truth.

When, through hygiene, defectives are no longer propagated ;
when we understand that preventable sickness is immoral; when
simplicity and frugality of living is achieved, voluntary sickness,
voluntary celibacy and voluntary childlessness will become dis-
creditable, and premature deaths will disappear before temperance
and sanified homes.

THE NATIVE ANIMAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE.
STEPHEN A. FORBES.

The native animals of this State were once its most important
economic asset, furnishing perhaps the larger and certainly the
more highly valued part of the food, and all the clothing, of its
inhabitants, and almost the total mass, also, of its merchantable
products. Now, however, they are reduced to such economic
insignificance that few would be found to object seriously, on
merely economic grounds, to a fiat of extermination to be issued
against our whole native fauna, if the injurious might go with
the beneficial species. We would cheerfully sacrifice what is left
to us of our native fish and game if we might pile upon the same
altar the vast destructive host of what we commonly call our
insect enemies, together with the gophers, mice and moles of the
fields and the owls and the hawks of the air.

Permit me to try to sketch rapidly the nature, the process and
the causes of this transformation, in the hope that we may see to
what extent it has been, and perhaps still is, normal and helpful
to us, and to what extent, if at all, it has gone, or is likely to go,
too far in any part of its movement—at what points, if at all, it
may be improved upon for our purposes, or may perhaps be
profitably arrested or reversed.

1To devise punishments for offenses, and then deliberately produce criminals who
will certainly commit those offenses, is an expression of public feeble-mindedness.

38 ILLINOIS ‘ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

The chief pressing and universal requirements of our aborig-
ines were food, clothing, shelter, instruments of transportation,
and articles of barter, the last especially important after white
traders began to come among them. Our native Illinoisans were
mixed feeders, like the North American Indians generally, but
-with a marked preference for animal food. We have no data
sufficiently detailed for an intelligent judgment of the relative
importance to be assigned to the corn, beans and squashes, on the
one hand, raised by their women on their bottom-land fields, and
to the products of their hunting, on the other; but our Indians
were clearly hunting tribes—governed in their movements to
and fro by the migrations of their game—rather than truly seden-
tary agricultural people like those farther to the south. Hunting
and fishing were their principal economic pursuits, and their men-
tal and physical development was most strongly influenced by
their contact with the animals of their environment, which they
must outwit or master or outrun in order to gain a living for
themselves and their families. Their fuel was, of course, mainly
wood, with buffalo chips, perhaps, as an occasional convenience.
Their clothing was almost wholly made from the skins of animals,
with buckskin as the chief material. Their boats and their per-
manent shelters were mainly of forest products, the frames of
their huts of wood and the covering of mats woven from strips
of bark; but the objects of their barter, particularly with the
whites, were almost wholly furs and skins obtained by hunting
and trapping.

Notwithstanding this steady draft upon the native animal
resources of the country, the original number of our Indian
inhabitants—estimated at something like 200,000 for all North
America east of the Mississippi River—was too small to affect
in any overwhelming way the general system of animal life,
which would apparently have gone on but little changed if they
had been suddenly exterminated. In Illinois they probably influ-
enced. the fauna of the State more powerfully by their prairie
fires than in any other way.

The first appearance of the white man made little or no altera-
tion in these relations, for the discoverers and explorers of our
territory necessarily lived much as the Indians did; and the
hunters and traders and earliest squatters, who were in part the
successors of the explorers, were similarly dependent on the
untamed products of the country—especially so upon its animals,
which gave them not only the major part of their food but also

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 39

the greater part of the materials of their trade. Barter for furs,
as-we all know, was almost the sole business of the first business
men of the State, and their food was probably even more largely
animal than that of the Indians among whom they lived, since
they killed their own game, but rarely planted any crop. An
employee of the American Fur Company, stationed, in 1819, at
an Illinois River post near the present site of Hennepin, says, in
his recently published autobiography :

“Our roasted meat . +. . was placed in the large wooden
bowl on the table, and each one helped himself by cutting off
with his knife and fingers.as much as he desired. Usually we
had nothing else on the table except honey. The wild turkey
was used as a substitute for bread, and when eaten with fat
venison, coon or bear, is more delicious than any roast can be.
One of our luxuries, which was reserved for special occasions,
was corn soup, and this was always acceptable. . . . From
the ponds we gathered the seeds of the lotus, which we used for
coffee, our ever-filled honey-trough furnishing the sweetening.
Our supply of salt and pepper was rather limited, and these were
used only on special occasions.’”*

It was not, in fact, until the farm-maker and the town-builder
appeared on the scene, bringing in a much denser population
than could live on the mere surplus product of our native plants
and animals—the bare interest on our capital in plant and animal
resources—that this primitive system of maintenance broke
down. When too heavily drawn upon, the animals of the State
began to yield a smaller instead of a larger product, because
an excessive demand had the effect to reduce the number of
producers; and a substitution of more productive resources
became a necessity. The white man being substituted in rapidly
increasing numbers for the scanty and stationary Indian popula-
tion, wheat, oats and corn and the tame meadow grasses were
substituted for the wild plants of the prairie turf, and to some
extent for the growths of the forest; beef cattle, pigs and sheep
were substituted for buffalo, bear and deer; and to these were
added milch cows, oxen, horses and mules, not represented func-
tionally by anything in the native fauna. Chickens, geese and
ducks were substituted for thé prairie-hens, pigeons and wild
waterfowl; and for the preservation of all these valuable but
defenseless animals, wolves and bears and all the other large
carnivora were virtually exterminated.

*“The Autobiography of Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard.’’ The Lakeside Press, Chi-
cago, 1911, p. 57.

40 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

The result has been, of course, an immensely greater product
of far more valuable and more readily available resources, suffi-
cient for a population many thousand times greater and more
exacting than any which formerly existed here. The whole
process has evidently been a perfectly natural and inevitable
one—as much so as the flow of the tide in the wake of the
revolving moon—and immensely advantageous, also, from every
point of view except that of the inadequate, incompetent and ill-
adapted population which it has reduced or suppressed. These
native populations were not, however, all unfit for survival under
the dominant influence of civilized man, and such as were unfit
were not equally so. Some were promptly and completely extin-
guished, others slowly and partially so; some remained undis-
turbed by our interference, and some continue more numerous
and more prosperous to-day than ever before, because the new
conditions established are more favorable to them than were the
old. Wolves and wildcats, for example, were soon virtually sup-
pressed as unmitigated nuisances, and buffalo, deer and the
prairie hen went as early, or even earlier, because they could not
be profitably domesticated, and could not breed, unprotected in
the wild, fast enough to make good their losses. The fishes in
our larger streams diminished slowly in numbers—if, indeed,
taken as a whole, they diminished at all, until recent reclamation
projects began to drain and cultivate their spawning places and
feeding grounds—and the smaller plants and animals of our
waters, upon which the fishes depend for food, were, until quite
lately, at least as abundant as they ever were. No native insect
species has disappeared from our borders, and several of the
most abundant and voracious of them—the most injurious, conse-
quently, to our interests—find a far better food in our cultivated
crops, and, in our agriculture and horticulture, a system of
management far better adapted to their needs, than was the
original system which we have displaced. Our resident game
birds would all have been gone long ago if it had not been for
the restraints of law put upon the activities of the hunter, and
the migrant game species are sadly reduced in numbers; but the
smaller seed eaters, fruit eaters and insect eaters among birds are,
I believe, more numerous now, on the whole, than they were in
the days of the prairie, the Indian and the buffalo.

All the various processes of destruction, maintenance, protec-
tion, substitution and new introduction to which this state of
our fauna is due are still in active operation; and they are in

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 4I

-great measure as automatic and unreflecting, in respect to the
motives behind them, as they ever were. Most men still act
towards the wild life of the State precisely as if they were wild
animals themselves, and seem to think no more of its future than
does the hawk or the hungry wolf; but the State, as such, has
recognized, of late, its responsibility to future generations, and
is beginning to shape the course of events with forethought and
intelligence in the permanent interests of its people. It is for
this Academy to assist this movement, both by helping to popu-
larize it and by contributing to its direction.

To give you an outline sketch of present conditions and tend-
encies over the whole field of zodlogy would take more time than
I have been allotted, and I can only summarize the facts and
make brief suggestions of policy concerning our fishes, game
animals and insectivorous birds.

The waters of the State have been much longer unaffected,
and remaim much less affected still, by human activities than any
other parts of our area. Each of our rivers or lakes is yet,
indeed, a piece of the primitive wilderness, which no one pretends
to cultivate or to hold as such with a view to cultivation. It may
have been greatly affected indirectly, in respect to its fitness as
a home for plants and animals, by our various operations on its
banks or in its neighborhood; but the picture of life presented
by its waters, its bottom and its shores is still in its main fea-
tures that of the days before the white man in America. In
respect to the natural resources offered us by its plants and
animals, we are lingering in the pioneer or squatter stage of
progress, and we may still see belated illustrations of methods of
appropriation in operation there, much too crude to be tolerated
in any other field.

Almost nothing aquatic has been wholly exterminated, even
the larger mammals and birds—the beaver, the otter, the swan,
wild geese, pelicans and cranes—still remaining in small num-
bers in sufficiently favorable situations. Fishes, turtles, minks,
muskrats, frogs and river mussels or clams remain as almost the
only immediately valuable animal products of the waters of the
State, and these are, on the whole, quite as valuable as they ever
were.

No native fish has completely disappeared from our territory,
although several useful species have been greatly reduced in
numbers within recent years. The only comprehensive statistical
reports upon the interior fisheries of the country have been made

42 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

by the United States Fish Commission and the United States
Census Bureau for 1894, 1899 and 1908. The second of these
census years came just before the opening of the Chicago Drain-
age Canal in 1900, and the last one eight years after that revolu-
tionary event, and nine years after the introduction of the Euro-
pean carp into the public waters of this State. The two occur-
rences of critical importance within the period covered by these
reports are thus the opening of the drainage canal and an enor-
mous increase in the numbers of carp.

The drainage canal, by increasing the average depth of the IIli-
nois River between two and a half and three feet, and greatly
enlarging the area and lengthening the period of overflow, has
greatly extended the lateral range of the fishes of the river, espe-
cially in its middle course, enlarging at the same time their breed-
ing grounds and feeding grounds, and bringing into the stream
a tremendous load of sewage from Chicago and its suburbs. The
first effect of such an enlargement of the aquatic area must be to
scatter the normal fish population more widely and make it less
accessible to the fisherman. On the other hand, the enlargement
of their breeding and feeding grounds doubtless tends to an in-
crease in the numbers of fishes by the better provision made for
the survival of the young; while the final effect of sewage con-
tamination upon the inhabitants of the stream will turn upon the
manner in which these organic contributions are gradually
worked up, through the ascending series of the plants and animals
of the water, the margin, and the bottom, to bring them within
the reach of fishes in some form of life available for their food.

The most interesting result I have obtained from an analysis
and comparison of the three census reports referred to is an indi-
cation that the numbers of our native bottom-feeding fishes are
being gradually diminished as an indirect consequence of the rapid
and enormous multiplication of the introduced carp. This fish
has now become so abundant, and commercially so important, that
it is the main object of our commercial fisheries. The yield of the
Illinois River, for example, was $412,000 worth of carp in 1908,
while the value of all the other fishes taken from the stream that
year was only $309,000. In 1894 the carp yielded, in Illinois, 860,-
000 pounds; five years later, nearly to million pounds; and nine
years later still, 21,642,000 pounds—the value of this Illinois yield
increasing in this period 271% times, or from $21,000 to $574,000,
The native coarse fish, on the other hand, which, like the carp,
search the bottom of the stream for their food, yielded approxi-

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 43

mately 9% million pounds in 1894, nearly 634 million pounds in
1899, and about 6% million pounds in 1g08,—a loss of 29 per cent
between 1894 and 1899, and of 7 per cent between 1899 and 1908.

The number of men employed during this period increased from
1,653 to 4,359, about 224 times as many being engaged in fishing
in 1908 as in 1894; and the investment in fishing equipment in-
creased in the same period more than three and one-half times—
from $156,000 to $553,000. That is, while fishing operations in-
creased from two and one-half times to three and one-half
times, and the product of European carp was multiplied over
twenty-five times, the product of the bottom-feeding food fishes
native in these waters fell off 29 per cent during the period before
the drainage canal was opened—a period coincident with that of
the most rapid multiplication of the carp. This can only mean,
it seems to me, that under the stimulus of fishing operations due
to the rapidly growing importance of this exotic fish, the number
of native fishes of similar habit is being rapidly reduced. The
yield of buffalo was, in 1908, 52 per cent of that for 1894; that
of the fresh-water drum, or sheepshead, was 60 per cent; of
eels, 74 per cent; of suckers, 67 per cent. The catfish yield
diminished 19 per cent for the first five years, and then increased
30 per cent for the next nine,—a net gain of 4 per cent, comparing
1908 with 1894.

Furthermore, the principal game fishes have also fallen off
materially in yield, with the exception of the black bass, whose
product increased about 6 per cent for each year of the first period
and 36 per cent each year of the last. The sunfishes and the
croppies, on the other hand, increased their product an average
of 28 per cent for each of the first five years and of 26 per cent
for each year of the last nine. Their rate of reproduction seems

sufficient, under the new conditions, to hold them up under the

new drain of excessive fishing for carp. These species all breed
in shallow water and feed mainly on crustaceans, insect larve,
and other minor forms of animal life, and their breeding grounds
and feeding grounds have been enormously extended by the rise
in river levels and the greater expansion and longer continuance
of the overflow consequent upon the opening of the canal. More-
over, most of them select nesting places, makes nests, and care
for their eggs and young, and hence bring to maturity a compara-
tively large percentage of each new generation.

Another important fact obtained from a comparison of our
census data is the enormous and destructive increase of mussel-

44 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

fishing in this State. The Illinois product of mussel-shells in 1894
was 24 tons, in 1899 it was 2,500 tons, and in 1908 it was 20,000
tons, with a value during the latter year of $184,000 for shells
and $170,000 for pearls and slugs. This must, of course, result
in the prompt destruction of the mussel population of our streams.

To summarize these statements in a sentence, it is plain that
the clam fisheries of the State are being rapidly exhausted, and
that the European carp is, with the aid of the fishermen, rapidly
swamping and smothering out several of our native food fishes,
both coarse and fine, excepting, however, the sunfishes and the
black bass. This seems due not to direct competition between the
native and the imported species, but to human interference under
the economic motive. We have here a substitution process at
work, like that of our pioneer agriculture, but differing from
that in the fact that it has been unintentional and hitherto un-
noticed. If these present tendencies continue we shall apparently
have, in time, our larger and more important fishing streams pro-
ducing little but carp, sunfishes, black bass, gizzard-shad, dog-
fish, and gars, with even the catfishes engaged in a somewhat
doubtful struggle for existence.

Several additional dangers now threaten the Illinois River,
much the most important of our productive waters. It may be-
come overloaded with sewage from Chicago and from the cities
on its banks; the establishment of manufactories along its course
or on its contributing waters may befoul it with chemical wastes
poisonous to fish or injurious to their food supply, a process
which has completely depopulated many streams in the eastern
states, and which some of these states are now seeking to correct,
at great expense and trouble, by legal restrictions and adminis-
trative control. Our recent work shows that the productivity of
a stream is dependent upon the extent and condition of its back-

waters and the period of its overflow, a fact which makes drain-

age district operations on the river bottoms a menace to its pro-
ductiveness. The same is true of measures for straightening
the stream and confining it to its channel, such as are likely to be
necessitated if the Illinois is to become at any time a great artery
of commerce.

These conditions require prompt, vigorous and intelligent recti-
fication and control if we are to preserve and improve the natural
resources represented in our lakes and streams—measures quite
beyond the reach of any power except that of the State. If time
permitted, I should be pleased to enter upon a discussion of

~ =

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 45

various future policies necessary to this end, but I must pass it
now with the general remark that the most important measures
which should be taken at the present time are, in my judgment, —
the protection of our waters against injurious contaminations,
especially from gas works and certain kinds of manufactories;
and the preservation, intelligent care, and complete control of
selected breeding grounds and feeding grounds of our most im-
portant fishes, to be acquired, held, and developed as permanent
reservations by the State. The State Fish Commission has, in
fact, made a beginning in this direction, and has lately secured
a long-time lease of Matanzas Lake, in the Illinois bottoms, which
it is preparing to use as a breeding station. It also seeks to main-
tain the supply of our more desirable fishes by hatchery opera-
tions, and by collecting young fishes from isolated overflow ponds
and returning them to waters in which they can survive.

Whether the insectivorous birds of the State are of sufficient
importance to be taken into serious account in cataloging our
economic resources, is a question which can not be answered with
the definiteness and precision which we are accustomed to expect
as the outcome of anything worthy to be called strictly scientific
investigation. The value of the services of birds depends upon
the kinds of their food and the ratios of its various elements;
upon the variations in their food and feeding habits as codrdinated
with differences of season, geographical situation, and ecological
circumstance ; upon the amounts of food eaten by birds of various
species at various ages and under the various conditions of their
activities; and upon the numbers of the various kinds of birds
engaged in the economic services with which they are to be cred-
ited. The problem of the food of any bird is thus highly complex,
and its primary data are so variable that even final conclusions,
however broadly based, must be put in the form of approximate
estimates and contingent probabilities, amounting to scarcely more
than expressions of an enlightened personal judgment.

The quantities of food taken by birds, young and old, can not
well be stated in terms of definite values, or masses, or numbers
of individual objects eaten. ‘ Nevertheless, accumulated observa-
tions, continuous for days at a time, on the activities of parent
birds of various species in feeding their young, furnish conclusive
evidence of the fact that a family of nestlings may devour and
assimilate a truly surprising amount of insect food ; and the rapid-
ity of growth and the high rate of physiological activity of birds
as a class give theoretical support to statements which might

46 ILEINOIS ACADEMY OF “SCRENCE: 2

otherwise seem incredibly exaggerated. The insects eaten by an
insectivorous bird are evidently to be numbered in hundreds per
day ; and the weed-seeds eaten by a seed eater, in thousands.

With respect to the number of birds inhabiting any extensive
area, the only systematic work attempted is that done in recent
years by the Natural History Survey of this State. Thanks to
this work, we now know something of the numbers of birds of
various species in our area in different situations and at different.
seasons of the year. Time will not permit more than a brief ref-
erence to this matter, especially as our data have not yet been
completely studied. I have generalized them, however, to the
effect that, taking the State as a whole and the year as a unit, our
bird population averages something over a bird per acre for the
open area of the State—excluding, that is, forests and other simi-
lar tracts on which accurate counting of birds is impracticable.
This population varies greatly, of course, in density, according
to the character and vegetable covering of the surface. Pastures
contain, on the whole, more birds than any other open surface,
and corn fields the fewest of all. The tendency of birds to con-
centrate where their food is especially abundant, and even to
change their habits temporarily, in order to take advantage of an
unusual profusion of certain elements of their food, greatly
increases their economic value, since it makes them most efficient
where their efficiency is most important. Nevertheless, the very
fact that insectivorous birds thrive best when insects are most
numerous must lead us to doubt that nature has really committed
the blunder of producing birds in such numbers, and endowing
them with appetites so vigorous, as to keep the natural sources of
their own food supply much below the line of the highest possible
productivity.

That birds are economically useful, scarcely admits of serious
question, but the ultimate value of their services can scarcely be
guessed at intelligently until much more work has been done on
the problem. In the meantime, there are abundant reasons, both
economic and esthetic, for their protection, and to this end the
most important pending measure is the passage of national laws
forbidding the destruction of migrant species—an interest which
I would like to have this Academy promote by a resolution favor-
ing the passage of the Anthony bill, now under consideration in
the national House of Representatives.

The fur-bearing mammals of the State are by no means so
nearly extinct as most of us would be likely to suppose. The

Ww

1. =

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 47

mink and the muskrat remain in numbers still to figure in the
United States census reports, the Illinois yield of mink furs being
valued by the last census at $6,000 per annum, and the muskrat
at $14,000. Even the otter has been reported to me by the deputy
game wardens of IIlinois* as still present in twenty-three counties,
mainly in the southern half of the State, although a few reports
come from the more northern counties bordering upon the Illinois
and the Mississippi. The beaver is reported from four Ohio
River counties; but the marten and the fisher have long been
extinct in this State.

Among the larger mammals we have lost the elk, the buffalo,
the panther or puma, and the black bear. The Virginia deer is
still sometimes seen in southern Illinois, but hunters there believe
that it crosses the river from Missouri, and does not breed within
our limits. Its occasional occurrence in several of the more
northern counties is to be attributed to its escape from parks.
Both the prairie-wolf and the timber-wolf are widely distributed
in very smail numbers, one or both of these having been lately
seen, according to the deputy wardens, in at least forty-three
Illinois counties. Lynxes and wildcats have been lately reported
from fourteen counties, seven of which are in extreme southern
Illinois. Red and gray foxes are found by the game wardens in
forty counties; and the raccoon and the opossum are common
enough to be hunted occasionally. The woodchuck holds its own
fairly well in the northern part of the State, and the swamp-hare
may yet be found in our southern cypress swamps. The common
rabbit is, of course, everywhere abundant. The fox-squirrel and
the gray squirrel still live in our woods in scanty numbers, and
the red squirrel or chickaree occurs at present in Iroquois County,
where, however, it was specially introduced. The badger is un-
doubtedly to be found in northern Illinois; and skunks and
weasels are, of course, still with us, although in smaller numbers
than formerly. :

The really significant game of the State is virtually reduced,
however, to wild ducks, shore-birds, prairie-hens, quail, and the
plebeian rabbit. Quail are found, in fact, in every county; and
prairie-hens—thanks to our protective laws—are now to be seen
in at least seventy-four counties, so abundantly in some that farm-

1 The data here given concerning the larger fur-bearing animals of the State I owe
in great measure to the courtesy of Hon. John A. Wheeler, State Game Commis-
sioner, who was kind enough to obtain for my use, and at my request, information
from his deputy wardens throughout the State as to the present animal life of their

respective counties. Reports have thus come to me, since this paper was begun,
from eighty-five of the hundred and two counties of the State.

48 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ers are beginning to protest against their ffirther increase because
of the amount of grain which they devour. Wild turkeys occa-
sionally occur in the more broken, wooded country, but too rarely
to offer any considerable inducement to the hunter. In short,
with the exception of the elk, buffalo, and bear, we have the
larger forms of the wild mammalian animals of the State, and
most of the game birds also, still present to an extent such that
we need only to protect them strictly to have them back again in
any numbers which can find food, shelter, and safety in their
present environment. That this must at best fall far short of
their original abundance is shown by the results of the recent
protection of the prairie-hen. The very country in which it was
formerly most numerous—that is, the open prairie—is now least
favorable to it because of the agricultural operations, which
disturb and destroy it during its breeding season.

Time has failed me, in the preparation of this brief paper, to
enter into particulars concerning the work of the state commis-
sions now engaged in maintaining and protecting the valuable
wild animals of the State and in improving the composition of
our fauna by the introduction of exotic species. These are the
State Fish Commission and the State Game Commission, to which
reference has already been made. The biennial reports of the
former, some fifteen in number, give a sufficient account of their
work. The State Game Commissioner has not yet published
regular reports of his operations, but they are described in a brief
but comprehensive illustrated article printed in the Arbor and
Bird Day Circular issued by the State Superintendent of Public
Instruction in 1909.

CONSERVATION OF. OUR FORESTS.
Henry C. COWLES.

Many might think it strange that forest conservation should
have a place of importance in the “Prairie State.” And statistics
might be cited to bear out the contention that for us the topic is one
of small significance. Illinois is accustomed to occupy among our
States a place near the top in almost any statistical table, whether
it be a matter of bushels of corn, miles of railroad, number of peo-
ple, gallons of whisky, or degree of intelligence. In amount of
lumber production, however, there are more than thirty States

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 49

ahead of us, and it is our lot to be classed with such humble com-
pany as Maryland, Connecticut, and New Mexico. Forest planting
might for us appear to be a much more fertile symposium topic.
And indeed this is a topic about which much might be said. Al-
though our State has a vast amount of land that naturally was
treeless, there is scarcely a foot of this prairie area which is un-
suited for the growth of trees. As a rule, it has been much more
profitable to devote our marvellously rich soil to other uses, but
there is reason for supposing that the time has arrived when we
may well consider the desirability of tree planting to a much
greater degree than has hitherto obtained. However attractive
this subject might prove to be, it is not the one that has been
assigned to me, and I must proceed forthwith to consider Forest
Conservation.

Far from being one of the poorest states in which to exploit
conservation theories concerning our forests, Illinois actually is
one of the best, and for the obvious reason that it will not be
necessary here to combat the undue cupidity of the lumber inter-
ests. In states like Washington or Louisiana, which are in the
throes of extravagant timber exploitation, the sentiment of the
ordinary intelligent citizens is against any large measure of forest
conservation; as might be expected, the lumber interests in such
states are vigorously opposed to any sort of conservation. Quite
as unreasonable as the views of the average western lumberman,
and very much harder for a rational conservationist to deal with,
are the views of the idealistic conservationist, who lives for the
most part well outside the regions of lumber exploitation, and
chiefly in our cities. Many lumbermen are too much concerned
in immediate gain to take thought for the future, and many con-
servationists are too impractical and too little familiar with forest
conditions to be able to deal sanely with things as they are. One
of the most pleasing signs of the times is the readiness of many
of our most intelligent lumbermen to listen to plans of forest
management which take the distant future into account; equally
pleasing is the attempt made by the wiser conservationists to
deal with the complex problem of forest conservation in the prac-
tical and conservative manner, which the name conservation ought
to imply.

The establishment of forest reserves in our western states has
met with vigorous opposition from many of the best citizens of
the States concerned, and it is scarcely to be doubted that by the
somewhat wholesale establishment of such reserves a good deal

50 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

of injustice has been done to legitimate present interests. It must
not be forgotten that it is quite as wrong to reserve everything for
our descendants, leaving ourselves in want, as it is to appropriate
everything for present needs. Nor may one rely too much upon
statistical presentations which show that after a certain number
of years (usually startlingly few) our supply of timber will be
exhausted. It is not so many years ago that our ancestors were
worrying themselves into premature graves, because of the rap-
idly diminishing supply of whale oil. We well may laugh at our
forefathers who paid high prices for the poor light that
whale oil gave, while we revel in the numerous cheap and satis-
factory methods of lighting which are given us by coal oil, gas,
and electricity. And we may expect our descendants to laugh
at us for many of the things which we worry about today. Who
knows what inventions are to come that will enable us to do away
with many of the economic uses of wood? Already the wooden
house is being replaced, even outside the fire limits of our cities,
by houses of brick, stone, or concrete; and one wonders just
where, at the present rate of progress, the replacement of wood
by concrete is going to stop. Steel also is replacing wood in the
manufacture of railway cars, bridges, and in many other articles
of construction. Possibly the somewhat exuberant zeal displayed
by many of our lumbermen in forest destruction may be caused
by the fear that the rapid replacement of wood by other sub-
stances is likely to leave them stranded with a lot of useless
standing timber on their hands!

Whatever the merits of the discussion that is being carried on
at long range between the lumbermen of the Far West and our
city friends in the East, we well may congratulate ourselves that
we in Illinois are not on the firing line. We can continue on in
the even tenor of our way, and can indulge in a good deal of
effective conservation without exciting a storm of controversy.
This is not the only reason why Illinois is a peculiarly satisfactory
State for the working out of conservation principles. Our forests
are composed chiefly of the hardwoods, which as a class are much
less subject to destructive fires than are the coniferous trees.
Thus there is great likelihood that in Illinois long-continued ex-
periments with timber tracts would not be suddenly terminated,
as might be the case in a coniferous forest, no matter how care-
fully it might be guarded. Again, our Illinois forests are of
unusual scientific interest because they abut upon the prairies.
It is probable that, were artificial factors removed, the forest

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 51

area would gradually encroach upon the area of prairie. No
problem has been or is more fascinating than this forest-
prairie problem, and we are only just beginning to understand
some of the factors involved, when we are faced with the danger
of the destruction of all our natural areas of vegetation. This
forest-prairie problem is not without its economic aspects, for it
involves the natural forestation of treeless areas; if we can deter-
mine how and why natural forests develop on prairie soil, we
will have discovered a principle of forestry of the widest
significance.

The advantages of forests commonly cited by conservationists
are as real in Illineis as elsewhere. These advantages are self-
evident and may be mentioned merely by name. Erosion is
greatly retarded by an effective forest cover; it would be possible
to display views from various parts of Illinois, showing the
destruction of rich layers of surface soil, owing to injudicious
deforestation. Our prairies are often very windy, and wind in-
cites excessive transpiration, which often is ruinous to crops;
forests serve as effective windbreaks. Every farmer should have
his wood-lot, and thus secure a large measure of independence;
the wood-lot supplements the fuel supply and contributes much
in manifold ways to the peace and prosperity of the farmer. The
establishment of rational conservation and scientific forestry in
Illinois will have an influence beyond the borders of our State.
It is probable that those States which are now the chief seats
of lumber exploitation will before many years realize the need
of conservative forest management. Perhaps by then our State
will have accomplished something of significance that may serve
as a pattern for other commonwealths which were endowed more
plentifully with natural forests of commercial importance.

Illinois has started well and in the right direction by acquiring
land for a State reserve at Starved Rock, between La Salle and
Ottawa, along the Illinois River. Doubtless this area would not
now be a State preserve but for the remarkable combination of
historic interest and scenic beauty, with features of botanical and
geological importance, that are centered there. Several repre-
sentative forest types are there displayed, and now that their
preservation is assured they may be expected to increase in inter-
est and beauty from year to year. At least four forest types are
there preserved: the river-bottom type, with elms, hackberry,
mulberry, box elder, willow, ash, coffee tree, honey locust, and
many more; the ravine type, with the hard maple, basswood, and

52 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ironwood; the rock-face type, with the white pine and arbor
vite; and the upland forest, with the red oak, white oak, black
oak, and hickory.

Much has been said concerning the preservation of the white
pine forest in Ogle County, by all odds the most important forest
of this species in Illinois. There is no question as to the desira-
bility of preserving this forest, as a monument to future genera-
tions of the type of forest which was originally the most impor-
tant forest asset of our country. It is believed that only a slight
effort will now be needed to secure the purchase and preservation
of this splendid forest. After this has been accomplished it would
appear to be worth while to have set aside at least one example
of each of the forest types of Illinois. Among these there should
certainly be a river-bottom forest in southern Illinois, preserving
some of the gigantic specimens of the primeval forest; a south-
ern cypress swamp with its unique plant inhabitants; a yellow
pine forest in southern Illinois; a beech forest ; a tamarack swamp
in northern Illinois. These are to be taken only as important
samples; a number of other important forest types should also
be included.

The forest reserves mentioned hitherto, probably should be
State parks, but there remains to be mentioned a conservation
scheme of yet wider significance. It has been proposed to estab-
lish county preserves; it is much to be hoped that this idea will
be carried out. The expense involved should not be very great,
and the return to the county would increase from year to year.
In most counties such preserves might well be established in
places of scenic interest, for such places usually have more or
less diversified topography, displaying several types of forest and
many tree species. These preserves would furnish places for
picnics, and for excursions in connection with the nature study
work of the schools; not only would the tree life increase in
interest and beauty from year to year, but the same would be
true of the wild flowers beneath the trees, and of the birds, and
in fact of all kinds of plant and animal life. Bits of forest here
and there would gradually be restored to the primitive wildness
and beauty of the forests of pioneer days.

Possibly conservation might go even farther than has been
generally suggested; that is, there might be township preserves,
at least in many instances. In this event our forest tracts would
be numerous enough to be within easy reach of all our people.
All of our boys and girls could come into contact with forest life

— se

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 53

in its many phases of beauty and interest, and all without any
great expense and without any great sacrifice of arable land.
With such development as this we might hope some day to
approach the standard of efficiency illustrated by Germany, where,
in a thickly settled and long civilized country, the forests are
made to serve many interests, economic, scenic, educational.
There the forest is an asset, as measured in financial terms, and
it also ministers to German culture in various ways. What is
possible in Germany is possible in Illinois, and more possible in
Illinois than in most of our States, where forests are managed
in terms of commercial exploitation rather than in terms of
culture and human progress.

CONSERVATION OF OUR OIL AND COAL RESOURCES.
F. W. DEWOoLrF.*

CONTENTS.

CONSERVATION OF Our OiL RESOURCES.
Introduction.
Petroleum Output of the World.
Production of Petroleum in the United States.
Qutput and Probable Duration.
Wastes of Petroleum.
Means of Conservation.
CONSERVATION OF Our CoAL RESOURCES.
Introduction.
Our Interest in the Movement.
Coal Fields of the United States and Illinois.
Growth of Coal Production and Mining Waste.
Duration of the Coal Supply.
Waste of Coal in Illinois.
General Statement.
Cost of Coal in the Ground.
Over-Development and Extreme Competition.
Wasteful Mining Methods.
Due to System of Mining.
Due to Careless Operation.
Due to Irregular Boundaries.
Waste of Coal by Improper or Unnecessary Utilization.
Waste in Generating Power, Heat and Light.
Water Power and Solar Engines.
CONCLUSIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

The enormous increase in production of petroleum during
recent decades has given rise to considerable study as to the
*The writer has drawn freely on reports of the U. S. Geological Survey, Van

Hise’s book on Conservation of Natural Resurces, and Rice’s: paper on Mining Costs
and Wastes: Bull. Ill. State Geol. Survey, No. 14.

54 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

total reserve in the earth, and the probable length of time before
it will be exhausted. Petroleum serves so many unique func-
tions in modern life that it seems indispensable; but in all prob-
ability its exhaustion is a matter of only a few years. It is said
that if the present rate of increase in production continues, our
known fields will be exhausted in twenty-three years; and even
if the present production continues without increase the known
supply will-be gone within ninety years. These views are startling,
but they are based on the best knowledge of the present time,
with reference to the supply and demand at home and abroad.

PETROLEUM OUTPUT OF THE WORLD.

Since petroleum is an important element of the world’s com-
merce, being easily transported by rail or water, the conservation
problem at home is influenced by conditions in other producing
countries. In 1910, thirteen countries produced a total amount
exceeding 327 million barrels. The output in the United States
equaled 64 per cent of the total; the Russian production equaled
21 per cent; and no other country produced as much as 4 per
cent. Thus, the United States is by far the dominant producer
in the world. The world’s output in each year since 1906 has
exceeded that of the previous year by 52, 21, 13, and 29 million
barrels, or by an average of 29 million barrels.

PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES.

Output and Probable Duration.

Since the United States is by far the largest producer of petro-
leum, the conditions of production in our own country are the
most important in connection with conservation. Since 1861,
when the production was a little more than two million barrels,
the output has doubled repeatedly within the following short
yearly antervals:,. 9,.A; 7, 10,112, 6.

The fields of the United States are shown in Plate I. The
phenomenal increase in production is indicated by Plate II, which
shows also the year in which new fields influenced the total
production.

In order to know the effect of such increasing production on
the duration of supply it is necessary to calculate the probable
content of the oil sands in the known fields. The best estimates
in 1907 indicated that the original supply was between Io and 25
billion barrels. Calculation showed that the oil would be gone

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 55

Plate I. Distribution of Petroleum and Natural Gas Fields in the
United States. After Day, U. S. Geological Survey.

56 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

in 23 years if the production continued to increase at the same
rate. It is interesting to notice that during the past three years
the rate has been more than maintained, as shown by the illus-
tration. Each field of the country reaches a maximum produc-
tion and declines more or less rapidly. The Pennsylvania-New
York field has declined in seventeen years to one-third of its
maximum yield. West Virginia production has already declined
to 56 per cent of its greatest output. Unless new fields are fre-
quently discovered, an inevitable decline in total production is
imminent.

Wastes of Petroleum.

In view of the irreparable loss of petroleum which follows its
extraction, it is desirable to reduce as completely as possible the
losses in production and utilization. The principal losses in
extraction are indirectly caused by the fact that oil is mobile and
that each owner in a given field is obliged to get his share as
quickly as possible. Thus, facilities are not always provided for
controlling the flow of new wells and of gushers. Frequently,
no adequate storage tanks are provided and the oil lies for weeks
in great earthen reservoirs, and is exposed to evaporation. These
losses are indeed serious, but are subject to correction. A third

Plate II.

a |e am

ee

ae Texas

a
PTT TTT
re AOU AL AMMEN R MERTENS: tr
pees ATG PEE nae i Ha
aimee ee CELE VE CDT (sluice Wt HEH TTT
moo ETT Tat PNA TT TTT TT
10,00, 00 eee APT SaUILGRTOGLEGTE
CREEP TTC TE

GE 9823 2ERSS SSE ES EEEEERSLEES 222222222 22222 SSSESRS53 2 25

ee aie elena ola elalhe ial

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM, 1859 TO 1910 -

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 57

important loss comes from the fact that transportation for oil
cannot always be provided promptly, and so the output is used
for purposes which are extravagant. Thus, great quantities of
oil which contain valuable distillation products are used under
steam boilers and for oiling roads.

In view of the fact that oil is much more efficiently used in
internal combustion engines, it should not be used for raising
steam ; and in view of our dependence on petroleum for lubricants
and for isolated lighting, the continued misuse is deplorable.

MEANS OF CONSERVATION.

Ways in which our petroleum supply can be conserved have
already been suggested. It is considered important to withdraw
from entry those government lands which are probably underlain
by oil, and thus to prevent over-production. The present exporta-
tion of 20 per cent of our oil annually should probably be reduced
gradually. The recommendation is also made that research
should be stimulated so as to provide more satisfactory combus-
tion engines, and also to provide substitutes, such as cheap
alcohol. There is some promise of successfully converting low-
grade oils into better grades by means of chemical processes.
Thus, and by similar intensive effort of producers, refiners, and
the consuming public, it may be that we shall succeed in reducing
ordinary losses, greatly extending the period of production and
reserving petroleum for those purposes for which it seems to
be indispensable.

CONSERVATION OF OUR COAL RESOURCES.

Our Interest in the Problem.

The whole world is vitally interested in conservation of coal
resources. The total production for the year 1910 was approxi-
mately 1% billion tons. Of this enormous amount the United
States produced 500 million tons, or practically 39 per cent. The
importance of Illinois mining is indicated by our production of
approximately 10 per cent of the total for the country. Since
America leads the world in production and apparently possesses
the largest reserves, and since coal is mined here at a much lower

58 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

cost than abroad, it is probable that the world will demand
exports from the United States at an increasing rate unless Fed-
eral laws prevent it. Although this demand will doubtless be
met chiefly by the eastern States, Illinois coal in small part may ~
sometime reach the Gulf by a deep waterway. It is evident,
however, that we shall have more important and rapidly increas-
ing demands for the States which comprise the heart of the
country, and which are destined to support an enormous popula-
tion engaged in manufacture and commerce.

Coal Fields of United States and of Illinois.

The coal fields of the country as shown by the accompanying
map (Plate III), include 310,296 square miles and contained
originally about three trillion tons of all grades. The Eastern
Interior Region, of which [llinois comprises about three-fourths,
included about 7o per cent of the coal of the interior States when
mining began. The Illinois field includes 35,600 square miles,
and is the largest area of bituminous coal known to exist in any
State. The original coal in Illinois has been estimated at 200 to
240 billions of tons, though it will be many years before a close
estimate can be made.

Growth of Coal Production and Mining Wastes.

Coal production in the United States is interesting because it
affects the future in Illinois; and the inter-dependence of States
unites us in the cause of conservation. Recorded commercial |
production began in the East in 1822 and amounted to 54,000 tons.
The slow increase during early times and the enormous growth
in recent years is pictured by Plate IV. This illustration is based
on totals by decades, to the close of 1910.

Illinois production began about 1835, with a total of 6,000 tons
for the year. In 1907 it exceeded 51 million tons, and since then
has fluctuated between 48 and 51 million tons, chiefly because of
labor troubles. The accompanying illustration (Plate V) shows
totals by decades and resembles the previous diagram for the
United States.

Total mining wastes have doubtless increased in manner similar
to production; for it is estimated that for the country as a whole
one-half ton of bituminous coal is wasted for each ton marketed.
In Illinois it is probable that the waste is greater and approximates
a full ton for each ton mined.

59

CONSERVATION

SYMPOSIUM ON

ia

Via)

a

0)

™

Neva

ss

yerey jeor umouy V7,
aN Homer

Distribution of Coal Fields in the United States. After

Plate III.
Campbell and Parker, U. S. Geological Survey.

60 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Duration of Supply.

Estimates on the duration of supply are of course subject to
errors of great magnitude. Figures for original coal are ex-
tremely uncertain; those for waste are doubtful; and the future
holds large modifying factors. It is estimated that if the present
marvelous growth continues, and the output doubles each ten-

YEARS SHORT TONS

100,000,000 \ 300,000,000 400,000,000

1394-1820 414

IS21-IS30 10031

1831-1840 1.041, 642

$841- 1850 4,334,580

2451-1860

1861-1870 Mi 122,01T

INT I~ ISSO

181-1890

1891-1900 ] MH YAGI

1901-190

el

Plate IV. Average Yearly Production of COAL in decades for
the United States.

year period, that the easily accessible coal of the United States
will be gone by 2015 A. D., or in 103 years. It has been shown
that totals by twenty-year periods avoid variables due to business
depression and prosperity, and offer a curve based on the decrease
in rate of increase of production. The figures for the curve are
as follows, based on production in millions of tons for twenty-year
periods ending with 1907:

TABE ESL
Production, Per cent of
Millions of Tons. Increase.
TOA RAG ovalayovetenoiie okoiivis eels oi ale eletoieteeleteisttatel stotetenel a 37-3 ata
They seit? OPED EL DDOOD. AO 0 CUI OL.0 GbR OTIOO GOO OO 306.0 720
hiléterts a OA PInO SO COONS OD OMODEGOUODO 00 OUOnUC 1451.0 374
DSOS-TOO ialsie wien stotelcintstula\eisiele (s/s ctololsieve/eie sitialersieNers 5068.0 249

The curve indicates that under present conditions of waste our
entire supply of coal will last till 2040 A. D.

Of course, the assumptions for such estimates are faulty; and
the errors already mentioned with reference to the amount of

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 61

coal, together with doubt as to future demands at home and
abroad, reduce the estimates to guesses. Nevertheless, in con-
sidering the lives of nations and the habitation of the globe, an

4835-/8E4O

1854 (AEE

4877-1880

4831-1890 “44. FZRAGR

Plate V. Average Yearly Production of COAL in decades for Illinois.

error of one or two hundred years is negligible. It therefore
behooves Illinois, as rapidly as possible, to take careful stock of
our coal and to minimize wastes in mining and utilization.

WASTE OF COAL IN ILLINOIS.
General Statement.

Waste of coal in Illinois takes place chiefly in its mining and
utilization. To a lesser degree the coal is wasted through non-
use of cheaper substitutes.

Mining the coal is simple from the engineering viewpoint. The
beds are unusually regular in distribution and thickness; and
they lie practically horizontal. Nevertheless, the variations in
recovery range from about 95 per cent to less than 50 per cent.
Additional loss assumes importance locally, where subsidence due
to mining may break overlying coals, and render easy recovery
of the higher bed impossible. The chief reasons for the loss are

62 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

not engineering difficulties, but, rather, the cheapness of coal in
the ground, and the low profits resulting from over-production
and extreme competition.

Cost of Coal in the Ground.

Practically three-fifths of Illinois is underlain by coal-bearing
formations. The purchase price of coal rights consequently
ranges from $20 per acre in central Illinois to as much as $100
per acre near towns and developed mines. In some attractive
localities in the southern fields $30 per acre buys two beds of
known workable thickness and probably a third lower bed. The
coal per acre in the two beds, allowing 50 per cent for waste,
amounts to 10,000 tons, and the cost is therefore three-tenths of
a cent per ton, or 1/1000 of the cost of production in the same
region. Even in the northern field, where the coal measures but
3 feet in thickness and sells at $50 per acre, the yield is 5,000
tons, and the cost is 1 cent per ton, or 0.75 per cent of the total
cost of production. Thus, there is small incentive for operators
to save all of the coal if its recovery is attended with increased
cost of mining.

Over-Development and Extreme Competition.

In 1909 there were 597 mines of commercial importance, which
produced 50,529,370 tons. Practically the same mines in I910
produced 46 million tons, with only 160 working days. It is cus-
tomary for Illinois mines to meet the demand by operating only
two-thirds of the year. The over-capacity of the mines is some-
what necessary because of the heavy demands of the cold winter
months, but it leads to over-production and ruination of prices
in months of lesser demand. It is then cheaper to operate with-
out profit, or at a small loss, rather than to permit deterioration
of plant and loss of important employees:

A great factor in prices has been the public demand for un-
necessary variety in sizes of prepared coal. At given times, there-
fore, each mine finds itself obliged to sell uncalled-for sizes at
an actual loss. Screenings, especially have been sold at a loss,
but their increased use in automatic stokers promises improved
prices. Large consumers have usually bought the sizes which are
a drug on the market and small consumers necessarily pay the
small profit which reaches the mine operator.

Illinois coal meets severe competition from other States as

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 63

well as from our own producers. The miners are better organ-
ized and secure higher wages. in Illinois than in the principal
competing States. In West Virginia, where the men are prac-
tically unorganized, coal was sold at the mine in IgI0 at a price
averaging 20 cents less per ton than in Illinois. This condition,
together with low freight rates to Chicago and superior quality
of the eastern coal, enables it to sell in our natural markets.

The latest available data for years not affected by wage dis-
turbance, indicate an average selling price of $1.41 at the mines
in northern Illinois and $0.88 to $1.15 in other districts. The
average cost, including general and selling expense and amortiza-
tion, averages $1.20 to $1.30 for the northern long-wall district
and $0.70 to $0.95 in the other districts. The best gross profit
probably does not exceed 20 cents, and when interest on the
invested capital is deducted the net profit is reduced to Io or 15
cents per ton; the average net profit throughout the State is
probably much less than these figures. It is readily seen, there-
fore, that under present conditions it is nearly impossible to
increase the percentage of mining extraction when this will
increase mining costs.

Wasteful Mining Methods.

The above considerations show the controlling causes for the
waste of about 50 per cent of our coal in mining. It is desirable
next to consider the ways in which the coal is lost beyond
recovery. They are due, in order of importance, to

1. System of mining.

2. Carelessness in operation.

3. Irregular boundaries of property.

Losses Due to System of Mining. Two general systems of
mining prevail, as determined chiefly by the character of strata
overlying the coal. The long-wall method of northern Illinois
yields 90 to 95 per cent of the coal; but the room-and-pillar
method, which is elsewhere in practice, commonly yields only 40
to 60 per cent. |

Where the long-wall method is used, the coal averages 3 feet
in thickness, and the roof is composed of shale, which settles
gradually as the coal is removed. The miner undercuts the coal
to a distance of 4 to 6 feet and the pressure of the roof breaks
it down. -Meanwhile props are set parallel to the face, so as to
maintain a working place, along which fresh air circulates.
Fallen shale and other refuse are continually piled behind the

64 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

miner, and the roof is taken down where necessary to maintain
roadways. Under this system all of the coal can be recovered,
but as a matter of fact shut-downs occasion some loss, because
of falling roof and irregular alignment of the mining face. Re-
mote corners of property may also be lost. However, recovery of
95 per cent is possible in spite of such losses. If the same method
were applicable to all Illinois mines our conservation problem
would be largely solved.

Unfortunately, the strata above the thicker coals of the State
are so varied in character and strength that the room-and-pillar
method is commonly necessary. Narrow passages are cut in the
coal to serve for haulage and air circulation. Wider rooms are
then mined out with the aid of coal pillars and room props to
sustain the roof. It has been the common practice to abandon
pillars when the rooms are finished.

One reason for leaving the pillars is that under prevailing
systems, which prescribe narrow pillars and wide rooms, it is
expensive, if not impossible, to recover the pillars. It may be
pointed out that, if the mines were worked on a panel system
with separate units surrounded by thick barrier pillars, and if
rooms were narrow and room pillars thick, practically all of the
coal could be recovered. It is encouraging to know that some
of the large companies are now installing this system.

Another reason for leaving pillars is that surface subsidence
frequently causes damage suits. The actual loss from surface
subsidence should be negligible; for even with land values of
$125 per acre, and with total loss of 80 per cent, or $100, the
money loss would be only 1 per cent per ton of the coal in a
6-foot bed. As a matter of fact, the land would be as good as
ever after full settlement takes place and deranged surface
drains and tile systems are restored.

An important loss in some parts of the State where thick coal
prevails comes from leaving 1 to 24 feet of coal to form a roof.
It is needed to strengthen weak shale during advance work.
Although such coal can be recovered after rooms are worked out,
it is not uncommonly wasted.

It is usually assumed that the room-and-pillar method yields
6o per cent of the coal, but it is probable than when unexpected
losses, due to carelessness, are included, the average recovery
for the State is not more than 50 per cent. A satisfactory remedy
has been advocated for the present losses with room-and-pillar
methods, but it is hard to introduce because it would increase the

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 65

preliminary period of mine development and defer profits three or
four years longer than usual. The plan contemplates locating
the shaft at the common corner of four sections of land, and
cutting haulage ways to one side and thence to a corner. The
coal could be completely recovered by retreating long-wall
method, and the total cost of mining doubtless would be less than
under present methods. The difficulty lies in the fact that two
and one-half years would be required to drive the entries and
make ready for profitable mining. The heavy cost during early
years would rapidly decrease, and the closing years of mining
would be more profitable, in contrast to the reverSe conditions
under present practice.

Losses Due to Carelessness in Operation. Besides wastes due
to faulty system of mining, careless or inefficient operation is
important. Failure to keep maps up-to-date frequently causes
small blocks of coal to be passed by until too late for recovery.
Surveys are not complete when mines are finally abandoned, and
so future operators on adjoining properties are required to leave
barriers of unnecessary size in order to be free from danger of
gas and water in the abandoned workings. Again, pillars are
left so small, or are “robbed” to such an extent, that roof and
floor begin to “squeeze,” and the coal is so crushed that large
areas are abandoned. Fires, similarly, require the sealing off
of large portions of the mines, and recovery is neglected. An-
other species of prevailing bad practice is the excessive use of
explosives to blast ddwn the ceal. This causes an undue amount
of fine coal, which either is not loaded out or is of low market
value. In addition, this practice causes fatal explosions directly,
or so weakens the roof that fatal accidents and the abandonment
of parts of the mine follow indirectly.

Losses Due to Irregular Property Boundaries. A growing
source of waste of coal is due to the purchase of land in checker-
board fashion, and to similar competitive tactics which isolate
areas of coal, which are too small to warrant independent mining.

Waste of Coal by Improper and Unnecessary Utilization.

Generation of Power, Heat, and Light. Although it is difficult
for one who is not a mechanical engineer to appreciate the waste-
ful utilization of coal, enough has been written on the subject to
emphasize certain important features. Thus, the ordinary boiler
utilizes only 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the fuel energy. Even

66 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

with mechanical stokers and best types of boilers only 15 per cent
is used. Similarly, the ordinary steam engine utilizes only 5 per
cent of the steam energy. The use of producer gas and gas
engines has been shown to yield one brake horsepower hour with
only 37 per cent of the fuel required under water-tube boilers.
Large gas-engine installations have been made recently at Gary,
Indiana, and the improvement is being slowly introduced into
other large plants.

Another serious loss in the country is seen in coke ovens of
the beehive type, which waste enormous quantities of volatile by-
products. Modern retort ovens would save $50,000,000 annually.

Use of coal for domestic heating and lighting purposes is even
more wasteful. Thus ordinary electric light utilizes only I per
cent or less of the energy in coal. It is stated that 8 per cent,
Or 20,000,000 tons, of the coal used in making light, heat, and
power goes up the chimney. Locomotives, of course, waste a
much larger percentage.

It is obvious that the development of central plants for light,
heat, and power is very desirable, for it will give smokeless com-
bustion of low-grade coals, with the highest possible efficiency.
Where possible, such stations should be located in the coal fields
and the energy should be transmitted as electricity and coal gas.
It is understood that long-distance transmission from the anthra-
cite region to New York City is under consideration, and that
the plan is also considered for Chicago.

Water Power and Solar Engines, The unnecessary use of coal
where other forms of energy are available is, of course, deplor-
able. Attention has been called so emphatically to the enormous
waste of water power that we may confidently look forward to
the utilization of its full energy, to the limit of economical trans-
mission.

The solar engine has been so far perfected, I understand, that
an installation at Stanford University has operated economically
in comparison with coal-fed boilers for a long period of testing.
The apparatus comprises a large box covered with glass, and
partitioned so that water circulates through it slowly, and ir
heated by the sun. All interior surfaces are black so as to assist
absorption: The water becomes remarkably hot and is then
vaporized slightly below atmospheric pressure for use in a steam
turbine. The hot water is stored in buried reservoirs and operates
the engine night or day.

It is not impossible that the use of solar engines of this simple

—

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 67

type will greatly reduce the consumption of coal in regions which
are favored by plentiful sunshine.

Conclusions.

In view of the stupendous waste in mining and utilizing coal,
it is evident that our utmost effort is needed to correct the con-
ditions. Mining wastes can be checked by the adoption of long-
wall system or by panel systems which provide for extraction of
the pillars. Wastes in utilization can be cut down by the more
rapid introduction of central plants equipped with the most effi-
cient apparatus, and by the use of substitutes for coal.

It is evident that we need increased research by private con-

_cerns, and by State and Federal schools and bureaus, in order to
display the clear facts in the problem and create closer relations
between research and practice.

Coal operators for some time have advocated a law under
which companies can combine and restrict ruinous competition.
Some such means for increasing profit is doubtless necessary, to
permit efficient mining and proper safeguards for life. Uniform
interstate laws regarding extraction should be strongly urged in
all producing States.

;

="

CONSERVATION IDEALS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF
PLANTS:

Dr. H. J. WEBBER,
New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University.

The subject which I have chosen for my address may not
appeal to you as having very close connection with topics ordi-
narily considered as related to the conservation movement, but
it appeals to me as important. Whether I prove my case,.I shall
leave to you to judge.

The conservation movement had its inception in the wasteful
methods practiced in the utilization of our national resources,
such as our forests and mineral deposits. Alfred Russel Wallace,
the great English evolutionist and contemporary of Darwin, has
characterized the last century as a century of despoliation of the
natural resources of the earth. Our forests have been ruthlessly

2 Paper No. 30, Department of Plant-Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

68 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

destroyed until good lumber has reached a very high price and
turpentine and resin in sufficient quantities to meet the world’s
requirements can scarcely be obtained. In the meantime large
areas, denuded of forests, have been changed in climatic condi-
tions and the fertile soils exposed to destructive erosion. Coal
beds are being worked in ever increasing quantities and must ulti-
mately be exhausted. The Chilean nitrate of soda deposits are
approaching exhaustion. We use without thought of the morrow.
The conservation movement has extended to the consideration
of soil fertility, the proper utilization of water, of water power,
of our land domain, and the like.

The problem of all problems confronting us is the necessity
of increasing the production of food stuffs. How can this be
done? Obviously the problem can be attacked from many sides,
but the side which I desire to emphasize is the conservation of
the best breeding stock of plants and animals. This seems a
simple matter, but I am sure that the far-reaching possibilities
of such conservation are not understood and are beyond our con-
ception at the present time, as our viewpoint is necessarily lim-
ited by our present knowledge. Nevertheless the possibilities, as
judged by our present knowledge, are so great as to place this
factor, I believe, among the important features of the conservation
movement.

What do we not owe to our domesticated and improved plants
and animals? They are the greatest heritage which has come
down to us from our ancestors. If the cultivated varieties and
breeds of wheat, oats, corn, cotton, potatoes, cattle, sheep, hogs,
and horses were all destroyed from the earth and we were forced
to go back to wild nature, and begin the improvement over again,
it is probable that the world would be almost depopulated and
that the progeny of the few hardy individuals that survived would
in the centuries that followed repeat the history of plant and
animal improvement that has taken place in the past. Doubtless,
however, new plants and animals now unknown to us would be
the successful ones in the new evolution. That we now cultivate
wheat, oats, corn, and the like, is probably in large measure due
to attempts to artificially cultivate plants started in regions where
the wild ancestors of these plants were native. In many cases
the wild ancestors of our cultivated plants are not positively
known.

It is not probable that the ancestral types have become extinct
but that the cultivated forms have been so greatly modified that

ee
rr

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 69

the relationship cannot now be recognized with certainty. If
ZEgilops ovata, a wild grass of southern Europe, is the original
ancestral form of wheat, as is supposed by some botanists, we
have very many native grasses in various parts of the United
States which, in an unimproved state, have much larger grains
and would seem to be equally worthy of cultivation and improve-
ment. If Teosinte (Euclena luxurians) a wild, native grass of
Mexico is the original wild ancestor of corn, as is believed by
many scientists because of the fact that it is a native of the region
where corn was first cultivated, is known to be subject to the
same diseases, such as smut, and above all from the fact that
it hybridizes readily with corn, we have an unpromising grass,
so far as its grain its concerned, which has developed into our
greatest of all grain crops.

Are we justified in assuming that all of the valuable plants
and animals have already been introduced into cultivation? As
a matter of fact, are we not justified in questioning whether the
most valuable have been introduced? On sober second thought,
does it not seem wonderful that wheat, a native of the Mediter-
ranean region, should remain the best grain crop for a region
including the greater part of British America and the United
States, of Russia, and Argentina, and all the broad area where
wheat is cultivated? Would it not seem probable that the im-
provement of the most promising native grain-grasses in these
widely different regions would yield new types of grain crops
better adapted to the regions and superior to wheat or oats?
The great value of wheat and oats lies not in the superiority of
the wild types from which they sprung but to the long years of
cultivation and selection to which they have been subjected. A
large number of wild grasses, occurring in almost every region.
have comparatively large grains and if they were capable of
improvement, as they doubtless are, they might possibly excel
any grains which we now have. The Indian rice or water oat
(Zizania aquatica) is an illustration of a large grained wild grass
which is probably known to many. Doubtless this could be
greatly improved for cultivation in low lands as rice is now
cultivated.

The wild wheat grass (Agropyrum occidentale) of the great
plains region is a very promising type for improvement, as

pointed out by Dr. Bessey.t In this wild grass we have a head

1 Bessey, C. E. Crop Improvement by Utilizing Wild Species. American Breeders’
Association, Vol. II, p. 113.

7O ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

five or six inches long and developing long, narrow grains much
resembling wheat. It is a perennial and grows to a height of
two or three feet. Dr. Bessey says of this plant: “If our plant
had had but a fraction of the careful cultivation and selection
which have been given the European species, I am confident that
it would have yielded a much more productive cereal than we
have in our present varieties of wheat.’ Consider, further, that
we have here a perennial which would doubtless yield for several
or, possibly, many years without reseeding, and also that it is a
native of the great plains region and thus already adapted to
the environment of the great wheat States of the Union. Of
this grass and wheat, which would we expect to be best adapted
to the “dry farming” regions of the West?

Several of the wild rye grasses (Elymus) have large heads and
grains, and appear very promising, as do also certain species of
the so-called beard-grass (Andropogon).

We have only considered the value of these grasses from the
standpoint of their grain development, but it is of almost equal
importance to consider their value as forage crops for animal
food; and here much greater latitude of selection is possible. A
very large number of our native plants should be tested, and
the most promising improved for forage purposes.

In the development of leguminous crops we have a valuable
field of research. Of the many hundreds of legumes, we now
cultivate only about a dozen species, such as beans, peas, clover,
alfalfa, crimson clover, cowpeas, soy beans, and the like, repre-
senting a natural adaptation to as many localities. None of the
species ordinarily cultivated in the northern United States are
natives of this great section. Yet an examination of the botanies
shows that some one hundred and fifty different species of
legumes are natives of this section. Would it not seem absurd
to assume that our present cultivated species represent the best
types for this section, when the most promising of those which
the great Master Breeder gave us have not been thoroughly
improved and tested? Among the wild native species of Desmo-
dium, Vicia, Lespedeza and other legumes, we have a number
of promising sorts. We have tested many of these species in
comparison with our ordinary cultivated crops and discarded
them, but our tests have been of the wild, unimproved against
the improved types. We might as reasonably put gloves on a
wild pygmy of Africa and test him on the mat with a trained
modern athlete.

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 71

Doubtless the mere mentioning of the improvement of native
plants suggests to the minds of each one of you some wild plant
which you have observed and thought to possess valuable quali-
ties. If our sources of nitrogen supply are to be exhausted soon,
we must cultivate more leguminous crops which can gather their
own nitrogen and improve the soil in this respect while furnish-
ing crops. We should have leguminous tuber crops to take the
place of potatoes, beets and turnips. Nature has given us such
wild legumes as the ground nut (Apios tuberosa) and the Pomme
de Prairie (Psoralea esculenta), which already have edible tubers,
and which could doubtless be developed into very valuable culti-
vated plants by a few years of breeding.

Dr. J. Russell Smith, of the University of Pennsylvania, has
emphasized the importance of breeding tree crops, and here we
have an inexhaustible field of experimentation. We should breed
chestnuts, walnuts, hickories, oaks, beeches, hazelnuts, and the
like, to improve them for the use of man and for growth as stock
food. Many hundreds of thousands of acres of rough, hilly
land, unadapted for cultivation, would be suited for the growth
of such crops.

The possibilities of breeding tree crops are well illustrated by the
excessive increase in vigor, rapidity of growth and size of fruit
obtained by Burbank in a hybrid between the English walnut (Ju-
glans regia) and the California black walnut (J. californica). “The
hybrid,’ Burbank states, “grows twice as fast as the combined
growth of both parents. The leaves are from two feet to a full
yard in length. The wood is compact, with lustrous, silky grain,
taking a beautiful polish, and as the annual layers of growth are
an inch or more in thickness and the medullary rays prominent,
the effect is unique.” Another of Burbank’s walnut hybrids,
obtained. by crossing the black walnut with pollen of the Cali-
fornian black walnut, produces fruit of very much larger size
than either parent. When we come to plant large areas to trees,
as we are rapidly coming to do, imagine the immense value to
the world if we could plant hybrids of rapid growth, such as
Burbank’s walnuts. .

Who has tried to produce hybrids of maples, oaks, hickories,
and pines, to get quick-growing hybrids for planting purposes?
Who has hybridized such trees to get larger and better fruits?
The world should not be compelled to wait much longer for

1Smith, J. Russell. The Breeding and Use of Tree Crops. American Breeders’
Association, Vol. I, p. 86.

72 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

such improvements. We need the improved stock for planting.

Some trees live a century before they reach young manhood.
Persimmons, pawpaws, huckleberries, elderberries, hawthorns,

and hosts of other native fruits, are well worth improvement,

and might be utilized not only for human food but for hogs, -

sheep and poultry.

Mr. Frank Rabak, of the Department of Agriculture, has
recently shown that the black sage (Ramona stachoides), a wild
California plant, and the swamp bay tree (Persea pubescens),
of the southeastern United States, both contain a fairly high
percentage of camphor and could be utilized for the manufac-
ture of this valuable product. Doubtless these plants could, by
breeding, be adapted to cultivation and the percentage of camphor
increased.

The value of improving native plants has been strikingly dem-
onstrated by the amelioration of our native grapes. The attempts
of our early ancestors in America to grow European grapes uni-
formly met with failure, and finally, as a last resort, attempts
were made to cultivate the native wild types. The marvelous
success achieved, which has resulted in the production of a large
number of fine varieties and established vine growing in the
eastern and central United States, is one of the important achieve-
ments of our many-sided national history.

The same was true in the case of the gooseberry. The European
varieties failing to succeed here because of the mildew, the
small-fruited native species were introduced into cultivation, and
the size of the fruits has been more than quadrupled in the
improved sorts. Plums, raspberries, blackberries, and the like,
furnish other illustrations of interest.

The native wild beggar weed (Desmodium tortuosum) has
been introduced into cultivation in Florida, and without breed-
ing improvement of any kind has in a few years won a perma-
nent place in southern agriculture.

It may be argued that the improvement of our native plants
would be too slow to justify attempts in this direction. I should
answer that nothing is too slow which will pay. Nations bond
themselves for hundreds of millions of dollars to carry on a
war of the present, which bonds their children must pay some
time in the future and for no compensation except to maintain
the pledged honor of the nation. While breeding is slow when
judged from the get-rich-quick standpoint of modern Chicago,
it is not slow when compared with the life of a nation and from

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 73

the standpoint of permanent welfare. Within the memory of man
the tomato has been introduced,into cultivation and advanced
in size from a fruit of three-quarters of an inch in diameter to
our fine modern fruits, some of which grow as large as four
inches in diameter.

A striking illustration of this nature is furnished by the experi-
ments which the writer has conducted in the improvement of
timothy. Timothy was introduced into cultivation about 1720,
nearly two centuries ago. For many years it has been extensively
grown, but no attempts have been made to develop improved
races until recently. In experiments conducted by the Cornell
Experiment Station, timothy seed was obtained from a large
number of places in this and foreign countries, from which about
18,000 individual plants were grown, and the different types
studied and isolated. As a result of nine years of work, some
200 different races have been secured, which show a very wide
range of characters, and vary from dwarfs to giants in size. A
test of the yields of seventeen of these new varieties, in com-
parison with the best timothy seed which could be purchased in
the market, was made in 1910 and also in 1911. In Igio the
average yield of the seventeen new sorts was 7,451 pounds per
acre, and that of the seven check plats of ordinary timothy was
6,600 pounds per acre, an average increase of 851 pounds per
acre in favor of the new varieties. In IgII the average yield of
the seventeen new sorts was 7,153 pounds per acre, and that of
the seven check plats was 4,091 pounds per acre, an average
increase of 3,062 pounds per acre in favor of the new varieties.
Four of the high yielding sorts in I91I gave an increased yield
of over two tons per acre, or practically double the average yield
of the checks, which is an astonishing figure, and can be explained
only by the fact that timothy has never been improved by breed-
ing and still consists, as generally cultivated, of a motley array
of many different types.

Hay is one of the largest agricultural crops of the United
States, outranking all other crops, except corn, in total value
of production. In Ig10, according to the statement issued by
the United States Department of Agriculture, there were grown
in the United States 45,691,000 acres of hay, which yielded a
crop having a farm valuation of $747,769,000. No statistics are
available from which we can determine what proportion of this
hay was timothy, but the writer believes that we may safely con-
clude that at least one-third of the entire hay crop of the country

74 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

is timothy. If this is true, the timothy crop of the United States
in 1910 had a valuation of over $249,000,000. In the two years
during which tests have been made, the seventeen new sorts gave
an average increased yield of slightly over 36 3/5 per cent above
ordinary timothy. A 363/5 per cent increase in the valuation of

the timothy crop as above estimated would give us over $90,000,-.

000 as the estimated annual gain in the value of the crop, which
would be obtained if new sorts equally as good as these could
be used throughout the country.

The rapid development of the science and art of breeding
places us to-day in position to secure improvements much more
rapidly than has been done in the past. It would not be astonish-
ing if from twenty-five to fifty years of careful, intelligent breed-
ing would accomplish with a wild plant what has required many
centuries under the crude methods of our ancestors.

It may be asked why we should be in haste to take up the

improvement of our native plants. In answer to this it may be |

stated that profound changes, such as we desire and must have,
require time for their accomplishment. The potato and tomato
did not reach their present perfection at one bound. A number
of intermediate stages or improvements were first necessary.
The strawberry and gooseberry did not reach their present size
by one mutation, but several intermediate sizes were first neces-
sary. Improvements apparently come by sudden leaps or muta-
tions, and each of these paves the way for further development,
which might never be possible without the first improvement.

In breeding, the time element is the limiting factor of impor-
tance. No permanent improvement of value can be obtained in
a day, and no time should be lost in beginning on a scale com-
mensurate with its importance the improvement of our native
plants of promise. We must conserve time and fulfil our duty
to succeeding generations. Why is it that such a small propor-
tion of our lands are cultivated? According to the 1900 census,
of the 1,900,000,000 acres of land in continental United States,
only 838,000,000 acres were in farms, and of this area over 50.6
per cent was unimproved land. The sterile, sandy lands, and the
low, wet lands, the stony lands, and the hill lands, the mountain
lands of high altitude, and the barren lands of deserts, lacking
water, and the like, all uncultivable and largely worthless for
crops at present grown, make up far the larger part of our vast
domain.

Travel through the high, hilly and mountainous regions of New

tin

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 75
:

York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Caro-
lina and Georgia, and one finds vast areas covered mainly with a
low growth of young trees and bushes, the main forests having
been removed. The same is true of many extended areas in the
central and western States. The utilization of these waste lands
forms one of our great national problems, and the beginning of
the solution of the problem rests in finding the crop best adapted
to such areas, or in all probability in breeding crops that will be
adapted to them. The necessity of using these waste lands in the
near future is evident. Shall we plant them to forest? Cer-
tainly much of this land should be in forest, or in tree crops of
some sort, but we want tree crops, at least in many cases, that
will return food as well. as shelter. The Italian yield of chestnuts
is said to average twelve bushels per acre, and J. Russell Smith
states that “the value of European mountain-side chestnut
orchards equals, acre for acre, the Illinois corn belt.” The
kinds of trees to plant in such areas for wood, for fruit, for
sugar, starch, camphor, or forage requires careful study and the
proper breeding to secure the best sorts possible.

But this is not all of the problem. Grain, forage and special
fruit crops, not necessarily forest trees, require to be as care-
fully considered, and here again breeding to secure good species
adapted to the conditions will be the keynote of success. All
this requires time, and the generations to follow will not have
the time, and certainly not the money, if they do not repudiate
our war debts. The work should be started immediately in order
to obtain the results when conditions demand them. When I
urge this as one of the important national problems of con-
servation, I speak not without some authority. My life has been
given to agricultural work in various parts of the United States.
My boyhood on an Iowa farm gave me a knowledge of the rich
prairie regions of the West. My education in the universities
of Nebraska and Missouri extended that knowledge. My sixteen
years of service in the National Department of Agriculture, work-
ing with cotton and oranges in Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mis-
sissippi and Texas, taught me southern conditions and demands,
and now my experience of the last five years in Cornell, asso-
ciated with that Master Agriculturist, Dean L. H. Bailey, has
broadened my horizon to at least some conception of the field of
agricultural education.

As to the possibilities of producing the suggested improve-
ments in plants, it again may be granted that I can speak with

76 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

some degree of authority, in view of the fact that the great cot-
ton, corn, timothy, orange and pineapple industries have, at least
in certain places, felt the influence of new varieties that have gone
out from my laboratory. I say this not to extol myself, as any man
in my place with my opportunity could have accomplished the
same results, and many would have done very much more. [| say
it simply to lend weight to my statements before you who are
strangers.

I can by no words of mine present this problem in its impor-
tance as I see it. In no way, probably, can my efforts stir the
nation to a recognition of the necessities of this case, so that
action will not be too long delayed. Recognizing the urgency of
the problem as I do, however, I would be remiss of my duty did
I not use such powers and gifts as have been given me to urge
forward a project which sooner or later will be recognized as
one of the keystones of the conservation movement.

The materials for the consummation of the ideals I have pre-
sented are all around us. The brawn and brain for the service
are awaiting the opportunity. The service will be long and diffi-
cult, however, and the servant must live while engaged in the
task. Only by long consecutive years of service can the highest
ideals be reached. Men must consecrate their lives to this
achievement. The service will be pleasant, and the scientific
results gathered from year to year will repay the worker; but
means must be found to place the investigator beyond the tempta-
tion of other employment, as permanency of tenure in such work
will be of the highest importance. It is a work for the State and
the Nation, but I fear they will be too slow to recognize the
long-time requirements of the work. Political institutions demand
too quick results. I feel that the most hopeful method of accom-
plishing some of the ideals outlined is through endowed institu-
tions. To what more serviceable task could benefactions be
devoted than to the solution of such problems, and what type of
institution would return more credit to the donor? Institutions
to conduct such work could be tied up-with some of our great
universities to establish the proper scientific relationship, and
should be in such close codperation with these universities that
graduate students could be utilized in connection with the investi-
gations and trained in the service.

In summarizing this discussion I may say that to one unf&miliar
with the possibilities of breeding, the outcome of such experi-
ments may appear doubtful. We need no lamp to guide us,

SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION 77

except that of experience. When we realize the little promise
exhibited by the native grapes, fomatoes and potatoes, from which
our cultivated sorts have sprung, we gain a conception of the
tremendous increases which can be brought about by a century of
cultivation, even when the breeding is of desultory nature. Couple
with a century of time—aye, fifty years—the skill of trained
breeders, and what might we not accomplish? The greatness of
the possibilities stretches before the enthusiastic breeder as his
mind spans the years filled with the battles of conquest and
achievement in the building up of new industries, like a panorama
: of the wars and struggles in the building of a nation. Man’s
creative genius is touched. It appeals to him in its vastness as
a challenge. The trained man in the field of breeding feels the
certainty of his power. He longs for the conquest.

Geological Papers

——_— -— -—

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 81

THE STRUCTURAL RELATIONS OF THE OIL FIELDS
OF CRAWFORD AND LAWRENCE COUNTIES,
ILLINOIS.*

RayMOND S. BLATCHLEY.

The State Geological Survey began a detailed investigation of
the geological conditions in the southerm half of the eastern Illi-
nois oil fields in 1908. This work was carried on intermittently
and was finally completed January I, 1912. ~The specific area of
investigation lies in the southern half of Crawford and the cen-
tral portion of Lawrence counties. The primary object of the
work was to determine the cause of the accumulation of oil and
gas and to secure facts which would have a bearing on the origin
of oil, and also to determine, if possible, the relation of the
quantities of oil, gas, salt water, porosity of the sand, etc., to the
structural features of the sand.

The work is based upon the elevations and records of 5,200
wells. The method of study is to map, by means of contour
lines, or lines through points of equal altitude, the geologic struc-
ture of the producing sands. The contours are made upon the
positive altitudes of the sands above a datum plane 1,500 feet
below mean sea level. These maps show the oil sands as if every-
thing above them had been removed. From the undulations on
the surface of the sands and from the initial productions of the
wells, the oil, gas and water relations to the structure are
observed. The La Salle anticline is the controlling feature of
the field.

CRAWFORD COUNTY.

The investigated area in Crawford county lies south of the
Illinois Central Railroad, between Oblong and Robinson. There
are 2,970 wells mapped in this area, of which 206, or 8.7 per
cent, are barren. The productive wells range in initial yield from
I to 1,600 barrels. The Robinson pool, or that of Crawford
county, is about seven miles wide between Robinson and Oblong,
but narrows to about three and one-half miles at the southern
limit of the county. The western boundary of the field trends
northwest and southeast and is sharply defined. The eastern
boundary, on the other hand, is very irregular.

1 This paper with illustrations was published by permission from the Secretary, in

Economic Geology, Vol. VII, p. 574, 1912. Also a more complete report with
abundant illustrations will appear as Bulletin 22, Illinois State Geological Survey.

82 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

All the penetrated rocks in the producing areas of Crawford
county belong to the Pennsylvanian series. This series is repre-
sented by about 480 feet of the McLeansboro, 300 feet of the
Carbondale, and about 100 feet of the Pottsville formations. The
rocks are all of sedimentary origin, being principally shales with
variable intergradations of sandstones, limestones and coal. The
oil sands lie at the top of the Pottsville rocks, which are the lowest
members of the Pennsylvanian, and are essentially coarse sand-
stones, merging into sandy shales at the top, and often split with
lenses of shale and pockets of coal.

The Crawford county pools have one general oil-producing
zone, known as the Robinson sand, lying between 800 and 975
feet deep. This sand is so broken and lenticular that it offers
little opportunity for structural study. In some portions of the
field it assumes regularity in its distribution. It is split into
two or three persistent lenses that show an average interval of
about fifty feet and a thickness of from two to fifty feet. The
lenses often merge into each other and are even united in some
wells with a maximum thickness of 122 feet. Again, the lenses
pinch out, and in several wells are entirely absent.

Owing to the irregular deposition of sands and shales, it is
impossible to correlate and contour any sand beds definitely,’
except the top lens of the Robinson sand. Even this work loses
much of its scientific value in places where the sand wedges out
or is overlapped.

The altitudes of the top lens are assembled and contoured with
intervals of twenty feet. The general structure of the Robinson
pool reveals a broad and gentle arch, which is divided into two
parts by a transverse basin. The north part of the arch is six
miles wide, with its crest ninety-five feet above the lowest
explored portions of the limbs. The south part of the arch
is about four miles wide and 110 feet high. The 1,100-foot con-
tour follows the limits of the pool in a general way and seems
to include most of the productive zone. The small irregularities
of the map probably do not represent minor folds, but irregular
porosity of the general sand zone, as determined by the driller.

In studying the distribution of oil over Crawford county, the
lower lenses are found slightly more productive than the top
lens. There is considerable unevenness of distribution due to the
following factors:

1. The sands vary in porosity and in many places are prac-
tically impervious to oil.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 83

2. The sands thin and thicken rapidly, and in some localities
pinch out altogether.

3. The sands are so irregularly interbedded with the shales
along the productive zone in some areas as to prohibit extensive
collection of oil, gas and water.

4. The best productive areas have twenty to forty feet of sand
and are usually free from large amounts of salt water.

5. Local dry spots in the midst of very productive territory
cannot be attributed to small depressions or knolls in the sand
bodies, but rather to the non-porosity of the bed.

Salt water does not uniformly fill the rocks of the region,
although there are many dry strata which are porous. Great
quantities of salt water occur upon the limbs of the anticline
beyond the productive area and in the Illinois basin to the west.
All the lenses of the Robinson sand are well saturated along the
definite boundary line on the western side of the pool. The
upper lenses are generally barren of water within the pool, while
the lower lenses reveal water across the fold and, in some locali-
ties, under the oil. Since the oil lies near the top of the lower
sand lens, but few wells pass through the oil stratum into the
water, for fear of drowning out the oil.

It is obvious from the position of the water and oil along
the La Salle anticline that the water has controlled the accumu-
lation of oil in the arch. The water probably has originally per-
mitted the oil to migrate long distances up the slope of the
Illinois basin into the arch. This was effective for all lenses of
the Robinson sand, although the degree of saturation is variable
over the crest of the arch. :

LAWRENCE COUNTY.

The oil field of Lawrence county offered the best opportunity
for geological study because of the depth and number of oil
horizons and the abundance of records. The field is seventeen
miles long and three miles wide. There were 2,180 wells studied,
of which 156 or 544 per cent were dry. The range of initial pro-
duction lies between I and 2,400 barrels. The field trends north-
west and southeast, with the northern limit on the Crawford-Law-
rence county line. The field changes its course about twenty
degrees near Bridgeport. The western edge of the field is well
defined like that of Crawford county, and similarly. The eastern
edge is irregular. The Lawrence county field is the richest in

A

84 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Illinois, and has produced more large wells with steadier yield
than the rest of the fields combined.

The explored rocks of Lawrence county lie in the Pennsyl-
vanian and Mississippian series. The former are from 800 to
1,300 feet thick; the latter are, as a rule, penetrated only to a
depth of about 475 feet.

The Pennsylvanian rocks of Lawrence county include a shallow
producing sand at the south end of the field, probably in the
McLeansboro formations; the Bridgeport sand, of three lenses,
in the upper part of the Pottsville formations, and corresponding
to the Robinson sand of Crawford county; and the Buchanan
sand in the basal portion of the Pottsville rocks.

The Mississippian rocks underlie the Pennsylvanian and con-
tain the most important oil sands. The upper part is known as
the Birdsville and Tribune (Chester), followed by the Ste. Gene-
vieve and the St. Louis limestones. The Chester beds include the
so-called “Gas,” Kirkwood and Tracey sands, while the Ste.
Genevieve contains the rich McClosky sand. The sand names are
those of land-owners upon whose farm the sand was first tapped.
The Chester rocks average 365 feet in thickness, in comparison
with 700 feet in southwestern Illinois.

The “Gas” sand, or first sand in the Chester, produces gas
locally over Petty township of Lawrence county. It is 125 feet
beneath the top limestone of the Chester and 108 feet lower than
the Buchanan sand of the overlying Pottsville.

The Kirkwood sand is the most widespread producing horizon
in Illinois, as well as in Lawrence county. It is correlated with
the Sparta sand of Randolph county, the Carlyle sand of Clinton
county, the Lindley sand of Bond county, the Benoist sand of
Sandoval in Marion county, all of Illinois, and the Oakland City
sand of Pike county, Indiana. The Kirkwood sand shows excel-
lent initial production and long continued yield. It is the most
reliable of all the sands. The oil is “sweet,” or with small per-
centage of sulphur. The top of the Kirkwood sand is 192 feet
beneath the top of the Chester, sixty-seven feet below the top
of the “Gas” sand, and usually lies about in the middle of the
Chester rocks.

The Tracey sand is stratigraphically equivalent to the Cypress
sandstone, and is usually about 317 feet lower than the top of
the Chester and 114 feet beneath the Kirkwood sand. This sand
yields gas under high pressures and some oil. The gas has a
rank odor and the oil from this«sand is ‘“‘sour,” both due to the

a Se

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 85

large sulphur content. The Tracey sand is so closely associated

with the underlying limestones that its oil and gas probably had
their origin from the included marine animal life of the limestones.

The Ste. Genevieve limestone has a total thickness of eighty-
five feet and contains the McClosky sand, which has proven the
most prolific oil horizon in Illinois, because of exceptional initial
flow and steady yield. This pool has been instrumental in
upholding the Illinois production when other sections were declin-
ing. The range of depth for the sand is 1,550 to 1,850 feet, or
about 446 feet lower than the top of the Chester and 104 feet
beneath the top of the Tracey sand. The oil is found twenty to
fiity feet in the limestone.

The detailed structure of the Lawrence county oil field is
shown by five contour maps of oil sands and four cross-sections
of the field. The structure map of the top of the Kirkwood sand
is representative of the lay of the rocks in the area. The alti-
tudes of this sand are assembled and contoured with twenty-foot
interval. The most conspicuous feature revealed is a double
plunging anticline or elongated dome lying in section 30, Petty
township, which is 400 feet high and 3 miles wide. The
crest of this dome lies within the 680-foot contour. The
sand dips from the crest of the dome northward at the
rate of forty-one feet per mile; southward, sixty-three feet per
mile; eastward, 194 feet per mile; and westward, 228 feet per
mile. The sand dips southward from the dome into a small syn-
cline in the southwest corner of Lawrence township and then
spreads fanlike in its structure to the southeast through Lawrence
and Dennison townships on to a broad plateau-like crest of the
major fold. In this locality the sand lies at the 400-foot contour
level. The southern limits of the field seem to gradually dip
lower than the producing zone of the sand. Whether the major
fold continues to dip and merge into the southeastern side of the
Eastern Interior Coal basin, or the dip is local, as seems to be
the case between Crawford and Lawrence counties, is not known.

The other structure maps of the Buchanan, “Gas,” Tracey and
McClosky sands corroborate and conform to the structure of the
Kirkwood sand, with the exception of very minor irregularities.
In addition to these maps, four cross-sections were made to show
the nature of the crest of the La Salle anticline, as well as its
flanks. The A-A cross-section presents the structure of the
sands along the crest of the anticline and lengthwise through the
oil field. The section is valuable for its picture of the double

86 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

plunging anticline, the convergence of the sands at the northern
end and the mergence of the dome into the flat at the southern
end of the field. The sands are generally parallel with local
irregularities that seem due in most cases to the thinning and
thickening of the sand. The remaining sections are plotted cross-
wise to the fold and reveal the amplitude of the arch.

The largest amounts of oil in the Lawrence county field are
in the extensive flat area in the southern half of the field, and
at a level of about sixty feet below the crest of the dome in the
northern division.

The sands of Lawrence county show abundant water along the
lower flanks of the anticline and but little through the center of
the field, except in the lower Bridgeport and Buchanan sands.
These Pottsville rocks appear well saturated with water over the
entire field and into the limbs of the La Salle fold. The under-
lying Chester sands are not uniformly saturated with water, but
seem to have lines of saturation along the limbs of the fold, more
particularly along the western side.

SUM MARY.

The features of the structure maps and their individual oil,
gas and salt water relations, just described, are sufficiently simi-
lar to permit general conclusions regarding the accumulations of
oil and gas in Crawford and Lawrence counties. These conclu-
sions add to the general fund of evidence relating to the accumu-
lation of oil and gas in raised rocks.

The greater part of Illinois lies within the Eastern Interior
coal basin, which is, broadly speaking, an extensive spoon-shaped
basin, with its axis extending along a line, through Cerro Gordo,
Lovington and Olney and into its deepest part in Wayne, Hamil-
ton and Edwards counties. The east side of the basin rises into a
strong longitudinal fold known as the La Salle anticline. The
ascent is at the average rate of about fifty feet per mile, but it
is more rapid in Lawrence county, as shown by contours of the
very sharp apex of the anticlinal dome. The basin and lower
flanks of the fold are known to yield abundant water in all the
sands which are productive in the main fields. The uppermost
part of the flanks of the major fold contain abundant oil. The
western limits of the fields are abrupt, and beyond this line the
sands are wholly water-bearing. Enough data are at hand to
conclude that this is a line of water saturation and that above
this line and over the fold most of the sands are oil-bearing.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 87

The accumulation of oil and gas in their present position may
be looked upon as ideal, and is presumably due to the following
factors:

1. There is an extensive anticline with a marked basin on at
least one side.

2. The depressions on both sides of the fold, showing abun-
dant water, comprise extensive “feeding” areas for the arch.

3. The sands are commonly porous, and hence form suitable
reservoirs.

4. There are abundant shales and some limestones overlying
the sandstones, which probably serve as impervious covers to the
reservoirs.

5. The sands in both limbs of the anticline are abundantly satu-
rated with salt water, which is probably instrumental in holding
the oil and gas captive in its present position.

6. Although the general structure of the oil fields is dominated
by a major fold, its crest is very irregular and is interrupted
by numerous minor domes and transverse depressions, which,
together with irregularities in porosity, have been instrumental
in segregating the pools.

7. With one exception, the best collection of oil was found
over the broad flat areas. The domes over the entire field are
logical gas reservoirs, but, contrary to expectation. the largest
amounts of gas and oil do not lie at the apexes of the domes, but
a short distance below.

GEOLOGICAL SEQUENCE IN THE VICINITY OF LA
SALLE AS REVEALED BY RECENT DRILLING.

GILBERT H. Capy.

Within the last two months the State Geological Survey has
received the drilling samples from two new wells in the vicinity
of La Salle that penetrate strata to the depth of from 1,200 to
1,500 feet. The presentation of the records or logs resulting
from the study of these two sets of samples, and their interpre-
tation, is the first purpose of this discussion. There were also
available for comparison the records of several wells in the
vicinity of La Salle, some quite recently drilled, and others dating
back before 1890. Of some of the latter, the drilling samples
have been studied by Dr. J. A. Udden, and the results of his

>

88 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

study appear either in the detailed cross-section of northern Ili-
nois prepared for the Report of the Illinois Board of World’s
Fair Commissioners or in his correspondence with the Director
of the State Geological Survey. Following the interpretation of
the new logs, a comparative study of the records of a number of
the wells in the vicinity will be undertaken. In conclusion, as a
summary of the data presented, and in order that a broad appli-
cation to conditions in the State may be made, a revision of the
Udden cross-section from Rock Island to the east side of the
State will be presented and discussed.

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF LOGS.

In way of preparation for the discussion and interpretation of
the two new logs, a general understanding of the geological
sequence in northern Illinois and of the structure in the vicinity
of La Salle is necessary.

The northern L[llinois section, summarized by R. S. Blatchley
in his paper on Illinois Oil Resources in Bulletin No. 16, State
Geological Survey, page 60, is in brief as follows:

Feet

Roaltimeasunress nee ect e ee ae gn seat tioee Picea eine are 575
Devonian

Sweetland? Greek tshalevg5 tas vance: snot eee 40

lowanvlamiltonwlimestoneracso scsi eae cic eee 150
Silurian. Niagara dolomite -).<.0/. oc de snesicoue one con Bee 335-388
Ordovician

Maquoketaschale:? hsec. hs conc coe nene one eee 68-250

Galéna=Drenton oft be ch oe ee eee Been 300-440

Stz. Peter sandstoneseieer ioe crer ea ee eee 150-275

Bower Macnesianlintestoneme pees on eee eee enoete 450-811

Unconformities exist between all the divisions, except between
the St. Peter sandstone and Trenton limestone, and possibly even
locally there.

On page 28 of the same volume, G. H. Cox describes the rocks
of the Lower Magnesian formation and separates it into the fol-
lowing members:

Feet
Shakopee dolomitet .30 eve fsa eee rem tee eine Ie ee eee 40
Newr Richmond) sandstone ):45s- «acta beioeki ise eae eras Sse ee 15-130
Oneotardolomite yrs. cishars Heise serene tome eet aon as hte 200-225

The Lower Magnesian rests on the Potsdam formation of the
Cambrian.

The Pennsylvanian of northern Illinois is separated into three
members: the McLeansboro, Carbondale and Pottsville forma-

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 89

; faaes The Pottsville lies below No. 2 coal. It is characterized

by silicious, micaceous, gray or reddish shales, and sandstones
which are often micaceous. Occasionally there occurs a thin bed
of coal in the formation. In the main it is non-calcareous. The
texture and color, together with the lack of calcareous material,
are important criteria of discrimination.

The Sweetland Creek shale, a dark colored shale, at least its
lowest part, is often colored brownish by an abundance of fossils
known as Sporangites huronense, supposed to be the spores of
some paleozoic tree. These are readily distinguishable, and
render the correlation of a shale containing them very accurate.
The Hamilton limestone is a light gray, pure calcareous lime-
stone, not a dolomite. Considerable hesitancy should be shown
in correlating any dolomite with the Hamilton.

The Niagara limestone is generally a dolomite of very fine
texture, usually of a light color, and sometimes characterized by
layers of flint. In certain places the Niagara limestone is known
to contain calcareous layers.

The Maquoketa shale is very variable in lithological character,
but bluish-gray shale with some streaks or beds of limestone and
black carbonaceous shale is the usual occurrence. The relation-
ship of the overlying and underlying formations are the readiest
means oi identification.

The Galena-Trenton formations are dolomite in the upper part,
the lower sixty or 100 feet of Trenton, however, being usually
more calcareous. The upper part is usually of a characteristic
brownish-buff color, due to a large percentage of iron present.
The Trenton is often bluish. Both formations are often quite
flinty; this is especially true of the Galena and the lower or
quarry beds of the Trenton.

The St. Peter sandstone is characteristically a pure, soft white
sandstone, the individual grains being all quartz and of a rather
large size. Its purity, color and softness are almost unfailing
criteria for identificatien.

The Lower Magnesian limestone, or Shakopee dolomite, is a
white flinty dolomite, often having beds of fine laminated hydrau-
lic limestone. It sometimes contains silicious concretions. The
upper part in contact with St. Peter sandstone is usually marked
by the occurrence of odlitic flint. The beds lower than the
Shakopee dolomite are nowhere exposed in Illinois, and their
local characteristics are not known.

The structural feature to be emphasized in the northern part

jefe) ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

List of Counties

No.
1 Jo Daviess.
2 Stephenson,
3 Winnebago,

4 Boone. -
5 McHenry. QQ

11 Ogle,

12 Lee.

13 Carroll.

14 Whiteside.
15 Rock Island.
16 Mercer.

17 Henry.

18 Bureau.

19 Putnam.

; moumes? “eo
Roce ‘Sino, feta

| ie \
as ee, a
re -P .
5 o USHEFFIELO S *L
) - Tse

fl
ew EOS. ieee
yy, . 6 es \ ( 5
cates’ =
No.
20 Lasalle.

21 Kendall.
22 Grundy.

23 Will.

24 Kankakee.
25 Iroquois,
26 Ford.

27 Livingston.
28 Marshall.

29 Woodford,
30 Stark.

31 Peoria.

32 Knox.

33 Warren,

34 Henderson.
35 Hancock.

36 McDonough.
37 Fulton.

38 Mason.

39 Tazewell.
40 McLean.
41 Vermillion.

(lie
f=

\,

L }\Chicago

N

Plate I. Maps of Northern Illinois showing locations of towns and

drill holes between Rock Island and Joliet.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 2 QI

of the State relative to the region of our investigation is the
La Salle anticline. Its position is indicated on the map. (Plate I.)
Its character has been discussed so frequently that it has become
familiar. The fold is more in the nature of a monocline than
an anticline, the west side being thrown down along the axis of
disturbance and the east side thrown up. The details of the struc-
ture at La Salle will be shown by the cross-section.

The two-new logs to be presented are from wells located in the
lowest part of the trough west of the anticline.

Log of well No. 16, at the Western Clock Works in Peru, is
as follows, continuing from the base of coal No. 2, or the third-
vein coal, as it is locally known. This log is diagrammatically
shown on the chart.

ieeess Liye 3 ee ale oie. Saree 2 ot aa 5 feet

RE IBMGEGHE te ct or ee bh Nea oe

Gray shale, dark, indications of coal........... 70, base 500 feet deep
White calcareous sandstone.,.................-- _ 15 feet

(Sle eRe ee ee 2 a Sa ee ee ce

og Se a 30

Peaseaired ;shiale: 5¢25.. 3: tei he oe i ete 3

JESTER eS ai oe a a er eee ee ae 85-90 ft., bottom 650 ft.
Me PUOlOIIWE: ons: Cao. Soe ta ein ere 36 feet

“SR 8S Roe ee te eee een oe S35

Wipe tay GOWNNEC. oo co occ oe oe we See eee 06

IHG neces on. ete ee. eee ES be
es 2

RSet MERON 2S chats Wh ore SR ee Cit aa ago

MOET AY, MOMMIMEG. 22). 020s ns eek cw cee eee 13 feet, bottom 853 feet
Penis See CNMIMTIMEE. © 205 23. e ee. oad 70 feet ©

PRRs EST, ee eee oa ee ain ap 7: a

ReGen te oa ds Re Cee 100 feet, bottom 1035
LRN a eh ee eee aes 85 feet, bottom 1120

Log of well No. 27, at No. 5 mine of La Salle County Carbon
Coal Co. Coal No. 2, or third-vein coal, at elevation of 135 A. T.
depth 565 feet:

SRS ek PS ee ee eee 125 feet

ES Sy ee a a a ra

SS A SES ae ae ee PC ee 2 2a ©

eo SS UE Sree Ee CORES eee ca 7) Aaa

ee ity Stee ae ei ekas Gane utedo de 3 2S. -

Oe a ea gs | a a ne 25 feet, bottom 825 ft.
MMO OIOHME A Corer herons mc cee eat eek ee 75 feet

BiIswhish MOBMES. .. saa toe oIoca ous Lek Pae mS

aati oe yt ONE foe oe Bee ge ot a 1

ieinte. dolomite... 30. Soe eue Se eee ose So f

White, slightly calcareous dolomite............. he

White, chalky calcareous dolomite............. el hg

eT a ae a Ss cae ee oe 7 ed

en PL | SO ais Oe eee eee “3 ae

PRR RG Aig lint noe S wa Mula em gy to's oe [i

Bine-and hrowieshales-c22 5 sess is ew bose ey Eqn F

aaa NENURMNRNRREI EO rs ge, a og ewe oe eb x 255 feet, bottom 1498 ft.

the last 15 ft. somewhat calcareous.

-

g2 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

It is apparent that the strata can be divided into four parts,
lithogically. There is an upper division composed of shales and
sandstones and possibly a little coal; the second division, consist-
ing of lighter colored dolomites; the fourth, made up of light
gray and bluish shales, with a little dark shale, and finally the
brownish dolomite.

A detailed comparison of the first limestone of the two logs
shows a little similarity throughout; both have a succession some-
what as follows: White dolomite at top, followed by brown dolo-
mite, gray-white dolomite, then a thin buff dolomite, with the
bottom a gray dolomite, so that there seems to be great safety
in the correlation of these two limestones.

Having established the correlation of the upper limestone, the
lower strata fall into order. Checking the lithogical character-
istics of the four divisions of this well with the character of strata
outcropping in northern Illinois, previously described in this
paper, it would appear that the upper limestone is probably
Niagara limestone and that the Maquoketa shale and Galena-
Trenton limestone lie below. The Hamilton limestone does not
occur in these logs. The material composing the shale of the
first group might be Devonian or Pottsville, but the absence
of bituminous beds with Sporangites seems good proof that the
upper Devonian or Sweetland Creek shale is here absent and that
the strata all belong to the Pottsville.

To summarize: We have below No. 2 or third-vein coal 250
feet of Pottsville sediments, 200-250 feet of Niagara sediments,
145-180 feet of Maquoketa sediments, and as much as 300 feet
of Galena-Trenton, neither well having certainly penetrated the
horizon.

COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH OTHER RECORDS.

In the comparative study of the records just summarized with
the records of other wells in this locality, wells Nos. 16, 31, 15,
14 and 13 will be included in the discussion. (See Plate II.)

These wells are for the most part located in a linear manner
along the north bluff of the Illinois River, extending from La
Salle to Bureau (See Plate I), and they will be considered in
order from east to west.

Well No. 30, Illinois Zinc Co., about one-quarter mile west of
well No. 16:

WEST

14
SPRING VALLEY
14a

%,

i,
a
WATER

178

a“
et

Tome

rail
a
?
GALEWA TRENTON LIMES

ACA PTH A
I | HH at Le |
vi a PH ie HEHEHE,

CORRANVILLE

Bess

Chart S$
Drill Hole

© MEST OME

WEST

16 3i 15 26 13
CLOCK CO. VERT REER COs ST REVE COLLEGE CRANVILER SPRING VALLEY DEPUE
_pgrtonar 03 ta m1 0 L140

TR THIRD FEIN COAL. eee 5
eneeeo

41 T9g4TOR
Suan

WAGARA LIMESTORE

SULT WATER

CINCINNATI
SHALE AND LIMESTONE)

>

Uh Geo

GALENA TRENTON LIMESTONE

ST-PETERS SANDSTONE

Chart Showing the Logs of Eleven {Aa
Drill Holes in the Vicinity of LaSalle. :

LOWER MAGHES/AN LIMESTONE

TOTAL 690 FEET.

Doaren by Val Ingold.

es

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 34

(1) 200 feet of Pottsville.

(2) 220 feet of Niagara.

(3) 178 feet of Maquoketa.

(4) 350 feet of Galena-Trenton limestone.

Well No. 31, Peru Beer Co., about one-quarter mile west of
No. 30, shows:

(1) 55-60 feet of Pottsvilie.

(2) 400 feet of limestone and dolomite, the upper part is calcareous

and possibly Devonian.

(3) 180 feet of Maquoketa shale.

(4) 170 feet of Galena-Trenton limestone.

Well No. 15, St. Bede College, one and one-half miles west of
No. 31:

(1) 50 feet of Pottsville. ‘ ; :

(2) 450 feet of dolomite, the upper part of which is possibly Devonian.

(3) .250 feet of Maquoketa shale.

(4) 308 feet of Galena-Trenton.

(5) 130 feet of St. Peters.

At Spring Valley, well No. 14, water is obtained at a depth
corresponding to that of the Galena-Trenton limestone, well
No. 13.

Artesian well No. 2 of Mineral Point Zinc Co., at DePue,
examined by Dr. J. A. Udden, and reported in correspondence
to the Director of the State Geological Survey:

1) Pottsville, 10-20 feet.

2) Dolomites, 231 ft., white and cream colored. Dolomite different
from usual Niagaran. No strong evidence to show that it is
Devonian, hence placed in the Niagaran.

Dolomitic limestone, white and straw colored, 243 feet.

(3) Maquoketa shale, 170 feet.

(4) Galena-Trenton, 258 feet.

On the chart showing several of the logs just described a num-
ber of interesting details are brought out. The most significant
of these is the excessive and local thickness of the Pottsville sedi-
ments as shown in logs Nos. 16 and 27. The condition as shown
by these records indicate that in Pottsville times there existed a
deep depression probably lying parallel to the axis of the La
Salle anticline, extending up from the south, but not present to
the west, as is shown by the thinning out of the formation in
that direction. The second noteworthy feature is the thinning of
the Niagara limestone where the Pottsville is thickest. This
seems to indicate that the depression or basin in which the Potts-
ville sediments were deposited was not due to down faulting or
folding, but to extensive erosion in the Niagara and Devonian
limestone. In pre-Pottsville times there apparently existed in the

94 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

vicinity of La Salle, within a distance of one-quarter of a mile
relief as great as 200 feet. A third point brought out by the
chart relates to the source of the water supply. It is seen that
almost all the wells obtain water not from the St. Peter sand-
stone, but from the Galena-Trenton limestone, a condition which
has not been generally recognized heretofore for this part of the
State.

For the sake of comparison, the log of a well recently drilled
at Deer Park, which lies on or just east of the anticline, appears
as No. 28, plate Il. The succession shown by this log is very
different from that shown in the logs to the right. The upper
limestone, of which only a part is left, is the Trenton limestone
outcropping along the banks of the Vermilion River. Below this ~
lies about 200 feet of St. Peter sandstone. This is followed by
180 feet of Lower Magnesian or Shakopee limestone. This lies
above a rather massive sandstone of about 200 feet in thickness,
probably the New Richmond sandstone. The well penetrates
about twenty feet of limestone below the New Richmond.

A further reason for introducing this log is for the sake of
showing the difference in the stratigraphic conditions on the two
sides of the anticline, and the possibility of confusing the St.
Peter sandstone and New Richmond sandstone. East of the
anticline the upper sandstone is eroded in the Illinois River bot-
tom about Utica, hence the lower sandstone is often reported as
St. Peter. Furthermore, the record of this well shows us the
character of strata that would probably be encountered in deeper
drilling west of the fold.

PLATE III.

In order that the local condition existing in the vicinity of
La Salle may be more clearly understood, a cross-section has
been prepared, extending from Rock Island to Joliet, showing
structural conditions in northern Illinois, and the stratigraphical
conditions from the Lower Magnesian formation to the “Coal
Measures.” The source of the data shown on this chart is
partly from published articles by Dr. Udden, including the
World’s Fair cross-section and the Rock Island section in the
seventeenth Annual Report of the Federal Survey, and partly
from data in the files of the State Survey.

To sum up briefly what it is desired to show by the chart:
(1) The general occurrence of the same strata having somewhat
the same thickness on the two sides of the anticline, so far as they

8.480

of the lines of deposition of the Maquoketa on the Galena-
Trenton and the Trenton on the.St. Peter indicates a trunca-

PLATE 3.

‘BOCK ISLAND CARDON CLIFF ORNESEO ATKINSON ANNAWAN ‘MINERAL SUAPFIBLD ‘TISKILWA BUREAU pREUB SURING VALLEY ta 84LLe = Tica OTTAWA MASA LES: SENECA monks JOLT
7
P ; org 10, so &
ts s <7
; 2 2 og enone ames fool Naa 2
wsse edad ON ruvite = Ny op a Tatu S15 2 Cont Nos Base tea
= Manila’ ar acca mesons a 300 23 9 28th caine 0
i Cont io Porm
Onl No. Sralepe? oe
Karon
ci Statoprer Meynater, {0
. i oot Noa / td wir TES Gums |
Mapai ie} if sgh A Now Richardt”
0 u 3 = = AE Id home 9
, Cs famiion al
= CO = er SEA ERVEL Den
Ps 3 z ey
Bl 100
fa fe gare ore |
| z
me 3 ae
fy = =| Batepet [aoe
are | | Fa
| 20
=) alee Ii
g ne
S| Tevntom :
Paige New Wichmend?
=)
i Woter bod
Padem

= Ontar LI Cross Section from Rock Island to
3 Joliet, Showing the Relation and Struc-
8 ture of the Hard Rocks,
aI

=

FS
i
jecasisatizitinezitataern &
1

Bs Se 132

Draven by VI. Ingold.

.
:
;
}

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 95

have not been removed by erosion. It will be noticed, however,
that the eastern Maquoketa is considerably thinner than the west-
ern. (2) The amount of the displacement of the La Salle anti-
cline. The logs showing the full extent of this displacement are
Nos. 15 and 17a. In both cases we have data on the bottom of
St. Peter and top of the Lower Magnesian limestone. The Lower
Magnesian limestone, as it is exposed in the bluff above well
No. 17a, reaches practically to the base of the St. Peter sand-
stone, inasmuch as the top of the limestone contains the odlitic
flints that mark the contact between the St. Peter and Lower
Magnesian. The total displacement as indicated by these two
wells is 1,500 feet. (3) The time and amount of the displace-
ment. Inasmuch as coal veins are probably laid down on hori-
zontal surfaces, and as coal No. 2, or third-vein, extends complete-
ly across the anticline in places, and, in fact, as the complete “Coal
Measure” section near La Salle is affected by the disturbance, it
seems unquestionable that the final folding is post-Pennsylvanian.
The amount of this displacement is about 500 feet. As the coal
beds dip slightly toward the fold on the west and away from it
on the east, there has probably been movement on both sides.

The fact that there have been two movements shows in actual
outcrop at Split Rock, near La Salle, and elsewhere along the
anticline where the “Coal Measures” can be seen lying against the
St. Peter sandstone. The former has a dip of twelve or fifteen
degrees, the latter from twenty-five to thirty-five degrees.

The date of the fold seems to be determinable from a study of
the contact of the Trenton-St. Peter formations and the Maquo-
keta-Galena formations east of the fold, as is shown by the
cross-section (Plate III). The straight line marking the contact
of the limestone and sandstone is a depositional surface and must
have originally been flat. Therefore the uplift to the west ending
in the anticlinal fold must have occurred in post-St. Peter time.
Further attention is directed to the Trenton-Galena lime-
stone east of the axis. It seems that in the well at Joliet, No. 25,
the thickness of the Trenton-Galena is about normal, conforming
with the condition west of the axis. It is thought that probably
originally the limestone extended across the position of the fold.
That this was the case seems probable because of its actual
occurrence at present in places between the St. Peter sandstone
and coal No. 2 near the axis of the anticline. The convergence
of the lines of deposition of the Maquoketa on the Galena-
Trenton and the Trenton on the.St. Peter indicates a trunca-

96 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

tion of the limestone by erosion to a flat surface, upon which
the shale was locally deposited. The convergence of these
two lines of deposition seems reasonable proof that the age
of the chief fold can be placed as post-Galena and pre-Maquo-
keta, or about contemporaneous with the formation of the Cin-
cinnati arch. The displacement at the time amounted to about
1,000 feet.?

CORRELATION OF THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM OF THE
ROCK ISLAND REGION.

W. ELMER EKBLAW.

This paper is an attempt to correlate the strata of the Devonian
system of the northwest part of Illinois with those of the same
system in other parts of the State and in adjacent States. It is
the result of detailed field work done in that region in the summer
of 1910, under the direction of Professor T. E. Savage, and in
accordance with a general plan for the study of different forma-
tions of the State as formulated by Mr. F. W. DeWolf, director
of the State Geological Survey.

Not much work has been done on the Devonian of this region.
A. H. Worthen,? F. B. Meek,? James Shaw? and J. A. Udden*
have devoted some attention to it, but no detailed account of its
paleontology and stratigraphy has yet been given.

The Devonian exposures in northwest Illinois are confined to
a rather narrow belt in Rock Island and Henry counties, border-
ing the bluffs of the Mississippi and Rock Rivers, and extending
from a point opposite Montpelier, Iowa, to Green River, tribu-
tary to Rock River, and to Campbell’s Island on the Mississippi
River.

This narrow belt embraces the margin of the highlands front-
ing upon the flood plains of the Rock and Mississippi Rivers, and
that portion of the flood plains immediately adjacent to the bluffs

1Since the presentation of the foregoing paper the well No. 27 at Cedar Point
has been completed, so that the section at that place has been extended by the
addition of 110 feet of Galena-Trenton limestone and 140 feet of St. Peter sand-
stone to the top of the Lower Magnesian limestone. The total depth is now 1,749
feet and 8 inches. These data have been included in the diagram on Plate II.

1 Worthen, A. H., Geol. Survey of Illinois, Vol. I, 1866, pp. 120-122.

2Worthen, A. H., and Meek, F. B., Geol. Survey Illinois, Vol. II,* 1866, p. 423.
Idem. Vol. III, 1868, pp. 419-449.

3 Worthen, A. H., and Shaw, James, Geol. Survey Illinois, Vol. V, 1873, pp. 217-

234. ; ete
4Udden, J. A., Rept. Illinois Board of World’s Fair Commissioners, 1893, pp. 117-
177. Idem. Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIX, 1896, pp. 93-94.

Lo

.—

TT | eS Pe =

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 97

of the highlands. The bluffs rise boldly from eighty to too feet
above the river flats. They are much dissected by small streams,
which have cut through the drift of the Pleistocene, and, wherever
the Pennsylvanian is present, through the shales and sandstones
of that system, exposing the Devonian limestones below.

These small streams have comparatively steep gradients and a
consequent erosive power of considerable strength. Wherever
they cut through the limestones, they have developed rather nar-
row valleys with steep banks. The larger of these creeks are
Fancy Creek, Case Creek and Mill Creek, all affording good
exposures of Devonian strata in their banks.

The drift of the Pleistocene varies much in thickness, in some
places scarcely covering the country rock, while on some of the
hills, well borings reveal a depth of fifty feet of glacial material,
which is probably all of Illinoian age. In the river valleys, mate-
rial from the Wisconsin drift to the eastward has been deposited,
and in the eastern portion of the area scattered localities of ridged
loess and sand occur, which resemble in character those of the
Iowan drift border. Usually the Pleistocene deposits rest upon
those of the Pennsylvanian, but when the latter have been eroded
the loess and drift cover the limestones of the Devonian age.

The Pennsylvanian shales and sandstones of this area, some
seventy to 100 feet in thickness, belong to the Pottsville and Car-
bondale stages. They overlie the Devonian limestones, which at
the time of deposition of the Pennsylvanian rocks formed the well
dissected surface of the area. Well defined erosion valleys in
the Devonian are filled with horizontally bedded shales, sand-
stones and occasional thin seams of coal. In a few separated
areas these coal seams are thick enough for profitable working.
The extent of the unconformity between the Pennsylvanian beds
and the Devonian strata is revealed by the absence of the Upper
Devonian, the entire Mississippian, and the lower portion of the
Pottsville.

The absence of these strata may be due to the fact that the
missing members were never deposited in this area, in conse-
quence of land conditions prevailing here during their deposition
elsewhere, but it is possible that at least a part of these members
were laid down, and afterward eroded before the deposition of
ysnor L19A dy} YOIYM BdUEPIAS oy, “UeTUeATAsUUag SUTATIOAO 9Y}
and broken Devonian surface affords tends to confirm this latter
view.

The Devonian system of this area, the correlation of which is

08 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

the purpose of the present study, consists of limestones of Hamil-
ton age, varying in thickness in the different exposures, from a
few feet in the southwest corner of the area to over I00
feet in the Cady quarries of East Moline. They rest unconform-
ably upon the Niagaran strata of the Silurian system, the unton-
formity in this case being more probably due to the prevalence
of land conditions here, while the intervening members of the
Silurian and Devonian system were being deposited in other
localities.

The Silurian limestones upon which the Devonian beds rest
unconformably belong to the Lockport stage of the Niagaran.
They vary greatly in thickness, the maximum in this region being
reported by Udden' as 364 feet. Their yellow color, dolomitic
character and the presence of fragments of Pentamerus oblongus
distinguish them from those of the Devonian. In this immediate
area they are not exposed, their nearest outcrop occurring some
miles farther north, near Port Byron.

The most westerly exposure of the Devonian limestone in this
region is in the low bank of the Mississippi River directly across
the river from Montpelier, lowa. From this exposure eastward
as far as the Green River, in Henry county, and northeastward
to Campbell’s Island in the Mississippi, the Hamilton limestone
outcrops at many points in the banks and beds of the streams.
The best exposures occur along Fancy Creek, Mill Creek and
Case Creek. Other important exposures are those near the Water
Power Company’s dam, between Milan and Rock Island.

The Hamilton limestone is composed of several very definite
members, readily distinguished by their fossils, or by their litho-
logical characters. The lowest members are notably unfossilif-
erous, while some of the upper members are made up almost
entirely of brachiopod shells, crinoid stems, or corals. The tex-
ture, jointing, and color of the various members also vary to
such an extent that the different horizons can often be recognized
by their lithological characters alone.

DETAILED SECTIONS OF THE DEVONIAN STRATA.

A continuous section from the lowest strata of the Devonian
system exposed in the county, in the Cady quarry in East Moline,
to the topmost stratum underlying the Pennsylvanian shales and
sandstones along Fancy Creek, may be obtained by connecting up

1Udden, J. A., Rept. Illinois Board World’s Fair Commissioners, 1893, p. 140.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 99

the exposures in the Cady quarry, the outcrops along Mill Creek
and the outcrops along Fancy Creek. Such a continuous section
aggregates a thickness of more than 150 feet.

In the face of the Cady quarry 100 feet of brecciated, non-
fossiliferous limestone is revealed, representing the lower portion
of the Devonian section in this area. This exposure, which is
accessible to careful examination and study, is described in the
following section, designated N,

SECTION OF ROCKS EXPOSED IN THE CADY QUARRY.

Feet. In
MR EGESS ANG MO TIt trois tore oie win cig elk ess sents View gst Heep eases 10
MameeGray to yellow, sole assile shales... os 322). e cess ee ae 2
Meee hatk e1arnonseeous Shale: soos. aah a. a oo e eS os Se dae dewe ers 8

N:k. Very hard, brown to red, ironstained limestone, containing
many coralla of Phillipsastree billingst and shells of Atrypa

REMICMMOPES ti Seow tie tes ey eetesece: oe wie aattnS 3
N.j. Light gray to brown, much brecciated limestone, in layers
DOMEHES, Uys ECE CUMICK Yo. tne 2 Ste ee oe ae ee oe ea ee aioe 30

N:i. Gray, brecciated, very irregularly jointed limestone, in im-
perfect layers 4 inches to 3 feet thick, with occasional chert
TICES Meee ees eens, ASD ES SOREN a Rrcieetkee ok ee 15

N-h. Hard, gray, fine-grained, brecciated limestone, in layers 2
inches to 3 feet thick, with conspicuous vertical joints, and
occasional ribbon-like veins of calcite.................... 30

Ng. Narrow band of hard, chocolate-colored, very fine-grained
limestone, with crevices along joints and bedding planes

RNR MEME ANCHE A ecco ber EAS C Ute eine? wn clyate io nie oa Re 6
Nef. Hard, dark gray, fine-grained limestone, with crystals of

calcite common along PR APES Ios Oras ORES oie ore as 3
Ne. Band of hard, almost black, coarse-grained limestone........ I
N:d. Soft, yellow, coarse- grained limestone, containing a distinct

band of chert nodules near the middle.................... 2 5G
Noc. Soft, blue, sandy to shale limestone, containing much calcite. 6

Nb. Band of soft, dark gray to dark brown, fine-grained lime-

stone, in layers 2 to 4 inches thick, and containing many

CAIEILE SEL Y SIS oe cn Se Seine» SES ok Se See ROMs Re oes I
N-a. Very hard, grayish brown, fine-grained brecciated limestone,

in layers 4 inches to 3 feet thick. Lamination planes con-

spicuous in the lower portion. To the bottom.......... 15

In the foregoing section the shale members (Nol and Nom)

represent the Pennsylvanian system, while the limestone members
(N.a to N.k, inclusive), almost 1oo feet in vertical thickness,
belong to the Devonian. Of the Devonian members exposed in
the quarry face, only the upper ten or fifteen feet-may be seen
anywhere else in Rock Island county. These lower 100 feet of
Devonian strata are almost barren of fossils. Their correlation
with the Devonian rocks in other regions must be made on the
basis of their lithological character as revealed in this one
exposure. The most distinctive of these characters is the brec-
ciation which continues almost without interruption from the
base to the top of the barren lower layers.

100 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

From this exposure in the Cady quarry the section may be con-
tinued upward in the Mill Creek outcrops, of which the lowest
member, E,a, corresponds to the upper portion of the member
Noj; and members E,b and Ejc to the member Nok.

The sections along Mili Creek comprise some of the most
typical exposures of the Devonian rocks found in Rock Island
county. With the exception of the sectior obtained in the Cady
quarries, the Mill Creek sections, taken in their entirety, show the
greatest thickness of Devonian strata, and, without exception,
yield the greatest number of fossils.

The sections begin near the confluence of Mill Creek and Rock
River, where the Fayette breccia appears, and extend continu-
ously to the center of Sec. 25, T. 17 N., R.2 W. A total vertical
thickness of more than sixty feet of limestone is exposed in this
section. A number of outcrops occur farther up the stream, but
the strata exposed are included within the continuous section far-
ther down the stream. The Mill Creek section marked FE, is as
follows:

SECTION OF STRATA EXPOSED ALONG MILL CREEK.
Feet. In.
E.p. Layer of gray, shelly, somewhat crystallized limestone, con-

taining a large number of small shells of Atrypa reticu-
laris

Zaphrentis sp.
Zaphrentis gigantea
Athyris fultonensis
Atrypa reticularis

Schizophoria striatula

Reticularia fimbriata
Spirifer 10wensis
Spirifer subvaricosus

E,o. Coral limestone; Acervularia davidsoni coral reef...........
Ein. Brown limestone extending up to the top of the Acervularia
TOKEN ects)? MOE AEA Pee MC OO aD ABA tOi ODO S Gtacon duc -
Striatopora rugosa Atrpa reticularis
Cyclotrypa communis Chonetes scitulus
Cystodictya hamiltonensts Craneéna iowensis
Euspilopora barrisi Cyrtina umbonata
Fenestella vera Pentamerella dubia
Fistulipora monticulata Spirifer subvaricosus
Hemitrypa tenera Spirifer euryteines
Orbignyella tenera Spirifer towensis
Reteporina hamiltonensis Stropheodonta demissa
Semicoscinium rhombicum Stropheodonta perplana
Platyceras sp.
E.m. Brown, fine-grained somewhat crystalline and crinoidal lime-

stone, weathering into slabs 2 to 3 inches thick, and yield-

ing the following fossils
Eridotrypa appressa
Atrypa reticularis
Craneéna iowensis
Gypidula comis
Reticularia fimbriata
Schizophoria striatula

Schuchertella chemungensis
Spirifer euryteines

Spirifer towensis

Spirifer subvaricosus
Stropheodonta demissa
Stropheodonta perplana

Phacops rana

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS IOI

5 ; ; Feet. In.
Soft, yellowish, fine-grained impure limestone, very shaly
and shelly, weathering into thin bands. Pelecypods are

particularly numerous in this member.................... a LG
Cyclotrypa collina Stropheodonta perplana :
Cycloirypa communis Platyceras dumosus
Fistulipora monticulata Actinopieria decussata
Orbignyella monticula Cypricardella bellisiriata
Atrypa reticularis Gontophora sp.
Choneies scitulus Modiola sp.
Cyriina umbonata Modiomorpha concenirica
Pholidostrophia iowensis Myitilops praecedens
Spirifer asper Mytilarca sp.
Spirifer euryteines Paleoneilo cf. plana
Spirifer iowensis Paracyclas elliptica
Spirifer subvaricosus Ptychopteria sp.
Siropheodonta demissa Sphenotus sp.

Soft, yellowish, impure and shaly limestone. Joint planes
nearly vertical and close together. Stratification is thin,

Fie saCk WEALNEES | TEAGUY oe. § dane on oes ae ee nets Sian 5
Cyathophyllum sp. Chonetes scitulus
Striatopora rugosa Cranena iowensis
Spirorbis angulatus Pholidosirophia towensis
Cyclotrypa collina Roemerella grandis
Cyclotrypa communis Schizophoria striatula
Cystodictya hamiltonensis Spirifer asper
Eridophyllum appressa Spirifer bimesialis
Euspilopora barrisi Spinifer euryteines
Fenestella vera Spirifer iowensis
Fistulipora monticulata Spirifer subvaricosus
Orbignyella monticula Cypricardinia indenta
Semicoscinium rhombicum Paleoneilo cf. plana
Atrypa reticularis Gomphoceras ajax

Phacops rana

Dark-gray to yellowish-gray, rather impure limestone, weath-

ering rather easily. Jointing characteristically oblique... 4
Ceratopora sp. Airypa spinosa
Cystiphyllum sp. Chonetes scitulus
Streptelasma rectum Cranena iowensis
Spirorbis angulatus Cranaena romingeri
Cyclotrypa collina Crania sheldoni
Cyclotrypa communis Cyrtina hamiltonensis, var. recta
Eridoirypa appressa Cyrtina umbonata
Fistulipora ‘monticulata Pentamerella dubia
Hederella filiformis Pholidostrophia iowensis
Orbignyella monticula Schizophoria striatula
Peialotrypa compressa Spirifer asper
Rhombopora sulcifera Spirifer euryteines
Semicoscinium rhombicum Spirifer iowensis
Ambocoelia umbonata Spirifer subvaricosus
Atrypa hystrix Stropheodonta demissa
Airypa reticularia Stropheodonia perplana

Rather soft, gray to yellowish, impure limestone, in rather
thick layers which weather easily and show oblique joint-

Se eee en ee face ey cinch sth pasa «Se tine km une me 5
Streptelasma rectum Cranena iowensis
Cyclotrypa communis Crania sheldoni
Cystodictya hamiltonensis Cyrtina umbonata
Cyclotrypa collina Gypidula comis
Fenestella vera Pentamerella dubia

Fistulipora monticulata Pholidostrophia towensis

102 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

; Feet. In.
Hemutrypa tenera Productella subalata
Orbignyella monticula Reticularia fimbriata
Semicoscinium rhombicum Schizophoria striatula
Spirorbis sp. Spirifer asper
Athyris fultonensis Spirifer 1owensis
Atrypa hystrix Spirifer euryteines
Atrypa reticularis Spirifer subvaricosus
Chonetes scitulus Stropheodonta demissa

Stropheodonta perplana

E,h. Gray, thinly-bedded, rather impure limestone, weathering

easily. Fossils rather numerous: :2 |). 501.14. uae Lee 2
Ceratopora sp. Cranena iowensis
Streptelasma rectum Cyrtina umbonata
Cyclotrypa communis Pentamerella dubia
Cystodictya hamiltonensis Schizophoria striatula
Eridotrypa appressa Productella subalata
Euspilopora barrisi Reticularia fimbriata
Fistulipora monticulata Spirifer asper
Hemitrypa tenera Spirifer bimesialis
Orbignyella monticula Spirifer euryteines
Petalotrypa compressa Spirifer iowensis
Rhombopora subannulata Spirifer subvaricosus
Semicoscinium rhombicum Stropheodonta demissa
Atrypa hystrix Stropheodonta perplana
Atrypa reticularis Tentaculites bellulus
Chonetes scitulus Phacops rana

Eig. Gray, fine-grained, easily-eroded, impure limestone, shaly in

places: “Bossils not numerous butsyaniedusn sea... eee 2
Streptelasma rectum Chonetes scitulus
Cyclotrypa communis Crania sheldoni
Cystodictya hamiltonensis Lingulodiscina marginalis
Fenestella vera Pholidostrophia iowensis
Fistulipora monticulata Productella subalata
Hemitrypa tenera Reticularia fimbriata
Orbignyella monticula Schizophoria striatula
Semicoscinium rhombicum Schuchertella chemungensis
Athyris fultonensis Spirifer subvaricosus
Atrypa hystrix Spirifer iowensis
Atrypa reticularis Stropheodonta demissa

Stropheodonta perplana

E.f. Yellowish, impure, richly fossiliferous limestone.............

Streptelasma rectum Chonetes scitulus
Cyclotrypa communis Cyrtina umbonata
Cystodictya hamiltonensis Schizophoria striatula
Fenistella vera Schuchertella chemungensis
Fenestropora occidentalis Spirifer 1owensis
Hemutrypa tenera Spirifer subvaricosus
Orbignyella monticula Stropheodonta demissa
Rhombopora subannulata Stropheodonta perplana
Semicoscinium rhombicum Bellerophon pelops
Atrypa hystrix Actinopteria decussata
Atrypa reticularis Phacops rana

Exe. - Layer: of hard, ‘dark gray limestone..<:. 2. 22 2. eee Biotin.
Stylodictyon expansum Schizophoria striatula
Atrypa hystrix Spirifer bimesialis
Atrypa reticularis Spirifer euryteines
Cyrtina hamiltonensis Spirifer subvaricosus

Pholidostrophia iowensis Stropheodonta demissa

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 103

Feet. In.
kud. Layer of vellowish, rather shaly limestone which weathers
readily. Fossils resembling those of Eie................ 9
Cyathophyllum sp. Productella subalata
Cystiphyllum ci. americanum Schizophoria striatula
Streptelasma simplex Spirifer towensts
Atrypa hystrix Stropheodonta demissa
Altrypa reticularis Stropheodonta perplana
Atrypa spinosa Platyceras dumosum
Cranena iowensis Pleurotomaria lucina

Gomphoceras ajax

E,c. Outcrop under and just south of the Rock Island Ry. bridge,
in the S.E. % sec. 24, T. 17 N., R. 1 W. Very hard, fine-
grained limestone containing many corals. May be desig-

_ nated as the Phdhipsasirea horizon... ~:. 2.2 0s. 5.25565 rag
Astraeospongia hamiltonensis Zaphrentis sp.
Alveolites goldfussi Hemitrypa tenera
Acervularia davidsoni Orbignyella monticula
Acervularia profunda Atrypa hystrix
Ceratopora sp. Atrypa reticularis
Cladopora palmata Cranena romingeri
Cladopora sp. Gypidula comis
Craspedophyllum archiaci Nucleospira ventricosa
Cyathophyllum sp. Productella subalata
Cystiphyllum americanum Reticularia subundifera
Favosites alpenensis Schizophoria striatula
Favosites hamilionensis Spirifer euryteines
Favosites placenta Spirifer iowensis
Heliophyllum halli Wtropheodonta demissa
Phillipsastrea billingsi Bellerophon pelops
Streptelasma simplex Pleurotomaria lucina

Gomphoceras sp.

E:b. Stratum of hard, gray limestone, just above the breccia, and

below Phillipsastrea zone, containing the fossils.......... Ea
Zaphrentis sp. Pholidostrophia iowensis
Athyris fultonensis Productella subalata
Atrypa hystrix Reticularia fimbriata
Atrypa reticularis Spirifer subvaricosus
Cranena towensis Stropheodonta demissa
Cyrtina hamiltonensis Bellerophon pelops

, Pleurotomaria lucina
Gomphoceras

E:a. Outcrop in bed of Mill Creek, one-half mile east of Milan,
nofth and south of wagon bridge. Dark-gray, fine-grained,
much brecciated limestone, bearing no fossils............. 10

The members of the section from the bottom up to the Acervu-
laria davidsoni coral reef are clearly separable into two general
divisions: the lower, softer and more yellow is thinly stratified;
the upper, harder and more brown, is in thicker layers. In both
portions the jointing is not nearly so close together and is more
nearly perpendicular to the bedding planes than in the members
E,g to E,j, inclusive. The latter members are distinctly and
characteristically obliquely jointed, and shattered and broken into
small, very sharp and angular blocks.

The uppermost member of the Mill Creek section, E,p, may be

Pentamerella dubia

104 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

readily correlated directly with the member D,h of the Fancy
Creek section, by means of the fossils. A number of intervening
exposures substantiate this correlation. The Fancy Creek section
is as follows:

Feet. In.
Dgh. Very hard, iron-stained, fine-grained limestone, containing. . 10
Stropheodonta concava Stropheodonta perplana
Deg. Iron-stained, fine-grained, slightly crystalline limestone...... 1

Athyris fultonensts
Cranena iowensis

Spirifer asper }
Stropheodonta demissa

Dsf. Hard, slightly iron-stained, fine-grained limestone with nu-
metous coralla Of Wacken eit nee ee ee ee 2
Zaphrentis gigantea

Dsge. Hard, dark-gray, almost crystalline limestone, slightly stained
by arons “Many. fossils. a..5. 14ee.9s Sect a soe eee I
Stylodictyon expansum Lingulodiscina marginalis
Cladopora prolifica Pugnax sp.
Zaphrentis sp. Reticularia fimbriata
Athyris fultonensis Spirifer iowensis
Crane@na sp. Spirifer subvaricosus
Bellerophon pelops

Dsd. Very hard, banded, black and gray, limestone with numerous
StromatOpOroiwds, 2. acct = aoe lees site Cele teers cs ee er ene 4
Cladopora palmata Zaphrentis 2 sp.
Cladopora prolifica Spirifer iowensis
Stropheodonta demissa

Dsc. Rather soft, coarse-grained limestone, with many fossils..... 8

Atrypa reticularis
Schizophoria striatula
Spirifer euryteines

Spirifer 1owensis
Stropheodonta demissa
Phacops rana

Dsb. Bluish to brownish, irregularly-bedded, fine-grained, lime-
stone with band of large Atrypa reticularis near middle.

Tae: Fossils “arenes os Peek sreaictece oe ake oe crete ere oe eee be Pao:
Atrypa reticularis Stropheodonta demissa
Cran@éna iowensis Edmondia sp.

Dsa. Gray, locally iron-stained, shelly and shaly limestone, con-
taining Spirifer towensis and numerous small Aérypa
reticularis throughout. Athyris fultonensis and Spirifer
euryteines ate common near the top.........4.55...60008 3

Streptelasma rectum
Orbignyella monticula
Athyris fultonensis
Atrypa reticularis
Craneéna iowensis

Cyrtina umbonata, vat. alta

Schizophoria striatula
Spirifer asper

Spirifer euryteines
Spirifer subvaricosus
Stropheodontq demissa
Sropheodonta perplana

From the foregoing sections, which include all of the Devonian
strata that are exposed in Rock Island county, a generalized sec-
tion of the Devonian rocks in this area may be constructed. The
lowest members of this generalized section, including all the
brecciated beds, are represented in the Cady quarry exposure in
East Moline. The uppermost member of the Cady quarry sec-
tion, the Phillipsastrea zone, N.k, is equivalent to E,c of the

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS I05

Mill Creek section. Consequently the Mill Creek section becomes
a direct upward continuation of the Cady quarry section. The
uppermost member of the Mill Creek section, E,p, which con-
tains the numerous small shells of Atrypa reticularis, is equiva-
lent to the lowest member of the Fancy Creek section Dga, of
which the topmost layer, Dgh, represents the uppermost rocks of
the Devonian system found in Rock Island county.

The aggregate thickness of the Devonian rocks in Rock Island
county is thus found to be slightly more than 150 feet, of which
the lower 100 feet are exposed only in the Cady an at East
Moline.

LIST OF FOSSILS.

A list of the fossils collected from the Devonian strata in Rock
Island county is given in full below. The names of those which
occur in the Devonian of Iowa are indicated by “x” in the first

column; those which occur in Jackson and Union counties by an
“x” in the second column; those which occur in New York and
the eastern province of the Hamilton by an “x” in the third
column; those which occur in Wisconsin by an “x” in the fourth
column; and those which occur in Jersey and a counties,
Illinois, by an “x” in the fifth column.

The list of fossils occurring in the Devonian strata of Iowa
was compiled from the reports of the Iowa Geological Survey,
and since these reports are not especially paleontological, the list
is probably incomplete; the list of the fossils of Jackson and
Union counties, Illinois, from unpublished lists furnished by Pro-
fessor Savage; the list of the fossils from New York and the
Eastern Province of the Hamilton, from State Reports and
various other sources; the list of the fossils from Wisconsin,
from Cleland’s' report of 1911; and the list from Jersey and
Calhoun counties, from an unpublished thesis by J. G. Hutton.

: : : i: 2 ts 5
Astraeostongia hamiltonensis, Meek and Worthen........ =
Caunopora incrustans, Hall and Whitfield................. +
i ANNEL CEND c ae ent a a eek es oh oe We <me.&
Stylodictyon expansum, Hall and Whitfield................ *
Acervularia davidsoni, Edwards and Haime............... *
RACV EE UNEEMMENIE, EERE oo nk wan ou k aa a’ne okans = aa kke *
mene® “eemEse ) TUMMINEG SS. Wo oc). oe sa wna ean acu s esses * * *
LONE ee ee pe nae a ee

TOA EE TO Sere alia gas Sites Pa ees A gly

Cladopora cryptodens, Billings.........................-- + + +
Cladopora prolifica, Hall and SWhitheld Ss 8, ane An oe *

1 Cleland, H. F., Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull., No. XXI, rgrr.
The fossils and stratigraphy of the middle Devonian of Wisconsin.

106 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Cladopora palmata, Hall

and Whitfield: ..2o-chanccec aera

Craspedophyllum archiaci, Billings................00.0000-

Cyathophyllum sp.......

o.8 26 sc o's 0.6 eee apes sees ecsiae ep ss 6 a wim

Cystiphyllum cf. americanum, Edwards and Haime........
Favosties alpenensis, Winchell... 5.0. 2.0522.025 stades eee os
Favosites placenta, Rominger: .. +. i.<<3 5.2202 4.t 0). faeepe
Heliophyllum hall, Edwards and Haime.............++-.-
Philliipsasirea bilingst,. (Calvin. . 22 oc ses oa tatlece Sees Bek
Strepielasma rectum, Hallows, f cidcieespbeeee ce see
Strepiclasma ‘simples, Tall... ..6)5~2n.04 42208 o- cp tee nee

Striatopora rugosa, Hall.

ee ee ee

Zaphrentis giganica, Lestieur.2.s. 2.02.2 nce ae weve

ZODRVEMES (SB x30 S56. xaos
Spirorbis angulatus, Hall

ee ee ee

Cycloiegia’ collvaa, Ulsteh.~ . 2.020.255. - aoe eeee eee
Gyclotrypa communis, Ulrich....:.....00..5.00c00ereneceee

Cystodictya hamiltonensis,

Wibeielr e255 santas eee

Pridotrypa-appressa, UUMCB. 20.12. o 5 3s cc ben wo. gana eo teak
Eusilapora, borvest, Ulricb. 273 2.02 <= slo dan canadien ahnenmee

Fenestella vera, Ulrich..

Fenestrapora occidentalis,

Fistulipora stricta, Ulrich

pA inichsu.c.v.bae- ahaa eeeeee

<== 2 sla pels 66 ©m 6 aw \S/e 9-8 6 Vee 5)0 eo) etn ee

Fistulipora monticulata, Ulrich..............2eeeseceeeees
Hederella filiformis, Billings... 1208... .00 52 0). Coc oes wn Ee eee

Hemitrypa tenera, Ulrich

Meekopora stellifera, Rominger............-+2..0ceecenwnn
Orbignyella’ monticula, White.......... 0006. secess ce cnenes
Orbicnyella tenera, Cleland ...62.)....04002 62s sees se ianeden ae
Petaloirypa compressa, Ultich. ...0 0.0. c.22 ooe 6 cia ela ease dare

Reteporina hamiltonensis,
Rhombopora subannulata,

Witich sts jase er ate eS
Witiehs stems Rene oe eines

Rhombopora sulcifera, Ulrich. ............... ce ceeeeeeeees
Semicoscinium rhombicum, Ulrich................202e20e-
Ambocelia umbonata, Conrad..........---s00seseececceeee
Athyris fultonensis, Swallow..:.........-+-2seeeeeeeeeees

Atrypa hystrix, Hall.....

me (0-6) GS 60.0) 66:6 S406 © 6 v.29 6.0) 9 ee © 2s asim

Atrypa aspera occidentalis, Hall...........-.+.eseeeeeeeeee
Atrypa reticularis, Linnaus............000.-ees eee ee eeees

Atrypa spinosa, Hall....
Chonetes scitulus, Hall..
Cranena iowensis Calvin
Cranena romingeri, Hall

Crania sheldoni, White...

ee eee cesses nese se ee eeee sees teseses

eo Uiere Siete a 2) a eel 6 Se a ce) eee as 6 9 elem ae

wai 006 6. 06 5 Od oe sia « © Bis 6,2 8.6) 6. 06\n! as (osel™

eee ec at eseceece tee ece see tte ee ees eee

Cyrtina hamiltonensis, Hall..........2..22- serene eee e renee
Cyrtina hamiltonensis recta, Hall.........-... sees cece ee ees

Cyrtina umbonata, Hall..
Gypidula comis, Owen...

ae sie we Sle op eb» 0 00 660 00 60.2 © 2 8 0 606 8

eae, a el ween Mele sete ee ples eS Ca) 6, 616 err eae

Lingulodiscina marginalis, Whitfield. ............--+0++0055

Nucleospira concinna, Hall

sjsu ew ein we El ee.e efeln) © =e) ellel« 6) 6eyp e.m jo e\ ae

Nucleaspira ventricosa, Hall.... 2,-0.2. eee cece eee eee e eee
Orbiculoidea telleri, Cleland...........c0..cccee rence cces
Orbiculoidea wardi, Cleland.............eceeeeeeecereceees

Pentamerella dubia, Hall.

ow 0: 9,0 eae, a0 es o16'j0 8.6586 os, a eKeia els» em Se Ie

Pholidostrophia iowensis, Owen........-..+eeeeec eee eeeee

Productella subalata, Hall
PRENGY SP. otc ccees ee

be Xtehe wie, aid = ae eee eo le, le) mw") opal eel eo, CRO8e 1S) 2a

fo ielie,e Biel anne, eee) 6 sie ele seq 016.00 em rea eee

Reticularia fimbriata, Conrad... ......2. 20. ceee ccc e ee tceee
Reticularia subundifera, Meek and Worthen............-----
Rhipidomella vanuxemt, Hall.......---.-ee eee e reece eee
Remerella grandis, Vanuxem...........- eee cece eee eens
Schizophoria striatula, Schlotheim...........-+-+00+++2005:
Schuchertella chemungensis, Conrad..........++-++++ee000:

* RH

HH HEHEHE HH HH HH H * eek et

HHH Ee €

HHHHHRHHH HH HK

*

Me 96 Ab

tH *

* ex *

*

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 107

: f Feet. In.
NOE ORSCINEE eS Sen es och uh won on eee
Peer. Sueneremler FIRM. 30> th isn Jucniew Ft tea eed ns 12
rey Per eeeS, CPWED. Co oy. 2 55 22 aj ses So ane e nea
Se RIED AON MIENE i? es Ee fc oc ea fete Sead
Spirifer subvaricosus, Hall and Whitfield..................
PT HNGMAIS: CTPMIAENES FIRM 5 crc 2c in cin oo can s/c ape» ge See
Stropheodonta demissa, Conrad... ................00--2 0200
Stropheodonia perplana, Conrad..... Sear ee ae ene eae ae ee
SP a SS | gece Oe ee teres eee ee ee
Pemerotems exteums, Kindle... 0... 2.22.52 sec ek eee ee *
POCEVLS GUIMUSENE ACONTAD . 5 oo occa ais 5 3 ea as a wle wes * ee 3
Dee IUIAIN Se CAMICTNNS GS SATIR io Ole bc coc ke «sam wk ¥
MEG MUS SPARE Ae Ce, OO Pe Aas © ee ee
PLC rie UPEMS IG EIDIES eed 2 255% oh 5s son's nigh old xe o/s * 2
UMMA a ane hh Dee teat oct bck spe = SG wee

HH HHHHH HH
*
x* He HH

%
*
*

Cypricardella bellistriata, Conrad.........:............-45.
_wericorawumea sindenia, Conrad. ~~... . 05+... <2 --2- 0 pie Moe
TL LAE a BSC eed 5 a ee ape ea

Goniophora sp............... er eee eee ati eer ee ee eee

BRAINS STR eT RE x ee eee SEO Fak oe eee etm

Modiomorpha concentrica, Hall......................++..-- * *
mgnloce trivonale, Cleland. . 2.2. (.). 02 oc 50.<. 2 cu en ons =
Mena Se Wettiedees Ptah 8 oe os ns hn peat ae SSS ree
SPAT PC AMM! RATA oS 8 ee ae Foe a Be OS
PRACUCIIS CLA piCG Et all.).. soe) oie os 0ess Sal See ws
Sa OLAS hale (CORTAN 1 fats on oie 5,5) Se te OS ee he x he >
RNP CIO GB» oc. Maes Shee nee oN. oe A pet ate amet See
Prirnnbicriaveucrate “Halls oo. Sis eo be tees yes *
BROIL CURE SIRE), SEA ANN mn Pepe sis ce Sore he cee Eee ‘a
OES SSS Ti et SPR A et Aen ee
Sarees snvite ORI AN tone ecole LS Seeds Bhi: out cx
MPMI MARS SMEARS SSASTSS De igh oe Mere chee no naw Se eRe aye
PU MNILE SUITS AST TAU oa knee ee ee ee ON
PCHDN SORE AGT ECH Sop k ose ek ee ee eee Fae Oe SE Oe Ae
WIPES DECMERS TIAN be on cero eaie ave owe ea eae ee

* eH %
*
x * He %
*%
*

x ee
*%

CONCLUSION.

A study of the foregoing list of fossils found in the Devonian
strata in Rock Island county leaves no doubt that they are more
closely related to the fauna of the Dakotan.or Northwest province
of the Hamilton division of the Devonian than to the New York
or Eastern province. Of the total number of ninety-seven species
determined, eighty-one, or 83 per cent, are found elsewhere in the
Dakotan province, and of these eighty-one species, forty-two, or
51 per cent, are found exclusively in this province. Of the fifty-
five species occurring also in the Eastern province, all are wide-
spread forms, and have a general distribution, none being dis-
tinctively Eastern species. Of the “Standard list of dominant
species for the New York-Ontario province” (Eastern Middle
Devonian), which Williams’ has established, only two, Phacops

1 Williams, H. S., Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XIV, 4th ser., 1912.

108 ILLINOIS. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

rana and Ambocoelia wmbonata, occur in the Dakotan province,
and both of these are cosmopolitan forms.

Of the forty-one species listed by Hutton? from Jersey and
Calhoun counties, thirty-five, or 87 per cent, are found in the
Rock Island county Devonian strata, while only twenty-five, or 16
per cent, of the 151 species listed by Savage from the Hamilton
strata of Jackson and Union counties of southwestern Illinois are
found in the Rock Island county strata, and nearly all of the 151
species are of the Eastern province. Therefore the close rela-
tionship of the Devonian strata of Jersey and Calhoun counties
and those of Rock Island county to those of the Dakotan province
is conclusive proof that both belong to this province, of which
they constitute the southward and eastward extension; while the
similarity of the fauna of the Hamilton strata of Jackson and
Union counties to that of the New York or Eastern province
unquestionably proves that they form a part of that province.
The land barrier shown as extending across central Illinois in
Schuchert’s paleogeographic map of late Hamilton time, known
as the Kankakee axis, separated the basin in which the deposits
of the Eastern province (including Union and Jackson counties
in southwestern Illinois) were laid down, from the basin in which
the Hamilton strata of Rock Island and Jersey and Calhoun
counties were deposited.

The fauna of the Wisconsin Hamilton is a mixture of the
faunas of the Eastern and of the Northwest or Dakotan prov-
inces. These forms lived in an arm of the sea in which the waters
of the two basins mingled. Only thirty-six, or 37 per cent, of the
ninety-seven species found in Rock Island county also occur in
Wisconsin, and of these thirty-six species, nineteen, or 52 per
cent, occur only in the. Dakotan province, while seventeen, or 48
per cent, occur in both provinces.

The Hamilton strata of the Dakotan province in Rock Island
county comprise equivalents of the Wapsipinicon and Cedar Val-
ley stages of the Hamilton in Iowa. All of those strata below
and including the Phillipsastrea bed are the equivalent of the
Lower and Upper Davenport divisions of the Wapsipinicon stage
of the Iowa strata, the lithological characters (of which breccia-
tion is the most conspicuous) and the stratigraphic position of
these strata being the basis of correlation. The Hamilton strata

2 Hutton, J. G. Thesis for degree of Master of Science in Geology in the Graduate
School of the University of Illinois. The stratigraphy of the Devonian rocks of Cal-
houn and Jersey counties, Illinois, with a preliminary discussion of the physiography
of the region.

Ke

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 109

in Rock Island county, above the level of the Phillipsastrea bed,
are lithologically and faunally similar to the Cedar Valley strata
of Iowa, and may be correlated with certainty with the rocks of
that stage.

According to Hutton’s unpublished thesis, the limestones of
Jersey and Calhoun counties, Illinois, are of the same age as
those of the Cedar Valley stage, in Iowa, lying between the
Stromatopora reef and the Acervularia davidsoni zone. Conse-
quently they may be correlated with the equivalent portion of
the Rock Island county section. The upper portion of the Rock
Island county strata may likewise be correlated with the Hamil-
ton limestone of northern Missouri, which corresponds in time
with the rocks of the Cedar Valley stage in Iowa.

The Rock Island county Devonian limestones are a continua-
tion eastward of the Wapsipinicon and Cedar Valley stages of
Iowa. They represent the samé general period of time and the
same general conditions of deposition.

A TUFA DEPOSIT NEAR DANVILLE, ILLINOIS.
CHARLES E. DECKER.

While conducting an excursion from the University of Illinois,
last summer, along the Vermilion River, in the vicinity of Dan-
ville, some large fragments of tufa were discovered near the base
of a slope. Search for the origin of these fragments led to the
discovery of an extensive tufa deposit farther up the hill. This
deposit is on the farm of Mrs. Mary A. Kistler, on the north side
of the Vermilion River, one-half mile northeast of the confluence
of the Middle and Salt Forks, and one and one-half miles south-
west of Hillery. The upper part of the tufa borders on the lower
edge of a spring basin (Fig. 1) in which the spring issues sixty
feet back from this edge.

The tufa is of special interest, because no other work of this
kind by ground-water is known in this region. Solution on a
large scale is shown by the extensive caves of southwestern
Indiana, but the nearest tufa deposits known to the writer are
those noted by Grant and Burchard’ in southwestern Wisconsin
along the Platte, Little Platte, Grant and Mississippi Rivers.

1 Lancaster-Mineral Point Folia, p. 9.

110 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

In form the deposit resembles an alluvial fan. It extends down
the hill about 150 feet and widens from a few feet across at the
top to about 150 feet in width at the base. Accordingly, its
approximate areal extent is 10,000 square feet. The thickness
may be seen along its eastern edge, where it is exposed in the
side of a gully throughout its entire length. Here the thickness
varies from two to four feet. If an average thickness of three
feet be taken for the entire deposit, it comprises about 30,000
cubic feet.

The composition is almost pure calcium carbonate (CaCO,).
It contains little extraneous material except along the base, where
it filled in the spaces in the underlying glacial gravels, thus includ-
ing some of them in its lower part.

The included fossils comprise leaves and shells. The leaves are
large with open venation and resemble those of the Sycamore or
Sugar Maple, which are the oldest trees now growing in the
vicinity. Locally, the leaves are so abundant that a rude cleavage
is developed in the tufa parallel to their flat faces. The shells are
all gastropods with a spire of medium height. Those of a single
species, Polygyra elevata,? say, were scattered in great numbers
over the surface of the deposit, and a single specimen was found
within it.

The texture of the tufa varies from porous and open to com-
pact. In some parts it shows a botryoidal or mammilary struc-
ture, while in others a delicately branching, moss-like structure
may be seen. In still other parts a cleavage is developed, as noted
above, due to the presence of numerous fossil leaves.

The surface of the tufa is mostly covered by a fine calcareous
dust, though some larger fragments of the material lie scattered
about. As indicated by the dust, the surface is devoid of smaller
vegetation, but it is sparsely covered with bushy trees of Black
Locust, Hawthorn, Elm, Willow and Apple.

The topographic relation of the tufa to the spring suggests that
it was deposited by the water issuing above it. However, these
waters are not now depositing, but, instead, are degrading the
earlier deposit. The spring flows at the rate of three-fourths of
a gallon per minute. This water and that collected by the spring
basin has cut a gully fifteen feet deep in the eastern edge of the
tufa, and has carried much of it away. The west side of this
gully is so white with calcareous dust and fragments of the tufa

* Identification by J. D. Hood.

Figure 1. Spring Basin. Water from the spring enters the gully
(shown in Figure 2) at the left of A. A glacial conglomerate is exposed
beneath the rail fence at the man’s right and just outside the foreground.

Figure 2. Gully cut through east edge of tufa deposit. The bank
at the left is white with the calcareous dust, and fragments of tufa lie
among the sticks at the bottom.

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS iil

that superficial observation gives the impression that the deposit
extends to the bottom of the gully, as shown by Fig. 2.

With reference to the origin of the calcium carbonate (CaCO,)
it may be said that most calcareous deposits made by springs occur
in limestone regions, but no limestone is known to exist in the
vicinity of this deposit. Mine shafts to the north and the bluffs
across the river to the south expose only a silicious shale. How-
ever, along the lower rim of the spring basin on either side of the
outlet remnants of a glacial conglomerate are exposed, and one
of these exposures is along the rail fence at Mr. Eaton’s right in
Fig. 1. This conglomerate is firmly cemented with calcium car-
bonate (CaCO,). If the basin of the spring were at one time
filled by a glacial conglomerate of which the present exposures
are smail remnants, an adequate source for the calcareous deposit
would be furnished. Were the glacial conglomerate at one time
much more extensive than now, the reduction to the present lim-
ited rémnants would account for a decrease in calcium carbonate
(CaCO,) supplied to the spring, and hence explain the cessation
of deposition of that substance from solution.

No very definite evidence of the age of the tufa was noted.
The conglomerate, because of its highly indurated condition,
doubtless belongs to a stage of glaciation as early as the Illinoisan.
While the unindurated gravels beneath the tufa are similar to
those overlying the conglomerate, and both of these gravel depos-
its probably are of Wisconsin age.* These considerations favor
the idea that the tufa has been deposited since the Wisconsin
Stage of Glaciation.

ON THE EARTHQUAKE OF JANUARY 2, 1912, IN THE
UPPER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

Anton D. UDDEN,
Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois.

On January 2, 1912, the northwestern part of Illinois and sur-
rounding territory were visited by an earthquake. Immediately
aiter the shock the author began to collect information concerning
the effects oi the disturbance. The description in this paper is
based upon the accounts of the earthquake contained in seventy-

* Danville Folio, p. 1, et seq.
°

I1I2 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

eight daily and weekly papers, and upon fifty-five letters from
editors of newspapers. Information has been received from about
150 localities in and about the affected area.

The distribution of intensities in an earthquake such as that
which occurred on January 2 is conveniently studied by the
so-called Rossi-Forel scale of intensity. According to this scale,
intensities are denoted increasingly by the numerals from one to
ten. The scale is not often seen in print, and since the author has
made some additions to the scale, it has been inserted at the end
of this paper.

The author believes that the data collected concerning this
earthquake are sufficiently complete to determine with a fair
degree of accuracy the intensities at about ninety-five cities. At
thirty-five of these cities the disturbance is described as being
“not noticed,’ while for the remaining sixty the accounts are
more or less complete. The following isoseismal chart of the
earthquake is based upon the intensities as determined for these
cities according to the Rossi-Forel scale.

It will be seen on the accompanying map that the intensities
vary from one to six. The general appearance of the isoseismal

MINNESOTA

* DesMoines

2
wz
oe.

a2 i <
Indianapolis

Figure 1. Map of earthquake of January 2, 1912. Full lines=isoseis-
mals of January 2, 1912 earthquake. Broken lines=isoseismals of May

26, 1909 earthquake. ~

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS ; It3

lines suggests that there was one distinct epicentre from which
the waves spread in the form of ever-widening circles. The
earthquake was most severe within the area enclosed by the
isoseismal whose intensity is six. The cities in this area which
report the most violent effects are Morris and Aurora, for which
the intensities are more nearly seven than six.

While the principal epicentre is the one just described, there
appears to be also a secondary epicentre whose intensity is five.
This is at Dixon, Illinois, about fifty-five miles west of the first
epicentre. With the data on hand it is difficult to determime
whether this is a distinct epicentre of less intensity or whether
Dixon should be included in the area enclosed by the isoseismal
whose intensity is five. The dotted line indicates the direction
which this isoseismal would take in the latter case. That there
owere two epicentres appears to be supported by observations on
the number of shocks reported to have been felt at different locali-
ties. The majority of these observations state that there were
two distinct shocks—one of greater intensity, preceded or fol-
lowed by one of less severity.

Observations upon the directions of motion of the earthquake
waves are reported from four different localities—Chicago, Mil-
waukee, Elgin and Rock Island. The directions are indicated on
the map by means of arrows drawn through the respective cities.
While the arrows do not intersect at a common point, -yet in a
general way they converge toward the region of greatest dis-
turbance.

The area sensibly affected by this earthquake covers about
40,000 square miles. It is possible that the earthquake did not
extend for any considerable distance beyond the limits of the
sensible area. In a letter, Professor J. B. Goesse, S. J., states
that the seismograph belonging to the meteorological observatory
of the St. Louis University in St. Louis did not record any vibra-
tions which could with certainty be referred to this earthquake
disturbance. Francis J. Glover, S. J., of Brooklyn College, Brook-
lyn, New York, states that if their seismograph recorded the
earthquake the record was obliterated by local disturbances
caused by nearby railroad traffic.

The observations on the time of occurrence and duration of
the earthquake do not warrant any deductions. The time of
occurrence is variously stated from 10:15 to 10:35 a. m., while
the reports on duration range from one second to three minutes.

It is interesting to compare this earthquake with the one which

114 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

occurred on May 26, 1909. The latter was more extensive and
of greater severity than the one here described. This can readily
be seen by referring to the isoseismal drawing of the earthquake
of May 26, 1909, by Dr. J. A. Udden, in the Transactions of the
Illinois State Academy of Science for 1910. In several instances
newspapers have made statements comparing the intensity of the
more recent earthquake to that of the former. The intensity for
cities lying within the mesoseismal area of the recent earthquake
is stated to be “equal to” or “more severe” than in the earlier
earthquake. Cities lying beyond the mesoseismal area describe
the earthquake as being less severe than that of May 26, 1909.
These statements conform quite satisfactorily with the isoseismals
of the two earthquakes.

The epicentres of the two disturbances are differently located,
but the areas affected by both are substantially the same. By
referring to the drawings it is seen that the isoseismals of each
spread out from a nearly common center. The coincidence of
these two earthquake areas can hardly be regarded as a matter of
chance. It is probable that the two shocks were directly con-
nected with a gradual readjustment of the same strata.

THE ROSSI-FOREL SCALE ACCORDING TO DUTTON.

1. Microseismic Shock: Recorded by a single seismograph or
by seismographs of the same model, but not by several seismo-
graphs of different kinds; the shock felt by an experienced
observer.

2. Extremely Feeble Shock: Recorded by several seismo-
graphs of different kinds; felt by a small number of persons at
rest.

3. Very Feeble Shock: Felt by several persons at rest ; strong
enough for the direction or duration to be appreciable.

4. Feeble Shock: Felt by persons in motion; disturbance of
movable objects, doors, windows, creaking of ceilings; rattling
of dishes.*

5. Shock of Moderate Intensity: Felt generally by everyone;
disturbance, furniture, beds, etc., ringing of some door bells (old
style door bells) ; articles fall, dishes break.*

6. Fairly Strong Shock: General awakening of those asleep,
general ringing of bells, oscillation of chandeliers; stopping of
clocks, visible agitation of trees and shrubs; some startled persons
leave their dwellings.

———<—— —

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 115

7. Strong Shock: Overthrow of movable objects, fall of plas-
ter, ringing of church bells; general panic without damage to
buildings.

8. Very Strong Shock: Fall of chimneys, cracks in the walls
of buildings.

9. Extremely Strong Shock: Partial or total destruction of
some buildings.

10. Shock of Extreme Intensity: Great disaster, ruins, dis-
turbance of the strata, fissures in the ground, rock-falls from

mountains.

The original data, newspaper clippings, letters, etc., upon which
this paper is based have been left in the Denkmann Memorial
Library of Augustana College, where they may be obtained by
application to the Librarian.

NOTES ON SANGAMON COUNTY LIMESTONES.
A. R. Crook.

The following information was furnished by diamond drill
cores from a drilling made some years ago at Divernon, sent
two years ago to the State Museum and just made accessible for
study and exhibition.

For stratigraphic investigation it is true that drill cores are
small, are deficient in weathered fossils, and lack the prominent
features of outcropping ledges. But they have the advantage of
presenting for examination every foot of strata underlying a
given point and showing the exact location of the various strata
in relation to each other. While clays and soft shales are washed
out by the water used in keeping the drill hole clean, their thick-
ness is recorded and Samples show their character.

Divernon is seventeen miles south of Springfield and about two
miles from the south line of Sangamon County. The boring
began at about 600 feet above sea level and ended at a depth
of 604 feet. First it went through 9 feet of loess, 15 feet of
“Tllinoian” till and 16 feet of “Kansan” till, and at a depth of
40 feet reached the rock, a limestone. This limestone and all the
subsequent strata encountered constitute the upper half of the

* The words in italics have been added by the author.

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116

GEOLOGICAL PAPERS 117
Carboniferous system known as the Pennsylvanian, inasmuch as
it was first studied and best exemplified in Pennsylvania. The
drill passed through the top series (the Upper Productive), the
middle series (the Lower Productive) and sank about 25 feet
into the bottom series (the Mansfield). To differentiate between
these series is difficult, since they merge into each other insensibly.
But somewhere the line of demarkation is passed.

Eight beds of coal (ten different layers) were encountered.
The top one (9 inches thick), No. 8 of the old geological survey,
is only 151 feet from the surface. The bottom one, No. I (4 feet
5 inches thick), is 555 feet from the surface. All of the beds
together aggregate 23 feet and 3 inches.

I examined every foot of the core for limestone and found
eighteen different layers, varying from 6 inches to 5 feet in thick-
ness and giving a total of only 46 feet of limestone in the 600 feet
of strata penetrated. This is a small amount.

At eighteen places the cores showed limestones by effervescence
in cold dilute hydrochloric acid. These sections were numbered,
beginning at the top, and samples taken. The beds vary from 6
inches to 5 feet in thickness. There is great disparity between
the amount of intervening strata. In some cases a stratum of
limestone of one character follows immediately below one of
another character. Aggin, these are far apart. For example,
between beds No. 7 and No. 8 are 110 feet of shales with no
intervening limestone and between No. 17 and No. 18 even a
greater amount, 117 feet, of shale and sandstones, totally devoid
of limestone. Below No. 7 the Upper Productive may be said
to end, and below No. 18 the Lower Productive ends. The
Mansfield sandstones and conglomerates begin about 4o feet
below the lowest coal. The distance between the beds are as
follows: 0, 10, 9, 3, 71, 10, I10, 21, 3, 0, 12, 27, 23, 40, 5, 9,
24, 117 feet.

The colors are usually grey with light bluish spots, rusty,
brown, and black. The streak varies from white through dark
buff to black. All are of light specific gravity and in hardness
vary from 3 to 3.5. Beds Nos. 1 to 4, No. 9, and Nos. 13 and 14
are tough. The others are friable or fissile, like soft shale.

One hundred milligrams of each of the eighteen were dissolved
in cold hydrochloric acid and aiter 12 hours the residues were
weighed. No. I was the most completely dissolved. The residue
weighed but % of a milligram. No. 15 proved to be the least
soluble, 64 per cent remaining in the test tube. Beginning with

118 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

the most soluble and ending with the least soluble, the arrangement
is as follows: No. 1 (residue .5 mg.), No. 3 (residue 4.4 mg.),
No. 4 (residue 4.5 mg.), No. 8 (residue 10 mg.), No. 2 (residue
11 mg.), No. 14 (residue 13 mg.), No. 6 (residue 17.5 mg.), No.9
(residue 18.5 mg.), No. 18 (residue 20 mg.), No. 16 (residue
22 mg.), No. 11 (residue 23 mg.), No. 10 (residue 33 mg.), No.
13 (residue 34 mg.), No. 7 (residue 39 mg.), No. 5 (residue 40
mg.), No. 12 (residue 60 mg.), No. 17 (residue 64 mg.).

At a depth of 440 feet a 4-foot bed of a tough white, hard
rock, called limestone in the drill record,' is encountered. In cold
hydrochloric acid it is almost insoluble, leaving a residue of 80
per cent. It is a siliceous dolomite.

It is interesting to note that bed No. 18, very rich in small
brachiopods, lies immediately above Coal No. 1 at a depth of 453
feet. In the drill record this is called Dark Shale. To find a
limestone roof without intervening shale or clay is an unusual
occurrence.

1 Report on the Progress and Condition of the Illinois State Museum of Natural
History for the years 1909 and 19710, p. 32.

”
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BIOLOGICAL PAPERS I2I

SOME NOTES ON THE FORESTS OF OGLE COUNTY.
W. L. EIKENBERRY.

The principal rocks of Ogle County are the loose and porous
St. Peter’s sandstone, limited to the vicinity of Rock River, and
the Trenton and Galena limestones. The latter formations under-
lie most of the county and are covered with a thin layer of Illi-
noian and Iowan drift, which is rarely so much as twenty feet
thick.

It is shown by Leverett that before the Glacial Epoch the chan-
nel of Rock River lay in the eastern part of the county, but at
the retreat of the ice it adopted a new course, such as to occasion
a rearrangement of most of the drainage channels of the county.
The insignificant Mud Creek appears to be about the only pre-
glacial stream in the county. Kyte River occupies its ancient*
valley in part, but with direction of flow reversed. Under these
circumstances it will be understood that the topography adjacent
to the river is very new and immature. In general, the region
near the river and other important watercourses consists of a
gently rolling upland trenched by narrow and deep ravines.

The soil is the alternation of loam and clay common to glaciated
regions, together with some limestone residual soil and the sand
along the river arising from the disintegration of the sandstone.
The most marked contrast is between the rich black soil of the
gently rolling prairies remote from the river and the humus-poor
clays of the rapidly eroding area nearer to the streams.

Consideration is here given principally to that part of the
county lying west of Rock River and south of Mud Creek, includ-
ing the basins of Mud Creek, Pine Creek, and adjacent parts of
the valley of the river.

PLANT SOCIETIES.

Any consideration of the prairie societies is excluded by the
scope of this paper. There may be distinguished four forest
associations: (1) Oak, (2) Maple, (3) Pine, (4) a characteristic
Bottom Association. Only the first and fourth are of general
occurrence. In the absence of suitable physiographic situations,
swamp forests are wholly wanting from the part of the region
under consideration.

1. Oak Association.
The oak association is the characteristic one of the country—

122 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

it everywhere gives character to the woodland. The list of trees
occurring in it with sufficient frequency to be considered a part
of the general formation includes the following: Quercus velu-
tina, Q. coccinea, Q. alba, Q. macrocarpa, Q. rubra, QO. Muhlen-
bergu, Carya ovata, Prunus serotina. If one may venture an
opinion from the fragmentary data now available, the following
would appear to be the original distribution of the species men-
tioned.

(a) A group of relatively xerophytic species occupied the
rapidly eroding lands and formed a zone of considerable width
on the prairie side of all forested areas. The Black and Burr
Oaks and the Shellbark Hickory are most prominent. Wherever
the original line of contact between the prairie and the forest can
yet be found, the Burr Oaks make up the outer fringe, and where
cutting has exposed the Black Oaks to the sweep of drying
- westerly winds they are usually dying.

(b) A more mesaphytic group (Q. alba, Q. rubra, P. serotina)
occupied most of the forested region not yet deeply eroded, show-
ing a tendency to occur also in the more protected central part
of large forests, the margins of which were occupied by Black
and Burr Oaks.

2. Maple Association.

So far as the present conditions of the timberland show, the
maple formation is restricted to an area of less than a square
mile near the head of Mud Creek and a similar area reported
from Kyte River. The latter I have not been able to visit. It
will be recalled that, according to Leverett, the valleys of both
streams are preglacial, and in this particular the situation differs
from that of most other forest areas in the county.

This association is doubtless to be correlated with the Beech-
Maple formation of other localities. The most plentiful species
are Acer sacharum, Ulmus americana, and Fraxinus americana.
Ostrya virginiana is almost as common as the preceding, and
there are many large trees of Quercus alba and Q. rubra. Tilia
americana, both species of Juglans and a few specimens of Prunus
serotina make up the remainder of the forest. Beech is of course
wholly absent. Abundant seedlings of basswood, elm, ash, Ostrya
and maple promise a continuation of the same type of forest if
properly protected. The oaks and the wild cherry, mostly mature
trees, are doubtless to be interpreted as relics of a former condi-
tion not yet wholly past.

Cornus.

-

’

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 123

It can hardly be doubted that this formation is a pioneer rather
than a relic, and therefore an expression of the climate of the
region. In the course of nature it would doubtless have become
the dominant type in much of the region.

3. Pinus strobus.

The most unusual feature of the plant geography of Ogle
County is the occurrence within its limits of a grove of unmixed
White Pine. This species contributes a very picturesque feature
to the scenery of Pine Creek but is not numerically important,
with this single exception. On the eastern side of the cafion-like
valley of the creek immediately south of the C., B. & Q. Railway
the bluffs are occupied by a fine growth of pine which is so dense
as to exclude every other tree and shrub. The grove covers about
twenty acres. Adjoining it, on the same side of the creek, is a
rectangular timber lot of about 160 acres, much of which is not
pastured. This growth consists almost wholly of white oak,
though there are a few scattered cherries and pines. The under-
growth is unusually heavy, including, besides the young oaks,
Cornus, etc., which is common in such places, also a really sur-
prising growth of young pines of all sizes. In many places they
are literally coming up like grass.

It is evident that if the pines are here a disappearing type, it
cannot be because the factors of soil and climate are unfavorable
to them, and one feels in looking at the sturdy growth of young
pines that they stand about as good a chance as the young oaks
of conquering the region. It is the testimony of old residents
that this grove did not exist in early days but that it has been
produced naturally since the settlement of the country. It is
said to be less than seventy years old, and this is corroborated
by the age of the trees and other biological evidence.

So far as the writer is informed, this is the only stand of the
species in the State. Associated as it is with scenery of great
natural beauty, it is to be hoped that some way will be found
to preserve this unique feature from destruction.

4. Bottom Associations.

The bottom associations are such as are familiar everywhere.
I shall merely remark that they show no points of special interest
excepting that the scarcity of sycamore, hackberry and cork elm
indicates that this may be near the northern limit of these species
in the valley of Rock River.

124 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

THE LIMESTONE CLIFFS.

There are certain peculiarities in the zonation of the vegetation
on the limestone cliffs which must be mentioned, since the same
phenomena seem not to have been noted in descriptions of similar
regions. The Galena formation on Pine Creek furnishes the
best examples.

The course of Pine Creek is entrenched in a generally hori-
zontal upland. Vertical cliffs of considerable height are com-
mon. On the upland above one of these cliffs is commonly found
the usual oak forest, and this approaches to within a few rods of
the cliff. At about the point at which the surface begins to
round downward to meet the vertical face below, the trees are
replaced by a very xerophytic grass and shrub zone of which a
characteristic member is Physocarpus. Below the Physocarpus
zone, and immediately above the vertical face of the cliff, where
the slope is so steep that only a few handfuls of soil are able to
find lodgment in the crevices, is an assemblage of mesophytic
plants. The most characteristic forms are Tilia, Ostrya, Acer
saccharum, Taxus canadensis and Cornus stolonifera. Pinus and
Juniperus may also be present. Taxus is practically restricted to
this sort of habitat. Tilia, Ostrya and Acer occur together here
as on the talus slopes and in the climax forest. Ulmus may also
be found. Beneath this zone there is the bare vertical rock face
bearing only the usual very limited vegetation.

There are no experimental data upon which to base an expla-
nation of the occurrence of a mesophytic society at the top of
a cliff, but general observation leads to the following suggestion.
The water table must fall as it approaches the cliff, but owing
to the heavy bedded character of the underlying rocks, it does
not fall rapidly. The much larger number of horizontal chan-
nels than vertical ones leads the percolating waters in an almost
horizontal direction. The water table therefore falls far enough
below the surface near the edge of the hill to make its shoulder
rather xerophytic, but intersects the steeper lower slope near the
top of the vertical face. The steepest slope is therefore the damp-
est and the vertical face may in wet weather become a dripping
cliff. The argument is strengthened by the independence of this
plant formation of all accidents of exposure, or any other factor
of the sort and its persistent recurrence upon every cliff of this
description, large or small. Its complete correlation with this
peculiar physiographic situation would indicate that its explana-
tion is to be found within the substratum.

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 125

The sandstone cliffs on Rock River are quite in contrast. These

cliffs are porous. On their tops stunted pine, cedar and black oak

are almost alone. Basswood, maple, hop hornbeam and yew are
never present, and the growth is never dense.

-~

COMPETITION AND GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG THE SUBTERRANEAN ORGANS
OF MARSH PLANTS.

Ear E. SHERFF.

The statements and conclusions in the present paper are based
mainly upon my work at Skokie Marsh, in the years 1910 and
1911.1 The marsh itself is closely associated with Skokie Stream,
a small, intermittent, meandering stream that begins west of
Waukegan, Illinois, and ends west of Glencoe, Illinois. Its
vegetation may be described briefly as consisting of reed-swamp,
swamp-meadow and true meadow.

Darwin, in his Origin of Species, pointed out that because two
species of the same genus usually resemble each other, the strug-
gle between them, if they come into competition, will generally
be more severe than between two species of different genera.
Clements has since emphasized the fact that similarity in growth
form rather than in systematic position determines the intensity
with which different species compete. One of the main objects
in my investigation at Skokie Marsh was to ascertain how far
similarity in growth form among different species (particularly
in regard to depth of subterranean organs) results in competi-
tion; or, conversely, how far dissimilarity in growth form results
in ability to live together harmoniously in a complementary
relationship.

We have here [illustrated on screen] a view of the rhizome
interrelationships of the bur-reed (Sparganium eurycarpum),
the arrow-leaf (Sagittaria latifolia) and one of the water knot-
weeds (Polygonum Muhlenbergii), where the three species occur
together in the less hydrophytic parts of the reed-swamp.

As shown on the screen, the knot-weed rhizomes and roots ie
rather deep. . . . It will be seen that the roots of the arrow-

=

:
)

——— =e

- 1A general and also more elaborate account than here possible will be found in
, the Botanical Gazette, 53: 415-435, 1912.

126 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

leaf pass downward several inches below the surface and conse- .

quently compete with the roots of both the bur-reed and the knot-
weed for water, oxygen, etc. The soil being rich usually in at
least water and nitrogenous materials, the root competition is
probably not serious. But before passing on we should note the
complementary relationship between the rhizomes of the arrow-
leaf and those of the bur-reed. At first it might seem that since
the rhizomes of both species start growth at.the same level—near
the surface—they would come to be more or less in each other’s
way. but usually at the very outset the arrow-leaf rhizomes
grow downward for several inches, then take a horizontal direc-
tion for some distance, and finally point upward again. At the
distal end is produced a stem-tuber and from this arises a new
plant the following season. Thus the arrow-leaf may establish
new plants at advantageous distances from the parent plant and
yet, in doing so, avoid mechanical obstructions to a great extent.
To determine exactly how far this freedom from mechanical
obstruction promotes the vegetative increase of arrow-leaf plants
would demand, of course, accurate experimental investigation in
a quantitative way. Some able botanists, notably Clements, are
inclined against the consideration of mechanical obstruction as
a factor in competition; they insist upon the importance of
“physical” (i. e., physiological) factors. And while in the main
their contentions are well founded, it cannot be denied that pro-
nounced exceptions do exist. For example, at Skokie Marsh, a
study of the water-lily association in the reed-swamp showed that
where the arrow-leaf was present its rhizomes had been inter-
cepted in great numbers by the large, semi-decayed rhizomes of
the water-lily (Nymphaea advena). And, in the majority of
such cases, the propagative stem-tubers of the arrow-leaf had
decayed. Even in the encasing soil, many instances were found
where the stem-tubers had been mechanically impeded and had
mostly decayed. And here, while the decay must have been due
to some one or more physiological causes, yet these causes could
not have operated had not mechanical impediments first retarded
the stem-tubers for a sufficient length of time.

As our knowledge of the interrelationships of subterranean
organs progresses in the future, we shall probably find that often,
in the case of certain species with large subterranean parts, there
is offered or received mechanical resistance which is immediately
decisive in competition because of the physiological processes that
it promotes.

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 127

Our last picture is that of a community containing chiefly the
blue flag (Jris versicolor) and the blue violet (Viola cucullata).
Their rhizomes are short and thick, lie just below or at the soil
surface, and form a dense mat. Nevertheless, when one or more
square feet of this mat were carefully removed and the soil in
the interstices among the rhizomes was taken away, it was esti-
mated that the interstices, as viewed from above, constituted
from 35 to 60 per cent of the total. Evidently, then, so far as
mere room was concerned, several other species could have grown
—in fact, did grow—in these interstices. But they were plants
which rooted higher or lower; or, if at the same level, they were
species not largely dependent upon rhizomes or stolons for multi-
plication. Thus, where the blue flag had reached a maximum of
frequency, the water knot-weed, with a low root system, and the
bedstraw (Galium Claytoni), with a high root system, might
live; but the sweet flag (Acorus calamus), with rhizomes similar
to those of the blue-flag and lying at a similar depth, and de-
pendent largely on rhizomes for multiplication, was absent.

A detailed presentation of the conclusions growing out of my
work is impossible here. But in closing I would point out the
importance of exhaustive study, in the future, of the inter-
relationships among subterranean organs, especially since these
have much to do with the compactness of vegetative growth in an
association. For, induced directly or indirectly by the condi-
tions following such compactness, have doubtless arisen many of
the most important adaptations in the growth forms of various
species.

THE RANGE OF EVAPORATION AND SOIL MOISTURE
IN THE OAK-HICKORY FOREST ASSOCIATION
OF ILLINOIS.

WADE M’NUTT AND GEO. D. FULLER.
I. EVAPORATION.

The oak-hickory forest, an association characterized by the
presence of the white oak (Quercus alba), the red oak (Q. rubra)
and the shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata) as its dominant tree
members, occupies a unique position in Illinois, appearing as the
climax association of much of the woodlands bordering upon the

128 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

prairie region and as the association next below the climax in
areas farther removed from the grasslands where the beech-maple
forest association forms the climax. The composition and rela-
tionships of these associations have been fully discussed by
Cowles,’ Whitford? and others, but almost nothing has been
known quantitatively of the physical factors (other than rainfall)
that determine their character and extent. Some preliminary
studies upon the evaporating power of the air in some of the
associations involved have already been reported to this Acad-
emy,® but the oak-hickory forest was not included among the
associations studied. To supply this deficiency, the evaporating
power of the air and the soil moisture have been determined dur-
ing the season extending from April 22 to October 28, 1911, in
a fairly undisturbed forest situated upon the Valparaiso moraine,
about twenty milés southwest of Chicago, near the little village of
Palos Park.

In the evaporation determinations the porous cup atmometer
was employed and the directions given by its inventor, Livings-
ton,’ for its operation were so closely followed that any extended
account of its management becomes quite unnecessary. All instru-
ments were standardized before being set up and the standard-
ization repeated at intervals of six to eight weeks. By the coeffi-
cients thus obtained all readings were reduced to a common unit.
Readings were made weekly throughout the season and the
results expressed as the average daily rate of loss for the interval
between the readings. These results have been graphically rep-
resented with the weekly intervals as abscissae, and the amount
of daily loss by the standard atmometer, in cubic centimeters, as
ordinates.

Four stations were established, three upon the upland and one
in a small depression, a wedge-shaped flood-plain of a small
stream, usually without water during the summer. The upland
stations were upon the low sloping hills of the moraine about
twelve meters above the level of Lake Michigan, where the soil
was of a fine texture, being composed of boulder clay with a
small admixture of sand. In the depression there was a mixture
of alluvium and humus, no clay appearing at a depth of 30 cm.

1 Cowles, H. C. The physiographic ecology of Chicago and vicinity. Bot. Gaz., 31:
73-108, 145-182, 1901. ap:

2Whitford, H. N. The genetic development of the forests of northern Michigan.
Bot. Gaz., 3r: 289-325, 1901. , :

8 Fuller, Geo. D. Evaporation and plant succession. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., 4: 119-
325, 1911, and Bot. Gaz. 52: 193-208, 1911.

2 Livingston, B. E. Operation of the porous-cup atmometer. Plant World, 13: 111-
I19Q, I9IO.

—_—

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 129

The stations were numbered arbitrarily, number one being located
in the depression, numbers two and three in the ungrazed forest,
and number four in a portion of the forest which had been grazed.
The forest is here largely composed of white oak (Quercus
alba) and red oak (Q. rubra), with occasional trees of the bur
oak (Q. macrocarpa), shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata) and the
bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis). Station four was almost
devoid of undergrowth, but at stations two and three there were
seedlings of the trees, particularly of the white oak, together with
a considerable amount of the hazel (Corylus americana) and a
few other shrubs. The instruments were placed in spots with
an average amount of shelter from both the trees and the shrubs.
The forest about station one had, in addition to the species
already enumerated, trees and seedlings of the white ash (Frax-
inus americana) and of black walnut (Juglans nigra.)

An examination of the evaporation records shows that the
evaporating power of the air was highest during the month of

. EEE
)
ah iz

ane
He
FEE
ce

=
ate
: :

Figure 1. Graph representing the evaporating power of the air
in a depression in the oak-hickory forest.

130 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

May. Doubtless this may be explained by the unusual condi-
tions that obtained during this month. It had the highest tem-
perature record experienced since the establishment of the Chi-
cago Weather Bureau in 1871. The average temperature for
the month was 10 degrees above the normal; for six days it
reached or exceeded go° F., and it reached 94° on the 25th, 26th
and 27th of the month. The percentage of sunshine, 79 per cent,
was also greater than that observed during any previous May.
In contrast, during September, the period with least evaporating
power, the temperature was about normal, while the relative
humidity was somewhat above and the percentage of sunshine
considerably below the normal mean. All these meteorological
factors influence the evaporating power of the air profoundly,
and their great variation gives emphasis to the necessity of rec-
ords extending over more than one season before definite con-
clusions may be reached with safety.

The unusual conditions during May, combined with the absence
of foliage during a portion of the month, gives such an excess-
ively high evaporation record for this portion of the season that
this portion of the record will be disregarded in making the com-
parisons which follow, although they are considered in arriving at
the average rates for the season. This course has further justi-
fication in the fact that the high rate reached at midsummer more
nearly represents the extreme of aridity for most of the vegeta-
tion of the associations concerned.

At station one (Fig. 1), in the depression, the evaporation
rate was at all times the lowest. It reaches a maximum of 16.21
ce. daily in July, a minimum of 1.74 cc. daily for the third week
of September, and has an average for the season of 189 days of
8.3 cc. per day. This is very slightly higher than the average of
8.1 cc. reported last year by Fuller® for the beech-maple associa-
tion and indicates a very high degree of mesophytism.

The most important record for the forest is that expressing the
mean of the two stations in the normal upland oak-hickory asso-
ciation with the average undergrowth (Fig. 2b). The readings
from stations two and three, which are combined in order to
obtain this record, differed very little at any time, and both gave
the same average for the season—namely, 9.89 cc. daily. The
mean of the two stations shows a midsummer maximum of 17
cc. per day, an autumnal minimum of 2.87 cc. daily, and an aver-
age for 189 days of 9.89 cc. The effect of the absence of under-
erowth is plainly shown by the record -(Fig. 2a), exhibiting the

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 131

highest rate of the series, having a midsummer maximum of
22.12 cc. per day, and a daily average of 12.74 cc. The minimum,
2.77 cc. per day, almost exactly coincides with that of the
ungrazed forest, 2.87 cc. daily. A comparison of the two graphs
(Fig. 2) will show that the least divergence in the evaporation

AUGUST SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER

tf pe
anos = ae Ne dp pe

Tis OW So FREER
NRG EP eee

Figure 2. Graphs representing the range of the evaporating power
of the air in (a) the grazed and (b) in the undisturbed portion of the
oak-hickory forest.

rates of the grazed and ungrazed portions of the forest occurred
in the spring and autumn, when the trees were in a more or less
leafless condition.

A comparison of these records with those obtained by Fuller,°
in 1910, in related forest associations is most interesting and

132 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

instructive. The pine dune association with a maximum of 17.5
cc. per day and a daily average of 11.3 cc. for the season com-
pares closely with the record of the grazed oak-hickory forest,
with an average of 12.74 cc. daily for the season. The oak dune
forest he studied, which has been regarded as less mesophytic
than the one at Palos Park, gave similar evaporation rates with
midsummer maximum of 16 cc. per day and an average for the
entire season of 10.3 cc. daily. The beech-maple forest, the most
mesophytic of our deciduous forests, gave a maximum of 12.0 cc.
daily, with an average of 8.1 cc. daily for the season.

The three stations at Palos Park located where the under-
growth was undisturbed gave a seasonal average of 9.35 cc.
daily. This figure is very significant, as it places the oak-hickory
forest association midway between the black oak dune associa-
tion and the climax beech-maple forest (Fig. 3), the position
already assigned to it by Cowles and others in the forest suc-

0 10

sooo 2?

woe | | | | | | |

Galedlins Ste Sees
: moe | | |

Oak-hickory oe

Beech-maple forest we | TL ee

Figure 3. Diagram representing the average evaporating power of
the air in various associations.

Cottonwood dune
Pine dune

cession of Indiana and Illinois. That the atmometer measure-
ments, expressing as they do an integration of the atmospheric
factors determining plant growth, assign to the oak-hickory for-
est a position immediately below and but slightly inferior to that
occupied by the climax beech-maple forest, in absolute agreement
with the conclusion already reached by a consideration of other
data, must be regarded as of the greatest importance.

Expressing the same result upon a percentage basis, with the
average rate throughout the season of 1910 in the beech-maple
forest as a unit,® the confparative evaporating power of the air
in the oak-hickory forest is 115 per cent; in the oak dune asso-
ciation, 127 per cent; in the pine dune association, 140 per cent;
and in the cottonwood dune association 260 per cent.

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 133

II. SOIL MOISTURE,

While ecologists have usually been agreed that the water of the
~ soil is the most important single factor limiting the development
of vegetation, very few quantitative determinations of this factor
have been made. This has been due largely to the difficulty in
obtaining a standard by which the water content could be related
to plant growth. The percentage of water in one soil which would
produce a luxuriant vegetation, in another of different texture,
would not support any plant life whatever. Livingston’ recog-
nized that the water-holding capacity of soils varied and had a
fairly constant relation to the relative soil moisture conditions,
but only with the very recent work of Briggs and Shantz® has a
satisfactory function of soil moisture been recognized by which
to relate vegetation to the actual amount of water present in the
soil. They determined the amount of water present in a particu-
lar soil when permanent wilting occurred in Kubanka wheat, the
plant adopted for the standard. This amount expressed in per-
centage of the dry weight of the soil they have termed the wilt-
ing Coefficient, and it represents the water content above which
all growth must occur ; life, however, is maintained for very con-
siderable periods with much less water. The same workers also
gave data which show that many ordinary mesophytic plants vary
very little in their wilting coefficients from the standard wheat
employed.

In order to determine the soil moisture conditions in the oak-
hickory forest at Palos Park, weekly samples, each consisting of
about 300 grams of soil, were taken at atmometer stations one,
two and four, from depths of 7.5 cm. and 25 cm. below the sur-
face. The soil was placed in tightly closed wide-mouthed jars,
brought to the laboratory, weighed and dried at a temperature
of 100° to 104° C. until it ceased to lose in weight. The per-
centage of water to the dry weight of the soil was thus obtained.
Using the same soils, the wilting coefficients were obtained accord-
ing to the wax seal method described by Briggs and Shantz (loc.
cit.). Graphs representing the range of soil moisture have been
plotted with weekly intervals as abscissae, while the ordinates
represent the percentage of the soil moisture present. The wilt-
ing coefficients are represented upon the same diagrams in broken
a B. E. Relation of soil moisture to desert vegetation. Bot. Gaz., 50:

® Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. The wilting coefficient for different plants and

its indirect determination. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Plant Industry, Bull. No.
230, 1912.

134 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

lines; hence the amount of water available for the purposes of
growth is shown by the interval between the graphs representing
the soil moisture and the line representing the wilting coefficient.

The wilting coefficient will be found to vary considerably in the
different locations dependent largely upon the amount of humus
present in the soil. Thus, in the depression, it is seen to be 18.9
at 7.5 cm. (Fig. 4B) below the surface, but only 12.5 at 25 cm.
(Fig. 4D), due to more humus in the surface layers. The abun-
dance of the water supply in this locality is seen by the very

Ht JUNE JULY oe SEPTEMBER | OCTOBER

=| edad t bela Lalo VEZ. Lobb bali

ho eH P| PT RCTS LS
SERRE RERRR Saas
SS Tei ee

Figure 4. Graphs representing the range of soil moisture throughout
the growing season, at 7.5 cm. (A) and at 25 cm. (C), below the surface,
in the depression in the oak-hickory forest, and the wilting coefficients
(B,D) at these depths.

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 135

large percentage in May, June and October, and the plentiful and
constant supply during the critical weeks of midsummer. Only
once does the supply fall below the wilting point—namely, during
September, at the 25 cm. level (Fig. 4). The mesophytism of
the soil may possibly best be expressed by noting the average
amount by which the actual water content exceeds the wilting
coefficient during the critical ten weeks beginning with July Ist.
At the 7.5 cm. level there will be found to be an average of 18.3
per cent, and at 25 cm. 7.8 per cent of the dry weight of the soil
in water available for growth during these midsummer weeks.

At station three, the smaller amount of humus present in the

Qak-hickory forest7'.5cm.

MAY JULY | AUGUST | SEPTEMBER] OCTOBER

BESeSa oP. Te
zs ine ERS BERS aL es
TN EPS2ZERB ET ESE RAEF shih
"4/7 NZ AAI IE
Jed LASER IE

BRIG | | |
Se ee a
5620 (GREECE SRR Re
RECEP eee ee Eee
vB IRB BR SBRRICRSSS EERBIIERES
er oo

Figure 5. Graphs representing the range of soil moisture at 7.5 cm.
(A) and at 25 cm. (C) below the surface in the oak-hickory forest, and
the wilting coefficients (B, D) at these depths.

130 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

soil is indicated by the smaller wilting coefficients, 7.7 and 8.5
per cent (Fig. 5). The amount of water available for growth is
also less, and once at 25 cm. and twice at 7.5 cm. it fails. The
greater fluctuation in the supply at the higher level is very evi-
dent at this station (Fig. 5A), but is also apparent in the other
localities (Figs. 4A and 6A). Here the surplus supply for the
ten weeks from July Ist averages 4.6 per cent at 7.5 cm. and 4.1
per cent at 25 cm.

The soil records at the grazed station are noticeable for their
great range, and for the deficiency in the supply at the 7.5 cm.
level (Fig. 6). Here during the ten critical weeks of midsummer

7.5m.

JUNE AUGUST | SEPTEMBER | OCTOBER

RE Sane A Rae As Aas

Figure 6. Graphs representing the range of soil moisture at 7.5 cm.
(A) and at 25 cm. (C) below the surface, in the grazed oak-hickory forest,
and the wilting coefficient (B, D) at these depths.

ti i i i ee

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 137

there is, instead of a surplus, a deficiency in the water supply
amounting to an average of 3 per cent at the 7.5 cm. and 0.5 per

-cent at 25 cm.

The writers gratefully acknowledge their indebtedness to Miss
Laura Gano for making the atmometer readings and soil mois-
ture determinations during July and August.

SUMMARY.

The evaporating power of the air in the lowest stratum of the
oak-hickory forest, as determined for the -growing season of
IQII, places the association midway between the black oak dune
forest association and the beech-maple forest association, a posi-
tion which exactly corresponds with its place in formerly observed
succession.

The data on soil moisture show that the water-retaining powers
and wilting coefficients of the soils studied varied considerably
and appeared largely to be determined by the amount of humus
present.

The soil of the depression showed the most favorable moisture
conditions throughout the season.

The soil moisture determinations afford too meager data to
permit any but the most tentative conclusions, but it is believed
that they will tend to confirm the position assigned to the oak-
hickory forest association upon the basis of its evaporation rate.

The University of Chicago.

GERMINATION AND GROWTH OF THE COTTON-
WOOD UPON THE SAND DUNES OF LAKE
MICHIGAN NEAR CHICAGO.

GEORGE D. FULLER.
EXTENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The first tree association to become established upon the sand
dunes of Lake Michigan is one composed of the cottonwood
Populus deltoides and a few shrubs, among which species of
Salix and Cornus are conspicuous. Occasionally Populus del-
toides is replaced by P. balsamifera; its ecological equivalent.
The detailed examination of the composition and extent of this

138 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

association has been so well made by Cowles! that little could be
added to his account. To summarize: it is characterized by the
one tree species only and extends from immediately within the
fore-dune to the region where the dunes become established, com-
prising the greater part of the moving dune-complex and forming
a zone from 100 to 300 meters wide. In the dune region com-
paratively few cottonwoods are found beyond these limits, min-
gling with the members of other associations.

It is the purpose of this paper to discuss briefly two of the
physical ecological factors of the association which have been
quantitatively studied, viz.: the evaporating power of the air,? and
the range of soil moisture during the growing season,” and to
attempt to relate the germination and growth habits of the prin-
cipal tree member of the association to these factors.

EVAPORATING POWER OF THE AIR.

This factor has been measured by means of the Livingston
atmometer during the past two growing seasons, and some of the
results for the summer of 1910 have been reported to this Acad-
emy.” The readings of the atmometers were taken weekly and
corrected by the application of the coefficients necessary to express
the results in term of loss from the standard instrument adopted”
by Livingston. When these results are plotted as graphs having
the weekly intervals as abscissae and the loss per day in cubic
centimeters as ordinates (Fig. 1), they show that the evaporating
power of the air in the lower stratum of the association is excess-
ive and subject to extreme variations, indicating that the demands
for water made upon the aerial parts of the vegetation are very
great. The average rate for the season of 1910 was 21.1 cc. per
day and that for 1911 amounted to 24.6 cc. per day. A further
comparison of the conditions existing during these two years
may be obtained by a study of these two graphs, representing as
they do the mean of the observations taken at three stations from
May 1 to October 31 of these years. The graphs will be seen to
be similar in character, the differences being traceable to differ-
ences in atmospheric conditions peculiar to each particular year,
and they demonstrate that the evaporation conditions are rigorous
and indicate a xerophytic response. The amount of xerophytism
may be indicated by a comparison with the evaporation occurring

1 Cowles, H. C. The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of
Lake Michigan. Bot. Gaz., 27: 95-117, 1899. }
2 Fuller, G. D. Evaporation and plant succession. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 4: 119-125,
1QII.
ce

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 139

JUNE AUGUST es wa

pear et NEA Lf ERE.
LI TAIT AAT TT NTT AT TO
BPG GE A NN ee
Hp EP ey

AN AH
pap iT | WT AT TY

Figure 1. Graphs illustrating evaporating power of the air during
1910 and 1911.

I40 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

in similar strata of the mesophytic beech-maple forest, which was
found to average but 8 cc. per day for the same period.

SOIL MOISTURE.

In determining the range of soil moisture, samples of about 200
grms. of soil were taken weekly from May 1 to October 31, 1911,
at 7.5 cm. and 25 cm. below the surface. The soil was taken to
the laboratory in tightly closed containers and dried at 104° C.
The water content thus determined is expressed in percentages
of the dry weight of the soil. It is found to range from 2 to 8
per cent, an apparently small amount at all times, but here the
important question is not the absolute amount of water present
in the soil, but how much is there that is available for the use of
plants? Tests made by the methods devised by Briggs and Shantz
of the Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agricul-
ture,’ showed that young wheat plants wilted in this soil only
when its water content fell as low as .75 per cent; in other words,
the wilting coefhcient of this dune sand for wheat is .75 per cent.
Other investigations by the same workers indicate that a very
similar wilting coefficient obtains for many herbaceous plants;
hence we are safe in saying that so long as there is 1 per cent of

JUNE ay AUGUST | SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

bale
DSR Cae Hee tRBes
BCCIECCE EEE IPE CHEE
PRR PE aE eee
sML IAT | TAT TT TT TT Tit tT TA IN| | EA
NEAREST CI DALI PND AN
SANS NAN A _| NW aes
BE ones ne YO INZ La

Figure 2. Graphs showing the range of soil moisture in the cotton-
wood dune; the heavy lines at 7.5 cm. and the light line at 25 cm. depth;
wilting coefficient represented by a broken line.

water in this sand there is a sufficient supply for the stom of
such a plant as wheat.

Plotting the soil moisture determinations as graphs having the

* Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. The wilting coefficient for different plants and
its inditect determination. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur. Plant Ind., Bull. 230: ror2.

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS I4I

weekly intervals between the collections as abscissae and the per-
centage of water present in the soil as ordinates (Fig. 2), it will
be seen that the moisture present in the soil is at all times more

'. than double the wilting coefficient. The interval between the

curve representing the soil moisture and the line representing the
wilting coefficient represents the amount of water available for
growth, and has been termed growth water.* It will be apparent
that there is always a supply of growth water, although it must
be admitted that the amount available in July could permit no
very heavy draughts, still the soil conditions must be regarded
as by no means very arid,—so mesophytic, indeed, do they appear,
viewed from the point of water supply, that one would be quite
at a loss to account for the very sparse vegetation upon any such
basis. A cause for the xerophytism may be found in the insta-
bility of the substratum, a factor fully discussed elsewhere by -
Cowles and others.

VEGETATIVE PRODUCTION.

It has been previously stated that the cottonwood dune associa-
tion is one almost entirely dependent upon vegetative reproduction
for its maintenance. As the sand advances over the trunk and
branches of these trees, adventitious roots are given off, and
what was originally one tree becomes a group of several (Fig. 4),
each with its own root system. Doubtless the constancy of the
soil moisture supply is closely related to this condition of vegeta-
tive reproduction. A vegetation dependent upon such a method
of reproduction will, however, increase in amount very slowly,
especially as the very instability which multiplies the trees by
burying them afterwards destroys them by removing the sand,
exposing the roots, and finally leading to their overthrow
(Fig. 3). In this uncovering process there is also a limited
amount of vegetative reproduction from adventitious buds which
arise upon the exposed roots at a distance from the parent plant
(Fig. 3). When the amount of erosion by the wind is limited
and soon checked, such adventitious shoots may result in the
production of a considerable number of new trees grouped about
the parent, but such reproduction is again to be regarded as lim-
ited in extent and of minor importance. These two methods,
however, do account for the permanency of the tree upon the
unstable substratum of the moving dune complex, although they

*Fuller, G. D. Soil moisture in the cottonwood dune association of Lake Michi-
gan. Bot. Gaz., 53: 512-514, 1912.

142 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

do not explain the establishment of the species. For this estab-
lishment we must find the seedlings, and none exist be the
moving dune complex.

REPRODUCTION BY SEED.

In the experience of the writer, cottonwood seedlings are to be
found in the dune region in two situations, and in two only. In
the recession of the waters of Lake Michigan, many shallow
ponds and lagoons were cut off from the main body of water
and not a few still persist, more or less filled by the action of
the moving sand and vegetation. Their damp margins are often
sprinkled with cottonwood seedlings (Fig. 4); some of these
survive and surmount the advancing sand and thus account for
the presence of these trees at any considerable distance from
the lake.

The second seed-bed is to be found where the wind has swept
out the sand to a depth approaching the level of the waters of
the lake; here the soil surface and the top of the water table
almost coincide in depressions termed by European ecologists
pannes. Such pannes are (Fig. 5) often found immediately
behind the fore-dune within 25 to 100 meters of the shore. These
depressions are flooded at high water in the spring and even at
midsummer the almost saturated sand is quite stable and seems
admirably suited to the production of cottonwood seedlings, for
here they are found in abundance. As they increase in size they
collect sand, the panne being transformed into an ever-increasing
dune (Fig. 6), which soon begins to move inland. With the
growth of the dune and its subsequent advance many of the
young trees are killed, but some survive and, surmounting the
advancing sand, form the only tree vegetation of the active dune
complex.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. The evaporating power of the air in the exposed cotton-
wood dune association is great in amount and variable in degree,
indicating rigorous atmospheric conditions.

2. The soil moisture is never less than twice the wilting coeffi-
cient of the soil; i. e., there is always a supply of water available
for plant growth.

3. Vegetative reproduction maintains the stand of cotton-
woods upon the dunes through the ability of the species to send

Figure 5.

Figure 6.
in a panne.

Panne with cottonwood seedlings.

A small dune formed about young cottonwoods developed

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 143

out adventitious roots as the trunk and branches are buried and
to produce adventitious shoots from the roots as they are exposed.
4. The seedlings apparently require a large amount of mois-
ture for their development, for they are found only along the
margins of ponds and streams, and in the pannes; hence the
| establishment of the cottaenwood is antecedent to the dunes upon
which it is able to maintain itself.
The University of Chicago.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE CATALOG OF ILLINOIS
MOLLUSCA.

FRANK COLLINS BAKER.

In 19061 the writer published a preliminary list of the Mol-
lusca known to live in Illinois. Since that time a number of species
new to the local fauna and new to science have been discovered.
These are briefly recorded in the following pages. There are
certain nomenclatorial changes, as well as other data, which can-
not be included in this paper, for lack of space. A revised catalog
will be in order as soon as time and opportunity is available.

Page 76.—Margaritana margar tifera, Linné. This species
should be taken from the list. The record is based on specimens
mixed with monodonta, which is found in Illinois.

Page 86.—For Corneocyclas* peralata, read peralta.

Page 86—Add the following: Pisidium neglectum, Sterki
Illinois (Sterki). Pisidium neglectum corpulentum, Sterki. Lily-
cash Creek, near Joliet, Will county (Ferriss; Handwerk).

Page 89.—Vivipara subpurpurea texana, Tryon. This refer-
ence is to be omitted. The specimen did not come from Illinois.

Page 93—<Amnicola limosa pallida, Hald, is a synonym of
limosa.

Add the following:

Page 93——Amnicola sheldoni, Pilsbry; incorrectly quoted on
page 95 as Pomatiopsis sheldoni. Amnicola missouriensis, Pils-
bry. Canton, Fulton county (Walker).

Page 99.—Physa ancillaria warreniana, Lea. Lake Forest,
Lake county, Lake Michigan (Woodruff).

2 Bull. Ill. State Lab., N. H., VII, Art. VI, Sept., 1906.
*The name Pisidium is now generally acepted, and Corneocyclas cannot stand.

144 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Page 100.—Physa gyrina oleocea, Tryon, is the young of Physa
gyrina.

Add the following:

Page 102.—Ancylus hinkleyi, Walker. Golconda, Pope county ;
Elizabethtown, Hardin county (Hinkley).

Add the following:

Page 103.—Lymnaea* columnella casta, Lea. Mercer county
(Marsh).

Page 103.—Lymnaea obrussa plica, Lea, should read L.
obrussa exvigua, Lea.

Page 103.—Lymnaea obrussa modicella should read L. humilis
modicella.

Page 104.—Lymnaea sterku should read L. parva sterkii.

Page 104.—Lymmnaea humilis should read L. humilis modicella.

Page 104.—Add: Lymnaea humilis rustica, Lea. Joliet, Will
county (Ferriss).

Page 104.—Lymnaea catascopium, pinguis is a synonym of
catascopiwm.

Page 105.—Lymnaea caperata umbilicata is a synonym of
caperata. The true uwmbilicata has not yet been found in Illinois.

Page 105.—Lymnaea palustris michiganensis, Walker, is the
immature form of Lymnaea elodes, Say. Lake Villa, Cedar Lake,
Lake county; Bowmanville, Cook county (Baker); Joliet, Will
county (Ferriss); sloughs of Winnebago county (Hinkley) ;
Wolf Lake, near Chicago; North Branch of Chicago River, Chi-
cago (Jensen); Mason county (Nason); Quiver Creek, Mason
county (State Laboratory); Bristol, Kendall county (Walcott) ;
Havana, Mason county (Walker); Northwest and Calumet
Lake, in ditches, Cook county; creek near Bangs Lake, Wau-
konda, Lake county (Woodruff).

Page 106.—Lymnaea reflexa jolietensis should read Lymnaea
elodes jolietensis, Baker. Additional records: Berry Lake, Cook
county (Higley) ; south of Wolf Lake, Cook county (Jensen).

Page 105.—Lymnaea e-ilis, Lea.

Page 106.—Lymnaea Kirtlandiana, Lea. Mud Lake, Grand
Crossing, Chicago, Cook county (Baker); Berry Lake, Cook
county (Higley); Crystal Lake, McHenry county (Nason).

Page 106.—Lymnaea reflexa iowaensis, Baker, and Lymnaea
reflexa crystalensis, Baker, are immature forms of refleva.

Page 105.—Lymunaca pallida, Adams, is to be taken from the

8 See the writer’s monograph, Special Bulletin 3, The Chicago Academy of Sciences.

«

es

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 145

list, as it does not inhabit Illinois. The references quoted should
be placed under obrussa.

Page 111—Add: Bifidaria clappi, Sterki. Ottawa, La Salle
county (Calkins). .

Page 113.—Add: Succinea ovalis optima, Pilsbry. Fox River
(Calkins) ; Carpenterville, Kane county (Calkins) ; Rock River,
Oregon, Ogle county (Baker). Swuccinea ovalis totteniana, Lea,
is a synonym of Succinea ovalis, Say.

The Succineas are badly in need of revision, and some of the
names given on pages 113 and 114 are to be retained provision-
ally, pending a revision of the whole genus.

Page 114.—For Polygyra tridentata juxtigens, read Polygyra
tridentata juxtidens.

Page 115.—For Polygyra profunda alba, Witter, read Polygyra
profunda alba, Walker. Polygyra sayii, Binney, should be
changed to Polygyra sayana, Pilsbry (name preoccupied).

Page 116.—Polygyra exoleta, Binney, should be changed to
Polygyra saleta, Binney (earlier name).

Page 117.—Polygyra monodon fraterna, Say, should be
changed to Polygyra fraterna, Say.

Page 119.—Add: Vitrea (Paravitrea) significans (Bland).
Augerville Woods, Urbana, Champaign county (Zetek).

EARTHWORMS FROM ILLINOIS.
FRANK SMITH.

The literature on Illinois earthworms has been very scanty.
In 1888, Garman, of the State Laboratory of Natural History,
described Diplocardia communis as a new genus and species from
specimens of earthworms found at Urbana. He also listed three
species of Lumbricidae from the vicinity, all well-known Euro-
pean forms.

In 1893, Ude, of Hanover, Germany, described a form col-
lected at Danville, Illinois, as a new genus and species, Geodrilus
singularis, but it is now considered merely as a variety of Gar-
man’s Diplocardia communis.

In 1895 I had the opportunity to describe another species of
Diplocardia from Havana, Illinois, and also a species of aquatic
earthworm from the same place, belonging to the genus Spar-

146 ILLINOIS. AGADEMY OF SCIENCE:

ganophilus. These are the only papers that have dealt with new
species of earthworms based on Illinois material. A paper by
me in 1900, dealing chiefly with other Oligochaeta, contained a
list of eleven species of earthworms known in the State. At pres-
ent my list includes three species and three varieties of Diplo-
cardia, of which two varieties are undescribed; one species of
Sparganophilus, and seven species and one variety of Lumbrici-
dae, with three other forms not yet determined—a total of eight-
een different forms.

It may be of interest to know something of the source and gen-
eral relationships of the different types represented in the Illinois
fauna. At the present time there are more than one thousand
recognized species of earthworms in various parts of the world.
The great majority of these have been made known within the
last twenty years, chiefly through the efforts of five Europeans,
and one Swede, Eisen, who for a number of years lived in San
Francisco and worked on West and Central American species:

These worms are grouped into four great families, of which
one is limited to Ceylon and southern India, and need not receive
attention. The other three are represented in Illinois. The great
family Megascolecidae includes more than half of the known
species, and is found chiefly in the tropical regions and the South-
ern Hemisphere. The most primitive type is the genus Eodrilus,
which is represented by species in India, South America, Africa
and Australia, a distribution typical of the survivors of ancient
groups of other types of animal life. They date back at least as
far as the Triassic in the early Mesozoic.

According to Michaelsen, a prominent investigator in this
field, Diplocardia was one of the first branches to develop from
the Eodrilus trunk, and probably appeared in Mexico or Central
America during the Jurassic in time for derivatives from it to
invade Africa by way of the land connection formerly existing
between Brazil and the African continent. Diplocardia itself
seems to have spread to the north instead of southward, and
species are known from Mexico, Lower California, Texas, Flor-
ida, Nebraska and Illinois. Its representatives are among the
dominant forms of our endemic species.

The Geoscolecidae constitute another great family of the earth-
worm group, and seem to have developed at least as early as the
Jurassic in the northern continental area. Some went southward
through Europe into Africa, where many species now exist, while
a still greater development took place on the American con-

BIOLOGICAL PAPERS 147

tinent. One of the oldest genera was Sparganophilus, in the
Jurassic, which seems to have remained behind in North America,
while other American representatives went south, not much
before the Eocene, to Central and South America, where they
have differentiated widely and into numerous genera and species.
Sparganophilus species are known from Mexico, California, Flor-
ida, Illinois and the Great Lake region, and form a second group
oi prominent endemic species. Probably the only reason why the
list of States is not longer is simply that no one has collected and
identified the worms from other States. It seems a little odd
that the genus Sparganophilus should have been founded by an
Englishman on specimens taken from the Thames. but there
seems excellent reason for believing that his conjecture was cor-
rect, viz.: that their occurrence there was accidental, due to the
introduction of a purely American form, perhaps with aquatic
vegetation. He was not able to find the species in later years,
and I think there is no record of any other occurrence of the
genus in the Old World.

The third and last earthworm family to receive attention is
the Lumbricidae. These are the most recent forms to appear,
and seem to have been derived from the Glossoscolecidae, prob-
ably in Southwest Asia, where there is a great variety of endemic
forms. They probably invaded Europe in the Eocene and North
America in the Oligocene. There are numerous endemic forms
in Europe and but few in the United States. These latter are
found chiefly in the Southeastern Atlantic coast region. None
are yet positively known to occur in Illinois. Notwithstanding
the lack of endemic lumbricid species in Illinois, it is probable
that 90 to 95 per cent of all the specimens that would be taken
in random collections made in any of the settled districts of Illi-
nois or of the United States would be included in a few species
common also in Europe, and more than 50 per cent would belong
to a single species, Helodrilus caliginosa. These species are found
the world over where Europeans have settled and cultivated the
soil. They abound about the towns of Africa, South America
and Australia and crowd out the native species as they seem to
do here.

The habits and mode of life of the earthworms are such that
they must necessarily be destroyed in any region subject to gen-
eral glacial action, and there can be no doubt that the earthworm
fauna of the glacial territories of Eurasia and North America
have keen occupied by invaders from the territory further south

148 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

since the retreat of the glacial ice mass. The conditions found in
the earthworm fauna of Europe are interesting in this connec-
tion. In the various parts of Southern Europe are found dozens
of endemic species, while Northern Europe is occupied exclu-
sively, with a single possible exception, by forms also found
further south. The line separating the northern territory with
peregrine forms from the southern region with endemic forms is
found to correspond quite closely to the southern border of the
ice sheet at its most southern extension during the glacial period.
This would seem to indicate that the time since the glacial period
has been too brief for the differentiation of endemic forms from
the southern invaders. Our knowledge of the earthworm fauna
of North America is altogether too imperfect to permit a state-
ment as to corresponding conditions here.

It is my wish to gain a more extended knowledge of the distri-
bution of earthworms in this State, and particularly of the
endemic forms. We know nothing of the northern limits of the
range of Diplocardia, and nothing of the earthworm fauna of
the unglaciated area of Southern Illinois. If any of the members
of the Academy will aid in the securing of material which will
throw light on the two topics suggested, I shall be very glad to
secure it and return named material in exchange.

Science in Secondary Schools

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS [51

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO INVES-
TIGATE THE RELATIONS OF THE PURE AND
APPLIED SCIENCES IN HIGH SCHOOLS.

WorALLo WHITNEY.

That there may be no confusion with respect to the purpose of
the committee, I shall quote from the resolution adopted at the
last meeting of the Academy, in which the appointment of the
committee was requested. I quote the following:

“Inasmuch as the demand for industrialism in education has
become widespread and is causing the addition of many new
courses in applied science to the curriculum of the high schools
and the readjustment of the established courses in pure science;
and,

“In view of the fact that there is little data at the command
of educators which might enable them to reorganize the work in
science on correct lines without risk of serious mistakes fraught
with danger of disaster to&’both the pure and applied sciences,

“Your committee recommends that the Academy appoint a
committee of five members to investigate the practice of secondary
schools in :—

1. The organization of the applied sciences.

2. The correlation of the pure and applied sciences.

3. The adjustment in the pure sciences to meet local condi-

tions and satisfy the demand for practical courses.”

After considerable study to find the best method of attacking
the work, the committee decided that it could be accomplished best
by a division of the investigation and assigning part to each mem-
ber of the committee. The following subtopics were decided
upon:

1. The effect of the demand for applied science upon the pure
sciences in ordinary high schools where no courses in the applied
sciences are given. 2. The relations of the pure and applied
sciences in schools where both are taught. 3. The relation of
these sciences in authorized agricultural high schools. 4. Their
relations as shown by analysis of text-books of agriculture.
5. The preparation of teachers for the science work of high
schools. ‘

Unfortunately for our scheme of work, two of the members of
the committee found that they were unable to do their work. To
remedy this, the fifth topic just read was dropped for the present,

152 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. z

and the second is included in my report, since the first and second
topics are closely related.

I shall retain our original division of the ogics in my discussion
and consider first the effect of the demand for industrialism in
education upon the courses in pure science in the ordinary high
schools. The demand comes under various guises, such as
“practical courses,’ “vocational courses” and “applied courses.”
Within the last two or three years great pressure has been
brought to bear upon teachers of the pure sciences to modify
these courses and make them more “practical,” as it is usually
put. How this pressure has been met, is the question which I
have set myself to answer in so far as the scope and means of
such an investigation as this can determine.

It seemed best to begin by studying the situation in Chicago,
since I am well acquainted with the history of science teaching
in this city from the time of the inauguration of modern labora-
tory methods, and since also the evolution of science teaching in
Chicago is undoubtedly similar to its evolution elsewhere, except
that it is slower because of the larger bodies of people to move.

There has been a slow evolution in methods of teaching the
various departments of science from the very beginning of the
establishment of the laboratory. The present agitation has only
served to accelerate somewhat a movement already in progress.
At first there was insistence upon strict scientific methods—such
as the inductive process of observation and inference. A text-
book open in the laboratory was strictly forbidden. The study
of types with the emphasis on morphology was insisted upon.
The order of study was always eVolutionary. Even the labora-
tory tables were copied from the style found in college labora-
tories. In fact, the entire course was modeled on the college
course—simply a slightly modified edition of the college course.
The tendency has been away from this hand-me-down college
work toward something specifically adapted to high school needs,
—a high school course in science suited to the experience, ability
and needs of the high school pupils. I think I can illustrate just
what this progress has been by taking one of the high school
sciences and comparing a former course used in Chicago with
one recently adopted. For this I shall take botany, since in most
or all of the other sciences, whether or not the experiences of the
home and daily life are utilized, is a matter of laboratory prac-
tice in the application of the topics of study, while in botany the
topics themselves give a hint as to the method used. In physics,

Rh Bt

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 153

for example, the topics electricity, heat, light, etc., will appear in

all courses, no matter what the treatment, and only a study of
the methods in use in applying the topics will show what progress
has been made.

For the purpose of this inquiry it will be sufficient to compare
two courses of study for botany—one dated June, 1908, and in
official use since that time, the other recently adopted for future
guidance.

A comparative study of these two outlines shows that in the
earlier one the year’s work was divided into two parts corre-
sponding to the semesters, one occupied with a survey of the
plant kingdom taking up the groups in evolutionary order, the
other, usually given in the second semester, dealing with the seed
plants and outlined in structural order. Theoretically this looks
like an ideal plan, and it appealed to college men who write text
books of botany for us and to teachers of botany fresh from the
uniyersity, as the only course to give. But we who are in the
business of teaching botany in high schools had difficulties in
applying it. Our pupils were not interested, little enthusiasm
could be aroused—many pupils failed—in fact, only the brightest
pupils got anything out of the first semester’s work. The second
semester's work was needed to restore interest lost in the first
half year’s work, and even that dealt with structure to such an
extent that the interesting spots in the course were in danger of
being lost sight of. The work on the local flora in the spring
was the only thing that saved our classes in botany from extinc-
tion. We turned out few botanists.

As soon as the average teacher realized what was happening,
he began to inject into the course various features, mostly in the
line of field and home studies, to add interest and appeal to the
experience of the pupil. The most popular of these were studies
of fall flowers, leaves, trees, woods, and various studies of the
commercial uses of plants and plant parts.

Turning now to our recently adopted course, it is easy to see
how this has finally worked out. It will be noted at once that
the studies of plant groups occupy only about half of a semester,
instead of an entire semester. Evidently, detailed studies of
structure must be omitted in using this course, since there will
not be time for such work. The title itself is quite illuminating,
indicating that the laboratory is not the only place to study botany.
It is interesting to note various topics not found in the old course,
all of which appeal to the human interest of the pupil, such as

OF . SCIENCE.

ACADEMY

ILLINOIS

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“ANVLOY NI ASUNOD«

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY. SCHOOLS 155

BOTANY.
LABORATORY AND FIELD COURSE. 1b. (First Semester.)
(In use Sept., 1912.)

Topics. : Suggested Subtopics.
[el HOWETS. o5 a0 05 oe === oon Princinval types of common wild and garden flowers,
especially the composite. Insect pollination.
Der See oe oo es wocncs aan ahocs Work of leaves. Light relation of leaves.
Identification of trees by their leaves.
MECEES occ e cae pee ccacea rac nels Types of weeds and their characteristics.
The struggle for possession. Collection of common
weeds.
Gets and fruits... ......0---<= Types of seeds and fruits; methods of distribution.

ollecting seeds; planting tree seeds.
Preparation of plants for winter. Trees, perennials, biennials and annuals considered in
this relation. Bulb culture.
COS Ps are seccecsecesess Identification of trees in winter conditions.
Planting and caring for trees; forestry. Enemies of

trees.
ae cin a's wee aoe eae A SREe The cell; plasmolysis.
Types of alge showing development of plant body.
Types of reproduction; establishing home aquaria.
Fungi ...... Bit pts ot saben ates pent alent Life history of a fungus.
Types of fungi from an economic standpoint. Bac-

teria.
Liverwort, moss, fern, pine.....Evolution of the plant body.
Spore reproduction; the seed.
ta. (Second Semester.)

Seeds and seedlings............ Germination; the seedling. Respiration; response to
stimuli.
Seed testing; food storage; uses to man.
0 Se ac ars SAFE RSE Sop Types, modifications.

Food storage; uses of roots to man.
Functions of roots; soils and fertilizers.
SULT Ee asg Sar se re «eeeee- Types, structure and modification. Work of steme;
uses to man.
Woods; identification and collection.
TET AR ASR ea eee Sic Structure, modifications. Work of leaves; economic
uses.
Gardening, window and outdoor.Planting rules, planning garden and homeyard.
Garden accessories, hot beds, cold frames, etc.
Types of garden plants; propagation of plants, cut-
tings, grafts, offsets, etc.
ICEL otc cavancccences Structure and function by means of a typical flower.
LETT On DTN ae Se eee Types of flowers, flower families.
Wild flower collection, flower calendar.
Use of keys; how to make an herbarium.

fall flowers, preparation of plants for winter, forestry, gardening,
local flora, etc.

Another very interesting and significant feature is the com-
parative flexibility of the two courses. In the old course the
amount of time to be given to each subject is stated in hours.
No such statement is to be found in the new course. The types
in the old course are all stated positively, while in the new course
the heading reads “‘suggested subtopics.” Again, in the statement
accompanying the new course, the teacher is given entire liberty
with respect to the order in which the topics shall be taken up.
The first course is arbitrary and inelastic. The new course is
flexible and easily adjusted to any teacher's special needs.

The trend has been away from a strictly scientific development
of botany which did not recognize the pupil and his interests to
a flexible course, where the purely scientific development of the
subject has been subordinated to the development of the pupil’s
interest in botany. The scientific aspects are not lost by any
means, but they are not the sole thing now.

156 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

I have given a good deal of time to the study of the develop-
ment of botanical teaching in Chicago, because it seems to be
typical of the trend in all the pure sciences. It will therefore
not be necessary to give much time to a consideration of the
other sciences. Zodlogy has experienced like changes in method
indicated by the use of the insects as an introductory study and
by the dropping of the echinoderms from the course. This last
was not done without a struggle, for the impulse to take up the
groups one after another, omitting none, is very strongly ss
in the minds of zodlogy teachers.

In physics there is consistent effort to make application of the
_laws and principles of the science to problems of everyday life.
In chemistry, analysis of food adulterants and other articles used
in the home give the needed relation of the subject to the pupil’s
experience.

It would not do to assume that conditions in Chicago neces-
sarily resemble those in other places. I, therefore, undertook
an investigation to ascertain how the pure sciences are being
taught in various other parts of the country. Manifestly, this
could not be done by examination of courses of study, and so I
prepared a brief questionaire which I sent to representative
schools in Illinois and other States of the middle West, and a
few to the extreme West. The returns were fairly satisfactory,
considering that it required the combined reports of teachers of
four departments.

For botany and zoology the following questions were asked:
1. State in order as given by you the topics and groups of plants
(animals) taken up during the year and the time allowed for each.
2. Upon what do you place most emphasis? 3. What, and how
much, outdoor work do you do with your classes? For physics
and chemistry there were two questions: 1. State in order as
given by you the topics taken up during the year. 2. Do you do
any so-called “practical work” with your classes? If so, what?

A tabular resumé of the reports on these courses of study has
been prepared and is appended to this paper. While the number
of reports is not great, the schools included in the report repre-
sent a wide variety and are representative schools, so that it is
probably safe to assume that their courses represent the prevailing
tendencies. Wide variations are shown, especially in botany, but
on the whole certain things stand out clearly, marking what we
may call the attempt to relate the teaching of the sciences to the
experience of the pupil.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 157

In botany, as has been indicated, there is wide divergence, but
it can readily be seen that the tendency is away from the evolu-
tionary type method. It is also quite evident that there is as yet
no settled conviction as to what should take its place. In zoology
the insects are universally chosen for beginning the work and
receive the greater share of the time. There is not much .indica-
tion that the mammals are receiving a fair share of attention. If
economic importance and nearness to everyday experience are to
be controlling motives, then one would expect to see more time
given to studies of mammals. The reports show on the whole
considerably greater uniformity of practice than with botany.

The reports upon physics and chemistry did not give much of
value on the first question so far as concerns this paper, and no
tabulation of this portion has been made. The reports on the
second question show almost unanimous agreement in giving the
experiments a practical bearing and, and in the case of chemistry,
in introducing many experiments with substances used in the
home. Questions were sent out for physiography, but the re-
ports did not seem to have much bearing-on the question under
discussion and have not been tabulated. It is fair to say for those
making reports that it was found necessary to condense the re-
ports as much as possible for use in the tables. Some of the
reports were quite extensive and deserving of publication in their
complete form if space had permitted.

Considering the reports as a whole, it will be seen that there is
a decided tendency toward emphasizing the aspects of each sub-
ject that come within the experience of the pupils in everyday
life. In some cases it seems to have been carried to excess,
notably with tree studies in some courses in botany, and possibly
in some of the courses in chemistry. The important principles
of each subject should never be lost sight of, no matter what
course is given, and I judge that there is danger of this in some
cases. The movement, however, seems to be a healthy one on
the whole and for the good of science insofar as it appeals to a
greater interest on the part of pupils and their parents. That it is
a progressive movement, in which some schools have made much
greater progress than others, is also evident, and what we should
expect and wish for.

I shall now take up my second topic, namely, the relation of
the pure and applied sciences in high schools where both are
taught. There are practically only two applied sciences which
have been incorporated in high school curricula to such an extent

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

158

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ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ILLINOIS

164

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SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 165

that they should receive attention in this report, and these are
domestic science and agriculture. First, then, we shall consider
the case of the courses in domestic science. For data I shall
use a paper which I read to this body at its meeting in 1910, in
which I made a comparative study of forty-three Illinois high
schools.

Of the forty-three schools listed in this report—schools taken
at random—~s4 per cent have courses in domestic science. Of the
nineteen schools having domestic science in their curricula, seven-
teen have these courses in the first two years-of the course with
no science preceding which could serve to prepare the way for
such courses. One school has its domestic science courses in the
third and fourth, where it is possible that there might be corre-
lation with the pure sciences. One other school has general sci-
ence in the first year, with domestic science in the first three years
of the course; there might be correlation here. A few schools
have domestic science running through the entire four years.
There might be some correlation in these schools, but probably
not, since there could be no correlation in the first two years.
From the above, it must be concluded that there is practically

‘no attempt at correlation of domestic science courses with other

science courses.

In discussing the correlation of agriculture with other sciences
in the ordinary high schools, I am compelled to use data for the
most part collected by others, since there was too little time for
me to get data from original sources when I took over this topic.
My principal source of information is a report made by C. H.
Robison, entitled “Agricultural Instruction in the Public High
Schools in the United States.” This is a very extensive study
of the subject and a very valuable one (made in IgI0o).

However, before analyzing the data to be gathered from Mr.
Robison’s report, it will be well to give some attention to the
schools of this State which have courses in agriculture. At De-
Kalb a year’s work in agriculture is given in the first year, thus
treating it as an introductory science. At Princeton, agriculture
is offered in the second. year as an alternative for botany and
zoology. It is preceded in the first year by physiography. At
Freeport, agriculture is offered as an extra study—called the
“agricultural club’—during the first two years. A note adds
that “the work in botany, zodlogy, physics and chemistry is made
practical for the study of agriculture.” At La Salle an elaborate
four-year course is offered in which agriculture and manual train-

166 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ing are made to work together toward the one end. Only two
pure sciences are offered in the agricultural course, namely, bot-
any and zoology in the third year, and chemistry in the fourth
year. Thus horticulture precedes botany, while zodlogy is given
coordinately with animal husbandry. Physics is evidently in-
cluded in the agricultural courses under various heads, as soil
physics in the first year and farm-mechanics in the manual train-
ing course of the second year. This course seems to be well
worked out, but the place of zodlogy and botany in the third
year seems to be unfortunate, if the work is to be useful in agri-
culture. Apparently there is little correlation attempted in Illi-
nois schools, except at the Freeport school, though an external
study of courses cannot, of course, be conclusive.

Turning now to the data obtainable from Mr. Robison, the only
point which | shall attempt to make is that of the correlation of
agriculture with other sciences. Is there any attempt at corre-
lation, or are the courses in agriculture put in where most con-
venient, or, perhaps, put in the first year to attract students from
the farm—as a sort of bait? Mr. Robison has data from about
one-third of the high schools in the United States then giving
agriculture in the curriculum—enough, as he says, to indicate the
“current practice’ of the schools. Out of 104 schools which give
only one year to agriculture, 49 place it in the first year, which,
of course, renders correlation with other sciences impossible.
Thirty-one more schools place agriculture in the second year, in
which case it is possible to precede it by physiography, a science
with which agriculture has comparatively little in common. If
we add these two classes of schools together, we find that in 80
out of 104 schools reporting there can be but slight correlation
with other subjects. Using other data, we find that agriculture
is preceded by physical geography in 72 out of 108 schools report-
ing; preceded by botany in 33 schools; by zodlogy in 5 schools;
by physics in 16 schools, by physiology in 17 schools. By these
figures it is seen that the studies most useful to agriculture are
least likely to precede the subject.

It does not seem necessary to quote further. Probably the
lack of some settled plan of correlating the work in science in
these schools is no more than is to be expected, considering the
fact that agriculture is but just beginning to get a foothold in the
curricula of high schools. But the fact that domestic science is
also uncorrelated with sciences which might contribute to it
tends to show a lack of appreciation that one science might help

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 167

another—or a pure science help an applied science. We have no
right to expect anything else, for the pure sciences themselves
in the high schools, physiography, botany, zodlogy, physics, and
chemistry, are each regarded and treated as entities having nothing
in common. Each teacher puts into his department of science
just what he pleases, with little or no regard to any other depart-
ment. If between them all something fundamental is untouched.
it is nobody’s business. Ii this be true, and it cannot be success-
fully disputed, how could we expect a new science to be corre-
lated with the older departments already in possession.

I cannot close my paper without some suggestions, hoping that
they reach some sympathetic ears. My first suggestion is that
when a new applied science such as agriculture is put into a cur-
riculum, all interested in science in the school ought to be the
ones to adjust it to its proper place and that the older depart-
ments ought to be correlated with the newcomer in such a way
that what is already established in the school should contribute
as much as possible to the new course. To be more explicit, why
not let a general science course, or the physiography, botany.
and zoology, contribute all they can to agriculture, and this can
be a great deal; then agriculture can in its turn be made purely
applied science, cotinting upon the help of other sciences to pre-
pare the ground. The agriculture thus arranged would be of
quite a different type from the mixed pure and applied science
usually given. It would seem to be good business economy, to
say nothing of educational economy, to let what is already estab-
lished in the school do all it can, instead of running parallel
courses—thus doubling the teaching and halving the size oi the
classes. Two years of agriculture rid of its pure science mix-
ture should be sufficient if built upon two years of pure science in
the first two years of the high school and correlated with the
pure science of the last two years. Ii there can be but one year
of agriculture, then it should be in the third or fourth year to
make it most effective. This idea of putting agriculture in the
first year is on a plane with the placing of stenography or book-
keeping in the first year—a bait to get the boy or girl into the
high school and unworthy of an educational program. Studies
should be placed where they belong in a consistent course. If
the school is turning out self-reliant boys and girls, that is suffi-
cient bait and the only inducement worthy of a school.

I cannot help thinking that in all this talk about practical
courses, vocational training—continuation schools, industrial

168 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

schools—there is danger of losing sight of certain fundamentals
in education. Ought the boy or girl to be educated for a certain
predetermined groove in society? Are we not in danger of doing
this very thing, and is this not an effective method of perpetuating
class distinctions? Is not such a course contrary to the well-being
of a democratic form of government? These are things to be
thought of seriously.

THE RELATION. OF PURE SCIENCE TO APPETITES
SCIENCE IN THE, AGRICULTURAL ich CHO
IN THE UNITED STATES.

J. T. JoHNson.

During the year 1910 there were more than 630 secondasy
schools offering instruction in agriculture. Of this number there
were more than 80 agricultural high schools, and 29 public high
schools which received state aid. The committee thought it to
be advisable to limit the investigation to those schools which are
distinctively of the high school type.

This report endeavors to consider the following questions:
What is the organization of the courses of science in the agri-
cultural high school? What pure science, if any, is given? What
is the position of pure science in the courses in agriculture? If no
pure science is given in distinct courses, how is the necessary
foundation of pure science given?

Whatever may be the distinction between pure science and
applied science, the pure sciences referred to in this discussion are
assumed to be botany, zoology, physics, chemistry, physiology,
hygiene, physiography, biology, and bacteriology.

To secure data as recent and reliable as possible, letters were
sent to each of the Superintendents of Public Instruction, and to
each of the agricultural high schools reported to the Bureau of
Education, Washington, D. C. At present replies have been re-
ceived from thirty-six States, and one each from. Hawaii and
Porto Rico, making thirty-eight replies from officers of public
instruction. Similarly, letters have been received from forty-
seven high schools of the agricultural type.

The following questionaire was sent to the agricultural high
schools :

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS . 169

- WESTERN ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
MACOME
Orrice oF Principat: Jonn E. McGrvrey
} January 15, IgI2.
Dear Sir: The State Academy of Science of Illinois has asked me
to investigate and report on the Agricultural High School of the United
States at its regular meeting in February. I shall be greatly aided if you
will forward me a catalog of your course of study, and answer the follow-
ing specific questions at your earliest convenience, since the time is very
short.
Hoping to be able to favor you at some time, I am,
Very truly yours,
J. T. JoHNson,
Department of Agriculture.
Exact name oi school
When established

Beet eseessesteereseesenesamavseseneeceeestencnasnsesessecees

STG a ee ee ae ee pod eet nee ‘hile... S225. 2ic te ee
Number of hiaildmes.....-.....-<2. 22 STS ee ee ee
Number of acres of land................. Value

OE Ls SS ee ee Se ee ee eee ee ee ee ee eee Se | =
SE ET SEE Se | ae ai en ne
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Number of years of work in high school... ..............0..-eccceceees =
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Zoology... ..--. aod Sates Piysigloty ss... 2< Sev nes 22: Piysiene 3257042. k sock
3S ne Physiography...... Seo ee Bee ee

Somewhat more matter was requested than was implied in the
question under investigation, but inasmuch as the data would
bear indirectly upon the agricultural high school it was thought
advisable to request it. In some instances the accessory data
helped to determine the type of school when, in a few instances,
catalogs and programs of study could not be furnished because
they were either out of print or to date none had been printed.

According to name the types are easily distinguished, and may
be listed in the following manner: State, County, Congressional
District, Supreme Court Judicial District, Public High Schools
receiving State aid, and Privately endowed. But according to the
program ot work, and which is more important in the purpose of
the State Academy of Science, the types are not so easily dis-
tinguished, due to the confusion in the content of subject matter,
and the methods of presentation. It is probably too early to
assume that the agricultural type of high school is differentiated,
but whatever the assumption, the type, or types, do not seem to
have appeared from the incomplete reports at hand. Many of
the agricultural high schools could be easily mistaken for the
accepted high school were it not for the name.

In order that the conditions may be made intelligible in this
brief report, a few summaries are offered from the letters re-

170 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ceived. There are 114 agricultural high schools reported by the
Superintendents of Public Instruction. Fourteen States are re-
ported to have agricultural high schools, as indicated by the let-
ters from the superintendents, and four other States were re-
ported by the principals in the schools, making a total of eighteen
States. There are twenty-two States reported to have no agri-
cultural high school. Recent laws will require a few States to
teach agriculture next year. Pennsylvania will require the sub-
ject to be taught in every township high school.

In comparing the number of pure sciences taught in the schools
it was observed that two schools, only, offered all. The schools
referred to are the National Farm School, Pennsylvania, and the
School of Forestry, North Dakota. No school was found which
did not offer at least one of the pure sciences. The Dunn County
Agricultural High School, Wisconsin, offered one subject only,
which is Physiology, covering a period of eight weeks. These
schools represent the extremes. The others are tabulated as
follows:

3 schools offer 2 pure sciences.
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The following tabulation shows the rank of the separate sci-
ences as they are found in the various courses of study:

Chemistry appeared 40 times.
Physics appeared 37 times.
Botany appeared 36 times.
Physiology appeared 27 times.
Physiography appeared 18 times.
Hygiene appeared 18 times.
Zoology appeared 15 times.
Bacteriology appeared 12 times.
Biology appeared 7 times.

Chemistry, physics, and botany rank essentially the same, with
chemistry slightly in the lead. In the entire list, chemistry is
the most favored, and biology the least. The above list of ranks
is based upon qualitative values, and to make the comparison
more truthful the following tabulation is based upon quantitative
values, where the number of weeks taught is considered. Totals
are expressed in each instance.

Chemistry is taught 1,225 weeks.
Physics is taught 1,200 weeks.

Botany is taught 770% weeks.
Physiology is taught 629% weeks.

——= oe

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 171

Physiography is taught 506 weeks.

Hygiene is taught 367 weeks.

Zoology is taught 204 weeks.

Bacteriology is taught 238 weeks.

Biology is taught 234% weeks. ;

The quantitative basis for ranking places chemistry in the lead
also, and tends to group chemistry and-physics separately from
botany, since there is a margin of 430 weeks between the lowest,
botany, and the next, physics. The order of the ranking is the
same for the pure sciences, whether placed on the qualitative or
quantitative basis. The quantitative ranking merely serves to
accentuate the preference for chemistry and physics. The great-
est length of time devoted to any one science is 72 weeks, for
chemistry; and the same, 72 weeks, is found also for physics.
The greatest length of time devoted to botany is 40 weeks. The
shortest length of time is 3 weeks, for zodlogy, and the next is
4 weeks, for hygiene.

The length of the course of study varies, and it would be
unwise to assume that each of the agricultural high schools has
a four-years’ course, which fact is revealed in the comparison
below:

1 school has a course of 5 years.
26 schools have a course of 4 years.

9 schools have a course of 3 years.

8 schools have a course of 2 years.

Nearly 63 per cent of the schools have a course of study under
four years in length.

The length af the school year varies from twelve months to
six months.
school continues for 12 months.
school continues for 10 months.
schools continue for 9 months.

schools continue for 8& months.
schools continue for 6 months.

ww
NN GO ee

About 25 per cent of the agricultural high schools have a school
year fewer than nine months in length.

The above summarizations are transmitted from data collected
from original sources with the hope that the members of the
State Academy of Science may have an adequate perspective of
the pure sciences in the authorized agricultural high schools in
the United States.

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NECROLOGY 175

IN MEMORIAM: FRED LEMAR CHARLES.
Etxiot R. Downinc.

Fred Lemar Charles was born at Aurora, Illinois, November 15,
1874. His father was then County Superintendent of King
County ;.his mother, a woman of culture, of sensitive and poetic
temperament. He attended school in the graded schools and
high school of Austin, Illinois, then went on to Northwestern
University, where he graduated, and later attended the University
of Chicago, irom which institution he received his master’s
degree. Two summers were spent at Woods Hole, Massachusetts,
and it was while we were there together that the author of this
sketch formed that friendship for Mr. Charles which lasted until
the time oi his death, as did al! friendships with this man. When

‘once you were taken into the circle of his intimates, the attach-

ment was bound to be a life-long attachment.

He began his teaching in Lakeview High School, then went to
the Northern Illinois State Normal at DeKalb, in which institu-
tion he remained for ten years, 1899-1909, as head of the Depart-
ment of Biology. He was then called to the University of Illi-
nois, as Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education. In
January, 1910, he assumed the editorship of the Nature-Study
Review, which magazine he continued to edit until his death.

In 1904 he married Miss Elsie Davis, and shortly afterwards
built the house in DeKalb which was their home, and the home
of their two children, for several years. Mr. Charles’ home life
was ideal, his devotion to His family was untiring, and in his
home he found his largest enjoyment.

He was a man of sterling worth, lovable and loyal, conscien-
tious and upright, brilliant and determined. He was sensitive to
a degree, artistic and poetic, a man who was not only a student of
nature, but a thorough lover of nature. I quote from Professor
W. C. Bagley:

“But there was another side to his life, and there was another
type of influence that he exerted over those who knew him well.
When a man is in almost constant physical pain; when he feels
that he is gradually but surely losing his grip on the threads of
life; and when, under this condition, he can clinch his teeth as
Charles did, and work on steadfastly while only the great dark
looms up before him; when he can mingle with his friends and
live in close association with his fellow-workers without once re-

176 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE..

vealing, save perhaps through the indirect expressions that no
man can inhibit, the physical and mental torture that he is under-
going; then he has set a standard that deserves the name of
achievement, if any conquest in this life deserves that name.”

As a teacher he was equally successful in handling children and
advanced students. He not only succeeded in inspiring his
students with a zeal for the subject matter that he dealt with, but
he also gave them an enthusiasm for the high ideals that were
always his, and imparted also some of that spirit of self-sacrificing
devotion that ruled his own life. He was skillful in planning,
and wise in execution, as is evidenced by the successful organ-
ization of the mass of chaotic material which he had to arrange
in formulating a course in elementary agricultural education.
His ability is shown again in his work as an editor, and a leader
in nature study. I quote from B. M. Davis, President of the
American Nature-Study Society:

“Those who were fortunate in knowing Professor Charles
keenly feel the personal loss, and those who knew of him through
his educational activities, particularly in the cause of nature
study, will miss his leadership.

“The American Nature-Study Society owes much to him. He
was interested from its beginning as a member and as an officer.
As editor of this magazine he made many sacrifices in its behalf.
He did not spare himself, but thought only of its success. The
measure of this sticcess is known to all its readers.”

I am happy to have this opportunity to express my appreciation
of, and regard for, Fred L. Charles, as a student of nature, a
teacher of her ways, an inspiration to the student body with which
he came in contact, a loyal friend, a royal man.

a

LIST OF MEMBERS 177

List of Members

HONORARY MEMBER.
* Trelease, Wm., LL.D., Mo. Bot. Garden, St. Louis, Mo. (Botany.)

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Abbott, J. F.,. A.M., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. (Zoology.)
Coulter, S. M., Ph.D., 3883 Juniata St. St. Louis, Mo. (Botany.)
Eycleshymer, A. C., PhD. St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo. (Anatomy.)
Lyon, E. P., Ph.D., St. Louis Univ ersity, St. Louis, Mo. (Physiology.)
Turner, C. H., Sumner H. S., St Louis, Mo. (Invertebrate Zoology.)
Widmazn, O., Ph.D., 5105 Morgan St, St. Louis, Mo. (Ornithology, Bot.)

LIFE MEMBER.
Latham, Vida A., M.D., D.D.S., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago. ( Mice )

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

| Abott, Walter S., University of Hlinois, Urbana, Ill. Entomology.)
| Ackert, J. E., A.B., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)
*Adams, C. C., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Biology.)

Adams, Howard W., Normal Ill. (Chemistry.)

Allen, Mary S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology, Botany.)
Akeley, C. E., American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y-

( Taxidermy.)

*Andrews, C. W., A.M., The John Crerar Library, Chicago. (Sci. Biblio.)

*Atwell, Chas. B., Ph.M., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Botany.}
*Atwood, W. W., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.)
Babcock, Oliver B., M.D., 1100 S. Second St, Springfield. ( Physician.)
Bachmann, Frank, Urbana, Til. (State Water Survey.)

Bagley, W. C., Ph.D., Univ. of Ill, Urbana. (Educational Psychology.)
Bagg, Jr., R. M., University of Illinois, Urbana.

*Bain, H. Foster, Ph.D.. 667 Howard St.. San Francisco, Cal. (Geology.)
Bain, Walter G.. M.D., Prince Sanitarium, Springfield. ( Bacteriology.)
Barber, Fred. D., Normal, Il. ( Physics.)

Baird, Miss Grace J.. A-B.. 608 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana. (Biology.)
Baker, Chas. L., B.S., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Paleontology and Geol-

ogy.)
Baker, Frank C.. Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago. (Conchology.)
Baker, I. O., C_E.. 702 W. University Ave.. Champaign. (Civil Eng.)

*Balke, Clarence W., Ph.D.. University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Barger, Thomas M., 2725 South Fiity-ninth Court, Cicero, II.

Barnard, Edith Ethel, 410 W. Sixty-second St. Chicago. (Chemistry.)

*Barnes, H. O., A.B., High School, Springfield. ( Mathematics.)

Barnes, R. M.. LL.B., Lacon. (Oology.)
Barnes, Will F.. M.D., Decatur. (Medicine.)
Barrett, J. T., Ph.D., 406 E. Chalmers St.. Champaign, Ill. (Botany.)

*Bartow, Edward, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Barwell, John William, Waukegan. (Anthropology.)

Bassett; Herbert. Macomb, Ill. (Geography and Geology.)

*Bayley, W. S., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)
Benson, Peter, A.B., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Mathematics.)
Berg, E. J., Sc.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Electrical Engineering.)
Berry, Daniel B., M.D., Carmi. (Medicine.)

Berry, Rufus L., 511 North Side Square, Springfield.

*Betten, Cornelius, Ph.D., Lake Forest College, Lake Forest. (Biology.)

*Birdsall, L. I.. A.B., 1212 Hartford Bldg., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

*Bjorkland, Alfred, M.S., Michigan City, Ind. (Chemistry.)

Blair, J. C., M.S.A., 810 W. Oregon St., Urbana. (Horticulture.)

* Charter members.

178 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Blatchley, R. S., Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana. (Geology.)

Bleininger, A. V., U. S. Survey, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Ceramics.)

Blount, Ralph E., 124 S. Oak Park Ave. Oak Park, Ill. (Geography,

Geology.)

Boerner, Wunibald R., Ravinia, Lake County. (Biology.)

Braun, H. M., 1618 Belmont Ave., East St. Louis, Ill. Archeology.)
*Bretnall, G. H., A.M., Monmouth College, Monmouth. (Botany.)
*Bryan, T. J., Ph.D., 1623 Manhattan Bldg., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Briscoe, C. F., 706 W. California St., Urbana, Ill. (Bacteriology.)

Bullard, James D., Equality, Ill.

*Burchard, E. F., M.S., U. S. G. S., Washington, D. C. (Econ. Geology.)

Burgess, L. L., Ph.D., 4o9 E. Green St., Champaign.

Burrill, T. J., Ph.D., LL.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Cady, G. H., Urbana, Ill. (Geology.)

Caldwell, Otis W., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Carlson, A. J., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Physiology.)
*Carman, Albert P., Sc.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. Physics.)
*Carpenter, Chas. K., D.D., 311 Park St., Elgin, Ill. (Ornithology.)

Carpenter, F. W., Ph.D., 1008 W. Oregon St., Urbana. (Zoology.)

Carus, Paul, Ph.D., Editor Open Court Pub. Co., La Salle. ( Philosophy.)
*Carver, Albert, B.S., Springfield High School, Springfield. (Physics. )

Cederberg, Wm. E., Ph.D., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Math.)

Chamberlain, C. J., A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Botany.)
*Chamberlin, T. C., LL.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.)

Child, C. M., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)
*Clawson, A. B., A.B., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. (Biology.)

Coad, Bert R., 1817 Spruce St., Murphrysboro. (Entomology.)

Coe, O. J., Ottawa, Ill. (Chemistry, Biology.)

Coe, Chester M., Danville. (Entomology.)

Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph.D., Lake Forest, Ill. (Physical Chemistry.)

Cole, A. H., A.B., A.M., 6022 Monroe Ave., Chicago (Biology, Biological

Projection.)

Collins, J. H., A.M., Supt. City Schools, Springfield. (Nature Study.)

Colyer, Frank H., Carbondale, III.

Conrad, A. H., Crane Technical High School, Chicago. (Biology.)

Cook, Nettie M., 630 S. Seventh St., Springfield. (Botany.)

Coonradt, J. H., Decatur.

Cooper, Wm. S., B.S., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Corbett, Clifton S., 217 N. Kansas St., Edwardsville.

Cort, W. W., A.B., 1206 W. Springfield Ave., Urbana (Zoology.)
*Coulter, John G., Ph.D., Bloomington. (Biology.)

*Coulter, John M., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)
*Cowles, H. C., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

*Crandall, Charles S., M.S., University cf Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)
*Crew, Henry, Ph.D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Physics.)
*Crook, A. R., Ph.D., Curator State Museum, Springfield. (Geology. )

Crowe, A. B., A.M., Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston. ( Physics.)

Daniels, Hon. F. B., Pullman Bldg., Chicago.

Daniels, L. E., La Porte, Ind. (Conchology.)

Davenport, Eugene, Champaign.

*Davis, J. J., B.S., Experiment Sta. Bldg., LaFayette, Ind. (Entomology.)

Davis, N. S., M.D., 291 Huron St., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Deal, Don W., M.D., Ferguson Bldg., Springfield. (Medicine.)

*Derick, C. G., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

DeWolf, F. W., B.S., Director State Geological Survey, Urbana.
*Didcoct, J. J., A.M., 207 Pleasant Ave., Streator. (Chemistry.) __

Dietrich, Wm., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Animal Nutrition. )

gan, Jas. A., M.D., Sec. State Board of Health, Springfield. (Medicine.)

Egan, J. E., A.B., 906 S. Fifth St., Champaign. (Chemistry)

Eikenberry, W. L., B.S., University of Chicago. (Botany.)

Ekblaw, W. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)

* Charter members.

LIST OF MEMBERS 179

*Elhiott, C. H., Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, IIL
' Emmett, A. D., A.M., 707 W. Illinois St, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Engberg, Martin J., 258 W. Chicago Avé., Chicago. era

Emest, T. R, Ph.D., 20 W. Maple St, Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Ewell, Marshall D., A.M., M.D., LL_D., 59 Clark St., Chicago. (Metrol-

ogy, Microscopy.)
*Ewing, H. E., Arcola. (Zoology.)
*Farrington, O. C., Ph.D., Field Museum, Chicago. (Mineralogy.)

Ferris, J. H., Editor “Joliet News,” Joliet.

Finley, C. W. State Normal School, Macomb. (Zoology.)

Finney, es 907 S. Raynor Ave., Joliet. (Geology and Paleontology.)
*Fischer, C. E M. M.D., 1922 W. Chicago Ave., Chicago. (Biology.)
*Fisher, Fannie, Asst. Curator State Museum, Springfield. (Gen. Int.)
*Forbes, S. A., Ph.D., LL.D., State Entomologist, Urbana. ( Zoology.)
Fuller, George ». AB, Univ ersity of Chicago, Chicago. (Plant Ecology.)

Funk, Frank H., Bloomington. (Corn Breeder.)

Gale, wee G. Ph.D., Ryerson Lab., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Physics.)
*Galloway, T. W., Ph.D., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Zoology.)
*Gates, Frank C., A.B., 4540 N. Lincoln St., Chicago.

Gault, B. T., Glen Ellyn. (Ornithology.)

Gerhard, Wm. J., Ph.D., Field Museum, Chicago
Gilbert, J. P., A. M., State Normal School, eriemidtate (Biology.)

Girault, A. A., M.S., Urbana. (Entomology.)

Givens, H., Paris, TiL (Botany.)

Glasgow, H., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

Glasgow, R. gin A.B., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology.)
Gleason, H. A., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Glenn, P. A. 809 W. Nevada St., Urbana.

Goode, J. Paul, 6227 Kimbark Ave. Chicago. (Geography.)

Gordon, H. B., inieensaty of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Goss, W. F. M. D.Eng., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Steam Engineering.)
*Grant, iy ese Ph._D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Geology.)
Green, Bessie, A.B., 401 S. Wright St, Champaign. (Zoology.) ~
Greenman, J. M, BS., M.S., Ph.D., 5731 Madison Ave., Chicago. (Bot.)

Grindley, EH. S., ScD., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Animal Chemistry.)
Grizzell, Roy A, University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Entomology.)
Gunther, C. F., Majestic Bldg., Chicago. (General Interest.)

Gurley, Wm., F.E., 6151 Lexington Ave., Chicago. ( Paleontology.)

Gutherlet, J. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

Haddock, F. D., A-B., Supt. Schools, Sioux City, Ia. (General Interest.)
Hagler, E. E., M_D., Capitol and Fourth, Springfield. (Physician, Oculist.)
*Hale, John A MD., Editor “The Enterprise,” Alto Pass.

Hammond, H. S., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.

Hancock, J. L., M.D., 3757 Indiana Ave., Chicago. (Entomology.)

Hand, E. E., Wendell Phillips H. S., Chicago. (Zoology, Conchology.)
Hankinson, Thos. L., State Normal School, Charleston. (Zoology.)

Harper, E. H., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Zoology.)
Harris, Norman MacL., M. B., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Bacteriology.)
*Hart, C. A., Ill State Lab. Nat. Hist., U. of L, Urbana. ( Entomology.)

Haupt, Arthur W., 1321 Norwood Ave, Chicago. (Botany.)

Hawk, P. B., Ph.D., 801 W. Nevada St, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Hawthome, W. ove College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago.

Haytford, John F., CE Northwestern University, ‘Evanston. (Playin)

Head, W. R., 5471 Jefferson Ave., Hyde Park, Chicago. (Nat. History.)

Healey, John L., 1620 Morse Ave., Chicago.

Hess, Isaac E., Philo, Ill. (Ornithology.)

*Hessler, J. C., "Ph.D., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Chemistry.)

Hildebrand, LE, A.B., A.M., 808 Hamlin St, Evanston, Ill (Zoology.)

Hill, E. J.. 7100 Eggleston Ave. Chicago. (Botany.)

*Hill, W. K., Carthage College, Carthage, IIL (Biology.)

Hinkley, A. A., Dubois. (Conchology.)

* Charter members.

180 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Hitch, C. Bruce, Bloomington. (Biology.)

Holgate, T. F., Ph.D., LL.D., 617 Library St., Evanston. (Mathematics.)
* Hopkins, Cyril Gs PhD., U. of Ill., Urbana. (Agronomy and Chemistry. )
Hoskins, William, 111 W. Monroe’ St., Chicago.

Hottes, es ine PhD., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Howe, P. E., A.M., 10233 Wood St., Chicago. (Physiological Chemistry. )
Huber, W. H. P., Jacksonville. (Physiology.)

Huffington, .. .., Normal, Ill. (Biology.)

*Hummel, A. A., B.S., High School, Redlands, Cal. (Botany.)

Hunt, Robert I., Decatur. (Soils.)

Hurter, Julius, Jr., 2346 S. Tenth St., St. Louis, Mo.
*Hutton, J. Gladden, M.S., Siate College, Brookings, S. Dak. (Geology.)
Jackson, Miss Nell, B:S., 7524 Harvard Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)
*James, Benj. B., A.M., James Millikin University, Decatur. ( Physics.)
Jessee, R. H., Jr., Ph.D., 1001 W. California Ave., Urbana. (Chemistry. )
Jessup, J. M., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology and Paleontology.)
*Johnson, A. N., B.S., State Highway Commission, Springfield.

Johnson, Frank Seward, M.D., 2521 Prairie Ave., Chicago.

Johnson, H. W., Shelbyville. (Psy chology and Biology. )

Johnson, J. T., Kent, Ohio. (Biology and Agriculture.)

Jones, G., Ph.D., 409 E. Green St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Jordan, Edwin O., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. ( Bacteriology.)
Keppel, H. G., Ph.D., Gainesville, Fla. (Mathematics.)

Kindred, Granville L., Illinois Watch Co., Springfield. (Mech. Engineer.)
Kingsbury, H. B., A.B., 607,S. Sixth St., Champaign. (Mathematics.)
Kinnear, T. J., M.D., 400 Myers Bldg., Springfield. (Medicine. )

Kirk, Howard R., 225 Hinckley Ave., Rockford.

*Kneale, E. J., State Register, Springfield. (Physiology and Astronomy.)
*Knipp, Chas. T., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Physics.)
Knodle, E. A., M.D., Ferguson Bldg., Springfield.

Kressman, F. W., M.S., Madison, Wis. (Chemistry, Forestry Products.)
Kuh, Sydney, M.D., 103 State St., Chicago. (Medicine.) >

Land, W. J. G., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)
Langelier, W. F., B.S., 1005 W. Illinois St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)
LaRue, Geo. R., A.M., 612 S. Coler Ave., Urbana. (Zoology.)
Lehenbauer, P. A., A.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)
Lillie, F. R., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)

Linder, O. A., 208 Fifth Ave., Chicago. (Ed. “Svenska Amerikanaren.”)
Lingren, J. M., A.M., 306 S. Fourth St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)
Lipman, Mayer, 1607 W. Sixty-third St., Chicago. ( Physics.)

Locke, J. R., B.S., 212 Sixth St., Streator, Ill. (Botany.)

Lutes, Neil, 57 Broadway St., Freeport. (Chemistry.)

Lyons, Thos. E., B.S., LL.B., Hay Bldg., Springfield. (Lawyer.)
MacFarland, D. F., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Chemistry.)
MacGillivray, ia, University of Illinois, Urbana. ’(Entomology.)
MaclInnes, D. A University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Manee, G. C., 302 Maple Ave., Blue Island, Ill. (Science.)

Mansfield, G. R., Ph.D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Geology.)
Marshall, Ruth, "Ph.D., Rockford College, Rockford. ( Biology.)
Mathews, Albert BP: Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Physiological eChemistry.)
McAllister, HES... 1002) We California St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)
McCabe, E. L., Martinsville. (Botany.)

McCormack, Thomas J., La Salle.

McDunnough, Dr. J., Decatur. (Lepidoptera. )

McGinnis, Mary O., AB, 1004 W. Edwards St., Springfield. (Zoology.)
McNutt, Wade, Township High School, Highland Park, Ill. (Botany.)
Meyers, Ira, Francis W. Parker School, Chicago.

Michelson, A. A., LL.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Physics.)
Miller, G. A., Ph.D., Univ ersity of Illinois, Urbana. (Mathematics.)
Mitchell, Ee ie University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry. )

Moffatt, Will S., 105 S. La Salle St., Chicago. (Botany.)

* Charter members.

LIST OF MEMBERS 181

Mohr, Louis, 349 W. Illinois St., Chicago.

Morrison, H. T., M.D., First and Miller, Springfield. (Medicine.)
Mortenson, Henry T., Francis W. Parker School, Chicago.

Moulton, F. R., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Astronomy.)
Mumford, H. W., Champaign. (Animal Husbandry. ) ,

Munson, S. E., M.D., 712 S. Second St., Springfield. (Medicine.)
Nason, Wm. A., M.D. Algonquin. (Entomology. ) ;
*Neal, H. V., Ph.D., Knox College, Galesburg. (Zoology.)

Nef, J. U., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Chemistry.)
*Nehls, A. L., A.M., 4652 Malden St., Chicago. (State Analyst.)
Neiberger, Wm. E., Bloomington. (Eugenics.)

Newman. H. H., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)

Nickell, L. F., A.B., 617 S. Wright St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Nichols, H. W., B.S., Field Museum, Chicago. (Geology.)
*Noyes, Wm. A., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Nuttall, J. T., B.S., 926 Ella St., Birmingham, Ala. (Chemistry.)
*Oglevee, C. S., Sc.D., Lincoln College, Lincoln. ( Biology.)

Packard, W. H., M.D., Bradley Institute, Peoria. (Biology.)

Palmer, Geo. Thos., M.D., 1733 S. Fourth St., Springfield. (Medicine.)
*Parr, S. W., M.S., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry. )

Partridge, N. L., 611 W. Illinois St., Urbana. (Agriculture.)

Patterson, Alice J.. Normal. (Entomology, Nature Study.)

Payne, Edward W.. Pres. State Nat. Bank, Springfield. (Archzology.)

Peet, C. E., Lewis Institute, Chicago. (Geology and Geography.)
*Pepocn, H. S., M.D., Lake View H. S., Chicago. (Zoology and Botany.)

Perry, Edna M.. Morton. (Zoology. )

Pfeiffer, Miss W. M., S.B., Ph.D., University of Chicago. (Botany.)

Pinckney, BoE. Dundee. (Zoology. ae

Poling, Otto Ce Quincy.

Pricer, J. L., A.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Pruitt, Edgar C., Supt. County Schools, Court House, Springfield.

Radcliff, H. H., Taylorville. (Biology.)
*Ray, Verne, 860 S. Lincoln Ave., Springfield. ( Physics.)

Read, J. W., M.S., Illinois College, Jacksonville. (Chemistry.)

Peterson, Alvah, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology. )

Rentchler, Edna K., 305 North St., Normal, Ill. (Biology.)

Replogle, P. S., M.D., 80 North Neil St., Champaign. (Medicine.)

Reynolds, Carrie, B.S., Lake View High School, Chicago. (Botany.)
*Reynolds, O. E., College, Albion.

Rice, Wm. F., Wheaton.

Ricker, N. e D.Arch., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Architecture. )
Rich, Jokn i De University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Physiology. )

Riddle, Oscar, University of Chicago, Chicago.

Ridgley, D. C., Normal, Ill. (Geography.)

Roberts, H. L., Cape Girardeau, Mo. (Geography.)

Rolfe, C. W., M.S., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)
*Rutherford, T. A., M.D., Hillside Home, Clark Summit, Pa. (Chemistry.)

Salisbury, R. D., LL.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.)

Sampson, H. C., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Savage, T. E., Ph.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Stratigraphic Geology.)

Sawyer, M. Louise, Elgin High School, Elgin.

Scheffel, Earl Read, Urbana. ( Geology. )

Schulz, W. F., Ph.D.. 926 W. Green St., Urbana. (Physics.)

Shaw, 2 B., Sc.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Mathematics. )

Shelford, Vv. Bee University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)

Sherff, E. E., B.S., 421 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Botany.)
*Simpson, Jesse P., M.D., Palmer, Ill. (Medicine.)

Simpson, Q. I., Palmer, Ill. (Eugenics. )
_ Sims. J. P.. 851 S. Lincoln St., Springfield.

Slocum. A. W. Field Museum. Chicago.

Smallwood. Miss Mabel E.. 550 Surf St., Chicago.

* Charter members.

182 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Smith, C. H., M.E., Hyde Park High School, Chicago. (Ed. School Sci.)
Smith, Frank, A.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

Smith, G. McP., Ph.D., 708 S. Fourth St., Champaign.

Smith, Huron H., Field Museum, Chicago. (Dendrology.)

*Smith, Isabel Seymour, M.S., Illinois College, Jacksonville. (Botany.)
Smith, Jesse L., Superintendent of Schools, Highland Park.

*Smith, L. H., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)
Smith, Orrin H., High School, Champaign. ( Physics.)

Smith, Sidney B., B.S., 710 S. Sixth St., Springfield. (Farming.)
Smith, Wilbur, 5636 Kenmore Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)
Snyder, John F., M.D., Virginia. (Archeology. )

Southgate, Helen A., Champaign. (Biology.)

Spessard, Earl A., Y. M. C. A. Bldg., Aurora. (Biology.)
Spicer, C. E., Township High School, Joliet.

*Starr, Frederick, Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Anthropology.)
Stephenson, E. B., M.S., 617 S. Wright St., Champaign. (Physics.)
Stevenson, A. L., Principal Lincoln School, 1308 Morse Ave., Chicago.

*Stewart, H. W., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Agronomy.)

Stieglitz, Julius, Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Chemistry.)
Stillhamer, A. G., Bloomington. ( Physics.)

Stoek, H. H., E.M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Mining Engineering.)
Stowe, Herbert, M.D., 4433 Lake Ave., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Strachan, E. K., B.S., 410 E. Chalmers St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

*Strode, W. S., M.D., Lewiston. (Medicine.)

Strong, R. M., A.B., A.M., Ph.D., University of Chicago. (Zoology.)
Swarth, H. S., University of California, Berkeley, Calif.

Swisher, C L., Georgia Polytechnic School, Atlanta, Ga. (Physics.)
Sykes, Miss Mabel, B.S., S. Chicago High School, Chicago. (Geology.

Taggart, Miss Margaret, 805 W. Oregon St., Urbana. (Chemistry. )
Talbott, Eugene S., M.D., LL.D., 198 Goethe St., Chicago. (Stomatology. )
Tandy, M., Dallas City, Ill. (Biology. )

*Tanquary, M. C., A.B., Univ. of Ill, Urbana. (Zoology and Entomology.)
Tatnall, Robert R., Ph.D., 624 Lincoln St., Evanston. ( Physics.)

Test, F. C., M.D., 4318 Grand Blvd., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Thomson, F. D., A.M., Principal H. S., Springfield. (Economics-Hist.)
Tower, W. E., Englewood High School, Chicago.

*Townsend, E. J., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Champaign. (Mathematies.)
Transeau, E. N., State Normal, Charleston. (Botany.)

Treadwell, C. H., John Marshall High School, Chicago.

Turck, Fenton B., M.D., 1820 Michigan Blvd., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Turton, Chas. M., A.M., Bowen High School, Chicago. ( Physics.)
Udden, Anton D., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Phys. and Math.)
Umbach, L. M., Naperville. (Botany.)

Van Alstine, E., Experiment Station, Urbana. (Chemistry. )
Van Cleave, H. J., B.S., 809 Nevada St., Urbana. (Zoology.)
Vestal, A. G., 901 Green St., Urbana. (Ecology.)

Wager, R. E., DeKalb. (Biology.)

Wainwright, Jacob T., C.E., P. O. Box 774, Chicago. ( Physics.)
Ward, H. B., Ph.D., Urbana. (Zoology, Parasitology.)
Washburn, E. W., 210 W. Park St., Champaign.

Watson, F. R., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Physics.)
Webb, J. M., U. S. Bureau of Mines, Urbana.

Webster, G. W., M.D., 32 N. State St., Chicago.
Welch, Paul, A.B., University of Illinois, Natural Hist. Bldg., Urbana.

Weller, Annie L., Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston.
Weller, Marion, Ph.D., Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb.

(Geography. )

*Weller, Stuart, Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Paleontology.)
Westcott, O. S., Waller High School, Chicago.

White, Kessack O., Geological Survey, Urbana. (Geology.)
Whitney, Worallo, Eowen High School, Chicago. (Botany.)

* Charter members.

LIST OF MEMBERS 183

Wilczynski, E. J., Ph. D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Mathematics.)
Williamson, Warren, A.B., University of Illinois, Urbana.

*Williston, S. W., M.D., Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. ( Paleontology.)
Windsor, Mrs. P. L., 704 S. Lincoln Ave., Urbana. (Entomology.)

*Winter, S. G., A.M. Address unknown. (Histology.)

Wirick, C. M., A.M., Crane Technical H. S., Chicago. (Chemistry.)
Wolcott, A. B., Field Museum, Chicago. (Entomology.)

*Wood, F. E., A.B., Wesleyan University, Bloomington. (Zoology.)
Woodburn, Wm. L., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Botany.)
Woodruff, E. C., Ph.D., James Millikin Univ., Decatur. (Elec. Engineer.)
Woodruff, Frank M., Chicago Academy of Sciences. Chicago. (Taxidermy.)
Young, Mrs. J. D., B.L., 4752 Vincennes Ave., Chicago. (Biology.)
Zelany, Charles, Ph.D., 606 S. Matthews Ave, Urbana. (Ex. Zool.)

*Zetek, James, State Lab. Nat. Hist., Urbara. (Entomology.)

* Charter members.

A complete Table of Contents for this
volume is presented on pages 3 and 4; a
List of Illustrations appears on page 5.
A very brief index is scarcely more than
a duplication of the Table of Contents,
and List of Illustrations, and it has been
thought unwise to print an exhaustive in-
dex such as would cover all details in a
volume of the nature of this one.

_ TRANSACTIONS

Zz .
7 . *

, OF THE

Illinois Academy of Science —

ae, a a

VOLUME VI .

1913.

Published by the Academy

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int

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Illinois Academy of Science

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING

at the

BRADLEY POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
PEORIA, ILLINOIS, FEB. 21-22, 1913

VOLUME VI
1913

PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY

3 Press of the Courier

rth t Charleston, IllInois
7 ie x ; ‘ e & 4
Sind
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CONTENTS.

Pag
Sanco ann Committees for 3913-1914... ee cc whe ecu 5
Session of Friday, February 21—Afternoon:

Address of Welcome by Dean Burgess .................. 7

BPG vie reSINemE GrOW oe oo ..c Se as eo oe ae Sire BAe 7

Reports:

MGEECIARe oo. oe con nse ee crete Gan ate ow ae Seeiae ae were 7
ROCCE TON on Mer notre Sas OM ae Oh em Se ee 9
Membership: Commiuttee .< . =o 50) 22.0. zest ees aecces 10

President’s Address:

Symposium on Sanitation.
Session of Friday, February 21—Evening:
See | Dain ail PIO C7 o> cos en oe an, eo oe wt 10
Address by Professor E. E. Barnard .................... 11
Session of Saturday, February 22—Morning:

SMnnnttLee HERPES. = yo Ok ae ee eee Oe wees came 11

Resolution on Birth and Death Resisbratien 22 <. . foe es & 11

Resolution Relating to High Schools .................... 11

Henri of Nominatine. Committee’ <<... 22.2 .< 2odemn seme 12

Legislative Committee:

Report on High School Leaflets .................... 12
Report on Applied Science in High Schools .......... 13
Report en) Calendar Wetorms. \.. ---20-65.-4 o-se eens 15
Henoert.on: Bealozieal Survey (2: 25.5 6s0~ 5s sou bone 18
President’s Address: An Italian Academician. Professor
TCR CPC Wana en oe a So mim i a cde a ao ae eral 24
Symposium: The Science of Sanitation:

I. Why Should Births and Deaths be Registered in Ili-
nois, Dr. Fredrick R. Green, Sec’y American Medical
Singin foe oon eee eee xen n aha owes 34

Il. The Experience of the State of Illinois with the Shal-
low Well, Dr. Edward Bartow, State Water Survey 45

Ill. The Control of Stream Pollution, Paul Hansen, State
Water SUFVGY. ose oes on Sree ee a eee ae coe de aes 51

IV. Sanitary Aspect of Milk Supplies, Dr. P. G. Heinemann,
SiMIVerLy. OF GINCAMH S266. haa aa en ae aan ee os 60

V. Housing in Relation to Health, Dean Marion Talbot,
University “of: ‘Chicago «sc ackewccsen ee eee Oe
Individual Papers:
A Celestial Sphere in a Natural History Museum, W. W.
Atwood

050, (2 'e © 96 «@ 6 ete (0a vile sale ee a0 ehelpielw =e bie (#/e ihe © ip ie = session

SCAU, aise sc os none 01S © 06 © wel w oie 06 ¥ oie oS sin! ciel ale 6) slsle sie eieiele

The Sexton Creek Limestone in Illinois, T. E. Savage ..

A New Species of Marionina from Illinois, F. Smith and P.

Suv WIS: 65.5 orb oelees as cesses) steteuete.niekeie. cer eacseta tate) ato ele eRe
A Black-Crowned Night Heronry and Need of its Protec-
tion, iC: (Wi Famley ooo sce oisvo bre eer neierererops o abort ouel snetep pepe
Reproduction by Layering in the Black Spruce, George D.
10) 0) Sa re A ae Ne Nero. ee OCS aiuto Oe OOS 6.5.9.0
Evaporation and Soil Moisture on the Prairies of Illinois,
By. oS SEPA VOY oro 265.8 5 ocseie els te sieie) cnt ene nisysackare’ ele teller te nenemers
The Stratification of Atmospheric Humidity in the For-
est, G. D. Fuller, J. R. Locke and Wade McNutt ........
Distribution of the Fish in the Streams about Charleston,
MWhinoiss “Leds; HamKInSOms ey ege rete ei aera) ese oe elle) alley arel> eaten
The Disappearing Beaver, Elliot R. Downing ...........
Practical Cloud Studies, M. L. Fuller ....................
The Stratigraphy of the Chester Group in Southern Illinois,
Stuarts Weller foajc oe scm ciercis suere eS slate ls nekererebeiats te cuelote nc iain
PAStOF IMGMPERS® crchsie ce ope asoel «sie ctalouer n'ai cuswoders (ohas) oles] ee, olsetele tee eamaie

62

66

69
90

90

90

91

92

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR
1913-1914.

President, FRANK W. DE WOLF, Director State Geological Sur-
vey, Urbana.

Vice-President, H. S. PEPOON, Lake View High School, Chicago.

Secretary, EDGAR N. TRANSEAU, Eastern State Normal School,
Charleston.

Treasurer, JOHN C. HESSLER, James Millikin University, Decatur.

The Council.
President, Past President, Vice President, Secretary, and Treasurer.
Publication Committee.
President, Secretary, Treasurer, and S. A. Forbes.
Membership Committee.

C. B. Atwell, Chairman, Chicago.
H. G. Gale, Chicago.

C. W. Finley, Macomb.

D. F. MacFarland, Urbana.

J. P. Gilbert, Carbondale.

Committee on Conservation.

H. S. Pepoon, Chairman, Chicago.
John G. Coulter, Bloomington.
E. N. Transeau, Charleston.

Committee on Legislation.
T. W. Galloway, Chairman, Decatur.
Otis W. Caldwell, Chicago.
E. W. Payne, Springfield.
Elmer J. Kneale, Springfield.
Committee on Calendar Reform.

. C. Chamberlin, Chairman, Chicago.
. R. Moulton, Chicago.
. R. Crook, Springfield.
. G. Hopkins, Urbana.
. J. Townsend, Urbana.
ommittee to Arrange for the Editorship and Publication of a
Series to be Known as the State Academy Leaflets on High
School Science.
T. J. McCormack, Chairman, Principal, La Salle-Peru High School,
LaSalle.
William C. Bagley, Director of Education, University of Illinois,
Urbana.
John G. Coulter, Bloomington.
H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago.
R. D. Salisbury, University of Chicago, Chicago.
Committee on Ecological Survey.
Stephen A Forbes, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana.
H. C. Cowles, University of Chicago, Chicago.
T. L. Hankinson, Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston.
V. E. Shelford, University of Chicago, Chicago.
E. N. Transeau, Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston.
Charles C. Adams, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Frank C. Baker, Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago.
H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago.
George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago.

ee |

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 7

Minutes of the Sixth Annual Meeting

Peoria, Illinois, February 21 and 22, 1913

SESSION OF FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 21, 2:00 P. M.

The meeting was called to order by President Crew.
Dean Burgess of the Bradley Polytechnic Institute gave
a short address welcoming the Academy to the Institute.
President Crew responded briefly.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY:

Minutes of Previous Meeting.—The fiith annual meeting
oi the Illinois Academy of Science was held at Bloomington,
Illinois, February 23 and 24, 1912. The Academy met with
the McLean County Academy of Science, a local organiza-
tion which proved unusually effective in facilitating the work
of the State Academy. The minutes of the business trans-
acted at this meeting are published in full on pages 11 to 20 oi
Volume V, Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science,
and the scientific papers compose the rest of the volume;
hence further presentation of the minutes at this time need not
be made.

Meeting of the Council—On June 11, 1912, a meeting o*
the Council was held in Chicago. Various matters relating to
the welfare of the Academy were discussed. The secretary
was instructed to prepare a folder-circular setting forth the
purposes of the Academy, and to distribute this circular
amongst the members, and elsewhere, in order to give more
definite and widespread ideas regarding the work for which
the Academy exists. This statement was prepared and dis-
tributed widely. Various other phases of the Academy’s in-
terests were considered informily.

8 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The Council voted unanimously to recommend the elec-
tion to membership of nine applicants, final action to be de-
pendent upon the favorable vote of the Acadmy at its next
annual meeting.

Publications—The annual volume, Volume V of the
Transactions has been published and a copy mailed to each
member. In a few cases changes in address, of which the
secretary was not advised, have occasioned delay or failure in
receiving the volume. The supply on hand is sufficient to en-
able us to correct such erors if we are informed of them. One
arratum slip, made necessary through a typist’s error correct-
ing the word “nine” in line 5, page 42, to read “twenty-three”,
was mailed to each member, and each one is urged to make
certain that the needed correction is placed in his copy of the
volume. Fifteen hundred copies of the volume were secured.
In addition to copies sent to members a copy was sent to each
member of the State Legislature; also, a circular letter to
the high schools of the State gave an outline of the contents
of the volume and offered to send it to the high schools upon
receipt of postage. A good many have responded, and re-
quests are still arriving.

As directed by the vote of the Academy last year, the
secretary has issued a letter to the members asking sugges-
tions regarding the place for this meeting, and whether a sym-
posium should be included in the program. Of those who
replied all but two favored the inclusion of the symposium,
and the majority favored Peoria as the meeting place.

Membserhip.—At the meeting two years ago, 34 new
members were elected. At the meeting last year, 46 members
were elected. It should be stated that new members in the
Academy have been secured each year almost wholly through
the activities of three or four members who have given the
matter personal attention. The present membership mailing
list of the Academy includes 395 names. There are over five
hundred schools in the State which should average at least
one member each in the Academy, and from the college, uni-
versity, normal school and medical men, five hundred more
would give but a fair representation. Furthermore, the citi-
zens of the State are interested vitally in many of the activ-
ities of the Academy, and the campaign for the extension of
the influence of the Academy should be continued.

Respectfully submitted,
OLIS W.CALED WHET
Secretary.

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 9

REPORT OF THE TREASURER.

Receipts.

Peete sae aie, Fels. 20. AI 2e ce os won cee e sens $104.27
Received from membership dues .................- 225.00
Received ifom initiation fees ..................---- 46-00
meeewved (om exchange on check. _......---.--.-<. 0.10
Received from sales of transactions ................. 229

ES 0 (St as ee a oa $377.62

Expenditures.

Check to H. J. Webber, expenses as speaker at Bloom-

LE ETE ES Beaten ene eee $ 57.31
Check to J. N. Hurty, expenses as speaker at Bloom-

DOME Ri, eee eee Se Nee ee te Were aS 13-80
To Worallo Whitney, expense of committee on High

SES IE eee ee ee ere eon ee 6.00
RecN #TCSESI MA, 20S) MERON je Sn 5 hen ncig ak os winless oi 6.80

To Lillian M. Hall, clerical work for F. C. Baker, Sec’y 20.10
To Frank C. Baker, Sec’y, postage and expenses .... 6.80
To John G. Coulter, for stenographer, Bloomington

(iS See BT IO Pe eee 2.50
To Peterson and Kimball Co., Chicago, for printing for
Dloomimipion meetin’: «<< <2.) 2: 2 sens 6-2-2 46.50
To West Paper Co., Decatur, Ill:. Treas. statements
BUMLSCNVENINES 2 en iva Ria sp eee = 2 Ren ae a23
To Springfield Transfer Co., for freight and transfer of
PERMIAN INES ooo he Ske oP aD wpa ae ns ee 8.22
To Henry B. Ward, expenses as delegate to Iowa
Academy Meeting ............------s+-+22+25: 5.20
To Peterson and Kimball Co., Author’s Reprints and
Deemstiations US. Coad sks nto Se ee se 28.00
To Peterson and Kimball Co., for printing programs,
Bloomington meeting ........----+-++2++eeeee 12.00
To University of Chicago Press, letter-heads and en-
velopes for O. W. Caldwell, Sec’y .........---+-- 9.15
To John C. Hessler, Treas., postage, April 22, 1911, to
bg a ee LOL ee ae. vs eee A le ee « 9.50
To University of Chicago Press, printing and address-
ing for O. W. Caldwell, Sec’y .....:..------+-+- 17.94
To Hyde Park News Co., for printing circular letters,
envelopes, and cards for Peoria meeting .......-. 12.25
Otis W. Caldwell, Sec’y. for printing, addressing, and

postage bill of Jan. 22, 1913 ...............+--- 23.

48
Ee Di iyo ee ae ea $288.80

10 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Summary.
‘Total “Receipts is 2250) of: oe ee er oe ee ee $377.62
Potek, Expenditures: 0. 7.2 tigcejoes pk oe a eee 288.80
Balance-on hand. Febazl, 1916- eee $ 88.82

After examination of the Treasurer’s books by the audit-
ing Committee, consisting of C. E. Comstock, John M. Rob-
erts, and George D. Fuller, the report was accepted as read.

Mr. W. L. Eikenberry, acting chairman of the Member-
ship Committee, presented a list of forty-six names of those
recommended by the committee for membership in the Acad-
emy. Upon motion, the report was unanimously adopted.

The president’s address, entitled, “An Italian Academi-
cian” was then delivered by President Crew. Next came the
symposium on, “The Science of Sanitation,” which was pre-
sented in the following order:

ie
American Medical Association, Chicago.

2. The Influence of Shallow Wells on Health.—Edward
Bartow, Director Illinois Water Survey, Urbana.

3. The Control of Stream Pollution. —Paul Hansen, LIli-
nois Water Survey, Urbana.

4. Sanitary Aspect of the Milk Supply.—P. G. Heine-
mann, Department of Bacteriology, University of Chicago.

5. Housing in Relation to Health—Marion Talbot,
Dean of Women, University of Chicago.

Frederick R. Green,

Time remained for the beginning of the program of “indi-
vidual papers,” and Dr. W. W. Atwood presented two papers.
“Chicago Academy of Science—An Educational Force in the
Community,” and “A Celectial Sphere.”

Sixty members of the Academy attended the banquet
served in the dining hall of Bradley Institute at 6 P. M. The
after-dinner talks were particularly pleasing and profitable.
Each speaker gave a brief review of the most important dis-
coveries made in his particular field of science during the
previous year. If the purpose of the Academy is in part at
least to give better distribution to scientific discoveries, and
to extend the spirit of science this after dinner program was
a decided success. Following is the list of speakers:

Botany, John M. Coulter, University of Chicago.

Zoology, Henry B. Ward, University of Illinois.

Entomology, Stephen A. Forbes, University of Illinois.

Geology, William S. Bayley, University of Illinois.

Physiological: Chemistry, E. W. Washburn, lives of
Illinois.

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 1]

FRIDAY, 8:15 P. M.

The evening address was given by Professor E. E. Bar-
nard of the Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin.
on the topic: “Some Late Results in Astronomical Photog-
taphy.” The lecture was remarkably instructive and interest-
ing, and the thanks of the members to Professor Barnard were
expressed on frequent occasions throughout the rest of the
meeting.

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 22, 9:00 A. M.

The reports of various committees were presented. The
reports follow. Committees continued are—On Conservation,
Calendar Reform, High School Leaflets, and Ecological Sur-
vey.

The following items of new business were transacted.

It was voted that the Committee which by vote of last
year was called the “Committee on Legislation or Agreements
for Setting Aside Lands for Conservation and Propagation of
Common Wild Flowering Plants,” should be known as the
“Committee on Conservation.”

It was voted, that during periods between meetings the
Council shall be empowered to elect persons to membership
in the Academy subject to approval at the next annual meet-
ing of the Academy.

The following resolution endorsing birth and death
registrations was presented, and it was voted to refer the
resolution to a new committee on legislation with full power
to act in furthering the intent of the resolution:

Whereas, The registration of births and deaths is a neces-
sity in any modern civilized state, and

Whereas, The present law in effect in Illinois is inade-
quate and inefficient, be it

Resolved, That the Illinois Academy of Science desires
to place on record its approval of all efforts to improva the
conditions of vital statistical legislation in Illinois; and to
request the members of the State Legislature to use all means
to secure the passage of a law which will place Illinois in the
Registration Area of the U. S. Census Bureau; and further to
request the active co-operation of every member of the Acad-
emy.

A resolution designed to interest High Schools in taking
membership in the Academy was presented and adopted, as
follows: ; ,

| ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Whereas, We believe that the Academy should make a
special effort to bring the work of the Illinois Academy of
Science in closer relations with the High Schools of the State,
thereby aiding in the development of the various scientific
courses, be it

Resolved, That the secretary be instructed to prepare
suitable circulars and to mail the same before the close of the
present school year, inviting each school to become a member
of the Academy and to name some member of the faculty who
shall represent the school in the Academy and to whom all
communications may be sent.

The Academy was invited to hold its next meeting at
Evanston, and at Charleston. The matter was referred to
the council for decision.

The remainder of the session, until 1 P. M. was consumed
with the presentation of papers according to the published
list on the program. At the close of the presentation oi
papers the report of the nominating committee was given, as
follows:

For President, Frank W. De Wolf, Urbana.
For Vice President, H. S. Pepoon, Chicago.
For Secretary, Edgar N. Transeau, Charleston.
For Treasurer, John C. Hessler, Decatur.

On motion this report was unanimously adopted.

The president appointed the following Committee on
Legislation :

FE. O. Jordan, Chicago.

A. R. Crook, Springfield.

U. S. Grant, Evanston.

W.S. Strode, Lewiston.

W. G. Bain, Springfield.

F. H. Funk, Bloomington.

(Owing to the resignation of Dr. Jordan, Dr. Crook was
made Chairman.)

On motion the Academy adjourned.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON HIGH
SCHOOL LEAPLETS:

When the committee mide its report in 1912 at the
Bloomington meeting it was expected that one of its mem-
bers, who was in a position to do so, would, during the year
following, give considerable attention to forwarding the plans

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 13

outlined in that report. No other member of the committee
was in a position to give this matter the attention needed in
order to have ready, prior to the 1913 meeting, a number of
manuscripts for approval.

Unexpectedly, however, to himself as well as to the com-
mittee, the member who was to do this preliminary editorial
work has been at work outside of the State almost continu-
ously since the Bloomington meeting. In the coming year,
however, the committee expects to be able to carry forward
its work in the manner planned for the year just ended, and
asks for continuance.

The following topics for leafiets are suggested:

(1) The mineral resources of Illinois.
(2) The soil of Illinois.
(3) The topography of Illinois.
(4) The geology of [llinois.
(5) The native mammals of [Jlinots.
(6) The birds of Illinois.
(7) The fish of Illinois.
(8) The insects of Illinois.
(9) The trees of Illinois.
(10) The Spring flowers of Illinois.
(11) The Summer flowers of Illinois.
(12) The Fall flowers of Illinois.
(13) The edible fungi of Illinois.
(14) Plant breeding in Illinois.
T. J. McCORMACK,

Chairman.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON APPLIED SCIENCE IN
HIGH SCHOOLS.

Your committee regrets to report that it has been unable
to complete the work it had expected to accomplish. At the
last meeting of the Academy Mr. J. T. Johnson made a pre-
liminary report on the condition of science teaching in agri-
cultural high schools. It was expected that Mr. Johnson
would extend his investigation during this year, but owing to
his removal to Ohio he found himself unable to go on with
his work for the committee. When this was ascertained by
the chairman it was too late to arrange for someone else to
take over the investigation.

Perhaps it will be wise to explain just what investigation
the committee had in mind. It is well known that the study
of agriculture is being introduced into the high schools in
various states at a rapid rate and that many so-called agricul-

14 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

tural high schools are being established. We know that the
conditions under which this is being done leave much to be
desired. It has been difficult to find well qualified teachers,
the text-books are still a mixture of various sciences labelled
agriculture, and the arrangement of courses in the curriculum
is more often a matter settled by convenience than by any
scientific planning. To attempt to teach scientific agriculture
in schools without carefully planned scientific course of study
seems incongruous. Yet this is just what is being done in
too many schools.

The service your committee had in mind is to bring to-
gether the practice of agricultural schools in various states
with respect to’courses of study and methods of teaching, in
such a form that the best methods will be apparent and ac-
cessible for schools needing help in planning such courses.
If the Academy desires, the work will be continued on these
lines.

There is another movement in high school science that
may furnish something for report in the coming year. We
all know that at present, science in the high schools as in the
colleges and universities is very distinctly divided into differ-
ent departments of botany, zoology, physics, chemistry, phys-
iography, etc. In the high schools these departments are
taught in different years and one year’s work is not related
to any other year’s work. To many this has seemed an un-
fortunate condition and one that does not tend to the ad-
vancement of science as a whole. Could not a consistent and
practical plan be worked out through which there would be
four years’ work in science the work advancing step by step,
gradually unfolding the elementary principles of all the de-
partments of science as now taught. The difficulties in the
way of accomplishing this are mostly administrative and, of
course, prejudice. The advantages would seem to be very
ereat, especially in time and energy saved, now lost through
not making use of the past work of pupils in each year’s ad-
vance. It is reported that one school will attempt. to work
out such a course. It is pioneer work and will require a fac-
ulty which can work in harmony. We hope the report is true.

WORRALLO, W HIINEN ae
Chairman.

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 5

MINORITY REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON
CALENDAR REFORM.

A dozen years ago while in Mexico City, my attention
was attracted as is that of nearly every tourist in that region
to the old Aztec calendar stone with its 13 divisions designed
centuries ago to represent 13 months of the year and the
question arose in my mind as to the desirability of having 13
months of 28 days rather than 12 months of a varied number
oi days as we are at present doing.

Since that time I have been interested in various pro-
posals made for reforming the calendar. I notice that as long
ago as 1827, August Comte proposed a vear with 13 months.
Whether the suggestion came to him by the way of the
Aztecs or not I do not know.

Similar proposais have been made at various times since
then and various plans have been suggested as readers of Sci-
ence, Nature, and other magazines have noticed within the
last three or four years. Barton, Chamberlin, Clifford, Cohen,
Cotsworth, Dabney. Dalziel, Flammarion, Grosclaude, Hesse.
Hopkins, Kent, Patterson, Pearce, Reininghaus, Slocum,
Super, Webb, and others have made various contributions to
the discussion of the subject. (9) The question has been for
some time agitated in Switzerland, Holland, Germany, France
and England and bills have been introduced in various legis-
lative bodies.

People. even members of this Academy, often ask what
is the trouble with the present calendar. To be sure it is
superior to the calendars of the Ancient Egyptians, Jews and
Greeks, which accorded so imperfectly with che cycle of the
seasons as to eventually transform the summer months to the
winter season. While Julius Caesar and Pope Gregory great-
ly improved the calendar. still there are three or four partic-
ulars in which it is eminently unsatisfactory, such as in its
disagreement with the astronomical seasons, its random
length of months, its changing days of the week for the dii-
ferent days of the month and the consequent changing of
holidays.

Among all the proposals which I have seen the so-called
Geneva plan, set forth so admirably by Oberlin Smith, in the
Popular Science Monthly for December. 1912, seems most
desirable. (Parenthetically it may be said that the need for
such change becomes possibly even more evident when such
a careful writer as Mr. Smith in writing for such a magazine
as the Popular Science Monthly makes what seems to me to
be a mistake in calculating that his calendar could best begin

16 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

in 1918 when he should have said 1919 according to my cal-
culations).

It has been proposed on several occasions that a “calendar
betterment association” be formed. This is unnecessary since
agencies already existing can be used for this purpose. | am
sending out to one or two hundred of the leading scientific
societies of the world, a letter asking if they have taken up
the subject, if so with what conclusions and if not what they
would think of the calendar enclosed in the letter. The mem-
bership of these societies runs from 100 to nearly 10,000 and
thus there will be opportunity of ascertaining the thought of
something more than 100,000 persons on this question. They
are largely people who may be said to be employed to do
original thinking and to lead in wise measures. The great
mass of mankind are occupied in raising crops, in mining, 1n
manufacturing, in transportation, in buying and selling, and
in doing those things necessary for the material welfare of the
race. But men of science and letters, educators and savants,
are set aside by society to deal with all the various problems
of less material or passing interest and I think such men
should be in a position to give wise counsel today in this mat-
ter as they have in the past when they have proposed accurate
and simple weights and measures.

If response can be obtained as I believe it can from the
learned men of all continents, this Academy will be in a posi-
tion to take up an active advocacy of a certain calendar. The
learned organizations of the world can unite in giving recom-
mendations to the legislators of various countries and there
will be no need of waiting till 1956 as one writer proposes.
I see no reason why the new calendar may not be begun in
1919:

On the following page is the calendar which to my mind
is the best that has thus far been proposed.

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 17

*Calendar for 1919 and Ever After.

DAYS IN NAMES OF DAYS DATES OF LEAP
SEASONS MONTH SUNDAYS YEAR
Wi January | 31 | 1,8,15,22.29
am February 30 5,12,19,26 91
| | March 30 | 3. 10, 17,24
= | Apri 31. ‘1,8, 15, 22,29
i | May | 30 |5.12,19,26 | 91
a= 30 3.10, 17.24
Leap Day I
ee July 31 | 1,8,15,22, 29
7 = 7 ae 30 |5.12,19,26 | 91
ectienlcs 30 | 3,10, 17, 24
2 12 fie lbaeFice 31 | 1,8,15,22;29
— Bidetdice 30 |5.12,19.26 91
egies 30 | 3. 10.17.24
Silvester | | | 1
Total | | 365 | 366

December Ist, 1918, to be declared by edict to be
December 10th to bring the winter solstice for Northern
Hemisphere at December 31, 1918. At midnight of the day
now called December 21, 1918, will begin the first hour of
the first day of the first week of the first month of 1919.

No Sundays will be lost or gained.

In the United States holidays will be as follows: Lin-
coln’s Birthday. Sunday, February 12; Washington’s Birth-
day, Wednesday, February 22; Decoration Day, Thursday,
May -30; Independence Day, Wednesday, July 4; Labor Day
Monday, September +; Columbus Day, Thursday, October 12:
Election Day, Tuesday, November 7; Thanksgiving Day,
Thursday. November. 30; Christmas, Monday, December 25;
Sylvester Evening, End of year.

In England, May Day, May Ist; Michaelmas, Friday,
September 29.

_ In France, Saturday, July 14.
A. R. CROOK

_#See article by Oberlin Smith, Pop. Sci Monthly. Dec., 1912,
Pp. 582-590.

18 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AN ECOLOGICAL
SUV.

The committee of the Academy on an ecological survey
consists of all the members of the Academy known to us as
active workers on ecological problems within our area. They
are not numerous enough nor widely enough distributed to
cover the entire state with a well-coordinated scheme of sys-
tematic investigation, but they are nevertheless obtaining im-
portant results in their several districts, all contributory to
the general end. The districts which have been actively in-
vestigated are the Chicago Area; the Beach Area of north-
eastern Illinois; the counties of Jo Davies in the northwestern
part and Fulton in the central part of the state; the Sand
Prairies of the state, the Charleston Area, with extensions
over eastern I[]linois; and the Illinois River, with extensions
to the Mississippi and the Ohio. A statistical survey of the
bird life of the entire state, made four years ago, showing
the numbers, distribution, and ecological relations of the
species, is now being worked up for final publication.

The ecological relations of the crawfishes of Illinois have
been studied and reported on by Miss N. M. Rietz, working
under the direction of Dr. Adams, of the University of Illinois.
in a paper based on an examination of about 2,000 specimens
1,600 of them from the collection of the State Laboratory of
Natural History. The distribution and ecological relations of
our crawfishes are given for each of the ten species found in
the state, and the paper is illustrated by maps showing the
Illinois distribution, and photographs of specimens and of
characteristic habitats.

An important undertaking, not regional in character, is
that of a general publication on ecological methods, with full
lists of available papers especially helpful to the ecological
worker. This work of Dr. Adams is now ready for publica-
tion.

Special features of the ecology of the Chicago Area have
been actively investigated by Dr. H. S. Pepoon, of the Lake
View High School; by Mr. Frank C. Baker, of the Chicago
Academy of Sciences; and by Dr. V. E. Shelford, of the Uni-
versity of Chicago, assisted especially by Dr. W. C. Allee,
Mr, G. D. Allen, and Miss Katherine Norcross. The vegeta-
tion of the beach area of northeastern Illinois has been studied
by Mr. F. C. Gates. of the University of Illinois (now of the
University of Michigan), and the results of his work have
been published as a bulletin of the State Laboratory of
Natural History. An associational study of the Illinois sand
prairies, has been made by Mr. A. G. Vestal, under the direc-

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 19

tion of Dr. C. C. Adams, of this committee, and his paper on
this subject is in the hands of the director of the State Lab-
oratory for similar publication. The Charleston area is be-
ing studied, as heretofore, by Dr. E. N. Transeau and Mr.
T. L. Hankinson, of the Eastern Illinois State Normal School.
They, together with Dr. Adams, of the U. of IIL, are pre-
paring a report upon a cooperative work done in this area
three years ago. The plant ecology of the two northwestern
counties mentioned is being studied by Dr. Pepoon; and the
whole system of life of the Illinois River and the waters of
its bottom-lands, together with that of the Des Plaines River
and the sanitary canal, is being continuously studied by Dr.
S. A. Forbes and Mr. R. E. Richardson, the latter in charge
of field operations with headquarters at Havana.

Dr. Shelford reports the preparation of a general treatise
on the ecology of the region about the head of Lake Michi-
gan, soon to be published, in'a semi-popular form, under the
auspices of the Geographical Society of Chicago. Additional
data has been presented in a series of papers printed in the
Biological Bulletin, in which the following facts have been
brought out: Fishes are sensitive to hydrographic conditions,
and thus have definite arangements in comparable streams.
(Streams flowing into Lake Michigan, between Glencoe and
the Wisconsin line, are comparable in hydrographic condi-
tions, their differences being due to differences in physio-
graphic age. The head-waters of the oldest streams contain
only species of fishes found in the smallest streams. Other
species are arranged in the same order.of succession in all the
streams, those nearest the mouths of the largest streams be-
ing absent from the next smaller streams,) etc. A series of
ponds at the head of Lake Michigan, arranged in the order
of ecological age as shown by the amount of humus, the
character of the vegetation, and the physiographic history, are
shown to contain fishes which have a definite arrangement
in these ponds (correlated with (a) the presence or absence
of the kind of bottom prefered by the species in breeding; (b)
with the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in solution;
and (c) with the amount of humus and vegetation present.
Fishes may be few where their food supply is most abundant;
and the smaller food supply has been shown not to be due to
the presence oi the fishes).

A study of the different stages of forest development on
sand has shown that the distribution of animals is correlated
with the differences in the evaporating power of the air.

A study has been made of the seasonal succession in a
temporary spring pond and on the low prairie vegetation of

20 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

the same area. Experimental data have also been collected
showing the relations of animals to environmental factors,
with a view to determining the most effective factors and the
best indices of environmental conditions. A long series of ex-
periments made by Dr. Shelford and Dr. Allee has shown
that fishes are only slightly sensitive to lack of oxygen, but
very sensitive to variations in carbon dioxide, the latter being
thus the best index to the suitability of water for fishes. As
fishes turn back when they encounter unsuitable water, con-
ditions which would otherwise be fatal to them are of secon-
dary importance. An arrangement of the species studied with
reference to their avoidance of water containing five cubic cen-
timeters of carbon dioxide per liter—that is, approximately ten
parts per. million,—corresponds to their arrangement with
reference to the distribution of low oxigen and carbon dioxide
in their habitats. Similiar restilts have been obtained with
some of the invertebrates. Studies have also been made of the
relation of several species of amphibians, insects, and arach-
nids to atmospheric conditions. Animals from moist woods
hesitate or turn back when they come into air of high evapor-
ating power—that is, air which is dry, or hot, or rapidly mov-
ing,—while regular residents of open, dry, sandy areas are
found to be slightly positive to such air. Animals with sim-
ilar integuments die in dry and rapidly moving air in the
order of their degree of avoidance of such air. The animals
of a habitat agree in respect to the degree of their avoidance
of modified air, but not in the time of their survival in such
air.

Dr. Pepoon is busily engaged on a “Flora of the Chicago
Area,” to include all plants within a radius of forty miles
from the mouth of Chicago River,—that is, from Waukegan
to the Indiana line, and westward to the crest of the Val-
paraiso morain—approximately to a line connecting Joilet,
Aurora, and Elgin. This work will contain maps, photo-
graphs of typical ecological regions, discussion of plant as-
sociations, and an annoted list.

Mr. Baker’s ecological investigation has taken the form
of a paper on the life of post-glacical Lake Chicago, a work
which has necessitated a correlation of the life of Chicago
with that of allthe lake stagesfrom Lake Chicago tothe Nipis-
sing Great Lakes. The result strengthens a previously pro-
posed theory of a post Glenwood low water stage, when the
lake was about ten feet above the present datum, and also the
presence of an extensive coniferous forest, principally of
spruce. Several species, discovered in the Niagara Falls gravel

a

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 21

deposits, have been found also in the Chicago deposits of an
earlier date, showing that the migration of life was principally
by way of the Chicago outlet.

Dr. Pepoon is working on a survey of the plant ecology
of Jo Daviess and Fulton counties in comparison with that of
Cook county. With a list of 1,400 species for Cook, 950 for
Jo Daviess, and 1,000 for Fulton, he finds about 50 per cent of
the plants common to all three counties. Ten per cent of those
of Jo Daviess, 13 per cent of the Fulton county species, and.
20 per cent of those of Cook, are not found in the other two
counties.

From a study of some 1,800 collection of the Algae of east-
ern Illinois made by Dr. Transeau during the last five years,
he finds that our Algae may be divided into seven groups of
markedly different periodic habit, and that, in opposition to
the current view, they here fruit most abundantly during high-
water stages. A list of the Algae of eastern Illinois, contain-
ing notes on 245 species and varieties, has been prepared, and
will be submitted for publication in the Academy proceedings.
Twelve of these species are undescribed, and 23 of them have
not previously been collected in North America. It is an
especially interesting fact that almost all of these new forms
have been collected in remnants of four old prairie ponds, all
threatened with extinction within a few years,—an illustra-
tion of the importance of prompt and rapid work on represen-
tative relics of the original system of ecological association still
remaining in this state. The preparation of descriptions of
of the plant associations of the Charleston area is progressing,
but is not yet complete. The succession of such associations
has been determined, a list of the prairie plants is nearly fin-
ished, and a list of the forest plants is well under way.

Mr. Hankinson is still working upon the ecological bi-
ology of the streams of his area, and has also made many
notes, collections, and photographs illustrating the life of the
woodlands and of the open fields. The invertebrates of his
collections are being distributed for determination, and his
data relating to fishes are being made ready for publication.

The work of the natural history survey of the state, is in
progress under the State Laboratory of Natural History, has
been limited during the past year to further studies of the
biological system of the Illinois River as affected by seasonal,
hydrographic, and chemical conditions—but especially by con-
tamination factors introduced by way of the sanitary canal of
the Chicago district; and to the preparation of a final report
on the statistical survey of the bird life of the state already re-
ferred to.

22 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Only a few of the more significant results of this river
survey can be mentioned here. Daily observations on the
breeding habits of Illinois fishes, and parallel aquarium
studies, have given us a considerable body of new informa-
tion of importance to fish culture and to the maintenance and
improvement of our fisheries. Two papers are in press.
Comparisons of the yield of plankton at Havana, on the middle
Illinois, for three years preceding, and a year following the
opening of the Chicago Drainage Canal, show a greatly in-
creased average yield per cubic meter in the river itself and
in certain classes of lakes, and an enormous increase in the
total product of these waters, to be connected with their in-
creased volume and the greater average area consequently
covered by them. We find the Illinois at Havana about two
and a half feet higher than before the opening of the canal,
the plankton yield of the stream itself approximately twice as
great to the unit of volume, that of Quiver Lake about three
times as great, and that of Thompson’s Lake practically un-
changed. The plankton product of the river reaches its mini-
mum, for the warmer part of the year, when continuous low
water isolates its bottom land lakes for a long time, these be-
ing reservoirs from which the plankton of the stream is con-
tinuously replenished.

The effects of sewage contamination upon the system of
river life become extreme during long-continued hot weather
coinciding with unusually low river levels. Under such condi-
tions as prevailed in July and August, 1911, the upper twenty-
six miles of the Illinois, (from the mouh of the Kankakee to
the dam at Marseilles,) becomes virtually a septic tank, with
oxygen ratios averaging one third or less of saturation, at 2
time when the waters of the Kankakee just above, are super-
saturated; with carbon dioxide as high as 11 parts per mil-
lion, while in the Kankakee it ranged from 2 parts down to
zero; and with the gases of the bottom sediments indistin-
guishable in composition and proportions from those of the
sludge of a septic tank. Fishes were altogether absent from
this part of the stream at this time, and the main content of
our collections consisted of foul-water organisms mingled
with the more resistant species coming in from Lake Michi-
gan and from the Kankakee—the latter rapidly diminishing in
numbers, however, as they were carried down stream. The
only fish mortality noticed which was due to sewage was in
the Sanitary canal itself, and in the highly contaminated Des
Plaines. Fishes simply withdrew from the more polluted
waters of the Illinois into normal or less contaminated tribu-
taries. A considerable overturn, both chemical and biological,
was made by a 12 to 14-foot fall of the stream over the Mar-

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING 2

seilles dam, and a consequent thorough aeration of the water,
the dissolved oxygen in the stream a mile below the dam be-
ing about two and a half times that immediately above the
dam, and tlie carbon dioxide being at the same time reduced
by 21 per cent. In the eighty-three miles of the river between
Morris and Chillicothe, the dissolved oxygen of the water in-
creased 183 per cent, and the carbon dioxide diminished 22
per cent.

A summary of the parallel changes in the biology of the
stream is not possible at this time. It must be said, how-
ever, that fishes appeared in our collections, even under mid-
summer conditions, in gradually increasing variety as we went
down the stream, from the Marseilles dam, until, at Chilli-
cothe, we had a fair representation of the common fish life of
the river. At high-water levels, and in cooler weather, fishes
returned, indeed, to the uppermost section of the river, al-
though they could be found there in only scanty numbers and
in comparatively small variety. Attempts were made to cor-
relate species and numbers of organisms obtained in the
river collections with different degrees of pollution or contam-
ination, in a way to make a classified species list available as
an index to such degrees. The determination of these recent
aquatic collections is still in progress, and the completion of
our report will require many weeks oi additional work.

Your committee feel that this showing of productive in-
vestigation is not at all to the discredit of the ecologists of the
Academy; but we are fully aware that most of us are still
working, each on his own problems in his own chosen field,
with no marked affiliation with the other investigators. We are
of the opinion that it is now particularly important that ef-
forts should be made to interest as many capable observers
and collectors as possible in a study of the remnants of the
prairie life of the state, now rapidly disappearing forever.
Preliminary to this we need as full knowledge as can now be
obtained of the existence and location of tracts or patches of
prairie turi—outside the so-called sand prairies of the state,
which have already been very well studied, and we appeal par-
ticularly to members of the Academy to advise us on this
point, in order that we may, without further delay, take such
measures as are possible for a careful study of the leading
types of our prairie remnants in the principal sections of the
state.

Respectfully submitted.
S. A. FORBES,
Chairman.

24 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The President’s Address.

AN ITALIAN ACADEMICIAN,
HBNRY CREW

The mission of an academy of science is a function of the
age in which it flourishes. The ancient academies accom-
plished a work now performed by the universities. The Ital-
ian academies of the Renaissance, variously estimated at from
500 to 700 in number, represented different purposes almost as
numerous as the institutions themselves. But in general they
were literary and scientific clans; they belonged to a period
when learning was the possession of the few, to a period when
one might still take all science for his domain.

The modern academy is, as a rule, closely allied with the
sovereign power of some state, whose interests are promoted
by it, consciously and unconsciously, in a variety of ways.
The service which it renders is sometimes political, some-
times literary , sometimes scientific, sometimes social. But, 50
far as I can see, they have, in common, these two ends, name-
ly, the encouragement of the individual and service to the
community.

The triple purpose of the Illinois State Academy of
Science is clearly stated in the second article of its consti-
tution as being “the promotion of scientific research, the dif-
fusion of scientific knowledge and of the scientific spirit, and
the unification of the scientific interests of the state’; just’
how this object can best be secured is the interesting subject
of an after-dinner discussion this evening.

I leave this problem, therefore, with the single remark that
the importance of cultivating individual initiative and of hand-
ing on to the community the best there is in the achievements
of science is not likely to be overestimated.

Symonds(1) points out that Athens and Florence owed
their wonderful intellectual, artistic and literary success main-
ly to the fact that they nourished the individuality of their citi-
zens; while Sparta and Venice, comparatively barren of per-
manent results, illustrate the lack of such encouragement.

I now invite your attention to one of the earliest mem-
bers of the venerable and thankworthy Academy of the
Lyncei, a man who represents in the highest degree the indi-
viduality then cultivated in Tuscany, a man whose impress
upon his students was so deep that shortly after his death
they united to form one of the most productive and justly
celebrated of all the Italian academies,(2) a man whose written
works fill twenty splendid quarto volumes,(3) a man who in
his efforts to put before the people the best science of his

—_« rere Oe

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 25

times, endured opposition, criticism, disgrace and social ostra-
cism throughout most of his thinking life. I refer to Galileo.
But I shall speak only of what he did in physics, because I
believe this phase of his work is too little known.

What Galileo saw through telescopes of his own make,
though not of his own invention, is so familiar that possibly a
majority of intelligent men think of him mainly as an astrono-
mer. The spots on the sun, the mountains on the moon, the
satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the “triple charac-
ter” of Saturn, the solar rotation period, lunar libration and
earth-shine are some of the celestial phenomena associated
with the name of Galileo. These and his brilliant defense of
the Copernican system are responsible for the impression that
his accomplishments are chiefly astronomical.

To another large group of men he stands mainly for lib-
erty, intellectual, social and religious. These men classify
him with Giordano Bruno and De Dominis and Campanella
who also had some experience with the cardinals of the In-
quisition. For them Galileo is the man who dared to differ
with Aristotle, the man who brushed aside the mists of phil-
osophy, the man who banished church traditions from his
thinking while he calmly pursued his search after unity in the
physical universe.(4) It is doubtless his splendid stand for
spiritual freedom which leads Goethe(5) in his historical
sketch of optics to say

Even though he never seriously studied the sub-
ject of color, I must at least adorn my page with his
name. :

But there is still a third group of men to whom the great
Italian appeals most strongly because he has given them a new
method of working and thinking, a new viewpoint, a new
apercu. To put this contribution in its proper perspective is
not an easy matter: we are too near it and too familiar with
it. If, however, one considers the time interval between Archi-
medes and Kelvin he can not fail to notice a sharp discontinu-
ity in the progress of physics occurring about the beginning
of the seventeenth century. Just how commerce and industry
led up to, and prepared the way, for this step is the subject
of a most interest chapter by a member of this academy, Pro-
fessor Mann.(6)

Without underestimating the contribution of Pappus or
Tartaglia or Benedetti or Stevinus or Leonardo da Vinci, to
mechanics; and without denying the important role of statics
in architecture and in other structural work one may, I be-
lieve, fairly say that the years which intervene between Arch-
imedes and Galileo are practically barren of progress ir
physics.

26 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

It is true, indeed, that during this interval a large number
of isolated physical facts had been discovered; indeed there is
scarcely a chapter in physics in which some ‘advance of this
type can not be mentioned; but, during all this while, nothing
in the way of development is seen; individual discoveries re-
main isolated; they do not bear fruit; speculation and guess-
ing were still employed where we use observation and meas-
urement and computation. Leonardo da Vinci likens a scien-
tific conquest to a military victory in which theory is the
field marshal; experimental facts, the soldiers. The philoso-
phers who preceded Galileo had, in the main, been trying to
fight battles without soldiers. The only possible exceptions
to this statement are Roger Bacon, Leonardo da Vinci, Ste-
vinus and Gilbert. They had measured some mechanical
quantities—a few of them—masses and stresses—such as
could be obtained by means of a steel-yard and a measuring
stick; but they were still in the domain of statics. Now trom
a geometrical, esthetic or even utilitarian standpoint, it is
difficult to imagine any finer subject than graphical statics;
and yet when we regard the progress of physics, statics jis
to dynamics somewhat as osteology is to physiology, a veri-
table valley of dry bones. The live part of mechanics is
kinetics, the study of masses which are in motion, the con-
sideration of bodies which are changing their velocities, cur-
rents of water, oscillating magnets, vibrating strings, rotating
wheels, electric motors, heat engines, electromagnetic waves
and X-rays. These are the problems over which men lose
sleep; these are the questions which compel the interest of
the physicist; these are the subjects whose mastery confers
power upon the engineer. The one confessed aim of physical
science is, indeed, to describe the motion of bodies in the
simplest possible manner. Indeed it is only by the aid of
this modern science of the energy of motion that any of the
ancient mechanical doctrines—such as the atomic theory of
Democritus—have acquired validity; it is this same science
which has rendered the heliocentric theory of Copernicus not
merely “a plausible view” but the one possible view.

We pass now to a more definite question, namely, what
contribution did “our Academician” make to the solution of
problems of this type, to the science which now goes by the
name of physics? To answer briefly and baldly, he instituted
the method and set into motion the machinery by which prac-
tically all these problems have been solved, in so far as they
have been solved at all. But lest I give the false impression
that Galileo was the ancester of all the physical sciences. I

hasten to a more detailed answer to the query, What did
Galileo?

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 27

1. First, no greater mistake could be made than to sup-
pose that Galileo was the first man to differ with Aristotle ;
the academy of Cosena, having opposition to the peripatetic
philosophy as its avowed purpose, was established at Naples
about the time when Galileo was born; but he was the first
man to offer experimental evidence against the conclusions
of Aristotle; and in so doing he established what we now call
the experimental method. He was not handing on an opinion
which some “dusty minded professor” had inherited from an
ancestor of the same type.

Only two methods of investigation were known to the
ancients, the philosophical and the mathematical; to these
Galileo added a third, the experimental. The philosophical
method consisted in assuming certain general principals and
trying to find in them an a priori explanation of the universe.
Briefly described, the attempt was to stare nature out of coun-
tenance. Failure was inevitable, not for want of intellectual
acumen, but because, as every one in this assembly knows, it
sometimes requires a lifetime of effort to explain a single de-
tail. Witness almost any chapter in Darwin’s “Origin of
Species.” Details must be mastered before one can pass to
general principles.

The mathematical method consisted only in applying geo-
metry to certain well known areas, volumes and angles, espe-
cially to those angles observed in the sky, but always with
the idea of describing the known rather than discovering the
unknown: the mathematicians do not appear to have put any
deliberate questions to nature; or as Rowland said:

A mathematical investigation always obeys the
law of the conservation of knowledge: we never get

out more from it than we put in. The knowledge

may be changed in form, it may be clearer and more

exactly stated; but the total amount of the knowledge

of nature given out by the investigation is the same

as we started with.

The experimental method, established mainly by Galileo,
not only combines the observations of the philosophers with
the measurements of the mathematicians, but adds deliberate
experiment with a distinct purpose to interrogate nature con-
cerning some detail of her behavior. Generalizations based
upon these details the experimenter reserves for a later date.
The high regard in which Galileo held experimental facts is
reflected in the following from a letter (7) to the Grand Duch-
ess Christina, dated 1615. He says:

I would entreat these wise and prudent fathers

to consired diligently the difference between opinion-

ative and demonstrative doctrines, to the end that

28 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

they may assure themselves that it is not in the pow-

er of professors of demonstrative sciences to change

their opinions at pleasure. :

Or witness the following paragraph from the “Saggia-
tore’(9) as illustrating the great weight which Galileo at-
tached to experimental evidence. He says

We examine witnesses in things which are
doubtful, past, and not permanent, but not in things
which are done in our presence.

If discussing a difficult problem were like carry-

ing a weight, then since several horses will carry
more sacks of corn than one alone, I would agree
that many reasoners avail more than one; but dis-
coursing is like coursing, and not like carrying; and
one barb by himself will run faster than a thous-
and Friesland horses.

In all his thinking nothing is exempt from experiment.
Astronomy even, in his hands, ceases to be a purely observa-
tional science; for when he wishes to discover whether the
bright portions of the moon’s surface are rough or smooth,
he sets up two surfaces, one rough and one smooth; then
illuminates them with Italian sunlight. Desiring to learn at
what rate falling bodies gain speed, he devises a time meas-
uring machine, invents a method of “diluting gravity” and
actually measures the rate at which speed is gained. His
discussions begin and end with experiment—a method so
familiar to us that we forget how recent and powerful it is.

His two great dialogues—one dealing with astronomy, _
the other with mechanics—abound in experiments—most of
them apt and clever. Leonardo da Vinci advocates experi-
ment: Galileo uses experiment.

2. The second great achievement of Galileo was his
seizure upon momentum as the fundamental quantity in the
science of mechanics, and his demonstration that velocity is
a factor in momentum. Galileo was by no means the first
to study and discuss kinematical problems.

Benedetti (1530-1590), one of the many distinguished
alumni of the University of Padua, had not only expressed
dissatisfaction with the artificial distinction between “vio-
lent” and “natural” motions, but had gone farther and had
paved the way for mechanics and the differential calculus by
recognizing the fact of continuous variation in motion: Ben-
edetti (10) had in particular studied oscillatory motion and
had shown that such a motion is continuous even when the
vibrating particle is at rest at the end of its path. He had in
fact introduced the modern idea of continuous variation. But
none of the predecessors of Galileo had, so far as I have beeu

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 29

able to discover, pushed their study of moving bodies beyond
the mere consideration of change of position. None of them
had recognized the inertia of the moving body as a funda-
mental—perhaps the fundamental-fact of mechanics. Princes
and paupers, for ages, had stumped their toes against bricks
and stones: they were doubtless quite as familiar as we with
the mere fact of inertia. But to Galileo it was a cardina!
fact, because he was the first to see that the future history
of a body depends upon its possession of inertia. To him the
importance of a motion is, in general, measured by the inertia
involved, or as was then said—the weight involved. Hence
he assigned to the product of the weight and velocity of a
body the name “momentum,” which is merely the Latin
word for importance; as a synonym he sometimes uses the
word impetus, thus emphasizing the impetuosity of motion.

But Galileo never got beyond the point where he meas-
ured inertia by weight, as, indeed, engineers still do—all, at
least, except electrical engineers. The invention of the idea
of mass was reserved for Newton. Even Huygens,(10) who
first mastered the idea of centrifugal force, never got beyond
the point where he measured centrifugal forces in terms
of weight, thus avoiding the conception of mass in all his
work.

Those who wish to see just how clearly Galileo conceived
that the future behavior of a body is connected with its inertia
should read those propositions in his “Mechanics’(11) in
which he calculates the path of a projectile by assuming
that the horizontal speed of a shot, after it has left the muz-
zle of a gun, continues to be uniform. His repeated use of
this principle makes it perfectly clear that he discovered what
we now call—and perhaps properly call—Newton’s first law
of motion. Galileo failed to generalize it by extending it to
all bodies whether subject to the earth’s gravitation or not.
This Newton did because he had acquired the new concept of
mass—that constant property which never deserts a body in
any position or condition.

3. The next great step which Galileo made was the dis-
covery of the constant factor in the motion of falling bodies.
One of his earliest experiments, performed while still a young
man at the University of Pisa, was to allow a bronz ball to roll
down a perfectly prepared inclined plane, an experiment from
which he cleverly inferred that while the position and speed
of the ball were changing, the time-rate at which it gained
momentum remained constant. It was with reference to
these particular experiments that Goethe remarked “dem
Genie, ein Fall fur tausend gelte.”” The experiment is com-
pleted by showing how one can compute the momentum (or

30 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

speed) of a body after it has been falling for any given time
or through any given distance. In all these computations,
the unit of momentum employed is that which a body acquires
in falling freely through an arbitrarily selected unit of dis-
tance.

As illustrating how tenaciouly he clings to the idea of
momentum, witness the following clear, exact and thoroughly
modern definition dating from the year 1604: (12)

I call a motion uniformly accelerated when start-

ing from rest its momentum, or degree of speed, in-

creases directly as the time, measured from the be-

ginning of the motion.

Observe that we have here, without any mention of the
word, precisely the dynamical idea which we today use under
the name of a “constant force.” There is, indeed, no necessity
for the name; for Galileo attempts nothing more than to dis-
cover how the momentum of a body changes owing to the
presence of another body such as the earth in the neighbor-
hood (action at a distance) or owing to contact with an elas-
tic body such as the hot gases of exploding gunpowder in
the barrel of a gun (action through a medium). Later gen-
erations had not yet beclouded the idea of force with “ten-
dencies to motion”; they had not yet identified it with that
vastly more complex “muscular sensation”; they had not yet
made it over in the form of a “man”; they had not yet named
it an “agent”; they had not yet identified it with a state of
stress or strain which one elastic body exhibits when held
permanently at rest by another elastic body; still less had
there been any attempt to convince people—principally high
school lads and college students—that all these various things
are one and the same, since, forsooth, at various times we
call them by one name, “force.” Some of Galileo’s most
worthy successors, such as Clifford,(13) Poincare(14) and
Hertz, have pointed out our inconsistent definitions of force,
and have advocated in the most outspoken manner, a return
to the simple methods of this Italian academician.

The best known of all his experiments is, of course, that
is which he proves that the time of fall is independent of
weight, an experiment which completes to a first approxima-
tion the laws of falling bodies practically as we have them to-
day. He accomplishes a second approximation by eliminating
the bouyant force of the medium. He is prevented from making
ing a third approximation only because he meets the barrier
of viscosity, a barrier which still renders impossible the so-
lution of any but a few simple cases in fluid motion.

The one remaining fundamental phenomenon of falling
bodies, is that the acceleration of gravity is independent of

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 3]

the substance of which the falling body is composed. This
Galileo(15) proved by swinging, side by side, two pendu-
lums, having bobs of lead and cork, respectively. When the
suspension fibers had equal lengths and the pendulums
swung through equal amplitudes, they had equal velocities at
each point of their path. It is difficult-to find in Newton's hol-
low pendulum experiment much more than a second approxt-
mation in which he eliminates the air resistance from this ex-
periment of Galileo. .

4. The fourth advance which we owe to Galileo is the
observation that the momentum communicated to a body in
one direction does not alter its momentum in a direction at
right angles. This independence of components of momenta,
now known as Newton’s second law of motion, was in the
hands of Galileo no mere philosophical theorem, no vague
guess, but a practical rule of action to be empolyed in me-
chanical operations. It is by compounding a uniform hori-
zontal velocity with an accelerated vertical velocity that he
proves, for the first time, that the path of a projectile is a
parabola. It was by means of this principle that he prepared
a range-table for gunners. The fact is then that Galileo dis-
covered and employed the first two of Newton’s laws essen-
tially as we use them today.

It requires more than sheer strength to climb a difficult
mountain peak; one must start in on the right trail. More than
mere intellectual ability is needed to make an important dis-
covery in physical science: one must start in with the correct
viewpoint. This viewpoint is precisely what Aristotle
lacked and exactly what Galileo possessed. It is Gomperz,(16)
the distinguished historian of Greek thought, who says:

The physical doctrines of Aristotle are a disap-
pointing chapter in the history of science. They dis-
play to us an eminent mind wrestling with problems
to which it is in no wise equal.

5. As a minor achievement of Galileo allow me to men-
tion some discoveries to which he blazed a part of the road.

In a letter to a friend he says he had spent more years in
the study of philosophy than weeks in mathematics. It is
therefore, extraordinarily surprising to find set forth in his
“Dialogues on Motion”(17) all the detailed facts and ideas
which are involved in the modern definition of an infinite
quantity developed by Boltzano, Cantor, and Dedekind, viz.,
an assemblage containing a part which may be put into one-
to-one correspondence with the whole.

Again he paves the way, in a very distinct manner, for the
differential calculus, in pointing out that the definitions(18)
of constant velocity and constant acceleration hold only when

32 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

the times considered are “all whatsoever.” If, therefore, one
wishes to employ these definitions in the discussion of vari-
able motion he must take his time intervals indefinitely small.

The invention of the well-known thermoscope which
Galileo employed in his lectures at Padua also belongs here;
for while it is not a true thermometer it doubtless led imme-
diately to those exquisite sealed instruments shortly after-
wards constructed by the Accademia del Cimento and still
preserved in the Tribuna di Galileo at Florence. The theory
of “dimensions,” first stated by Fourier, was led up to in the
First Day of the Dialogues on Motion,

The principle employed in his measurement of the density
of air(19) is one which is not only faultless in principle but
one which makes it plainly evident that Galileo had properly
conceived that idea of atmospheric pressure which, in the
hands of two of his students, led to the invention of the ba-
rometer, and, in the hands of von Guericke, to the air pump.
Torricelli knew well the Dialogues on Motion.

6. Finally, Galileo was an inspiring teacher and built
up at Padua a great school of physics. Many of his students
lodged under his own roof; helped him in his own garden; ate
at his own table. He had his own workshop and employed
his own mechanicians. Generous with his time, his energy
and his money, master of a fine literary style, endowed with a
keen sense of humor, familiar with the best that had been said
and thought in the world, standing in the front rank of inves-
tigators, is it any wonder that young men of talent hastened
to Padua from all parts of Europe? Could any higher com-
pliment he paid to a teacher than the devotion exhibited by
the youthful Viviani, a lad in his ’teens, for his master already
some seventy years old and a “Prisoner in Arcetri?” If de-
ferred payments of the kind that teachers mostly depend upor
ever get as far as the next world, surely this courageous spirit.
harried throughout his long life by poverty, ill-health and the
censorship of the church, must have been gratified by the
the work of the Accademia del Cimento which was, with the
exception of a single man, composed entirely of his students.
Mechanics was the one subject to which he was devoted con-
stantly and persistently throughout his life; it was the sub-
ject of his earliest investigation when a young man at Pisa:
the subject upon which he lectured when in his prime at Pa-
dua; the subject of his latest and most mature reflection at
Arcetri. His most important contribution to dynamics was
published in the seventy-third year of his age.

If, in conclusion, I were asked to summarize in a single
sentence the principal contributions to the science of physics.

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 33

I should mention the two following facts: (1) That knowl-
edge of physical phenomena which is to receive ‘impersonal
verification” and become useful, must be obtained mainly by
experiment adapted to ask of nature some particular question.
(2) That momentum considered as a function of time and
position is a fundamental dynamical concept; or, in other
words, to discover how the change of momentum of any body
is connected with the physical circumstances in which the
body is placed, is the one great problem of dynamics.

But perhaps, after all, his most important contributions
lie outside of physics. Indeed Galileo has not yet shot his last
arrow. For his life still teaches us that nothing is so because
any man says it is so. His example still shows how experi-
ment can rob a man of all arrogance of opinion, how familiar-
ity with unsolved problems can give a man genuine humility,
and how, on the other hand, the possession of clear experi-
mental evidence arms him with sure confidence.

Critics tell us that Florence, during the Renaissance.
shown with a borrowed light—a light reflected from Athens.
But I venture to think that those who will take the pains to
look over the pages of Galileo will find them self-luminous.

(1) “Renaissance in Italy,” Vol. I, p. 234.

(2) Accademia del Cimento, founded in 1657; disbanded in 1667.

(3) Edited by the scholarly care of Professor Favaro, of the Uni-
versity of Padua, and published by the Italian government, 1890-1909.
Referred to hereafter as “Nat. Ed.”

(4) For a masterly presentation of this phase of Galileo’s work,
s2e Dr. Charles J. Little’s article in the Methodist Review, Vol. 88, pp.
204-218, 1906.

‘5 (5) Gothe, “Farben-lehre Historiche Theil,” art. Galileo.

(6) Mann, “Teaching of Physics,” pp. 107-110 (Macmillan, 1912).

(7) “Nat. Ed.,” Vol. 5, pp. 326. Translated in Fahie’s “Galileo,”
p. 187.

(8) “Nat. Ed.,” Vol. 6, p. 340. Translated in Fahie’s “Galileo,”

(9) Lasswitz, ‘“Atomistick,” Bd.2, pp. 14-23, gives a good descrip-
tion of Benedetti’s work.

(10) Huygens, “Horologium Oscillatorium,” Part V., Prop. 13; or
Hobart, “School Science and Mathematics,” Vol. 11, p. 692 (1911), for
translation of Huygens’ paper.

(11) Galileo, “Dialogues on Motion,’ Fourth Day, Problem I. et
seq.

(12) “Nat. Ed.,” Vol. Il., p. 166.

(13) Clifford, Nature, Vol. 22, p. 122 (1880).

(14) Poincare, lecture before the Wissenschaftlich Verin in Ber-
lin, p. 116 (Teubner, 1912).

(15) “Nat. Ed.,” Vol. 8, pp. 128-130, First Day, translated into Ger-
man by von Oettinger, Ostwad’s Wiss. Klassiker, No. 11, p. 76.

(16) “Greek Thinkers,” Vol. 4, p. 108, Berry’s translation.

(17) First Day, “Nat. Ed.,” Vol. 8, p. 78.

(18) Third Day, “Nat. Ed.,” Vol. 8, p. 191.

(19) “Nat. Ed.,” Vol. 8, p. 124, First Day,

34 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

SYMPOSIUM ON THE SCIENCE OF
SANITATION

WHY. SHOULD BIRTHS AND DEATHS BE REG
TERED IN ILLINOIS?
FREDERICK R. GREEN

The basis of all knowledge is carefully observed and ac-
curately recorded facts. If this is true in biology, chemistry,
geology or astronomy, it is even more so in the two most
important events in the life history of every human being,
birth and death. It is indeed strange that our laws provide
for records of real estate transactions, transfers of property,
patents, inventions and copyrights of books; that we care-
fully preserve the transactions of all kinds of business, scien-
tific and pleasure organizations, and that those interested
have made the most minute records regarding animals and
plants, insects and micro-organisms, and yet, in forty out of
the forty-eight states that compose this nation, no provision
exists for recording the birth of a new life and the appear-
ance on earth of a new individual, while in twelve states, a
human being can die and be buried, without any record of
the event being made or preserved. This singular disregard
for authenticated and attested records of birth and death is
one of the evidences of our newness as a nation, and of our
defective social organization. In the older civilizations of
Europe, positive proof of personal identity, from the time of
birth until death, is regarded as of the utmost importance,
and is essential to participation in any of the activities of life
In Germany, for instance, the child cannot enter the public
school, the gymnasium or the university, without a copy of
his birth certificate, to show who he is, who are his parents
and when and where he was born. If he does not follow the
path of higher education, he cannot secure any employment
or be apprenticed to any trade, without first showing this
birth certificate. If he desires to leave home and go to an-
other country, he cannot secure a passport to cross the fron-
tier without establishing his identity. If he desires to marry,
a copy of his birth certificate and that of his future wife

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 35

must be presented before a marriage license will be issued.
If he is a candidate for any public office or civil appointment,
he must produce his birth certificate as an evidence of iden-
tity. Educated Europeans look with amazement on this vast
country and its rapidly growing population, which has con-
tinued to multiply, either by immigration or by natural im-
crease, for nearly 150 years, without making, until a few years
ago, any intelligent effort to record the birth and death of
its citizens. The family Bible, with its carelessly kept and
incomplete record, often destroyed by fire or disappearing in
the course of time, has been the only record which has been
made of the appearance and disappearance of millions of our
people. Asa result, we are practically dependent for inform-
ation regarding our immediate ancestors on records which are
entirely untrustworthy, or on equally doubtful family tradi-
tions, handed down by word of mouth from generation to
generation. This audience today, is probably as typically
American as one could secure. It is probable that at least
90 per cent. of the immediate ancestry of those in this room
were men and women of more than average education, and,
consequently, more interested than the ordinary person, in
questions of descent and heredity. Yet I question whether 5
per cent. of us could give the names, the place and date of
the birth and the place and time of death of our immediate
ancestors in the third generation, while probably not as many
of us could give the names of the brothers and sisters of our
grandfathers and grandmothers, who are only two genera-
tions removed from us. A farmer who did not keep a better
record of his stock, would be regarded as a very careless
breeder. Those interested in race-horses, bull terriers, angora
cats or pouter pigeons, probably know a great deal more
about the genealogy and ancestry of their pets than they do
about that of their own children. Each of us has two par-
ents, four grand-parents, and eight great-grand-parents. How
many of us could, either from present knowledge or after
any amount oi careful investigation, produce positive proof
of the identity of our eight immediate ancestors in the third
generation or of our descent from them? How many of us
today could produce positive legal evidence of our direct
connection with our four grand-parents? Let us bring it even
closer and make it more personal. How many persons are
there at present within the sound of my voice, who could, ii
necessary, produce legal documentary evidence of the place
and date of their own birth and of their own parentage?
Those whose parents are still living could avail themselves
of this evidence, but aside from this means, how many of us
could produce any positive proof, that we were born at the

36 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

time and place, and of the parentage that we have always be-
lieved ourselves to be?

It is a singular thing that the American people, coming
as we do from various European nationalities, all of whom
have some form of birth registration, and most of whom are
proud of their immediate ancestry, should have almost
completely disregarded, until recently, the importance of re-
gistering births and deaths. Ina few of the older New Eng-
land states, this subject has long been regulated by laws. New
Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, and Mass-
achusetts have had some form of registration since about
1850. Kentucky, South Carolina and Virginia had similar
laws at that time, but the disorganization during and imme-
diately following the Civil war put a stop to such efforts, and
it is only in recent years that any interest on this subject has
been aroused in the South. In 1880, registration of deaths
was only enforced on 17 per cent. of the population of the
United States, and as late as 1906, less than 48 per cent. of
the population of the entire country was subject to any ef:
forts to register deaths of human beings. In the remaining
52 per cent. no more legal or official recognition was made of
the death of a human being than was made in the case of a
dog, or a cat, or a horse. They died and were buried, and
that was all there was to it. No record remained to show
when or where they died, what was the cause of their death
or where their body was deposited, except such personal re-
cords as might be made by immediate relatives.

This situation, and the lack of reliable records has fre-
quently been discussed in medical and scientific bodies. As
far back as 1848, the year following the organization of the
American Medical Association, a standing committee on reg-
istration of births, deaths and marriages, reported, urging the
adoption of proper laws by all of the states. In the transac-
tion of the American Medical Association, the American
Public Health Association, the Conference of State and Pro-
vincial Boards of Health, and similar organizations, will be
found frequent references to this subject, yet in 1880, after
thirty years of effort, deaths were recorded in only 17 per
cent. of the population, in 1906 in only 48.5 per cent. and in
1912, there were still nearly 40 per cent. of the population
without any registration of deaths, while today, forty out of
forty-eight states make no record of births.

In 1906, at the annual Conference on Legislation of the
American Medical Association, a committee was appointed
to draft a model bill for introduction into state legislatures.
This committee reported in December of 1907, presenting the
draft of a bill suitable for adoption by individual states pro-

—

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 37

viding for the registration of births and deaths, including the
uniform death certificate, and introducing the international
nomenclature of diseases. This bill has since been endorsed
by the American Medical Association and its Section on Pre-
ventive Medicine and Public Health by the Bureau of Cen-
sus of the United States Government, by the American Public
Health Association, the American Statistical Association, the
American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant
Mortality, the National Conservation Congress, the American
Federation of Labor, the General Federation of Women’s
Clubs, the Commission on Uniform Laws of the American
Bar Association, and a large number of other organizations
interested in improving public health conditions. This bill
is drafted in harmony with the experience of public health of-
ficers, statisticians, sanitarians, lawyers, judges, administra-
tors and all others whose views and co-operation could be
secured. Since it was drafted in 1906, the registration area
for deaths has increased from 40 per cent. to 63.1 per cent.

So much for the history for this movement. Let us now
consider briefly, some practical reasons why every citizer
should be interested in securing adequate birth and death
registration for Illinois. On account of the general interest
in this subject on the part of physicians, and because birth
and death certificates are necessarily signed by them, the
public has assumed that this is a question which is of interest
to physicians alone. When the public, and especially the
members of the state legislatures see physicians, both individ-
ually and as representatives of medical organizations, appear
before legislative committees in different states, year after
year, they naturally assume that birth and death registration
is a subject in which physicians have some selfish, personal
interest, else they would not devote so much time and effort
to endeavoring to secure laws on this subject. Yet, the fact
is, that with the exception of their interest as citizens, phy-
sicians have probably less interest in endeavoring to secure
laws on this subject than almost any other class of citizens. It
is no special advantage to physicians, as a class or as indi-
viduals, to know the exact number of births and deaths, while
the greater part of the labor of filling out. birth and death
certificates falls on the family doctor. The fact that this work
is generally done without compensation, and that the general
feeling among physicians and in medical organizations is
against compensation for such work, only makes the situa-
tion all the more striking.

Why have physicians and medical organizations inter-
ested themselves in securing the registration of births and
deaths, and what reasons are there, aside from sentimental

38 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ones, why the state should provide the necessary machinery
for registering these events? The reason why the physiciar
is interested, is because birth and death registration is, as it
has aptly been styled, “the book-keeping of humanity.” It is
only by carefully recording all births, by observing the num-
ber and percentage of births and deaths over a large area
with a large population for a long period of time, that any
accurate figures can be secured regarding the average birth
or death rate per 1,000 or per 10,000 of population, the rela-
tive birth and death rate in different localities, races and per-
iods of time, the relative death rate in different periods of
life, the average duration of life, and what insurance men
call the “expectation of life’, the relative proportion of deaths
occurring from different causes and the relative frequency of
disease. In short, the only way by which any accurate fig-
ures can be secured, on which can be based any statements
regarding vital facts, is the systematic registration of births
and deaths.

It is, accordingly, only in a state or a community in
whch births and deaths are carefully observed and re-
corded, and in which the recording system and the
nomenclature used are uniform with those of other
states and countries that the community can _ learn
whether it is gaining or losing in population, wheth-
er the birth rate is increasing or decreasing, whether the
death rate, either as a whole, or from some single cause, is
increasing or not, whether the efforts to improve sanitary
conditions are successful or not, and what is the relative
value of different methods. Just as a business man who kept
no books would be unable to determine his financial condi-
tion, or whether he was making or losing money, so the health
officer who is without carefully recorded vital statistics is
equally at a loss. General impressions are notoriously un-
trustworthy. A community may believe that is is unusually
healthy, yet a careful record of deaths may show that the
death rate is fifty, seventy-five or even one hundred per cent.
in excess of the normal, and this from thoroughly preventable
causes. Dr. W. S. Rankin, Secretary of the North Carolina
State Board of Health, says: “Applied vital statistics is the
most essential and powerful remedy for the improvement of
the health or social organizations for bringing about sanitary
reforms, for preventing diseases, for postponing death, and
for adding years to the duration of the average life that we
possess.” Just as accurate book-keeping with carefully drawn
balance sheets and an exhaustive analysis of expenses will
enable the merchant to save money, so carefully kept records
of mortality will produce longer life. Dr. Rankin illustrates

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 39

this by giving an instance of a city of 20,000 people in North
Carolina. On his arrival in the city, he called up five repre-
sentative citizens on the telephone, and asked them their opin-
ions as to the health of their city. One was a college presi-
dent, one was a city official, one a practicing physician, one
was a banker and the other a leading merchant. All unhesi-
tatingly answered that the health of the city was good. They
were then asked, “How many people do you think died in
your city last year?” Their guesses ran all the way from 60
to 300 deaths a year. As a matter of fact, thera were 508
deaths, or nearly as many as all their estimates put together.
These five representative citizens had no knowledge of the
number of deaths that were occurring in their city, and con-
sequently, had no idea how many of these deaths were pre-
ventable, or whether the death rate was increasing or decreas-
ing.

But what would be the advantage of knowing all of these
facts regarding the death rate and the occurrance of deaths,
if it were only to satisfy curiosity, or to furnish scientific
data on the subject? Very little, if no other end could be
served. And this is the reason why laymen and members oi
legislatures have, until recent years, taken but little interest
in this subject. What is the benefit to the community of
knowing how many deaths resulted from malaria, or typhoid
fever, in a given area in a given time, if it is not possible to
use this knowledge for the prevention of disease, and the re-
duction of the death rate? In previous generations, when
the causes of these diseases were unknown and there was no
way of preventing them, mortality reports had only a statis-
tical value. But health is today no longer an accident, and
disease and death are to a very large extent, controllable. The
advance’in scientific knowledge in the last forty years, has
placed in the hands of the medical profession, positive means
for the prevention of many of the diseases which in past gen-
erations inflicted the heaviest loss upon humanity. There is
no longer any excuse for any community suffering from ty-
phoid and typhus fever, malaria, yellow fever, bubonic
plague, Asiatic cholera, syphilis, gonorrhea, hookworm, diph-
theria, and tuberculosis. These diseases are all solved prob-
lems from the scientific point of view. The specific cause and
the life history of the organism, the means of transmission
and the methods of prevention of these diseases are known.
Their prevention only requires the practical application of
well known and demonstrated facts. The problems presented
by these diseases are not scientific at all, but purely sociolog-
ical. Typhoid fever is no longer regarded as due to a visita-
tion of God, or to a judgment from Heaven. It is due to

40 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

dirty water, dirty milk or flies. Malaria and yellow fever are
not “pestilences which walk in darkness.” They are, on the
contrary, due entirely to the presence of a particular variety
of mosquito which bites the person suffering from the disease,
and then, by biting a well person, conveys the disease to him,
Yellow fever and malaria can, therefore, be absolutely pre-
vented, either by destroying the breeding places of the mos-
quito, or by screening all patients suffering from these di-
seases. Asiatic cholera is due to polluted food or water. Bu-
bonic plague is transmitted by rats and fleas. Rocky Moun-
tain fever is carried by the tick. Typhus fever, known in past
ages as ship fever, jail fever, prison fever, camp fever and fam-
ine fever, is now known to be carried by the louse. We are
just beginning to realize the cold, practical truth of Louis
Pasteur’s statement, now nearly half a century old, “It is
within the power of man to cause all contagious diseases to
disappear from the earth.” Public health is no longer a ques-
tion of accident, it is purely a question of money. A health
department with an appropriation of forty cents per capita
per year, can save so many lives. A health department with
an appropriation of $2.00 per capita per year, can save manly
more. We can save these lives if we are willing to pay the
price. Our cities and states can reduce their death rate if
they are willing to spend enough money. The number of
deaths which occur in any community is, within certain
limits, entirely within the control of the people of that com-

munity.

As a result, the death rate, and especially the infantile
death rate, becomes an index not only of the sanitary con-
dition, but also of the intelligence and public spirit of the
community. It is the record by which the modern public
health officer demonstrates his fitness, and shows the results
which he has secured. If these facts were only known and
appreciated by the public, the annual report of the local health
department giving the death rate for the year, would be looked
forward to far more eagerly and scrutinized much more
s archingly than the tax list or the reports of real estate sales.

Carefully kept records of births and deaths are, therefore,
an absolute necessity for modern public health work. For the
good of the community, they should be demanded by every
citizen, since they offer the only standard by which the con-
dition of public health in the community can be determined,
or the effectiveness of the public health organization can be
measured. ,

But while the public health value of vital statistics is
probably its most important function, there are other results

> SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 4]

almost as valuable, which comes from a careful recording of
births and deaths. To the lawyer, to the parent and to the
man of property, they are of the utmost importance. It is
difficult to understand why the legal profession of the United
States has for years permitted such disgraceful conditions re-
garding birth registration, when one considers that on the
proper registration of births depend the solution of questions
of identity, parentage, legitimacy, descent, inheritance of prop-
erty and relationship. In this connection, a number of inter-
esting instances have been reported. Dr. J. N. Hurty the
eficient Secretary of the Indiana State Board of Health, tells
of a farmer’s daughter, whose father, dying, left his property
in trust in the hands of his brother, her uncle, to be turned
over to the daughter when she became of age. When her
eighteenth birthday arrived, she demanded the property, and
was informed by her uncle that she was mistaken regarding
her age and she could not gain possession of her father’s estate
for two years more. She had no record of her birth, both her
father and mother were dead, and there seemed no way of
establishing her age by evidence. Finally a neighboring far-
mer remembered that a calf had been born upon his farm the
same week that the girl was born. He produced his stock
record showing the date of the birth of the calf, and made affi-
davit that the girl was born at the same time, and by the
record of the calf’s birth the age of the girl was legally es-
tablished.

Another occurence illustrates the importance of proper
birth registration. A young German came to this country
some fifty years ago. Landing in New York, he remained
there for a couple of years and married. Later on he came
west, with his wife and baby. The child grew to manhood,
and both father and mother died. Recently a German lawyer
came to this country looking for heirs to the estate of the
father of the young German, the grandfather of the boy. He
had no difficulty whatever in locating the young man, who
was naturally overjoyed to learn that he was heir to a consid-
erable estate. But when an effort was made to secure legal
evidence of parentage, as well as legal evidence of the mar-
riage of the father and mother, no record could be found. The
young. man knew by family tradition that the wealthy man
who had died in Germany was his paternal grandfather but
he was unable to produce any evidence that would be ac-
ceptable to the German authorities, and as a result, the entire
estate was lost to him.

Registration of deaths is equally important from a legal
standpoint. It frequently becomes necessary not only to

42 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

prove the actual fact of death but to prove the time and cir-
cumstances, the cause of death, the duration of the last illness,
the place of interment, etc.

While death registration is progressing faster than birth
registration, there are still eleven states in which no authentic
record is kept of deaths. Of this number, I regret to say is
our own state of Illinois. There is at present upon the statute
books of the state, a law providing that all births and deaths
shall be registered, but providing no adequate machinery for
carrying out these provisions. The result is, that outside of
Chicago and a few of the other large cities, there is today in
Illinois no record of either births or deaths worth considering.
How many people died from tuberculosis last year in IIli-
nois? No body knows. How many people died from typhoid
fever? How many babies died under three years during the
past year? How many people died of preventable diseases?

Is the death rate increasing or decreasing? No one has any ©

idea nor can they know, until a law is pased which will pro-
vide for registration of births and deaths in accordance with
the methods used in other states.

But the registration of births and deaths has more than a
legal and sanitary value. Good health either of the individual
or of the community, is today a business asset. That com-
munity which has the lowest death rate and the lowest pro-
portion of illness and disability from preventable diseases, is
the most desirable for residence, for the investment of capt-
tal and for the establishment of manufacturing enterprises.
This fact is just beginning to be realized. Consequently, the
accurate registration of births and deaths as the only means
by which the death rate of a locality can be determined should
be of the utmost interest and concern to all business men of
a community. An illustration of this occurred a few years
ago in a southern state. A land improvement company in
one of the largest southern cities was putting forth special
efforts to interest northern capitalists and manufacturers,
looking for suitable sites. A prominent northern manufac-
turer was shown a tract of land which exactly suited his
4purposes, and was prepared to invest a large sum of money
in purchasing the land and still more in erecting a large fac-
tory. After all the other conditions has been discussed, he stat-
ed that the only reason he hesitated, was fear that that partic-
ular portion of the state was unhealthful and that it would
not be safe for him to take his family and make his home in
the southern city. The representative of the land improve-
ment company indignantly insisted that the locality was one
of the most healthful in the country, whereupon the northern
manufacturer asked for the death rate for that section of the

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 43

state for the last five years. The Secretary of the land im-
provement association at once wrote to the Secretary of
State, asking for the desired information. The Secre-
tary of State referred him to the Secretary of the
State Board of Health, who replied: “Neither I nor
anyone else can tell you how many _ people died
in this state, or in any portion of it, either last
year, or the year before, or for any period since its organiza-
tion asa state. \Ve have no registration of births and deaths.
|We cannot tell whether our death rate is higher or lower than
that of any other state, or whether it is increasing or decreas-
ing. You can find out how many horses and cattle and pigs
there are in the state and what diseases they suffer from and
how to prevent them, but no one in the state knows anything
about the births and deaths of human beings.”

This situation came with such a surprising shock to the
members of the land improvement association that they im-
mediately began an agitation for a registration law, which,
I am glad to say, has since been secured.

Such a law is quite as important to laboring men and
women, as it is to capitalists and land owners. Labor unions
have, for many years, been endeavoring to secure laws for the
prevention of child labor, the desirability of which hardly
needs to be discussed. But such a law, in order to be effec-
tive, must fix a definite age before which employment will not
be permitted. How can such a legal age be established in an
individual case? Only by the presentation of a certified copy
of the birth certificate. Unless this is done, violations of the
law are not only frequent, but their detection and punishment
are practically impossible. The child comes to the employer
with a false statement from his parents that he is over four-
teen or sixteen years of age, whatever the legal limit may be.
The employer accepts the statement and employs the child.
If the inspector finds the child to be under age, the responsi-
bility for the deception is divided between the parents and
the employer. The honest employer never knows when he is
breaking the law, while the dishonest employer can not be
convicted. If the child were required to present a certified
copy of a birth certificate, there would be no question about
his real age, and the responsibility could be definitely fixed
on the employer who knowingly violated the law, while the
law-abiding employer would be protected from deception.

All of you doubtless remember the terrible mine disaster
which occurred at the Cherry Mine a few years ago? But how
many of you know that it was a child under the age of six-
teen, illegally employed on an illegal school certificate issued
by the school authorities and sworn to by its parents, who

44 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

pushed the bale of hay into the lighted lamp, and that it was
another child under the age of sixteen, employed on a notary
public’s affidavit on the perjured testimony of its parents, who
pushed that bale of hay into the mine, causing one of the most
frightful disasters in the history of the mining industry of the
country. If every birth was registered, the enforcement of
the child labor laws and factory laws would be greatly sim-
plified and strengthened.

Women’s clubs and social organizations should also de-
mand the passage of such a law for the protection of women
and girls. Laws regulating the age of consent are equally
valueless without birth registration. In practically all prose-
cutions for the protection of children and young girls, the
contest comes over the age of the girl. If this fact was a mat-
ter of official record, the enforcement of the law and the pun-
ishment of its violators would be easy.

To sum up the entire situation, in so far as it interests us
as citizens of this state, the proper registration of births and
deaths is fundamental to any proper and adequate social
organization. It is to our discredit as citizens that Illinois is
not one of the eight states which register births, nor
one of the thirty-six states that register deaths. Outside of
Chicago, Peoria and a few of the larger cities, there is no
death registration, while even in Chicago the birth registra-
tion is incomplete and unsatisfactory, and elsewhere in the
state it practically does not exist. The present law is in-
effective and inadequate. It has been a dead letter ever since
its passage in 1903. For the sake of future generations, as
well as for the enforcement of law and order and the securing
of better sanitary conditions, it is the duty of each one of us
to use all his influence in enlightening the public and demand-
ing from the state legislature, the passage of a modern, up to

date, scientific registration law in order that this blot on our >

state may cease to exist.

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 45

THE EXPERIENCE OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS
WITH THE SHALLOW WELL.

EDWARD BARTOW

Very few Illinois cities obtain their municipal water sup-
plies from shallow wells. Many people in cities either from
necessity or preference use shallow well water for drinking
purposes. Cftentimes the city mains are not extended to new
sections. Oftentimes in old sections the houses are not con-
nected with the mains, making the use of a shallow well neces-
sary. Oftentimes the city water furnished has unpleasant
physical characteristics like taste, color, or turbidity causing
jpeople to prefer the clean shallow well water.

Tn a great measure the relative use of shallow wells in
different sections of the state is dependent upon the source
and character of the municipal water supplies. In the north-
ern part of the State of Illinois, the majority of the city water
supplies are obtained from deep rock wells. In the east cen-
tral portion of the state the water supplies are obtained from
deep drift wells, in the west central and southern part of the
state from streams- It is possible to have deep rock wells in
the northern part of the state because the St. Peter and
Potsdam sandstones which outcrop in the central and
northern part of Wisconsin dip to the southward so that they
are from a few hundred feet to two thousand feet
below the surface in the northern third of Illinois,
or rather north of a line drawn from Quincy to Chicago.
Because the height above sea level in [linois is less than in
Wisconsin, wells which enter these two strata are free flow-
ing or can be easily pumped. Such wells furnish an ideal
water for municipal water supply. As the water lies in the
water bearing stratum it is absolutely free from contamina-
tion. Proper measures must be taken to prevent contamina-
tion during delivery to the consumer from defective casing,
from contaminated reservoirs, or from faulty connections with
river supplies.

In deep rock wells along or south of a line drawn from
Quincy to Chicago there is a strong probability that the water
will be very highly mineralized. It is therefore necessary in
the central and southern parts of the state to obtain water
supplies from sources other than deep wells in rock. In the
eastern part of the central area the glacial drift is deep enough
and contains gravel coarse enough to furnish a satisfactory

46 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

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SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 47

water bearing stratum. We therefore find many of the cities
in this area obtaining their water supplies from wells from
100 to 200 feet in depth. These waters are also prefectly free
from contamination in the water bearing strata and if proper-
ly cared for, furnish a perfectly hygienic supply.

In the western part of this area and to the south of a line
drawn from St. Louis to Danville, the drift is not deep enough
to furnish sufficient reservoir capacity and it is necessary to
rely on surface waters for municipal supplies. Very few oi
the surface water supplies in this section of the state have
been filtered. The unfiltered water supplies are not only un-
attractive for drinking but they may be contaminated or even
infected. With unattractive municipal supplies the citizens
in this section use water from shallow wells which may be
impure.

Under such conditions we expect a higher typhoid fever
death rate in the southern part of the state than in the east
central and northern parts.

A study of the statistics collected by the State Board of
Health from 1904 to 1911 (*) shows this to be the case. Divid-
ing the state into two parts, (see map) 51 counties to the north
and the same number to the south, we find in the northern
part of the state but two counties with a rate exceeding 30
per 100,000 and not one county with a typhoid fever death
rate of 40 per 100,000. Sixteen of these northern counties had
a rate of below 10 per 100,000.

In the southern part of the state there were five counties
with a typhoid fever rate of more than 40 per 100,000 and 12
more with a typhoid fever death rate of more than 30, and but
one with a rate below 10 per 100,000. It is gratifying to note
that the average for the eight years, 1904-11 is better than the
average for the five years 19048.

Another reason for typhoid fever in the southern part of
the state is the fact that 32 per cent of the towns of more
than 1,000 inhabitants have no water supply, whereas in the
northern part only 10 per cent are without a water supply.
Shallow wells are of course used where there are no municipal
water supplies and it is certain that the use of shallow well
water is influential in spreading typhoid fever.

We have carefully classified all well waters sent to the
Survey for examination during the vears 1907-12. The waters
received have been classified according to depth as follows:
Less than 25 feet, 25 to 50 feet, 50 to 100 feet, over 100 feet.
and unknown. The variation in the quality of each class from
year to year is but slight as indicated on the diagram. The

*Proceedings Illinois Water Supply Association. 2, 151-164.

48 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Purity of Well Waters.

Showing Percentage of Well Water Condemned Annually by
the Water Survey. Arranged According to Depth of
Well.

1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 Total
Less than Twenty-five ft.—

No. Examined 284 254 242 148 113 168 1209
No. Condemned 2AQ:. “192-183: (28! 274d 920
Per Cent Condemned 85 75 75 79 65 = 67 70
Twenty-five to Fifty ft—
No. Examined 224 395 354 201 196 353 1728
No: Condemned 173° 250° 226 157 = 122" as 1093
Per Cent Condemned -77. 63 63. 65 = 62 ae 63
Fifty to Cne Hundred ft.—
No. Examined 11 192 si6h- . 90> Vso aie Ife
No. Condemned 47. 66) 54= 46 S 2 20 244
Per Cent Condemned 37 34 353 =~ 535i as a2
Over One Hundred ft.—
No. Examined 1GL, 312° 376.205 217 438 1564
No. Condemned 225 Al. SG2tis 4S) seme 257
Per Cent Condemned 13 O° IG: 7 20% 7a ee 15
Unknown Depth— ;
No. Examined 88. 4G) 72 2674 io =e 319
No. Condemned S34 27s SOO 9 6 144
Per Cent Condemned 38 47 525° 52.04/72 22 45

Total No. Examined 868 1199 1205 711 588 1016... 5587
Total No. Condemned 511 561 563 379 243 381 2638
Per Cent Condemned. 60° 46 475-53" 41338 47

average number condemned decreases with the depth of the
well. Of those less than 25 feet in depth 76 per cent were
condemned, of those 25 to 50 feet, 63 per cent were condemned,
of those 50 feet to 100 feet, 32 per cent were condemned.
of those 100 feet in depth only 15 per cent were con-
demned and many of the deepest were condemned because
of excess of mineral content and not because of con-
tamination. Of those of unknown origin 45 per cent
were condemned. Of all the well waters received
during the six years, 47 per cent were condemned. It
is gratifying to note a decrease in typhoid fever during the
latter part of the period.

Without doubt the above does not give the true idea of
the actual condition of the water obtained from wells through-
out the state. Asa matter of fact a majority of samples sent
to the Water Survey for examination is sent because of
tvphoid fever among those using the water. A truer estimate

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 49

Ss ioe ee ,
Ws ee Te Miinoks
me Se ES Sroteatrer Survey.
—
ae COs. verroronr
. on ae Ot aa a es 7
N ---- Well Worers
S > Cozces;ned each year
: ONS St
O 4 2 a SF Game a
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of the actual character of the waters of the state can be ob-
tained from a study of waters collected by representatives of
the Survey from typical farm wells. The number of sam-
ples examined is comparatively small. While 73 per cent of

Farm Wells.

Samples Collected by the Survey and Should Represent
Average Conditions.

Less 25 it. 50 it. More

than to to than
25 it. deep. 50 ft. 100 ft. 100 ft. Total
No. Examined 15 41 15 29 100
No. Condemned 11 22 2 0 35
Per Cent Condemned 73 54 13 0 a5

those less than 25 feet deep were condemned, only 34 per cent
of those from 25 to 50. 13 per cent of those from 50 to 100 feet,
and none of those over 100 feet in depth were condemned. The
diagram shows the relation between the character of samples
analyzed by request of citizens and of those analyzed on the
initiative of the Water Survey. Those collected by the sur-
vey are of better quality.

The results of the examination of the water from shallow
wells showed three-fourths of them to be contaminated and
possibly dangerous. An ideal remedy would be to abolish

50 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Minors
Stofeterer Survey.

Purity 7 MWe// Worers.
Arronged according to deprh.
Aiveroges for S years.
Feb. /9/3.

Eee DEE Nba
ERPRRRROIRED) GR0e8
ET a ae eae

oe

Vv
o
S
8
g
aN
cigs
N
q

ze
Eas
Pe)
MMR ee se
Lp
Pe) eo ae
a Ge ee ee
Pp de
yf |} +--+

psi eae

Onker25’ | 25-50 30400 100-OVEer-

A. Anolyse/ by regues? f cVrze7s Ave.for § yeors.
B. Anolysed af jotnarive of Surrey soo represenTelive wells.

all shallow dug wells but the ideal cannot be obtained in this
as in many other matters.

As indicated in the discussion of the sources of
municipal water supplies in the state, it .1is impos-
sible in some parts of the state to obtain a satisfactory”
water from deep wells so that the shallow well is a necessity.
Whenever the water bearing stratum is porous enough to
allow free flow, a driven or bored well less than 50 feet deep
should furnish satisfactory water. In many cases however
the flow through the water bearing stratum is so small that
it is necessary to make a reservoir into which the water may
slowly percolate and from which it can be drawn as needed.
Hence the shallow dug well is a necessity. Granting that it
is a necessity, great care must be taken to protect the water.
The character of the strata which it penetrates must be taken
into consideration. Strata of sand may serve as a filter and
purify the water. Strata of clay or other material through
which water may flow in crevices or cracks may allow pollu-
tion to be carried a considerable distance. Wells should be
located on a higher level than cesspools, privies or barnyards
and these must be built at a distance from the well. The
immediate surroundings of the well must be carefully protect-
ed. A surface water should not be allowed to pass through
the casing within at least four feet from the top. The cover
should be tight so that water from the pump may not flow

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 51

back into the well carrying with it the dirt and filth from the
well cover-

If typhoid fever does break out we wish to emphasize
the fact that about the last thing to do is to send water for
examination. Typhoid fever infection has taken place from
10 days to two weeks before the symptoms are recognized.
There are other sources of typhoid fever and even if the water
were the cause, during the time between infection and the
outbreak of the disease the water in the well may have lost
its infection. . Rather should the patient be cared for that he
may not again infect the well or infect others by contact. The
water may be analyzed but it will require from one week to
ten days to obtain the results of an analysis and in the mean-
time infection may have spread through other means. It is
the wisest course to protect the well so that infection cannot
enter, making the water safe at all times.

I wish to acknowledge the assistance of Carmen F. Har-
nack and W. F. Langelier in compiling the statistics and
arranging the data for this paper.

THE CONTROL OF STREAM POLLUTION
PAUL HANSEN

In uninhabited or even rural districts the evil results of -
stream pollution are practically negligible, but in localities
where there are urban districts, streams are rendered ex-
ceedingly foul by the enormous quantities of sewage and
industrial wastes that are poured into them from city sewers.
These streams become totally unfit for pleasure purposes,
the land along the banks is depreciated in value and public
water supplies drawn from the streams may be grossly con-
taminated and constitute an extreme danger to public health.
In the past and even at the present time an enormous toll
in human lives is annually exacted as a result of polluted
streams not to mention the economic loss due to depreciation
in property values. Notable examples in this country of
streams which have been rendered foul and useless, other
than as open sewers through excessive pollution are the Pas-
saic River in New Yersey, the Naponset River in Massa-
chusetts, and Mill Creek in Ohio near Cincinnati In our
own state we have the Chicago River and the Chicago main
drainage canal which are becoming so contaminated that it
will be necessary to spend millions of dollars for sewage
treatment unless the government permits the diversion of in-
creased quantities of water from Lake Michigan.

52 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

To prevent the evils of stream pollution gaining too
great headway, central governmental control backed by in-
telligent public opinion is essential. The moulding of an
intelligent public opinion is, however, a rather difficult matter
for even among persons who have given considerable thought
to sanitary subjects, there exist gross misconceptions as to
the logical and practicable way to treat the problem of streani
pollution. There has been a tendency to permit sentimental-
ity to get the upper hand and this has resulted in giving wide
currency to some extravagant demands that are wholly im-
practicable. There is, however, a group of sanitary engin-
eers who have come into intimate contact with actual prob-
lems relating to the prevention of stream pollution and among
these engineers there has gradually come about a unanimity
of opinion regarding certain essential factors relating to the
stream pollution problem. It will be the object of this paper
to present these opinions and the statements made will be
largely based upon recent careful inquiries among sanitary
engineers and others interested in sanitation.

The subject may best be treated by first considering in
a broad way what the functions of a stream really are. Hav-
ing reached a satisfactory conclusion upon this point, it will
be possible to consider certain special uses of streams with
respect to stream pollution.

General Functions of Streams.

Cne extreme view of the functions of streams is that
they are provided by nature for conveying water to the popu-
lations that live upon their banks to be used freely for all
purposes for which water may be needed and that, therefore,
no one has a right to defile streams by discharging into them
impurities which may injure health, reduce the value of the:
water in the stream for any purpose or add to the discomfort
of the water user at points lower down upon the stream.
Further, it is argued that common decency damands that a
community dispose of its excrementitious matter in some
other way than by passing it on to neighbors:

The other extreme view is that streams are our natural
drainage courses and that they were provided by nature for
carrying off all the wastes of human activity and that to de-
prive persons of the right to so use streams is an injustice.

In point of fact both of these views contain elements of
right, and yet both are wrong. The proper conception of a
stream recognizes the dual function of watering and draining
the country through which it passes. Some pollution of
streams is inevitable; for with increased density of popula-
tion, increased cultivation of the soil and increased numbers
of urban communities it is practically impossible to prevent

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 53

the discharge of all deleterious matter into streams. It is only
reasonable to require that the pollution of streams be main-
tained at less than a certain fixed maximum and this permis-
sible maximum pollution must vary according to the character
of the stream, the population along the banks of the stream
and the uses to which the waters of the stream are placed.
The extent of pollution that is reasonably permissible in
streams will be discussed somewhat in detail under the head-
ings, “Streams Used for Public Water Supplies,” “Streams
Used for Recreation Purposes,” “Fish and Shell Fish,” “Dis-
charge of Manufacturing Wastes into Streams,” and “Legal
Control Over Stream Pollution.”

Streams Used as Sources of Public Water Supplies

Since streams in the ordinary course of events must re-
ceive more or less contamination, it follows that public water
supplies drawn from surface streams must of necessity be
polluted and should not be delivered to the consumers unless
the water is first adequately purified. One exception may be
made to this general rule, namely, in the case of water sup-
plies derived from streams draining comparatively small water
sheds. In such cases it is sometimes feasible for the water--
supply authorities to own the entire watershed and control
it in such manner as to make cantamination of the water
courses impossible- But in general we have this question to
contend with—how much pollution may be permitted to enter
a stream before the water thereof is polluted to a point be-
yond redemption by water purification methods? This is a
question that taxes the greatest ingenuity of sanitary experts
and it is always necessary for any specific problem to be
considered on its particular merits in order to obtain what is
the best and most economical solution.

Merely to indicate the wide range of conditions that are
met in actual practice, we have on the one hand a water purifi-
cation plant constructed for the purpose of purifying crude
though rather weak sewage at the Chicago stock yards. It
was claimed that the results obtained at this plant were satis-
factory when judged by analytical standards and by the
safety of the water for human consumption. Even though it
is possible to transform such a filthy liquid into drinking
water, the esthetic sense of the community rebels and it is not
probable that water once so highly polluted, even with most
thorough purification, will ever be considered as acceptable
water for public water supplies. At the other extreme is the
community which derives its supply from a clear mountain
stream, possibly having its source in large springs yielding a
water of unquestioned purity. In such a case there would
seem to be but trifling danger, and authorities might be tempt-

54 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ed to omit purification of such a water. The disastrous
results that may come from this ommission is well illustrated
by the experience in Plymouth, Pa., in 1885. In this case the
source of water supply was a mountain stream such as above
described, with but two houses upon the entire drainage basin.
Nevertheless a single case of typhoid in one of these houses
was responsible for 1104 cases and 114 deaths among the con-
sumers of the water.

Notwithstanding the great difficulty in defining that de-
gree of pollution which is permissible in streams which are
to be used as public water supplies after purification there
would seem to be an advantage in attempting to approximate
a general rule for the control of such streams. A rule has
been formulated in the light of the present available evi-
dence, but it must be admitted that this rule is not based upon
any very scientific data and it can, therefore, only be put for-
ward tentatively with the expectation that it will be modi-
fied from time to time as more and more experience is ac-
quired. This rule may be stated as follows: The time in
hours required for the passage of a particle of water
from the sewer outlet to the point of water works intake dur-
ing high water, multiplied by the dilution available during
low water in cubic feet per second per 1000 persons tributary
to the sewers, should equal ‘a constant and this constant
should not equal less than 40. This may be expressed mathe-
matically as follows:

Ts b equais

In which T equals time in hours required for the passage
of a particle of water from the sewer outlet to the water
works intake at high water;

D equals dilution available during low water in cubic
feet per second per 1,000 persons tributary to the sewers;
and

C equals constant, which it is recommended be not less
than 40.

The above formula applies to streams in which there is
no appreciable increase in volume of flow between sewer out-
let and the point of water works intake. In the case of
streams which receive the discharge of large tributaries be-
tween the point of sewer outlet and the point of water works
intake, the formula must, of course, be modified. Generally
it will be merely necessary to assign a value D which repre-
sents the mean of the quantity of water flowing past the sew-
er outlet and that flowing past the water works intake. If
the factor of safety proves to be more than 40, purification of
the sewage will not be necessary for the protection of the
water supply. If the factor of safety is less than 40, some

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 55

form of purification will be necessary and this may vary all
the way from plain sedimentation to intermittent sand filtra-
tion followed by sterilization.

The formula, of course, is intended to be used as a rough
guide and it is conceivable that there are instances where it will
not apply. Take, for example, the case of a very large stream,
where a sufficiently large factor of safety may be obtained
with the sewer outlet at a very short distance above the point
of water works intake, and on the same side of the stream;
here it is manifest, due to the impracticability of securing a
mixture of the sewage with the entire volume of the stream
that the sewage must receive treatement or the water works
intake must be extended to a point above or at any rate be-
yond the influence of the sewer outlet. As a rough guide,
however, such a formula may serve a useful purpose in nar-
rowing down the widely divergent practice of the present
time.

Streams for Recreation Purposes

Of recent years growing importance, is attached to the
maintenance of our streams for pleasure purposes. Every
summer there may be found scattered along the streams with-
in a radius of 50 miles or more of our large cities numerous
camps. This form of summer vacation is a comparatively
cheap and normally a healthful means of recreation. It ought
to be regarded as one of the means of improving the health
tone of our urban communities inasmuch as it is within the
means of so great a number of people.

Under this head may be asked how high a degree of
purity should be demanded in a stream which is extensively
used for recreation purposes, but not for public water supply?
Within the last few years much emphasis has properly been
placed upon the purification of sewage by dilution, which
after all, is purification by oxygenation in which a natural
resource is utilized instead of an artifically constructed puri-
fication works. It has generally been held and in most in-
stances rightly held that the degree of dilution necessary is
merely that which will prevent a nuisance, having reference
primarily to unsightly floating matter and bad odors. For
most rivers and many of the smaller streams of the country,
this requirement as to the cleanness of the waters is all that
is necessary.

There is, however, a certain class of streams which be-
cause of the beauty of the country through which they flow
and their specially favorable location becomes highly prized
for camping and recreation purposes. It isa striking circum-
stance, in fact, that recreation seekers nearly — ays look for

56 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

the stream valleys which illustrates the craving of man for
a combination of land and water, by means of which nature
presents her most alluring and most picturesque aspects:
These streams, as a rule, have no large cities upon their banks
but merely here and there a small town or village. The
sewage from such small towns and villages may not be suffi-
cient to produce a visible coontamination except possibly
throughout a very short distance below the sewer outfalls,
but such contamination does offend the esthetic sense and un-
doubtedly does add some danger to public health for the
reason that when a stream is used for recreation purposes,
it will be used for boating and bathing and as a domestic
supply to some extent among campers, though it may not
and should not be used for drinking water. It seems to the
writer that such streams as those deserve greater protection
against contamination than merely to prevent nuisance.

No definite rules to apply to ‘all cases can be laid down,
but as a general principle, it may be said that if such a stream
is not polluted to any material extent by storm water and
street wash such as would obtain in the case of a city of con-
siderable size located upon the banks, it would seen perfectly
feasible to purify the sewage to a point where it will give no
evidence of its existence even in the vicinity of the outlet and
further the sewage effluent should be sterilized by the cheap
and satisfactory means of using bleaching powder so as in
large measure to guard against dangers to health among
vacationists which may result from boating, bathing and
domestic uses of the stream water, other than for drinking.

A very striking example of a stream serving the useful
function of providing recreation for vacationists is the Little
Miami River near Cincinnati: The lower reaches of this
stream are lined with cottages and tents of campers during
the summer months and it requires but a very little contam-
ination of the stream to immediately give rise to a storm of
complaint. There are few villages located on this stream and
these contribute some minor ‘manufacturing wastes and a
negligible quantity of street wash. If the sewage from these
towns were purified, and it is understood that purification
works have been ordered by the Ohio State Board of Health,
the stream could be preserved for what appears to the writer
to be its highest and most valuable use, namely, recreation.

Fish and Shell Fish |

Many streams are valuable to the community on account
of their fish life. It may be said in general that thlere is
rarely necessity for so polluting a stream as to endanger fish
life, though there are some circumstances where the continu-

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 57

ance of certain liquid waste producing industries injurious to
fish is of so great importance to the general welfare that fish
life in certain streams must be sacrificed.

The maintenance of fish life does not necessarily imply
an unpolluted stream. It is merely necessary that the alka-
linity of the water be maintained and that the pollution be
not so great as to absorb the dissolved oxygen in the water
to an extent that will suffocate the fish. The fact is: a moder-
ate degree of pollution favors fish life in that it favors the
growth of microscopic aquatic organisms which constitute
valuable fish food. Certain difficulties have been encountered
in the contamination of fish by polluted water which causes
the fish to decay rapidly and become unfit for human con-
sumption. The danger of infection of human beings with
specific disease through eating fish taken from polluted
streams is almost negligible, for the reason that in this part
of the world at any rate fish are not eaten raw. With shell
fish, however, the case is quite different, because they are very
frequently eaten raw. It has been a common practice along
the coast to float oysters in shallow polluted waters which
causes them to become bloated and appear fat. Such an
oyster perhaps makes a more delectable morsel of food, but
in it may be lurking the germs of typhoid fever or some other
water borne disease. The problem of protecting the shell fish
industry is a very complicated one and all its intricacies have
not been worked out. Here again is where the services of
experts are needed to study each zone of shell fish pollution
in the light of diverse local conditions. As a concrete ex-
ample of the efforts that are made to protect shell fish may .
be mentioned the case of the city of Baltimore, which at the
expense of millions of dollars is purifying its sewage so as to
convert it into a liquid which is not only clear and inoffensive
but also practically sterile.

Discharge of Manufacturing Wastes into Streams

Many of our important industries, such as paper mills,
woolen mills, dye works, starch factories, and tanneries, re-
quire large volumes of water to carry on their industrial oper-
ations and they also produce large volumes of waste which
are capable of undergoing offensive putrefaction. The dis-
charge of these wastes into streams often causes unsightly,
and malodorous conditions, yet, with the exception of tan-
neries, these waters do not menace the public health since
they do not contain the specific infections of disease. (Tan-
nery wastes may contain anthrax bacilli). In fact some of
the processes are such that the wastes are quite inimicable to
the existence of disease germs. In some cases it is practicable

58 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

to treat the wastes so that offensive conditions in a stream
may be in part or wholly relieved, but for certain industries
such treatment of the wastes is prohibitively expensive.

Enjoining industries against causing objectionable stream
pollution may, and in some instances actually has, neces-
sitated the shutting down of works. It is conceivable, in the
case of large industires upon which are dependent a con-
siderable population, that an order to cease stream pollution,
which is virtually an order to shut down the works, might re-
sult in great hardship without adequate returns accruing from
the cleaner conditions of the stream. There may be instances,
therefore, where a limited few of the streams of the country
may legitimately be turned over to the manufacturing inter-
ests. Now that the stream pollution problem has become
more acutely an issue and the disadvantages of filthy streams
is better understood it would not seem wise to permit waste
producing industries to be located upon any but very large
streams which have an ample volume to dilute the wastes to
an inoffensive condition. That is to say, the streams which
are now clean should be maintained clean for the reason that
we have an ample number of large streams which can ef-
fectually take care of wastes from waste producing industrial
plants for an indefinite period in the future.

Legal Control Over Stream Pollution

A discussion of stream pollution would not be complete
unless some consideration is given to legal control. As al-
ready indicated the cleanness of streams cannot be conserved
unless under a central governmental supervision. If left to
individual communities, | very little could be expected in the
way of results. Communities are not likely to be altruistic
enough to spend large sums of money for sewage purification
works to protect neighbors on the stream below unless such
altruism is induced ‘by damage suits which render sewage
purification the cheapest way out of the difficulty. But law
suits are costly if long drawn out and the results are often
unsatisfactory.

It is essential that specific problems relating to stream
pollution must for successful solution be placed in the hands
of experts and it is, therefore, necessary or at least strongly
advisable that every state have an expert commission. Among
many there is a strong prejudice against commissions inas-
much as the multiplication of commissions is looked upon as
a delegation of legislative and executive powers to others
than direct representatives of the people. This need not neces-
sarily be so, however, for a law may be framed requiring in
general terms that streams must be maintained in an inoffen-

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 59

sive condition and that they shall not be detrimental to
health. This leaves to the commission not arbitrary powers,
but the simple function of determining points of fact within
limits prescribed by prior legislative enactment. That is to
say, the commission will determine when a stream is in dan-
ger of being made offensive and when it is in danger of being
made detrimental to health, and thereupon decide what, ii
any, purification of sewage is necessary, what, if any, purifi-
cation of industrial wastes is necessary, whether water sup-
plies may or may not be taken from streams and to what ex-
tent they must be purified. Such a commission should be
supplied with ample appropriations to enable it to obtain all
necessary information for its guidance whether this consists
in maintaining laboratories or carrying on experimental and
research work. As even the best of commissions may at
times grow arbitrary or become unduly baised in its views
there should alawys be made provision for ready appeal from
the decisions of a commission to an independent special arbi-
tration board of experts, and, of course, there must exist the
inalienable right of appeal to the courts.

Summary

Summarizing in the briefest possible terms, it may be
said that all surface streams must of necessity be polluted to
an extent that renders them unsafe as domestic water sup-
plies without purification. On the other hand the public is
entitled to clean streams and special protection should be
afforded to those streams which because of their beauty and
accessibility from the cities constitute valuable recreation
grounds for urban populations. When not a menace to health,
certain exceptions may be permitted with respect to the main-
tenance of clean streams. Such exceptions, however, must
always be regarded as special cases, necessitated by unusual
local conditions. A limitation of stream pollution is most
effectively and most equitably carried out when under the gen-
eral supervision of some central expert authority operating
under somewhat elastic general laws which represent in broad
terms the will of the people.

60 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

SANITARY ASPECT OF MILK*SUPPLIES.
P. G. HEINEMANN.

Sanitary milk is a much debated question in modern times.
Milk is one of the most important articles of food and, in-
cluding milk products—such as butter, cheese, buttermilk,
etc.._forms the basis for dishes or beverages at every meal.
During the first year of human life milk is practically the only
food. Milk is also excellent food for bacteria, which multiply
in milk at an enormous rate. The production of milk is one
of the oldest industries known. Methods of production have
been brought down through many generations and conse-
quently are difficult to change. The tendency of the milk
traffic of today 1s towards concentration. Still there are prob-
ably more producers of milk in relation to the total amount
of milk consumed, than of any other commodity.

Improvement in milk supplies must come from various
sources and the problem must be attacked from various angles.
Education of producer and consumer is the keynote to the
situation. The methods in vogue at present for improving
milk supplies are concentrated necessarily on elimination of
disease germs. The presence of these germs in milk or water
and other articles of food is difficult to detect. Disease bac-
teria, if present, multiply but slowly in milk, if it is kept at
low temperatures. Also, the number of disease germs is usual-
ly small if compared with the number of harmless bacteria
always present in milk. With modern bacteriological
methods, therefore, disease germs are easily overlooked. In-
dicators have to be used in milk as well as in water. In water
the presence of colon bacilli is usually taken as an indication
of the presence of disease germs. Colon bacilli come from the
intestinal canal of man and may indicate the presence of
germs of intestinal diseases. Colon bacilli from other sources
are of no value in this respect. Colon bacilli in milk indicate
fecal contamination, but since they are derived from the cow,
they do not lead us to assume that disease germs are present,
since cows are not susceptible to intestinal infections of man.
Fecal contamination, direct or indirect through dust, is the
most common source of bacteria in milk. It is clear from
the foregoing argument, that total numbers of bacteria in
milk are, as far as present knowledge goes, the only index by
which we can judge milk.

The question now is obvious, whether a low bacterial
count is sufficient to guarantee safety of milk. We do not
think so. A low count gives no adequate assurance that patho-
genic germs from “germ carriers” have not entered. Carriers

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 61

of tubercle bacilli, of typhoid bacilli, of diphtheria bacilli, of
the germs of scarlet fever may be employed in a dairy and
unconsciously communicate the virus of these and other dis-
eases to the milk. The only reasonable safeguard against
carriers is efficient medical supervision of dairy employes.
Such supervision is of greater bearing than exceedingly small
numbers of bacteria.

For pasteurized milk the bacterial count is of importance.
Fortunately for us, most pathogenic bacteria are destroyed
by efficient pasteurization. In fact, we may safely say, that
all pathogenic bacteria which carry infection through the in-
testinal tract, are destroyed by efficient pasteurization. Bac-
terial efficiency of pasteurizing apparatus is therefore of similar
value as bacterial efficiency of water purification plants.

Reduction of numbers of bacteria and proper medical sup-
ervision of employes are the two most important factors in
improving milk supplies. Medical supervision is of prime im-
portance when the raw product is to be consumed, but of
secondary importance if milk is to be pasteurized. It should
be one of the duties of health departments to control past-
eurizing machines. The style of machine should be approved
by the commissioner of health and the temperature should
be recorded automatically. The records may be kept in locked
cases, the keys to which are held by the department of health.

The producing dairies should be regularly inspected. The
inspectors report on equipment and methods. Only well train-
ed men should be employed as inspectors. They should be
familiar with the objects of their work.and should approach
the producer as friends and advisers, not as officers, who are
bound to find fault. Unfortunately inspectors have frequently
antagonized producers. Municipal governments are not devot-
ing sufficient funds to employ high grade men as inspectors.
The consequence is, that producers object to making improve-
ments and the detrimental influence of such conditions cannot
be overestimated. In several states of the Union laws have
been enacted, forbidding the enforcement of ordinances, de-
manding tuberculin testing of cattle. Legislation of this
nature is the direct result of antagonism developed among
iproducers. Thus tubercular cattle are permitted to furnish
milk which becomes a serious menace to public health.

The distribution of milk should be in bottles only, ex-
cept for wholesale trade. In large cities the can and dipper
have been practically abolished. Proper licensing regulations
and -periodical inspection of central stations and delivery
wagons will control this part of the milk traffic.

Finally we have to consider the handling of milk in the
home. This is really the most difficult part of the problem.

62 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Educational pamphlets, bultetins from boards of health, co-
operation of the daily press and similiar means of reaching
the consumer must be employed. If we can convince the
consumer that clean milk is healthful, and should contain but
a small number of bacteria, that it should be sold in bottles
only, that it should be cold when delivered, that efficiently
pasteurized milk is the safest milk under present conditions—
if the consumer is convinced of these points, he will demand
the right kind of milk and milk of lower standard will be
driven from the market.

HOUSING IN RELATION TO: HEALGE
MARION TALBOT

There is much confusion in the use of the term “hous-
ing.” It is often taken to mean, not merely the structure of
the house itself, but its equipment, plumbing, furnishing and
the like, and its immediate surroundings, such as streets and
alleys. It may also include the way in which the house is
used or maintained on its physical side, which is more proper-
ly housekeeping, or even the way in which the lives of those
who occupy the house are ordered, such as overcrowding,
which is more properly homemaking. Moreover, much of
what is said and written in regard to unhealthful housing is
concerned more with the aesthetic standards of decency and
order than with health. A scrutiny of many of the pictures
which are supposed to represent bad housing shows that these
distinctions are frequently not closely drawn. For example, a
room may be light, large, well ventilated and yet be a menace
to health, because of the unduly large number of people who
occupy it or their uncleanly habits. On the contrary, it is
possible for a small room with a meagre supply of light and
air to be kept so neat and clean as to be quite fit for habita-
tion. Again, many kinds of construction, like back stairways
or broken fences, may be ugly but not unhealthful. Higher
standards of order or of beauty should be developed to meet
this difficulty. A street or alley may be unpaved or even
disigured with rubbish. The aid of the street department,
not of the board of health, is needed here. A room may show a
disordered bed, a cluttered table, or clothes hanging on a line.
Better instruction in homes and schools as to what is good
housekeeping should be the remedy sought.

So it is impossible to discuss or criticize housing with-
out a clear understanding of the many problems involved.
Many well intentioned efforts to secure proper conditions
for living fail because of this confusion in terms,

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 63

Taking now the more limited view of housing, i. e., the
house and its mechanical equipment, we find that there is
much difference of opinion as to the steps to be taken to se-
cure healthful housing. The reason is that sanitary science is
undergoing radical and most interesting changes, owing to
the development of the sciences on which it largely depends,
viz., bacteriology and physiology. Many opinions and prac-
tices based on outgrown theories are still deeply rooted and
find expression in views concerning housing.

In the interest of efficiency and progress, it behooves
those who work for the well-being of social groups to take
measures to correct popular misapprehensions and urge the
development of engineering and building methods which shall
conform to our new knowledge. We need, moreover, not to-
cumber further our statutes and ordinances with measures
which are not only incapable of enforcement but futile and
costly if put in practice. In illustration, some of these new
views may be enumerated and some conclusions drawn from
them, although within the limits of this paper hardly more
than a sketch is possible.

In the first place

(a) The quantity of carbon dioxide is not a measure
of unhealthfulness of air.

(b) Ordinary variations in the normal gaseous consti-
tuents of air produce no apparent ill effects on people.

(c) The discomfort ordinarily attributed to so-called
“bad-air” is due to high humidity ‘combined with high tem-
perature and these conditions derange the health.

Long after the toxicity of carbon dioxide had been dis-
proved, its presence in air was taken as a measure of the
defilement of air in other ways, but it is manifestly absurd to
assume any constant relation between carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide, which is the only really harmful gas which
is -likely to be found in houses, or between carbon
dioxide and pathogenic organisms, which may be in
the air of houses occupied by diseased persons. It
is clear, therefore, that any attempt to keep the carbon di-
oxide down to a fixed limit by renewal of the air supply or
in any other way may be ineffective in securing healthfu!
conditions. Consequently, laws requiring the supply of a
given amount of air per person or a given cubic space
per person fall wide of the mark. The real aim should be
toward securing movement of air, since thereby the warm
moist blanket of air which gradually accumulates about the
bodies of people in inhabited rooms may be removed. In
other words, it has been adequately proved that people do not
need a large supply of air providing what they have is kept

64 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

in a state of motion. This fact probably explains the value
of living and sleeping out of doors. Moving air, not stagnant
air, is what we need. An increased amount of oxygen does
not in itself bring relief. The ill effects of over-heated air
of low humidity may be noted in passing, although they pre-
sent a different problem.

It has recently been suggested that the high rate of mor-
tality among infants in city slums is not chiefly due to the
poor quality of their food, but may be in part explained by
the fact that they are often so housed that there is no relief
from the effects of combined high temperature and moisture.
A German scientist points out (Gemund, Wohnungshygiene
and Hochsommerklima, Zeitschrift fur Socialwissenschaft,
\Vol. III, Nos. 7, 8 and 9,) that in small cottage houses
on paved, treeless streets there is often no escape from ex-
cessive heat. If the people remain indoors seeking shelter,
the increased humidity due to evaporation from their bodies
adds to the difficulty. Large buildings, planned so that there
may be movement of air within and with shaded porches and
yards or small parks near by in which there are trees and
grass, is a method of caring for as many people in a given
area as by the cottage plan, so highly praised from the point
of view of so-called ventilation. It is impossible at this time
to elaborate this point. I can merely suggest that the find-
ings of the sanitarian should be taken by the architect, en-
gineer, and social student and an effort made to work out
methods by which an automatic movement of air may be se-
cured in dwellings without sacrificing other important 1in-
LELESES;

In the second place, we know that

(a) Air from properly constructed sewers is not harm-
ful.

(b) Simple plumbing fixtures are an aid rather than a
menace to health.

These facts mean that we should greatly simplify our
plumbing laws and do everything possible to have plumbing
fixtures installed at so little cost that they will be within the
reach of everybody. They should be as essential a part of
every house as its walls and doors.

Modern sanitation is placing more and more emphasis
on personal cleanliness. When those who are used to an
ample supply of water, both hot and cold, realize the difficulty
of maintaining high standards of cleanliness, it is not hard to
understand what results when three or four families and their
lodgers have to share one fixture. We often hear that poor
people will not use plumbing fixtures, if they have them. The
popular illustration is the bath tub in the model tenement

SYMPOSIUM ON SANITATION 65

which is used as a coal bin. Few of us would indulge in much
bathing, if the bath meant starting a fire and going through
the tedious and costly operation of heating a water supply.
Better and cheaper methods of distributing both hot and cold
water are a genuine necessity in healthful housing.

In the third place, sunlight cannot be depended on for
disinfection or as a substitute for cleanliness. Much emphasis
has been placed on the importance of securing sunlight in
rooms and it has been vigorously urged by those who are
combatting tuberculosis. There is danger of placing falsc
reliance upon it. The true value of an abundant supply of
light is that it is an aid in revealing uncleanly conditions
and serves moral and physical rather than bactericidal ends.
Many cities in their ordinances take the position that, if the
window space stands in a sufficiently high relation to the
floor area, all will be well. This does not necessarily follow,
as the window may be so curtained within or so obstructed
by nearby walls without as to fail to furnish needed illumina-
tion. The natural lighting of every room should be deter-
mined by other tests than size of window, such as ability to
read ordinary type at a given distance from the window dur-
ing certain hours of the day. It is of interest as bearing on
the construction of houses from the aspect of lighting to note
that a recent investigation made in Philadelphia (F. A. Craig,
Deaths from Tuberculosis, American Journal of Public Health,
Vol. III, No. 1) indicates that there is no relation between
the width of the street and the number of deaths from tuber-
culosis.

In expressing my appreciation of the honor of addressing
the members of the Academy, I beg the privilege of asking
them to remember that, in so brief a treatment of so large a
topic as was assigned to me, it is difficult to keep a due sense
of proportion and to present views in such a way that they
will escape misconstruction. I trust, however, that I have
made periectly clear my main thesis, which is that, if housing
is to bear the relation it should to the maintenance of a high
degree of health, it would be well to do away with some of
the extravagant and sentimental views which obstruct the
way and to develop the effective use of our present knowledge
and resources through more active cooperation between san-
itarians, architects, engineers, social workers, law makers,
house keepers and even owners than now exists,

66 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

PAPERS BY MEMBERS

A CELESTIAL SPHERE: IN A NATURA
HISTORY MUSEUM.

WALLACE W. ATWOOD

The Chicago Academy of Sciences has appreciated the
ingreasing interest in astronomy and the difficulty which
every one meets in trying to become familiar with even the
brighter stars, and more commonly known constellations.
Various plans for promoting this study were considered by
the Academy. The flat star charts are confusing to the un-
trained observer, and the globes, on the outside of which stars
are sometimes represented, are unsatisfactory.

Through the use of the Celestial Sphere, now in the
Academy Museum, it is possible to become familiar with all
the constellations that are ever visible in the latitude of Chi-
cago. Few people have had the opportunity of seeing all of
these constellations for on a given evening it is possible to see
but a few of them and the apparent motion is so slow that it
would take hours and hours of careful watching to see all
of those visible on a single perfectly clear night.

The stars of the first, second, third, fourth and a selected
number of those of the fifth magnitude visible from.the alti-
tude of Chicago are represented in the Sphere, and the total
number is 692. In addition to the fixed stars, four planets,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are represented as well as
the Sun and Moon. The celestial equator is clearly marked
in the interior of the sphere, and the ecliptic, or apparent
yearly path of the Sun among the stars, is also shown.

Many of the mathematical conceptions necessary for the
study of descriptive astronomy and which often discourage
the beginner, are made with this sphere, perfectly simple.
There is now no reason why any one, including the younger
school children, can not become familiar with the chief con-
stellations their apparent movement, the brighter stars and
the jreal and apparent movements of the Sun, Moon and
planets.

Many of the fundamental ideas in mathematical geog-

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 67

raphy necessary in elementary education are also easily dem-
onstrated with the sphere.

The sphere now in the Academy building was invented
by Wallace W. Atwood, Secretary of the Society and Di-
rector of the Museum. It was constructed, installed and pre-
sented to the Academy by Mr. La Verne W. Noyes, Presi-
dent of the Board of Trustees, in order to broaden and to
promote the educational and scientific work of the Academy.

The Construction

The material used in constructing the sphere is very light
galvanized sheet-iron, 1-64 of an inch thick, which has been
pressed to the proper curvature and soldered to the equatorial
ring and to a much smaller ring about the entrance to the
sphere. The separate sheets lap sufficiently to be soldered
upon one another. The platform and horizon table are of
wood and rest upon a very strong steel frame.

The diameter of the sphere is fifteen feet. The weight,
exclusive of the platform, is a little more than 500 pounds.
This weight is carried by a tube 2% inch tube attached to the
outside of the sphere along the line of the equator and resting
upon three wheels as shown in the cross section view. The two
lower wheels carry the greater portion of the weight but the
third and upper wheel, above the door, resists a certain thrust
due to the inclined position of the sphere. The stationary
platform within the sphere is supported in part by steel
trusses resting upon the frame work of the museum balcony,
and in part by two upright pillars which rest upon the great
I beam of the mainfloor of the Musdum. This platform car-
ries a circular horizon table, below which the sphere is ob-
scured from view, and above which there is a complete hemis-
phere on which the stars are represented.

The observer in this sphere is located on the surface of
the Earth at North Latitude 41 degrees 50 minutes. Celes-
tial spheres constructed for localities having other latitudes
north or south would be placed at other angles and certain
other constellations would be represented. Thus a celestial
sphere constructed for Buenos Aires, to represent the south-
ern heavens, would be so placed that the observer would enter
from the north polar region and see the southern constella-
tions, not visible at Chicago, observe the courses of Sun and
Moon north of him but fail to see any of the constellations
about the north pole of the heavens as seen from the latitude
of Chicago.

Attached to the steel structure supporting the sphere is
a small electric motor, which propels the two lower wheels
supporting the sphere and their rotation causes the sphere
to rotate. E

68 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The electric power for rotating the sphere and the light
for illuminating the interior are controlled from within the
sphere. The electric current necessary for representing the
Sun is received at the north pole at a rotary contact, and
carried by an insulated wire to the ecliptic, about which there
is a wire on the inside of the sphere.

The Fixed Stars

The stars are represented by tiny. perforations in the
sphere. Different sized perforations have been made to repre-
sent stars of different magnitudes. The size and location
of each star in the sphere has been determined with great
care by using an instrument especially constructed for this
purpose, so that the sphere is an accurate miniature represen-
tation of the heavens.

The Planets

The shifting positions of the planets Jupiter, Saturn,
Mars and Venus among the constellations have been provided
for by a number of openings made to represent the different
positions of each of these planets at different times of the
year. The openings not in use are very readily covered.

The Sun and Moon

The Sun is represented by a small electric light which
may be moved from place to place along the ecliptic and thus
be kept in its appropriate place among the stars. The Moon
will be represented by a series of small discs cut to represent
discs may be moved from point to point along the orbit of the
Moon and thus represent that body in its appropriate position
in the heavens.

Each star in the sphere has been numbered and a series
of star tables have been prepared so that it is perfectly simple
for one to identify a particular satr observed in the sphere
or to locate a given star or constellation .

This appartus should prove to be of great practical value
in educational work. The public and private school children
should make frequent visits to the sphere and the students in
Astronomy in the neighboring Universities will find it well
worth their time to arrange excursions with their instructors
to the Academy to make use of this apparatus in their studies.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 69

ANNOTATED LIST OF THE ALGAE OF
EASTERN ILLINOIS.

EDGAR NELSON TRANSEAU

The following list of algae contains the names of the
species that have been observed and identified during a study
of algae periodicity extending from January, 1908, to January,
1913. No effort has been made to name all the forms found
or to collect new species. All our attention has been directed
toward collecting the forms of interest in connection with
periodicity at frequent intervals. At this time a large number
of the 1912 collections have not been critically studied, al-
though almost all of them have been examined for special pur-
poses. A preliminary account of the classification of our algae
on the basis of their periodicity may be found in the “Trans-
actions of the American Microscopial Society” Vol. 32, No.
1, Jan., 1913. As indicated in the text many of these species
were originally determined by Mr. F. S. Collins, without whose
help this study would have been impossible. Several species
are listed under the names I have given them in my notes.
These forms will be described elsewhere. Where no lo-
cality is mentioned, the stations in the immediate vicinity of
Charleston are to be understood. In the collecting of speci-
mens the writer has been greatly aided by Mr. T. L. Hankin-
son, Mr. Homer Sampson, Mr. E. L. McCabe, Mr. Harry
Givens and Mr. Hanford Tiffany. By their generous co-
operation it has been possible to make simultaneous collec-
tions at widely separated points in eastern Illinois. In ad-
dition a number of students have contributed collections of
no little interest. To all of these the writer makes grateful
acknowledgement. To anyone wishing to undertake the study
of the algae of his locality I would suggest the following as
the most useful general works. All of them possess biblio-
eraphies of the publications dealing with special groups.

1. F. S. Collins, The Green Algae of North America. Tufts
College Studies. Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 80-463. 1909.

2. F. S. Collins, The Green Algae of North America (supple-
ment). Tufts College Studies. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 70-109.
1912.

3 G. S. West, A Treatise on the British Fresh Water Algae.
Cambridge, 1904.

4. K. E. Hirn, Monographie und Iconographie der Oedogon-
iaceen. Helsingfors, 1900.

5. J. Tilden, Minnesota Algae. (Schizophyceae) Minnesota
Botanical Survey, Minneapolis, 1909.

6. E. Lemmermann, Kryptogamenflora der Mark Branden-

70 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

burg. Vol. 3, Algen. (Schizophyceen, Flagellaten, Peri-
dineen) Leipsig, 1910.

7. F. Oltmanns, Morphologie and Biologie der Algen. Two
Vols. Jena, 1904.

8. A. Pasher, Die Suesswasserflora Deutschlands, Oecester-
reichs und der Schweiz, Jena, 1912.

Schizophyceae
Chroococcaceae

Chroococcus turgidus (Kuetzing) Naegell.
Ponds. Seen in many collections but always in small
numbers.
Aphanocapsa brunnea (A. Braun) Naegeli.
Abundant in the East Tile Factory pond, Charleston,
July, 1909.
Aphanothece stagnina (Spreng) A. Braun.
Common in summer and autumn in the Tile Factory
ponds, and the east Big Four pond, Charleston.
Clathrocystis aeruginosa Henfrey.
Very abundant in a small pond adjoining the reservoir,
Casey, September, 1912.
Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum Naegeli.
At times an important constitutent of the plankton in the
Tile Factory and east Big Four ponds, Charleston.
Merismopaedium convolutum Brebisson
Abundant in the summer plankton of the Tile Factory
and Hodgen’s ponds.
Merismopaedium tennuissimum Lemmermann.
Common in the new Tile Factory pond, Charleston, Sep-
tember, 1911.

Oscillatoriaceae

Oscillatoria Agardhii Gomont.

Found in pond near the Casey reservior, September, 1912.

Fide Collins.
Oscillatoria amphibia Agardh.

In ponds and streams, occasionally abundant. In the Ice
Plant pond, Casey, it was found in the hot water near
the steam exhaust. It has been recorded from the east
Big Four pond, and the Town Branch near Charleston.
Fide Collins.

Oscillatoria formosa Bory.
Found in ponds near Charleston and Casey. Fide Collins.
Oscillatoria limosa Agardh.

Very abundant during low water stages in streams,
stream pools, and ponds. Common in streams polluted
by sewage. Found at all seasons of the year locally
abundant.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 71

Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher.

Very abundant at irregular intervals in ponds and

streams. Fide Collins.
Oscillatoria splendida Grev.

Pool in stone quarry northwest of Embarras, March,
1911.

Arthrospira Gomontiana Setchell.

Very abundant during winter and early spring in the
middle Tile Factory, and second Big Four ponds.

Spirulina major Kuetzing.

Rare. Has been observed in collections from the Tile
Factory ponds and a drainage ditch north of Martins-
ville.

Phormidium ambiguum Gomont.

Found on shell of a live snapping turtle in stream south

of Ashmore.
Phormidium foveolatum

On submerged water plants, Campus lily pond, Charles-
ton.

Phormidium inundatum Kuetzing.

Found in abundance at the north end of the pond on the
Brookhart farm, about one mile southwest of Oilfield,
April, 1911.

Phormidium uncinatum (Ag.) Gomont.

Common in wet-weather streams and pools in winter and
spring. Fide Collins.

Lyngbya aerugineo-coerulea (Kuetz) Gomont.

Abundant in drainage ditch northwest of Martinsville,
October, 1910. Associated with Spirulina major. Fide
Collins.

Lyngbya aestuarii Liebm.

Abundant in all ponds-in the vicinity of Charleston. Dur-
ing a wet period in November, 1909, it grew abundantly
and developed a mat on the west bank of Hodgen’s
pond in association with Rhizoclonium fontanum Kuet-
zing. Fide Collins.

Nostocaceae
Nostoc carneum Agardh.

Abundant in pool at limestone quarry northwest of Em-

barras, November, 1910. Fide Collins.
Nostoc muscorum Agardh.

Very abundant during the summer of 1910 in the pools
along the Clover Leaf R. R., north of Charleston. Fide
Collins.

Nodularia sphaerocarpa Bornet and Flahault.

Found in floating masses on Marshall pond, four miles

north of Charleston. Fruits during May. Fide Collins.

72 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Nodularia spumigena Mertens.
Collected in roadside pools near Decker, Indiana, May,
1911 in fruit. Fide Collins:
Anabaena catenula (Kuetz.) Bor. & FI.
Occasionally common in ponds near Charleston and
Casey. Produced spores in Marshall pond, May, 1912.
Anabaena flos aquae (Lyngb.) Breb.
Found but once, in the pond just west of the Greenup
station south of the Vandalia R. R. It formed a bluish
green scum on the water. .
Anabaena inaequalis Bor. & FI.
During May and June it has been recorded for Hodgen’s
pond and Marshall pond. Produces spores in May.
Fide Collins.
Anabaena laxa (Rab.) A Braun.
Found in material collected in Hodgen’s pond during
September, 1908. Fide Collins.
Cylindrospermum muscicola Kuetzing.
Recorded from Marshall pond, Charleston, and an arti-
ficial pond near Sullivan. Fruits during May. Fide
Collins.

Scytonemataceae

Tolypothrix tenuis Kuetzing.
Common on submerged objects in the Big Four ponds,
Charleston, and the Ice pond, Ashmore. Also collected
in wet-weather pools near Charleston and Oilfield.

Rivulariaceae ’

Calothrix Kawrayskii Schmidle.

Common as an epiphyte on green algae in Hodgen’s and
the Tile Factory ponds. Not previously recorded for
North America. Fide Collins.

Calothrix stagnalis Gomont.

Common each year in the Charleston ponds. Fruits in

September. Fide Collins.
Rivularia natans (Hedw.) Welw.

Found abundantly during autumn months in the east Big
Four pond. Fruits in October and November. Vege-
tative period begins in July.

Flagellatae
EKuglenaceae

Euglena deses Ehrenberg.
Common in streams carrying some sewage, usually scat-
tered among masses of the viridis type.
Euglena oblonga Schmitz.
Very abundant at the Ashmore Ice pond, October, 1912.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 73

Euglena sanguinea Ehrenberg.

Appearing at intervals of a year or more in a number
of our larger ponds in such quantity as to produce a
brick-red or blood red scum on the water.

Euglena spirogyra Ehrenberg.

Rare. Only a few scattered specimens have been

recorded.
Euglena viridis Ehrenberg.

Probably the commonest form in polluted streams, ponds,
and wet-weather pools. But it is difficult to be certain
of the identification when the chromatophore is masked

by other cell contents.

Phacus longicauda (Ehrenberg) Duj.

Rare in ponds.

Phacus pleuronectes (O. F. M.) Duj.

Periodically abundant in ponds.

Peridiniales
Peridiniaceae
Ceratium hirundinella (O. F. M.) Schrank.

Common at times in all the ponds of eastern Illinois from

which I have collections.

Bacillariales
Bacillariaceae

Melosira varians Agardh.
A periodic constituent of the plankton in the streams of
this region.
Meridion circulare (Grev.) Ag.
Occasionally very abundant in small ditches and stream
pools.

Confervales
Confervaceae
Ophiocytium arbuscula (A. Braun) Rabenhorst.
Rare. Recorded from the pond southeast of Lerna, and
a pool near Decker, Ind.
Ophiocytium cochleare (Eichwald) A. Braun.
Common in ponds during the colder months.
Ophiocytium gracilipes (A. Braun) Rabenhorst.
Rather rare in pools during the colder months of the
ear.
aad pein parvulum (Perty) A. Braun.
Rather common in ponds and pools during late fall and
early spring.
Conferva bombycina Agardh.
Very abundant in streams, ponds and pools. The form
tenuis frequently occurs with it.

74 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Conferva minor Klebs.
Very abundant in all aquatic habitats during open winter
weather and the spring months.
Conferva utriculosa Kuetzing.
Not rare in ponds in the spring.
Botrydium granulatum (L.) Greville.

Apparently rare. Was found by Mr. T. L. Hankinson

near Charleston in October, 1903.
Botrydium Wallrothii Kuetzing.

Very abundant on moist garden soil throughout the sum-
mer and autumn. Unlike Stichococcus flaccidus it
grows in full sunlight. When the resting spores are
formed it may assume a gray or reddish color.

Conjugales.
Desmidiaceae

Many species of Desmids occur in the collections, and the
periodicity of some forms has been studied. It is hoped that
by another year these collections will have been studied by
some one competent to name them, and a list be ready for
publication.

Zygnemaceae

Zygnema Collinsiana mss.

A new species remarkable for its blue spores, whose
median wall is marked by large round pits. Found in
association with Zygnema stellinum in the R. R.
ditches between Oilfield and Casey. May, 1912.

Zygnema insigne (Hass.) Kuetz.

Common in pools, ditches, ponds, and small intermittent

streams. Fruits in April and May.
Zygnema pectinatum (Vauch.) Agardh.

Very abundant in ponds and wet-weather pools. Fruits
during April, May and June. Lateral conjugation has
been observed in the east Big Four pond. Aplanos-
pores and akinetes were produced abundantly in the
spring of 1912.

Zygnema pectinatum anomalum (Rolfs) Kirchner.

Occurs with the type.

Zygnema pectinatum decussatum (Vauch.) Kirchner.

Not uncommon in ponds. As far as my observations go
there is little reason for considering this a variety of
pectinatum. In its distribution, behavior, and appear-
ance it appears to be quite distinct.

Zygnema stellinum (Mueller) Agardh.

The most abundant of the Zygnemas of this region. It

occurs in ponds, pools, ditches, and intermittent

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 75

streams. Fruits from March to May. Produced akin-
etes in 1912. Fide Collins.
Spirogyra areolata Lagerh.
Occurs in the pond west of Greenup, in the pond on the
Brookhart farm southwest of Oilfield and Hodgen’s
pond.

Spirogyra catenaeformis (Hass.) Kuetzing.

Very abundant in pools, ponds, and small streams.

Fruits during April, May, and June. Fide Collins.
Spirogyra circumlineata mss.

Resembles varians, but is considerablly larger. Found in

Marshall pond during May, 1912.
Spirogyra communis (Hass.) Kuetzing.

Common in ponds and intermittent streams. Fruits from
April to June.

Spiragyra condensata (Vauch.) Kuetzing.

Vegetative filaments apparently of this species have been
found in several small streams and ponds. It has been
found in fruit only once in Campus creek about one
mile from the Normal school. The dimensions and
appearance correspond closely to Petit’s description.

Spirogyra crassa Kuetzing.

Rather frequent in ponds at Charleston, Ashmore, Casey
and Newton. Dimeasions often smaller than those
given in Collins’ Green Algae of North America.
Fruits from May to July.

Spirogyra decimina (Mueller) Kuetzing.

Very generally distributed in streams and ponds. Fruits
commonly during June, July and August. Fide Col-
lins.

Spirogyra decimina triplicata Collins.

More abundant than the type. Frequently associated

with it. Fruits about the same time. Fide Collins.
Spirogyra dubia Kuetz. ;

Found during the summer months in the ‘Polk street
pond, Charleston and the pasture ponds south of Ash-
more.

Spirogyra fluviatilis Hilse.

Has been found fruiting in the Big Four ponds, Charles-
ton, and in the Embarras river near Greenup, and
Wheeler. The cells have three or four chromatophores
and the spores have the median wall pitted. Fruits
during the summer months.

Spirogyra gracilis (Hass.) Kuetzing.

Rare in swampy intermittent stream near Casey. Found

fruiting in April.

76 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Spirogyra Grevilleana (Hass.) Kuetzing.

Rather common in ponds, wet-weather pools, and

streams. Fruits during April and May.
Spirogyra Hassallii (Jenner) Petit.

Rather rare in ponds near Charleston, Greenup and

Casey. Fruits during April and May.
Spirogyra Illinoiensis mss. |

A new form related to S. stictica. Differs in having larger
dimensions, 6-8 chromatophores, and spores with the
median wall punctate. Fruits in May. Known only
from the pond southeast of Lerna.

Spirogyra inconstans Collins.

This species is abundant each year in a pond on the
Brookhart farm about one mile southwest of Oilfield.
It has also been found near Charleston and Lerna.
Collins does not mention the fact that the mature
spores have the median wall punctate. Fruits dur-
ing May.

Spirogyra inflata (Vauch.) Kuetzing.

Very common in early spring in ponds, pools and ditches
throughout eastern Illinois. Fruits in March and
April.

Spirogyra inflata foveolata mss.

A new variety found in the Ice Plant pond, Casey, April,
1911. Differs from the type in having the median wall
of the spore pitted.

Spirogyra jugalis (Dillw.) Kuetzing.

Recorded for the middle Tile Factory pond ae a small
pond north of Wrightsville. It probably occurs else-
where in this vicinity. Fide Collins.

Spirogyra Jurgensii Kuetzing.

Common in ponds, pools, and streams. Fruits during
April and May.

Spirogyra longata (Vauch.) Kuetzing.

Common, in ponds and pools. Fruits from April to June.
Has been collected at Lawrenceville, Charleston, Paris,
Westfield and Greenup. Fide Collins.

Spirogyra maxima (Hass.) Wittrock.
Rare. Recorded from ponds near Charleston.
Spirogyra narcissiana mss.

Found during September and October in fruit in the dam
at Urban Park, west of Charleston. Vegetative cells
somewhat like those of S. tenuissima, but the end walls
are different, and the spores are formed without con-
jugation (aplanospores).

Spirogyra neglecta (Hass.) Kuetzing.
Rather common apparently in a vegetative condition, but

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 77

has been found in fruit rarely. Fruits in late spring and
summer. Fide Collins.
Spirogyra nitida (Dillw.) Link.

Common in ponds throughout eastern Illinois. Fruits in
summer and autumn. The dimensions are often smaller
than those given by Collins. Our form corresponds
closely to the description given by Hassall in his Bri-
tish Freshwater Algae.

Spirogyra orthospira Naegeli. (Spirogyra Majuscula Kuetz.)

Bottom land ponds and wet-weather pools. Common.
Fruits from April to July. Fertile cells not infre-
quently inflated. Fide Collins.

Spirogyra Petitiana mss

A species near decimina. Occurs only in the new Tile
Factory pond, Charleston, but has been found for six
years during the summer.

Spirogyra porticalis (Mueller) Cleve.

Very common in ponds, small and large streams. Beyond
Charleston I have collected it at Lawrenceville, Olney
and Paris. Fruits from March to May. Fide Collins.

Spirogyra punctiformis mss.

Found only in the Tile Factory ponds, Charleston. Near
punctata. Differs in having one or two chromato-
phores, and larger dimensions.

Spirogyra quadrata (Hass.) Petit.
Collected in the new Tile Factory pond, Charleston.
Spirogyra setiformis (Roth) Kuetzing.

Common in ponds at Charleston and Ashmore. Fruits
usually in late autumn. Spore wall hyaline showing
the chromatophores within. Fide Collins .

Spirogyra Spreeiana Rabenhorst.

Rare in ponds near Charleston and Ashmore. Fruits dur-
ing April and May.

Spirogyra stictica (Eng. Bot.) Wille.

Rather common. Has been collected in a fruiting con-
dition at Ashmore, Sullivan and Casey. Fruits dur-
ing April and May.

Spirogyra submaxima mss.

Has been collected annually in a pond east of Chesiestenn
Near maxima, but has eight or nine chromatophores,
spores smooth and with smaller dimensions.

Spirogyra tenuissima (Hass.) Kuetzing.

Very common throughout eastern Illinois, in ponds.

pools and intermittent streams. Fruits in early spring.
Spirogyra tenuissima rugosa mss.

Rather frequent with the type. Medium spore wall

minutely roughened.

7

78 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Spirogyra varians (Hass.) Kuetzing.

The most abundant Spirogyra of eastern Illinois in the
spring. Highly variable. Found in all aquatic habitats.
Fruits from April to July.

Spirogyra Weberi Kuetzing.

Very common throughout eastern Illinois. Usually

fruits in early spring. Found in all aquatic habitats.

Mesocarpaceae

Mougeotia Boodlei (W. & G. S. West) Collins.

Rather frequent in ponds. Fruits both sexually and asex-

ually, in spring or fall or both. Fide Collins.
Mougeotia calcarea (Cleve) Wittrock.

Asexually fruiting material of this species was collected

in the Ice Plant pond, Casey, April, 1911.
Mougeotia divaricata \Volle.

This species is common in the ponds near Charleston. It
has been collected in a fruiting condition in summer and
autumn. It fruits readily when brought into the lab-
oratory.

Mougeotia genuflexa (Dillw.) Agardh.

Very common in ponds throughout eastern Illinois. Fre-
quently found in a geniculate condition, but has been
collected in fruit only during the spring of 1912.

Muogeotia genuflexa gracilis (Kuetzing) Reinsch.

Rare in wet-weather pools. Fruited in spring of 1912.
Fide Collins.

Mougeotia quadrangulata Hassall.

Collected in a fruiting condition in Campus pond, the
second Big Four pond, and the pools along the Clover
Leaf R. R. north of Charleston, during the spring of
1912.

Mougeotia robusta (De Bary) Wittrock.

Common. Fruiting material has been collected in the
pools along the Clover Leaf R. R. north of Charleston,
and in Campus creek. Fruits in May and June.

Mougeotia robusta biornata Wittrock.

Common in Campus creek. Differs from the type in hav-

ing a pitted median spore wall.
Mougeotia scalaris Hassall.

Has been collected in a fruiting condition in May in the

middle Tile Factory and Marshall ponds.
Mougeotia Transeaui Collins.

Known only from the Embarras river near Greenup and
the ponds near Charleston. Fruits both sexually and
asexually, in fall or spring.

————————

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 79

Mougeotia viridis (Kuetzing) Wittrock.
Collected in fruit in Campus pond, May, 1912.

Volvocales
Chlamydomonadaceae

Haematococcus pluvialis Flotow.
Apparently rare. Have noted typical specimens but
once. These were collected from a small pool near
Hodgen’s pond.

Volvocaceae

Gonium sociale (Dujard) Warming.

Found in Urban Park pond, April, 1912.
Gonium pectorale Mueller.

Not infrequent in ponds and pools.
Pandorina Morum (Mueller) Bory.

Very common in the more permanent ponds of eastern
Illinois. Very conspicuous in low water stages-~—
probably through concentration.

Pleodorina illinoisensis Kofoid.
Found in Little Muddy creek, north of Sailor Spring,
August, 1911.
Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg.
Appears rather regularly in ponds during mid-summer.
Volvox globator Linnaeus.

This species has been collected in the Ice Plant pond

at Casey and in a roadside ditch near Decker, Indiana.
Volvox aureus Ehrenberg.

Collected but once in the west Tile Factory pond.

Charleston, July, 1911.
Ineffigiata neglecta \V. & G. S. West.

Very abundant in the plankton of the ponds of eastern
Illinois.

Tetraspora lubrica (Roth) Agardh.

Very abundant in streams and ponds during the autumn,
winter and spring. The fronds not infrequently attain
a length of four feet. Fide Collins.

Tetraspora gelatinosa (Vauch.) Desvaux.

Collected only once in a pond near the reservoir at Casey,
Sept., 1911.

Apiocystis Brauniana Naegeli.

Collected at Marshall pond north of Charleston in April,
1912.

Protococcales
Protococcaceae

Chlorochytrium Knyanum Cohn & Szymanski.
Very abundant in the leaves and stems of Nasturtium

80 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

lacustre in the pond southeast of Lerna, May, 1912.
Lerna, May, 1912.

Scenedesmaceae

Zoochlorella conductrix Brandt.
Occurs abundantly associated with the green Hydra and
Paramoecium bursaria.

Zoochlorella parasitica Brandt.
Found in the west Big Four pond, Charleston, in the
fresh water sponge.
Raphidium falcatum (Corda) Cooke.
A common constituent of the pond plankton.
Oocystis solitaria, forma major Wille.
Common in the ice plant pond at Casey.
Gloeotaenium Loitlesbergerianum Hansgirg.

Has been collected in Hodgen’s pond, the middle Tile
Factory pond, and the east Big Four pond, near Char-
leston. Oceurs from June to October. Consists of
single cells and 2-, 4+ and &celled families. The life
history of this peculiar form has been described in the
Botanical Gazette, Jan., 1913.

Nephrocytium Agardhianum Naegeli.
Common in all of the more permanent ponds.
Scenedesmus bijuga (Turp.) Wittrock.

Very common in the plankton of ponds. This and the fol-
lowing species multiply rapidly in laboratory aquaria
and color the water a bright green. Species of Rha-
phidium are commonly associated with them.

Senedesmae bijuga. alternans (Reinsch) Hansgirg.

Occurs with the type.
Scenedesmus oblicuus (Turp.) Kuetzing.

Found in plankton from the Lily pond on the campus.
Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turp.) Kuetzing.

Very common. Along with the type I have noted the
forms setosus, abundans, and horridus of Kirchner.

Crucigena rectangularis (A. Braun) Gay.
Abundant in the east Big Four pond during September,
1911;
Selenastrum acuminatum Lagerheim.
Not infrequent in plankton from ponds.
Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Moebius.
Very rare.
Coelastrum cambricum Archer.

Seen in material from the Lily pond on the Campus,

and the pond at Urban Park, Charleston.
Coelastrum microporum Naegell.
Very abundant in most of our ponds.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 81

Sorastrum spinulosum Naegeli.
Frequent in most of the permanent ponds.

Hydrodictyaceae

Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Lagerheim.
A common plant in the town branch and the bottom lana
ponds near Newton. My records of its occurrence ex-
tend from May to September. .
Pediastrum angulosum (Ehrenrerg) Mene2tuni
Rare in the plankton of ponds.
Pediastrum Boryanum (Turp.) Meneghini.
Very abundant.
Pediastrum duplex Meyen.
Very abundant.
Pediastrum duplex clathratum A. Braun
Common with the type.
Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenb.) Ralis.
Rare, among other species.

Ulotrichales
Ulotrichacae

Ulothrix variabilis Kuetzing.

A common form in pools and permanent streams. In
the pools along the Big Four R. R. it is commonly ac-
companied by its hormospora form. This seems to be
the only species of Ulothrix in this part of the state.

Schizomeris Leibleinii Kuetzing.

Rather rare in streams and ponds. Near Charleston it
has been noted in Hodgen’s pond, the campus Lily
pond and Campus creek. It also occurs in the town
branch, near Effingham. Most abundant in the sum _
mer and autumn. . a

Stichococcus bacillaris Naegelli.

The form confervoideus is probably common in inter-
mittent streams, pools and swamps in early spring.
Fide Collins.

Stichococcus flaccidus (Kuetzing) Gay.

Very common on shaded moist ground. Frequently as-
sociated with moss protonemata especially of Funaria
and Pottia. Fide Collins.

Stichococcus subtillis (Kuetzing) Klercker.

Abundant in early spring in pools and intermittent
streams.

Microspora stagnorum (Kuetzing) Langerheim.

Very abundant in ditches, pools, and intermittent
streams in late autumn, during winter thaws, and in
early spring. Fide Collins,

82 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Microspora tumidula Hazen.
Found in an aquarium, the material having been col-
lected from Hodgen’s pond. Fide Collins.

Cylindrocapsaceae

Cylindrocapsa geminella minor Hansgirg.
Common in the ponds at Charleston and Ashmore.
Vegetative material may be seen at all times. Fruit-
ing occurs during June,

Oedogoniaceae

Oedogonium acmandrium Elfving.

Found in aquarium, material from Marshall pond, early
spring, 1913. Dimensions slightly larger than those
given by Hirn, Each antheridium produces a single
sperm!

Oedogonium acrosporum De Barry:

The form connectens occurred in Marshall pond during

May, 1912.
Oedogonium aster Wittrock.

This form is apparently the rarest of the spiny spored
forms. It has been collected at Charleston and Green-
up. The Charleston material has dwarf males with two
antheridia!

Oedogonium Borisianum (Le Cl.) Wittrock.

Found at Marshall pond north of Charleston in May,
1912.

Oedogonium Boscii (Le Cl.) Wittrock.

Has been collected from the east Big Four pond, and the
pond on the campus.

Oedogonium Brauni Kuetz. Pringsh.

Found in the pond just west of Greenup, along the Van-
dalia R. R.

Oedogonium cardiacum (Hass.) Wittrock.

Not uncommon. Has been recorded from ponds in the
vicinity of Charleston, Greenup, Newton and Casey.

Oedogonium cardiacum carbonicum Wittrock.

Rather common in Marshall pond in May, 1912.
Oedogonium concatenatum (Hass.) Wittrock.

Collected at west Big Four pond, Charleston, May, 1911.
Oedogonium crassiusculum idioandrosporum Wittr. & Nordst.

Common in the more permanent ponds. Very irregular
in its time of abundance and fruiting. Recorded from
Charleston, Casey and Newton.

Oedogonium crassum amplum (Magn. & Wille) Hirn.

I have seen its vegetative filaments among other algae a

number of times. It fruited in the east Big Four pond

aa) deh dae

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 83

during October, 1910. During October, 1912, I found

it fruiting abundantly among some Azolla plants sent

me from the Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
Oedogonium crenulato-costatum Wittrock.

Collected from the pond on the Normal School campus,
and from a pond near Wheeler. In the first locality it
was abundant on the crayfish living in the pond. Fruits
in summer and autumn.

Oedogonium crenulato-costatum cylindricum Hirn.

Occurred during October, 1910, in the Ice Plant pond at
Casey.

Oedogonium crispum (Hassall) Wittrock.

Rather rare. Collected in the pond near Lerna, and the

Ice pond at Ashmore, during May, 1912.
Oedogonium cryptoporum vulgare Wittrock.

Found in the Ice pond at Casey and the pond southeast
of Lerna.

Oedogonium cyathigerum Wittrock.

This species occurs in Hodgen’s and Marshall ponds.
Fruits during May, June and July.

Oedogonium echinospermum A. Baun.

Common in the spring of 1912 in wet-weather pools and

ponds near Charleston, Ashmore and Oilfield.
Oedogonium Franklinianum \\ittrock.

Recorded from Hodgen’s pond, Campus pond, and the
Tile Factory ponds, Charleston. Fruits in summer
and autumn.

Oedogonium globosum Nordtstedt.

Very typical material has been collected from Marshall
pond, Charleston and the Lily pond, southeast of New-
ton. Previously reported from the Hawaian islands
and Massachusetts.

Oedogonium gacillimum Wittr. & Lund.

This form is common in ponds and pools. Recorded

from Charleston, Dorans, Ashmore and Lerna.
Oedogonium grande Kuetzing.

This is the most common of the Oedogoniums in our
streams. It also occurs in the more permanent ponds.
It fruits at irregular intervals. It has been collected
at Charleston, Greenup, Ashmore, Newton, Lerna and
Humbolt in this state; and at Decker, Indiana. There
are at least three varieties present in the local waters.

Oedogonium intermedium Wittrock.

This species has been previously known only from Eu-
rope. Our material, collected from the Marshall pond,
Charleston, and Wolfe’s pond, near Wheeler, approach-
es the form valida.

84 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Oedogonium irregulare Wittrock.

This has been previously collected by Wolle in Florida.
Here I have observed it only in Hodgen’s pond fruit-
ing in September.

Oedogonium macrandrium aemulans Hirn.

Found in the Ice pond, Ashmore, during October, 1912.
Has been previously reported from Pennsylvania and
California.

Oedogonium Magnusii Wittrock.

Rather common. Recorded from the Tile Factory ponds,
railroad pools, Charleston, and the Ice pond, Ashmore.
Distinguished by the pitted median membrane of the
oospore from others of about the same dimensions. As-
sociated commonly with Oe. rufescens.

Oedogonium multisporum Wood.

Common in small streams, occasionally found in ponds
and pools. Usually fruits in May and June. Recorded
from Butler’s creek and first Tile Factory pond, Char-
leston, the pond north of Wrightsville, and the rail-
road pool near Sullivan. Fide Collins.

Oedogonium oblongum Wittrock.

Not previously collected in North America. Here found
associated with Confervas in pools along the Clover
Leaf R. R. north of Charleston, October, 1910.

Oedogonium obtruncatum Wittrock.

A form evidently belonging here was collected in the
east Big Four pond; November, 1912. The dimensions
are slightly larger than those given by Hirn for the
variety completum.

Oedogonium paludosum (Hass.) Wittrock.

Found in the pond near Lerna, in May, 1912., Reported

by Wolle, from Pennsylvania.
Oedogonium paludosum parvisporum

Rather common in the remnants of old prairie ponds near
Charleston. Fruits in April and May. Not previously
reported from America. .

Oedogonium plagiostomum Wittrock.

Collected from the middle Tile Factory, and west. Big
Four ponds near Charleston, during October, 1912. Of
special interest is the presence of antheridial filaments.
The extremes of the dimensions for the oogonium are
slightly larger than those given by Hirn. Known pre-
viously only from Sweden and Denmark.

Oedogonium plagiostomum gracilius Wittrock.

Not uncommon during May and June. In addition to the
Charleston ponds, I have collected it from the Lily
pond, southeast of Newton. The dimensions are near-

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 85

est those given for Mexican specimens. Also reported
from New York.
Oedogonium Pringsheimii Norstedtii Wittrock.

Has been collected both in spring and fall in small quan-
tities during the past three years. A cosmopolitan
species. Known in American from Greenland, Min-
nesota and California.

Oedogonium propinquum Wittrock.

Fruited during October, 1912, in the middle Tile Factory
pond and the east Big Four pond. Our material is
nearer the larger dimensions given by Hirn than the
smaller. Not previously reported from America.

Oedogonium pseudo-Boscii Hirn.

Rather rare in the remnants of old prairie ponds. Fruits
during April and May. Previously reported from
Massachusetts. Fide Collins.

Oedogonium pungens Hirn.

Common during May, 1912, in permanent ponds, and
pools on the prairie. Distinguished from Oe. echin
ospermum which also occurs here by its more rounded
spores, and the smaller size of its vegetative cells in
comparison with the oogonia. Previously reported
from South Carolina.

Oedogonium pusillum Kirchner.

Common in ponds and streams. Has been collected on
several occasions in fine fruiting condition, ranging
from May to September. Not previously reported
from America. Fide Collins.

Oedogonium rufescens \V ittrock.

The most common of the smaller Oedogoniums. Occurs
in ponds and temporary pools during April and May.
Previously reported from New England. Fide Collins.

Oeogonium rufescens exiguum (Elfving) Hirn.

Not infrequently associated with the type. Not pre-

viously reported from America.
Oedogonium rugulosum Nordstedt.

Collected in May, 1912, from the Ice Plant pond-at Ash-
more. The oospore walls are very distinctly crenulate.
No dwarf males were present in the material. The
local specimens belong to the form minutum (Hans-
girg) Hirn. Not previously reported from America.

Oedogonium sociale \Vittrock.

Common in ponds. Collected once from a stream. Fruits
during April and May. Not previously reported from
America. Fide Collins.

Oedogonium suecicum \Vittock.

Not uncommon in ponds and pools. Fruits during May.

Previously reported from Massachusetts.

86 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Oedogonium taphrosporum Nordstedt and Hirn.

Collected in the pond on the Normal School campus,

July, 1912. Previously reported from Massachusetts.
Oedogonium tentoriale Nordstedt and Hirn.

Collected from the Tile Factory ponds, October, 1910.
The dimensions approach the lower limits given by
Hirn. Not known aside from the original station in
Brazil)

Oedogonium Vaucherii (Le Cl.) A. Braun.

Common in summer and early autumn in ponds at
Charleston and Ashmore. Reported from Massachu-
setts. Fide Collins.

Oedogonium Wolleanum Wittrock.

Common as scattered filaments among other algae dur-
ing April and May in ponds. Widely distributed in
the United States. Fide Collins.

Bulbochaete Brebissonii Kuetzing.

Abundant in west Big Four pond during May, 1911.

Known from Massachusetts and Alaska.
Bulbochaete crassiuscula Nordstedt.

Common in pond southeast of Lerna during May, 1912.

Previously known from Greenland and Massachusetts
Bulbochaete intermedia De Bary.

Collected during May, 1912, from Ice pond, Ashmore,
and the Tile Factory pond, Arthur. Widely distributed
in America.

Bulbochaete minor (A. Braun) Wittrock.

Collected from a pool in a swampy ravine bottom south-
east of Decker, Indiana, May, 1911. Has been report-
ed from New Jersey. :

Bulbochaete rectangularis Wittrock.

Apparantly common in ponds during May. Reported

from Pennsylvania and New England.
Bulbochaete varians Wittrock.

Collected from the pond on the campus, Charleston, and
the pond southeast of Lerna, May, 1912. Not prev-
iously reported from America.

Bulbochaete varians subsimplex (Wittrock) Hirn.

Collected from the campus pond during October, 1911.

Reported from Pennsylvania.

Chaetophoraceae

Microthamnion Kuetzingianum Naegeli.
Common in small streams during autumn and spring.
Microthamnion exiguum Reinsch.
A minute species with cells 1-2 microns in diameter.
Collected at Marshall pond, Charleston, April, 1911.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 87

Microthamnion strictissimum Rabenhorst.

Not infrequent in streams during the cooler months of
the year.

Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordstedt) Klebahn.

Rather common in temporary ponds on submerged seed
plants. Early spring.

Chaetophora elegans (Roth) Agardh.

A very common alga in ponds and streams, attaining
its largest size and greatest abundance in the prairie
ponds, during April and May.

Chaetophora incrassata (Huds.) Hazen.

Very common in pools, ponds and streams. Our largest
specimens are less than eight centimeters in length.
Usually associated with species of Draparnaldia.

Chaetophora pisiformis (Roth) Agardh.

The only collection containing material that could satis-
factorily be placed here came from the Tile Factory
pond, Arthur, May, 1912.

Stigeoclonium glomeratum (Hazen) Collins.

Rather common in ponds and pools during March and
April.

Stigeoclonium lubricum varians (Hazen) Collins.

Our most abundant species of Stigeoclonium. Usually
found in intermittent streams during the period from
November to April. Also occurs in ponds, pools and
ditches.

Stigeoclonium nanum (Dillw.) Kuetzing.

Recorded from Cut-off of Polecat creek near Ash-
more, April, 1912.

_ Stigeoclonium stagnatile (Hazen) Collins.

Common in ditches and pools in early spring on the
prairie.

Stigeoclonium tenue (Ag.) Kuetzing.

Rare in temporary ponds and pools, particularly the
remnants of old prairie ponds.

Draparnaldia acuta (Ag.) Kuetzing.

Rare. Specimens that seemed best classified here have
been collected from the east branch of Campus creek,
and a small stream on the D. B. Miller farm southwest
of Casey.

Draparaldia glomerata (Vauch.) Agardh.

Rare. Only recorded from a drainage ditch north of
Paris.

Draparnaldia plumosa (Vauch.) Agardh.

This is the commonest species of the genus. It is very
abundant in the streams particularly of the forested
soils. It is common in the ponds both of the forested

88 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

and prairie areas. It is quite variable in form under
these various circumstances. Fide Collins.
Draparnaldia Ravenellii Wolle.

Common in old prairie ponds, thus far not seen in the
ponds of the upland forested region. It is common,
however, in the bottom land ponds of the Wabash
river south of Lawrenceville and Vincennes. This
very distinct form has been known only from the col-
lection made by Ravenel in South Carolina. The long-
est specimen noted attained a length of 27 centimeters.
Fide Collins.

Pleurococcus vulgaris Meneghini.

Very abundant on slightly shaded rocks, trees and

fences. Absent in forests.

Herposteiraceae

Herposterion confervicola Naegeli.
Common in ponds and pools on various filamentous
algae.

Coleochaetaceae.

Coleochaete irregularis Pringsheim.
Rather common in temporary ponds. Fruits in late
spring and summer.
Coleochaete Nittelarum Jost.
Found on Chara and Nitella in Hodgen’s and the east
Big Four ponds. Fruits in mid-summer.
Coleochaete orbicularis Pringsheim.
Collected from the pond at the west end of Polk street,
Charleston, April, 1912.
Coleochaete scutata Briebisson.
Very common in ponds both permanent and temporary.
Have found it fruiting sexually in late May and June.

Siphonocladiales.
Cladophoraceae.

Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kuetzing.

Very abundant in streams and ponds- It is not unusual
to find the prairie streams fairly choked with a growth
of this alga in May and June. In the ponds it is com-
monly associated with species of Cladophora. Fide
Collins.

Rhizoclonium fontanum Kuetzing.

Rather common in ponds. Have never found it in a
branched condition. Occasionally it occurs on the
moist soil of pond margins. Fide Collins.

Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetzing.
The common species of the streams of eastern Illinois.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 89

Quite variable irrespective of habitat. It usually pro-
duces zoospores in spring and early summer, not in-
frequently also in the autumn. Specimens twenty
feet in length have been found in Whetstone creek.
Whether these were single plants in the strict sense
could not be determined, but they had this appearance.
Attached to rocks in a riffle, the long fronds floated
down into an adjoining pool. Fide Collins.
Cladophora fracta (Dillw.) Kuetzing. Fide Collins.
Cladophora crispata (Roth) Kuetzing.

I have not been able to separate these two species in the
field. If they are distinct they present a hopeless tan-
gle for field study. They have been collected from
most of the ponds that are permanent or nearly so.
Fide Collins.

Pithophora Varia \Viille.

Common in the permanent ponds. Produces akinetes at

all seasons and ages of the plants. Fide Collins.

Siphonales.
Vaucheriaceae

Vaucheria geminata (Vauch.) De Candolle.
Vaucheria germitata racemosa (Vauch.) Walz.

Both the species and variety are abundant in the streams,
ponds, pools and on moist shaded ground throughout
eastern Illinois. Fide Collins.

Vaucheria hamata (Vauch.) De Candolle.

A small form of this species was collected from Polecat

creek in the spring of 1911. Fide Collins.
Vaucheria polysperma Hassall.

Found in both the east and west Big Four ponds in the
autumn.

Vaucheria sessilis (Vauch.) De Candolle.

Very abundant in all kinds of aquatic habitats. I have
never found it growing on moist soil out of doors,
though it grows ‘commonly on soil in the greenhouse.

Vaucheria terreseris (Vauch.) De Candolle.

Common on prairie pond margins and shaded soil. Even
in these situations it is less abundant than Vaucheria
geminata,

Rhodophyceae

Batrachospermum Boryanum Sirodot.

Common in the town branch at the eastern edge of Char-
leston, and in Polecat creek south of Ashmore. I have
not seen any fruiting material. Fide Collins,

90 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

THE SEXTON CREEK LIMESTONE IN ILLINOIS
T. E. SAVAGE

A NEW SPECIES OF MARIONINA FROM®
ILLINOIS.
FRANK SMITH and PAULI. WELCH

A BLACK CROWNED NIGHT HERONRY AND
NEED CFO TES PROTECTION.
CHARLES W. FINLEY

About a mile and a half from the old Worth race track
and some fifteen miles from the down-town district of Chi-
cago is a rookery of black-crowned night herons. This
heronry is situated on a “tree island” of about four acres in
what is known as the “Sag,” the outlet of old Lake Chicago.
_ Surrounding it on three sides is farm land and on the fourth
is a large marsh.

The number of birds using the heronry has been estimated
from 600 to 1,000. Although it is located in a secluded place
it happens to be within the confines of a Chicago gun club
and each year increasing numbers of men are learning of its
location. At present no permanent means of protection 1s
afforded this valuable natural asset. That such protection is
needed is shown by the fact that in frequent trips there in
the last three years during the breeding season, I have never
failed to find birds apparently shot. On one occasion, R.
Chaney of the University of Chicago and myself found a pile
of about 20 birds both adults and immature. A unique
“hunting match” is reported to have been held there a few
years ago in which the farmer sportsmen of the community
stationed themselves at the edge of the grove and killed the
birds as they were scared out by the boys.

That this bird is rare is known by most of us and
is shown by Barrows (Michigan Bird Life, 1912) who quotes
the following from Swales, “It is now a rare bird and seldom
recorded. In 1904, May, 5, one was taken at St. Clair Flats,
and on July 16, I saw one near the River Rouge.”

Because of the flats, farm land and marsh surrounding it,
because of its size and because of its isolation the place lends
itself to protection. Because the birds are wantonly killed and
because they are rare they deserve our protection. It is with
the hope that this society might see fit to take a hand in the
conservation of this rare natural phenomenon that this paper
is presented.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 9]

REPRODUCTION BY LAYERING IN THE
LACK SPRUCE.

GEORGE D. FULLER

During the summer of 1912 while conducting some eco-
logical studies along the Saguenay River, Quebec, attention
was directed to the. process of forestation and reforestation
of slowly disintegrating granitic areas and where the rocky
surface was exposed to the full sweep of the wind. The re-
gion most closely examined consisted of granite hills about
Ha! Ha! Bay with typical roches mountonnees contours and
elevations varying from 100 to 300 meters. In these exposed
situations the tree vegetation consisted largely of black
spruce, Picea mariana, Jack pine, Pinus Banksiana, the white
birch, Betula alba and the aspen, Populus tremuloides with
accasionally some white spruce, Picea canadensis and a few
other less abundant species. Many of the conifers exhibited
a growth-form apparently peculiar to such areas and finding
its highest specialization and most frequently occurrence in
the black spruce.

Grown in swamps or thickets the black spruce is char-
acterized by an irregular narow cone of branches. This cone
was found to be even more slender in the sparse stand on the
granite surfaces but here were found in addition much longer
branches near the surface of the rock, forming a compact mass
of twigs, none rising more than 1-2 meter above the surface.
At least one half of the total foliage of the trees was usually
upon these prostrate branches. The same habit was evident
in Pinus Banksiana and to a less extent in Picea canadensis.
It seemed a decided advantage to trees rooted in the shallow
soil of the rock crevices as the exposure to excessive trans-
piration caused by high winds was much less, and fewer trees
were uprooted. The habit was confined to open stands.

The mat of lichens and mosses which antedates the trees,
continued to thrive under and among the prostrate branches
and the resulting soil soon buried portions of the lower mem-
bers of the mass. This was apparently without results other
_than somewhat more securely anchoring the trees in the case
of Pinus Banksiana but on the spruces roots were often pro-
duced from the buried branches and a circle of young trees
surrounded the parent. Should the tree be cut down its early
replacement was assured from this layering.

Such reproduction by layering has recently been dis-
cussed by Cooper(1) who has also given complete citations
of the literature of the subject. The layering habit in Picea
mariana is mentioned by Louden(2) for specimens growing
under partial cultivation on the British Isles but its effect in

92 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

increasing the stand upon rocky areas appears to have es-
caped notice, although it must be of much importance to the
species. By it circular areas with a radius of six to ten feet
soon become covered with vigorous young upright shoots.
The change in direction of growth of the stem axis is strongly
marked and seems to be closely connected with the process
of rooting although not always dependent upon it.

In the Saguenay region occasional instances of layering
were seen in Picea canadensis, Cooper’s observations were
confirmed on Abies balsamea but by far the most important
from the ecological viewpoint was its abundance in the black
spruce. Often large clumps of small trees could be referred
to the parentage of a few individuals although with increase
in size the connections became increasingly difficult to trace
Frequently groups of six to twenty closely clustered young
trees marked the spot where a tree of an older generation had
stood showing much more rapid replacement than could have
been effected by seed.

University of Chicago.

(1) Cooper, W. S. Reproduction by layering among coni-
fers). BotsGaz, 923,309-379, JOT

(2) Louden, J. C: Arboretum et Fruiticetum Britanni-

cum. London, 1844.

EVAPORATION AND SOIL MOISTURE ON THE
PRAIRIES OF ILLINOIS.
hve EK. M. HARVEY

I. Introduction.

The prairie association is quite common in the Chicago
region, where it occurs both as small isolated patches and in
rather extensive and continuous areas. The association seems
to hold here, at least, the position of a very persistent stage
in the succession following the sedges in the filling up of
ponds and lakes. (1) Although it is to be considered as
decidedly different in many ways from the Western prairies,
it gives very much the same aspect, this being emphasized by
the characteristic coarse prairie herbs such as species of Rud-
beckia, Liatris and Amorpha together with Solidago rigida, |
Eryngium yuccifolium, Silphium laciniatum, S. terebin-
thinaceum and others that occur here. Whatever may be
the final history of these prairies as regards succession, it is
noteworthy that they are maintained for extended periods
against the encroachment of the forests of the region.

Since the above general problem, and others are pre-
sented by these edaphic prairies, 1t seems highly desirable that
any quantitative measurements of environmental factors be
brought forward.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS .- 93

During the summer of 1911 a series of evaporation and
soil moisture determinations were carried out at Chicago
Lawn, an undisturbed prairie area within the city limits of
Chicago. The work was made to conform more or less with
similar, though more extensive studies of Fuller (2) on the
forest associations of the south shore dune region of Lake
Michigan, and those of McNutt and Fuller (3) on the oak-
hickory forest at Palos Park, Ill.

II. Evaporation.

Evaporation determinations were made by means of the
Livingston standard atmometer (4) and the methods of oper-
ation suggested by him were carefully followed. During the
early part of the season, including the months of May and
June, the cups were equipped with the rain-correcting de-
vice.(5)

Two stations were established and maintained through-
out the season, while at times, three, and during one week,
four stations were in operation. The two principal stations,
Nos. one and two, were located in the midst of the association,
about 250 meters apart, the instruments being placed in sim-
iliar relation to the vegetation with the cups just below the
general level of the grasses at a height of about 30 cm., above
the surface of the soil. During the latter part of the season
a third instrument was set up with the cup placed about 25
cm., above the level of the surrounding vegetation (i. e. about
60 cm. above the surface of the soil). Readings were made
at intervals of one week or ten days throughout the season.-
The average daily loss for the intervening days was computed
from these data. And finally the mean was taken from the
results of stations one and two.

The records show the maximum evaporation, for the sea-
son, of 37 c. c. per day to occur about the 20th of May. This
extreme rate of evaporation might be considered very abnor-
mal on the supposition that May 1911 was an unusually hot
and dry month, as noted by McNutt and Fuller (3) in their
work of the same spring. However, Miss Newlon finds the
same situation in her studies on Chicago Lawn during the
season of 1912. It seems not improbable that this high rate
of evaporation is the usual condition at the beginning of the
season before vegetation becomes well developed, and may
be a factor of considerable importance in the growth of these
plants. An examination of graph a, fig. 1, will show the
Jpresence of two summer maxima, one in July, of 15.8 c. ¢.
per day, and the other in August, of 16.0 c. c- per day. The
minimum evaporation recorded is 5.9 c. c. per day, occuring
in the latter part of September. The mean daily rate for the
entire season of 168 days is 125 c. c. Also from fig. 1b, it

94 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

| way | Aucust | serremses| ocrosen | |
CO cece
A ct L + AoC ae
URE iReiee
FASS
FISHER Ce Ie ioe
CRIME Iso eto esl aa
COCCI oo
PAIL sic Ine oiier iar
EECCA Ea
S000) 0088 See
CCA Hee
BEERS arco PACH
S00 WSSSS ee Bee
OCIA COCOA
AIC Ss es a I
COTO EEE CA ECs ee
Con Senne is
FCP | HT BL
MAIC CLIC CANIS
ec ICN cE
COTO Con
NSS a Sa
IP COCCI Pa

ime A He

ee lll

oo WET

ia SCID

aa aire

ia EE

i aie

ae SEE

ce alle

(a By

t cae

Fig. 1. Graphs showing the evaporation on the prairie,
summer 1911. a:. Méan at stations l and 2. b: at station
cup above vegetation. Weekly rain-fall in cm. shown at base
of figure.
may be seen that station 3, the one having the cup above the
vegetation, gave the same fluctations as did the other sta-
Hone and differed only in that the rate for each period was
always 25 to 30 per cent greater.

It may be instructive to compare the results here with

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 95

those reported by Fuller (2) for the cottonwood dune, the pine
dune, the oak dune and the beech-maple forest, and also those
of McNutt and Fuller (3) for the oak-hickory forest. Though
the figures themselves are not repeated, fig. 2 will show the
relative average evaporation of these different associa-

0 10 20)

Cottonwood dune
Pine dune

Oak dune
Oak-hickory forest
Beech-maple forest
Edaphic prairie

Fig. 2. Diagram showing average daily rates of evap-
oration in various plant associations of the Chicago region.

tions. It is evident at once that the evaporation
conditions of this edaphic prairie are between those
of the cottonwood dune and the pine dune, though
more nearly equivalent to the latter. But the sum-
mer maximum of evaporation on the prairie is as low as the
corresponding maximum of any of the forest associations yet
studied in this region, excepting the beech-maple forest which
has a maximum of only 13.2 c. c. per day. It corresponds
rather closely in this respect to the pine dune, the oak dune,
and the oak-hickory forest that has not been pastured. It
seems somewhat surprising that the summer maximum on
this prairie should be found so low as compared with the
forest types, considering how slight is the apparent protection
here from wind and sun. So the results would tend to show
that, contrary to what one might expect, there must be a con-
siderable resistance offered by the covering of grasses to the
movement of air, this becoming evident in the stratum in
which the cups were placed. The moist air blanket, thus
tending to develop among and just above the grass covering,
would largely account for the rather unexpected low summer
maximum rate of evaporation.

ITI. Soil moisture.

The determinations of the water content of the soil were
made weekly from April 11 to October 25 from samples of
about 200 grams taken at the depth of 7.5 cm. and 25 cm. at
each of the stations 1 and 2. The soil was brought into the

96 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

laboratory in sealed vessels and dried at 104 degrees, C. The
percentage of water was calculated in terms of the dry weight
of the soil.

Since the mere knowledge of the water content of the
soil is of little value toward the understanding of the real
water conditions to which the plant is being subjected, it be-
comes necessary. to relate such facts to the plant directly in
some manner that they may be at all significant. On the
whole, the most satisfactory methods yet devised for getting
at this difficulty are probably those described by Briggs and
Shantz, (6) by which they were able to show a definite relation
between the plant and the water content of any given soil.
Their method of determining the wilting coefficient directly,
by the wax seal method, and indirectly by means of the centri-
fuge, etc., are now well known. However, it may not be
amiss to recall that in one of their indirect determinations of
the wilting coefficient they employed the following formula
which they found to hold, apparently, for all types of soils
investigated. (*)

Wilting coefficient equals moisture equivalent divided by
1.84. The moisture equivalent here being that amount of
water which the soil has the power of holding against a given
high centrifugal force. The number 1.84 is a constant.

In the autumn of 1912 a centrifuge of the type used by
the government workers in the soil investigations was in-
stalled in the Botanical laboratory. By means of this appar-
atus the moisture equivalents of the various soils brought in
from Chicago Lawn were determined. The force used was
always 1,000 gravities, acting during 30 minutes.

By the above method the soils of the two stations were
found to have the following wilting coefficients: station 1, the
7.5 cm. depth, 28 per cent and the 25 cm. depth, 20 per cent;
station 2, the 7.5 cm. depth, 23 per cent and the 25 cm. depth,
19 per cent.

Fig. 3 gives the graphs of the water content of the soils
from station 1 for the entire season, plotted with percentage
of water as ordinates and weekly intervals as abscissae. The
soil at the 7.5 cm. depth represented by graph a, and at 25
em. by graph b. The horizontal dotted lines, c and d, mark
the wilting coefficients of these soils respectively, as calcul-
ated by the method described. The water content and the
wilting coefficients of the two soils of station 2 are represented
in fig. 4, exactly in the manner as are those of sta. 1, in fg: 3.

(*) For important contrary data see Caldwell, J. S. The re
lation of environmental conditions to the phenemonon of permanent
wilting in plants. Physiol. Researches 1:1-56, 1913,

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 97

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Fig. 3. Graphs showing soil moisture at station 1. a:
of soil at the 7.5 cm. depth. b: of soil at the 25 cm. depth. c:
wilting coefficient for the former and d for the latter soil.

Weekly rain-fall in cm. shown at base of figure.

It will be noted from the graphs that the soil held large
amounts of water until late in May when the content fell off
rapidly during the rest of the month. This fall coincides with
the high rate of evaporation already discussed for May. The
general high water contents are at or near the saturation
point, and this condition prevails inMay, just before the grow-
ing season begins, and again in October after it has closed.
In the summer months of July and August the moisture is
uniformly low, giving a mean for those months of 24 per cent.
There are times during these months that the water content
of the soils at the two depths falls below the critical per-
centage. This is shown for example by the surface soil at
station 1 (fig. 3) in July and August and by the deeper layer

98 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

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Fig. 4. Graphs showing soil moisture at station 2. a: of
soil at the 7.5 cm. depth. b: of soil at the 25 cm. depth. c
and d the respective wilting coefficient of these soils. Weekly
rain-fall in cm. shown at base of figure.

of soil at station 2 (fig. 4) in July. It would also be well to
note that at neither of the stations, except in the instance
mentioned above, did the water content, at the depth of 25
cm. fall below the critical percentage. However, there must
be many days at this period of the summer when the com-
bined action of low water content of the soil and the high rate
of evaporation render conditions very severe even for the
characteristic vegetation of the association. This may ac-
count for the xerophytic aspect of the prairie vegetation in the
late summer.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 99

IV. Summary.

This paper presents evaporation and soil moisture rec-
ords from the edaphic prairie association of the Chicago
region for the growing season of 1911.

The data shows a very high rate of evaporation in May,
before the grass covering has become developed.

The summer maximum rate of evaporation (i. e. when
the grass covering is present) seems lower than that which
one might expect, when compared with corresponding data
trom forest associations.

The mean daily rate of evaporation for the season places
the prairie association between the pine and the cottonwood
dunes, as regards the atmospheric condition.

Through the summer months the water content of the
soil is uniformly low, especially in the surface layer where it
often falls below that percentage designated as the wilting
coefficient. |

On the whole, the data seems to indicate decidely severe
mid-summer conditions in the prairie association.

Grateful acknowledgement is made of helpful suggestions
from Drs. H. C. Cowles and Geo. D. Fuller during the progress
of the study:

Literature cited:
1. Cowles, H. C. The physiographic ecology of Chicago and
vicinity. Bot. Gaz. 31: 73-108, 145-182, 1901.
2. Fuller, Geo. D. Evaporation and plant succession.
Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 4: 119-125, 1911 and Bot. Gaz. 52:
193-208, 1911.
McNutt, Wade and Fuller, Geo. D. The range of evapora-
tion and soil. moisture in the oak-hickory forest as-
sociation of Illinois.
Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 5: Feb. 23-24, 1912.
4. Livingston, B. E. Operation of the porous cup atmometer.
Plant World 13: 111-118, 1910.
Livingston, B. E. A rain-correcting atmometer for eco-
logical instrumentation. Plait world 13: 79-82, 1910.
6. Briggs, L. J. and Shantz, H. L. The wilting coefficient
for different plants and its indirect determination.
U. S. Dept. Agri. Bur. of Pt. Ind. Bull. No. 230, 1912.
Legend to figures:

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100 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

THE STRATIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC
HUMIDITY IN THE FOREST.

GEORGE D. FULLER, J. R. LOCKE and WADE McNUTT.

It has long been know that the air among the tree-tops
of a forest has greater evaporating power than that just above
the soil beneath, principally because of the fact that the upper
air is subject to so much more movement and to more direct
insolation. Up to the present time few or no attempts have
been made to determine in a quantitative manner how great
these differences really are for different forests and for dif-
ferent strata in these forests. The Livingston atmometer
now provides an efficient means of making such determina-
tions and hence during the spring of 1912 a beginning was
made by two students of the Department of Botany of the
University of Chicago, Mr. Locke working in a flood plain
forest along the Vermilion River, near Streator, Illinois, and
Mr. McNutt in an upland oak forest at Palos Park, near the
city of Chicago,the same in which some former evaporation
studies had been made (1). For several reasons, principally
on account of the closing of the school year, the records are
brief but both continue for some ten days after the trees were
in full foliage and hence give some hint of the amount of dif-
ference of the evaporating power of the air in the different
strata concerned. They are reported principally with the
hope of stimulating further research upon this and similar
problems.

The Streator forest was of the usual flood plain type with
an abundance of Acer Negundo, Ulmus americana, and Fraxi-
nus americana. Two stations, 0 and 1, were placed upon the
surface of the soil, the first being at high water mark and the
other some 60 meters farther from the river on gently rising
ground, both being within the forest. The other instruments,
designated as 3, 5, and 8, were placed in conditions of aver-
age shade and foliage at 3, 5 and 8 meters respectively above
the surface. The period of experimentation extended from
May 2 to June 5, 1912. The readings were standarized in the
usual way (2), by means of the coefficients of the atmometer
cups, the results reduced to the average loss per day for the
intervals between the weekly readings and plotted as graphs
with the weekly intervals as abcissae and the losses per day as
ordinates (Fig. 1.). It will be seen that in general the re-
sults are that the evaporation at 3, 5, and 8 meters is very simi-
lar and is practically double of that upon the ground (0).

The forest at Palos Park is of the usual upland oak type.
It has been more fully described in a previous paper (1).
Here four stations were established, one upon the

PAPERS BY MEMBERS . 101

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ears ee
JUSS ea eee

Fig. 1. Graphs showing the range of the evaporating
power oi the air in a flood plain forest at Streator, Ill. Fig-
ures at the right indicate the height of the station above the ~
surface of the soil.

Fig. 2. Graphs showing the range ot the evaporating
power of the air in the oak forest at Palos Park, Ill.

ground, O, the others at heights of 2, 6, and 13 meters. The
last was at the general upper surface of the foliage
while the others were carefully placed so as to be
subject to very nearly average conditions of foliage
density for their respective heights above the surface. The
records extend from May 18 to June 12, 1912. The readings
are expressed as in the former study. It will be seen by com-
parison that in general the rates of evaporation are much
higher than in the Streator forest, reaching 16 cc. per day for
the surface station at the end of the period and about 24 cc.
per day for the upper surface of the forest foliage at the same

102 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

date. (Fig. 2). No attempt will be made to explain the ir-
regular course of the graph for the instrument at 2 meters.

Summary:

1. The results are too scanty to permit of any general-
izations.

2. The evaporating power of the air in the Streator flood

plain forest within the medium strata of the foliage is about
double of that upon the surface of the soil beneath.
3. The evaporating power of the air in the Palos Park
oak forest at a height of 6 meters, that is, in a medium strat-
um of foliage, is greater by 25 per cent than that just above
the surface while at the upper limit of foliage (13 meters) it
is 50 per cent greater than that just above the surface of the
SUL.

Literature cited:

(1) McNutt, W. and Fuller, G. D. The range of evapora-
tion and soil moisture in the oak-hickory forest association of
INMisiois. “Prans.*lll. Acad. San 5 :Fi27-137,) 1912

(2) Livingston, B. E., Operation of the porous- fe at-
mometer. Plant World 13: 111-110. 1910.

DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN THE STREAMS ABOUS

CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS.
T. L. HAN KINSON.

Introduction:

The object of this paper is to give a list of the fish
known to occur in the streams about Charleston, Illinois,
with notes on their distribution, obtained by some ten years
of field work in the region by the writer. Use will also be
made of data bearing upon fishes of these streams given in
the published work on the Fishes of Illinois by 5. A. Forbes
and R. E. Richardson. The terminology and order of con-
sideration of species used by these writers will be followed
in this paper. The fish collections made by the writer and
from which the major part of the information here presented
was obtained, are all preserved in an accessible condition in
the zoology laboratory of the Eastern Illinois Normal school
at Charleston. The species determinations have been made
by the writer with the assistance of Mr. R. E. Richardson in
the case of some forms difficult to identify. For this and other
help given by members of the State Laboratory of Natural
History, the author is duly grateful.

The streams, the fish life of which is to be considered.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS ~ 103

are in Coles county and are accessible within a radius of fif-
teen miles of Charleston. They belong to the Embarras, the
Kaskaskia, and Little Wabash systems, but chiefly to the first
mentioned. They lie in country principally of two kinds:
level black-soil prairie and rough, commonly hilly territory
with light-colored soil and with patches of timber.. Country
of this last type prevails east and south of a diagonal line
across Coles county from the northeast to the southwest cor-
ner. Streams of the Embarras and Little Wabash systems
are associated chiefly with the hilly country and those of the
Kaskaskia with the prairie. The Shelbyville Moraine crosses
the southern part of the county and occupies most of the reg-
ion just south of Charleston. In the north part of Coles
county, there are some low prairie ridges that are associated
with the Cerro Gordo Moraine. All the region under con-
sideration is in the Wisconsin Glaciation, Coles county being
on the southern border.

Based chiefly on size, the streams about Charleston may
be fairly well grouped as follows:

1. Streams of first rank or “Rivers.” These are Em-
barras and Kaskaskia rivers. In general, they average near a
hundred feet in width with a common depth oi three or four
feet under ordinary water conditions. Except in deep holes,
having much fine sediment, the bottom is usually gravelly or
sandy with a thin superficial layer of clay.

2. Streams of second rank or “Large Creeks.” This
group includes the lower portions of Kickapoo Creek, Brush
Creek and Polecat Creek. These never become dry, and they
maintain a permanent connection with larger streams. They
average in width between fifty and seventy-five feet and in
depth, perhaps two or three feet.

3. Streams of the third rank or “Small Creeks.” Among
these, are the upper portions of those of the second group, as
well as Cossel Creek, Indian Creek, Campus Creek, Crab-
apple Creek and Flat Branch. They never or very rarely
become perfectly dry, although they frequently break their
connections with parent streams by losing their water on
reaching the flood plains of these streams to which they are
tributaries. In dry seasons, they become broken into series
of disconnected pools. Except during freshets, they are com-
monly five to fifteen feet in width and from one to two feet
deep, rarely, even in “holes” exceeding three feet.

4. Streams of the fourth rank. These are the smallest
fish-containing streams and are frequently referred to’ as
“branches.” There are many of these in the Charleston reg-
ion flowing into all the other types and forming their head-
waters. A number of them are at the bottoms of wooded

104 _ ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ravines and they constitute the smaller drainage ditches of the
prairies. They are usually under four or five feet in width and
they may be but a few inches wide. The depth is seldom over
a foot. They are active for short periods except during un-
usually wet seasons. Many of them never contain fish.

The following table shows the distribution of the common
species of fish in the Charleston region in the four types of
streams just described.

Table Giving Distribution of the Thirty-eight Common
Species of Fish in the Charleston Region

First Second Third Fourth.

rank rank rank rank

streams. streams. streams. streams.
Chub Sucker X
Common Sucker X* X
Hog Sucker X Sg
Common Redhorse xX* X
Common Carp x
Stone-roller X xX xX xX
Silvery Minnow X
Black-head Minnow xX
Blunt-nosed Minnow xX* X* xX
Horned Dace X X < X
Jullhead Minnow xX
Straw-colored Minnow x* xX
Notropis illecebrosus x xX
Silverfin xX* X x xX
Common Shiner xX xX xX* xX
Blackfin X* X* xX
Silver-mouthed Minnow ee xe X
Sucker-mouthed Minnow xX xX*
Big-eyed Chub 2 xX
Storer’s Chub X
River Chub xX xX xX*
Channel Cat bs », 4
Yellow Bullhead b Ga x oe
Black Bullhead oe xX xX
Brindled Stonecat X* 4
Top Minnow Xx b Ss Xx
Brook Silversides xX
Rock Bass xX* x
Blue-spotted Sunfish X X X X
Long-eared Sunfish x x x
Large-mouthed BlackBass xe X X
Small-mouthed BlackBass xX X*
Hadropterus phoxocephalus X

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PAPERS BY MEMBERS 105

First Second Third Fourth.

rank rank rank rank
streams. streams. streams. streams.
Black-sided Darter x* xX
Gieen-sided Darter X* x
Johnny Darter x* Xx x
Sand Darter X
Rainbow Darter x ba x

Note: X in the above means that the species is common
in the type of stream, at least at some places and at some
times.

* Indicates the type or types of stream w here the” species
appears to be best represented.

List of Fish Known to Occur in the Charleston Region with
Notes onTheir Numbers and Distribution.

1. Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus), Long-nosed Gar.

Occasionally taken from the Embarras River. One seen
in Kickapoo Creek in June 1907. Forbes and Richard-
son record it from the Kaskaskia system in Coles Co.

Amia calva Linnaeus, The Dogfish.

Apparently scarce. Sometimes caught by hook from the
Embarras River.

3. Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur), Gizzard Shad.
Reported for the Kaskaskia system in Coles Co., by

Forbes and Richardson. Judging from fishermen’s re-
ports, it is probably in the Embarras River.

. Carpiodes difformis Cope, Blunt-nosed River Carp.

A few specimens have been taken from the Embarras
River and from Kickapoo Creek. Forbes and Richard-
son report it from the Kaskaskia system.

Carpiodes velifer (Rafinesque)- Quillback.

Some small specimens have been taken from the Embar-
ras and Kaskaskia Rivers and from Kickapoo Creek.
Apparently uncommon.

6. Erimyzon sucetta oblongus (Mitchell), Chub Sucker.

Prefers deep pools in small creeks where many are often
found. Not often taken in the larger streams.

Minytrema melanops (Rafinesque), Spotted Sucker.

Frequently taken in the Kaskaskia system; scarce in the
Embarras system. Seems to prefer the larger streams.
. Catostomus commersonii (Lacepede). Common Sucker.
Locally common. Young numerous in a few creeks both
large and small. Adults have been found in numbers
only in Kickapoo Creek.

Catostomus nigricans Le Sueur, Hog Sucker.

Very common on rocky shoals w here the water is rapid,
in rivers and large creeks.

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ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Moxostoma aureolum (Le Sueur) Common Red-horse.

Abundant in largerstreams: rivers and large creeks.

Moxostoma breviceps (Cope) Short-headed Red-horse.

Uncommon. Seemingly confined to rivers and large
creeks.

Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, European Carp.

Common in parts of the Embarras and Kaskaskia Rivers.
No records for tributary streams.

Campostoma anomalum (Rafinesque), Stone-roller.

Abundant and very generally distributed in the Embar-
ras system: preferring the smaller streams. No records
have been obtained for the Kaskaskia system in Coles
county.

Hybognathus nuchalis Agassiz. Silvery Minnow.

Abundant in the Kaskaskia system in small creeks.
Very scarce in the Embarras system.

Pimephales promelas Rafinesque, Black-head Minnow.

Common in portions of some small creeks where the
water is sluggish and where the banks are grassy and
shelving. No records have been obtained for its oc-
currence in the Kaskaskia system from the writer’s
collections. Forbes and Richardson record it from that
system.

Pimephales notatus (Rafinesque), Blunt-nosed Minnow.

Abundant and very generally distributed in all but the
smallest fish-bearing streams. This is undoubtedly
the best represented species of fish in numbers of indi-
viduals, found in the Charleston region.

Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill), Horned Dace.

Abundant and found in all types of fish bearing streams
in the region. It prefers small creeks.

Abramis chrySoleucas (Mitchill), Golden Shiner.
Uncommon about Charleston, but sometimes found in
small numbers about thick growths of aquatic plants.

Cliola vigilax (Baird and Girard), Bullhead Minnow.

Periodically abundant in some parts of the Embarras
River, and a few have been taken from all parts of the
stream where collecting has been thoroughly done.
Common in the Kaskaskia River. It appears to be con-
fined to these large streams for no specimens have
been caught in their tributaries.

Notropis cayuga Meek.

Recorded from Coles county by Forbes and Richardson
None have been found by the writer.

Notropis blennius (Girard), Straw-colored Minnow.

Quite common in the Embarras River and in its larger
tributaries; none recorded from small creeks. It ap-
pears to be absent in the Kaskaskia system.

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PAPERS BY MEMBERS 107

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Principal streams in the vicinity of Charleston.

Notropis illecebrosus (Girard).

Common locally in the Embarras River and in large
creeks connected with it. No record for the Kaskas-
kia system.

Notropis hudsonius (DeWitt Clinton), Spot-tailed Min-

now.

One taken by the writer in Crabapple Creek, near Coles,
Illinois. This is the only record for the region.

Notropis lutrensis (Baird and Girard), Redfin.

Rare. Only two taken from Flat Branch and one from
Crabapple Creek.

Notropis whipplii (Girard), Silverfin.

Abundant at all times in rivers and larger creeks and at
times of high water in small creeks.

Notropis cornutus (Mitchill), Common Shiner.

Uncommon except in a few localities. It was found in
large numbers in Crabapple Creek near Coles and in a
part of Polecat Creek.

Notropis atherinoides Rafinesque, Shiner.

Ocassionally taken in the Embarras River and in the
Kickapoo Creek near the river. No records for the
Kaskaskia system.

108 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

28. Notropis umbratilis atripes (Jordan), Blackfin.
Abundant in the Embarras and Kaskaskia Rivers and in

the larger creeks connected with these rivers.

29. Ericymba.buccata Cope, Silver-mouthed Minnow.
Abundant-and very generally distributed in the rivers

and all creeks but the smallest ones of both systems:
creeks. The adults prefer larger streams.

30. Phenacobius mirabilus (Girard), Sucker-mouthed Min- i
now.
Not common but frequently eas in the rivers and ase :

creeks of both systems.

31. Hybopsis dissimilis (Kirtland), Spateed Shiner.
Very rare. Recorded for the region by. Forbes and Rich-—

ardson. None taken by the writer.

32. Hybopsis amblops (Rafinesque), Big-eyed Chub.
Quite common in the Embarras and Kaskaskia Rivers }

and in their larger tributaries. Avoids small creeks.

33. Hybopsis storerianus (Kirtland), Storer’s Chub.

: Abundant in the Embarras River, where it is often taken '

on worm-baited hooks. Not found in tributaries of *
this stream except near their mouths.

34. Hybopsis kentuckiensis (Rafinesque), River Chub.

Abundant in the Kaskaskia system. Only two have been
found by the writer in the Embarras system. These
came from Polecat Creek. Forbes and Richardson re-
cord it for the Embarras River in Douglas Co.

Ictalurus anguilla Evermann and Kendall, Eel Cat.

A catfish caught by hook in the Embarras River on July
1, 1912, by Mr. C. P. Lantz, answers the description
of this species.

35, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque), Channel Cat.

Abundant in the Embarras River, and found in some
numbers in parts of its larger tributaries.

37. Ameiurus natalis (Le Sueur), Yellow Bullhead.
Frequently taken by hook from deep holes in the rivers

and from similar places in creeks. Large numbers of
the very young of this species are often found in small
creeks. The adults prefer larger streams.

38. Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque), Black Bullhead.
Common especially in large streams. Distribution siin-

ilar to that of natalis. The two species appear to be
closely associated.

39. Leptops olivaris (Rafinesque), Mud Cat.

Found in small numbers in the Embarras and Kaskas-
kia Rivers.

40. Schilbeodes gyrinus (Mitchill), Tadpole Cat.

Found in small numbers in the Kaskaskia system. No
records for the Embarras system.

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PAPERS BY MEMBERS 109

Schilbeodes nocturnus (Jordan and Gilbert), Freckled

Stonecat.

Very rare; only three taken; one from Kickapoo Creek:
one from the Kaskaskia River and one from Flat
Branch.

Schilbeodes exilis (Nelson), Slender Stonecat.

Very rare. One taken in the Kaskaskia River in Coles
county, September 3, 1908, by the writer.

Schilbeodes miurus (Jordan), Brindled Stonecat. — _

Abundant in the Embarras system where the bottom is
rocky. Confined to this stream and its larger tribu-
tries. No records for the Kaskaskia system.

Esox vermiculatus Le Sueur, Little Pickerel.

Frequently found in shallow bays of the Embarras River;
none have been found elsewhere by the writer. Forbes
and Richardson, however, say that it is in weedy
branches of this stream. They also record it for the
Kaskaskia system.

5. Fundulus notatus (Rafinesque), Top Minnow.

Common in those parts of large streams where the water
is quiet and where there is much aquatic vegetation.
Rarely found in small creeks.

Labidesthes sicculus (Cope), Brook Silversides.

Appears to be confined strictly to the Embarras River,
for the writer has not found it elsewhere in the Char-
leston region. It is present in large numbers just be-
low the dam and is scarce in other parts of the stream
fished in the neighborhood of Charleston.

Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams), Pirate Perch.

A few taken from the Kaskaskia system. It undoubtedly
occurs in the Embarras streams in small numbers for
it has been taken in these in Douglas county by the
writer.

Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque, White Crappie.

Frequently caught by hook in the Embarras River, and
it is abundant in the Mattoon Reservoir, which belongs
to the Little Wabash system. No records have been
obtained for regions other than these.

-Pomoxis sparoides Lacepede, Black Crappie.

Abundant in the Mattoon Reservoir. Not found else-
where in Coles county by the writer.

Ambloplytes rupestris (Rafinesque) Rock Bass.

Locally common in the Embarras and larger tributaries.
Prefers waters having large rocks. Forbes and Rich-
ardson have found it in the Kaskaskia River near Coles
county.

Chaenobryttus gulosus (Cuvier and Valenciennes),

Warmouth Bass.

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ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Probably occurs in the Embarras River, judging from
descriptions given by anglers. None found in the
region by the writer. Forbes and Richardson record
it for the Kaskaskia in Coles county.

Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque, Blue-spotted Sunfish.

Abundant; the most widely distributed of any species of
fish in the region. Found in all types of fish-bearing
streams and in ponds, but it prefers deeper, quieter por-
tions of small creeks.

Lepomis megalotis, (Rafinesque), Long-eared Sunfish.

Abundant in rivers and large creeks. Scarce in small
creeks. The most common sunfish in our larger
streams. It is an important species from the stand-
point of local anglers.

Lepomis humilis (Girard), Orange-spotted Sunfish.

Common in Flat Branch, and some have been taken from
the Kaskaskia River. No records for it in the Embar-
ras system near Charleston, but it has been found in
this system in Douglas county.

Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill), Blue-gill.

Only one taken by the writer in the region, and that was
from Kickapoo Creek. Forbes and Richardson record
it for the Kaskaskia near Coles county.

Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede, Small-mouthed Black

Bass.

A few specimens have been taken by the writer in the
Embarras River, Polecat Creek, and Kickapoo Creek
during the present year, 1913. None have been found
by him prior to this year, although it was recorded for
the Charleston region by Forbes and Richardson.

Micropterus salmoides Lecepede, Large-mouthed Black-

Bass.

Abundant in the Embarras River and in its tributaries
not far from the main stream. It prefers the deeper
water of these streams and is most frequently found
about masses of submerged tree roots. None are pres-
ent in my collections from the Kaskaskia system, al-
though Forbes and Richardson record it from there.

Stizostedion canadense griseum (De Kay), Gray Pike.

Taken in the Kaskaskia system close to the west
boundary of Coles county, according to Forbes and
Richardson.

Percina caprodes (Rafinesque), Log-Perch.

Uncommon. A few have been taken from the Embarras
River, from the Kaskaskia River and from Kickapoo
Creek.

Hadropterus phoxocephalus (Nelson).

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 11]

Uncommon. Taken from the Embarras and Kaskaskia
Rivers but not from any of their tributaries.

61. Hadropterus aspro (Cope and Jordan) , Black-sided

Darter.

Common in the Embarras and in the Kaskaskia Rivers
and in large creeks. Scarce in small creeks.

62. Hadropterus sciurus Swain.

Apparently very rare. Two were taken by the writer in
the Embarras River.

63. Diplesion blennoides (Rafinesque), Green-sided Darter.

Abundant in certain parts of the Embarras River and its
larger tributaries, where the water is shallow and swift
and where thre are considerable algae (Cladophora.)
None have been found in small creeks; and there are
no records for the Kaskaskia system.

64. Boleosoma nigrum (Rafinesque), Johnny Darter.

Abundant; chiefly in rivers and large creeks.

65. Boleosoma camurum Forbes.

One taken in the Kaskaskia River by the writer. This
is the only record for the region.

66. Ammocrypta pellucida (Baird), Sand Darter.

Found in considerable numbers in some parts of the
Embarras River where the bottom is sandy. Not ob-
tained from any other stream in the region.

67. Etheostoma jessiae (Jordan and Brayton).

Rare; one taken from the Embarras River and one from

the Kaskaskia River in Coles county, by the writer.
68. Etheostoma caeruleum Storer, Rainbow Darter.

Abundant on stony shoals in the Embarras River and in
its larger tributaries. Uncommon in small creeks. No
records have been obtained for the Kaskaskia system.
in the Charleston region.

69. Etheostoma flabellare (Rafinesque), Fan-tail Darter.

Often taken in the Embarras and in its larger tributaries;
not abundant anywhere. No records for the Kaskaskia
system in the Charleston region.

7o. Boleichthys fusiformis (Girard).

Only one taken in the region by the writer, and this was
from the Embarras River. This is the only record
obtained for the region.

Summary and Conclusions.

Records of seventy species of fish occuring in the vi-
cinity of Charleston, Illinois, and within the boundaries of
Coles county, have been obtained.

Besides these seventy species, there are. according to the
distribution data given in Forbes and Richardson’s work on
the Fishes of Illinois, twenty-three species that possibly oc-

Ld ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

cur about Charleston, but no authentic instance of their being
found in the region has come to the knowledge of the writer
of this paper. These are given in the following hypothetical
list ty
Lepisosteus platostomus Rafinesque, Short-nosed Gar.
Anguilla chrysypa Rafinesque, American Eel. .
Hiocdon alosoides (Rafinesque), Northern Mooneye.
Ictiobus cyprinella (Cuvier and Valienciennes), Red-
mouth Buffalo.

Ictiobus urus (Agassiz), Mongrel Buffalo.

Ictiobus bubalus (Rafinesque), Small-mouthed Buffalo.

Moxostoma aniSurum (Rafinesque), White-nosed Sucker.

Phalcopharynx duquesnei (Le Sueur).

Notropis heterodon (Cope), Black-chinned Minnow.

Notropis gilberti Jordan and Meek.

Notropis jejunus (Forbes).

Ictalurus furcatus (Le Sueur), Blue Cat. .

Ameéiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur).

Noturus flavus Rafinesque, Stonecat.

Fundulus dispar (Agassiz).

Lepomis mineatus Jordan.

Eupomotis heros (Baird and Girard).

Stizostedion vitreum (Mitchill).

Hadropterus ouachitae (Jordan and Gilbert).

Cottogaster shumardii (Girard).

Crystallaria asperella (Jordan).

Etheostoma zonale (Cope), Banded Darter. ©

Etheostoma squamiceps Jordan.

There are thirty-eight of the seventy species recorded
about Charleston that may be considered either common or
abundant. A list of these is given in the table‘on pages 104-5.

One of the most interesting features concerning the dis-
tribution of fish in the streams about Charleston is the dis-
similarity between the fish faunas of the Kaskaskia and the
Embarras systems in the region. There are five species in
the latter that are either absent or very scare in the former.
These are the stone-roller, Storer’s chub, brindled stonecat,
green-sided darter, and the rainbow darter; and then there are
six species, each forming quite a conspicuous part of the Kas-
kaskia fish fauna, which are absent of very scarce in the Em-
barras system about Charleston. These are: the spotted
sucker, silvery minnow, river chub, tadpole cat, pirate perch
and orange-spotted sunfish. These faunal differences are not
remarkable when we consider that the two streams are in
very different drainage basins, the Mississippi and the Wa-
bash; but they signify a marked distinctness of the two sys-
tems geographically in the Charleston region.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 113

Each of the species of fish most carefully studied favors
certain types of streams and certain places in these streams.
A study of the factors that determine these preferences is now
being made, and the results of this work are intended for
other publications. Some notes on these habitat preferences
are given in this paper in the annotated list and in the table.

The Charleston region is well adapted for the study of the
local distribution of stream fish, for there are many streams
present, and these are of a number of different types. They
are also located in country of two distinct kinds, prairie and
wooded morainal, each of which is typical of that found in
large portions of Our state. The streams are also interesting
because they are along the line, separating the Lower
Illinois Glaciation from the Wisconsin Glaciation. These
two regions are very distinct ichthyologically, as shown by
the work of Forbes and Richardson. The Coles county fish
fauna is most like that of the Wisconsin Glaciation.

THE DISAPPEARING BEAVER.
6 ELLIOT R. DOWNING.

In a bulletin of the State Biological Survey on the Mam-
mals of Champaign County, the statement was made that in
the early days the beaver was an inhabitnant of Illinois. Now.
there probably are none of the animals left within the state.
It has been my good fortune to follow it in its retreat to
regions where it still is abundant. The book that is still the
American classic on the beaver was written by Morgan, wi:o
made most of his observations upon the beaver in northern
Michigan. I lived as a boy in the neighborhood. of the
streams where he saw these animals and have recently had
the chance to watch them at work in this-same region. My
early interest was one of curiosity merely; my later purpose
in studying the work of the animal, to see in how far the
skill which he displays is a result of instinct and how far
it is a matter of intelligence. No other animal leaves such
extensive workings and hence the beaver is an exceedingly
good subject for the study of animal behavior, since the rec-
ord of his work is easily read and relatively permanent.

Permit me to give a brief resume of the life hibits of the
animal as observed in northern Michigan. In the deeper
streams where the banks are steep, the beaver does not
build the dam, but excavates a burrow in the bank. There
are many colonies of these bank beavers in the Upper Penin-
sula streams, Usually, however, especially on the smaller

114 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

streams, the beaver-dams are conspicuous objects. The
dams are built of tag-alder principally, with poplar and
birch. The tag-alder is an almost constant border tree along
the streams. I have seldom seen any indication that its bark
is used for food, but it is extensively cut to form the dams.
These dams are usually rather loose structures, the chinks
of which are filled in by floating debris that is entangled in
the brush cut and piled by the beavers. Many of the dams
have the appearance of being constructed by the accumulation
of the stripped poles and logs that have floated down from
the beaver pond and lodged in the pile of alder brush which
initiates the dam. The dams usually bend down stream and
will vary from a few yards in length to many hundred feet.
The long dam in the accompanying map was 256 feet in
length. Morgan records dams three times this length. The
dam varies in height from a few inches to several feet. I
recall one dam on the branch of the Huron River that was
something over 300 feet long and some 12 feet high at its
highest point. In the beaver pond the houses are built and
near the house in the fall there is accumulated a pile of brush
made up ordinarily of poplar branches,—that is the store
of food for winter. :

Beavers are vegetarians and feed on bark and tender
twigs of the poplar, occasionally on birch and other trees,
but the poplar is the staple article of food. Populus tre-
muloides and grandidentata are the common forms in north-
ern Michigan. Succulent roots and tender shoots of many
of the plants growing along and in the streams are also eaten
during the spring and summer. In the fall, most activity
is seen in the beaver colony, for then the dam and houses
are repaired and the winter stores accumulated. The pop-
lar trees are cut while the beaver sits upon its haunches,
supported in part by the tail, and the stump is usually from
16 inches to 20 inches in height. Poplars from 4 inches to
6 inches in diameter seem to be the favorites, but much larger
trees are cut down up to 18 inches. Larger cuttings are re-
ported, but I have never observed them in the northern
woods. The branches are trimmed off the trees, the trunks
cut into convenient lengths, three feet to six feet long and the
branches and logs are transported to the pond to be piled
in the heap of winter food. Not infrequently one finds a
stump showing one cutting running halfway through it,
which had evidently been abandoned by a beaver, then a
second beaver has finished cutting down the tree, but instead
of completing the cut started by the first beaver, he made a
new one three inches to four inches above the first partial
cut. In several instances, trees had been cut off by the
beavers, but instead of falling the butt of the tree had slip-

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 115

ped off of the stump and was held upright, its branches being
entangled among neighboring branches. Near a rather flat
topped hill some fifty feet above the level of Dead River near
Marquette, Michigan, there was an old dam; from just above
this dam, as also from Rainy Creek on the other side of the
hill, canals had been cut across the rather level ground to the
base of the hill in order that the poplars growing on the sides
of the hills might readily be transferred to the streams. The
canal running just above the dam to the mouth of the ra-
vine was about 130 feet long. Down the steep hillsides were
worn well used slides down which the beavers coasted their
logs. Some poplar trees on the sides of the ravine had been
cut and in falling had fallen across the ravine and lodged
with the butt on one side and the top on the other. The
beavers were evidently puzzled to meet this situation. The
top had been gnawed as also the butt, irregularly, but a dozen
such trees had been abandoned.

Apparently we have a mixture of keen intelligence and
inexplicable stupidity from this same animal and I am not
prepared as yet to state any definite conclusions regarding the
degree of intelligence.

PRACTICAL CLOUD STUDIES.
M. L. FULLER.

Weather forecasting the world over is done principally
by watching the shift and development of the high pressure
areas and low pressure areas shown on the daily weather
maps. These maps, as is well understood, are prepared from
data furnished by simultaneous observations telegraphed at
regular hours, usually twice each day, from all stations in
the country; and a study of consecutive maps indicates the
direction and the rate of movement of the Highs and Lows
that appear thereon, and the principal features of weather
and temperature that accompany them. In this way the
probable weather for a given state or locality is estimated
for one or two days in advance and the estimate is issued
as the official forecast.

The work of forecasting is complicated by the great
variation that occurs in both the direction and the rate of
progress of the Highs and Lows and in the distribution
of cloudiness and precipitation about the Lows. While the
pressure areas in temperate latitudes almost invariably move
eastward, their paths may be at almost any eastward angle
and may change from one to another on short notice. And
their speed may vary from almost nothing to a thousand

116 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

miles or more per day. Also, though the distribution of
clouds and precipitation about a Low is occasionally sym-
metrical and uniform, it is nearly always irregular and un-
even, and one scarcely sees two maps in ten years that are
exactly alike. Especially in the summer half of the year is
the arrangement of the clouds and rain of a’ Low usually very
erratic. The showers are generally of relatively small ex-
tent, with much clear or partly cloudy sky between, and there
is often little or nothing on the map to indicate even approx-
imately what localities will receive rain and which ones will
be missed.

Since the occurrence or non-occurrence of precipitaation
is in many respects and for most people the most important of
the weather elements for the larger part of the year, and since
rain or snow is always associated with cloudiness, and since
this precipitation is usually preceded by certain distinct types
of clouds, and attended by other types, and followed by still
others, it would seem that a study of the cloud forms and
developments and movements ought to yield some assistance
to one interested in foretelling the weather. This has resulted
in the experience of the writer.

Rain is nearly always preceded several hours, or a day or
more, by cirrus of cirro stratus clouds, though sometimes
these are obscured by lower clouds and can only be seen
through an occasional break in the lower layer. The ap-
pearance and movements of cirrus and cirro-stratus should
be carefully noted, as these clouds do not always indicate
rain. Among numerous types of cirrus indications are the
following.

Cirrus spreading rather rapidly from west and thicken-
ing toward the horizon usually indicate that a storm is ap-
proaching or developing in the west. If the movement of
the individual clouds is from the west the storm will probably
advance over your locality arriving in about average time.
But if under a similar arrangement and appearance of cirrus,
the movement of the individual clouds is from S. W. or S .S.
W., the approach and passing and departure of the storm will
usually be slower, there is likelihood of more rainfall, and the
clearing will be delayed longer, than with the first type of
cirrus, even though the weather maps in both instances should
be alike.

~ Cirrus or cirro-stratus moving rapidly from S. W. to N.
E., or from W. S. W. to E. N.E., and covering or crossing the
upper half of the southern sky, will be followed by rain or
snow next day four times out of five. (There is one set of
conditions under which this rule will not hold). If the move-
ment of cirrus is from nearly due west and crosses only the

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 117

southern sky, the chance of rain at your locality is less, as the
storm may pass to south of you.

Cirrus in the lower half of the northern sky, having the
form that seems to spread outward from the northwest, but
at the same time moving from due west, indicate rain to
north and northeast of your locality within probably 12
hours. A similar appearance in the north with the cirrus
covering the northwest sky and moving rapidly out ircm the
northwest toward the zenith, indicates rain at your locality
usually within 12 hours.

Scattered cirrus and cirro-stratus frequently mark or
indicate the path to be followed by summer showers. Some-
times cirrus merged with alto-stratus do the same. Alto-
cumulus and the higher type of strato cumulus often mark
the path of showers to follow. That is, one may quite often
know from these clouds that showers moving from the west
will pass to north of his locality within 4 to 10 hours; or that
they will first develop to the north or northwest and will
later overspread his vicinity; or that they are likely to occur
only to the southeast of him. Alto cumulus in early morning,
moving from west or southwest over or near the zenith, and
unaccompanied by approaching storm clouds, indicate thun-
der showers the following mid-afternoon or evening.

There is one combination and sequence of cirrus and
alto-stratus in afternoon and early evening that indicates rain
with thunder for the following morning or early forenoon
nine times out of ten. This combination has been used suc-
cessfully in evening to predict rain for the following morn-
ing when even the P. M. weather map of the day did not show
any storm approaching or developing.

In a similar manner clouds often enable one to know
whether an approaching shower is likely to be heavy or
light; or when rain now in progress will cease; or whether at
the end of one shower another is soon to follow; and num-
erous other features of interest or value.

The foregoing illustrates what may be done by cloud
study. The rules given will apply in the northern half of
Illinois and the most of Iowa, and in most of.the surround-
ing states with probably slight modifications. For other
sections of middle and eastern United States further changes
would doubtless be required, but the same methods could be
used to advantage.

To use these suggestions it is of course necessary to be
acquainted with the standard classification of clouds. A con-
siderable fund of personal observations and experience is also
essential to familiarize one with the cloud types mentioned,
as these can not always be accurately recognized from a
mere verbal description.

118 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The purpose of this paper is simply to suggest lines along
which practical use may be made of cloud observations that
any intelligent person with opportunity to view the sky may
readily make for himself.

STRATIGRAPHY .OF THE CHESTER: GROUF I
SOUTHWESTERN ILLINOIS.

STUART WELLER*

Introduction.

The earlier work on the stratigraphy of the Chester
group in southern Illinois was done by Swallow, (1) Hall, (2)
Engelmann, (3) and Worthen. (4) No attempt will be made
in this place to review in detail the work of these several,
observers. It is sufficient to state that after the publication
of Worthen’s reports of the Geological Survey of Illinois, a
fairly well defined series of rock strata, at the summit of the
so-called Sub-Carboniferous or Lower Carboniferous series,
having their typical development in Randolph County, were
commonly known as the Chester group. Hall had applied
the name of Kaskaskia to the greater part of the same series
and the names Kaskaskia and Chester were commonly con-
sidered as being synonymous. Rocks having similar litho-
logic characters and with the same fossils, were recognized in
other states further south, notably in Kentucky and Alabama,
and the same names, either Chester or Kaskaskia were applied
to them: The total thickness of the rock strata to which these
names were applied was 800 or more feet.

No serious attempt was made to subdivide this Chester
group until the publication by Ulrich and Smith of a report
on “The Lead, Zinc and Fluorspar Deposits of Western
Kentucky” in 1905 (5). In this report Ulrich proposed to
divide the entire group into three major formations, the Ste.
Genevieve limestone below, the Cypress sandstone, second,
and the Kaskaskia limestone above. The name Ste. Genevieve
had been used by Shumard (6) for a limestone in Missouri,
which comprised a part of the Ste. Genevieve of Ulrich. (6)
The name Cypress had been proposed by Engelmann in the
same sense as used by Ulrich, this sandstone being the basal
member of the Chester group of Worthen. Kaskaskia was
a revival of Hall’s name which was originally applied to the
beds lying above the Cypress sandstone of Engelmann. The

* Published by permission of the Director of the Illinois State
Geological Survey.

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 119

Birdsville formation.

Tribune limestone.

Kaskaskia
limestone

-_ OS

Cypress sandstone.

Ohara lirnestone.

Chester Group.

Ste. Genevieve

: Rosiclare sandstone.
limestone

Fredonia oolitic limestone.

subordinate members of the Ste. Genevieve limestone, Fre-
donia, Rosiclare, and Ohara, were used for the first time by
Ulrich in this report, as were also the names Tribune and
Birdsville, the two formations in which the Kaskaskia lime-
stone was divided.

The most notable innovation in Ulrich’s classification,
is the inclusion of the Ste. Genevieve limestone in the Chester
group. Engelmann had recognized two Chester beds in
Johnson and other southern counties in Illinois, which he
believed to be sub-Cypress in position, and to these two sup-
posed sub-Cypress beds Ulrich gave the names Rosiclare
sandstone and Ohara limestone and included them in his
larger Ste. Genevieve limestone. The distinguishing fea-
tures of Ulrich’s Ste. Genevieve is a lithologic succession,
limestone below and above with an intermediate sandstone
member, rather than any faunal character.

The detailed field work of the writer during several sea-
sons, upon the Chester formations in the Waterloo, Renault,
Baldwin and Chester quadrangles, comprising parts of Mon-
roe and Randolph counties, has led to some important con-
clusions in the interpretation of this upper portion of the
Mississippian section, which are not wholly in accord with
the classification of Ulrich. The detailed observations by
Worthen and other earlier geologists, were confined mainly
to the sections in the Mississippi River bluffs and although the
Chester rocks were recognized at many points in the inter-
ior, no serious attempt was ever made to establish exact cor-
relations. between them and the beds in the bluff sections.
A careful study of the Chester beds which are widely ex-
posed in the stream valleys back from the Mississippi River
bluffs, has greatly magnified the importance of the lower
members of the section. Worthen’s lower limestone, bed No.

120 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

2, in his Randolph County section, immediately superjacent
to the Cypress sandstone, was described as a “compact gray
limestone, with intercalations of blue, green and purple clay
shales,” 150 feet thick. The more detailed studies have shown
this bed to be a composite member, made up of several dis-
tinct formational units, with an aggregate thickness con-
siderably greater than estimated by Worthen. The Cypress
sandstone also, as interpreted by Worthen, proves to be a
composite member the higher beds comprising a distinct for-
mation which rests unconformably upon the lower.

These detailed studies have necessitated the recognition
of a series of nine distinct formations in the Chester group,
which are designated as follows:

9. Clore formation.

8. Palestine formation.

Menard formation.
Okaw formation.

Ruma formation.
Paint Creek formation.
Yankeetown formation.
Renault formation.
Brewerville sandstone.

Each of these formations possesses distinct lithologic and
faunal characters by which it may be easily recognized, and
all of them may be readily traced and mapped throughout
the region studied. Ulrich’s division of the supra-Cypress
portion of the Chester into the Tribune and Birdsville forma-
tions has not been carried out in detail by him in the Ran-
dolph and Monroe county area, but he has stated (7) that
he considers the summit of the limestone ledge quarried in
the Southern Illinois Penitentiary near Chester, to be the
dividing line between the Tribune and Birdsville. Under
this interpretation the Tribune of Ulrich would include the
Okaw, the Ruma, the Paint Creek, the Yankeetown and part
of the Renault formations, leaving the Menard, the Pales-
tine and the Clore as the equivalent of the Birdsville. Fur-
thermore, all the formations from the summit of the Okaw
downward to some point within the Renault, have been dif-
ferentiated from Worthen’s 150 foot limestone member im-
mediately superjacent to the basal sandstone or Cypress
member in his Randolph county section. It will be under-
stood from this statement, therefore, that the most important
results of these recent studies have been in magnifying the
importance of the lower portion of the Chester group, these
members of the group having their more typical development,
not in the Mississippi River bluffs, but in the region between
the Mississippi and the Okaw or Kaskaskia valleys,

Pe ae ae eT

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 121

The general characters of each of the formational units
designated above will be outlined here.

1. Brewerville Sandstone.

General characters. In its original application by Engel-
mann, the name Cypress was used to designate a series of
“quartzose sandstones with some shaly portions, about 150
feet thick,” which have a prominent development on Cypress
creek in Johnson county. The same formation was recog-
nized by Worthen in the Mississippi river bluffs below
Prairie du Rocher, although he never used the name Cypress,
referring to it always as “the lower sandstone of the Chester
group.” The thickness of the formation, as recognized by
Worthen, was “from 50 to 100 feet or more.” Excellent ex-
posures of the formation in the Randolph-Monroe County
area, are to be seen in the Mississippi river bluffs immediately
above Modoc, and in the ravines between Modoc and Prairie
du Rocher, also in the valleys of the north and south forks
of Horse Creek and their tributaries west of Red Bud, in the
valley of Rock House Creek southeast of Waterloo, and in
the valleys of Prairie du Long Creek and its tributaries east
and northeast of Waterloo.

It was apparently the purpose of Englemann, and also of
‘Worthen, to include in the Cypress formation all the essen-
tially arenaceous beds in the basal portion of the Chester
group, and Ulrich’s interpretation also conforms with that of
these earlier writers, although he states that “in the most
complete development of the formation it is divisible into
three members or beds.” (5) The upper member is said to
include thin-bedded and slightly argillaceous strata, the
lower member being apparently always massive. The mid-
dle bed of Ulrich, “a highly fossiliferous, cherty, blue, fine-
grained limestone, rarely more than four or five feet thick,”
is said to lie 60 feet to 80 feet beneath the top of the forma-
tion,

The field studies of the writer have shown that these
lower arenaceous strata of the Chester group are divisible
into two distinct formations, separated by an unconformity
and overlap. For the lower of these formations, which in-
cludes the more massive basal member of the Cypress as that
term was used by Engelmann and by Ulrich, the name Brew-
erville is proposed.

The formation is a very massive, fine or medium grained
sandstone in thick beds, often more or less conspicuously
cross-bedded. Its color on freshly broken surfaces is a soft
brown tint, which in sonie localities becomes nearly white.
Not infrequently it is mottled with small, darker brown
specks, On long exposed, weathered surfaces, the color in

122 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

most localities is a darker brown than that of freshly broken
surfaces. Wherever the streams have eroded their chan-
nels in this massive sandstone formation, picturesque gorges
have been formed with nearly vertical walls. The maximum
thickness of the formation probably does not exceed 70 or
80 feet, and practically the entire maximum thickness is ex-
posed in the Mississippi river bluffs, two miles above Modoc,
and in the bluffs of Rock House Creek, three and one-half
miles southeast of Waterloo. To the eastward, north of
Prairie du Rocher, the formation thins out entirely, the super-
jacent Renault formation resting, by overlap, directly upon
the St. Louis limestone.

Sub-Brewerville unconformity. Throughout the
Randolph-Monroe county area, the Brewerville rests uncon-
formably upon the underlying formations. The subjacent
limestone floor in most of the area is the St. Louis limestone,
but in the Mississippi River bluffs below Prairie du Rocher,
and in some of the ravines southeast of the same town, a
remnant of the Ste. Genevieve limestone is still present. The
demonstration of the unconformity, however, is not alone
dependent upon the absence of the Ste. Genevieve in part of
the area. At the close of the erosion period during which the
Ste. Genevieve limestone was wholly removed over a large
area, the resultant surface was uneven, although with no ab-
rupt relief features. Where the actual contact of the Brewer-
ville upon the underlying strata can be seen, as in the bluffs
between Prairie du Rocher and Modoc the difference in
elevation of the contact, as well as the different strata at the
summit of the subjacent formation, are clearly discernable.
A difference in elevation of the contact line, of at least 100
feet in a distance of one mile or less, is observable west of
Red Bud. Furthermore, at many localities on the north fork
of Horse Creek and its tributaries, and in Rock House Creek,
the basal bed of the Cypress is a conspicuous layer of brec-
cia, one foot or more in thickness, made up of angular masses
of the very characteristic chert from the upper St. Louis
limestone beds, these masses ranging in size from a fraction
of an inch to a foot or more in the their maximum dimension.

2. Renault Formation.
General characters. The Renault formation consists of

an exceedingly complex series of strata whose lithologic.

characters change rapidly both in horizontal extent and
vertically. The formation includes sandstones, arenaceous
shales, variegated green, blue and purple shales, calcareous
shales, thin platy layers of limestone in some of the calcare-
ous shales, dense arenaceous limestones, nearly pure crystal-
line limestones, oolitic limestones, and in the northern part of

oo

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 123

the Waterloo quadrangle, limestone conglomerate. The forma-
tion undoubtedly includes some portion of the “lower sand-
stone of the Chester group,” of Worthen, and it is believed
that Ulrich’s middle and upper divisions of the Cypress in
Kentucky should be referred to the Renault. The thicker
bedded sandstone and the arenaceous limestone strata of the
formation are conspicuously cross-bedded in almost every lo-
cality where they are exposed. In general the sandstones
are thin-bedded with shaly partings, passing imperceptably
into arenaceous shales. In many localities thin flaggy beds
of sandstone are pierced by closely crowded, vertical bur-
rows a quarter of an inch or less in diameter which in a
weathered condition, occur as more or less complete perfora-
tions of the beds. Some of the heavier sandstone layers
closely simulate the massive Brewerville. Such beds usually
occur, when present, in the higher portion of the formation
and rarely or never attain a thickness of over 10 to 20 feet.
They may be distinguished from the Brewerville, not only
by their less thickness, but also by the presence of the under-
lying shales, often variegated, sometimes by underlying
limestone strata, and they usually contain some more or less
fragmentary fossils.

The Renault formation is typically developed in the
eastern portion of Renault township in Monroe county, where
excellent exposures may be seen in the valleys of the two
forks of Horse Creek and their tributaries. Good exposures
may also be seen in the stream valleys northeast, east and
southeast of Waterloo. Towards the western border the
formation is composed almost entirely of arenaceous strata.
Eastwardly the thickness gradually increases until it attains
its maximum of from 80 to 100 feet; the calcareous strata also
become more conspicuous towards the east, where important
crystalline limestone beds are developed. The variegated
shales have a conspicuous development in the basal part of
the formation in the region northeast of Waterloo, where an
important bed of these sediments, 25 feet or more in thick-
ness, is frequently exposed in the valleys of Prairie du Long
Creek and its tributaries. Similar, but less extensive beds
of the same general character, occur elsewhere in the forma-
tion, and they may be expected almost anywhere within the
area of outcrop.

The Renault overlap. In its geographic distribution the
Renault formation is much more .widespread than the sub-
jacent Brewerville, since through much of its area it over-
laps the Brewerville along its western border, and rests
directly upon the St. Louis or Ste. Genevieve limestone, the
actual amount of overlap observed in the Renault quadrangle
being at least two miles. The unconformable relations of the

124 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Renault with these limestones, when they are the immediately
subjacent rocks, is very clear, and in one point in Hickman
Creek, about two miles west of Millstadt, in the northern
part of the Waterloo quadrangle, an important bed of lime-
stone conglomerate is present in the base of the formation.
At this locality the conglomerate rests directly upon the Ste.
Genevieve limestone, and the rounded pebbles in the conglom-
erate are mostly from the immediate underlying Ste. Gene-
vieve beds. The unconformity of the Renault upon the
Brewerville is not so obvious, but it seems to be clearly es-
tablished. The arenaceous character of the higher formation,
especially towards its western border, sometimes makes it
difficult to determine exactly the line of contact between the
two formations. In several localities, however, where the
Renault is represented by calcareous beds and the Cypress is
possessed of its typical, massive, unmistakable characters,
there are notable discrepences in the elevation of the con-
tact between the two formations within rather short dis-
tances, which would indicate an erosion interval preceeding
the deposition of the younger formation. Furthermore, in
a tributary of Hickman Creek, two and one-half miles north-
east of Millstadt, the Renault rests upon the Brewerville with
a limestone conglomerate in the base of the formation.

3. Yankeetown Formation:

General characters. The Yankeetown formation, al-
though a thin stratum which probably never exceeds and
rarely attains 20 feet in thickness, is one of the most per-
sistent members in the Chester group of the Randolph-Monroe
county area. In all its outcrops where it has been exposed to
long weathering, the formation is almost completely silice-
ous, the color usually being light buff or nearly white.
Where it has not been subjected to such long weathering,
or where it has been encountered in digging wells, it 1s com-
monly, in part at least, composed of highly siliceous lime-
stones; some of the beds are slightly sandy, and locally the
formation is partly quartzitic; where this quartzitic facies is
best developed, on Hickman Creek in the northern portion
of the Waterlo quadrangle, the color is distinctly red or rose.
The bedding of the formation is commonly very irregular and
contorted.

In its geographic distribution the Yankeetown extends
from the extreme northern portion of the Waterloo quad-
rangle to the Mississippi river bluffs, about two miles below
Modoc, near the southeastern corner of the Renault quad-
rangle, where it passes beneath the younger formations. The
bed is so resistant that in many localities it is well exposed in
stream beds where other members of the Chester are en-

—— 4

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 125

tirely covered, and in regions where the drift mantle is not
excessively thick the position of the formation can be de-
tected in the public highways, and frequently in the fields,
by the presence of the characteristic chert-like fragments in
the soil. In the valleys and the ravines the Yankeetown out-
crop is reduced to a mere line on the map, but upon some of
the divides it is the underlying rock over considerable areas
because of its resistant character, such being the case south-
east of New Design and east of Renault. Some excellent
and typical exposures of the formation may be seen in the
region about Yankeetown school. from which exposures, the
name of the formation has been derived. Northwest and
southwest of Millstadt, in the northern portion of the Water-
loo quadrangle, the Yankeetown constitutes the floor upon
which the Pennsylvanian beds have been laid down and it is
exposed in some of the stream beds which have been cut
through the Pennsylvanian.

In its stratigraphic relations with the subjacent Renault
formation, the Yankeetown 1s believed to be unconformable,
although the unconformity can possibly not be established
with entire satisfaction. At different localities the higher
formation rests directly upon the very different beds of the
Renault, sometimes upon sandstone, sometimes upon lime-
stone and sometimes upon shale. Furthermore, the under-
lying Renault varies in thickness beneath the Yankeetown
from 40 feet or less to more than twice that thickness. If the
Yankeetown was not deposited unconformably upon the
Renault, there must have been an abrupt transition from the
remarkably heterogeneous conditions, as evidenced by the
variable. sediments of the Renault, to the wonderfully uni-
form sedimentation of the Yankeetown.

4. Paint Creek Formation.

General characters. The Paint Creek formation suc-
ceeds the Yankeetown with apparent conformity, and is very
uniform in its characteristics throughout the entire Randolph-
Monroe county area. Its thickness is from 60 to 80 feet,
the average thickness probably not much exceeding 60 feet.
The lower half of the formation, or perhaps somewhat more
than half, is almost entirely shale, while the higher portion
is largely limestone with shale partings.

In the lower portion of the formation occurs one of the
most peculiar and most persistent beds in the whole Chester
group. It is a deep red, compact clay, without lamination or
bedding planes, commonly without inclusions of any sort,
but in at least one locality a number of irregularly rounded
pebbles of Chester limestone, from one or two to several
inches in diameter have been observed. The summit of this

126 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

bed is uniformly, in all localities where measurements have
been possible, from 20 to 25 feet above the Yankeetown chert.
The exact thickness of the red bed itself, however, cannot
often be observed because of the weathering and slumping
of the material over the underlying strata, but where the
interval immediately above the Yankeetown has best been

seen, a series of bluish calcareous shales with plates of lime-.

stone extends for several feet above the chert. The actual
thickness of the red bed is probably about 12 or 15 feet:in
the natural outcrops which have been observed, and this
thickness is confirmed by the records of several dug wells
which have penetrated the stratum. When encountered in
well digging the bed is very hard and tough and can be ex-
cavated only by the aid of blasting, but when exposed to the
weather it rapidly breaks down into a fine red mud. On
freshly exposed surfaces in creek banks this red clay first
clumbles into angular fragments, usually a fraction of an
inch in maximum dimension, and finally breaks down into
a fine red mud. The origin of such a bed as has been des-
cribed, persistent as it is through a distance of at least
30 miles in the Waterloo and Renault quadrangles, is not
clear. In its physical characters it closely simulates certain
beds of red residual clays, but such an origin for this stra-
tum, occurring as it does conformably in the midst of typical
marine sediments, seems to be out of the question. One of
the best points to observe this member of the Paint Creek
formation, as well as the higher members of the same forma-
tion, is the valley of the tributary of Paint Creek, entering
from the south, situated about one and one-fourth miles
southwest of the village of Ames.

The higher, more calcareous members of the Paint
Creek formation, shaly below and passing into firmer lime-
stone beds above, are well exposed in many localities in the
Waterloo and Renault quadrangles. In some localities under-
lain by the limestones of the formation, numerous sink holes
are developed in the topography, such a condition being pres-
ent on the divide immediately west of Ames.

5. Ruma Formation.

General characters. Succeeding the upper limestone mem-
ber of the Paint Creek formation, is a series of shales
the sandstones, rarely if ever more than 40 or 50 feet in
thickness. The shales usually predominate, but in all lo-
calities where the formation is well exposed, there are im-
portant, thin-bedded sandstone layers and some arenaceous
shales near the middle of the formation. The more shaly
beds are in almost all localities conspicuously variegated: being
blue, reddish and purple in color, not unlike some of the shale

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 127

beds of the Renault formation. The Ruma formation is the
highest formation in the Chester group in Randolph and
Monroe ccunties in which conspicuous variegated shale beds
have been observed. In at least one locality a thin lime-
stone ledge, one or two feet in thickness, has been observed
in the midst of the Ruma, but the occurrence of limestone in
the formation is rare- Excellent and typical exposures of the
Ruma formation may be seen in the stream valleys tributary
to Horse Creek, west and northwest of the village of Ruma.

6. Okaw Formation.

General characters. The Okaw formation comprises
a series of alternating limestones and shales which have an
aggregate thickness of from 150 to 200 feet. The valley of
the Kaskaskia or Okaw River is excavated through these
beds at its junction with the valley of the Mississippi, and
excellent exposures of the various members of the formation
are present both above and below this point in the Missis-
sippi River bluffs.

At least four, and perhaps five important limestone
members are present in the formation, the uppermost of
which is the quarry ledge at the Penitentiary. These lime-
stones vary greatly in color from dark blue to gray and nearly
white, the weathered surfaces of some strata being buff or
brownish. The texture also varies from a very compact
limestone to more or less coarsely crystalline beds, with
some distinctly oolitic zones. One very persistent oolitic
bed nearly white in color, occurs about 50 or 60 feet from the
base of the formation. Most of the limestone beds are free
from chert, although some cherty horizons are present in the
formation. These calcareous members of the formation
sometimes consist of rather massive beds of limestone, but
more frequently the individual beds are a foot or less in
thickness, separated by thin shaly partings.

The shale members of the Okaw formation, occu-
pying the intervals between the limestones, are soft and
easily acted upon by the weather, and consequently are rare-
ly well exposed. Where they have come under observation
in certain ravines, these shales are commonly blue or gray
in color, rarely with a slight admixture of red or purple, which
is such a conspicuous feature of some of the lower shale hori-
zons.

The highest member of the Okaw, immediately
above the quarry ledge at the Penitentiary, consists of cal-
careous shales with interbedded thin limestones, and locally
a sandstone ledge 10 to 12 feet in thickness is present.

128 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

7. Menard Formation.

General characters. The Menard limestone is a con-
spicuous formation, well exposed in the middle portion of
the bluffs at Chester. One of the best exhibitions of the
formation is to be seen immediately southeast of the hospital
for criminal insane at Menard. In its typical expression this
limestone is thin and moderately thick bedded, the bedding
planes being undulating and hummocky in character, with
thin shaly partings. In places these shaly partings become
thicker and shale beds of as much as five feet or more in
thickness are present. The basal portion of the formation,
where it is exposed, is seen to be shale, as much as 35 feet
of fine, blue clay shale being present in some localities be-
tween the top of the Okaw and the typical limestone
beds of the formation. The lithologic character of the lime-
stone of the formation differentiates the Menard rather sharp-
ly from most of the limestone strata of the Okaw. The
limestones of the lower formation are commonly more or less
crystalline or granular, often crinoidal, sometimes oolitic and
usually free from chert. In the Menard the limestones are near-
ly always close textured, fine grained rocks, and not infrequent-
ly carry a small amount of chert; they are brittle and often
exhibit a conchoidal fracture. Because of the difference in
texture the weathered surfaces of the Menard are commonly
smooth, those of the Okaw usually being more uneven.
The color of freshly broken surfaces of the Menard is us-
ually a bluish gray while that of the Okaw limestone
is commonly lighter, some beds being nearly white. Locally
there are more crystaline strata in the Menard which closely
resemble certain of the Okaw beds, but such strata are
always of limited thickness and usually occur in the higher
portion of the formation. The thickness of the formation is
about 80 feet. It is well exposed in the Mississippi River
bluffs from Chester to Rockwood, and the valley of Mary’s
River, at its mouth, is excavated entirely through this forma-
tion into the higher beds of the Okaw.

8. Palestine Formation.

General characters. The formation succeding the Me-
nard is arenaceous throughout in most sections, consisting
in part of heavy beds of sandstone suitable for building pur-
poses, and in part of thinly bedded, ripple marked sandstones
or arenaceous shales. Locally, however, more argillaceous
shales are well developed in the formation. The formation
is present in the higher portion of the bluffs at Chester, and
has been quarried at several points for building stone. The
buildings of the penitentiary at Menard are constructed of

PAPERS BY MEMBERS 129

this rock. The thickness of the formation is about 75 feet,
and it seems to lie with some degree of unconformity upon
the subjacent Menard limestone. The name of the formation
is derived from Palestine township, in Randolph County,
where excellent exposures may be seen.

9. Clore Formation.

General characters. The highest formation in the Ches-
ter group in Randolph County, is a limestone immediately
overlying the Palestine sandstone. The greatest thickness
actually measured in Randolph County is 30 feet, but it cer-
certainly exceeds this thickness in many localities. The
passage beds from the underlying sandstone to the Clore
limestone, consist of arenaceous and calcareous shales, with
some beds of limestone: occupying: in places, an interval of as
much as 25 feet below the more continuous limestone strata.
The lithologic characters of the limestone beds are variable,
some being thin bedded and almost shaly, others being similar
to the Menard in texture and hardness, but usually darker in
color, while others are more granular or crystalline. Some
shale beds are included in the formation.

The Clore limestone caps the summits of the hills upon
which the city of Chester is built, and it outcrops in the
heads of several of the ravines adjacent to the town. The
formation also caps other of the higher hills east and north-
east of Chester exposures being present in the heads of the
ravines on the southwest side of the high ridge extending
from Clore school to the Randolph County Farm. The most
extensive exposures which have come under observation are
in Bremen township of Randolph County, about two miles
northeast of the village of Bremen, where a small anticlinal
flexure brings this limestone to a lower elevation and its sur-
face outcrops spread out on either side of Little Mary’s River.

(1) Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 11, pt. 2, p. 5. (1858).

(2) Trans. Albany Inst., vol. 4, p. 2 (1858); Geol. Surv. Iowa, vol.
1, pt. 1, p. 107 (1858).

(3) Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 189 (1863); Geol.
Surv. Ill., vol. 1, pp. 350-455 (1866).

(4) Geol. Surv. Ill, vol. 1, pp. 77-83, 284-292, 305-308 (1866).

(5) U. S. G. S., Prof. Paper, No. 36, pp. 24, 36-66. (1905).

(6) Trans. St. Louis. Acad. Sci., vol. 1, p. 406 (1859).

(7) This is not a published statement, but a verbal statement
made in the course of a discussion of the problem with the writer.

130 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

LIST OF MEMBERS

Honorary Member.
Trelease, Wm., LL.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)
Corresponding Members.

Abbott, J. F., A. M., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. (Zo-
ology.)

Coulter, S. M., Ph.D., 3883 Juniata St., St. Louis, Mo. (Sctany.)

Eycleshymer, A. C., Ph.D., Physicians & Surgeons Medicai College,
Chicago. (Anatomy.)

Lyon, E. P., Ph.D., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. (Physi-
ology.)

Turner, C. H., Summer H. S., St. Louis, Mo. (Zoology.) °

Widham, O., Ph.D., 5105 Morgan St., St. Louis, Mo., (Ornithology,

Botany.)
Life Member.
Latham, Vida A., M.D., D.D.S., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago: (Micro-
scopy.)

Active Members.

Abbott, Walter S., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.
(Entomology.)

Ackert, J. E., A.B., University of Washington ,Seattle, Wash.
(Zoology.)

*Adams, C. C., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology,
Ecology.)

Adams, Howard W., Normal, Ill. (Chemistry.)

Akeley, C. E., American Museum, New York, N.Y. (Taxidermy.)

Allee, W. C., Ph.D., Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.
(Ecology.)

*Andrews, C. W., A.M., The John Crerar Library, Chicago, (Sci.
Biblio.)

Ashman, George C., Ph.D., Bradley Institute, Peoria. (Chemistry.)

*Atwell, Chas. B., Ph.M., Northwestern University, Evanston.
(Botany.)

*Atwood. W. W., Ph.D., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
(Geology.)

Babcock, Oliver B., M.D., 1100 S. Second St., Springfield. (Med.)

Bachmann, Frank, State Water Survey, Urbana, Il. (Chemistry.)

Bagg, Jr., R. M., (Paleontology.)

Bagley, W. C., Ph.D., Univ. of Ill., Urbana. (Educational Psy-
chology.)

Bain, Walter G., M.D., Prince Sanitarium, Springfield. (Bacteri-
ology.)

Baird, Miss Grace J., A.B., 5605 Madison Ave., Chicago. (Biology.)

Baker, Chas. L., B.S., Univ. of Chi., Chicago, (Paleontology and
Geology.)

LIST OF MEMBERS 131

Baker, Frank C., Chi. Academy of Sciences, Chicago (Conchology.)

Baker, I. O., C.E., 702 W. University Ave., Champaign. (Civil Eng.)

*Balke, Clarence W., Ph.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Barber, Fred D., State Normal Univ., Normal, Ill. (Physics.)

Barger, Thos. M., University High School, Normal.

Barnard, Edith Ethel, 410 W. Sixty-second St. Chicigo. (Chem.;

*Barnes, H. O., A.B., High School, Springfield. (Mathematics.)

Barnes, R. M., LL.B., Lacon. (Oology.)

Barnes, Will F., M.D., Decatur. (Lepidoptera.)

Barrett, J. T., Ph.D., Los Angeles, California. (Botany.)

Barrows, Harlan H., S.B., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Geography.)

*Bartow, Edward, Ph.D., Univ. of Dllinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Barwell, John William, Waukegan. (Anthropology.)

Bassett, Herbert, Macomb, Ill. (Geography and Geology.)

*Bayley, W. S., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)

Benson, Peter, A.B., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Mathe-
matics.)

Berg, E. J., Sc.D., (Electrical Engineering.)

Berry, Daniel B., M.D., Carmi. (Medicine.)

Berry, Rufus L., 511 North Side Square, Springfield.

*Betten, Cornelius, Ph.D., Lake Forest College Lake Forrest.
(Biology.)

*Birdsall, L. L, A.B., 1212 Hartford Bldg. Chicago. (Chemistry.)

*Bjorkland, Alfred, M.S., Michigan City, Ind. (Chemistry.)

Blair, J. C., M.S.A., 810 W. Oregon St., Urbana. (Horticulture.)

Blatchley, R. S., Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana. (Geology.)

Bleininger, A. V., U. S. Survey, Pittsburg, Pa. (Ceramics.)

Blount, Ralph E., 124 S. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park, Ill. (Geography.)
Geology.)

Boerner, Wunibald R., Ravinia, Lake County. (Biology.)

Braun, H. M., 1618 Belmont Ave., E. St. Louis, Ili. (Archaeology.)

*Bretnall, G. H., AM., Monmouth College, Monmouth. (Botany.)

Brokaw, Albert C., S.B., Univ. of Chicago. Chicago. (Geology.)

*Bryan, T. J., Ph.D., 1623 Manhattan Bldg., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Briscoe, C. F. Agricultural College, Miss. (Bacteriology.)

Bullard, James D., Equality.

*Burchard, E. F., M.S., U. S. G. S., Washington, D. C. (Econ.
Geology.)

Burgess, L. L., Ph.D., 409 E. Green St., Champaign.

Burrill, T. J., Ph.D., LL.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Cady, G. H., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Geology.)

Caldwell, Otis W., Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Carlson, A. J., Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Physiology.)

*Carman, Albert P., Sc.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Physics.)

*Carpenter, Chas. K., D.D., 311 Park St., Elgin. (Ornithology.)

Carus, Paul, Ph.D., Editor Open Court Pub. Co., La Salle. (Phil.)

Cederberg, Wm. E., Ph.D., Augustana College, Rock Island.
(Mathematics.)

Chamberlain, C. J., A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Bot.)

Chamberlin, Rollin T., Hyde Park Hotel, Chicago. (Geology.)

*Chamberlin, T. C., LL.D., Univ. of Chi. Chicago. (Geology.)

Child, C. M., Ph.D.. Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Zoology.)

*Clawson, A. B., A.B., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
(Biology.)

Coad, Bert, R., Bureau of Entomology, Washington D. C. (Entom-
ology.)

Coe, Chester M., Louisville, Ky. (Entomology.)

Coe, O. J., Ottawa. (Chemistry, Biology.)

132 ILLINOIS ACADEMY2O0F SCIENCE

Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph.D., Lake Forest. (Physical Chemistry.)

Cole. A. H., A.B., A.M., 6022 Monroe Ave., Chicago (Biology, Bi-
ological Projection.)

Collins, J. H., A.M. (Nature Study.)

Comstock, Clarence E., A.M., Bradley Institute, Peoria. (Math.)

Colyer, Frank H., Carbondale.

Conrad, A. H., Crane Technical High School, Chicago. (Biology.)

Cook, Nettie M., 927 Second St., Springfield. (Botany.)

Coonradt, J. H., Decatur.

Corbett, Clifton S., 2507 Sherman Ave., Evanston, Ill. (Geology.)

Cort, W. W., A.B., 1206 W. Springfield Ave., Urbana. (Zoology.)

*Coulter, John G., Ph.D., Bloomington. (Biology.)

*Coulter, John M., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

*Cowles, H. C., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Cox, Henry J., A.B. A.M., U. S. Weather Bureau, Chicago.
(Meteorology. ) ;

*Crandall, Charles S., M.S., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

*Crew, Henry, Ph.D., Northwestern Univ., Evanston. (Physics.)

*Crook, A. R., Ph.D., Curator State Museum, Springfield. (Geology.)

Crowe, A. B., A.M., Eastern State Normal School, Charleston.
(Physics.)

Daniels, Hon. F. B., Pullman Building, Chicago.

Daniels, L. E., Rolling Prairie, Ind., R. R. 2, (Conchology.)

Davenport, Eugene, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Agriculture.)

Davis, J. J., B.S., Experiment Sta. Bldg., Lafayette, Ind. (Entom-
ology.)

Davis, N. S., M.D., 201 Huron St., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Davis, Roy E., B.A., Aurora High School, Aurora. (Physiology.)

Deal, Don. W.. M.D., Ferguson Bldg., Springfield. (Medicine.)

Decker, Charles E., Alleghany College, Meadville, Pa.

*Derick, C. G., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

DeWolf, F. W., B.S., Director State Geological Survey, Urbana.

*Didcoct, J. J., A.M., 207 Pleasant Ave., Streator. (Chemistry.)

Downing, Elliot R., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Eean, J. E., A.B., 906 S. Fifth St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Bikenberry, W. L., B.S., University of Chicago. (Botany.)

Exblaw, W. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)

*Billiott, C. H., State Normal University, Carbondale, IIl.

Emmett, A. D., A.M., 707 W. Illinois St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Engberg, Martin J., 901 Belmont Ave., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Ernest, T. R., Ph.D., 20 W. Maple St., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

*Hwing, H. E., Ph.D., Eugene, Oregon. (Zoology.)

*Farrington, O. C., Ph.D., Field Museum, Chicago. (Mineralogy.)

Ferris, J. H., Editor “Joliet News,” Joliet.

Finley, C. W., State Normal School, Macomb. (Zoology.)

Finney, Marion, 907 S. Raynor Ave., Joliet, (Geology and Paleon-
tology.)

*Fischer, C. E. M., M.D., 1922 W. Chicago Ave., Chicago. (Biology.)

*Fisher, Fannie, Asst. Curator State Museum, Springfield. (Gen.
Int.)

Fleener, F. L., A.B., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.)

*Forbes, S. A., Ph.D., LL.D., State Entomologist, Urbana. (Zoolo-
a),

Fuller, George D., A.B., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Plant Ecology.)

Fuller, Merton L., Weather Bureau, Peoria. (Meteorology.)

Funk, Frank H., Bloomington. (Corn Breeder.)

Furrey, George W., 2249 Sherman Ave., Evanston. (Physics.)

LIST OF MEMBERS 133 .

Gale H. G., Ph.D., Ryerson Lab. Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Physics.)
*Galloway, T. W., Ph.D., James Millikin Univ., Decatur. (Zoology.)
Garrett, Robert E., 1831 Chicago Ave., Chicago. (Mineralogy.)

*Gates, Frank C., A.B., Los Banos, P. I. (Botany.)

Gault, B. T., Glen Ellyn. (Ornithology.)

Gerhard, Wm. J., Ph.D., Field Museum, Chicago.

Gilbert, J. P.. A.M., State Normal School, Carbondale. (Biology.)

Girault, A. A., M.S., Australia. (Entomology.)

Givens, H., High School, Monticello. (Botany.)

Glasgow, H., Geneva, N. Y. (Zoology.)

Glasgow, R. D., A.B., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology.)

Gleason. H. A., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. (Botany.)

Glenn, P. A., 809 W. Nevada St., Urbana.

Goode, J. Paul, 6227 Kimbark Ave., Chicago. (Geography.)

Goss, W. F. M., D.Eng., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Steam Eng.)

*Grant, U. S., Ph.D., Northwestern Univ., Evanston. (Geology.)

Green, Bessie, A.B., 401 S. Wright St. Champaign. (Zoology.)

Greenman, J. M.. M.S., Ph.D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St.
Louis, Mo. (Botany.)

Grindley, H. S., Se.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Animal Chem.)

Grizzell, Roy A., Murphysboro. (Entomology.)

Gunther, C. F., Majestic Bldg., Chicago. (General Interest.)

Gurley, Wm., F.E., 6151 Lexington Ave., Chicago. (Paleontology.)

Gutherlet, J. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

Haddock, F. D., A.B., Supt. Schools, Sioux City, Ia. (Gen. Int.)

Hagler, E. E., M.D.. Capitol and Fourth, Springfield. (Physician
Oculist.)

*Hale, John A., M.D., Editor “‘The Enterprise,” Alto Pass.

Hall, Winfield, S., Ph.D., 2431 Dearborn St., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Hammond, H. S., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.

Hancock, J. L.. M.D., 3757 Indiana Ave., Chicago. (Entomology.)

Hankinson, Thos. L., State Normal School, Charleston. (Zoology.)

Hansen, Paul, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Sanitation.)

Harper, E. H., Ph.D., Northwestern Univ., Evanston. (Zoology.)

Harris, Norman MaclL., M.B., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Bacteriology.

*Hart, C. A., Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., U. of I, Urbana. (Entom-
ology.)

Haupt, Arthur W., 1321 Norwood Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

Hawthorne, W. C., College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago.

Hayford, John F., C.E., Northwestern Univ., Evanston. (Physics.)

Head, W. R., 5471 Jefferson Ave., Hyde Park, Chicago. (Nat. Hist.)

Healey, John L., 1620 Morse Ave., Chicago.

Heitkamp, C. W., A.B., 609 E. Park Ave., Urbana. (Ecology.)

Helmick, Homer H. A.B., A.M., Wheaton College, Wheaton.
(Chemistry.)

Hess, Isaac E., Philo, Ill. (Ornithology.)

*Hessler, J. C., Ph.D., James Millikin Univ., Decatur. (Chemistry.)

Hildebrand, L. E., A.B., A.M., 808 Hamlin St., Evanston, Ill. (Zo:
ology.)

Hill, E. J., 7100 Eggleston Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

*Hill| W. K., Carthage College, Carthage, Ill. (Biology.)

Hines, Murray A., Ph.D., 2320 Orrington Ave., Evanston. (Chem-
istry.)

Hinkley, A. A., Dubois. (Conchology.)

Hitch, C. Bruce, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Holgate, T. F., Ph.D., LL.D., 617 Library St., Evanston. (Mathe.
matics.)

Holsinger, L. C., Hatfield House, Evanston. (Mathematics.)

134 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

*Hopkins, Cyril G., Ph.D., U. of Ill., Urbana. (Agronomy and
Chemistry.)

Hoskins, William, 111 W. Monroe St., Chicago.

Hottes, C. F., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Howe, P. E., A.M., 10233 Wood St., Chicago. (Physiological Chem.)

Huber, W. H. P., Jacksonville. (Physiology.)

Huffington, H. L., High School, Hoopeston. (Biology.)

*Hummel, A. A., B.S., State Normal School, Los Angeles, Calif.
(Nature Study.)

Hunt, Robert I., Decatur. (Soils.)

Hurd, Charles T., Box 27, Peoria. (Astronomy.)

Hurter, Julius, Sr., 2346 S. Tenth St., St. Louis, Mo.

*Hutton, J. Gladden, M.S., State College, Brookings, S. Dak.
(Geology.)
Jackson, Miss Nell, B.S., 7524 Harvard Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)
Jamison, A. W., B.S., M.S., 248 Randolph Ave., Peoria. (Physics.)
Jessee, R. H., Jr., Ph.D., Univ. of Montana, Missoula. (Chemistry.)
Jessup, J. M., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Geology and Paleontology.)

*Johnson, A. N., B.S., State Highway Commission, Springfield.

Johnson, Frank Seward, M.D., 2521 Prairie Ave., Chicago.

Johnson, H. W., Mt. Olive. (Psychology and Biology.)

Johnson, J. T., Kent, Ohio. (Biology and Agriculture.)

Jones, G., Ph.D., 409 E. Green St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Jordan, Edwin O., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Bacteriology.)

Keppel, H. G., Ph. D., Gainsville, Fla. (Mathematics.)

Kindred, Granville L., Illinois Watch Co., Springfield. (Mech.
Engineer.)

Kingsbury, H. B., A.B., West Division High School, Milwaukee,
Wis. (Mathematics.)

Kinnear, T. J., M.D., 400 Myers Bldg., Springfield. (Medicine.)

Kirk, Howard R., 225 Hinckley Ave., Rockford.

*Kneale, E. J., State Register, Springfield. (Physiology and Astron-
omy.)

*Knipp, Chas. T., Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physics.)

Knodle, E. A., M.D., Arthur.

Kressman, F. W., M.S., Madison, Wis. (Chemistry, Forest Pro-
ducts.)

Kuh, Sydney, M.D., 103 State St., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Land, W. J. G., Ph.D., University of Chi., Chicago. (Botany.)

Langelier, W. F., B.S., 1005 W. Illinois St., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

LaRue, Geo. R. A.M. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. (Zoology.)

Lehenbauer, P. A., A.M. University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.)

Lillie, F. R., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)

Linder, O. A., 208 Fifth Ave., Chicago. (Ed. “Svenska Amerikan
aren.’’)

Lingren, J. M., A.M., 306 S. Fourth St., Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Lipman, Mayer, 1607 W. Sixty-third St., Chicago. (Physics.)

Locke, J. R., B.S.. 212 Sixth St., Streator, Ill. (Botany.)

Lumbrick, Arthur, Metcalfe. (Agriculture.)

Lutes, Neil, 57 Broadway St., Freeport. (Chemistry.)

Lyons, Thos. E., B.S., LL.B., Hay Bldg. Springfield. (Lawyer.)

MacFarland, D. F., Univ. of Ill., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

MacGillvray, A., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology.)

MacInnes, D. A., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Mance, G. C., 302 Maple Ave., Blue Island, Ill. (Science.)

Mann, C. R., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Physics.)

Mansfield, G. R., Ph.D., Northwestern University, Evanston.
(Geology.)

LIST OF MEMBERS 135

Marshall, Ruth, PhD., Rockford College, Rockford. (Biology.)

Mathews, Albert P., Univ. of Chi, Chicago. (Physiolgical Chem.)

Matthews, S. A.. M_D., Univ. of Chi.. Chicago. (Exper. Med.)

McAllister, H. T., 1002 W. California St.. Urbana. (Chemistry.)

McAuley, Faith, High School, St. Charles. (Botany.)

McCabe, E. L., S. Sixth St., Charleston. (Botany.)

McCauley, George V., Northwestern Univ., Evanston, (Physics.)

McCormack, Thomas J., La Salle.

MecDunnough, Dr. J., Decatur. (Lepidoptera.)

McGinnis, Mary O., AB. 1004 W. Edwards St., Springfield.
(Zoology.)

McNutt, Wade Township High School, Highland Park, Il.
(Botany.)

Meyers, Ira, Francis W. Parker School, Chicago.

Michelson, A. A.. LL.D., Univ. of Chi.. Chicago. (Physics.)

Miller, G. A.. Ph_D., Univ. of Ill.. Urbana. (Mathematics.)

Mitchell, H. H., Univ. of Il.. Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Moffatt, Will S., 105 S. La Salle St._ Chicago. (Botany.)

Mohr, Louis, 349 W. Illinois St., Chicago.

Morrison, H. T., M-D.. First and Miller. Springfield. (Medicine.)

Mortenson, Henry T., Francis W. Parker School, Chicago.

Moulton, F. R., PhD. Univ. of Chi, Chicago. (Astronomy.)

Mumford, H. W.. Champaign. (Animal Husbandry.)

Munson, S. E., M.D., 712 S. Second St.. Springfield. (Medicine.)

Nason, Wm. A., M_D., Algonquin. (Entomology.)

*Neal, H. V., PhD., Tufts College, Mass. (Zoology.)

Nef, J. U., Ph.D... Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Neiberger, Wm. E., Bloomington. (Eugenics.)

Newman, H. H. Univer. of Chi.. Chicago. (Zoology.)

Nickell, L. F., A-B., 617 S. Wright St.. Champaign. (Chemistry.)

Nichols, H. W., B.S., Field Museum, Chicago. (Geology.)

Norberry. F. P., M.D., Jacksonville. (Medicine.)

*Noyes, Wm. A., Ph.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Nuttall, J. T., B.S.. 926 Ella St.. Birmingham, Ala. Chemistry.)

Oak Park High School, Oak Park.

*Ozglevee, C. S., ScD., Lincoln College, Lincoln. (Biology.)

Packard, W. H., M_D., Bradley Institute, Peoria. (Biology.)

Palmer, Geo. Thos., M.D., 1733 S. Fourth St., Springfield. (Medi-
cine.)

*Parr, S. W.. M.S.. University of Hlinois. Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Partridge, N. L., 406 E. Healy St.. Champaign. (Horticulture.)

Patterson, Alice J., Normal. (Entomology, Nature Study.)

Payne, Edward W., Pres. State Nat. Bank, Springfield. (Archae-
ology.)

Peet, C. E., Lewis Institute, Chicago. (Geology and Geography.)

*Pepoon. H. S. MD. Lake View H. S., Chicago. (Zoology
and Botany.)

Perry, Edna M., Morton. (Zoology.)

Peterson, Alyah, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology.)

Pfeiffer, Miss W. M., S.B., Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago. (Botany.)

Pinckey, F. L., Dundee. (Zoology.)

Poling, Otto C., Quincy.

Pricer, J. L., A.M., State Normal Univ., Normal. (Biology.)

Pruitt, Edgar C., Supt. County Schools, Court House, Springfield.

Radcliff, H. H., Taylorville. (Biology.)

Ransom, Steven W., Ph.D., 2431 Dearborn St., Chicago. (Anato
my.)

Rentchler, Edna K., High School, Litchfield. (Biology.)

136 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Replogle. P. S., M.D., 80 North Neil St., Champaign. (Medicine. )

Reynolds, Carrie, B.S., Lake View High School, Chicago. (Botany.)

*Reynolds, O. E., College, Albion.

Rice, Wm. F., A.M., Wheaton College, Wheaton. (Physics.)

Ricker, N. C., D.Arch., Univ. of Ill. Urbana. (Architecture.)

Rich, John L., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physiography.)

Richardson, R. E., Natural History Bldg., Urbana. (Zoology.)

Riddle, Oscar, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Ridgley, D. C., Normal, Ill. (Geography.)

Riley, C. Fs; A.M., State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. (Ecol-
ogy.)

Roberts, H. L., Cape Girardeau, Mo. (Geography.)

Roberts, John M., A.B., 345 W. Michigan Ave., Chicago.

Rolfe, C. W., M.S., Univ. of Ill., Urbana. (Geology.)

Root, Clarence J., U. S. Weather Bureau, Springfield. (Climat-
ology.)

*Rutherford, T. A., M.D., Hillside Home, Clark Summit, Pa. (Chem-
istry.)

Salisbury, R. D., LL.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Geology.)

Sallee, Roy M., Macomb. (Agriculture.)

Sampson, H. C., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.)

Savage, T. E., Ph.D., Univ. of Ill., Urbana. (Stratigraphic Geology.)

Sawyer, M. Louise, Beloit College. Beloit, Wis.

Scheffel, Earl Read, Urbana. (Geology.)

Schulz, W. F., Ph.D., 926 W. Green St., Urbana. (Physics.)

Shaw, J. B., Se.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Mathematics.)

Shelford, V. E., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Sherff, E. E., B.S., 6543 Drexel Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

*Simpson, Jesse P., M.D., Palmer, Ill. (Medicine.)

Simpson, Q. I., Palmer, I[l., (Eugenics.)

Sims, J. P., 851 S. Lincoln St., Springfield.

Slocum, A. W., Field Museum, Chicago.

Smallwood, Miss Mabel E., 550 Surf St., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Smith, C. H., M.E., 5406 Madison Ave., Chicago. (Ed. School Sci.)

Smith, Frank, A. M., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.)

Smith, G. McP., Ph.D., 708 S. Fourth St., Champaign.

Smith, Huron H., Field Museum, Chicago. (Dendrology.)

*Smith, Isabel Seymour, M.S., Illinois College, Jacksonville.
(Botany.)

Smith, Jesse L., Supt. of Schools, Highland Park.

*Smith, L. H., Ph.D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Smith, Orrin H., High School, Champaign. (Physics.)

Smith, Sidney B., B.S., 710 S. Sixth St., Springfield. (Farming.)

Smith Wilbur, 5636 Kenmore Ave., Chicago. (Botany.)

Snyder, John F., M.D., Virginia. (Archaeology.)

Sorgatz, George F., M. D., State House, Springfield. (Medicine.)

Spessard, Earl A., Y. M. C. A. Bldg., Aurora. (Biology.

Spicer, C. E., Township High School, Joliet.

*Starr, Fredrick, Ph.D., Univer. of Chi. Chicago. (Anthropology.)

Stephenson, E. B., M.S., 617 S. Wright St., Champaign. (Physics.)

Stevenson, A. L., Principal Lincoln School, 1308 Morse Ave., Chi-
cago.

*Stewart, H. W., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. (Agronomy.)

Stieglitz, Julius, Ph. D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Chemistry.)

Stillhamer, A. G., Bloomington. (Physics.)

Stock, H. H., E.M. Univ. of Ill., Urbana. (Mining Engineering.)

Stowe, Herbert, M.D., 4433 Lake Ave., Chicago. (Medicine.)

LIST OF MEMBERS 137

Strachan, E. K., BS., 410 E. Chalmers St., Champaign. (Chem.)

*Strode, W. S., M.D., Lewiston. (Medicine.)

Strong, R. M., A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Swarth, H. S., University of California, Berkeley, Calif.

Swisher, C. L., Georgia Polytechnic School, Atlanta, Ga. (Physics.)

Sykes, Miss Mabel, B.S., S. Chicago High School, Chicago. (Ge-
ology.)

Taggart, Miss Margaret, 105 Byers Ave., Akron, Ohio. (Chemistry.)

Talbott, Eugene S., M.D., LL.D., 198 Goethe St.. Chicago. (Stom-
atology.)

Talbot, Marion, B.S., LL.D., Univ. of Chicago. (Sanitation.)

Tandy, M., Dallas City. (Biology.)

*Tanquary, M. C., A.B., Univ. of Til, Urbana. (Zoology and Ento-
mology.)

Tatnall, Robert R. Ph.D., 624 Lincoln St., Evanston. (Physics.)

Test, F. C., M.D., 4318 Grand Blvd., Chicago. (Zoology.)

Thompson, David G., B.S., 2135 Orrington Ave., Evanston. (Ge-
ology.)

Thomson, F. D., A.M., Principal H. S., Springfield. (Economics-
Hist.)

Tower, W. E., Englewood High School, Chicago.

*Townsend_ E. J., Ph.D., University of Illinois; Champaign. (Mathe-
matics.)

Transeau, E. N., State Normal School, Charleston. (Botany.)

Treadwell, C. H., John Marshall High School, Chicago.

Tsou, Y. Hsuwen, Box 78, University Sta., Urbana. (Entomology.)

Turck, Fenton B., M.D., 1820 Michigan Blvd., Chicago. (Medicine.)

Turton, Chas. M., A.M. Bowen High School, Chicago. (Physics.)

Udden, Anton D., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Phys. and
Mathematics.)

Umbach, L. M., Northwestern College, Naperville. (Botany.)

Van Alstine, E., Experiment Sta., Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Van Cleave, H. J., B.S., Urbana. (Zoology.)

Vestal, A. G., Boulder, Colo. (Ecology.)

Wager, R. E., State Normal School, DeKalb. (Biology.)

Wainwright, Jacob T., C. E., P. O. Box 774, Chicago. (Physics.)

Walton, Calvin C., Ph.D., 4129 N. Hermitage Ave., Chicago. (Zo-
ology.)

Ward, H. B., Ph.D., Urbana. (Zoology, Parasitology.)

Washburn, E. W., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.)

Watson, F. R.. Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physics.)

Webb, J. M., U. S. Bureau of Mines, Urbana.

Webster, G. W., M.D., 32 N. State St., Chicago.

Welch, Paul, A.B., Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas.

Weller, Annie L., Eastern [linois State Normal School, Char-
leston.

*Weller, Stuart, Ph.D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Paleontology.)

Wells, C. C., B.S., 1006 South Michigan Ave., Chicago. (Chem.)

Wells, E. B., Ph.B., 1203 Chambers Ave., Peoria. (Chemistry.)

Welis, M. M., S.B., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.)

Westcott, O. S.. Waller High School, Chicago.

White, Kessack O. Geological Survey, Urbana. (Geology.)

Whitney, Worallo, Bowen High School, Chicago. (Botany.)

Wilczynski, E. J., PhD., Univ. of Chi., Chicago.- (Mathematics.)

*Williston, S. W., M.D., Ph.D., Univ. of Chi., Chicago. (Paleontolo-
sy.)

Windsor, Mrs. P. L., 609 Michigan Ave. Urbana. (Entomology.)

Winslow, Charles A., 2125 Sherman Ave., Evanston. (Geology.)

BS.
&.,
j i)

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138 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

a,

Wirick, C. M., A.M., Crane Technical H. S., Chicago. (Chemistry.)
Wolcott, A. B., Field Museum, Chicago. (Entomology.)

Wollfel, Albert, M. D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Physiology.)
*Wood, F. E., A.B., Wesleyan University, Bloomington. (Zoology.)
Woodburn, Wm. L., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Botany.)
Woodruff, Frank M., Chicago Acad. of Sci., Chicago. (Taxidermy.)
Young, Abram Van Epps, 2020 Orrington Ave., Evanston.

(Chemistry.)

Young, G. B., M.D., 710 City Hall, Chicago. (Sanitation.)

Young, Mrs. J. D., B.L., 4752 Vincennes Ave., Chicago. (Biology.)
Zelany, Charles, Ph.D., 606 Matthews Ave., Urbana. (Exper. Zool.)
*Zetek, James, Ancon, Canal Zone. (Entomology.)

* Charter members.

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