UMASS/AMHERST ^ 31EDbbDDSflDHTfiD LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SOURCE Wa%s.._ SosL .^TC R^tnctiif^ /\^ B33 2: TRANSACT £9^^ a.K Y of N4 1 i G 3 a c ti tjL©e OF THE A^riciilti-trall |l a s s a 1 1) w s e 1 1 s S o t i e t ir PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE 18 5 6 [published by the society.] lie .1" BOSTON: WILLIAM WHITE, PRINTER TO THE STATE. 1857. TRANSACTIONS assatjjuseJts Sotietg PROMOTION OP AGRICULTURE 1856 [PCBLISHBD BT THE SOCIETY.] BOSTON: WILLIAM WHITE, PRINTER TO THE STATE*. 1857. OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY. GEORGE W. LYMAN, President. CHARLES G. LORING, Vice-President. JAMES W. PAIGE, Corresponding Secretary. RICHARD S. FAY, Recording Secretary. THOMAS MOTLEY, Jr., Treasurer. ROBERT C. ^^TNTHROP, SAMUEL LAWRENCE, GEORGE PEABODY, I y,,^^^^^^^ STEPHEN SALISBURY, ^ WILLIAM S. LINCOLN, GEORGE T. BIGELOW, P 11 E F A C E . In preparing for tlic press, with, a view to a separate publication, the Report of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture to the State, the Secretary has been instructed, by a vote of the Trustees, to acid to the Report any mformation which he might deem calcu- lated to aid in the further diffusion of knowledge rela- tive to the interesting subject of the management of dairy stock. In accordance with this vote, he has appended an article on the Management of Dairy Stock, by T. Hors- fall, which appeared in the seventeenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultui-al Society. The atten- tion of the reader is particularly called to this article as being a well digested, practical essay, written in a familiar and simple style, the force and truth of which must be obvious to every one. The few other additions which have been made, are for the purpose of bringing into one volume such facts as may aid the reader in coming to correct conclusions upon this whole matter, as well as to furnish him with data upon which he may proceed to further investigations. R. s. F. TIlANSACTIONS-1856. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. The operations of the Society during the present year have been of more than usual interest. This has been occasioned by the dairy show, which took place at Worcester, under the auspices of the Worcester Agricultural Society, in connection with their usual exhibition, and by the trial of mowing ma- chines entered in competition for the premium of one thousand dollars. By referring to the records of the Society it will be found that from the earliest period of its existence much attention has been paid to the improvement of the breed of cattle, and more particularly with reference to dairy purposes. Importa- tions of stock have been made from time to time at very con- siderable expense, and the animals have been placed in a way to disseminate their breed throughout the State, In this manner the Devon, Ayrshire and Jersey cattle have been successfully introduced. Without increased attention, however, to the keeping of stock, and more care in selection for breeding pur- poses, the simple act of bringing good animals into the country will do but little good. It has consequently been the aim of the Society, by the ofFer of liberal premiums, to advance the improvement of the stocks thus introduced, as well as to excite a more general interest in this subject. By an arrangement made with the Worcester Agricultural Society, one day of their show was devoted to the exhibition of 6 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE the dairy stock, for which premiums were offered by this So- ciety, although the competition was not as general as could have been desired, falling far short of the expectations of the Trustees. It has, nevertheless, been of service in awakening attention to this important branch of agricultural economy. One reason for the smallness of the numbers competing for the various premiums offered may be found in the difficulty of forwarding cattle to any distance, and the injury occasioned to dairy stock by a change of food and from exposure during the exhibition. In view of this, the Trustees would suggest that hereafter, in all cases of premiums for dairy stock, the Com- mittees to whom the awards are confided, should visit each competing animal, examine the mode of treatment and the management of the dairy at the home of the competitor, and make the awards before the day of exhibition, requiring only successful competitors to send their animals to the show. The Jersey cows belonging to the Society were exhibited at Worcester, and at the conclusion of the show all the animals were offered at public auction and sold without reserve. This herd has been in the possession of the Society for five years, and by an arrangement with Thomas Motley, Jr., the male progeny has been from the first his property, and all the bull calves have been raised and sold for breeders. The sale of the cows and heifers has now been made, and an opportunity afforded to the farmers of the State to possess one or more of them. The thanks of the Trustees are most cordially given to the Worcester Agricultural Society for the ready aid and co-opera- tion of its worthy President, Mr. John Brooks, and the other officers of the Society, upon this interesting occasion, and also to the Committees, who cheerfully gave much time and atten- tion in making their awards. Nor will it be thought invidious or unjust, if, from the number of those who thus aided the So- ciety, the Trustees should name in an especial manner the services of Ex-Governor Lincoln. His labors, as well as his distinguished knowledge upon the subject committed to him, sufficiently appear in his able and interesting report on the two first classes of premiums offered ; it needs no word of praise to commend it to the attention of all farmers in Massachusetts. But the Trustees feel it to be a pleasure as well as a duty to PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 7 speak of one so long and so honorably distinguished in the public service, who in the retirement of private life still occu- pies himself so usefully and beneficially for his fellow men. Indeed, without his aid, this effort to collect and embody useful information and to excite emulation where both arc so greatly needed, would have lost much of the good which it is hoped has been effected. Not less interesting in the transactions of the society for the present year, and of special importance also, to the agricultural community, has been the competition for the premium on mow- ing machines. Every step made to save manual labor by the use of machinery in tilling the soil, and in bringing agriculture as nearly as possible under the control of labor-saving implements, is in the right direction. The principal means of accomplishing the economy of human labor in agriculture, as in other depart- ments of industry, are the exercise of skill and the employment of machinery, both of which indicate a high state of advance- ment, and may be regarded as a true test of its progress.* There arc two principal points, therefore, in relation to this sub- ject, to which attention ought to be directed ; one is, the intro- duction of agricultural implements, in all cases where their profitable use can be satisfactorily ascertained ; the other is, that these implements be manufactured at as low a cost as pos- sible consistent with perfect workmanship. It follows, of course, that the more general the use of any instrument is, the cheaper it can be afforded ; but it is also true tliat, for want of skill and care in their manufacture, farmers often suffer much inconvenience, and are discouraged from purchasing and using many imple- ments for farm work, of a really useful and labor-saving char- acter. Last year the trustees offered a premium of six hundred dollars, to tlie person who should cut not less than fifty acres of grass by a machine moved by horse or ox power. The object which the trustees had in view, was, principally, to bring out skill in the use of a mowing machine comparatively new, with- * For a full illustration of this remark, as applied to agriculture, see " The Journal of Agriculture, &c., of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scot- land." No. 53. New Series. 8 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE out reference to the particular merits of the several kinds then offered to the public. They felt strong liopos, also, that so large a premium would incite many to try the experiment of mowing with a machine, who would otherwise wait to see whether it was successful or not. In this they were not disappointed, the number of competitors for the premium having been large, and the competition very close. It will be seen by referring to the report of last year, that although there was but one opinion upon the economy of the machine over scythe mowing, there was a general complaint of bad workmanship ; and as each competitor was obliged to report every accident which his machine met with, it did not require complaints on the part of competitors to convince the trustees that there ivas a screw loose someivhere. Xo ma- chine went through the trial without more or less breakages, which, although generally of a trifling nature, involved a cer- tain loss of time. The offering of the premium of last year resulted most suc- cessfully, since it developed a skill which has been too long dormant, and demonstrated very clearly that the mowing ma- chine, if well made and constructed upon correct principles, might be successfully introduced and used as a great labor- saving implement throughout the State. Having arrived at this point, the importance of perfecting this labor-saving implement, and of having one constructed that should unite every possible requisite to make its use general, being fully shown by the trials of last year, the premium of one thousand dollars was offered for the best mowing machine, to be awarded the present year. In order to do justice to competitors, and to arrive at a satisfactory result upon the merits of different machines offered in competition, the machines were subjected to separate trials in every possible way, under the inspection of three gentlemen, distinguished for their good judgment and knowledge in every thing pertaining to the matter confided to them, viz. : Col. Moses Newell, of West Newbury, Col. T. "W. Ward, of Shrewsbury, and Thomas E. Payson, Esq., of Salem. They undertook the task, with a full conviction of the impor- tance of the duty assigned to them, and devoted themselves to it with unwearied zeal. Their report, which is appended, speaks PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 9 for itself, and shows the care and labor they bestowed upon the matter, and the conclusion which they arrived at met with the unanimous approval of the trustees, who, in accordance with the report of the committee, awarded the premium of one thou- sand dollars to the Heath machine, entered by D. 0. Henderson, of Sandusky, Ohio. The trustees have now done all that lies in their power to introduce the mowing machine into use as a great labor-saving implement. They hope not only that it will be adopted, but that it will lead the way to the use of others equally labor-saving and quite as essential to the prosperity of agriculture in Massa- chusetts. Nor does there seem to be any reason why almost all the labor of the hay harvest, which is at present the most trying and expensive in its nature of any of our farming opera- tions, should not be done by machinery worked by horse-power. The mowing machine, the hay-maker, — such as is now in use in England, — and the horserake, with the aid of two men and three horses, are quite competent to perform the work now required of twelve or fifteen men, allowing only one man per day to the acre, for cutting and making hay. The farmers have also a duty to fulfil. It it only by their purchasing labor-saving implements, and using them whenever it is in their power to do so, that they can be perfected. In this way encouragement is given to invention and mechanical skill. Agricultural associations, with their addresses and their pre- miums, are valuable only as the pioneers in the march of improvement. They can direct public attention to objects, but they cannot accomplish much unless a right spirit exists in the breast of every tiller of the soil. Their labors are of little avail unless their recommendations and exhortations are met by the ready zeal of all. The great cause of agricultural improvement will always falter and move with feeble steps, when those who have it in hand are out-numbered by the listless and apathetic. The obstacles in the way of success to a Massachusetts farmer, are serious enough under the most favorable circumstances, but they are perfectly discouraging unless they can be met by the united will and firm purpose of all to overcome them. Careful investigation, and the experience gained even by common 2 10 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE observation of Avhat is passing in other lands, must convince every reflecting person, that agriculture as a pursuit must lan- guish, unless more strenuous efforts are made to hicrcase our mechanical skill in the cultivation of the soil ; and it is from this strong conviction, that the trustees thus earnestly speak upon the subject. GEORGE W. LYMAN, President. Richard S. Fay, Rec'g Sec'ry. PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 11 MOWING MACHINES. To the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture : — The subscribers, selected by your Honorable Board to inspect the work of the different mowing machines entered for premium, and to judge of tlieir merits, respectfully report: — Of the number who had signified their intention to compete for the premium, there were, at the time of our appointment, ten who had complied with the conditions on which it was offered, and had given notice of the places selected by them for the operation of their several machines, to wit: Messrs. J. C. & D. Elliott, A. Dietz, Howard & Wood, Nourse, Mason & Co., J. P. Adriance, A. D. Briggs, R. L. Allen, Jones & Thompson- E. Danforth & Co., and D. C. Henderson. These competitors were all notified to be in readiness to mow five acres or more of grass in our presence, at the several places by them selected for that purpose, on a particular day named, a day having been assigned to each. The Messrs. Elliott, Dietz, and Howard & Wood gave notice that they were not prepared to exhibit their machines at the time appointed, and withdrew from the contest. Messrs. Jones & Thompson exhibited their machine, but did not attempt to mow five acres. They likewise withdrew from competition. Their machine was new, had scarcely before been tried in the grass, and its operation probably afforded as little satisfaction to them as it did to us. In its main features, and particularly in its cutting arrangement, it resembles the machine of E. Danforth & Co. As we shall notice that machine here- after, it is not necessary to give a further description of this. The six other competitors each cut more than five acres of grass, the time occiipied varying little on the average, from one hour to an acre. The machine entered by Mr. Adriance, was the only one which did its work in less than that time. Five acres and twenty-seven rods were mowed by him, in four hours 12 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE and fifty-one minutes. In speaking of the time occupied, no deduction is made for stops. It will be readily seen that these trials furnished very insuffi- cient data by which to judge of the comparative merits of the different machines. The ground had, in all cases, been selected by the competi- tors themselves, or by some one in their behalf. The character of the crop, and the condition of the surface varied in different localities. Generally favorable to the successful operation of a machine, some lots were much more so than others. In several instances, horses and driver were perfectly familiar with the working of the particular machine which they used, and both understood exactly what to do to show it to the best advantage. Others were worked at great disadvantage in this respect, and in one case neither horses nor driver had ever seen a mowing machine before. In order, therefore, to give the machines a fair test on equal footing, as well for the competitors as for our own satisfaction, we concluded to operate them ourselves in the same field, under similar circumstances and in similar grass, with the same pair of horses, and a driver who had no interest in any machine. This seemed to us the readiest and most feasible mode of testing the machines, and in fact the only mode which would enable us to arrive at a decision at all satisfactory, and for which we could give a sufficient reason. For this purpose, three lots of grass, difTering in quantity, quality and situation, were obtained on the farm of Mr. Thomas J. Field, in Northfield, a driver procured who was entirely unacquainted with mowing machines, and five of the competi- tors notified to have their machines at ^Ir. Field's farm on the morning of the 29tli of July. In the trial, the owners of the several machines were directed to give the driver just such instructions as they saw fit in relation to the management of their machines. Our only instruction to him was, to drive them all as nearly as possible at the same rate of speed. E. Danforth & Co. were not notified, because, in our opinion, there is an objection to their machine, apparent on inspection, which must prevent its general use in New England. It has two sets of cutters or knives, worked by a double crank in PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 13 opposite directions, the edges of the blades of the under knife being serrated, and in their operation cutting very like shears. It has no fingers and of course no finger bar, and is probably as little liable to clog as any other -machine. In many parts of the West, where it is manufactured, and where a mower may be used a whole season without once touching a stone, it undoubtedly works well. There a blade is rarely broken, while here they are constantly liable to damage, and are in fact often broken. In other machines the blades are riveted or bolted, or otherwise secured to the knife-plate, so that, in case of injury, one can be more or less readily substituted for another. Tlie blades of Danforth's knives arc not bolted or riveted upon a knife-plate, but plate and blades are one entire piece of steel, like a saw with very large, blunt teeth. They are, in fact, saw plates. The only way to repair a broken blade, therefore, is to weld it. Now we take it that few mechanics, in a machine-shop even, can weld a broken saw-tooth without injuring or destroy- ing the entire plate. Certainly, in the country, the place where mowing machines are to be used, nobody could be found able to do it. A broken blade would probably involve the necessity of an entire new knife. This seemed to us an insuperable objection to the machine, without looking for others which may or may not exist, and for that reason we did not desire to put the Messrs. Danforth to the trouble and expense of a further trial. The five other machines were upon the ground at the time appointed, or on the next morning. The first lot of grass mowed contained about six acres, sown with Timothy in September last. The bottom was not thick, and the ground very far from being swarded over, might appro- priately be termed dirty. The crop was not heavy, but uniform in quantity and quality. An acre was mowed by each machine. We were satisfied at this trial, that any further experiment with the machhie patented by W. H. Hovey, on the 15th of April of the present year, and entered by A. D. Briggs, was not desirable. Without a drawing it would be difficult for us so to describe its several parts as to make ourselves understood. It is, per- haps, enough to say, that the blades are not bolted or riveted to 14 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE tlie knife-plate, and are yet so fastened as to be held firmly and securely in their places by an arrangement so simple that any farmer or laborer can substitute one for another without the aid of a mechanic, and almost without the aid of hammer or wrench, in an instant of time. This we consider a great merit. The knife-plate covers the finger-bar entirely, and being con- stantly in motion when the machine is in operation, leaves no stationary surface for the cut grass to fall and rest upon. This is claimed, by its inventor, as a great advantage. In its work- manship, also, it is quite equal to either of the other machines. But the amount of draught required to operate it, makes it a very severe load for a pair of the stoutest horses. Whether the power is wrongly applied, or whatever may be the cause, the fact is so. This, if there were no other objection, makes the use of it to any extent, in its present form, entirely impracti- cable. The four other machines were tried upon another lot of grass, on pieces of equal dimensions, each in succession, both when the grass was wet, and dry. This was a heavy crop of clover, Timothy and redtop, mixed, some of which was lodged. Por- tions of the lot were rolling, and the surface generally quite as far from level as are our ordinary grass fields, so that upon the whole, it was an excellent lot to test the machines. They were also tried on a meadow bottom which had never been ploughed, where various natural grasses, both coarse and fine, were intermixed. The trial, you will thus perceive, was a thorough one, and by it we were able to form a satisfactory judgment of the merits of the different machines. The remaining machines and between which we were to judge, were patented or known as Ketchum's, Manny's, Heath's, and the Allen machine, entered by R. L. Allen. The owners of the Ketchum machine allege that Mr. Allen has infringed upon their patent, and has no right to bu.ild or sell his machine, except within the limits prescribed in a license procured from them, and that Massachusetts is not with- in those limits. However that may be it is of no consequence so far as our report is concerned, for we did not regard the con- sideration of that question as within our province, and it there- fore had no weight with us. The Ketchum machine, entered* PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 15 by Noiirse, Mason & Co., has probably been in use longer in this State, and is more generally known, than either of the others. The one which they entered for premium differs from those which have been built by them in years past, in having a driving wheel of comparatively small size, wrought iron substituted for castings wherever it was deemed practicable, and every thing about the machine so made as to reduce its weight. In this they have succeeded ; their machine, with pole and whippletrees attached, weighing only about 460 lbs. The price of the ma- chine has also been reduced from $100 or upwards, to <|75. We think that in this they have made no mistake, but that the reduction in weight is a great mistake. The difference in the amount of draught required to operate a machine of 400 lbs. weight and another of 700 lbs. weiglit, other things being equal, would probably be almost imperceptible, except by very accurate dynamical tests, and may it not be that the difference would then be found to be in favor of the heavier machine ? Without entering into any speculation upon the matter, we think that it was a fact apparent to every careful observer, that this light Ketchum machine actually required more power of draught, when in operation, than either of the four, and that the one which required the least power of draught was almost twice as heavy. So light indeed was it, that with the weight of the driver superadded, and driven at a rate of speed sufficient to cut the grass well, — which, by the way, is a little higher than that required by the other machines, — inequalities in the sur- face, even slight ones, caused it to bound in such a manner as to throw up the extreme end of the finger-bar several inches above its true cutting level, leaving the stubble uneven and wavy. Allen's machine required less power of draught than the Ketchum machine. Its weight, with pole and whippletrees, is about 600 lbs. No machine that we have seen is so readily thrown in and out of gear as is this. It has a wooden, instead of an iron finger-bar. In our opinion an iron finger-bar is preferable. The weather cannot affect it, as of necessity it must a wooden one, and the grass which falls upon it leaves it a little more readily. Outside of the driving wheel is a light wheel 16 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE which runs on a spring axle, and is claimed to be advantageous in turning and in working the machine upon a side hill. The Manny machine also requires less power of draught than did the Ketchum machine. In this respect, the difference between it and the Allen machine was almost imperceptible. It has a wheel at the end of the knife-bar, which greatly assists in turning and backing, and makes it much more comfortable to transport from one field to another. We think that, other things being equal, a machine witb a wheel at the end of the finger-bar has an advantage over a machine without it. Although very different in construction, we regard the Allen and the Manny machines as very nearly alike in point of merit, and if it had so happened that it was necessary for us to decide between those two machines, our judgment would have been made up cautiously and with much hesitation, for each has points of excellence which the other does not possess. Both these machines did their work generally well, but not so well as the work done by the Heath machine. This, like the Manny machine, has a wheel at the end of the finger-bar. Like that, too, it has a reel, which may or may not be used, as circumstances require. But its cutting arrangement differs entirely from either of the other machines. They each have a single knife, with the blades riveted to the plate, and not operating through cast iron fingers or guards, which, especially when the knife is dull, may be liable to get filled up, and thus clog the blades. Instead of these, this machine has virtually a double set of cutters, the under set being stationary, projecting an inch beyond the upper, and thereby acting in the double capacity of guard and cutter. These, as well as the upper blades, are each independent of the other, and each attached to its bar by a screw bolt. The upper set of blades is held down by a spring pressure bar, so that the operation is similar to that of shears, the grass being cut between two sharp edges, and the machine working nearly as well at one rate of speed as another. In case of accident, therefore, a blade can be removed by any body and another substituted, in an instant of time. Both the upper and lower cutters are made like the best edge-tools in use, of the best cast-steel, with wrought iron backs. The iron furnishing strength, the steel can be made as hard as desirable, without so PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 17 much danger of breaking by use, and being made hard, do not require to be so often ground. The lower cutter, or guard, as you may please to call it, is half an inch thick and one and one- fourth inches wide. The upper blades are about twice as thick as those used on any other machine. This machine very evi- dently required less power of draught than either of the others, and did its work the best. The ]\[anny machine weighed about 600 lbs. Tliis weighs about 850 lbs. In its cutting apparatus, which is, perhaps, the most important feature of a mowing machine, we regard it as very much superior to either of the others. In its ease of draught, perhaps the next most important feature, we regard it as superior. We regard it also as less liable to clog than any machine with fingers or- guards, like those of Ketchum, Manny and Allen. In other important feor tures it is equal to the other machines. We therefore unhesitatingly, confidently and unanimously, express the opinion, tliat the Heath machine, entered by D. C. Henderson, is entitled to the premium of one thousand dollars, if that premium is awarded the present year. Moses Newell. Thomas E. Payson. Thomas W. Ward. BosTOX, September 12, 1856. 18 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE DAIRY STOCK. REPOET OF THE COMMITTEE TO THE TRUSTEES OF THE MASSACHU- SETTS SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. The committeo to Avhom was assigned tlie service of adjudging the premiums for dairy stock, under Classes No. 1 and No. 2 in tlie proposals offered by the trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, have given that attention to the discharge of their commission, which tlie brief opportunity afforded for a personal examination of the animals exhibited in the pens, and a consideration of the not very pre- cisely definite statements of the exhibitors, would permit. It must be obvious, that the first inquiry which would suggest itself to the minds of the members of the committee, would be, what is the standard of excellence, — or, in other words, what constitutes the best dairy cow ? At first view, the rules pre- scribed would seem to imply that the quantity of milk of each cow, ascertained for the first three days of each month of trial, and the amount of butter and cheese manufactured from all the milk, during the whole period of trial, might satisfy the object of the proposals. But this would be but a narrow construction of the purpose designed by the trustees. Nor, added to this, would the judgment of the committee upon the appearance of the animals, fulfil the scope of the inquiry. Whatever the pro- duct of the cow, or however symmetrical her proportions and apparent points of excellence, to the eye or the touch, there are other matters which enter largely into a proper consideration of the award of the proffered premiums. The true purpose of the exhibition was not merely to make a show of fine animals, however gratifying this might be to the spectators, but by far the higher and more important end of eliciting information, and acquiring knowledge of well-authenticated facts and resvilts, which would instruct the community of practical farmers, and offer to them richer inducements to the improvement of their stock than any transient success in a cattle show competition. PEOMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 19 It was this communication of the peculiar qualities of animals, best suited to the dairy, — of the preference to be given for these qualities, among the various races, — of the relative product of the different breeds, — of the expense of their keeping, and their docility under management, — and of the arrangement and con- duct of the dairy, which were primarily sought ; and unless these are furnished, in substantial compliance witli the requisi- tions accompanying the proposals, the object for which alone the premiums were offered, and to which the hopes and labors of the trustees have been directed, has not been obtained. The money may, indeed, add to the rewards of a few well-managing and prosperous dairymen, but will do little for the community of farmers, who have looked to this occasion for a communica- tion of knowledge and skill in a leading department of agricul- tural industry. It is now more tlian a year since the trustees of the State Society, with munificent liberality, appropriated a sum exceed- ing two thousand dollars, for the encouragement of dairy stock, of which sum one thousand and fifty dollars were offered, in published proposals of premiums, for dairy cows, in two classes of six and four animals respectively, to be exhibited at the annual cattle show of the Worcester County Society, the present year. The competition was made open to farmers from all parts of the State ; and to equalize localities, as far as might be, lib- eral compensation for travel was provided for competitors, in proportion to their distances fiom tlie show. Four premiums were proposed in each class, varying in the first class, from $250, tlie highest, to Jj^lOO, Avhicli was the lowest ; and in tlie second class, from 8150 to $40. It might liave been expected that an amount of bounty so nearly corresponding with the value of tlie animals to be exhibited, and so richly remunerative of any care and labor in giving an account of their qualities, and their management and product for a single season, to say nothing of the incentives and influences of a public spirit, would have secured general attention, and attracted numerous com- petitors in the trial. The committee have to regret that such has not been the case. There are even fewer competitors than the number of premiums offered for distribution ; and of these, with a single exception, all are from the county of Worcester. 20 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE After tho repeated efforts which, in years past, have heen ineffec- tually made to obtain, by statement and exhibition, the means of comparison and preference between the dairy stock of different districts of the Commonwealth, and to gather reliable informa- tion of the product of dairies and the mode of their management, there is little to encourage a persistence in this mode of inquiry. But we may be comforted in the assurance, that the progress of improvement, though slow, wdll be certain to follow individual interest and enterprise, and trust to time, at last, for the fruits of experience and success. The committee received from the secretary of the trustees, the written statements filed with him, pursuant to the require- ment, of five persons claiming to be competitors for premiums, in the first class, and of two persons claiming to compete for premiums, in the second class. An analysis of these voluminous papers, and an exhibit of the material facts, in an abstract from the representations which they contain, will show how far the respective competitors have entitled themselves to consideration, and how far, to any useful purpose, they have satisfied public expectations and subserved the interest which they were called upon to advance. Under Class 1. — " For the best six dairy cows, which have been owned and kept together from July 1, 1855, to the day of the show, and at least three of which cows shall have been bred and raised, or imported, by the competitors," — John Mann, of AVorcester, entered, and presented his state- ment of the ownership and keeping of six cows, four of them being raised by himself. They were from a herd of 21 cows kept together, and their ages, respectively, 10, 5, 5, 9, 9, and 4, and their breed denominated " grade." Their product in milk, for the first three days in nine months, from December 1, to August 1, both inclusive, was 3,355 lbs. 4 oz., or 1,299 quarts 1 pint, which yielded 156 lbs. 4 oz. of butter. The whole produce of the nine months is not given, nor does it any where appear from Mr, Mann's statement, that, except for the first three days of each month, the milk was manufactured into butter or cheese, according to the requirement. In answer to the inqvury as to the process of manufacturing, he states: "That for the last PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 21 eight years he had not made much butter, having sold the milk. The way he did, last winter, was to put three quarts in a pan and set it up stairs, where it would not freeze, till it was three days old. In the summer, the same in a pan, and put it down cellar, and let it set till it was sour." Mr. Mann fed to his stock of cows last winter, with his hay, 3,500 lbs. of shorts, at f 25 per ton ; 802 bushels of corn and cob-meal ; 100 bushels of carrots ; 50 bushels of turnips ; and 50 bushels of small pota- toes,— the meal being mixed with wet hay, — and after the 12th of February he gave swill once a day to those yielding the most milk, instead of meal on their hay. He keeps his cows in the barn through the night in summer. There is nothing otherwise peculiar in his management. One of Mr. Mann's cows, 10 years old, gave, in tlie first three days of February, 49 quarts of strained milk ; and the same quantity the first three days in June, according to his statement. His six cows yielded, on the first three days of June, 224 quarts of milk. Samuel Ellsworth, of Barre, entered six cows, of eleven kept together, of the ages respectively of 9, 6, 7, 10, 3 and 3, grade Durham. Three of the six raised by himself. In the first three days of the nine months of trial, they pro- duced 2,948 lbs. of milk, or 1,165 quarts 1| pint, yielding 105 lbs. 14 oz. of butter, and 138 lbs. 8 oz. cheese. The whole product of the season was — butter, 772 lbs. ; new milk cheese, l,251f lbs. ; skim milk, 580|- lbs. Mr. Ellsworth gives the fol- lowing as his process of manufacture : " My manner of making butter is to set the milk in tin pans, about half full, in a warm room, in winter, with good air ; let the milk stand about forty- eight hours, then take off the cream, put in stone jars with a little salt, and stir thoroughly every day until churned. After churning, draw off the buttermilk and wash in two waters, then salt to the taste ; let it stand twenty-four hours, then worked by hand and put in stone jars, and cover it closely from the air. In the summer, the milk is set in a cool place, the cream in stone jars in the cellar, and the butter made in the same man- ner as above." The extraordinary yield of Mr. Ellsworth's cows, considering 22 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE the ages of two of them, and the length of time in ■svliich others had been in milk, will justify giving his full account of their keeping. " From November 15 to May 15, the cows were kept in the stable, except when turned out to water. Their food was English hay and straw mixed, also corn fodder through the month of December. Extra hay, a peck of English turnips each, January. English hay and half peck of carrots each, February. Hay and half a peck of potatoes each, until the IStli of March ; then one quart dry Indian meal per day to each cow, with half peck of potatoes ; then the same quantity of meal, with cut hay "wet, to the time of turning to pasture, and no extra feed after. The cows were turned to after feed of the mowing about Avigust 10th. No extra feed while in the pasture." The largest yield of milk by either of Mr. Ellsworth's cows, for the tirst three days of any month, was in July, by " Cream- pot," 6 years old, onc-fourtli Durham — 55 quarts 1^ pint — and the greatest quantity given by his six cows m the first three days of either month, was 221 quarts in August. Asa G. Sheldon, of Wilmington, entered six cows of the respective ages of 4, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10 years, kept together in a herd of eight, all native but one, and that one native, with a cross of Durham — three of them raised by himself. Mr. Sheldon gives the product as follows : — For the first three days of the nine months from December 1, 2,230 lbs. 2 oz., or 927 quarts 1 pint of milk, yielding 134 lbs. 15 oz. butter. The whole product of the season, to September 1, was 983 lbs. of butter, 215|- lbs. of which, manufactured from the 1st of December to the 1st of June, he sold at 25 cts., and the residue, from June 1, at 30 cts. per 11). Of the process of manufacture, he gives but a meagre and wholly uninstructive account, (^onfined to the simple statement, that " the milk was •strained into tin pans, set in a room above ground, and the dates of the several churnings,'' (which he gave in a table,) " showing how long the milk was kept." On recurring to this table, it appeared that the churning in June was, on an aver- age, about once in three days ; in July and August, once in about two days, and in the cooler months much less frequently. It might well have been expected from a competitor, whose whole PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 23 product of the dairy was in the manufacture of butter for the market at high prices, that his? mode of preparing the milk and cream, selecting and preserving his dairy utensils and vessels, process of churning and working the butter, and the economy of his dairy room, would afford much useful direction to the good management of others, and if his answer may be considered as satisfying the letter of the interrogatory in the proposals, it may be truly said, that it is, at best, but a poor compliance with the spirit and object of tlie inquiry. In regard to the manner of keeping the stock, Mr. Sheldon is more explicit. He states, that his cows were turned into a back pasture as early as the middle of April, and into a good pasture the iirst of June. Since he commenced digging potatoes for the market, they have eaten the small ones, when he had them to spare, and when not, they have had green corn fodder. From October to May, their food was principally meadow hay, with husks and stalks, and one peck of turnips or carrots per day, to each cow, until they were all used. After this, they were fed with meadow hay cut, and fine feed mixed with sweetened water, each cow being allowed three pounds of fine feed and half a pint of molasses per day ; while they were in the back pasture in the spring, they had the same allowance. The greatest quantity of milk from either of Mr. Sheldon's cows, in the first three days of either month of trial, was 49 quarts, in June, by a native cow, five years old ; and the great- est quantity by the six cows, in the first tliree days of cither month, was 248 quarts and half a pint, in July. William Robinson, Jr., of Barre, entered six cows, of a dairy of eighteen kept together, (four raised by himself,) of the ages of 10, '5, 7, 8, 8, 8, respectively ; grade, Durham. Their pro- duct, in the first three days of the nine months of trial-, was 3,292 lbs., or 1,462 quarts of milk, made into 311 lbs. of cheese. The product of the whole season of trial was, 21 lbs. of butter and 2,954 lbs of cheese. Mr. Robinson gives the following very brief and unsatisfactory account of his mode of manufacture : " In summer we run up milk twice a day, and then keep our curd one day, and manu- fiicture it into cheese. In winter, Ave run our milk until we 24 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE get enough for a cheese, and then warm the inilk and stir in the cream, and make it into cheese the same day." Of his treatment of his stock, and their keeping, he states that liis cows were turned to pasture May 4, and fed on hay morning and evening until the lltli, and afterwards luid nothing but pasture feed, except corn fodder eight days, the last of August. From December 1, they were kept on corn fodder, straw and poor hay, until the first of March, then eacli had good hay, and two quarts ears of corn and oats ground together, per day, until the 11th of May. "William W. Watson, of Princeton, presented his claims for six cows, of ten kept together; ages 12, 11, 9, T, 6, and 5 years. One Durham, two one-half Durham and one-half Ayr- shire, one one-half Durham and one-half native, and two one- half Durham and one-half Holderness. Of the product of these six cows, Mr. Watson gives no de- tailed account, except for the first three days of the months of June, July and August, of which he states the yield to be 1,655 lbs. 4 oz., or 831 quarts 1} pint of milk, making 199 lbs. 11 oz. of cheese. The whole amount manufactured during the pre- scribed period of trial, from December 1, to August 31, both inclusive, he sets down at 2,031 lbs 11 oz. of cheese. Of the process of manufacture, in answer to the interrogatory, his statement is only in these words : " Set the milk as soon as milked, at sunrise and sundown — make cheese night and morning." Of the manner of keeping his stock, he answers, that they " were turned to pasture May 25, 1856, had good pasturing, and were driven a mile night and morning. They were stabled from November 15, 1855, to May 25. Food, first month, wheat straw and husks ; second and third months, wheat straw and husks, with hay once a day ; fourth, fifth and sixth months, half English and half meadow hay ; drink, water ; calving time, two quarts of meal a day for one week." The greatest yield of milk by either of Mr. Watson's cows, for the first three days of either of the months, of which he gives an account, was 52 qts. in July, by his half Durham and half native cow, 6 years old. The greatest quantity of his six PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 25 cows in the first three days of cither month, was 285 quarts ]l pint in June. Mr. Watson has neglected to state any account of the quan- tity of milk by his six cows, or either of them, on first three days of the first six months of the prescribed period of trial. Nor does it appear that three at least, or how many, of the cows were bred and raised by himself; nor is the statement, filed by him, (such as it is,) cither subscribed or sworn to, in conformity with the requirement. Under Class 2. — " For the best four dairy cows, owned and kept from July 1, 1855, to the day of the show, at least one of which shall have been bred and raised, or imported, by the competitors," there were but two entries, with statements in writing filed with the secretary, according to the proposals. Amos F. Knight, of West Boylston, entered four cows, of which he gave the following statement: That their ages, respec- tively, were 18, 12, 11, and 4 years — two of them of the native breed ; one one-half Devon, and one one-half Ayrshire, and that one of them was bred by himself. They were kept together with three other cows and two two-year old heifers. The product of milk of these four cows, for the first three days of each month of trial, from December 1, 1855, to Heptem- ber 1, 1856, both inclusive, had been 1,583 lbs. 10 oz., or 634 quarts, which made into butter, gave 57 lbs. 3 oz. The whole product for the entire period of trial, was 645 lbs. and 1 oz. of butter. His cows were turned to pasture May 12, during the day, and fed from the barn morning and night, until the 20th, after which they were kept on grass only, except that since the 8th of August they have had corn fodder once a day. His practice is to keep his cows in the stable every night through the year ; and while fed from the barn, they are foddered twice in the morning, once at noon, and twice at niglit — watered morning and night, and left out only long enougli to drink, unless the weather is warm. From the first of March they are carded once a day. Of food, other than hay, he fed to his stock, while in the stable, subsequent to December 1, 1855, 8 bushels of pumpkins, 80 lbs. of oil cake, 24| bushels of English turnips, 4 26 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE 410 lbs. of shorts, G9 bushels of carrots and 5^ bushels of cob and corn meal. Each cow had one peck of tui-nips or carrots per day, in the morning, and the shorts and meal were fed on cut hay. In reference to the process of manufacture, Mr. Knight states, that " after the milk is drawn from the cows, which is done about sunrise in the morning, and at five o'clock in the afternoon, during the summer, it is carried to the milk room or cellar and strained into tin pans, from two quarts to three quarts to a pan. The time the milk stands before skimming, varies with the weather, generally from 36 to 48 hours. In the warmest weather, the creampots are set on the ice the night before we churn. We churn twice a week. When the butter is taken from the churn, the buttermilk worked out as clear as it can be and salted, it is set away for 24 hours, when it is worked over and set away for 24 hours more. It is then worked over again, weighed into pound balls and lumped for the market. We generally sell our milk in the winter. I have 30 cents per lb. for my butter, through the season." Mr. Knight notes that his best cow did not do well in calving, grew afterwards poor, and for a while gave but little milk. It will be observed, also, that another was 18 years old. The greatest yield of milk of either one cow, on any three of the first days of the month, was 41 quarts l.j pint, by a native cow 12 years old. The greatest yield by the four cows, on the first three days of any month, was 147 quarts 1| pint, in June. William Robinson, Jr., of Barre, entered also in the second Class, four cows, of a dairy of eighteen kept together, their breed, grade Durham, all raised by himself, and the ages of three of them stated as 7, 8, and 10 years, respectively. The account of their product is as follows, viz.: — For the first three days of each month of trial, 1,948 lbs., or 859 quarts 1^ pint of milk, which manufactured, gave 4 lbs. 12 oz. of butter, and 182 lbs. of cheese. The product of the manufactured milk of all the cows, for the whole time, was 42 lbs. of butter, and 1,559 lbs. of cheese. The cows were turned to pasture May 4, and fed on hay morning and evening, until May 11, and after had nothing but PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 27 pasture feed, except corn fodder the last eight days in August. In winter, subsequent to December 1, 1855, they were kept on corn fodder, straw, and poor hay, until the first of March, 1856, and then had good hay, with two quarts of meal, made from ears of corn and oats ground together, fed to each cow per day, to the 11th of March. Mr. Robinson's reply to the interrogatory — " What is your process of manufacturing in summer and in winter, specifying the difference, if any, in tlie manner of keeping the milk and cream, the frequency of manufacture, the course of manage- ment in all its stages ?" is, (as was his answer to the same interrogatory under his entry in Class 1, proposed alike to all the competitors,) " In summer we run up the milk twice a day, keep our curd one day, and manufacture it into cheese. In winter, we keep our milk until we get enough for a cheese, then warm the milk and stir in the cream and make it into cheese, the same day." The greatest yield of milk of either one of Mr. Robinson's four cows, for the first three days of any month, was 59 quarts and |- pint, in June, and the largest yield of the four cows, for the first three days of any month, was 206 quarts and 1 pint, in July. The committee have thus gone through with a careful anal- ysis and abstract from all the statements made by the respective competitors. They have endeavored to do full justice to their representations in all material respects, giving them in the very words, or deducing the results from the figures of the claim- ants themselves. There has been a noticeable neglect, on the part of some of them, to answer with explicitness, many of the inquiries propounded in the forms for the returns. In respect to the period for which the cows were dry, for instance, while some have set down the dates of their becoming dry, and of their subsequent calving, others have given but a single date, as December 1, or the last of January, when all their cows were dried ; while others, without dates, have stated the length of time in which their cows were not in milk. From such data, so far as the committee could form an opinion, it appears, that the average period in which the cows were out of milk, has 28 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE been about two months, and on recurring, in tliis connection, to the mode of feeding, it is made obvious as a general truth, that tlie best kept animals go dry the shortest time. As to " grooming" the cattle, which was made a sulyect of inquiry by the trustees, we have nothing in reply. The use of the card, the curry-comb and the brush, is not even mentioned, except by Mr. Knight, who only states, that " from the 1st of March, his cows were carded once a day." Nor is any thing said of litter for the cows in the stalls, that they may lie at their ease, and be kept dry and clean. Now the committee believe that there may be a judicious and profitable application of the card and curry-comb and brush, daily, and as to littering cows in the stable, if there were dairy maids in the land as there once were, and they did the milking as was done in the good olden times of domestic industry and frugality, the practice could not be neglected. In other particulars, the interrogato- ries are either entirely disregarded, or the answers are so general and vague as to convey but little information. In these respects the committee cannot but lament, that the proffered liberality of the trustees has been so fruitless of anticipated results, and that the exhibition, with all that has been attractive in the appearance of the stock, will still leave us witliout that instruc- tion which would direct to its most profitable selection and use. But however barren and unsatisfactory may have been the written communications of the competitors, the exhibition of these animals in the pens has not been without its gratifications. The cattle have spoken better things for themselves than the credit given them by the written statements of their owners. In general, the cows were noble looking creatures, showing much beauty of form, good size, and the best points in milking qualities. Mr. Ellsworth's six Durham grade cows were espe- cially noticeable for their size and imposing appearance. His two heifers, three years old, in the judgment of the committee, are quite as promising as any which were exhibited, and all bore evidence of good care and judicious breeding. Mr. Rob- inson's cows, though showing good points, were inferior, both in size and condition, to those of Mr. Ellsworth, but they gave, strongly, the mark of the Durham blood. The cows of Mr. Sheldon, all of native stock but one, and that of the Durham PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 29 race, had excellent- milking points, and considering they had been driven more than fifty miles to the show, while in full milk, were in excellent condition. Mr. Knight's cows, two of native breed, one a cross with the Devons and another with the Diirhams, show their good points very favorably, but the old cow of eighteen years, by his own' admission, had been kept at least one year too long, and was thin in flesh and obviously failing. Mr. Mann's cows, from a herd of twenty-one kept together, did not escape the particular notice of the committee. In blood, they were represented as " grade," and they bore evident marks of the cross of the native with the shorthorns. Some of them had admirable milking points, and certainly all did credit, in their condition and appearance, to the generous keeping they received, according to the statement of their owner, especially during the preceding winter. Upon applying the prescribed rules to the statements of the several competitors, in Class No. 1, the committee are unani- mously of opinion, that Mr. Mann has not maintained his claim to competition. He has given no account of the manufacture of his milk, except for the first three days of each month, nor of the whole yield of milk, either maiuifactured or unmanufactured. The rule is explicit and imperative, that, in Classes No. 1 and No. 2, " all the milk must be manufactured into butter and cheese, during the whole period of trial," and without this com- pliance on his part, there could be no just comparison and decision between the productiveness, qualities and value of his cows, and the cows of other competitors. In the absence of the account, tlie presumption is, that, except in one part of the required trial, that of the product of the first three days of the months, the milk was noitlier manufactured, nor the quantity noted, but that, as he states to have been his practice for past years, it was sold in the market. This neglect of Mr. Mann to keep an account is the more to be regretted, inasmuch as the trial, so far as he proceeded, shows a better result than that of either other competitor. It would have been important also, upon another point of inquiry, how far the expense of high keeping found a corresponding recompense in the greater pro- ductiveness of milk made into butter or cheese, Mr. Mann 30 :\[A.S,SACIIUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE having fed liis stock far more richly, as will be seen by his state- ment, than any other competitor. For a like reason of non-compliance witli the rules, and in mucli more considerable and material respects, the claims of Mr. Watson must have been excluded from competition for the premiums. He had rendered no account of the product of his cows previous to June, 1850, altogether omitting in his state- ment their yield for any part of the preceding six months of the period of trial. His cows were not seen in the pens, and it was understood that he withdrew from the competition. The claims to premiums in Class No. 1 are thus reduced to three competitors, and the committee find, upon examination and comparison of results, that between them, the cows of Mr. Ellsworth were altogether the most productive. By his state- ment, it appears that he manufactured from the milk of his six cows, during the whole period of trial, 772 lbs. of butter, and 1,251|- lbs. of cheese. Charging the butter at 30 cents per Ib.^ would give 8231.60 ; and the cheese at 10 cents per lb., 8125.17 — making fin aggregate value of 8356.77. Or estimating the produce of milk in butter as equal in quantity to three times the same weight in cheese, adding to this the quantity of cheese actually made, and so stating the account, would give an equiv- alent to 356 lbs. of cheese, and the same pecuniary result. This sum, as will be perceived by tables which the committee have prepared to accompany this report, exceeds, by more than fifty dollars, the value of the product of any other competitor. Added to this, Mr. Ellsworth gives an account of 540^ lbs. of skim-milk cheese, manufactured during the same period, which the committee have not taken into the estimate, as it may fairly be ofl'set against the whey or buttermilk of other competitors, of which no account is required. As between Mr. Ellsworth and Mr. Robinson, one of his com- petitors, it should be remarked, that the yield of milk by the cows of the latter, in the first three days of the month of trial, was greater, both in weight and quantity, than that produced by the cows of the former ; hut the manufactured product, stated in the equivalent of cheese, was by 550 lbs. less. Whether this was owing to the richer quality of the milk of Mr. Ellsworth's cows, or his more perfect process of manufacture, the committee PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 31 have no means to decide. His cows were somewhat better fed in the winter, but two of them were only three years okl, while all of Mr. Robinson's were of mature age. The cows of both were of the same breed, grade Durham. The committee unanimously adjudge to Samuel Ellsworth, of Barre, for the best six dairy cows, the first premium of $250. To Asa G. Sheldon, of Wilmington, for his six cows, the com- mittee adjudge tlie second premium of ^200. As between Mr. Sheldon and his competitor Mr. Robinson, the committee find from their statements, respectively, that Mr. Robinson's cows, for the first three days of each month of trial, yielded in the aggregate 3,292 lbs. 4 oz., or 1,462 quarts of milk, to 2,230 lbs. 2 oz., or 927 quarts 1 pint of Mr. Slieldon's. But the lesser weight and quantity of milk of Mr. Sheldon's cows produced 134 lbs. 15 oz. of butter, equal to 402 lbs. 13 oz. of cheese, to 311 lbs. of cheese actually manufiictured from the milk of Mr. Robinson's cows. The whole value of the product in butter, for the entire period of trial, of Mr. Sheldon's cows, at 30 cents per pound, is $294.90 ; and that of 21 pounds of butter, equal to 63 lbs. of cheese, added to 2,954 lbs. of cheese, manufactured in the same period I'rom the milk of Mr. Robin- son's cows, at 10 cents per pound, gives $301.07. Two of Mr. Sheldon's cows, however, were but four years old, while three of Mr. Robinson's were eight ; the ages of the residue of both com- petitors comparing well with each other. It will be seen, that the advantage here was greatly on the side of Mr. Robinson. Mr. Sheldon's cows were better fed than Mr. Robinson's, during the winter ; but, in the judgment of the committee, this will not sufficiently account for the greater richness of their milk, as shown in the product of butter. Besides, it is found, by recur- rence to the tabular monthly statements of both competitors, that the greater disproportion in the manufactured })roduct to the yield of milk, was in the sununer season, Avhilo the cattle were at pasture. For the reason assigned, in the case of Mr. Ellsworth, no allowance is made by the committee for the buttermilk set down by Mr. Sheldon as sold by him for 190 ; nor of two fat calves, at $19.50, as there are no returns, under the prescribed rules, from other competitors, by which a comparison of other pro- 32 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE ducts than milk maniifactured into butter and cheese could be made. Besides, it is not stated in what manner the calves were fattened. Other competitors raised their calves, and doubtless all had whey or buttermilk from the dairy in proportion to their manufactured milk. It is proper to note, that Mr. Sheldon ingenuously stated, that one of his cows had been hired out, before he knew of the proposals, from July to November, 1855, but in the mean time was owned by him, and had been returned and kept with the others during the whole period of trial. The committee are unanimously of opinion, that this circumstance should not ope- rate as a forfeiture of his claims, the spirit of the rule in relation thereto evidently intending only to restrain the procurement of cows after the proposals were issued, with the express purpose of successful competition for a premium. This cow was kept with the rest, and subjected with them to all the required tests of product. It remains to the committee to assign to William Bobinson, Jr., of Barre, for his six cows, the third premium of $150. In Class 2. — For the best dairy cows, the committee, as between Mr. Robinson and Mr. Knight, could have little ques- tion of precedence. Mr. Robinson's cows, for the first three days of the months of trial, gave an aggregate of 1,948 lbs. of milk, or 859 quarts li pint, producing 4 lbs. 12 oz. of butter, equal to 13 lbs. 8 oz. of cheese, which with 182 lbs. of manu- factured cheese, makes 195 lbs. 8 oz., against 1,583 lbs. 10 oz., or 634 quarts 1 pint of milk, manufactured into 67 lbs. 3 oz. of butter, equal to 171 lbs. 9 oz. of cheese, the product of Mr. Knight's cows. But the entire value of the product of Mr. Robinson's cows, for the whole period of trial, was but $168.50, to $193.50 from the cows of Mr. Knight. Now the prize offered is for the best dair}^ cows, and not for the cows which may give the most milk ; and sitrely those must be best which yield the greatest dairy product, in proportion to their milk, in butter and cheese. The cows of Mr. Knight appear to have been better ke{)t, especially in the winter, than those of Mr. Robinson, and his herd was not so numerous ; but these considerations do not outweigh the advantas-e which the latter had in the better ages PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 33 of his animals, and the great disproportion in the value of their dairy product. The committee adjudge, in Class 2, to Amos F. Knight, of West Boylston, for the four best cows, the first premium of •$150 ; and to William Robinson, Jr., of Barre, the second pre- mium of $100. The committee paid little regard to the consideration of allowance, suggested by Mr. Knight, that one of his cows was 18 years old. They cannot approve of the keeping of cows to that advanced age, for, under no circumstances, can it be economical. With rare exceptional cases, they should not be continued in the dairy beyond the age of 12 years. The credit is due to Mr. Knight for having given the best of the imperfect accounts of the process of the manufacture of butter. The comparisons before stated of the yield of milk, and pro- ducts of its manufacture into butter and cheese, from the cows of Mr. Ellsworth, Mr. Robinson and Mr. Sheldon, in Class 1, and from the cows of Mr. Robinson and Mr. Knight in Class 2, present, in a striking point of view, the interesting and much vexed questions, whether some cows or races of cows, do not possess peculiar qualities for the product of butter or of cheese, and not alike for both ; and what are the points of discrimina- tion, and the distinguishing characteristics of breed or blood for either ? With the permission of the trustees, the committee would recommend, in consideration that Mr. Mann pursued the tests of the products of his cows, and rendered statements of the results for a part of the season of trial, and has incurred expense and the loss of the use of these cows for several days, in bring- ing them to the show, and that his cows are really fine animals, adding much to the interest of the exhibition, there should be given to Mr. Mann a gratuity of twenty-five dollars. In conclusion of this already too extended report, the com- mittee cannot deny to themselves the gratification of offering their congratulations, and expressing their warmest thanks to the trustees of the Massachusetts Society, for the beautiful dis- play of dairy stock, of all classes, which their enlightened liber- 5 34 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE ality has brought to the field of exhibition. So fine and valuable animals in this department of rural economy, and of ownership in this Commonwealth, it is believed, have not before been wit- nessed at any of our shows. They have here been seen by thousands of admiring spectators, and their worth will be made better known to a great body of practical agriculturists. If past efforts to obtain written statements of the properties and value of good stock have proved, to a great degree, unavailing, such opportunities will speak more impressively to the pride and interest of the farmer, and ultimately secure its more gen- eral possession and diffusion.* The committee submit, with the report, the written statements of all the competitors, which, however, from the repetition and complexity of the questions and answers, can serve only for reference. For, and in behalf, and by order of the committee, Levi Lincoln, Chairman. Agricultural Hall, Worcester, > September 26, 1856. \ * The indefiniteness and meagreness of the statements of the various com- petitors for the premiums of the Massachusetts Society, are regretted, not only by the Committee, but by all who read and study them for the purpose of ob- taining knowledge and skill in the matters to which they relate. It is very desirable that all persons making entries to the different agricultural societies of the Commonwealth, should be informed, that in awarding the premiums offered, the Committees will be governed by the rules pertaining thereto. These are definite, and easily understood. The statements should embody all the facts coming under the notice of the producer of the article offered for premium. These may seem too trivial to be noted by the experienced farmer, or amateur. Not so to the inexperienced, or the beginner. To such, they are the elements of that art whose thorough knowledge comprises an under- standing of the practical economy of good husbandry. Hence the importance of full and accurate statements. — Ed. PBOMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 35 III, N 3 t 1 1 1 I o «l| s . -s* ,^ CB »o TO 1 ss "o =5^3 3 ^ TO O W3 o S P . a 1 J 1 1 i-T S 5 ^ fc. o :3 o.j2 5 £ a> ;^ *j M CO ^_, 1 >o (M ll|« |g K: s 03 C4 s ■* fe:ce§ <« 0 t» >> • a a a Jl to o & -I fh d P i-a 111 oro II til 341 >-5 > .Si .9 6 2 |"tD CO (M ,_! •^S O ^^ lO ■* to to ■<*< lO Vh O ■^ § s to _>^ a B a _t^ S s 3 S 3 a a •-5 u 3 tDOOCo "£ a 05 to 00 cr -^ 5a i-t tH -*w >. t—lr-tT— 1 ■^ o lOiOi-H ooooto S '^ MIMN nOO C^ •^ (M o o r-( ?i rt . 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C'Ir-t ^-a gs ^ ^ ^ o c3 ja .2 & a> S-. -2 S i is -2 m i i x! o a -*^ -73 oo c> OO o O oo ■S .2 ^r-t CO CO 1-1 CO COi-< 't- +3 *J o p. ci (S cj cl d cj cJ cj 3 "3 ,2 o O 1 r* X! o ■3 !^ ^ ^ ^ i-t „ "3 a; ^ 5 1 1 £ ,D a u C^ i-H CO .-I-* ,_t in (MO l-O CO C^iO CO -* ■■JHO w a i-c-t en o CO »o^ t- qT h a) !r, ^ % O M -2 -£ S s -2 -M QJ Q S j3 3 3 J3 ^ 3 3ja ^ p;o n P30 o p; «o 1 fe ? o w . o p cj •» M u C* 1-^ a' o l-S 1 j3 o' 1 '• a" o 1 -u o s i §" 2 a 3 si OD a a 2 < 3 s m o S a 2^ o a 3 6 .s .3 o .2 J3 d n3 :;3 a < ra o 1-9 •< t is t= PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 37 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CLASS NO. 4. There were but two entries in this Class. William W. Wat- son, of Princeton, exhibited a small native cow ten years old, which, according to his statement, yielded as follows : — The three first days of March, (Butter) " " " April, (( " May, (( " June, u " July, a " August, Whole amount of butter in 18 days. lbs. oz 4 8 5 8 5 12 6 0 6 0 5 12 33 Another cow, Devon and Durham, entered by William Eames, of Worcester, produced of butter : — The first three days of March, " " " April, " " " May, " " " June, " " " July, " " " August, Whole amount of butter in 18 days, lbs. oz. 2 12 3 8 4 10 5 4 4 12 4 4 25 Neither of these competitors having complied with the con- ditions upon which these premiums were offered, from a misun- derstanding of the terms of the same, the committee recommend a gratuity to William W. Watson, of $30, and to William Eames, of $20. Mr. Salisbury, of Worcester, presented for exhibition, beauti- ful specimens of the Alderney stock, as well as a number of fine grade heifers, which gave proof of care and attention in rearing. T. P. Huntington, Chairman. 38 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CLASS NO. 5. There was but one cow kept for milk, entered in this Class for premium, and she was so superior that the committee had no hesitation in awarding to her owner, Mr. Rufus Carter, of Worcester, the first premium of $40. There were two other animals entered for exhibition only, the conditions of the premium not having been complied with. One of these, a fine cow entered by T. P. Curtis, the other a beautiful heifer, entered by Mr. Charles Brigham, of Marlboro'. The committee respectfully recommend that a gratuity of $10 be allowed to Mr. Brigham, as some compensation for his trouble. Charles L. Flint, Chairman. STATEMENT OF RUFUS CARTER. Record of product of dairy stock, entered and exhibited for premium in Class 5, at the dairy stock exhibition, at Worcester. Day of Month. March 1st, 2d, April May June July 3d,. 1st, 2d,. 3d,. 1st, 2d, 3d, 1st, 2d,. 3d,. 1st, 2d,. 3d,. August 1st, 2d,. 3d,. Yield of Milk after being Strained. Product of Milk. Weight. lbs. 12 6 39 40 40 61 66 65 52 60 57 49 47 38 12 12 12 4 4 12 Beer Measure. qts. 14 15 16 24 26 26 22 24 23 19 18 15 pts. U ^ Of Of If Oi lbs. oz. lbs. oz. PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 39 Question 1. — What has been the exact amount of strained milk in weight and yielded by the cow entered by you, during the prescribed period of trial ? to wit : For six months immedi- ately preceding the first day of September, 1856. Please to specify the amount yielded on each day. See schedule annexed. 2. How many animals constitute your dairy, and has the cow entered by you been kept alone or with others ? I have three cows. The one I enter has been kept alone most of the time while at pasture, and with the others wliile in the barn. 3. What is the age of the cow exhibited by you ? Ten years next October. 4. Of what breed is she ? One-fourth Ayrshire, three-fourths Durham. 5. Where was she raised and bred, and by whom ? In Wor- cester, bred by Hon. Levi Lincoln, and raised by William S. Lincoln, Esq. 6. If imported, when and by whom was the importation made ? 7. When was the animal last dried ? I commenced drying her on the second day of March, and was obliged to milk her occasionally up to the twenty-eighth of March. 8. At what time did she drop her last calf? On the 28th day of April, 1856. 9. At what time will she next calve ? She received bull on the 15th of August, 1856. 10. At what time was she turned to pasture ? On the third day of May. 11. Through what period does your time of stabling extend ? and what is your course of management, both as to food, drink, grooming and exercise, while your stock are stabled ? My time of stabling extends from about the middle of November to the first of May, but my cows are kept in the barn a much longer time nights. While stabled they are fed regularly three times a day, and allowed to drink three times a day. Groomed daily. The cow I entered was kept tied up in the barn most of the time during last winter. She was exercised by driving her about one- fourth of a mile daily, for a few weeks before she calved. 12. What amount of food, and of what kind, other than hay, has been allowed to the cow entered by you while in the stable, 40 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE subsequent to December 1, 1855 ? 50 lbs. mangel wurzel per day, during the month of December ; 40 lbs. of the same from January 1st to January 23d ; then 36 lbs. carrots per day to February 21st ; 4 quarts of shorts on the 22d day of February ; 12 lbs. of carrots April 7tli, and one peck of potatoes on the 24th day of April. 13. What amount, and what kind of food was allowed to her during the period of their being in pasture ? While in the barn nights she was allowed to eat what hay she pleased, which averaged from four to five pounds per night. 14. In what class are you a competitor ? Five. Note. — In Classes Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, all the milk must be] manufactured into butter or cheese during the whole period of trial. In Class 5 the millc is not required to be manufactured. In case of a misapprehension of the intention of the rules by any compet- itor at the commencement of his trial, the Trustees reserve to themselves the right of dating the commencement of the required trial at any day subsequent to the 1st of December, 1855, and previous to January 1, 1856. RuFUS Carter. December 1, 1855. Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Worcester, ss., September 10, 1856. Then personally appeared the above named Rufus Carter, and made oath that the foregoing statements by him sub- scribed are true. Before me, J. Henry Hill, Justice of the Peace. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON DURHAMS. There were no competitors for the premiums offered for Dur- ham cows under Class No. 3, so that in reference to that class your committee had no duty to perform. For the premiums offered for Durham bulls, under Class No. 6, there were five competitors. Kirkleavington, entered by Paoli Lathrop, of South Hadley Falls, six years old the first of January last, we regard as a very superior animal, and a most excellent specimen of the Durham shorthorn breed. We unhesitatingly recommend that the premium of ^50, for PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 41 the best Durham bull, not less than one year old, be awarded to Mr. Lathrop. In our opinion neither of the other bulls, entered as Durhams, were of pure blood. Their owners failed to furnish pedigrees, or any other evidence, except their own suppositions, to induce us to change that opinion. The bull entered by Silas E. Brigham & Co., of Southborough, although probably not quite pure blooded Durham, is still a very good animal, and is worthy of commendation. We there- fore recommend that a gratuity of |25 be awarded to them for their bull. The others were not only very far from being pure blood animals, but possessed no other qualities which deserve recommendation. Their owners undoubtedly believe what they say, but are very much mistaken. For the Committee, T. E. Payson, Chairman. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON DEVONS. In the execution of their duties the committee have necessarily experienced some embarrassment, resulting not alone from the difficulties which occur in deciding on cases where tlie shades of difference are scarcely perceptible, but, in some degree, ownng to the want, of what the committee deemed, proper evidence as to the purity of blood of the animals offered for premium. Act- ing under the rules prescribed by the trustees of the State Socie- ty, the committee felt bound to a rigid adherence to them, and that nothing but pure blood had any apology for the granting of a premium. Although there were animals presented that were very perfect in form, and as such manifested great excel- lence in breeding, and were individually almost perfect for the class under examination, yet the defect of a single link in the chain of their pedigree has placed them out of the reach of the society's liberal benefaction. Such they have felt compelled to pass by without further comment. There were others placed before them, of peculiar merit and beauty, but whose owners had not taken proper measures to bring within the regulations of the society. In the opinion of your committee, it is time 6 42 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE » that all our agricultural societies should assert a claim to high excellence in all the grades of cattle, which they are called upon to approve and commend to the public, and though it may be the beginning of a new era in the progress of improvement in that direction, it cannot fail to produce great benefits to the interest of the farmer. Animals to which premiums are awarded by the State or County societies, should be acknowledged to have an equal merit with any others in the country ; purchasers of blood stock should never be allowed room to doubt for a moment, that they have the purity of blood, and that duly proved, for which they have bargained. This point being set- tled, habits of accuracy will be introduced among all stock breeders, which will set at rest all doubt as to the origin and progress of every individual in the registry. Farmers will then be better able to decide which particular race of cattle is best adapted to his own locality, and may then proceed with a surer hope of success, in improving the character of his own particu- lar choice. With these remarks, your committee would state, that, much to their regret, there were no cows, of the class to which their duty was confined, oflbred for the society's premium. Six very fine ones from the herd of William Buckminster, Esq., were offered for exhibition only, and attracted much attention. Of bulls, there were eleven entered for premium, and two of much promise, owned by William Buckminster, for exhibition only. Of those entered for premiums, several were unfortu- nately debarred from competition for reasons before stated. The committee have awarded premiums as follows, viz. : — To Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, for his bull Duke of Devon- shire, one year and four months old, the first premium of fifty dollars. To John Brooks, Jr., of Princeton, for his bull, two years and three months old, the second premium, of forty dollars. To Peter Harwood, of Barre, for his bull, two years and six months old, the third premium, of twenty-five dollars. For the Committee, Samuel Chandler, Chairman. PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 43 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AYRSHIRES. The committee appointed by the Trustees of the Massachu- setts Society for Promoting Agriculture, to award premiums for the State Show of Dairy Stock, in Nos. 3 and 6, embracing Ayrshire stock only, respectfully submit the following report : — That the Ayrshire breed of animals have for more than half a century been in high repute in Scotland and other regions where they liave been disseminated as a milking race, of hardy constitution, giving more milk of their inches than any other variety, and of a quality certainly equal to any imported to this country, save the Jerseys, and perhaps the Dcvons. We believe that it is universally admitted that the county of Ayr and its vicinity, in Scotland, is the home of this breed. Whether tliey have been brought to their present perfection by judicious selections from the ancient race, or by crosses with other races that had properties they wished to ingraft into their own, is left to conjecture. That the stock of that locality were originally poor milkers, mostly of black color, with " line backs " and wdiite faces, is pretty certain. That the color now is almost invariably a dark red, chestnut or brown, interspersed more or less with white, and frequently with dark spots dotting the white surface, and instead of white being as formerly located uniformly over a herd, it is rare to find two speckled alike,* showing, as the com- mittee think, that crosses, rather than improvements incident to high culture, have effected this striking change in color, and have had an influence in increasing their size, audit has attained one now as large as the generality of New England farms will perpetuate. If this is so, for dairy stock, they are large enough ; for we are confident that any stock will be more productive when so kept that their properties shall be fully developed, than when stunted or suffered to degenerate. * The foregoing remarks as to color are more particularly applicable to those imported by Mr. Randall, of this State, and Mr. Prentiss, of Albany, than to those imported by Mr. Gushing, of Watertown, and Mr. Brodie, of New York. These last had more white, but the white ground was dotted thick with red spots. 44 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE That the good milking properties of this breed are more uniform and certain than any other imported stock, save the Jerseys, we fully believe. And, notwithstanding the admitted productiveness of the Jersey cow, when every attention is paid to her wants, it may be doubted whether, for farm and dairy purposes, she should be preferred to the Ayrshire. I have appended the following note, because, coming, as I think it does, from one whose preferences are in favor of the Durhams, it is a valuable commendation to the Ayrshire cow.* There were nine bulls entered for premium in this Class. Two by George M. Barrett, of Concord, 2 and 4 years old. One by Leonard Hoar, of Lincoln, 3^ years years old. * In the Librarj' of Useful Knowledge, a standard work published in Lon- don, in 1834, the writer says: " As mere milkers, they, (the Ayrshires,) cannot compare with the long-established dairy cow, the short-horn. They yield as much milk in proportion to their size and food, but not in pi-oportion to the room thoy occupy, and the increased trouble they give from being more numerous in order to require the requisite quantity of milk. " They produce an unusual quantity of rich cream, but there was so much difficulty in procuring them so as to keep up the stock, and the price asked for them was often so great, that they were comparatively abandoned." As to their fattening qualities, the same writer says : " They unite, perhaps, to a greater degree than any other breed, the supposed incompatible proper- ties of yielding a great deal of milk and beef. It will be long, perhaps, before they will be favorites with the butcher, for the fifth quarter will not usually weigh well in them ; their fat is mingled with the flesh, rather than separated in the form of tallow. Two circumstances, however, may partially account for their not being thought to succeed so well when grazed. They are not able to travel so far on the same keeping as the highland cattle, and from their great value as milkers, they are often kept until they are too old to fatten to advan- tage, or for the beef to become of the first quality." If the laudable efforts made by the Massachusetts Society to introduce full blood dairy stock, should be seconded by county societies and individuals, by encouraging the keeping the A'arious races pure, and insisting upon a full his- tory of all prize animals, tracing back their pedigree, the farmer will soon have at his command, the means of comparing and ascertaining for himself the cross most desirable. And although it may be admitted that the first cross from pure stock may excel in some points, a further cross will produce a degenerate and uncertain progeny. Therefore the importance, if any one proposes to breed grades, of being certain of the purity of the parent stock upon one side ; as almost universal experience has demonstrated that you are far more sure to breed a good animal from a full blood, crossed with a race having no affinity, than from half-bloods of the same race. PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 45 One bj John Brooks, Jr., of Princeton, 3 years 10 months old. One by Sylvester Pliillips, of Hopkinton, 3 years 8 months old. One by Luke Sweetser, of Amherst, 2 years 3 months old. One by John W. Lincoln, of Worcester, 2 years 7 months old. a u a a 2 " 3 " " u a a u 1 " 7 " " After a careful inspection of the animals, and an examination of the statements of the several competitors, as to age, treat- ment, rearing and keeping, and also pedigree as far as given, confirming purity of blood in this race, we recommend that the premiums offered by the trustees, on Ayrshire stock, be awarded as follows : — First premium to William S. Lincoln, of Worcester, for his bull, Bruce, from McGregor and Swinley stock, $50. Second premium to John Brooks, Jr., of Princeton, for his bull, bred by Daniel Webster, |40. Third premium to William S. Lincoln, for his bull, Rob Roy, descended from the imported Ayrshire bull, Swinley, .f 25. There were three cows entered for exhibition only, by Wil- liam S. Lincoln, of Worcester. One ten years old, had run with a pair of twin calves the past summer ; one three years old, had been in milk nearly a year ; another five years old, now dry, a very promising cow, and all fine animals, with a pedigree which makes the purity of their blood undoubted. Their calves were also fine well bred animals. Our attention was also called to some grade Ayrshires belong- ing to the Hon. John Brooks, of Princeton, from a cross of the State importation. They were a good lot of cows, reported to be good milkers, and had strong indications of Ayrshire blood. He had at the show, some fine heifer calves from these cows, by his Ayrshire bull. Moses Newell, Chairman. 46 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE REPORT OP THE COMMITTEE ON ALDERNEYS. The committee appointed by the Trustees of the Massachu- setts Society for Promoting Agriculture, on Jersey or Alderney, stock, under Classes No. 3 and No. 6, have attended to the duty assigned them, and ask leave to present the following re- port : — For the premiums five bulls were offered, and three for exhibition by the Massachusetts Society. As the premiums extended to persons all over the Commonwealth, your commit- tee regret that a larger number were not offered for their exam- ination. The bulls presented were, however, all of them superior animals, and all worthy of premium's. After a full and thorough examination of each of the animals, and also the accompanying statements, signed and sworn to by the reputed owners, your committee make the following award : — For the best Jersey bull, 1 year old, to William Spen- cer, of Lowell, $50 00 For the 2d best, to Stephen Salisbury, of Worcester, . 40 00 For the 3d best, to Joseph Burnett, of Southborough, for his bull " Czar," 25 00 The premiums offered under Class No. 3, were — For the best Jersey or Alderney cow, . . . $50 00 For the next best, 35 00 Your committee are pained to repoj't, that not a single entry for premium was made under this class. The premiums being quite liberal, your committee had every reason to suppose that a large number of the best breed of cows would have been offered for their inspection. As it is, their duties in this respect are ended, by this expression of their disappointment and regret. But your committee had the satisfaction of viewing a herd of three Jersey cows, offered for exhibition by our enterprising and public spirited fellow-citizen, Hon, Stephen Salisbury, of Wor- PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 47 cester, to whose exertions the Massachusetts Society, as well as this community, are much indebted, for the importation of blood cattle, as well as for improvements in other departments of agri- culture. These cows are a very fine specimen of the Jersey breed, and are named respectively, " Lady," " Judy," and " Fawn." They were imported by himself, in 1853, and would have been worthy of a premium, if he had complied with the society's requisitions in regard to the quantity of milk, butter, &c. Your committee recommend that the thanks of the Massa- chusetts Society be presented to Mr. Salisbury for his importa- tion and exhibition of these cows. A lot of cows and bulls were also entered by the Massachusetts Society, for exhibition and sale. They were imported, or were the progeny of imported stock, and are undoubtedly the finest collection of that breed of animals in this Commonwealth. That society deserves the high commendation of our people for importing that stock, and thus enabling all to judge of their qualities as milkers, and the utility of a cross with our native or other breeds. Your committee recommend that the usual compensation be allowed to Joseph Burnett, of Southborough, for travel for his bull, " Rob Roy," for which no premium was given. Respectfully submitted, Henry W. Cushman, Chairman, Worcester, September 24, 1856. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NATIVE AND GRADE BULLS. The committee on " Bulls of native or mixed breed," under Class No. 6, respectfully report, that the whole number of entries in their department was sixt^n, as follows : — No. 1. Moses Thompson, New Braintree, Worcester County, bull 3 years and 7 months old, three-fourths Durham and one- fourth Hereford, No. 2. Henry Boyles, Princeton, Worcester County, bull 4 years and 6 months old, one-half Devon and one-half native. 48 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE No. 3. Nathan Danforth, Princeton, Worcester County, bull 1 year and 4 months old, Ayrshire and Durham. No. 4. Asa G. Sheldon, Wilmington, Middlesex County, native bull, 4 years old. No. 5. George E. Allen, Barre, Worcester County, bull one-half native, one-fourth flereford, and one-fourth Durham, 1 year 6|- months old. No. 6. Phineas A. Beaman, Princeton, Worcester County, bull 2 years and 4 months old, Durham and native. No. 7. Daniel Dwight, Jr., Dudley, Worcester County, bull 15|^ months old, Durham and Devon. No. 8. Moses Smith, Hardwick, Worcester County, bull 3 •years and 6 months old, one-half Durham, one-fourth Hereford, and one-fourth native. No. 9. Taylor Stockwell, Sutton, Worcester County, bull 1 year and 6 months old, native. No. 10. James Dewell, West Stockbridge, Berkshire County, bull 4 years old, Hereford and Durham. No. 11. Aaron Gould, Douglas, Worcester Coiinty, bull 1 year and 5 months old, one-fourth Durham, one-fourth Devon, and one-half native. No. 12. Francis Carroll, Grafton, Worcester County, bull 2 years and 7 months old, Durham and Ayrshire. No. 13. Sewall Richardson, Princeton, Worcester County, bull 3 years and 6 months old, one-fourth Durham, one-fourth Devon, and one-half native. No. 14. Aaron B. Rice, Marlboro', Middlesex County, bull 3 years and 5 months old, one-half Durham, one-fourth Ayr- shire, and one-fourth native. No. 15. Jepthah Conant, Stowe, Middlesex County, bull 2 years and 4 months old, one-eighth Durham and seven-eighths native. No. 16. William Adams, J^., West Brookfield, Worcester Covuity, bull 2 years and 5 months old, native. The breed of the bulls is given as set forth in tlic statements of the owners, but in several instances the animals indicated a mixture of other blood. We award to Moses Thompson, of New Braintree, Worcester PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. 49 County, for his Durham and Hereford bull, No. 1, the first premium, |50 ; to Daniel D wight, Jr., of Dudley, Worcester County, for his Durham and Devon bull, No. 7, the second pre- mium, $40 ; and to Francis Carroll, Grafton, Worcester County, for his Durham and Ayrshire bull. No. 12, the third premium, •125. The committee were unanimous in awarding the first and second premiums, but were divided in opinion as to the third. Each of the sixteen bulls exhibited had some excellent points, and after those for which were awarded the first and second premiums, several possessed nearly equal merit. All of the bulls were worthy of exhibition, and the committee recommend the payment of twelve cents per mile to each of the owners whose bull was brought more than ten miles. The committee express their surprise and regret that the very liberal pi*emiums offered, did not bring to the exhibition animals in this class from a greater number of the counties. Respectfully submitted, for the Committee, J. H. W. Page, Chairman. Worcester, September 25, 1856. APPENDIX. [A.] PREMIUMS OFFERED FOR DAIRY STOCK. CLASS I. For the best six Dairj^ Cows, which shall have been owned and kept together from July 1, 1855, to the day of the show, and at least three of which cows shall have been bred and raised or imported by the competitors — A first premium of -$250 00 second " 200 00 third " 150 00 fourth " 100 00 CLASS n. For the best four Dairy Cows, owned and kept from July, 1, 1855, to the day of the show, at least one of which shall have been bred and raised or ifnported by the competitors — A first premium of $150 00 second " 100 00 third " 60 00 fourth " 40 00 Notice of intention to compete for either of the above premiums, must be given in person, or by letter, post paid, to Benjamin Guild, Esq., Secretary of the Society, at Boston, on or before the 1st day of December next. The period of trial will extend from December 1, 1855, to August 31, 1856, both inclusive. CLASS III. For the best Durham Cow, $50 00 next best, 35 00 52 APPENDIX. For the best Devon Cow, $50 00 next best, 35 00 best Ayrshire Cow, 50 00 next best, 35 00 best Jersey or Alderney Cow, . . . 50 00 next best, 35 00 best Cow of any other pure breed, . . 50 00 next best, 35 00 Premiums will not be awarded in this class unless the milk of the competing cow has been manufactured into butter or cheese, and an average daily yield of 1 lb. of butter, or 3 lbs. new milch cheese, weighed as ready for market, obtained therefrom for the period of six months preceding the 1st of September, 1856. Regard will be had in making the awards, to the ages of the ani- mals, the number of cows kept together, their food, and the conse- quent comparative expense of keeping, and their product. CLASS IV. For the best Cow of any breed, or mixture of breeds, (from a herd of not less than three cows,) which shall have been owned by the competitor from July 1, 1855, to the day of the show, kept for the manufacture of butter or cheese, for a period of six months, immedi- ately preceding the 1st of September, 1856 — A first premium of $50 00 second " 40 00 third " 30 00 fourth " 20 00 Premiums in this class will not be awarded unless thei;e has been an average daily yield of 1 lb. of butter, or 3 lbs. new milch cheese, for the whole j^eriod of trial, weighed as ready for market. CLASS Y. For the best Cow kept for Milk, and owned by the competitor from the 1st day of July, 1855, to the day of the show — A premium of $40 00 For the next best, 30 00 " » 20 00 " " 10 00 Premivims in this class will not be awarded unless there has been an average daily yield of 25 lbs. of milk for a period of six months immediately preceding the 1st day of September, 1856. APPENDIX. 53 Competitors for all the above classes of premiums will be required to file with William S. Lincoln, Secretary of this Committee, on or before the 10th clay of September, 1856, their statement in writing, under oath, or affirmation, to the following facts : — The age and breed of the cow, the place where, and person by whom, bred and raised, or imported, the time of being dried last, and of last and of next calving ; The time of turning to pasture ;" The whole number of cows constituting their dairy, and whether kept together ; Quantity of milli yielded by each competing cow, ascertained by the weight and beer measure of each milking after strained, for the first three days of each month of trial, and when the milk is manu- factured, the amount of butter or of cheese yielded by the competing animals during the whole period as specified in each class. In Classes No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4, all the milk must be manufactured into butter and cheese, during the whole period of trial. In Class No. 5 this is not required. In Classes No. 1 and No. 2, the milk of the com- peting cows may be manufactured together. In all cases the amount of butter and cheese produced by the milk of the three days must be ascertained. It will also be required that the statement shall give full and accurate account of the times of stabling, the method of management of the entire dairy during the period of stabling, the process of manufacture pursued, and the kind and quantity of every article of food furnished the animals, either while in the barn or at pasture, distinguishing between said periods. CLASS VI. F or the best Durham Bull, not less than one year old, . . . $50 00 second best, 40 00 third best, 25 00 best Devon Bull, not less than one year old, . . . 50 00 second best, 40 00 third best, 25,00 best Ayrshire Bull, not less than one year old, . . . 50 00 second best, 40 00 third best, 25 00 best Jersey or Alderney Bull, not less than one year old, 50 00 second best, 40 00 third best, . • 25 00 best Bull ofnative or mixed breed, not less than one year old, 50 00 second best, 40 00 third best, 25 00 54 APPENDIX. A written statement, under oath, signed by the competitor under this class, must be filed with the Secretary of this Committee, at the time of entering the animal, giving the age, breed, place where raised, person by whom bred and raised, or imported, method of management and kind and quantity of any article of food furnished, other than hay or grass, subsequent to the 1st of March, 1856. In all cases competitors must be the actual owners of the animals entered by them, on the 1st day o*f July, 1855, and such ownership must have continued to the day of the show. Security will be required that every bull to which a premium is awarded, shall be kept within the State for twelve months succeeding the show. No animal shall be allowed to enter into competition in more than one class. All animals offered for competition must be entered with William S. Lincoln, the Secretary of this Committee, in Worcester, on or before Wednesday, the 24th day of September, at 12 o'clock at noon, and. must be exhibited upon the grounds of the Worcester Agricul- tural Society, on the day of the exhibition, at 8 A. M., and remain till 3 P. M. NAMES OF COMMITTEES TO AWARD THE ABOVE PRE- MIUMS. Oil Classes Nos. 1 cmd 2. Hon. Levi Lincoln, Worcester, Chairman. Hon. Simon Brown, Concord, Paoli Lathrop, Esq., South Hadley, Henry W. Claj^p, Esq., Greenfield, Hon. Seth Sprague, Duxbury. On Durham Stock, under Classes Nos. 3 and 6. Thomas E. Payson, Esq., Rowley, Chairman. George M. Barrett, Esq., Concord, Pearly Troesdell, Esq., W. Stoekbridge, Charles P. Hitchcock, Esq., Hadley, Dr. Eben Wight, Dedham. On Devon Stock, under Classes Nos. 3 and 6. Gen. Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Chairman. Amos M. Carlton, Esq., Chicopee, James Poor, Esq., North Andover, Hon. Alvah Crocker, Fitchburg, Hon. Benj. Rodman, New Bedford. On Ayrshire Stock, under Classes Nos. 3 a7id 6. Hon. Moses Newell, Newbury, Chairman. David Lee, Esq., Barre, William Pynchon, Esq., Springfield, S. W. Lincoln, Esq., Cheshire, Asa G. Sheldon, Esq., Wihnhigton. APPENDIX. 55 On Jersey or Alderney Stock, under Classes Nos. 3 and 6. Hon. Henry W. Cushmau, Bernardston, Chairman. Prof. William C. Fowler, Amherst, Moses Stebblns, Esq., South Deerfield, John B. Moore, Esq., Concord, Aaron D. Weld, Esq., West Roxbury. On Cows of any other pure breed than Durham, Devon, Ayrshire and Jersey or Alderney Stock, under Class No. 3. Justus Tower, Esq., Lanesborough, Chairman. Samuel Capen, Esq., Dorchester, Luke Sweetser, Esq., Amherst, Horatio Sargeant, Esq., Springfield, Jonas Viles, Esq., Waltham. On Class No. 4. Theophilus P. Huntington, Esq., Northampton, Chairman. Wm. Buckminster, Esq., Framingham, Sidney Packard, Esq., E. Bridgewater, Hon. Peter Lawson, Dracut, Charles Pomeroy, Esq., Northfield. On Class No. 5. Charles L. Flint, Esq., Boston, Chairman. Wilham P. Dickinson, Esq., Hadley, John Perkins, Esq., South Danvers, Josiah Fogg, Esq., Deerfield, Hon. Amasa Walker, North Brookfield. On Bulls of native or mixed Stock, under Class No. 6. Horace M. Sessions, Esq., Wilbraham, Chairman. Hon. Charles Marston, Barnstable, George S. Willis, Esq., Pittsfield, Hon. J. H. W. Page, Brooklinc, Richard P. Waters, Esq., Salem. SALE OF DAIRY STOCK. At 3 o'clock, P. M. of the day of the State Dairy Show, a sale by public auction will be made of the fine herd of Jersey or Alderney coAvs, imported and owned by the Massachusetts Society for Pro- moting Agriculture, and an arrangement will be made for an exten- sive sale of dairy stock belonging to farmers who may wish to avail themselves of this opjjortunity to dispose of, or tq replenish their herds. Robert C, Winthrop, George W. Lymak, James W. Paige, Stephen Salisbury, Wm. S. Lincoln, Committee. 56 APPENDIX. [B.] Statement of the daily yield of the Coiv entered for Premium by Mr. Rtjftjs Carter, of Worcester. do ti s c Date. 1 o 1 t 1 Date. 0 c 0 0 to 1 s ll !? H S 'A !? S lS5o. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1855. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. June 2 211 16 13 501 July 18, 20 llf llf 43i 3 24 14^ 144 521 19, 194 10 9 384 4 24 161 16 561 20, 20 12 10 42 5 24 17 151 561 21, 184 12 94 39a 6 24^ 164 141 55^ 09 20| lOf 10 4U 7 23 154 164 54^ 23; 20 114 lOi 41f 8 2H 154 13 52^ 24, 19| 11 lU 42 9 2U 15 14i 531 25, 204 10| 10 41 10 24 14i 141 534 26, \H 124 lOf 4U 11 23i 141 14 52 27, IH 104 104 40 12 23 161 154 55 28, 19 lU 114 41i 13 2U 164 14 511 29, 18f lU 9 39 14 23i 15 14 524 30, 19 104 H 38f 15 22i 131 14i 50i 31, 20| IQh 11 424 16 23 15i| 151 544 Aujrust 1, m 9| 10 394 17 231 14 14 511 2, 19f 224 42 18 221 154 14 511 ii 17| - 194 37 19 221 16 15 531 4, 184 - 00 404 20 22 IQh 15 53.i 0, 19 - ISf 37f 421 21 24i Voh 14^ 544 6, 20f - 22 22 22 151 14 511 7, 184 - 20 384 23 24i 14 13i 511 8, 19^ - 21 40i 24 25i 134 12| 5U 9, 21f - 2U 434 25 23i 164 14 oH 10, 20f - 21 41f 26 241 15 14 53| 11, 20h - 204 40f 27 23 17 144 544 12, 21 - 23 44 28 22i 15i 14 52 13, 20 - 20| 40| 29 2Sh 161 144 541 14, 19 - 21| 40f 30 22h 14i 13 50 15, 19 - 191 381 July 1 1 23 121 141 50^ 16, 221 - 22f 451 2 21 Mi 134 48| 17, 21* - 22 431 3 24 144 13 514 18, 201 - 991 --2 43 4 23 141 13 501 19, 211 - 2H 43 5 23d 121 12a 481 20, 2Ui - 2-21 43 6 22^ 13i 131 49i 21, 22i - 23 451 7 224 131 111 471 22, 211 - 22^ 44 8 231 12 12 471 23, 211 - 99* 431 9 2U 134 121 47i 24, 211 - 21i 42| 10 22 \u 13 47i 25, 20" - 2U1 401 11 23^ 124 124 48 26, 201 2U.1 41' 12 21 124 12 454 27, 20| - 2c:i 41 13 201 12 12 441 28, 211 - 21 421 14 204 12f 12 45 29, 201 - 20f 41 15 224 11 11 444 30, 201 - 20 401 16 , 20 13 12 45 31, 19 - 20f 39| 17 91 i llf llf 44 APPENDIX. 57 Statement — Continued. ti ti c _c Date. g 2 ■3 Date. C S « o g I 0 2 I 185^. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1855. lbs. lbs. lbs. Sept. 1, . . 201 19f 401 Oct. 20, . . 16 15f 31| o -1 201 \n 40i 21, 16i 151 31f 3, 21 20 41 99 15f 15| 31 4, 19f 19* 39i 23, 16i 15i 31* ■5, 19f 19* 39i 24, I63 15'' 31 6, 18* 19f 38i 25, 14f 15i 30 7, 19f 17| 37* 26, lei 15, 3li 8, 18i 21 39i 27, 16* lof 32i 9, 20 191- 39i 28, 1*^1 13f 2.9f 10, 18* 20 382 29, 14* 13f 28i 11, 18| 19f 382 30, 15l 13i 29 12, 18 20 38 31, 16i 13* 29| 13, ISf 19 37| Nov. 1, 14* 13* 28 14, 18i 19i 371 0 15l 13 28f 15, 19i 19* 38f 3, 15i 12 27I: 16, 20 191- 39i 4, 16f 13 29f 17, 18 17i 35i 5, 14 13 27 18, 18i IH 35f 6, 14| 13 27| 19, 17 19* 36* 7, 16 13 29 20, 17t 19* 37i 8, 1.5* 12* 28 21, 18 18^ 36 9, 16* 13* 30 22, 17i 16| 34 10, 15 14 29 23, 17| 17 34f 11, 16* 13 29* 24, 17i 17f 35 12, 13l 13 26| 25, 16f 16f 33* 13, 14* 13* 28 26, 151 161 31| 14, 15i 13i 28* 27, 15 16 31 15, 14f 131 28* 28, 15| 15* 31i 16, 141 12i 27 29, 15-1- 16 31i 17, I5i 13* 28| 30, 16 15 31 18, I5i 12* 27f Oct. 1, 15i 151 30| 19, 14* 13* 28 2 15 14-1 29f 20, 15f 13* 29:- 3, 13 14J 27f 21, 15 13* 28* 4, 14 13 27 22, I4i 12| 27 5, . 15 14 29 23, I5i 12* 27| 6, 15 13i 28| 24, 14* 11 25* 7, 14* 13* 28 25, 14i 11* 25f 8, 15f n 32 26, 13i 111 25 9, 10 15i 3H 27, 14 llf • 25f 10, 161 16| m 28, 14* llf 26i 11, 17i 16 33i 29, 15i 12 27i 12, 17 16 33 30, 16 11* 27* 13, 17 15* 32* Dec. 1, 15* 13 28* 14, 17* 14* 32 2 15f 12 27f 15, 17f 16 33f 3! 16i 13* 29f 16, 16f 16i 33 4, 16i 12 28^ 17, 17 15 32 5, 151 11 261 18, 17* 15 321 6, 13f 10 23| 19, . 16f 16 32f 7, 12* 9 21* 58 APPENDIX. Stateme7it — Continued . tb 60 c; Date. 'S 2 a Date. 2 ^ ■^ 1 s o H iS 0 1855. lbs. lbs. lbs. ISoG. lbs. lbs. lbs. Dec. 8, . . llf 9 20f Jan'y 20, . . 9i ^ 16 9, . . 12| 8 201 21, . 8f n 15* 10, . . 121 9 2U 22, . 8i 6 14i 11, . . 121 91 22 23, . 8| 6i 15 12, . . 12" 10- oo 24, . 9' 7i 16i 13, . . 13f 10 23f 25, . 8f 7i 16 14, . . m 9 22i 26, 8i 7i 16, 15, . . 13 9i 22t 27, 9i 6f 16- 16, . . 13 8f 21f 28, 9 7f 16f 17, . . 121 8f 21i 29, 9i 1\ "f 18, . . 12 9 21 30, 9i 7| 19, . . 12 8f 20f 31, 10 7i l7i 20, . . 12 8f 20f Feb'y 1, 9i 8 17i 21, . . 12i 8f 21 2, 9 7| 16f 12 81 20^ % 9i 6f 16i 23, . . 12i 8 201 4, 9 7i 16i 24, . . Hi 8i 20 •5, 9 n 16i 25, . . 12 8f 20f 6, 9 7i 16i 26, . . 12i 8* 20f 7, 10 7f 17| 27, . . llf 9" 20f 8, 9f 7f 17i 28, . . 12 8i 201 9, 91 8 17i 29, . . llf 9 20f 10, 9f n I7i 30, . . 121 8i 201 11, 91 8 I7i 31, . . 12^ 9 2U 12, 9f 74 I7i 1856. 13, 9i 8 l7i Jan'y 1, . . llf Si 20 14, 9i T 3 17i 2, . . llf Si 20 15, 9i 7i 16f l\ . . llf 8 19f 16, 1 9f 8i 18 4, . . Hi 81 19f 17, 10 7i 17i 5, . . lOf 8" 18f 18, 9f 8 17f 6, . . 11 7i 181 19, 9i n 17 7, . . 10 7i 171 20, 8f 7i 161 8, . . 10 7i 17i 21, 8f n 161 9, . . 10 7 17 22 % 7i 15f 10, . . lOi H 171 •i; 8 7i 15| 11, . . 91 n 17i 24, 8i 7 151 12, . . lOf 8 18f 25, 8 7 15 13, . . lOf 7 171 26, 7f 7 14| 14, . . 101 n 18 27, 7f 6| 141 15, . . n n 171 28, 7 6^. 131 16, . . 9^ 6f 16 29, 6f ^. I2I 17, . . 8i 6f 151 Marcli 1, 4 4 12i 18, . . ^ 6f 16 2, 6 6 19, . . n 4 16 APPENDIX. Statement — Continued. 59 MOKNING. NOON. NIGHT. TOT.U, Measure. Total Weig't Date. MEASU] ^E. W'T. Measure. W'T. Measuke. W'T. » 2 s Lbs. » -2 s Lbs. i i i Lbs. i i i Lbs. 5 Ch o 5 s o 5 Ph o o- t, 3 1S56. May 1, 5 - 2 151 4 3 12i 4 1 - llf 14 1 1 39f o 7 - 2 19 4 1 11 4 - 1 101 15 1 _ 40i 40 3, 7 - 3 18^ 4 1 104: 4 1 - lU 16 - - 4, 8 - 1 21 4 3 121 4 - 1 101 17 _ 1 433 43 5, 8 - 1 203 4 3 11 4 1 1 llf 17 _ 1 6, 8 1 2 22 4 2 12 5 - 1 12| 18 1 1 46| 50i 7, 9 - 3 24 5 1 13 5 - 3 131 19 1 3 8, 9 - 1 23 5 1 13 5 1 - 14' 19 1 2 50' 9, 8 - 3 2lf 3 2 9i 5 - - 123 17 - 1 44 10, 6 1 3 m 4 3 9f 4 1 1 11| 11 15 1 3 39 11, 8 1 - 2li 4 - 11* 4 - 3 17 — 3 43f 12, 8 - 3 2li 5 - 13| 5 - 3 131 13 18 1 2 48i 13, 8 1 3 22t 5 - 14 5 - 2 19 _ 1 49i 14, 9 - 3 23| 5 1 13 6 1 3 16-3 16* 21 _ 3 53i 15, 10 - 2 26 6 - 16i 6 - 3 23 — 1 58i 16, 10 - 3 26i 6 _ 16 6 1 2 17 23 1 1 59i 17, 10 - 1 25f 6 3 17 6 1 2 17 23 1 2 59f 18, 10 - 3 26 5 3 14i 6 1 o 17 23 _ 1 57i 19, 9 - - 22f 7 - 17i 7 - 1 17i 23 _ 1 57f 20, 10 1 - 26i 6 2 17 6 1 3 17 24 _ 1 601 61i 62 21, 10 - 3 26 7 2 171 7 - 2 17f 24 1 1 22, 10 - 1 25f 7 1 19i 0 1 3 17 24 1 1 23, 7 1 - 19 10 - 25 7 - 2 17| 24 1 2 61| 63^ 58 24, 11 - - 27i 7 1 19 7 - i 17i 25 1 1 25, 10 - 1 25f 7 1 17i 6 - - 14| 23 _ 2 26, 9 1 - 24 7 - 17^- 6 1 ~ 16 23 _ _ 57+ 27, 10 - - 251 6 1 2 161 6 1 1 16 23 — 3 58* 28, 11 - 2 28| 7 - 171 6 1 - 16 24 1 2 611 29, 9 1 1 241 7 2 19-1 6 1 2 16f 24 _ 1 60i 30, 10 1 - 261 7 1 19 6 1 2 16f 24 1 3 62" 31, 10 1 2 271 7 2 18 6 1 1 17 24 1 1 62 65( ) qts. 1,652 June 1, 10 1 2 27 7 _ 1 171 0 1 3 17 24 1 2 6H o 11 1 1 29i 7 - 3 18| 7 1 1 19 26 1 1 66| . 65^ 661 581 58| 60| 3, 10 1 3 27i 7 1 3 19| 191 7 1 2 181 26 1 _ 4, 11 - 2 28 7 1 1 7 1 - 19" 26 — 3 5, 8 1 2 221 7 1 2 19| 183 6 1 1 161 23 _ 1 6, 9 1 - 24 7 1 - 6 - 3 15| 23 — 3 7, 11 - 2 28i 6 1 2 17' 6 - 3 isi 13f 17 24 _ 3 8, 11 - - 27\ 7 - 2 181 5 1 - 23 1 2 59t 9, 10 - 2 26 7 - 1 18* 0 1 2 24 - 1 61^ 10, 10 1 2 26f 6 1 3 l^i 7 _ 1 17f 18 24 1 2 61f 11, 10 - - 25| 7 1 1 19' 7 - 2 24 1 3 62| 62 12, 10 1 3 27 7 - 3 181 6 1 1 m 24 1 3 13, 10 - 3 26i 7 - 3 181 7 1 - 18| 25 _ 2 634- 14, 11 — 28 7 ~ 2 18J 7 ~ 1 18 25 1 1 64i 60 APPENDIX. Statement — Continued. MORNING. NOON. NIGHT. Total Total Meascke. Weig't Date. Meascke. W'T. Measuke. W'T. Meascke. W'T. 0? !0 S Lbs. i » S Lbs. i i 1 Lbs. £ » :S Lbs. a P^ 5 a E 3 & E! 3 c t* 3 185 G.^ June 15, 11 1 1 291 6 1 1 16f 6 1 _ 161 24 1 2 621 16, 10 1 1 271 7 - 2 181 7 - 1 18| 25 - 2 641 17, 10 1 1 27 7 - 3 181 7 1 - 181 25 1 - 64 18, 10 _ 0 26 7 - 2 18 8 - - 20 25 1 - 64 19, 10 1 0 27^ 7 1 1 191 6 1 - 161 24 1 3 63i 20, 11 _ _ 271 8 - 1 20| 7 1 3 20 27 - - 68i 21, 9 1 3 25* 8 1 1 211 7 1 2 l^ 26 - 2 66i 22, 10 _ 2 26 8 - - 20| 7 - - 17* 25 - 2 63f 23', 11 _ 2 28i 7 1 - 19* 7 - - 17* 25 1 2 64| 24, 11 _ 2 28i 7 1 - 19i 7 - 2 18^ 26 - 1 66 25, 10 _ - 26i 8 - 1 20f 7 1 0 19i 25 1 3 66 26, 11 _ 3 28i 7 1 - 191 6 1 - 16^ 25 - 3 64: 27, 10 1 3 27i 7 1 - 181 6 - - 151 24 - 3 6I1 28, 11 _ 3 28f 7 - - 17f 8 - 1 201 26 1 - m\ 29, 10 _ _ 24f 7 - 1 171 7 1 - 28f 24 1 1 61- 30, 9 2 231 7 17| 7 17i 23 - 2 58: 754 qts. 1,898 July 1, 8 2 18 7 - 2 18 6 1 _ 16 22 _ - 52 2I 10 _ 1 251 7 - 2 18 7 - - 17* 24 - 3 60f 3', 9 1 2 24 22 7 - - 17i 6 - 3 15| 23 - 1 571 4, 8 1 2 7 1 19 6 - 3 16 22 1 2 57 5, 10 1 2 27 6 - 16 6 - - 15i 23 - 2 58+ 6, 10 1 2 27 6 - 15 5 1 2 14| 22 1 - 563 7, 9 _ _ 22f 7 1 19 6 1 2 14 161 23 - 3 581 8, 9 1 _ 23f 6 2 16i 6 1 - 22 1 2 56^ 9, 10 _ 3 26i 5 - 121 6 1 2 161 18 22 - 1 55| 10, 9 1 23^ 5 2 13 7 - 2 21 1 1 541 11, 10 _ _ 25 5 1 14 6 - - 15 21 1 1 54 12, 8 1 _ 2i|- 6 - 16i 5 1 - 14 20 1 - 52 13, 9 _ _ 22^ 5 3 14f 3 1 2 9 18 1 - 56 14, 9 _ 1 23| 6 2 17 5 1 1 14 21 1 - U\ 15, 8 1 2 211 20^ 221 6 - 15 6 1 - 161 21 - 2 52i 16, 8 _ 1 4 3 12 7 - 3 18r 20 - 3 50f 17, 8 1 3 5 2 144 6 - - 15 20 1 1 51| 18, 8 1 _ op 4 1 111 6 - 2 15i 19 - 3 49 19, 6 1 2 17' 6 1 151 6 - - 15 18 1 3 47i 20, 9 _ _ oos 4 2 12" 6 1 2 17 20 1 51i 21, 9 1 2 24* 5 1 14i 6 - 3 161 21 1 2 55 22,110 _ 1 25* 5 - 14i 6 - 3 16 22 - 55^ 23, 9 _ 2 23| 6 2 15* 7 - - 17f 22 1 56^ 24, 9 1 2 241 5 - 13| 6 - 1 151 21 - 3 53| 25, 9 _ 2 231 22^ 5 1 14 6 - - 15 20 1 3 52i 26, 9 _ _ 5 2 141 6 1 - 16i 21 - 2 53^: 27, 10 _ 2 251 4 2 iH 5 1 - 14 20 - 3 51 28, 8 _ 2 21" 5 2 14| 6 - 3 16 20 1 511 29, 9 — 1 23 5 3 14| 4 " 2 lOi 19 2 47i APPENDIX. 61 Statement — Continued. MORNING. NOON. NIGHT. Total Total Measure. Wkig't Date. Measuee. W'T. Measure. W'T. Measure. W'T. S 5 Lbs. s i 0 Lbs. K, 0 Lbs. Ph 5 Lbs. 1850. July 30, 8 201 7 1 171 5 1 _ 13| 20 1 1 S^ 31, 8 1 2 21f 5 3 13i 5 121 19 — 1 471 660 qts. 1,660 Au£. 1, 9 _ 0 23| 4 1 _ ,lli 5 1 1 14 19 _ 3 49 2 8 _ 1 20| 091 5 _ 2 l3i 5 1 - 131 18 1 3 471 3! 8 1 3 4 - 2 Hi 2 - 1 4 15 - 2 381 4, 8 1 1 2l| 4 1 1 Hi 5 1 - 131 18 1 2 461 5, 7 1 1 19| 21 4 _ 3 lOf 5 1 1 14 17 1 1 444- 441 6, 8 ._ 3 4 _ 3 lOf 5 - 2 12| 18 - - 7, 8 _ 3 21 4 1 1 114 5 - 3 13| 18 - 3 46 8, 8 _ 1 20i 4 1 1 11* 4 1 2 121 17 1 - 441 9, 8 1 _ 21i 4 1 2 12i 5 - 1 121 18 - 3 461 10, 8 1 _ 21t 4 _ 0 lOf 5 - 2 131 18 - - 451 11, 8 1 1 21f 5 - 0 13i 5 - 1 13 19 - - 48 12, 8 1 2 90 4 1 2 llf 5 1 1 14 19 - 1 47| 13, 8 _ 3 2li 5 _ _ 121 5 1 0 14i 19 - 1 48 14, 9 _ 2 23i 4 1 2 12 3 - 1 8' 17 r- 1 431 15, 9 1 8 25i 5 _ i 12i 5 - 2 13 20 - 1 50^- 16, 8 1 2 22i 5 _ 2 13 5 1 2 14i 19 1 2 501 17, 9 — 2 23f 4 1 2 111 5 1 - 13| 19 1 - 49-: 18, 9 _ 1 23 5 _ 1 12i 5 1 3 14f 20 - 1 50:. 19, 9 _ _ 23 5 _ — m 5 1 - 13i 19 1 - 49 20, 9 _ _ 23 5 _ 0 13 4 1 3 12 19 - 1 48 21, 8 1 2 22 4 1 3 12i 5 1 1 141 18 - 2 481 22 8 1 2 92 4 1 2 12 5 - 1 12f 18 1 1 46| 23] 9 _ 1 23i 5 — 1 13 5 1 2 141 20 - - 50^ 24, 9 _. 1 231 5 _ 3 131 5 1 - 14 20 - - 501 25, 9 _ 2 23i 4 1 3 121 5 - - 12^ 19 - 1 481 26, 9 _ 2 23f 5 _ 2 13 5 1 1 141 20 - 1 51 27, 8 1 3 221 5 _ 1 13 5 - 3 13 19 - 3 481 28, 9 1 23 4 1 3 12i 5 1 - 131 19 1 - 48| 29, 8 _ 2 20| 5 _ 1 13 4 1 3 12i 18 - 2 46 30, 8 1 ' _ 211 5 _ 2 13 4 1 2 12 18 1 - 461 31, 8 1 3 22i 4 1 2 Hi 5 1 12 18 1 1 46i 583 qts. 1,467 Sept. 1, 8 _ 0 201 _ _ - - 9 1 2 241 18 - - 45 si 8 _ 2 201 — _ - - 9 - - 991 ""'2 17 - 2 43 3', 8 1 2 00" _ _ - — 8 - 1 20! 16 1 3 421 4, 8 _ 1 201 _ _ _ — 9 - 1 23" 17 - 2 431 5, 8 1 21| _ _ - - 9 - - 221 17 1 - 441 6, 8 1 3 001 — _ - - 9 - 1 23 18 - - 451 7, 8 1 3 221 _ _ _ - 8 - 1 201 17 - - 42| 8, 7 1 2 191 — - - - 8 1 - 2U 16 - 2 40| 9, 7 1 1 19"' _ - - - 9 - - 991 ""2 16 1 1 41* 10, 7 1 2 191 - — ~ — 8 1 1 2H 16 3 40f 62 APPENDIX. RECAPITULATION. May, . June, . July, . August, Average daily yield for four months, is 21^''^ Quarts. 656 754 Lbs. 1,0.52 1,898 660 583 1,660 1,407 2,053 6,677 91 7 9 54A^ [C] PREMIUMS AWARDED. CLASS NO. 1. Samuel Ellsworth, Barre, . . .1st premium, Asa G. Sheldon, Wilmington, . . 2d premium, William Robinson, Jr., Barre, . . 3d jjremium, CLASS NO. 2. Amos F. Knight, West Boylston, . 1st premium, William Robinson, Jr., Barre, . . 2d premium, John Mann, Jr., Worcester, . . Gratuity, CLASS NO. 4. William W. Watson, Princeton, . . Gratuity, William Eames, Worcester, . . Gratuity, CLASS NO. 5. Rufus Carter, Worcester, . . .1st premium, Charles Brigham, Marlborough, . . Gratuity, CLASS NO. 6. DUUHAMS. Paoli Lathi'op, South Hadley, . . 1st 2:)remium, Silas E. Brigham & Co., Southborough, Gratuity, Hai'vey Dodge, Sutton, John Brooks, Jr., Princeton, Peter Harwood, Barre, DEVONS. . 1st premium, . 2d premium, . 3d premium. 250, and travel. 1200, and travel. , and travel. ^150 00 100 00 25 00 $30, and ti-avel. . 820 00 . UO 00 $10, and travel. $50, and travel. $25, and travel. $50, and travel. $40, and travel. $25, and travel. APPENDIX. 63 AYRSHIRES. William S. Lincoln, Woi'cester, . . 1st premium, John Brooks, Jr., Princeton, . . 2d premium, William S. Lincoln, Worcester, . . 3d premium, William Spencer, Lowell, . Stephen Salisbury, Worcester, Joseph Burnett, Southborough, JERSEYS. . 1st premium, . 2d premium, . 3d premium, um, um, MIXED BLOOD. Moses Thompson, New Braintree, . 1st premium Daniel D wight, Jr., Dudley, . . 2d prem Francis Carroll, Grafton, . . .3d prem: Henry Boyles, Princeton, . Nathan Danforth, Princeton, Asa G. Sheldon, Wilmington, George E. Allen, Barre, Phineas A. Beaman, Princeton, . Moses Smith, Barre, . Tyler Stockwell, Sutton, James Dewell, West Stockbrldge, Aaron Gould, Douglas, Sewall Richardson, Princeton, Aaron B. Rice, Marlborough, Jeptha W. Conant, Stowe, . William Adams, Jr., West Brookfield, ^50 00 40 00 25 00 J50, and travel. . $40 00 ^25, and travel. $50, and $40, and $25, and Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of Gratuity of travel, travel, travel, travel . travel, travel, travel, travel, travel, travel, travel, travel, travel, travel, travel, travel. [D.] PRIZES FOR MOWING MACHINES. The Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul- ture, believing that the introduction of labor-saving machines in field operations, especially those employed in mowing, promises to effect a most beneficial change in the agricultural economy of New England, are desirous of bringing this subject to the earnest and immediate attention of the farmers of Massachusetts. For the purpose of for- warding the movement now being made in this direction, they offer the folloAving premium : — 64 APPENDIX. To the possessor of the mowing machine which shall cut during the present season, with the greatest economy and to the best advan- tage, not less that fifty acres of grass within the State, the machine to be worked by horse or ox power, Six Hundred Dollars. All other things being equal, the greatest number of acres cut by any one machine exceeding fifty, would entitle the competitor to the premium. Every competitor must give notice to the Trustees of his intention to compete for the premium, on or before the seventeenth of June next. He must, at the end of the season or before the tenth day of Septem- ber next, furnish satisfactory proof of the number of acres cut by the machine during the season. He must also keep a record of each day's Avork ; the number of hours actually at work in each day ; the number and kind of animals employed, stating when any of the same, if any, are changed, and the reason therefor ; the name of the maker of the machine ; its cost ; if new this season ; any accidents or breakages which have occurred in working it, and the nature of them and how repaired, together with any suggestions which may seem useful in preventing a recurrence of them ; which record shall be submitted to the Trustees at the close of the working season of the machine. Competitors are not precluded from competing for any similar premiums offered by county societies or individuals, nor are they confined to mowing on their own land. It is also to be understood, that all persons, procurers of a machine, whether as owner, lessor or maker, resident of the State or otherwise, are entitled to compete for this premium. The Trustees reserve the right of dividing the premium among equal claimants or of withholding it altogether, provided they are of opinion that no competitor has by his performance with his mowing machine made so great a saving in labor and expense over the old method of scythe mowing as to enable them to recommend its general introduc- tion and use, in which case, the premium will be renewed for the succeeding year's competition. As a further incentive to the skill and ingenuity of the manufacturers of mowing machines, the Trustees offer another premium of One Thousand Dollars to the maker and exhibitor of the best mowing machine, to be awarded in the year 1856. To entitle any person to the premium, the machine, with full par- ticulars of its principles of construction, weight and selling price, must be entered for competition with the Trustees on or before the APPENDIX. 65 first day of June, 1856. A general trial will be had of all the com- peting machines, due notice of which will be given, together with all needful particulars, at the commencement of the season of 1856. It is to be hoped that there will be a large competition for the premium offered this year, and that manufacturers who propose to compete for the one in 1856 will take pains to introduce their machines for this season's work. The Trustees in awarding the one thousand dollar premium will not confine themselves to the single trial which will be afforded to competitors to exhibit the powers of their machines, but they will also take into account the merits of each as displayed in competing for this year's premium, and in its ordinary working both for this and the coming year, whenever and wherever an opportunity is afforded of seeing it in operation. The county agricultural societies are earnestly invited to appoint committees to aid the Trustees in awarding the prize offered for this year, who shall inspect the working of competing machines in their several districts, and in reporting the result of their observations to the trustees. One or more of the Trustees will endeavor to visit each county during the season, to see some portion of the work performed by each machine, but from the necessity of the case, great reliance must be had upon the cordial and hearty co-operation of the county societies. The Trustees have appointed the following Committee to attend to the details connected with the subject, viz. : — Thos. Motley, Jr., G. W. Lyman, C. G. Loring, Richard S. Fay, W. S. Lincoln. All communications may be addressed to Thomas Motley, Jr., Jamaica Plain, or Richard S. Fay, Boston. Boston, May 28, 1855. [D.] MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE. BY T. HOnSFALL. On entering upon a description of my treatment of cows for dairy purposes, it seems pertinent that I should give some explanation of the motives and considerations which influence my conduct in this branch of my farm operations. 66 APPENDIX. I have found it stated, on authority deserving attention, that store cattle of a fair size, and without other occupation, maintain their weight and condition for a length of time, when supplied daily Avith 120 lbs. of Swedish turnips and a small portion of straw. The expe- rience of the district of Craven, in Yorkshire, where meadow hay^-' is the staple food during winter, shows that such cattle maintain their condition on one and one-half stone of meadow hay each per day. These respective quantities of turnips and of hay correspond very closely in their nutritive properties ; they contain a very similar amount of albuminous matter, starch, sugar, &c., and also of phos- phoric acid. Of oil — an important element, especially for the pur- pose of which I am treating — the stated supply of meadow hay contains more than that of turnips. If we supply cows in milk of average size with the kind and quantity of food above mentioned, they will lose perceptibly in condition. This is easily explained when we find their milk rich in substances which serve for their sup- port when in store condition, and which are shown to be diverted in the secretion of milk. In the neighborhood of towns where the dairy produce is disposed of in new milk, and where the aim of dairymen is to produce the greatest quantity, too frequently with but little regard to quality, it is their common practice to purchase incalving cows ; they pay great attention to the condition of the cow ; they will tell you, by the high comparative price they pay for animals well stored with flesh and fat, that condition is as valuable for them as it is for the butcher ; they look upon these stores as materials which serve their purpose ; they supply food more adapted to induce quantity than quality, and pay but little regard to the maintenance of the condition of the animal. With such treatment, the cow loses in condition during the process of milking, and when no longer profitable, is sold to purchasers in farming districts where food is cheaper, to be fattened or otherwise replenished for the use of the dairy keeper. We thus find a disposi- tion in the cow to apply the aliment of her food to her milk, rather than to lay on flesh or fat ; for not only are the elements of her food diverted to this purpose, but to all appearance her accumulated stores of flesh and fat are drawn upon, and converted into components of milk, cheese, or butter. As I am difi'ereutly circumstanced, a considerable portion of my dairy produce being intended for butter, fur which poor milk is not ♦Meadow bay, as understood in England, is the best quality of hay for nutritive purposes. A stone weight is aigltt pounds. — K. E. f. APPENDIX. 67 adapted, and as I fatten not only my own cows, but purchase others to fatten in addition, I have endeavored to devise food for my milch cows, adapted to their maintenance and improvement, and with this view I have paid attention to the composition of milk. From several analyses I have selected one by Haidlen, which I find in publications of repute. Taking a full yield of milk, four gallons per day, which will weigh upwards of 40 pounds, this analysis assigns to it of dry material 5.20, of which the proportion, with sufficient accuracy for my purpose, consists of — Pure casein, 2.00 pounds. Butter, 1.25 " Sugar, 1.75 " Phosphate of lime, . . -j . . . .09 " Chloride of potassium . V And other mineral ingredients, } . . . .11 " 5.20 " It appeared an object of importance, and one which called for my particular attention, to afford an ample supply of the elements of food suited to the maintenance and likewise to the produce of the animal, and that, if I omitted to effect this, the result would be imperfect and unsatisfactory. By the use of ordinary farm produce only, I could not hope to accomplish my purpose. Turnips are objectionable on account of their flavor : and I seek to avoid them as food for dairy purposes. I use cabbages, kohl rabi, and mangold wurzel, yet only in moderate quantities. Of meadow hay it would require, beyond the amount necessary for the maintenance of the cow, an addition of fully 20 lbs. for the supply of casein in a full yield of milk (16 quarts) ; 40 pounds for the supply of oil for the butter ; whilst 9 pounds seem adequate for that of the phosphoric acid. You cannot, then, induce a cow to consume the quantity of hay requisite for her maintenance, and for a full yield of milk of the quality instanced. Though it is a subject of controversy whether butter is wholly derived from vege- table oil, yet the peculiar adaptation of this oil to the purpose will, I think, be admitted. I had, therefore, to seek assistance from what are usually termed artificial feeding substances, and to select such as are rich in albumen, oil, and phosphoric acid ; and I was bound also to pay regard to their comparative cost, with a view to profit, which, when farming is followed as a business, is a necessary, and in any circumstances an agreeable accompaniment. I think it will be found that substances peculiarly rich in nitrogenous 68 APPENDIX. or other elements have a higher value for special than for general pur- poses ; and that the employment of materials characterized by pecu- liar properties for the attainment of special objects has not yet gained the attention to which it is entitled. I have omitted all reference to the heat-supplying elements — starch, sugar, &c. As the materials commonly used as food for cattle con- tain sufficient of these to effect this object, under exposure to some degree of cold, I have a right to calculate on a less consump'.ion of them as fuel, and consequently a greater surplus for deposit as sugar, and probably also as fat, in consequence of my stalls being kept dur- ing winter at a temperature of nearly 60 degrees. I now proceed to describe the means I am using to carry out the purposes which I have sought to explain. My food for milch cows, after having undergone various modifications, has for two seasons consisted of rape-cake 5 pounds, and bran 2 pounds for each cow, mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and blended together, and after being well steamed, are given to the animals in a warm state. The attendant is allowed 1 pound to 1^ pound per cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk, those in full milk getting 2 pounds each per day, others but little : it is dry and mixed with the steam food on its being dealt out sepa- rately ; Avhen this is eaten up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages, from October to December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold till grass time. With a view to nicety of flavor, I limit the supply of green food to 30 to 35 pounds per day for each. After each feed, 4 pounds of meadow hay, or 12 pounds per day, is given to each cow ; they arc allowed water twice per day to the extent they will drink. As several of these materials are not commonly used as food, I may be allowed some observations on their properties. Bean-straw uncooked, is dry and unpalatable ; by the process of steaming, it be- comes soft and pulpy, emits an agreeable odor, and imparts flavor and relish to the mess. For my information and guidance I obtained an analysis of bean-straw of my own growth, on strong and high-condi- tioned land : it was cut on the short side of ripeness, but yielding a plump bean. The analysis by Professor Way shows a percentage of — APPENDIX. 69 Moisture, 14.47 Albuminous matter, ....... 16.38 Oil or fatty matter, 2.23 Woody fibre, 25.84 Starch, gum, &c., ........ 31.63 Mineral matters, 9.45 Total, 100.00 In albuminous matter, which is especially valuable for milch cows, it has nearly double the pioportion contained in meadow hay. Bran also undergoes a great imjirovement in its flavor by steaming, and it is probably improved in its convertibility as food ; it contains about 14 per cent, of albumen, and is peculiarly rich in phosphoric acid, nearly 3 per cent, of its whole substance being of this material. The properties of rape-cake are well known ; the published analyses give it a large proportion (nearly 30 per cent.) of albumen; it is rich in phosphates and also in oil. This is of the unctuous class of vegeta- ble oils, and it is to this property that I call particular attention. Chemistry will assign to this material, which has hitherto been com- paratively neglected for feeding, a first place for the purpose of which I am treating. If objection should occur on account of its flavor, I have no difficulty in stating that by the preparation I have described I have quite overcome this. I can easily persuade my cattle, (of which sixty to eighty pass through my stalls in a year,) without exception, to eat the requisite quantity. Nor is the flavor of the cake in the least perceptible in the milk or butter. During May, my cows are turned out on a rich pasture near the homestead,; towards evening they are again housed for the night, when they are supplied with a mess of the steamed mixture and a little hay each morning and evening. During June, when the grasses are better grown, mown grass is given to them instead of hay, and they are also allowed two feeds of steamed mixture. This treatment is continued till October, when they are again wholly housed. The results which I now proceed to relate are derived from obser- vations made with the view of enabling me to understand and regulate my own proceedings. Gain or Loss of Condition ascertained hy Weighing Cattle periodically. For some years back I have regularly weighed my feeding stock, a practice from which I am enabled to ascertain their doings with greater accuracy than I could previously. In January, 1854, I commenced 70 APPENDIX. weighing my milch cows ; it has been shown by what I have premised that no accurate estimate can be formed of the effect of the food on the production of milk, without ascertaining its effect on the condi- tion of the cows. I have continued the practice once a month almost without omission up to this date. The weighings take place early in the morning, and before the cows are supplied with food ; the weights are registered, and the length of time (fifteen months) during which I have observed this practice, enables me to speak with confidence of the results. The cows in full milk yielding 12 to 16 quarts each per day vary but little — some losing, others gaining, slightly ; the balance in the month's weighing of this class being rather to gain. It is common for a cow to continue a yield from six to eight months before she gives below 12 quarts per day, at which time she has usually, if not inva- riably, gained weight. The cows giving less than 12 quarts, and down to 5 quarts per day, are found, when free from ailment, to gain without exception. This' gain, with an average yield of nearly 8 quarts per day, is at the rate 7 pounds to 8 pounds per week each My cows in calf I weigh only in the incipient stages, but they gain perceptibly in condition, and consequently in value : they are milked till within four to five weeks previous to calving. I give the weights of three of these, and also of one heifer, which calved in March, 1855:— Xo 1854. 1855. Gain. 1 Bought and weighed, July, cwt. qr. 10 1 lbs. 20 April, cwt. qr. 11 3 lbs. 0 lbs. 148 2 li (( (( 8 2 10 u 10 2 0 214 3 (( K (( 8 2 0 (1 10 0 0 184 4 Heifer, which calved also in March, 1855, weighed. (( 7 0 0 11 9 3 0 300 These observations extend over lengthened periods on the same animals, of from 30 to upwards of 50 Aveeks ; a cow, free from calf and intended for fattening, continues to give milk from 10 months to a year after calving, and is then in a forward state of fatness, requiring but a few weeks to finish her for sale to the butchers. It will thus appear that my endeavors to provide food adapted to APPENDIX. 71 the maintenance and improvement of my milch cows have been attend- ed with success. On examining the composition of the ordinary food which I have described, straw, roots, and hay, it appears to contain the nutritive properties which are found adequate to the mai^itenance of the ani- mal, whereas the yield of milk has to be provided for by a supply of extra food ; the rape-cake, bran, and bean-meal which I give will supply the albumen for the casein ; it is somewhat deficient in oil for the butter, whilst it will supply in excess the phosphate of lime for a full yield of milk. If I take the class of cows giving less than 12 quarts per day, and taking also into account a gain of flesh, 7 to 9 pounds per week, though I reduce the quantity of extra food by giv- ing less of the bean-meal, yet the supply will be more in proportion than with a full yield ; the surplus of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, or phosphate of lime, will go to enrich the manure. I cannot here omit to remark on the satisfaction I derive from the effects of this treatment on the fertility of the land in my occupation. My rich pastures are not tending to impoverishment, but to increased fertility ; their improvement in condition is apparent. A cow in full milk, giving 16 quarts per day, of the quality analyzed by Haidlen, requires, beyond the food necessary for her maintenance, 6 to 8 pounds per day of substances containing 30 or 25 per cent, of protein. A cow giving on the average 8 quarts per day, with which she gains 7 to 9 pounds per week, requires 4 to 5 pounds per day of substances rich in protein beyond the food which is necessary for her mainte- nance. Experience of fattening gives 2 pounds per day, or 14 pounds per week, as what can be attained on an average and for a length of time. If we considered ^ pound per day as fat, which is not more than probable, there will be 1^- pounds for flesh, which, reck- oned as dry material, will be about ^ pound ; which is assimilated in increase of fibrine and represents only 1-] to 2 pounds of substan- ces rich in protein beyond what is required for her maintenance. If we examine the eff'ects on the fertility of the land, my milch cows, when on rich pasture, and averaging a yield of nine quarts per day, and reckoning one cow to each acre, will carry off in 20 weeks 25 pounds of nitrogen, equal to 30 of ammonia. The same quantity of milk will carry off 7 pounds of phosphate of lime in 20 vveeks from each acre. A fattening animal gaining flesh at the rate I have described will carry off about one-third of the nitrogen (equal to about 10 pounds of ammonia) abstracted by the milch cow, whilst if full grown it will restore the whole of the phosphate. 72 APPENDIX. It is worthy of remark that experience states that rich pastures used for fattening, fully maintain their fertility through a long series of years ; whilst those used for dairy cows require periodical dress- ings to preserve their fertility. If these computations be at all accurate, they tend to show that too little attention has been given to the supply of substances rich in nitrogenous compounds in the food of our milch cows, whilst we have laid too much stress on this property in food for fattening cattle. They tend also to the inference that in the effects on the fertility of our pastures used for dairy purposes, we derive advantage, not only from the phosphate of lime, but also from the gelatine of bones used as manure. On comparing the results from my milch cows fed in summer on rich pasture, and treated at the same time with the extra food I have described, Avith the results when on winter food, and whilst wholly housed, taking into account both the yield of milk and the gain of weight, I find those from stall-feeding full equal to those from depasture. The cows which I buy as strippers, for fattening, giving little milk, from neighboring farmers who use ordinary food, such as turnips with straw or hay, when they come under my treatment, increase their yield of milk, until after a week or two they give two quarts per day more than when they came, and that too of a much richer quality. Richness of Milk and Cream. I sometimes observe in the weekly publications which come xmder my notice, accounts of cows giving large quantities of butter; these are usually, however, extraordinary instances, and not accompanied with other statistical information requisite to their being taken as a guide ; and it seldom happens that any allusion is made to the effects of the food on the condition of the animals, without which no accu- rate estimate can be arrived at. On looking over several treatises to which I have access, 1 find the following statistics on dairy produce : — Mr. Morton, in his •' Cyclopsedia of Agriculture," p. 621, gives the results of the practice of a Mr. Young, an extensive dairy-keeper in Scotland. The yield of milk per cow is stated at 680 gallons per year ; he obtains from 16 quarts of milk, 20 ounces of butter, or for the year, 227 pounds per cow ; from 1 gallon of cream 3 pounds of butter, or 12 ounces per quart.-'' Mr. Young is described as a high feeder ; linseed is his chief auxiliary food for milch cows. Professor * The usual measure in England and Scotland, is wine measure, that of Massachusetts, is heor messure, which is about a fifth greater in quantity. — r. s. f. APPENDIX. 73 Johnston ("Elements of Agricultural Chemistry") gives the propor- tion of butter from milk at IJ- ounces per quart, or from 16 quarts 24 ounces ; being the produce of four cows of different breeds — Alder- ney, Devon, and Ayrshire — on pasture, and in the height of the sum- mer season. On other four cows of the Ayrshire breed he gives the proportion of butter from IG quarts as IG ounces, being 1 ounce per quart. These cows were likewise on pasture. The same author states the yield of butter as one-fourth of the weight of cream, or about 10 ounces per quart. Mr. Rawlinson ("Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xiii., p. 38) gives the produce of 20,110 quarts of milk churned by hand as 1,109 pounds of butter, being at the rate of fully 14 ounces per 16 quarts of milk; and from 23,156 quarts of milk, 1,525 pounds of butter, being from 16 quarts nearly 16| ounces of butter. The same author states that the yield of but- ter derived from five churnings of 15 quarts of cream each is some- what less than 8 ounces per quart of cream. Dr. Muspratt, in his work on the " Chemistry of Arts and Manufactures," which is in the course of publication, gives the yield of butter from a cow per year in Holstein and Lunenburg at 100 pounds, in England at 160 pounds to 180 pounds. The average of butter from a cow in England is stated to be 8 ounces or 9 ounces per day, which, on a yield of 8 to 9 quarts, is 1 ounce per quart, or for 16 quarts 16 ounces. The quantity of butter derived from cream is stated as one-fourth, which is equal to about 9 ounces per quart. The richest cream of which I find any record is that brought to the Royal Society's meeting during the month of July, for the churns which compete for the prize. On refer- ring to the proceedings of several meetings, I find that 14 ounces per quart of cream is accounted a good yield. I have frequently tested the yield of butter from a given quantity of my milk. My dairy produce is partly disposed of in new milk, partly in butter and old milk, so that it became a matter of business to ascertain by which mode it gave the best return. I may here remark that my dairy practice has been throughout on high feeding, though it has undergone several modifications. The mode of ascer- taining the average yield of butter from milk has been to measure the milk on the churning day after the cream has been skimmed off", then to measure the cream, and having, by adding together the two meas- urements, ascertained the whole quantity of milk (including the cream) to compare it with that of the butter obtained. This I con- sider a more accurate method than measuring the new milk, as there is a considerable escape of gas, and consequent subsidence, whilst it 10 74 APPENDIX. is cooling. The results have varied from 24 to 211 oi^i^ices from 16 quarts of milk. I therefore assume in my calculation 16 quarts of milk as yielding a roll (25 ounces) of butter. As I have at times a considerable number of cows bought as strip- pers, and fattened as they are milked, which remain sometimes in my stalls eight or nine months, and yield towards the close but five quarts per day, I am not enabled to state with accuracy and from ascertained data the average yield per year of my cows kept for dairy purposes solely. However, from what occurs at grass-time, when the yield is not increased, and also from the effects of my treatment on cows which I buy, giving a small quantity, I am fully persuaded that my treatment induces a good yield of milk. As the yield of butter from a given quantity of cream is not of such particular consequence, I have not given equal attention to ascer- tain their relative proportions. I have a recollection of having tested this on a former occasion, when I found 14 to 16 ounces per quart, but cannot call to mind under what treatment this took place. On questioning my dairy woman, in December, 1854, as to the proportion of cream and butter, she reported nearly one roll of 25 ounces of butter to one quart of cream. I looked upon this as a mistake. On its accuracy being persisted in, the next churning was carefully observed, with a like proportion. My dairy cows averaged then a low range of milk as to quantit}' — about eight quarts each per day. Six of Ihem, in a forward state of fatness, were intended to be dried for finishing off in January ; but, owing to the scai'city and consequent dearncss of calving cows, I kept them on in milk till I could purchase cows to replace them, and it was not till February that I had an opportunity of doing so. I then bought four cows within a few days of calving ; they were but in inferior condition, and yielded largely of milk. Towards the close of February and March, four of my own dairy cows, in full condition, likewise calved. Dur- ing March, three of the six which had continued from December, and were milked nearly up to the day of sale, were selected by the butcher as fit for his purpose. Each churning throughout was carefully observed, with a similar result, varying but little from 25 ounces of butter per quart of cream ; on Monday, April 30, 16 quarts of cream having yielded 16 rolls (of 25 ounces each) of butter. Though I use artificial means of raising the temperature of my dairy, by the appli- cation of hot water daring cold weather, yet, my service pipes being frozen in February, I was unable to keep up the temperature, and it fell to 45''. Still my cream, though slightly affected, was peculiarly APPENDIX. 75 rich, yielding 22 ounces of butter per quart. Throughout April the produce of milk from my 15 dairy cows averaged full 160 quarts per day. My cows are bought in the neighboring markets with a view to their usefulness and profitableness. The breeds of this district have a considerable admixture of the short-horn, which is not noted for the richness of its milk. It will be remarked that daring the time these observations have been continued on the proportion of butter from cream, more than one-half of my cows have been changed. Having satisfied myself that the peculiar richness of my cream was due mainly to the treatment of my cows, which I have sought to describe, it occurred to me that I ought not to keep it to myself: inasmuch as these results of my dairy practice not only aff"orded mat- ter of interest to the farmer, but were fit subjects for the investigation of the physiologist and the chemist. Though my pretensions to acquirements in their instructions are but slender, they are such as enable me to acknowledge benefit in seeking to regulate my proceed- ings by their rules. In taking off" the cream I use an ordinary shallow skimmer of tin perforated with holes, through which any milk gathered in skimming escapes. It requires care to clear the cream ; and even with this some streakiness is observable on the surface of the skimmed milk. The milk bowls are of glazed brown earthenware, common in this district ; they stand on a base of 6 to 8 inches, and expand at the surface to nearly twice that width. Four to five quarts are contained in each bowl, the depth being 4 to 5 inches at the centre. The churn I use is a small wooden one, worked by hand, on what I believe to be the American principle. I obtained it from Messrs. Dray &c Co. I have forwarded to Professor Way a small sample of butter for analy- sis; 15 quarts of cream were taken out of the cream jar, and churned at three times in equal portions : — The first five quarts of cream gave . . 127 ounces of butter. Second five " " . . 125 " " Third five " " . . 120;^ " " 372i " " Equal to 24|^ ounces per quart. At a subsequent churning of 14 quarts of cream — The first seven gave 7 rolls or . . . 175 ounces of butter. Second seven gave 7 rolls 2 oz., or . . 177 " " 352 " " Equal to 25^ ounces per quart. 76 APPENDIX. On testing the comparative yield of butter and of butter-milk, I find 70 per cent, of butter to 30 per cent, of butter-milk, thus revers- ing the proportions given in the publications to which I have referred. An analysis of my butter by Professor Way gives : — Pure fat or oil, 82.70 Casein or curd, ........ 2.45 Water, with a little salt, ...... 14.85 Total, 100.00 The only analysis of this material which I find in the publications in my hand are two by Professor Way, " Journal," vol. xi. p. 735, "On butter by the common and by the Devonshire method;" the result in 100 parts being : — Raw. Scalded. Pure butter, 79.72 79.12 Casein, &c., 3.38 3.37 Water, 16.90 17.51 Total, 100.00 100.00 The foregoing observation of dairy results was continued up to grass time in 1855. In April and May the use of artificial means was discontinued Avithout diminution in the yield of butter or rich- ness of cream, the natural temperature being sufficient to me intain that of my dairy at 54° to 56°. I now proceed to describe the appearances since that time. n the summer season, whilst my cows were grazing in the open pastures dur- ing the day and housed during the night, being supplied with a lim- ited quantity of the steamed food each morning and evening, a marked change occurred in the quality of the milk and cream ; the quantity of the latter somewhat increased, but instead of 25 ounces of butter per quart of cream, my summer cream yielded only 16 ounces per quart. I would not be understood to attribute this variation in quality to the change of food only ; it is commonly observed by dairy-keepers that milk during the warm months of summer is less rich in butter, owing probably to the greater restlessness of the cows, from being teased by flies, &c. I am by no means sure that, if turning out dur- ing the warm months be at all advisable, it would not be preferable that this should take place during the night instead of during the day time. Towards the close of September, when the temperature APPENDIX. 77 had become much cooler and the cows were supplied with a much larger quantity of the steamed food, results appeared very similar to those which I had observed and described from December to May, 1855. During the month of November the quality was tested with the following result. From 252 quarts of old milk were taken 21 quarts of cream, of which 20 were churned, and produced 468 ounces of butter, which shows : — 27.50 ounces of butter from IG (quarts of new milk. 23.40 " " from each quart of cream. During May, 1856, my cows being on open pasture during the day were supplied with two full feeds of the steamed mixture, together with a supply of green rape-plant each morning and evening. The result was that from 324 quarts of old milk 23 quarts of cream were skimmed, of which 22 were churned and produced 515 ounces of butter, which shows : — 24 ounces of butter from 16 quarts of new milk. 22.41 " " from each quart of cream. My food during the winter season, 1855-6 has slightly varied from that of 1854-5. In October, a respectable maltster in this village, who keep dairy cows, asked me to purchase malt combs, of which he had a surplus. Having learned from him on inquiry that from the use of them he obtained a larger yield of milk, without detriment to the condition of his cows, I was led to think that they contained a con- siderable percentage of albuminous matter. I took some on trial and forwarded a sample for analysis, which I supply, together with one of bran : — Malt Conibs. Bran. Moisture, 3.21 Moisture, . 12.85 Oil, .... 2..9G Oil, .... . 5.56 Albuminous matter, 23.87 Albuminous matter, . 13.80 Starch, sugar, &c., . 45.95 Ash,* .... . 6.11 Woody fibre, . 18.80 Other constituents, . 61.68 Mineral matter, 5.22 Andersox. J. T. Way. 100.00 100.00 I have used malt combs, together with bran, half and half, during the present season. Having a larger stock than the year before, with ' The ash contains 50 per cent, phosphoric acid. 78 APPENDIX. about an equal quantity of hay and less of roots, I reduced the allow- ance of the former from 12 pounds to 9 pounds, and that of mangel from 36 pounds to 28 pounds per day. I gave also 1 pound of rape- cake additional to each, 6 pounds in lieu of 5 pounds. On this fare, and with such changes of cows as were called for, my yield of milk, of which a register is kept, ranged during the months of October, November, December and January, at 160 to 164 quarts per day from 18 cows, being fully 9 quarts per day from each cow. Their improvement in condition will appear from the following table : — WEIGHT. No. 18o5. 185G. cwt. qr. lbs. cwt. qr. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1. Oct. 9, 10 3 0 Jan. 29, 11 3 0 16 weeks, 112 Per wk. 7 2. Oct. 9, 9 3 0 Jan. 29, 9 3 0 16 " 112 " 7 3. Oct. 9, 10 1 0 Jan. 29, 11 0 Oc 16 •" 84 " 5i 4. Dec. 3, 10 0 0 Jan. 29, 10 0 12 8 " 12 " H 5. Jan. 1, 10 0 0 Jan. 29, 9 0 16c 4 '^ 16 u 4 6. Oct. 9, 9 0 0 Jan. 29, 9 3 0 16 " 84 " 51 7. Oct. 9, 9 2 0 Jan. 29, 9 3 20 c 16 " 48 " 3 1. Oct. 9, 11 1 0 Jan. 29 12 2 20 16 weeks, 100 8i 2. Oct. 9, 11 1 0 Jan. 29 12 1 0 16 " 112 7 3. Oct. 9, - - Jan. 29 9 2 0 Newly calved. 4. Oct. 9, 10 2 0 Jan. 29 12 2 0 16 weeks, 224 14 5. Oct. 9, 9 2 0 Jan. 29 10 0 8 c 16 " 64 4 6. Oct. 9, 11 0 0 Jan. 29 11 3 0 16 " 84 " 5i 7. Jan. 1, 9 2 0 Jan. 29 9 o 0 4 " 28 7 8. Oct. 9, 10 1 0 Jan. 29 11 1 0 16 " 112 7 9. Dec. 3, 11 1 0 Jan. 29 11 2 Oc 8 " 28 ^ 10. Oct. 9, 8 3 10 Jan. 29 9 1 16c 16 " .56 H 11. Oct. 9, 3 0 0 Jan. 29 10 3 16 16 " 128 8 The cows, No. 2 and No. 7, stall A, calved in September. Soon after calving each yielded 20 quarts per day. On their first weighing. No. 2 weighed 9 cwt. 3 quarters ; No. 7, 9 cwt. 2 quarters. At the next. APPENDIX. 79 No. 2 had lost 28 pounds ; No. 7 had exactly maintained its weight. On this being discovered, the attendant was ordered to give No 2 a little bean-meal in addition. At the expiration of 16 weeks No. 2 gave 16 quarts, No. 7, 12 quarts per day; their respective weights were — No. 2, 9 cwt. 3 quarters, having regained her weight, and No. 7, 9 cwt. 3 quarters 20 pounds, having gained 48 pounds. Eight weeks later, with a reduced yield of milk, No. 2 weighed 10 cwt., having gained 28 pounds ; No. 7, 104 pounds from the time of calving. No. 2 was free from calf; No. 7 in the incipient stage of calf; five others, also marked c, were in a like state of incipient calf. No. 4, stall B, which shows the greatest gain, was far advanced in calf, giving but little milk. Nos. 1, 2, 7, 8, and 11, in stall B, which had gained respectively 8^ pounds, 7 pounds, 7 pounds, 7 pounds, 8 pounds per week, were in course of fattening. I do not keep a separate account of the yield of each cow: the average yield of this class during the 16 weeks will have been about 8 quarts per day each ; those gaining at a less rate per week — Nos. 4, 5, &c. in stall A, and 9, 10, &c. in stall B — may be reckoned as giving a greater yield of milk. In February and March, 1856, four cows which had calved at the like period of 1855, were sold as fat for £19 15^. each; at the same time, in 1856, I bought cows of equal quality and capability, dry, or giving a small quantity of milk under ordinary treatment, at £1 1 to £13 each, to fatten, which will require six months. My cows thus fatted have the repute of killing well, and I am enabled to obtain the top price of the day ; of the four sold in February and March, the purchasers have supplied me with the weights of loose fat. Mr. Lupton, Burley, 150 lbs. loose fat, live weight 14 cwt. Mr. Wilson, Bradford, 152 " " " 12 cwt. 2 qrs. " " 132 " " " 11 cwt. 1 qr. 90 " " •'• 11 cwt. 3 qrs. It will be observed that No. 2, stall A, with an average yield of milk of 18 quarts per day, maintained her weight during 16 weeks ; whilst No. 7, with an average yield of 10 quarts per day, gained 48 pounds in the like time. Taking Haidlen's analysis as a basis for calculation, the cow No. 2 will have given oft" in casein 2] pounds per day, equal to 15| pounds per w^eek, which represents the albu- men of 9 pounds per day, or 63 pounds per week, of feeding sub stances containing 25 per cent, of this matter. The bulky food I have described, straw, roots, and hay, with rape-cake 6 pounds, malt 80 APPENDIX. combs 1 pound, bran 1 pound, and bean-meal 2 pounds — have sufficed for this, and have also maintained the weight or condition of the COAV. The six cows, giving 8 quarts of milk per day during 1 6 weeks, will have given off per day 1 pound of dry casein, equal to 7 pounds per week, and may have assimilated in dry fibrine 1 pound, equal to 4^ pounds of flesh ; these together represent 5 pounds per day, or 35 pounds per week, of food, containing 25 per cent, of albumen. As this class of animals have been supplied with 7 to 8 pounds per day of such substances, it will be obvious that their excrement has been richer in nitrogen than that of No. 2, If we allow a gain of weight of 16 pounds per week, which is more than can be attained on the average by fattening, and reckon 12 of this as flesh or lean beef, equal to 2.70 per week, or .39 per day, of dry fibrine, it will represent 1.56 pounds per day, or 10.92 pounds per week for what is assimilated in the fattening process beyond what is adequate for maintenance. • I adduce these calculations in corroboration of my proposition that food rich in albumen has a more especial value for the production of milk than for fattening or beef-making. There is doubtless some standard of food adapted to the constitu- tion and purposes of animals, combining with bulk a due proportion of elements of respiration, such as sugar, starch, &c., together with those of nutrition, viz., nitrogenous compounds, phosphates, and other minerals ; nor can we omit oil or fat-forming substances ; for however we may be disposed to leave to philosophy the discussion as to whether sugar, starch, &c., are convertible into fot, yet I think I shall not offend the teacher of agricultural chemistry by stating that the more closely the elements of food resemble those in the animal and its pro- duct, the more efficacious will such food be for the particular purpose for which it is used. Sugar, starch, &c., vary very considerably in form and proportion from vegetable oils, which closely resemble animal fats. When we consider that plants have a two-fold function to perform, viz., to serve as food for animals and also for the reproduction of the like plants, and that after having undergone the process of digestion they retain only one-half or one-third of their value as manure, the importance of affording a due but not excessive supply of each element of food essential to the wants and purposes of the animal will be evi- dent. If we fall short, the result will be imperfect ; if we supply in excess, it will entail waste and loss. APPENDIX. 81 Linseed and rape-cake resemble each other very closely in chemical composition ; the latter is chiefly used for manure, and its price ranges usually about half that of linseed cake. In substances poorer°in nitrogen and with more of starch, gum, oil, &c., the disparity in value as food and as manure will be proportionately greater. During the present season Mr. Mendelssohn, of Berlin, and Mr. Gausange, who is tenant of a large royal domain near Frankfort on the Oder, on which he keeps about 150 dairy cows, have been my visitors. These gentlemen have collected statistics in dairy countries through which they have travelled. I learned from them that in Meck- lenburg, Prussia, Holland, &c., 14 quarts of milk yield, on the aver- age, 1 pound of butter ; in rare instances 12 quarts are found to yield 1 pound. Both attach great importance to the regulation of the tem- perature. Mr. Mendelssohn tells me that the milk from cows fed on draff, (distillers' "refuse,) requires a higher temperature to induce its yield of butter than that from cows supplied with other food. On inquiry in my own neighborhood, I find it is computed that each quart at a milking represents 1 pound of butter per week. Thus a cow which gives 4 quarts at each milking, will yield in butter 4 pounds per week, or from 56 quarts G4 ounces of butter, or from 14 quarts of milk 1 pound of butter. Taking the winter produce alone, It IS lower than this ; the cream from my neighbors' cows, who use common food, hay, straw and oats, somewhat resembles milk in con- sistency, and requires three to four hours, sometimes more, in churn- ing. On one occasion a neighboring dairywoman sent to borrow my churn, being unable to make butter with her own ; I did not inquire the result. If she had sent her cow, I could in the course of a week have insured her cream which would make butter in half an hour. These dairy people usually churn during winter in their kitchen, or other room with a fire. Each of them states that from bean or oat- meal used during winter as an auxiliary food, they derive a greater quantity of butter, whilst those who have tried linseed-oil have per- ceived no benefit from it. My, own cream during the winter season is of the consistency of paste or thick treacle. When the jar is full, a rod of two feet long, will, when dipped into the cream to half its length, stand erect. If I take out a teacup-full in the evening and let it stand till next morning, a penny piece laid on its surface will not sink ; on taking it off I find the underside partially spotted with cream. The churnings are per- formed in a room without fire, at a temperature in winter of 43« to 45°, and occupy one-half to three-quarters of an hour. 11 82 APPENDIX. Several who have adopted my system have reported similar effects — an increase in the quantity with a complete change as to richness of quality. I select from these Mr. John Simpson, a tenant farmer residing at Ripley, in Yorkshire, who at my request stated to the committee of the Wharfdale Agricultural Society that he and a neigh- bor of his, being inconvenienced from a deficient yield of milk, had agreed to try my mode of feeding, and provided themselves with a steaming apparatus. This change of treatment took place in Februa- ry, 1855. I quote his words : — " In about five days I noticed a great change in my milk, the cows yielded 2 quarts each, per day, more ; but what surprised me most was the change in the quality ; instead of poor winter cream and butter, they assumed the appearance and character of rich summer produce ; it only required 20 minutes for churning, instead of two to three hours ; there was also a considerable increase in the quantity of butter, of which, however, I did not take any particular notice. My neighbor's cow gave 3 quarts per day in addition, and her milk was so changed in appearance that the consumers to whom he sold it became quite anxious to know the cause." My dairy is but 6 feet wide by 15 long, and 12 high ; at one end (to the north) is a trellis window, at the other an inner door which opens into the kitchen. There is another door near to this which opens into the churning-room, having also a northern aspect ; both doors are near the south end of the dairy. Along each side, and the north end, two shelves of wood are fixed to the wall, the one 15 inches above the other ; 2 feet higher is another shelf, somewhat narrower but of like length, Avhich is covered with charcoal, whose properties as a deodorizer are sufficiently established. The lower shelves being 2 feet 3 inches wide, the interval or passage between is only 1 foot 6 inches. On each tier of shelves is a shallow wooden cistern lined with thin sheet-lead, having a rim at the edges 3 inches high. These cis- terns incline downwards slightly towards the window, and contain water to the depth of 3 inches. At the end nearest the kitchen each tier of cisterns is supplied with two taps, one for cold water in summer, the other with hot for winter use. At the end next the north window is a plug or hollow tube, with holes perforated at such an elevation as to take the water before it flows over the cistern. During the summer the door towards the kitchen is closed, and an additional door is fixed against it, with an interval between well packed with straw ; a curtain of stout calico hangs before the trellis window, which is dipped in salt water, and kept wet during the whole APPENDIX. 83 day by cold water spurted over it from a gutta-purclia tube. On tbe milk being brought in it is emptied into bowls. Some time after these bowls (of which a description is given in a former part of this) have been placed on the cistern, the cold-water taps are turned till the water rises through the perforated tube, and flows through a waste pipe into the sewer. The taps are then closed, so as to allow a slight trickling of water, which continues through the day. By these means I reduce the temperature, as compared with that outside the window, by 20''. I am thus enabled to allow the milk to stand till the cream has risen, and keep the skimmed milk sweet, for which I obtain Id. per quart. Having heard complaints during very hot weather of skimmed milk, which had left my dairy perfectly sweet, being affected so as to curdle in cooking on being carried into the village, I caused covers of thick calico (the best of our fabrics for retaining moisture) to be made ; these are dipped in salt water and then drawn over the whole of the tin milk cans ; the contrivance is quite successful, and is in great favor with the consumers. I have not heard a single complaint since I adopted it. Finding my butter rather soft in hot weather, I uncovered a draw- well, which I had not used since I introduced water-woiks for the sup- ply of the village and my own premises. On lowering a thermometer down the well to a depth of 28 feet, I found it indicated a temperature of 43° — that on the surface being 70". I first let down the butter, which was somewhat improved, but afterwards the cream ; for this purpose I procured a movable windlass, with a rope of the required length ; the cream-jar is placed in a basket 2 feet 4 inches deep, sus- pended on the rope, and let down the evening previous to churning. It is drawn up early next morning and immediately churned ; by this means the churning occupies about the same time as in winter, and the butter is of like consistency. The advantage I derive from this is such that, rather than be with- out it, I should prefer sinking a well for the purpose of reaching a like temperature. When winter approaches, the open trellis window to the north is closed, an additional shutter being fixed outside, and the interval between this and an inner shutter closely packed with straw to prevent the access of air and cold ; the door to the kitchen is at the same time unclosed to admit warmth. Before the milk is brought from the cow- house the dairymaid washes the bowls well with hot water, the effect of which is to take off the chill but not to warm them : the milk is 84 APPENDIX. brought in as milked, and is passed through a sile into the bowls, which are then placed on the cistern. A thermometer, with its bulb immersed in the milk, denotes a temperature of about 90°. The hot water is applied immediately at a temperature of 100° or upwards, and continues to flow fur about five minutes, Avhen the supplj' is exhausted. The bowls being of thick earthenware — a slow conductor — this does not heighten the temperature of the milk. The cooling, however, is thereby retarded, as I find the milk, after standing four hours, maintains a temperature of 60°. This application of hot water is renewed at each milking to the new milk, but not repeated to the same after it has cooled. The temperature of the dairy is momentarily increased to above 60°, but speedily subsides, the average tempera- ture being 52° to 56°. It will be observed that the churnings in summer and winter occupy half an hour or upwards ; by increasing the temperature of the cream I could easily churn in half the time, but I should thereby injure the quality of the butter. When the butter has come, and gathered into a mass, it is taken, together with the buttermilk, out of the churn, which is rinsed with Avater ; the butter is then placed again in the churn, with a quantity of cold spring water in which salt has been dissolved, at the rate of 1 ounce per quart of cream ; after a few min- utes' churning, the butter is again taken out ; the water in which it has been washed assumes a whitish appearance. By this process the salt is equally diffused through the butter, which requires little manip- ulation, and is freed from a portion of caseous matter. A recent analysis of my butter shows only 1.07 instead of 2.45 per cent, of casein, as before ; that it ranks as choice may be inferred, when I state that my purchaser willingly gives me Id. per roll more than the highest price in Otley market, and complains that I do not supply him with a greater quantity. In this dairy of the small dimensions I have described, my produce of butter reaches at times 60 to 70 pounds per week. Though the size may appear inconveniently small, yet I beg to remark on the greater facility of regulating the temperature of a small in comparison with a large dairy. This difficulty will be found greater in summer than in winter, as it is far easier to heighten than depress the tem- perature. I have cooked or steamed my food for several years. It will be observed that I blend bean-straw, bran and malt combs, as flavoring materials, with oat or other straw and rape-cake : the effect of steam- ing is to volatilize the essential oils, in which the flavor resides, and APPENDIX. 85 diffuse them through the mess. The odor arising from it resembles that observed from the process of malting; this imparts relish to the mess, and induces the cattle to eat it greedilj' ; in addition to which I am disposed to think that it renders the food more easy of digestion and assimilation. I use this process with advantage for fattening, when I am deficient in roots. With the same mixed straw and oat- shells, 3 to 4 pounds each of rape-cake, and ^ pound of linseed oil, but without roots, I have fattened more than 30 heifers and cows free from milk, from March up to the early part of May ; their gain has averaged fully 14 pounds each per week — a result I could not have looked for from the same materials if uncooked ; this process seems to have the effect of rendering linseed oil less of a laxative, but cannot drive off any portion of the fattening oils, to volatilize which requires a very high temperature. My experience of the benefits of steaming is such, that if I were deprived of it I could not continue to feed with satisfaction. I have weighed my fattening cattle for a number of years, and my milch cows for more than two years ; this practice enables me at once to detect any deficiency in the performance of the animals ; it gives also a stimulus to the feeders, who attend at the weighings, and who are desirous that the cattle intrusted to their care should bear a com- parison with their rivals. Another obvious advantage is in avoiding all cavils respecting the weight by my purchasers, who, having satis- fied themselves as to the quality of the animal, now ask and obtain the most recent weighing. The usual computation for a well-fed, but not over fat beast, is, live to dead weight as 21 to 12, or 100 to 59 l-7th, with such modifications as suggest themselves by appearances. Though many discussions have taken place on the fattening of cattle, the not less important branch of dairy treatment has hitherto been comparatively neglected. I therefore venture to call attention to con- siderations which have arisen from observations in my own practice, affecting the chemistry and physiology, or, in other words, the science of feeding. That I am seeking aid from its guidance will be apparent, and I have no hesitation in admitting, that beyond the satisfaction from the better understanding of my business, I have latterly derived more benefit or profit from examination of the chemical composition of materials of food than from the treatment or feeding experiments of others which have come under my notice. So persuaded am I of the advantage of this, that I do not feel satisfied to continue the use of any material, with the composition of which I am not acquainted, without resorting to the society's laboratory for an analysis. 86 APPENDIX. To one leading feature of my practice I attach the greatest impor- tance— the maintenance of the condition of my cows, giving a large yield of milk. I am enabled, by the addition of bean-meal in propor- tion to the greater yield of milk, to avert the loss of condition in those giving 16 to 18 quarts per day; whilst on those giving a less yield and in health, I invariably eflfect an improvement. Nos. 2 and 7, in stall A, may be regarded as ordinary results from my treatment. When we take into consideration the disposition of a cow to apply her food rather to her milk than to her maintenance and improvement, it seems fair to infer that the milk of a cow gaining flesh will not be deficient either in casein or butter. I have already alluded to the efliciency of bean-meal in increasing the quantity of butter ; I learn also, from observant dairymen who milk their own cows and carry their butter to market, that their bas- kets are never so well filled as when their co.ws feed on green clover, which, as dry material, is nearly as rich in albumen as beans ; I am also told, by those who have used green rape plant, that it produces milk rich in butter. From this we may infer that albuminous matter is the most essential element in the food of the milch cow, and that any deficiency in the supply of this will be attended with loss of con- dition, and a consequent diminution in the quality of her milk. I am clearly of opinion that you can increase the proportion of but- ter in milk more than that of casein, or other solid parts. From several, who have adopted my treatment, I learn that on substituting rape-cake for beans, they perceive an increased richness in their milk. Mr. T. Garnett, of Clitheroe, who has used bean-meal largely as an auxiliary food for milch cows during the winter season, tells me that when rape-cake is substituted, his dairymaid, without being informed, perceives the change from the increased richness of the milk. Mr. Garnett has also used linseed-cake in like quantity, still his dairy people prefer rape-cake. Mr. Whelon, of Lancaster, who keeps two milch cows for his own use, to which he gave bean-meal and bran as auxiliaries, has recently substituted rape-cake for bean-meal ; he informs me that in a week he perceived a change in the richness of the milk, with an increase of butter. The vegetable oils are of two distinct classes : the drying or setting represented by linseed, the unctuous represented by rape-oil. They consist of two proximate elements, margerine and olein ; in all proba- bility they will vary in their proportion of these, but in what degree I have not been able to ascertain. Though the agricultural chemists APPENDIX. 87 make no distinction, as far as I am aware, between these two classes of oils, tlie practitioners in medicine use them for disiinct purposes. Cod-liver oil has been long used for pulmonary complaints; latterly, olive, almond, and rape-oils are being employed as substitutes. These are all of the unctuous class of oils. Mr. Rhind, the intelligent medi- cal practitioner of this village, called my attention to some experiments by Dr. Leared, published in the Medical Times, July 21st, 1855, with olein alone, freed from margerine, which showed marked superiority in the effect; and I now learn from Mr. Rhind that he is at present using with success the pure olein, prepared by Messrs. Price and Co., from cocoa-nut oil, one of. the unctuous class. That linseed, and others of the drying oils, are used in medicine for a very different purpose, it seems unnecessary to state. The olein of oil is known to be more easy of consumption and more available for respiration than margerine — a property to which its use in medicine may be attributable."' If we examine the animal fats, tallow, suet, and other fat, they are almost wholly of the solid class, stearine or margerine, closely resembling or identical with the marge- rine in plants ; whilst butter is composed of olein and margerine, combining both the proximate elements found in vegetable oils.f It seems worthy of remark that a cow can yield a far greater weight of 'butter than she can store up in solid fat; numerous instances occur where a cow gives off 2 pounds of butter per day, or 14 pounds per week, whilst half that quantity will probably rarely be laid on in fat. If you allow a cow to gain 16 pounds per week, and reckon 7 for fat, there will only remain 9 pounds for flesh, or, deducting the moisture, scarcely 3 pounds (2.97) per week, equal to .42, or less than half a pound per day, of dry fibrine. The analyses of butter show a very varying proportion of olein and margerine fats : summer butter usually contains of olein 60, and margerine 40 per cent., whilst in winter butter these proportions are reversed, being 40 of olein to 60 of margerine. By ordinary treat- ment the quantity of butter during winter is markedly inferior ; the common materials for dairy-cows in winter are straw with turnips, or mangel, hay alone, or hay with mangel. If we examine these materi- als, we find them deficient in oil, or in starch, sugar, &c. If a cow consume 2 stones or 28 pounds of hay a day, which is probably more * See "Lehman's Physiological Chemistry." t Rape is but little cultivated in the United States, and the cake made from its seed is not, there- fore, available to us. It seems probable, however, that cotton seed cake will prove an excellent substitute for it, since, as compared with linseed oil cake, it appears to be much richer in olein. See analysis at the end of this article. — R. 6. f. 88 APPENDIX. than she can be induced to eat on an average, it will be equal in dry material to more than 100 pounds of young grass, which will also satisfy a cow. That 100 pounds of young grass will yield more butter will scarcely admit of a doubt. The 28 pounds of hay will be equal in albuminous matter and in oil to the 100 pounds of grass, but in the element of starch, sugar, &c., there is a marked difference. During the growth of the plant, the starch and sugar are converted into woody fibre, in which form they are scarcely digestible or available for respi- ration. It seems, then, not improbable that, when a cow is supplied with hay only, she will consume some portion of the olein oil for respiration, and yield a less quantity of butter poorer in olein. If you assume summer butter to contain of olein, . . GO per cent. " " " of iiiargerine, 40 " 100 If the cow 1 onsuuie of the olein 36 " The quantity of butter will be reduced from 100 to . 64 " And the proportions will then be, of olein, .... 40 " " " of margerine, . . 60 " 100 If you supply turnips or mangel with haj^ the cow will consume less of hay ; you thereby substitute a material richer in sugar, &c., and poorer in soil. Each of these materials, in the quantity a cow can consume, is deficient in the supply of albumen necessary to keep up the condition of an animal giving a full yield of milk. To eff'ect this, recourse must be had to artificial or concentrated substances of food, rich in albuminous matter. It can sciircoly be expected, nor is it dcsirahlo, that practical farmers should apply themselves to the attainment of proficiency in the art of chemical investigations ; this is more properly the occupation of the professor of science. fhe following simple experiment, however, seems worth mentioning. On several occasions, during winter, I pro- cured samples of butter from my next neighbor; on placing these, with a like quantity of my own, in juxtaposition before the fire, my butter melted with far greater rapiditj^ — by no means an unsafe test of a greater proportion of olein. The chemical investigation of our natural and other grasses has hitherto scarcely had the attention which it deserves. The most val- uable information on this subject is in the paper by Professor Way on the nutritive and fattening properties of the grasses in Vol. xiv., APPENDIX. 89 p. 171, of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal. These grasses were nearly all analyzed at the flowering time, a stage at which no occupier of grass-land would expect so favorable a result in fattening. We much prefer pastures with young grass not more than a few inches high, sufficient to afford a good bite. With a view to satisfy myself as to the difference of composition of the like grasses at different stages of growth, I sent to Professor Way a specimen of the first crop of hay, cut in the end of June, when the grass was in the early stage of flowering, and one of aftermath, cut towards the close of September, from the same meadow, the analyses of which I give : — //ay, First Crop Moisture, . . . . Albuminous matter, . Oil and fatty matter, Starch, gum, sugar, . Woody fibre, . . . Mineral matter, . . 12.02 9.24 2.68 39.75 27.41 8.90 100.00 Aftermath Hay. Moisture, . . . . Oil and fatty matter, Albuminous matter, Starch, gum, sugar, . Woody fibre, . . . Mineral matter, . . 11.87 6.84 9.84 42.25 19.77 9.43 100.00 A comparison between these will show a much greater percentage of woody fibre, 27.41 in the first crop to 19.77 in the aftermath. The most remarkable difference, however, is in the proportion of oil, being 2.68 in the first crop to 6.84 in the aftermath. On inquiry from an observing tenant of a small dairy-farm of mine, who has frequently used aftermath hay, I learn that, as compared with the first crop, he finds it induce a greater yield of milk, but attended with some impoverishment in the condition of the cow, and that he uses it without addition of turnips or other roots, which he gives when using hay of the first crop — an answer quite in accordance with what might be expected from its chemical composition. It is likewise to be presumed that the quickness of growth will materially affect the composition of grasses, as well as of other veg- etables. Your gardener will tell you that if radishes are slow in growth they will be tough and woody, that asparagus melts in eating, like butter, and salad is crisp when grown quickly. The same effect will, I apprehend, be found in grasses of slow growth: they will con- tain more of woody fibre, with less of starch or sugar. The quality of butter grown on poor pastures is characterized by greater solidity than on rich feeding pastures, the cows having to travel over more space, require a greater supply of the elements of respiration, whilst the grasses grown on these poor pastures contain, in all probability, 12 90 APPENDIX less of these in a digestible form available for respiration. The like result seems probable as from common winter treatment — a produce of butter less in quantity, and containing a greater proportion of mar- gerine, and a less of olein. It is well known that pastures vary greatly in their butter-producing properties ; there is, however, as far as I am aware, no satisfactory explanation of this. If you watch cows on depasture, you observe them select their own food ; if you supply cows in stall alike with food, they will also select for themselves. I give rape-cake as a mix- ture to all, and induce them to eat the requisite quantity ; yet some will select the rape-cake first, and eat it up clean, whilst others rather neglect it till towards the close of their meal, and then leave pieces in the trough. Two Alderneys — the only cows of the kind I have as yet had — whose butter-producing qualities are well known, are par- ticularly fond of rape-cake, and never leave a morsel ; may not these animals be prompted by their instinct to select such food as is best suited to their wants and propensities ? If so, it seems of the greatest importance that the dairyman should be informed of the properties of food most suitable for his purpose, especially whilst in a stall, where they have little opportunity of selecting. It appears worth the attention of our society to make inquiries as to the localities which are known as producing milk peculiarly rich in butter. When travelling in Germany I well recollect being treated with peculiarly rich milk, cream and butter, on my tour between Dresden and Toplitz, at the station or resting place, on the chaussee or turnpike-road, before you descend a very steep incline to the valley in which Toplitz is situated. I travelled this way after an interval of several years, when the same treat was again offered. It was given as a rarity, and can only be accounted for by the peculiar adaptation of the herbage of the country for the production of butter. BuRLEY Hall, Yorkshire, May, 185G. P. S. June nth, 1856. — Having had occasion to visit London, I called upon J. F. Wilson, director of Messrs. Price's manufactory at Belmont. In addition to other interesting information in regard to the properties of fats, Mr. Wilson kindly supplied me with a Trea- tise on Oils, by Jules de Fontenelle a Paris, from which I supply the following particulars : — Iteaumur. Olein. Stearine. Olive oil congeals (solidifies) at a temperature of -|- 2 = 72 28 Rape oil " " " of — 5 — .54 46 Linseed oil " " " of — 22 No analysis. APPENDIX. 91 Olive oil is by far the richest in olein, which accounts for its extended use in cooking, more especially on the continent, where it is a princi- pal ingredient in culinary preparations. The analysis of rape oil corresponds precisely in its proportion of olein and margerine with that of butter of fair quality. Jules de Fontenelle very properly observes that an analysis of each of the vegetable oils could not fail to be of the greatest interest. I may add that we agriculturists have a claim on our professors of chemistry to give their attention to like investigations. [E.] The following article, from the Farmers'' and Planters Encydopm- dia, is worthy of attention and experiment: — Anthoxanthum Odoratum, the sweet-scented vernal grass. This grass constitutes a part of the herbage of English pastures on almost every kind of soil, attaining its greatest perfection on the deep and moist, loving shady places such as the skirts of woods. Its very early growth and hardiness, with the superior properties of its latter- math, gives it high claims in the composition of all permanent pas- tures. In England it comes into flower about the middle of April, and in Pennsylvania about the middle of May, (in Massachusetts about the first of June.) When properly combined with other grasses and mown at maturity, it gives to the hay a peculiarly delightful fragrance. The cause of the high flavor for which Philadelphia "May butter" is so highly celebrated, has hitherto been a matter of vague specula- tion. This superior flavor, like that distinguishing the Epping and Cambridge butter of the London market, has very naturally been ascribed to something eaten by the cows ; but this something has never yet been defined or specified so as to enable persons in other localities to avail themselves of it for the improvement of their own pastures and dairy products. The American editor of the Farmers' Encyclopoedia claims to have traced the peculiar flavor of Philadelphia May butter to the sweet- scented vernal grass, naturalized and abounding in the pastures within marketing distance of the city. He assigns the following reasons for this conclusion. 1. In the dairy region around Philadelphia the vernal 92 APPENDIX. grass, with its vanilla fragrance, constitutes the predominant spring herbage on all pasture-fields and meadows left several years unploughcd. The older the pasture the greater the proportion of vernal grass, and the higher flavored the butter. 2. The flavor continues during the development of this grass and invariably declines with its seeding, after which the cattle push the stem aside, in search of fresher herbage. 3. The sweet-scented vernal grass is shown by chemical analysis to contain an aromatic essential oil, the basis of which is benzoin acid, or flowers of benzoin. This is abundant and can be distilled so as to furnish a delightful perfume. As the milk of ani- mals is so very susceptible of acquiring disagreeable tastes from sub- stances fed upon, it is natural to infer that it may be imbued with agreeable flavors, could the proper agents for this purpose be pre- sented in their food. That the benzoin acid is the proximate cause of the peculiarly fine flavor of butter made from pastures where the sweet-scented vernal grass abounds, he has shown by several experi- ments made in diff'erent places where the flowers of benzoin given to cows produced the characteristic flavor. From 20 to 30 grains of benzoin acid was administered twice a day, previously mixed with a little rye or wheat flower, then stirred up with some hot water and mingled with the customary mess. LETTER RESPECTING THE DAN VERS PRIZE COW. BY E. HERSEY DERBY, ESQ. Salem, December 25, 1816. Dear Sir : I forward you, agreeable to the request of the Trus- tees, the information I have obtained respecting Mr. Caleb Oakes' prize cow. The cow is of a dark red and rather under size ; she was first pur- chased out of a drove. Mr. Oakes bought her, in April, 1813, of his brother-in-law, at which time she was five years old. He made from her the first year, without any extra feeding, 180 pounds of butter. In 1814 he gave her about ten or twelve bushels of meal, and made 300 pounds of butter. In 1815 he allowed thirty or thirty-five bushels of meal and the quantity of butter made was over 400 pounds. Last spring I called on Mr. Oakes and requested him to keep a particular account this year of the product in milk and butter, which he has been so obliging as to furnish me. She calved the 5th of APPENDIX. 93 April. The calf was killed the 8th of May, being remarkably fine fat veal. Through the season she had good pasturage, and has been allowed one bushel of meal and all her skim milk. Sometime in June or July Mr. Oakes weighed the milk, at which time she gave at night, 10 quarts, weight 26^ lbs.; 7 quarts in the morning, weight 18 pounds : making 44^ pounds per day. Statements of Butter made this Season. Before calf was killed, . . 17 May 15, U\ May 22, 16 May 28, 171 June 5, 19 June 12, 181 June 19, 17 June 26, 18 July 3, 18 July 10, 17 July 17, 16 July 24, 24 July 31, 16 Aug. 7, 15 Aug. 14, 15 Aug. 21, 16 Aug. 28 15 lbs. Sept. 4, 15 Sept. 11, 16 Sept. 18, 12 Sept. 25, 15 lbs. Oct. 2, Oct. 15, Oct. 21, Oct. 29, Nov. 7, Nov. 18, Nov. 23, Nov. 30, Dec. 10, Dec. 20, Total, 16| 15 16 16 16 18 10 13 14 10 4841 Since Mr. Oakes has had the cow, she has suckled four calves, over four weeks each, and furnished about one qviart of milk per day for the use of the family. I purchased of Mr. Oakes some of this year's butter ; I think I never saw finer. I am, &c., &c., E. Heksey Derby. STATEMENT OF PRODUCT OF OTHER COWS. A cow owned by Thomas Hodges, in North Adams, produced in one year, 425 pounds of butter. Her food consisted of one quart of rye meal, and half a peck of potatoes per day, with very good pasturing. A cow of Ralph Haskins, in Dorchester, produced 18 quarts per day, and averaged from 14 to 15 quarts for the year. Before grass feed in April, the cream of two days made 2|- pounds of butter, and was made from 2y'g- quarts of cream. 94 APPENDIX. A cow of H. G. Newcomb, Greenfield, from March 27 to May 25, made 100 pounds of butter and reserved 160 quarts of milk. In 14 days made 29^^g- pounds of butter. Cow of S. Henshaw, Springfield, gave 17|- pounds of butter per week, and in one case, 21 pounds of excellent butter. Cow of O. Norris, Springfield, produced, between the first of April and the first of September, 20C pounds of butter, besides using milk and cream freely in the family. Food in the winter, besides hay, from 2 to 4 quarts rye-bran at noon, and when at pasture about 4 quarts of rye-bran at night. These cows were from the common stock of the country, and much of their superiority may safely be ascribed to care and good manage- ment both in feeding and in milking. Instances of much greater yield can be adduced from cows of well known breeds. A Durhaw cow, belonging to John Hare Powell, of Philadelphia, yielded repeatedly 26 quarts in twenty-four hours, and produced in three days 8 pounds 13 ounces of butter, or at the rate of 201 pounds per week. The celebrated Blossom, also an improved Durham, owned by Mr. Conby, in Delaware, gave 253^ quarts of milk per week, being an average of 36 quarts per day, making ITg- pounds of well-worked butter. The often cited "Cramp" cow, owned in Lewes, England, of the Sussex breed, and out of celebrated stock, has not probably ever been surpassed. From May 1, 1805, to April 2, 1806, her milk produced 540 pounds of butter. In the next year, from 19th of April, her day of calving, to February 27, she produced 450 pounds; and the next year, from the 6th of April, the day she calved, to the 4th of the next April, she produced 675 pounds. This cow was fed, in the summer season, on clover, lucerne, rye- grass and carrots, three or four times a day, and at noon time with about four gallons of brewers' grains and two of bran mixed together» observing always to give her no more food than she would eat up clean ; and in the winter season she had hay, grains and bran, feeding her five or six times a day, keeping the manger perfectly sweet and clean. For a more full and particular account of this wonderful milker, see the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal, Vol. iv, p. 331. In citing cases of remarkable cows, Flora, an imported Jersey cow, belonging to Thomas Motley, Jr., Esq., of Roxbury, ought not to be omitted. The milk from this cow, during the period of trial, was not only APPENDIX. 95 kept separate from the milk of the other cows of Mr. Motley, but to prevent any mistake, it was not brought into the dairy at the farm house. It was taken directly to Mr. Motley's own house, where there was no other milk, and there made into butter, Avhich was accurately weighed from churning to churning. Commencing with saving the milk on the 10th of May, the result, to April 27, was as follows : — May 18, May 25, June 1, June 8, June 15, June 22, June 29, July 6, July 13, July 20, July 27, Aug. 3, Aug. 10, Aug. 17, Aug. 24, Aug. 31, Sept. 7, Sept. 14, Sept. 21, Sept. 28, Oct- 5, Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov Nov 12, 19, 26, 9 9, 12 lbs 14 oz. Nov. 16 13 " 8 » Nov. 23 14 " 0 " Nov. 30 14 " 0 " Dec. 7 14 " 0 " Dec. 14 13 " 13 " Dec. 21 13 " 0 " Dec. 28 12 " 12 " Jan. 4 19 " 4 " Jan. 11 12 '^ 4 " Jan. 18 11 " 8 " Jan. 25 11 " 12 " Feb. 1 11 " 12 " Feb. 8 11 " 4 " Feb. 15 11 " 12 " Feb. 22 11 '• 12 " March 1 11 " 0 " March 8 11 " 8 " March 15 11 " 8 " March 22 11 " 4 " March 29 10 " 12 " April 5 11 " 8 " April 12 11 " 12 » April 19 12 " 0 '' April 26 11 " 12 " 11 " 3 " Tota 10 lbs. 12 oz 9 " 12 " 9 " 4 " 9 » 0 " 9 » 0 " 9 " 0 " 9 " 0 " 8 " 12 " 8 " 4 " 8 " 4 " 8 " 8 " 8 " 8 " 8 " 8 " 8 - 0 " 7 " 8 " 7 " 4 '' 7 " 8 " 7 " 0 " 7 " 0 " 7 " 0 " 7 " 0 " 7 " 0 " 6 " 15 " 6 " 0 " 511 In the statement, made up to the middle of November, Mr. Motley says. Flora " has had no meal or grain, or any food whatever besides grass, with this exception : in August, September, and a part of October I gave her, as I gave all my other cows, a feed of cornstalks morning and evening, as my pastures were almost dried up. I truly believe that with a good rich pasture she would have done better without the corn-fodder than in my pasture with corn-fodder. I have now taken her from pasture, (November 14,) and am feeding with hay and ruta bagas." 96 APPENDIX. During the winter, Flora was fed with plenty of English hay and three quarts of corn and cob-meal per day. As illustrative of the effects of generous feeding, the following table of the performances of five cows belonging to Mr. Sheldon, of Wil- mington, for the years 1855 and 1856, are given. Mr. Sheldon accounts for the difference in the yield of butter, principally, to having added, in the second year, ten acres of good mowing land to his pasture, and to somewhat better feed generally. It is suggestive of this ques- tion, whether there is not a point in feeding for milk, as in manuring land for crops, when up to another point, the additional outlay for richer and better food is not compensated in a very great and profita- ble ratio, by an increased supply of milk and butter. The product of five cows, owned by Mr. Sheldon, of Wilmington, for 1855 and 1856: — 1855. 1856. Name of Cow. Butter. Butter. o a 2 Age. Calved. 9 days inJ9 days in June. 1 Sept. Age. Calved. 9 days io June. 9 days in Sept. (a s Grey Cow, . . 4 yrs. April 8, 8 lbs. 11 lbs. 5 yrs. April 5, lbs. oz. 20 4 lbs. oz. 16 11 lbs. oz. 17 15 Beauty, . . . 5 " Jlay 6, 93 " 13i " 6 " May 1, 19 2 17 4 13 6 Black Nelly, , 9 " April 8, 10 " 13 » 10 " Mar. 24, 16 8 17 8 11 Patience, . . 3 " April 28, 8| " 9i " 4 " April 12, 15 8 15 12 8 Nonesuch, . . 3 " Dec. 23, %i " 7J " 4 " April 4, 20 8 18 10 22 6 It is not probable that the increase of milk was in proportion to the increase of butter, but that the better food added materially to the richness of milk, which accords with the experience of Mr. Horsfall. It may not be considered irrelevant to say a few words upon the subject of breeding animals for dairy purposes. It is a common error to suppose that if a cow be a good milker, her progeny is likely to be equally good ; and breeders, to their great disappointment, frequently find an excellent cow producing very inferior milkers. Observation and experiment, however, have long since established the fact, that the milking qualities of a cow can only be reproduced with any tolerable degree of certainty through her male offspring. This is a well established principle in Switzerland, where very great attention has long been paid to dairy management, and a bull is always selected coming from a cow of superior excellence. This subject was advocated APPENDIX. 97" by Mr. Samuel N. Pomroy, in an article on dairy stock, to be found in the 6tli volume of the Society's Transactions, as far back as 1819. He says : " Another cause (for the deterioration of milch cows) may be assigned, and which will be considered, perhaps, by those acquainted with the physiology of animals, as having much greater influence than people are generally aware of, and that is, in the selection of hulls, most farmers look to form and color only, instead of tracing their descent from a valuable dairy stock. It has been observed by Lin- naeus, that those properties of animals which relate to the vessels, or in scientific terms, the cortical substance or vascular system, are derived from the male." It has been stated, that the celebrated Oakes cow never produced her like, and there is no evidence that any bull calf was ever raised from her. Had there been, it is probable that her very remarkable milking qualities might have been transmitted even to our day. While advocating greater care in selection of the male, and urging the impor- tance also of his being in good condition, it is to be desired, in order to insure improvement of dairy stock, that those calves only should be reared for milkers, whose parent? ge on the female side is also of a high order. In this way, with more care exercised in raising the calves, giving them good shelter in the winter and abundant food, there is every reason to believe that Massachusetts might become eminent in this department of agricultural industry, and that raising dairy stock would be much less of a lottery than it is at present. — r. s. f. REPORT ON THE COMPOSITION AND AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF COTTON-SEED CAKE. BY PROF. SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, Chemist to the Connecticut State Agricultural Society. Henry A. Dyer, Esq., Cok. Sec. — Dear Sir : Respecting the sam- ple of cotton-seed cake, received from you for chemical examination, I have the honor to report, that its composition is not inferior to that of the best flax-seed cake, and in some points its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake of which I have knowl- edge, as will appear from the following statement of its composition compared with that of linseed-cake. No. I. is the cake you sent me. No. II. gives some of the results of an analysis made by Dr. C. T. 13 98 APPENDIX. Jackson, on cake prepared by himself from hulled cotton-seed. — Patent Office Report for 1855, ag'!. part. No. III., analysis of Dr. Anderson on cotton-cake, made at Edin- burgh, Scotland. No. IV., average composition of eight samples of American linseed- cake. — Journal of Highland and Ag. Soc. of Scotland, July, 1855, p. 51. No. v., Meadow, Saxony, Dr. Wolff. I. II. III. IV. V. Water, 6.82 _ 11.19 9.23 16.94 Oil, 16.47 - 9.08 12.96 - Albuminous bodies, .... 44.41 48.82 25.16 28.28 10.09 Mucilaginous and Sacchariiie matters, Fibre, 1 12.74 11.76 \ 48.93 34.22 9.00 40.11 27.16 Ash, 7.80 8.96 5.64 6.21 5.04 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Nitrogen, 7.05 7.75 3.95 4.47 - Phosphoric acid in ash, . . 2.36 2.45 - - - Sand, .94 - 1.32 - - The two points of interest before us are, the nutritive and the manurial value of this cake. With reference to both, chemistry and practical results agree in their conclusions. The great value of linseed- cake, as an adjunct to hay for fat cattle and milch cows, has long been recognized ; and is undeniably traceable in the main to three ingredi- ents of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants. The value of food depends upon the quantity of matters it contains which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food. Now, it is proved that the fat of animals is derivable from the starch, gum and sugar, and more directly and easily from the oil of the food. These four substances are, then, the fatformers. The muscles, nerves, and tendons of animals, the fibrine of their blood, and the curd of their milk, are almost identical in composition, and strongly similar in many of their properties, with matters found in all vegetable, but chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food. These hlood (and muscle) formers are character- ized by containing about 15|- per cent, of nitrogen; and hence are APPENDIX. 99 called nitrogenous suistances. Since albumin (white of egg) is the type of these bodies, they are also often designated as the albuminous bodies. The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper proportions. What proportions are the proper ones, we have at present no means of knowing with accuracy. The ordinary kinds of food for cattle, contain a large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, which is more or less indigestible, but which is indispensable to the welfare of the herbivorous animals, as their digestive organs are adapted to a bulky and rough food. (See analysis V.) The addition of a small quantity of a food rich in oil and albuminous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, has been found highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone, nor concentrated food alone, gives the best results. A certain combination of the two present the most advantages. For fattening animals, and for increasing the yield and quality of milk, linseed-cake has long been held in high estimation. This is to be expected from its composition. The muscle of flesh and the curd of milk are increased in quantity, because the albuminous substances of the linseed constitute an abundant and ready source of them ; the fat of the animal and the butter of the milk are increased by the pres- ence in the food of so much oil and mucilaginous matters. A year or two since Mr. M'Lugan, of Scotland, reported in the Journal of the Highland Society, some trials on the value as food of linseed-cake, cotton-seed cake, and bean-meal. Analyses III. repre- sents the composition of the cotton-cake : IV. that of the linseed-cake. The bean-meal has 25 per cent of albuminous matters, but 1^ per cent, of oil, and correspondingly more of the bodies that have the same nutrient funition as the mucilaginous and saccharine matters. Six animals of nearly equal size and quality were fed during three months in winter, with all the turnips and straw they would eat, and in addition, two of them received daily four pounds of linseed-cake, two four pounds of cotton-seed cake, and two four pounds of bean- meal. The'animals thrived as well on the cotton-seed cake as on the other kinds of food — as shown by their appearance, and by their weight when slaughtered. When linseed-cake is fed in too large quantity, it purges the animal. The quality of beef is excellent when the daily dose of oil-cake does not exceed six pounds for an animal of 700 pounds. Cases are on record when more than this quantity has spoiled the beef, giving it a taste like tallow. 100 APPENDIX. Probably like results would follow excessive feeding with cotton- seed cake. In the best cotton districts of India, the cotton-seed bears a high value as food for fat cattle. I know of no experiments with it on milch cows, but it is to be expected that here also it will have the same effects as linseed cake. A Bavarian farmer has recently announced that heifers fed for three months before calving with a little linseed-cake, in addition to their other fodder, acquire a larger development of the milk vessels, and yield more milk afterwards, than similar animals fed as usual. Cotton- seed cake must have an equally good effect. Some of those who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other palatable food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. On comparing the analyses II. and I., with the average composition of linseed-cake, IV., it will be seen that the cotton-seed cake is much richer in oil and albuminous matters than the linseed-cake. A cor- respondingly less quantity will \herefore be required. Three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed-cake of aver- age quality. The value of the article in question as a manure, is very obviously considerable. The dung of cattle, &c., fed upon it, will be greatly richer, both in nitrogen and phosphates, than that of animals fed on hay alone. Where stock is kept, probably the best manner of using this cake as a fertilizer, is to feed it to the cattle, and carefully apply the manure they furnish. In this way, Avhatever is not economized as fat or flesh, will be available as manure. In England and on the continent of Europe, linseed and rape-cake have been used directly as a dressing for the soil, and with results fully equal to what is' indicated by their composition. These kinds of cake decompose readily, and their effect is usually finished in one season. Five hundred to six hundred pounds per acre is considered a good application; more is liable to be injurious. It is found that when applied with the seed, these kinds of cake prevent germination to a considerable degree ; but if applied a week or so previous to sowing, this detriment is not encountered. The cotton-seed is often employed in the Southern States, with good effects, as a manure for Indian corn, &c. I do not know whether like rape and linseed'-cake, it destroys the seed. For manuring pur- poses, it is about one-third richer than linseed-cake. Its efiects are mostly due to the nitrogen it contains, and therefore are similar to those of guano. It is best used in conjunction with other fertilizers. APPENDIX. 101 I should judge that a mixture of 400 pounds of this cotton-seed cake with 50 bushels of leached wood-ashes per acre, would make an excel- lent application for most crops. It is highly important that the cake be uniformly distributed, and thoroughly intermixed with the soil. This cotton-seed cake is doubtless an excellent material for com- posts, owing to its ready decomposability. Its commercial value, if calculated from the highest estimates, is as follows : per cwt., 7 pounds nitrogen equals 8^ pounds of ammonia, which at 16 cents per pound, is worth $1.36 ; 2-1 pounds phosphoric acid at 2 cents per pound, is 4| cents ; together, $1.41. This multi- plied by 20 gives $28.20 as the value per ton. If the English prices are adopted, viz., 12 cents for ammonia and 3 cents for phosphoric acid, we have $21.80 as the value per ton. The market price, you say, is $25. Therefore, next to Peruvian guano, this is a substariije which, if its composition proves uniform, is most nearly worth whit it costs. Yale Analytical Laboratory, March 16, 1857. INDEX. Albumen, value of, for producing milk, Alderneys, report on. Animal Muscle, &c., composition of, Ayrshires, report on, as milkers, do not compare with short-liorns. Bean-straw, uncooked, analysis of, Bran, improved by steaming, and malt combs compared for feedin Breeding animals for dairy purposes, Butter, mode of making, produce per quart of milk, . yield per cow, per year, analysis of, . when soft, a remedy for, injured by too high temperature, rinsed with water, . mode of salting, per day of one cow, . mode of testing, quality of, harder on poor pastures, "May, " celebrated, . Cattle, weighed for a number of years, live and dead weight compared, feeding, science of, Churn, kind used, . Committees should visit competing animals Committee on Mowing Machines operated Mowing Machines, Committees on Dairy Stock, Competitors for Dairy Stock, Premiums, few, number of, did not comply with the rules, . but three in Class I., . 21, 22 75 23, 2i 76,84 Page. 80 46 98, 99 43 44 68 69 69 77 96, 97 26, 27 73 73, 93 87, 88 83 84 84 84 87 88 89, 90 91 85 85 85, 86 75 6 8 12 54, 56 19 20 29, 30 80 104 INDEX. Cotton Seed Cake, analyses of, . linseed and bean-meal compared, Talue of as a manure, commercial value of, of great value in India for feeding cattle, used for manuring Indian corn, a richer fertilizer than linseed cake. Cream, yield of butter per quart, richness of, due to treatment of cows, mode of taking off, ... quantity increased, and quality depreciated, tested in November, . mode of churning, ... Cows, six, owned by J. Mann, of Worcester, manner of feeding, . . . 21, 22, 23, 24 kept in the stable through the night in summer, quantity of milk produced, . . . 21,22 six, by Samuel Ellsworth, of Barre, . six, by Asa G. Sheldon, of Wilmington, six, by Wm. Robinson, Jr., of Barre, six, by Wm. W. Watson, of Princeton, four, by A. F. Knight, of West Boylston, carded from the 1st of March, four, by W. Robinson, Jr., of Barre, time of going dry not definitely stated, nothing said of " grooming," nor litter, " grooming " of, recommended, on exhibition, were noble looking, description of, ... products of, . . . . .30 milk of, whether better for butter or cheese fine exhibition of, . mode of treating, milch, gain or loss, ascertained by weighing, quantity of milk per day, milch, results from, . what a change of treatment effected, . Dairy Cattle, management of, by T. Horsfall, mode of feeding, produce, statistics on, practice on thorough feeding, . room described, how the temperature is regulated. Cow, remarks on. Stock, show of, . . . reports on, . . . . 18, 37 improvement of, encouraged, . ineffectual efforts to get correct statements, 25, 26 23, 24 31, 32 38, 40; 27, 77 25, 26, 80, 93 66 41, 43 Page. 97, 98 99 100 101 100 100 100 74 75 75 76 77 81 20 79, 88 21, 25 27,80 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 27, 28 28 28 28 28, 29 94, 95 33 34 69 69, 70 70, 71 72 82 65 67, 68 72,81 73 82. 83 83, 84 18, 19 6 46,47 19 20 INJ5EX. 105 Dairy Stock, sale of, . Danvers prize cow, letter concerning, Devons, report on, . Durhams, report on. Food, composition of, cooked or steamed, importance of knowing the best, nitrogenous, for fattening cattle, what it should resemble, on what its value depends, Grade and native bulls, report on, . Grasses, analyses of, quickness of growth affects the quality. Grass, sweet-scented vernal, . flavors hay, Labor-saving implements, Linseed-cake, how to be fed, and cotton seed cake, . and rape-seed cake as manure. Milk, analysis of, . richness of, . yield per cow, stated, . mode of ascertaining yield of butter, bowls, form, mode of standing, number of quarts for a pound of butter, manner of carrying to market, rich in certain localities. Mowing Machine, economy of, report on, time of cutting five acres, objection to E. Danforth & Go's. Ketchum's, Allen's, . Manny's . Heath's . Machines,' trial of, . Oils, particulars concerning, . Olein Oil, .... Olive, almond, and rape oils, substituted for cod-liver, Pastures, improved condition of, vary in blotter producing, . Plants, two-fold function of, Premiiun on Mowing Machines, competitors awarded, Premiums proposed on Dairy Stock, Premium, first, to S. Ellsworth, of Barre, second, to Asa G. Sheldon, of Wilmington, third, to W. Robinson, Jr., of Barre, for. Page. 55 92,93 40 40 71 84, 85 89 72 80 98 47 88, 89 89 91, 92 91 7,9 99 100 100 67 72 72 73, 74 75 81 83 90 8 11 11, 12 12, 13 14, 15 15, 16 16 16, 17 13, 14 90, 91 87 . 87 71 90 80 11 17 19 31 31 32 14 106 INDEX. Premiums offered for Dairy Stock, . Questions ansM'ered by R. Carter, . Kape-cake, properties of, and linseed compared, better than bean-meal for cows, Sale of the Society's herd, Statements, written, imperfect, full and accurate, required, of Rufus Carter, . . .38, 56, 57 Statement of E. H. Derby, . of Thomas Motley, of Asa G. Sheldon, Stock, importation of, care in selection for breeding. Table of products of Dairy Stock, . showing the condition of cows by weighing, Turnips, objectionable for feeding cows on account of flavor in milk. Vegetable oils, two kinds, ...... 51 , 68, 59; Page. 52, 63 39, 40 69 81 86 6 34 34 60, 61 93 95 96 5 5 35, 36 78,79 67 86, 87 TRANSACTIONS MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. NEW SERIES, Vol. 1. BOSTON: 1858. J. U. EASTBURN'S PRESS. TRANSACTIONS MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. NEW SERIES, Vol. 1. BOSTON: 1858. J. H. EASTBURN'S PRESS, ERRATA. Page 31. There should be added, after the words " The same Board of Officers was continued this year," the following, with the exception of the Hon. John Lotvell, who declined re-election as President. His Excellency Gov. Caleb Strong was elected in his place. Page 97. Israel Thorndike, Jr., Esq., was elected a Trustee, in the place of Hon. Israel Thorndike, who retired. OFFICERS AND TRUSTEES FOR THE TEAR 1858. PRESIDENT : GEORGE W. LYMAN. FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT : CHARLES G. LORING. SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT I ROBERT C. WINTHROP. TREASURER : THOMAS MOTLEY, Jr. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY : JAMES W. PAIGE. RECORDING SECRETARY : RICHARD S. FAY. TRUSTEES : GEORGE PEABODY, STEPHEN SALISBURY, WILLIAM S. LINCOLN, GEORGE T. BIGELOW, DAVID SEARS, Jr., GEORGE B." LORING. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Abstract of the Records, from 1792 to 1858. n. Report to the State, for 1858, 'with a List of Premiums offered for the year 1859, and an account of the Ayrshire Stock, imported by Sanford Howard for the Society. III. Circular on Sheep-Husbandrj'. rV. An Essay on the History, Cultivation, Composition, and Feeding Properties of Mangold Wurzel, by John Tynan. V. An Article on Horseshoeing, by William Miles. VI. Prize Essay on Fairs, by Allen "W. Dodge. VII. Prize Essay on the Preparation and Apphcation of Manures, by Joseph Reynolds. VIII. Prize Essay on Agricultural Education, by Wilson Flagg. PREFACE. The following Abstract of the Records of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, has been prepared by its Recording Sec- retary for the use of its members, with additional copies for general distribution, in compliance with a vote passed at the last annual meeting. It was not intended that a complete synopsis should be made of the records and publications of the Society, amounting to many volumes, but simply enough to show its origin and progress, the nature of the duties it has performed, and the pi'inciples of its action to the present time. It was also thought that this volume would form a fit com- mencement to a new series of publications for general use, upon topics connected with the jiursuits of agriculture, which it is proposed to issue, as materials for the purpose may accumulate. With these objects in view, many things of an apparently trivial nature have been inserted, but which, it is hoped, will interest some readers, while others of seemingly greater importance have been omitted. It is hoped also that these pages will furnish some hints at least, towards a history of the progress of Agriculture in this State, since the early days of the Commonwealth. There was also another motive for this publication, which it is proper to state. In the winter of 1857, at a meeting of gentlemen interested in the promotion of Agriculture, held at the State House, the Massachusetts Society and its doings formed the principal topic of discussion. The remarks made upon that occasion were in the main honorable to the Society and to those who took an active part in its proceedings. It was evident, however, that great misapprehen- sion existed in the minds of some as to this Society, and more espe- cially as to the doings of its Officers and Trustees. It was asserted, by one gentleman quite competent to judge in the matter, that there was very great ignorance on the part of the people about the Society, and that many persons knew nothing about it ; that it was supposed to have only a respectable existence in State Street, and that it spent the annual bounty of the State in good dinners* The language made * For the full report of the discussion, see the Annual Report of the Agri- culture of Massachusetts, by C. L. Flint, 1857, p. 8. 11 PREFACE. use of upon tliat occasion is not quoted, because the gentleman who used it has publicly disclaimed holding such opinions himself, though the report would lead one to infer that he entertained them in com- mon with others. It is sufficient for the present purpose, to state generally the ideas attempted to be conveyed. The meeting was a large and public one,* and its doings were officially reported and published in the State Annnal Report, and they have probably been read by every farmer in the State. Silence, therefore, on the part of those who have the honor and integrity of this time-honored association in their charge, would be to many minds a virtual admission of the correctness of these opinions. If the idea generally prevails that the money of the State is misapplied by the Society, or by its .Officers and Trustees ; that from their social posi- tion, or from any other cause, there is no sympathy on their part with the agricultural interests, and that they make no effi^rts to promote the objects for which they are associated, then their usefulness is at an end, and the force of their recommendations and example must cease to have any effect. Painful, therefore, as it is to all honorable minds to be compelled to refute slander or to do away with the effects of ignorance however inexcusable, it becomes a duty to do so, when the cause which this Society was instituted to advance, is injuriously affected by silence on the part of those who are assailed. This task, however, is easily accomplished. The labors and services of the Officers and Trustees are, and ever have been, entirely gratuitous in the strictest sense of the word. They meet one day in every month, besides frequent meetings of Committees, and it is rare that a Trustee is ever absent. No part of the funds of the Society is ever diverted by the Trustees from their legitimate objects ; and, to use language forcible as it is homely, they work hard and find themselves. The Officers and Trustees wish to take no credit for this, for it is only what is done by the Officers and Trustees of the other Societies. It is believed that the members of the State Board of Agriculture are the only gentlemen who are indemnified for their services in the cause of Agriculture, and the error has probably arisen from the Massachusetts Society, which is a distinct organization, possessed of no powers or privileges except * It was called to consider the propriety of forming a neio State Society. No statement was made, however, as to the duties which were to devolve upon it. The State Board of Agriculture, in its constitution and powers, is a perfect State Society, its Board composed of members from every County Society, its constitviency every fai-mer in the State. It is difficult to conceive of a better organization for the purpose. PREFACE. lU such as are conferred upon every other Agricultural Society in the State, being confounded in some minds with that highly useful Board. It is not, however, sufficient that the funds of the Society and the bounty of the State should not be misapplied. Its mission is an im- portant one, and should be executed by those who feel a lively interest in promoting the science of Agriculture. This is not likely to be the case, if intrusted to those who have only a " respectable existence in State Street." Nobody, however, will pretend that to make a good Trustee, it is necessary that he should actually hold the plough, plant the corn or wield the scythe, any more than that a good merchant must load and unload his own ships, keep his own books, or hoop his own casks. The Massachusetts Society has always acted upon the principle of selecting for its Officers and Trustees, those whose position enabled them to give their time and attention to the subject, who were also interested in agricultural pursuits, and who, by their counsels and experience, were best calculated to serve with zeal and judgment the best interests of the farmer. The evidence of this in the time past is to be found in the following pages ; in the time present, from the fact that the aggregate of farming property held and improved by the twelve Officers and Trustees, taken from actual returns as reported at the last annual meeting of the Society, is probably as great in amount and value, as that of any twelve farmers in the Commonwealth.* It is quite evident, therefore, if their doings do not give satisfaction, it is not from a want of interest in the subject of Agriculture. The Society has received, through the kindness of Henry F. French, Esq., of Exeter, a Treatise " On the History, Cultivation, Composition, and Feeding Pi-operties of ' Mangold Wurzel,' by John Tynan." It has been reprinted for general circulation, in order to call attention in Massachusetts, to this useful root, as an object of field culture. It has likewise reprinted from the Eoyal Agricultural Society's Journal for the present year, a veiy clear and practical Treatise on " Horseshoeing," a subject which, as the writer says, although it " may not legitimately come under the head of Agricul- ture, it is nevertheless so intimately connected with the interests of the Agriculturalist, and has been so wofully neglected by him," that it- is a sufficient reason for attempting to arouse him to a sense of its * Farming property, including wood, pasture and arable land, owned, occupied and improved by the Officers and Trustees, - - acres, 3484 In actual cultivation, --------«< 1020 Farm stock, horses and cattle used or bred for beef, milch or work, number of head, 331 Sheep and swine, -------<<•< 278 IV PREFACE. importance in a pecuniary point of view, by a publication of his views upon it, in a work devoted to Agriculture. There have likewise been added, three Essays, for which prizes have been awarded by the Trustees, on subjects of deep interest, and which are now receiving much attention in all parts of the State, more particularly those upon Agricultural Education, and upon Fairs or Markets. All these articles have an independent paging, in order that each may be complete in itself, and adapted for separate circulation. The future publications of this character will be regularly numbered, so that they may be presei'ved in their proper order and bound in volumes to suit the convenience of the reader. It is proper to state that, in the publication of selected articles and of essays, the Trustees do not intend to be considered as approving every idea or theory contained in them, whether of principle or prac- tice. They do not, however, propose to circulate and give currency to anything upon the subject of Agriculture, which they do not think will be suggestive and useful, and such as will tend to advance its science and practice. It is also proper to add, that the Secretary is solely responsible for the comments contained in the preface, as well as for those which may occasionally be found in the following pages. Boston, December, 1858. THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOE PROMOTING AGRICULTURE The earliest society for the promotion of agriculture in the United States was established in Philadelphia, in the year 1785. The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture was the second institution of the kind, incorporated on the seventh of March, in the year 1792. The following is the Act of Incor- poration : Commonwealth of Massachusetts. In the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and ninety-two. An Act to incorporate and establish a Society by the name of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricidtnre. Whereas, Very great and important advantages may arise to the community from instituting a Society for the purpose of promoting agiiculture, and divers persons having petitioned to this Court to be incorporated into a Society for this laudable purpose : Be it therefore enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives in General Court assembled, by the authority of the same, That the said Petitioners, viz : Samuel Adams, John Avery, Jr., Joseph Barrell, Martin Brimmer, Charles Bulfinch, John Codnian, Edward Cutts, Aaron Dexter, Thomas Durfee, Moses Gill, Christopher Gore, Benjamin Guild, Stephen Hig- ginson, Henry Hill, Samuel Holten, Benjamin Lincoln, John Lowell, Jonathan Mason, Jonathan Mason, jr., Azor Orne, Samuel Phillips, Thomas Russell, Samuel Salisbury, David Sears, James Sullivan, Cotton Tufts, Charles Yaughau, and Thomas Winthrop, together with such others who shall become members thereof, be and they are hereby incorporated into and 1 6 made a body politic and corporate forever, by the name of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the said Corporation be and are hereby declared and made capable in law, of having, holding, purchasing and taking in fee simple, or any less estate, by gift, grant, devise, or otherwise, any lands, tenements, or other estate, real and personal, provided that the annual income of the said real and personal estate shall not exceed the sum of ten thousand pounds ; and also to sell, alien, devise or dispose of the same estate, real and personal, not using the same in trade or commerce. A.7id be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the said Corporation shall have full power and authority to make, have, and use a common seal, and the same to break, alter, and renew at pleasure ; that it shall be capable in law to sue and be sued, plead and be impleaded, answer and be an- swered unto, defend and be defended in all Courts of Record, or other Courts or places whatsoever, in all actions, real, per- sonal, and mixed, and to do and execute, all and singular, other matters and things, that to them shall and may appertain to do. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the said Corporation may make, establish, and put in execution, such Laws and Regulations, as may be necessary to the govern- ment of said Corporation, provided the same shall in no case be repugnant to the Laws and Constitution of this State. And for the well-governing of said Corporation, and the ordering their affairs, they shall have such officers as they shall hereafter from time to time elect and a]3point, and such officers as shall be designated by the Laws and Regulations of the said Corporation for the purpose, shall be capable of exercising such power for the well-governing and ordering the affairs of the said Corpora- tion, and calling and holding such occasional meetings for that purpose, as shall be fixed and determined by the said Laws and Regulations. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the end and design of the institution of the said Society is for the purpose of promoting useful improvements in Agriculture, And be it further enacted, That the place of holding the first meeting of the said Society shall be in the town of Boston ; and that Samuel Adams, Esq., be, and he hereby is authorised and empowered to fix the time for holding the said meeting, and to notify the same to the members of the said Society, by causing the same to be published in one of the Boston newspapers, fourteen days before the time fixed for holding the said meeting. In House oj Representatives, March 7, 1792. This Bill having had three several readings, passed to be enacted. David Cobb, SpeaJcer. In Senate, March 7, 1792. This Bill having had two several readings, passed to be enacted. Samuel Phillips, President. Approved. John Hancock. True Copy. Attest : John Avery, Jr., Secretary. After receiving their Act of Incorporation, the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture held theli- first meeting at the Council Chamber, in Boston, April 19, 1792. There were present at this meeting, Benjamin Guild, Thomas L. Winthrop, John Avery, jr., Samuel Adams, Benjamin Lincoln, and Aaron Dexter. At this meeting, John Avery, jr., was chosen Secretary jyro tern., to record the transactions of the Society.* This meeting was adjourned to Thursday, the 26th of April, to meet at the same place at 11 o'clock, A.M., and the Secretary * Mr. Avery was Secretary of State for Massachusetts, for nearly thirty yeais, continuing in office from the early days of the government until his death, which occurred in 1806, at the age of 66 years. His wife was the daughter of Lieut. Gov. Gushing. John Avery, jr. was the grandson of Rev. John Avery, the first minister settled at Truro, on Cape Cod. Six of his de- scendants, of the same name, of successive generations, have graduated at Harvard College. He had a family of ten children,— one of whom, the widow of the late Isaac Mansfield, is living. John Avery, Esq., of Lowell, from whom these facts were obtained, is his grandson. 8 was requested to notify the members in Saturday's and Thm-s- day's newspapers, to give tlieir punctual attendance. At the next meeting, April 26, were present Charles Vaughan, Aaron Dexter and John Avery, jr. The weather being stormy and but few members present, it v/as voted to adjourn to Thursday, May 3, in the same place at 11 A. M., after the regular notification of the meeting in the newspapers. At this thii'd meeting there were present John Lowell, Aaron Dexter, Christopher Gore, Charles Vaughan, Charles Bulfinch, Thomas L. "Winthrop, John Avery, jr. Without transacting any business on this occasion, the meeting was adjourned to Thursday, May 31, to meet at the stockholders' room, in the office of discount and deposits of the U, S. Bank, in State Street, at 11 A. M. At the meeting of this date. May 31, there were present Azor Orne, Thomas Russell, Moses Gill, Cotton Tufts, Thomas Durfee, Benjamin Lincoln, Charles Vaughan, Charles Bulfinch, ChristojDher Gore, Martin Brimmer, Aaron Dexter, Thomas L. "Winthrop, John Avery, jr., Benjamin Guild. John Avery, jr. was chosen Secretary of the Society. After this it was voted to proceed to the admission of members, who were elected by hand vote. It was then voted that Dr. Tufts, Gen. Lincoln, Judge LoAvell, Mr. Vaughan and Dr. Dexter be a Committee to frame such laws as they should think necessary for the government of the corporation, and report at the next meeting, wliich was appointed to take place on Thui'sday the 14tli of June next, in the Massachusetts Bank in State Street, at 1 1 o'clock, A. M. At this next meeting there were present Thomas Russell, William Seaver, James Warren, Elbridge Gerry, Timothy Newell, Cotton Tufts, Nathaniel Appleton, Fisher Ames, Joseph Russell, Dudley Tyng, Aaron Dexter, Charles Vaughan, Ebe- nezer Wales, Benjamin Guild, Loammi Baldwin, Martin Brim- mer, Joseph Warren, Christopher Gore, Nathaniel Gorhara, Thomas L. Winthrop, Thomas Lee, George Lane, David Wood, Nathaniel Ruggles, Nehemiah Munroe, Benjamin Lincoln, John Avery, jr. The Committee appointed at the last meeting to frame such 9 laws and regulations as they should think necessary for the government of the society, reported as follows : Article 1. There shall be a President, two Vice-Presidents, a E-ecording Secretary, a Corresponding Secretary, a Treasurer, and six Trustees, in addition to the above officers, who shall be Trustees by virtue of their office. This was read and accepted. The other articles came under consideration, and after some debate it was voted that the same Committee who made the above report be a committee to revise and arrange the several articles and to report at the next adjourment. It was then voted to proceed to the choice of officers, as provided in the first ai-ticle. Dr. Dexter and Mr. Brimmer were made a Committee to collect, sort and count the votes, and reported the following officers chosen. Thomas Russell, President. John Lowell, Vice-President. Moses Gill, Vice-President. John Avery, Jr., Recording Secretary. Oliver Smith, Corresponding Secretary. Aaron Dexter, Treasurer. Cotton Tufts, LoAMMi Baldwin, James Bowdoin, Christopher Gore, Charles Yaughan, Martin Brimmer, It was then voted that there be a Committee to make collec- tions of money for the benefit of this society ; but the choice of them was deferred till the next meeting, aj)pointed to take place on Friday, June 22, at 11 o'clock, A. M., at Massachusetts Bank in State Street. On June 22, were present — the President, the Vice-Presi- dents, Samuel Holton, Azor Orne, Thomas Durfee, Cotton Tufts, Timothy Newell, Fisher Ames, Thomas Lee, Loammi Baldwin, Benjamin Guild, Thomas L. Winthrop, David Wood, Charles Vaughan, John Avery, jr. The Committee a23pointed to revise the regulations of the Agricultm-al Society, made the following report : Trustees. 10 Article 1. That there shall be a President, two Vice- Presidents, a Pecording Secretary, a Corresponding Secretary, and a Treasurer, who shall be Trustees ex officio ; in addition to these, six other Trustees shall be chosen from the members at large ; all of whom shall continue in office, until others are elected in their stead. Art. 2. All officers, as well as new members, shall be elected by ballot. The election shall be determined by a ma- jority of votes. Art. 3. There shall be two stated meetings of the society annually, viz. : on the first Wednesday in April and October, the same to be held at 11 o'clock, A. M., at such place as the Trustees shall appoint, of which they shall give notice in one of the Boston news2)apers, at least tliree weeks previous to said meeting. Art. 4. There shall be an annual choice of officers, viz. : at the stated meeting in April, in the choice of whom twenty meinbers shall be necessary to make a quorum ; in the transac- tion of other business thirteen may make a quorum. Art. 5. If at any meeting of the Society or of the Trus- tees, the President and the Vice-Presidents should be absent, the members present may appoint one from among them to preside at such meeting. Art. 6. The President, or in case of his absence, either of the Vice-Presidents, with the advice of the Trustees, may call a special meeting of the Society, or whenever written applica- tion, with reasons assigned therefor, shall be made by any twelve members of the Society to the President and Trustees, they shall call such meeting. Art. 7. The meetings of the Trustees shall be held at such time and place as they shall from time to time agree upon, seven of whom with the presiding member shall make a quorum for the doing of business, except in the case of the election of members. Art. 8. The Tz'ustees shall regulate all the concerns of the Society, during the intervals of its meetings, propose such objects of improvement to the attention of the public, publish such communications and offer premiums in such form and 11 value as they shall think proper, provided the premiums offered do not exceed the funds of the Society, and shall lay before the Society at each of its meetings, a statement of their proceedings and of the communications made to them. Art. 9. The candidate for election shall first be proposed by a member of the Society, and on being balloted for, if the number of votes in favor of such candidate shall amount to a majority of the members present, such person shall be con- sidered as duly elected. Art. 10. The Eecording Secretary shall take minutes of all the votes and proceedings of the Society and of the Trustees, and enter them in separate books, and shall record all such com- munications as the Trustees may direct. Art. 11. The Corresponding Secretary shall write all letters relating to the business of the Society, and answer all such letters to the Society as the Trustees shall direct. Art. 12. The Treasurer shall receive all moneys due or payable to the Society, and all donations that may be made to It, for which he shall give duplicate receipts, one of which shall be lodged with the Recording Secretary, and make a fair record thereof, and from time to time pay out such moneys that may be in the treasury as he shall have orders for from the Trustees, and shall annually and whenever thereto required, render a fair account of all his receipts and payments to the Society, or a committee thereof The Treasurer's accounts shall be kept in dollars and cents, and shall give bonds for the faithful discharge of his duty in such sums as the Trustees shall direct and with such sureties. Art. 13. A Committee shall be chosen annually to audit the Treasurer's accounts, viz. : at the October meeting, and to report thereon at the next April meeting, and the same being accepted shall be entered by the Recording Secretary in his books. Art. 14. In case of the death, resignation, incapacity or removal out of the State of either of the Secretaries, or of the Treasurer, the Trustees shall take charge of the official books, papers and effects belonging to the office that may be vacated and give receipts for the same, which books, papers, &c. they may deliver to some person whom they may appoint to fill up 12 the office until the next meeting of the Society, at which time there shall be a new choice. Art. 15. The present members of the Society, and such as may be elected previous to the April meeting, 1793, shall for the present year, severally pay. into the hands of the Treasurer two dollars, for raising of a fund for carrying into execution the designs of the institution, and thence, afterwards, two dol- lars annually, shall be paid by each member, until otherwise ordered by the Society ; the second year being considered as commencing on the first Wednesday of April, 1793. Akt. 16. A Committee shall be appointed from time to time, severally to solicit and receive subscriptions for raising of a fund for encouraging the noblest of pursuits, the agriculture of our country, the same to be sacredly appropriated to that purpose. The above articles having been considered, paragraph by paragraph, were accepted and adopted as " The Regulations of the Massachusetts Society for promoting Agriculture." A Committee of fifteen members, was then chosen, for the pur- pose of raising a fund for carrying into effect the designs of the in- stitution. Their names are here given : Thompson I. Skinner, Justin Ely, Timothy Newell, Loammi Baldwin, Azor Orne, Samuel Philhps, Charles Vaughan, Moses Gill, Thomas Russell, "William Baylies, James Warren, David Sears, Cotton Tufts, John Lowell, Levi Lincoln. The meeting was then adjourned. The organization of the Society was now completed, and preparations had been made for the commencement of its duties. The names of the original members, and of those who were elected under the corporate act, have all been given, in order that the history of its origin, as taken from the records, may appear complete. It will be seen that the originators of the Society and its earliest members were gentlemen of the highest standing in the country, distinguished for their wealth, their learning, and their public and private virtues, and the nano.es borne upon the first rolls of the Society, are honored and freshly remembered at the present day. The Society originated in State 13 Street. Its earliest meetings for business were held there, and its officers were well known upon " cliange." Wealth as well as knowledge is power ; and men who have united wealth with knowledge, have always been found among those who take the lead in enterprises for the public good. No man understands better than a well educated merchant, the mutual relations of all the great interests of the country, and their dependence on each other. He knows that a flourishing commerce depends upon a prosperous agriculture, and that it always must be the principal source of national Avealth, Hence the earliest enter- prises for the promotion of agriculture, have originated with enlightened merchants, who comprehended its advantages to the nation, and who possessed the pecuniary ability to carry out their liberal designs. These views will explain why the oldest Agricultural Society in the Commonwealth, should have been founded by men who transacted business in State Street, and why the foremost promoters of similar enterprises have been generally connected with commerce. A.D., 1792. The first regular meeting of the Trustees after the organiza- tion in June, did not take place until August 3, and was held at the house of Hon. Thomas Russell, the President. At that meeting, a vote was passed, ordering the following publication to be made in the next Thursday's " Independent Chronicle." " In all countries it has been considered as an object of the first importance to promote agriculture, and in many of them, the institution of societies for that purpose, has been attended with great and happy effects ; there is no country in the world in which there is a greater field for improvement than America. Massachusetts, and several other States of the Union, have adopted similar sentiments in regard to this great object ; and agreeable to an Act of Incorporation passed the Legislature of 2 14 this Commonwealth, at their Session in March last, the Members of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, have met, and elected their officers, as follows : * — " They have also chosen a Committee to solicit subscriptions to raise a fund to be distributed in Premiums for the encourage- ment of useful discoveries and improvements. This Committee reside in different parts of the State. " The Trustees have agreed to meet once in each month, for the purpose of receiving communications, and promoting the purposes of the institution. It is greatly to be desired that the community at large, and especially the Members of the Society, would engage in earnest in this business ; would aid its funds, and make communications of any discoveries they may deem useful, with freedom ; the officers of the Society pledge them- selves to pay every attention in their power to the great end in- tended. Among other measures, they recommend that the members in different parts of the State, would meet at stated times, in places convenient to themselves, and invite the aid of others who are desirous of forwarding improvements in agricul- ture, and that they would from time to time transmit to the Trustees, any information they may think useful." It will be seen, that almost at the outset, the Trustees com- menced their monthly meetings, which have continued to the present day ; and the closing sentence of the above communi- cation to the " Chronicle," foreshadows what has since taken place, the formation of separate associations for similar objects, throughout the State. Among the communications received, and read at this meeting, was : " A Letter from the Hon. Cotton Tufts, inclosing a communication from Justin Ely, Esq., of West Springfield, respecting the method of raising hemp, as practiced by many of the farmers in the State of New York." At the next meeting, which was held in September following, several communications were read. The first was a Pamphlet, containing observations on the diseases, defects and injuries at- tending all kinds of fruit trees, and forest trees, with an account of a particular method of cure, invented and practiced by Wil- * The names have already been given. 15 liam Forsyth, Gardener to the King of Great Britain. It was presented to the Society by Mr. John Jenks, of Salem. A Committee was appointed to make such extracts from com- munications on the subject of Agriculture, and to arrange such information for publication as may occur. Dr. Smith, Mr. Vaughan and Mr. Gore, constituted tliis Committee. This was the commencement of the system of circulating useful in- formation, and it extended through many volumes. The first semi-annual meeting of the Society, since the adop- tion of its constitution, took place on the third day of October. A large addition was made to the members of the Society, and among others, the celebrated agricultural author, Arthur Young, was chosen an honorary member. At this meeting, it was voted, " That it shall be lawful for the Trustees to elect such persons to be members of this Society, as they think proper, and that this vote be made an Article in the Institution of the Society. Also, that that part of the 7th article, which renders seven necessary to be a quorum, be repealed, and in future, five only shall be necessary." Also, " That an application be made to the General Assembly request- ing theu' aid for the promotion of the objects of the Society." A Pamphlet, containing Papers and Letters on Agriculture, recommended to the attention of farmers, by the Agricultural Society of Canada, transmitted by Thomas A. Coffin, Esq., and transmitted by the Corresponding Secretary, Avas read. At the meeting of the Trustees, on the following November, the Committee for obtaining subscriptions in aid of the Society, reported the following result : Thomas Russell, Three hundred pounds, in six per cent, stock. Christopher Gore, Two shares in the Bank of the United States. David Sears, Two hundred dollars, tlii'ee per cent. U. S. Stock. Charles Vaughan, One hundred dollars, six per cent. U. S. Stock. Samuel Elliot, One hundred dollars. John Codman, Fifty dollars, Joseph Blake, Twenty -five dollars. 16 James Tisdale, Twenty-five dollars. Kussell Sturgis, Twenty dollars. Joseph Cooledge, Twenty-five dollars. Joseph Eussell, Twenty-five dollars. Joseph Burrell, Two hundred dollars. In three per cent, stock. Jeremiah Allen, Ten dollars. Samuel W. Pomroy, One hundred dollars. John Coffin Jones, Eighty-three dollars. In three per cent, stock. James Bowdoln, The Interest of £400, for five years, at six per cent. William Wetmore, Two hundred dollars. All these sums, or the Interest upon the same, were to be ap- propriated as the Trustees should du-ect. The President having offered to present to the Society a Com- mon Seal, as expressed In the Act of Incorporation, a Commit- tee was appointed to determine what this device should be. At the next meeting, in accordance with the report of the Com- mittee, the following plan was adopted : — A plough should be a part of the device, with a pair of oxen, connected by a chain to the same. A stone wall, and a qvilck fence, with a gate ; the field beyond the gate, with sheep and cattle ; the motto — Source of Wealth : filled upon the garter — around the mar- gin of the Seal, Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul- ture, incorporated 1792. At this meeting, a letter was received from Thomas Lee, In- closing the sum of one hundred dollars, for the use of the So- ciety. A vote was passed that the names of gentlemen who shall be proposed as members of the Society, shall stand one month before the balloting. A letter was read from a gentle- man, styling liimself " A New Hampshire Farmer," dated Dec. 26, 1792, describing a cart, constructed upon a new principle, for the loading of empty barrels, and convenient for hay. At the meeting of the Trustees in January 1793, the Com- mittee appointed in November previous, reported a form of petition to the General Court for aid. From this petition, which Is an elaborate argument In favor of affording legislative en- couragement to agriculture, one extract will suffice. " AgrI- culture being the basis of those arts which sustain and embel- lish life, none, we conceive, can more properly receive the pro- tection of government, none which lays a higher claim upon the patronage arising from the disposition of the Legislature to pro- mote the best welfere of the State." A letter was received from Thomas Lee, inclosing an addi- tional check for one hundred dollars, as a donation to the Society. At the meeting held on March 11, it was voted that a pre- mium of fifty dollar's in value be granted to the person who shall, on or before the first day of July, 1795, give the most satisfactory account of the Natui'al History of Canker Worms. Also, a premium of one hundred dollars, to the person who shall invent the most effectual and the cheapest method of de- stroying these insects. A Committee Avas likewise appointed to consider, and report the proper objects for premiums, together with the Rules and Eegulations by which claims therefor shall be ascertained, and the following articles were submitted to them for consideration : The object of manures, and a premium for the best specimen of marl. The culture of wheat. For the largest quantity of beef upon the fewest number of acres. The greatest stock upon the least quantity of land. The best vegetable food, other than hay, for the winter season. The largest quantity, and the best quality of wool from the fewest number of sheep, not less than For butter, cheese, flax, and salted provisions. For the best process of making cider. The improvement of wild land. The best method of manufacturing maple sugar. The best method of raising trees. At the meeting of the Trustees, in April, this Committee re- ported for premiums, all the subjects thus referred to them, giving all the conditions in detail. 18 The following resolution was passed at this meeting : " Whereas the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul- ture expects that many persons will engage in Agricultural ex- periments, who would be more gratified by the most honorable testimony of their merit, than it is in the power of the Soci- ety to confer by pecuniary rewards, therefore, voted, that a medal of gold, that shall be equal to three guineas, emblematically engraved, called the Society's Gold Medal, be given to them, if they prefer the same. A. D., 1793. Trustees. The Annual Meeting of the Society this year, was held at the Branch Bank of the United States. The following officers were chosen for the year : Thomas Russell, President. John Lowell, Vice-President. Moses Gill, Vice-President. John Avery, Jr., Recording Secretary. Oliver Smith, Corresponding Secretary, Aaron Dexter, Treasurer. James Bowdoin, LoAMMi Baldwin, Martin Brimmer, Christopher Gore, Samuel Parker, Charles Vaughan, No other business was transacted, except the appointment of a Committee to audit the accounts of the Treasurer. It may be well to remark here, that this duty has up to the present day been regularly performed, and also that no bills or demands over $10, are ever paid by the Treasurer, without a special vote of the Trustees upon each particular claim. At the meeting of the Trustees in June, the Committee ap- pointed to collect materials for publication, laid before the Trustees a Pamphlet containing the Laws and Regulations, &c., names of the present officers and members, list of premiums 19 offered, with some interesting extracts from foreign and domestic publications, which were accepted and ordered to be printed. It was then voted that one Pamphlet be sent to each member, and one to each of the honorary members, and that the Corre- sponding Secretary be requested to distribute them ; also one to every clergyman of the Commonwealth, with a circular letter to be signed by the President and countersigned by the Secre- tary ; and that three hundred of the Pamphlets be sold at the prime cost, and be left at Mr. Isaiah Thomas's book-store, in Worcester, for this purpose. At tliis period t*here was scarcely a meeting of the Trustees, at which there were not communications read in relation to the canker-worm ; and we are led to infer that this insect was a more severe pest even in that day than it is at present, bad as it now seems to be. A. D., 1794. At the meeting of the Trustees in January, 1794, a letter was received from Dudley Atkins Tyng, Esq., with a plan for setting on foot a subordinate society for promoting agriculture in the county of Middlesex, which was cordially responded to. At the February meeting a Committee was appointed to con- sider the expediency of procuring a piece of ground for the purpose of agricultural experiments. Among other communica- tions received at this time, was a comprehensive one from Mr. Calvin Bullock, upon the rise and progress of the canker-worms, the method of making majole sugar, tlie preservation of ex- hausted trees, the revival of a barked apple-tree, and a philo- sophical prevention of smoky chimneys. At the general meeting of the Society this year, (Oct. 1794,) Dr. Tufts presented a species of marl, which was placed in the hands of a Committee, consisting of Dr. Tufts, Dr. Dexter, and Mr. Peck, to make experiments to ascertain its real quality, and report. The result of their observations was given in a report to the Society at its next semi-amiual meeting. 20 A. D., 1795. The officers and trustees of the Society of the last year were re-elected for the ensuing year. The number ojf members having greatly increased, it was voted at the annual meeting, that fifteen members should constitute a quorum, for choice of officers. At the semi-annvial meeting, in October, it was voted to hold the annual meeting in June, in order that members from the country who attend the General Court might be present. Another pamphlet, containing prize essays and other agricul- tural information was published tliis year. Several communica- tions and essays were presented to the Trustees, relating to subjects for which premiums had been offered. The premium of fifty dollars was awarded to the Kev. Mr. Whitney, of Shirley, for his Essay on Compost Manures ; and the Secretary was ordered to publish it in all the newspapers ; also an Essay on the same subject, for which a second premium of thirty dollars was awarded to Mr. Jesse Bannister of Brook- field. The premium of fifty dollars for an Essay on Canker- worms, was adjudged to WiUiam Dandiidge Peck, of Kittery, and one of twenty-five dollars to Eev. Jonathan Newhall, of Stowe ; also a premium of twenty-five dollars on the best and most expeditious method of destroying brush without ploughing, to a gentleman whose signature was "Farmer." A letter was communicated, from Newman Bruchenberg, gi/ing an account, and accompanied with a sample of a new species of wheat, with an Essay on the culture of the same, by John Taylor. The Society voted to procure twenty bushels of this wheat for the use of the Society, and to publish the Essay on its culture in one or more of the Boston newspapers. The sample of wheat which was sent by Mr. Bruchenberg was distributed in various portions among several of the mem- bers. At another meeting a letter was received from Thomas Austin Coffin, Esq., of Quebec, to the Secretary, informing him that he had forwarded half a barrel of Canadian wheat, to be divided among the members of the Society. This was also distributed amonsr them in a similar manner. Trustees. 21 A. D., 179G. The officers of the Society for this year, were — John Lowell, President. Moses Gill, Vice-President. Joseph Russell, Second Vice-President. John Avery, Jr., Recording Secretary. Oliver Smith, Corresponding Secretary. Aaron Dexter, Treasurer. Martin Brimmer, George Cabot, John Codman, Rev. Mr. Parker, Charles Vaughan, Theodore Lyman, The time of the stated meetings of the Society was changed to the second Wednesday in February, and the second Wednes- day in June, at the hitter of which, the officers were to be chosen. The annual assessment of two dollars upon each member was reduced to one dollar. Dr. Smith, the Corre- sponding Secretary, died this year, and his funeral was attended by the Society. New premiums were offered for various objects connected with agriculture, and many valuable communications were offered, some of Avhich were published in the transactions. It was also voted to make an application to the Legislature, in behalf of the Society, to defray the expenses of printing such papers as the Society shall think calculated to promote agri- cultural knowledge ; and that those who are entitled to receive the journals and acts of the Legislature, and each member of this Society, be furnished with a copy. At a meeting of the Trustees it was voted that the Society's gold medal have, for its device, the seal of the Society on one • side, and engraved on the reverse these words^— Presented to (A B ,) 1796. A letter was read from Rev. Jonathan Newhall, of Stow, to whom the gold medal had been awarded, requesting the Trus- tees, if they thought proper, to be pleased to perpetuate their generosity by some useful piece of plate, to the value of the 3 22 medal, and it was agreed to comply with his request, and in the place of the medal a silver cup was presented to him. The Society's gold medal was awarded to Eev. Mr. Keuhen Holcomh, of Sterling, for a premium essay on the cultivation of wheat, and a premium for an essay on improving wild land to Mr. Frederick Plympton, of Sturbridge. A letter was afterwards received from Eev. Mr. Holcomb, dated Nov. 10, 1796, '' expressive of the high esteem he takes of the approbation of the Trustees of the Agricultural Society for their favorable reception of his essay on the culture of wheat, and that he considers its principal value to consist in its being the expression of that benevolence which gave rise to then- institution, and if it was their pleasure, that instead of the gold ; medal, a silver sugar . bowl would be more agreeable to him, provided the value of a decent one should not exceed that of the gold medal voted him." The Trustees accordingly voted to accede to his request. At the March meeting, 1797, Dr. Dexter, Eev. Dr. Parker, and Charles Vaughan, Esq., were appointed a committee to form a table of the times of the leafing and blossoming of forest trees and slai'ubs, and of the leafing, blossoming and ripening of fruit trees and plants ; and to get such a number printed as they shall judge proper, and transmit them to such persons as they shall think capable of making observations upon the subject. Six hundred of these were afterwards printed, and were trans- mitted to each member of the General Court, and to others of scientific turn of mind. A. D., 1797. The place of Dr. Smith, deceased, was supplied at the June meeting of the Society by the choice of Jonathan Mason, Esq., of Boston, as Corresponding Secretary. The records of this year show a constant attention, on the part of the Trustees, to the objects of the Society, more particularly in obtaining and disseminating agricultural knowledge. The Society havnig 23 accumulated by gift and purchase, a considerable number of works on agriculture, a regular library was formed, the Cor- responding Secretary was appointed librarian, and rules were adopted for using the books. As a specimen of the subjects upon which inquiries were made and information obtained, several communications might be named, which were handed to the Trustees from Hon. Mr. Bundey, of Nova Scotia, viz., " on the advantage of hoeing turnips ; an experiment to determine the most profitable sort of sets, in planting potatoes ; on the benefit of transplanting apple trees ; the process and result of an experiment for ascertaining whether or not it is advantageous to cut potatoes designed for seed." A communication was also received from William Kussell, Esq., of Middletown, Conn., " on the success of an experiment (made by him) upon a small field of white wheat," and another from Mr. Joseph Cooper, of Cooperstown, N. J., upon the Hessian Fly. Also observations of Mr. Benjamin Vaughan, of Kennebec, " on preparing woodlands for cultivation, as prac- tised in the vicinity of the Kennebec River." A. D., 1798. The only change made this year in the Board of Officers was the choice of Eev. John Thornton Kirkland, as Corresponding Secretary, in the place of Jonathan Mason. At the annual meeting it was voted to offer a premium, the amount of which is not stated, " to the person who shall ascertain by accurate analysis the constituent parts of several fertile soils respect- ively, and in lilce manner the parts of several poor soils, and thus shall discover the defects of the latter, and shall show by actual experiment how the said defects may be remedied, by the addition of earths or other ingredients which may be foimd in the country, and in a manner that may be practised by coiu- mon farmers. And if it shall appear to the satisfaction of the Trustees, that upon an extensive practice, the improvement of 24 the 13001- soil would be more than equivalent to the expense of the improvement, the addition of one hundred dollars." Other premiums were offered for various objects, in the coui'se of the year, but this is cited for the purpose of showing how eminently practical and far-seeing were the aims of the Society, at this early period. Another important subject occupied the attention of the Trustees, at this time, which has not since been neglected. This was the introduction of seeds, of various kinds, as well as varie- ties, new to New England. Votes like the following, are fre- quent upon the records of the Society : Voted, That Dr. Dexter be requested to write to William Eussell, Esq., to procure and send, by the first convenient op- portunity, twenty bushels of Early Virginia Wheat. Voted, That the Corresponding Secretary be requested to write to Mr. Wilham Strickland, in England, requesting him to send several kinds of potatoes, such as the President shall think proper, and to draw upon Mr. Lane for the expense. These seeds were distributed as generally as possible through- out the State. Communications were constantly received in competition for the premiums already offered, which were always referred to a Committee to report upon their merits, and if en- titled to a premium, they were usually printed in the papers of the day, or placed in the hands of the publishing committee for the purpose of being printed in their transactions. Every effort was made in this way, to bring out information upon use- ful topics ; and the Trustees themselves, were each called uj)on to furnish one article, " such as may be considered worthy of pub- licity," to be placed in the hands of the Publishing Committee. Many of these will appear in the re -publication of a portion of the Society's transactions. 25 A. D., 1799. The only change in the Board of Officers and Trustees, was the election of Thomas L. Winthroj), Esq., in the place of Charles Vaughan, Esq. An agricultural society was this year established at Sturbridge, the formation of which was announced by a letter from Dr. Babbit, and asking the advice of the Trustees, as to what books might be useful to the new society. The Corresponding Sec- retary was directed to send to Dr. Babbit such books as had been printed by the Society, and to loan him such others as might be wanted to promote the objects of the Society ; hke- wise, to assure him " that this Society would be happy to co-op- erate with them, in any matter that will promote the object of their institution." The Corresponding Secretary was also di- rected to write to the Secretary of the Western Middlesex Agri- cultural Society, enclosing a number of the publications of this Society, and expressing its desire to co-operate with them by giving premiums for improvements, and publishing any of their valuable communications. A list of questions similar to those now issued by the U. S. Patent Office, was printed this year, and sent to various j)arties throughout the State for answer. The number of queries amounted to forty-nine. Twelve hundred copies were printed and distributed, with an explanatory circular letter, signed by the President. Mr. Lowell, in the concluding part of his letter, says : " The Society possesses means of causing useful information to be published and diifused, and to reward, in some degree, the efforts of the ingenious and industrious in any new attempts of im- provement, which they have intrusted the Trustees with the application of Our central situation, and nearness to each other, • give us the advantage of frequently meeting, and receiving in- formation. We do not, however, affect to disguise that our use- fulness is, and will be, very much circumscribed Avithout the aid of the practical farmer, and that it is only as an . organ of infor- mation, that we can be extensively of importance." It was this great advantage of frequent meetings, kept up to 26 this day, that undoubtedly induced the members of the Society to elect Trustees residing in or near Boston. There are but few farmers who can afford to devote twelve days in the year to meet- ings, and to give the time necessary to perform other duties de- volving upon them, added to the expenses of travelling. Wheat from Rio Janeiro, and potatoes from England, were distributed this year among the members. Trustees. A. D., 1800. Several changes in the Board took place this year. They are given as follows : John Lowell, President. Joseph Russetx, Vice-President. Aaron Dexter, Second Vice-President. John Avery, Jr., Recording Secretary. John T. Kirkland, Corresponding Secretary. Thomas L. Winthrop, Treasurer. Martin Brimmer, George Cabot, Theodore Lyman, Samuel Parker, Fisher Ames, John Warren, Mr. Cabot communicated a description and a model of a mould- board plough, extracted from a letter from Mr. Jefferson to Sh John Sinclair, President of the Board of Agricultui-e at London. Mr. Elias Haskett Derby presented to the Trustees two bags of winter wheat, of excellent quality, from Naples. Various communications in reply to chcular and questions, were received. A second printed list of questions, amounting to fifty, was printed and circulated among the farmers in the State. The Committee appointed the previous year, on several com- munications upon various subjects, from a gentleman who styled himself a farmer, reported " That they had with attention con- 21 sidered the several matters, and found nothing nnnsual in them ; that our pubhcations contained more information upon the sub- ject of manures, than his letter T^ o. 7 ; that liis mode of making drains has not been published by the Trustees, but is contained in most of the late European books on that subject, and must in their nature be merely temjjorary. The Committee could not comprehend what he meant by the Slug -worm ; but it had been a common practice, and well known to all our good farmers, that plowing their land in the autumn will have the best ten- dency to destroy any kind of worm. That his mode of plant- ing forest trees, was as well kown here as in the Jerseys, there- fore, the Committee were of the opinion that the gentleman was not entitled to a premium." A communication on the subject of raising oaks and other forest trees from seed, by a gentleman whose signature is Z. was received, and it appearing that the author had raised near four thousand forest trees from the seed, three or four years old, it was voted that the author was entitled to the premium offered by the Trustees in 1798, provided the facts were properly sub- stantiated. This premium was finally adjudged and paid over to Col. Robert Dodge, of Hamilton, to whom the signature of Z. belonged. A few bushels of genuine Siberian Wheat, imported by Gorham Parsons, was presented by him to the Society for dis- tribution. A machine for solving seed was exhibited to the Trustees for their inspection, and it was voted that the Corresponding Secre- tarv be authorized to draw upon the Treasurer of this Society for five dollars to pay Mr. Kent for said machine, and that it be lodged with the Corresponding Secretary. 28 A. D., 1801. / There was no change m the Board of Officers this year. A communication with the signature of Chelsea was pre- sented to the Trustees, suggesting " whether if a fair was held on Cambridge Common in May and again in October, and small bounties given for certain articles mentioned, it would not be a spur to our brother farmers ? " This is the earliest suggestion found in relation to fairs, and the subject received much attention from time to time. The plan was not to have shows merely, but likewise that they should be stated and open markets for the sale of agricultiu'al \ products, A vote was passed this year subscribing five hundred dollars for the establishment of a professorship of Natural History at Cambridge, and a Committee was appointed to procure subscrip- tions for its permanent endowment and for the support of a Bo- tanic Garden. This was the first movement which was made in this direction, and it ended in the establishment and endow- ment of the Professorship wdth the Botanic Garden as it noAv is. This year witnessed the publication of the first of a regular series of papers, original and selected, on Agriculture. It con- tained a list of premiums offered by the Trustees, which, to- gether with the preface, is worthy of notice, as representing the wants and deficiencies of those days, which are still far from be- ing remedied. It is therefore inserted at length. Preface. To the Farmers of Massachusetts. In presenting- you with the following Papers, the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, feel a sensible regret, that they do not comprise more original matter. After their repeated invitations to those who are engaged in agricultural pursuits to communicate to them " every hint, observation and experiment, relating to husbandry," they flattered themselves, that they should have been furnished with abundant matter for the present volume. They, however, are much indebted to those gentlemen, whose communications are contained in the subsequent papers. To supply the deficiency of original information, they have had recourse to such printed works, as, in their opinion, will furnish the industrious farmer, with many hints for experiments, which may prove highly advan- tageous. 29' Among the papers that are original and American, the letter from Mr. Cooper is of the utmost importance. It has long been thought, that an exchange of seed from the south to the north, or from north to south, was absolutely necessary to insure a good crop. But from the experiments of that gentleman it clearly appears, that this neces- sity is superseded by a proper selection of the earliest, strongest and most flourishing stalks from which the seed for corn, wheat, rye, &;c. should be taken, and the fairest and best favored roots. The Trus- tees, therefore, recommend an attentive perusal of that communication to every agriculturist. An attention to the preservation of fruit trees, and particularly to the culture and management of orchards, is, at the present period, of the utmost consequence to the fruiterer and manufacturer of that wholesome and agreeable liquor,* which has become so necessary to the people of New England. If any of the papers in the following selection have a tendency to excite the public attention to this impor- tant object, the Trustees will be highly gratified. But of all the subjects that require the serious consideration of the practical farmer, manures, and their proper application to different soils, are among the first. Upon this subject a proper attention has not yet been bestowed, though of primary importance, and upon which, in a great measure, in our climate and soil, the success of the husbandman depends. Impressed with this idea, the Trustees have concluded that they could not furnish their readers with a more acceptable and instructive entertainment, than is contained in the copious' extracts from a late report, presented by the Board of Agriculture in England, to our Society. It contains information from what various materials manures may be collected, their application to different soils, and the jirobable success arising from such judicious management. They cannot for- bear to enforce upon every agricultural man a careful perusal of those extracts. In respect to the premiums now offered, they beg leave to observe, that inasmuch as the canker-worm has in some places made its appearance again, it is judged propei' to continue the premium for the most effectual and cheap method for its destruction, and also for that of the slug- worm. The great consumption of wood and timber beyond the annual growth, must, in the settled parts of our country, soon leave us desti- tute of both, unless remedied by propagation, and must excite the serious concern of every friend to the public prosperity. To induce the farmer to cultivate forest trees, and particularly the oak, the Trustees have thought it expedient to offer a premium for raising, from the seed, such forest trees as are deemed the most useful ; and they hope to see the time when no man will cut a tree from his land without planting two in its stead, Should any thing contained in this publication prove beneficial to the interests of agriculture, or any way tend to promote that impor- tant science, the Trustees will think themselves well rewarded for thoir trouble. * Cider. 30 Premiums offered by the Trustees of the 3Iassachusetts Society for promoting Agriculture. 1st. To the person who shall discover an effectual and cheap method of destroying the Canker-worm, and give evidence thereof, to the satisfaction of the Trustees, on or before the 1st day of October, 1803, a premium of one hundred dollars, or the Society's gold medal. 2d. And a Premium of one hundred dollars, or the Society's gold medal, to the person wlio shall, on or before the 1st day of December, 1803, discover an effectual, and the cheapest method of destroying the Slug-worm, and give evidence thereof to the satisfaction of the Trustees. ?>d. An annual Premium of thirty dollars for five yeai's, to the person who shall introduce into the State of Massachusetts, for the purpose of propagation, a ram or ewe of a breed superior to any now in the State ; if from a foreign country, ffty dollars. Claims to be presented on or before 1st of October annually. 4:th. To the person who shall pi-oduce the largest quantity of wool, meat and tallow, from the smallest number of sheep, not less than one score, raised on his own farm, a premium of thirty dollars, to be claimed on or before the 1st day of August, 1804. bth. To the person who shall, in one year, by a method new and useful, or that shall be an improvement on the methods already prac- tised, make the greatest quantity of compost manure in proportion to the expense, to be of a good quality, and composed of materials com- mon to most farms ; the quantity to be at least two hundred tons, and the claim to be accompanied Avith a description of the yard or place, and the mode in which the same is made, a premium of ffty dollars, or the Society's gold medal. And for tlie next greatest quantity, being not less than one hundred tons, thirty dollars. Claims to be presented previous to the 1st of August, 1803. &th. To the person who shall shew, by actual experiment, on not less than two acres, to the satisfaction of the Trustees, a new or improved, being the best and cheapest method, of introducing fine grass, fit for hay or pasture, into low fresh meadows, now producing coarse wild grass, or bushes, a premium of thirty dollars. Claims to be presented before the 1st November, 1804. 7th. To the person who shall discover any species of grass, not commonly cultivated or known, of a quality for the food of neat cattle or horses, equal or superior to those now in use, ffty dollars. Claims to be presented on or before the 1st October, 1804. 8^/^. To the person who shall exhibit distinct specimens of the greatest variety of grasses in general use, and specify, to the satisfac- tion of the Trustees, their respective qualities, productiveness and usefulness as food for different kinds of animals, a Premium of ffty dollars, to be chiimed on or before the 1st October, 1803. Qth. To the person Avho shall produce from seed, the best growth of thrifty trees, not less than 600 in the whole, and in the proportion of 2400 to the acre, of any of the following kinds of forest trees, viz. oak, ash, elm, sugar maple, beech, black or yellow birch, chestnut, 31 walnut or hickory, twenty-five dollars ; if all of oak, fifty dollars. Claim to be made on or before the 1st October, 1806. 10th. To the person who shall ascertain, by accurate analysis, the constituent parts of several fertile soils respectively, and in like manner the parts of several poor soils, and thus shall discover the defects of the latter ; and shall show, by actual experiments, how the said defects may be remedied by the addition of earths or other ingre- dients, which abound in the country, and in a manner that may be practised by common farmers, _y?/i;_y dollars. And if it shall appear to the satisfaction of the Trustees that, upon an extensive practice, the improvement of the poor soil would be more than equivalent to the Expense of the improvement, the addition of one hundred dollars. A minute description of the several soils, and all the circumstances attending the processes, cultivation and results, will be required. Claims to be made on or before November, 1804. 11th. It is required that the Communications, for which the fore- going Premiums are offered, be accompanied with proper certificates from the Selectmen, Magistrates or Clergymen of the vicinity, or other vouchers, to the satisfaction of the Trustees ; that they be deliv- ered in without names, or any intimation to whom they belong ; that they be severally marked in such manner as each claimant shall think fit ; the claimant sending also a paper, sealed up, having on the outside a corresponding mark, and on the inside his name and address. J^y order ofi the Trustees. JOHN AVERY, Secretary. A. D., 1802. The same Board of Officers was continued this year. A letter was received from CoL Humphries, late Minister to the Court of Spain, on the Merino Breed of Sheep, with a specimen of their wool, and remarks on the importance of propagating said sheep in the Northern and Eastern States. The letter mentioned that Col. Humphries had imported into Con- necticut seventy-five ewes and twenty-five rams. The subject was referred to a committee consisting of Mr. Lyman, Mr. Cabot and Dr. Dexter, to consider the same and report thereon. The introduction of Meiino Sheep may be dated from this time, and so important it seemed, that at the next meeting of the Trustees, after Col. Humphries' letter was received, the question was raised whether Col. Humphries should not receive 32 the gold medal, for his services, and at the following meeting it was awarded to him, not to exceed fifty dollars in value. A pre- mium had already been offered to the person who should intro- duce Merino Sheep into the country, and the amount paid in this way was very considerable. The first claimant for this pre- mium was Seth Adams, for the importation of two Sheep, of the Merino breed, from France. The premiums offered by the Trustees, published in a pam- phlet in the year 1801, were taken into consideration, and it was voted that the articles Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, be reprinted in the publication which was about to be made. An amendment was proposed in the od article, as follows, viz. : An annual premium of $30, for each year previous to 1806, to the person who shall introduce into the State of Massachusetts, for the purpose of propagation, a ram or ewe, of a breed supe- rior to any in the State at the time they are introduced ; if from a foreign country, the premium should be $50. The Corresponding Secretary informed the Trustees that, " after a very great exertion, he had procured a few copies of the publications of this Society, and had them bound." This fact shows how readily they had gone into general circulation and use. A. D., 1803. There was no change in the Officers of the Society. A letter was received from Mr. Peter Halloway, resjjecting the maldng of cider, and several suggestions in regard to the expediency and importance of importing certain grains fi-om Europe ; and it was voted that the Corresponding Secretary be requested to return an answer to Mr. Halloway, and to inform him of the pleasure afforded to the Trustees by his attention to the subject of his communication, and to transmit him one of the late publications of the Society. A Committee, consisting of Hon. George Cabot, Pr. Aaron Dexter, and Rev. Dr. Kirkland, was appointed to collect mate- rials for publication. 33 Theodore Lyman was desired to import from England, for distribution, one hundred pounds of foxtail grass. A letter was received from Ward Nicholas Boylston, in rela- tion to the rose-bug, and the method of destroying it. A Committee was appointed, at the request of Mr. Joseph Swazey, of Newburyport, to examine a Patent Machine for shel- ling Indian Corn, on a new and improved method. A premium was offered *'to the person who shall, by actual experiment, on a quantity not less than half a ton, show the best method of curing clover hay with salt, regard being had to the quality of the hay, the saving of labor, and the shortness of time between cutting it, and packing it in the mow." A summary of observations made on the leafing and flowering of trees near Boston, and on the first specimens of ripe fruit and esculents, was presented by James Winthrop, Esq., of Cam- bridge. The Committee on Publications reported that they had pre- pared, and put into the hands of the j^rinter, materials for a book, consisting of communications to the Society, and selections from a variety of printed works, on Agriculture. The articles in this number are varied, and most of them short, as will be seen by the following Table of Contents. Mr. Benjamin Adams, on cultivating Potatoes 9 Letter on the same subject, by Joseph Barrel!, Esq 12 Tables noting the progress of vegetation, by James Win- throp, Esq 15 On Soils and Manures 21 On Change of Seed 26 Analysis of Lime and Marl 32 Culture of Hemp 35 Preparation of Cheese in England 44. Potatoes food for Cattle 49 Hints on Felling Trees 51 Preventative of Flies destroying Turnips 53 Clover Harvest and Salting Hay ib. Rev. Asa Packard's letter on the same 55 Samuel W. Pomei'oy's letter on the same 57 Treasurer's Accounts • ... 60 Officers of the Society C3 34 The Preface is worthy of notice in a liistorj of agricultural progress, and is therefore inserted. Preface. The Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for promoting Agricul- ture offer the pubhc their collection of papers for 1804, being the 7th number of their publications. The pamphlet consists of a few origi- nal communications, believed interesting and seasonable, and of selec- tions from foreign Avorks adapted to the use of cultivation in this country. It wiU be remembered that the object and duty of the Board is to convey to practical farmers through the press, the agricultural information which they receive or learn from others. Whilst on this account, they are not responsible for the accuracy of every statement or the justness of every opinion contained in their books, they mean to insert nothing, which is not recommended by the appearance of novelty, ingenuity or utility. They are satisfied the series of papers, which they have laid before the public, including the present pam- phlet, will be found to contain, not only some highly interesting arti- cles of natural history, but valuable hints and facts respecting several of the leading parts of husbandry. Though in many instances the methods of cultivation in use may be the best which, considering the capital of the farmer, the comparative value of labour and land, and other circumstances, can be adopted, yet in other instances much room exists for improvement. It cannot be doubted that information conveyed in printed Avorks may be subservient to the correction of erroi's in opinion and practice, and to the diffusion of good modes of culture. Those who take the trouble to prepare this publication are aware, that in this subject theory is good for nothing till sanctioned and con- firmed by experience ; that old modes of husbandry ought to be held in respect and changed with caution and moderation,* and that^arTO- ing hy books merely, is justly derided. At the same time they are convinced that Agriculture derives aid from the discoveries and labours of the philosopher, the naturalist and the chemist ; that prin- ciples grow out of practice ; and that inquii-y is the road to improve- ment. They have no more respect for a bigoted attachment to inju- dicious customs, than for a rash spirit of innovation ; nor can they ascribe wisdom or modesty to those, who think their own practice comprises all that is or can be known, and refuse to read printed documents, which relate the observations and experiments of others. The different results of the experiments on potatoes, as related in the two first papers of this collection, will naturally excite attention, and probably put those, who are not satisfied about planting large or small potatoes, eyes, or cuttings, upon further trials of the different methods. * " Nor thou the rules, our fathers taught, despise, Sires by long practice and tradition wise." yoTHEEY's Trans. Geokgics, b. i. v, 11.5, 116. 35 The observations on the progress of vegetation, in the next paper, comprise a part of natural history, whicli is evidently applicable to the use of agriculture. A sufficient number of notices of this kind would afford the best sort of almanac for regulating seed time. It is hoped gentlemen in various parts of the country will frame and lill up similar tables. Where the several trees, shrubs and plants, here mentioned are wanting, they may be supplied by other kinds. The field or the wood will compensate the deficiency of the garden. We publish a new confirmation and illustration of Mr. Cooper's doctrine and practice, respecting seeds, as related in a letter of his in a former number, and it is to be wished that every farmer will en- deavour to test and be able to verify them for himself. The sketch of soils and manures must be useful to all who would have the habit of discriminating the several species of each, and adapting culture accordingly ; and the analysis of lime and marl requires so much knowledge of cliemisty only as can be learned and applied by the common farmer. The treatise on the culture and preparation of hemp being intended for the inhabitants of Canada, is of course applicable to our instruction. The efficacy of salt in curing clover is proposed to the serious attention, and the careful experiments of farmers. The documents here published will show how much reason there is to expect it will be found highly beneficial ; and the premium offered by the Trustees, is added to other inducements, for giving it further trials. The files of the Society contain a number of sets of answei's to Agricultural Questions sent out by the Trustees some yeai's ago. They delay making use of what they have in hopes of more. Will farmers, into whose hands they are put, favour them with their answers, that tliey may proceed to give the public the information received either entire or digested ? For this and other assistance in fulfilling their office, the Trustees look not only to intelligent indi- viduals, but to the agricultural associations in different parts of the State, to some, or most of which they are already indebted ; and to one for the first document in this pamphlet. In the name of the Society, the Trustees repeat their request to these associations for original communications, and their assurances of ability and readiness to publish for their and tlie general benefit whatever novel, interesting or seasonable matter, they shall put at their disposal. 36 The observations of Mr. Winthrop are likewise inserted, and every reader will probably join in the wish that similar tables had been continued to the present day. Observations of the Progress of Vegetation, made at Cambridge, jfroOT 1793 to 1796, inclusive ; by James Winthrop, Esq., f. a. a. and F. H. s. and of the Agricultural Society. Table I. Time of Blossoming. Plant. 1793 1794 1795 1796 Asparagus, 15 May 15 May 6 June Apple, 29 April 29 April 10 May 4 May Apricot, 16 April Currant, 20 April 23 April 5 May 24 April Cherry, 17 April 23 April 6 May 27 April Elm, 27 March 7 April 4 April 8 April Gooseberry, 12 April 23 April 1 May 23 April Grape, 16 June 22 June 25 June 24 June Honeysuckle, 15 May 15 May 27 May 21 May Lilac, 7 May 4 May 15 May 13 May Lime, 27 June 29 June 28 June Lily, 19 June 29 June 28 June Nectarine, 15 April 29 April Horse Chestnut, 15 May 16 May Peach, 20 April 23 April 27 April 23 April Pear, 29 April 10 May Plum, 16 April 19 April 7 May 30 April Quince, 11 May 11 Mav 25 Mav 18 May Tulip, 5 May 10 May 12 May Haspberry, 22 May 1 June 1 June Pink, 1 July 24 June Willow, 16 April 19 April 27 April 22 April Black Poplar, 17 April 21 April Syringa, 22 May 27 May 4 June 30 May Dama. Kose, 7 June 14 June 15 June White Eose, 23 May 20 May 10 June, 1 June Oak, 11 April 18 April 24 April 22 April Birch, 29 April 18 April Maple, 18 April 17 May Button, 27 April 7 May Ash, 24 April Snowball, 15 May 15 May By the blossoming of the Buttonwood, is mtended only the opening of the bud, so as to discover the ball ; for the tree, in reality, docs not discover its blossom to an observer. 37 Table 11. Of first open Leaves. riant. 1793 1794 1795 1796 Apple, 9 April 18 April 24 April 22 April Apricot, 28 April 7 May 23 April Currant, 25 March 24 March 24 April 10 April Cherry, 19 April 27 April Elm, 6 May 1 May 8 May 6 May Gooseberry, 25 March 3 April 17 April 10 April Grape, 9 May 3 May 10 May 29 April Honeysuckle, 28 Feb. 23 March 8 April Lilac, 28 Feb. January 17 April 10 April Lomb. Poplar, 29 April 21 April 7 May 29 April Peach, 21 April 27 April Plum, 13 April 19 April 2 May 23 April Blk. Poplar, 12 April 19 April 7 May 23 April Quince, 11 April 19 April 1 May Kose, beg. April January April March Raspberry, 25 March 24 March 8 April Strawberry, beg. March January April March Syringa, 7 April 3 April 17 April 16 April Willow, 4 April 18 April 17 April 16 April Pink, beg. April January March Lily, 11 April January 1 April March Snowball, 6 April 21 April 25 April 23 April Oibiut, 20 April 22 April 3 May Oak, 1 May 11 May Mulberry, 5 May Wh. Mulberry, 12 April 21 April 10 May 4 ]\Iay Asparagus, 24 April 25 April 23 April Lime, 1 May 2 May 9 May 5 May Button, 6 May 1 May 7 May I JMay Horse Chesnut, 21 April 27 April 1 May Tulip, 1 April April 1 April Althea, 22 May Several of these plants put out their leaves so early as to lose them ao;ahi by freezing. Such plants seem rather to be nourished than injured by hoar frost, and unless the freezing be very severe and fol- lowed by sudden heat, their leaves do not appear to suffer materially from the freezing degree of cold. They will for a little while bear a degree of cold several degrees below freezing. 38 Table TIL Containing several ripe fruits and esculent plants, according to the first specimens in each year, as I met with them in my own garden or elsewhere. Fruit, S^c. 1793 1794 1795 1796 Asparagus, 15 April Strawberries, } 27 Mav Peas, 1 28 May Cherries, 29 ]SIay String-beans, ! 15 June 20 April 27 May 26 April 11 June June 24 April 3 June 12 June 27 June Raspberrj', Turnips, Apricots, Nectarine, Peaches, 26 June 20 June 1 August 15 August 3 July 24 July 20 August 6 Septem. 6 Septem. Plums, Melons, Grapes, Gooseberries, August August 30 August August 29 August 15 August 20 August 28 August 12 Septem. 16 July July 3 Septem. 27 August 17 August July Currants, red, white, black, 25 June { 29 June 25 June 25 June 16 July August 26 June 28 June If these minutes had been originally made with a view to publica- tion, I would have taken care to fill the blanks. They are, however, more numerous, and placed in a more compact form, than any others that I have seen, and I hope they will be the means of stimulating some of our associates to bring forward their observations, that by a comparison we may endeavor to bring this branch of knowledge to perfection. The preceding observations chiefly relate to those plants which have a perennial root. They may be of use to determine when the ground is warm enough to receive the seeds of annual plants. With respect to these, it is of importance that we should know at the time of planting, when we may reasonably expect them to be in eating. Unless we are careful to multiply and vary our experiments, and to pubhsli all of them that come to our knowledge, we can never hope for a regular succession of fresh vegetables, which is the perfection of a garden. It is to contribute toward so desirable an end, that the following experiments are communicated, and I hope, by the United endeavors of our Society, with other institutions of the same kind, tliat we shall have agriculture as much a subject of calculation as astronomy is at present. 39 Table of the growth ot" Indian Corn, and the number of days from planting for each period of growth. rianted. Sprouted. Tasselled. Silked. Eatab. green. Season. 1792 May 4 1793 April 23 26 27 12 May 8 6 May 13 8 May 12. 8 Mav 11 30 June 57 26 June 64 19 June 54 21 June 55 14 July 71 10 July 78 5 July 70 5 July 69 1 Aug. 89 23 July 88 very dry. July 15 1794 May 3 June 21 22 July 7 15 May 12 28 Jmie 7 24 Aug. 40 27 June 55 28 July 37 15 Sept. 61 12 July 70 13 Aug. 53 10 Oct. 86 29 July 87 1 Sept. 72 excessive dry not very dry. 1796 April 27 15 May 18 10 July 74 24 July 88 The principal circumstance which caused any difference of growth, appears to be the time of planting. AVhat was planted about the beginning of May, ajjpears to have required from 86 to 89 days to be fit for eating. What was planted earlier, took longer time to come forward, and did not ripen at so early a date as that at the beginning of May. That planted in July lost in the fall the time it gained in summer, and furnished green corn for the beginning of October. The specimen planted about the middle of June, kept its growth the whole summer, and became fit for eating in 72 days. Not much appears to depend on the character of the season. Summary of observations made on the leafing and fioxvering of trees, near Boston, and on the first specimens of ripe fruit and esculent vegetables, from 1797 to 1803, inclusive, by James Winthrop. Tree or Plant. First Leaves. First open Flowers. Almond, 13 April Althea, 22 May to 5 June Apple, 28 April to 5 May 28 April to 15 May Apricot, 23 to 29 April 20 April to 4 May Asparagus, Ash, 26 April Birch, 19 April Button, 7 May Cherry, 19 April to 4 May 25 to 29 April Currant, 31 March to 3 April 28 April to 14 May Ebn, 4 to 11 May 31 March to 18 April Fig, 23 May Filbert, 2 to 4 May Gooseberry, 31 March to 3 April 27 April to 7 May Grape, 3 to 22 May 20 June to 2 July 40 Summary of observations, — continued. Tree or Plant. First Leaves. First open Floicers. Honej-suckle, 21 March to 8 April 21 May to 8 June Horse Chestnut, 1 to 10 May 14 to 24 May Larch, 1 May Lilac, 2 to 4 April 10 to 16 May Lime, 3 to 8 May 21 to 30 June Lily, 31 March to 5 April 28 June to 6 July Locust, 12 June Maple, 20 April to 2 May Mulberry blk. 5 May 30 Mav Mulberry wh. 4 to 18 May 26 June Nectarine, 30 April 20 April to 14 May Oak, 10 to 15 May 16 to 23 May Oilnut, 3 to 8 May June Passion Flower, 7 Julv Peach, 10 to 30 April 20 April to 13 May Pear, 4 May Pink, March 29 June to 8 July Plum, 1 to 8 May 25 April to 14 May Poplar, 2 to 10 May 20 to 24 April Quince, 1 to lo May 21 to 31 May Raspberry, 3 to 8 April 28 May to 2 June Rose, damask, 12 April to 1 May 9 to 18 June Semi a. 15 May 21 Jime SnoAvball, 25 April to 4 May 15 Mav to 1 June Strawberry, March 27 April to 17 May Syringa, 3 to 19 April 28 May to 8 June Tulip, 27 March 14 to 21 May Walnut, 3 to IG May WiUow, 4 to 15 April 23 April to 8 May First Specimens of Fruits and Esculent Vegetables, from 1797 to 1803 inclusive. Asparagus, 21 to 30 April Melons, 15 to 27 August Almonds, 18 Sept. Nectarines, 6 Sept. to Apples, August Peach-s, 15 Aug. to 6 Sept. Apricots, 12 to 13 Aug. Plums, 26 Aug. to 3 Sept. CheiTies, 29 May to Raspberry, 4 to 9 July Currants, 25 to 29 June Strawberrs', 27 May to 3 June Gooseberries, 16 July String Beans, 15 June to 3 Julj'' Grapes, 22 Aug. to 12 Sept. Peas, 28 May to 12 June 41 A.D., 1804. In the Board of Officers, Samuel W. Fomeroy, Esq., was elected a Trustee in the place of Rev. Dr. Khkland, who became Correspondmg Secretary in the place of Rev. Dr. Parker. This year was especially marked by the permanent establish- ment of the Professorship of Natural History, at Cambridge. A special meeting of the Society was called on the 6th of March, for the purpose of considering the articles to be j^roposed by the Proprietors of the Botanic Fund, when the rules for the founda- tion of the Professorship, and the principles by which it should be regulated and conducted, were agreed upon. The Trustees were constituted the Visitors of the Professorship. The original design was to establish a Professorship of Botany and Ento- mology. This was changed to the one finally adopted, by a formal vote of the Trustees, who voted to accept the trust reposed in them by the rules of the foundation. Twenty copies of the late publications of the Society were voted to be sent to the Rev. Dr. Wheelock, President of Dart- mouth College, and twenty copies to Dr. Nathan Smith, of Windsor, in the State of Vermont, — to be distributed by them according to their discretion. A communication from John Lucas, Esq., respecting an ex- periment he made upon twenty-four acres of meadow land in Cambridge, by spreading a certain quantity of gravel upon the same with a mixture of compost manure, and mentioning the advantage of it, was read and referred to the Committee on Publications. A general rule was adopted for distributing copies of the agricultural publications of the Society to all the agricultural societies in the United States. A committee was appointed to call up in the Senate the • petition for the pi-omotion of the Botanical Institution, and to obtain such aid from Government as they shall be pleased to grant. Dr. Aaron Dexter communicated a letter from Rev. Manasseh Cutler, a member of Congress, recommending the purchase of Michaux on the American Oaks, Michaux's Flora Boreali Ame- 42 licana, and Willdenuois' new edition of the Species Plantanum, whicli were accordingly ordered to be purchased. Mr. Daniel Adams, of Framingham, having submitted a plan for a periodical publication on the subject of agriculture, it was taken into consideration, and it was voted : That it does not consist with the rules invariably prescribed by this Society to lend its official sanction or to become responsible for any publi- cation not under its control, or make any private enterprise of this nature the vehicle of its communications to the public ; but should the work intended by Mr. Adams appear on perusal to promote the great purposes of agriculture, the Trustees individu- ally, and the Society at large, will feel it their duty to encourage its circulation by all the means in their power. A committee was appointed to consider and report the best means to be adopted for availing the Society of the benefits of a Resolve of the General Court, passed March, 1805, granting to the Society a township of land. At the meeting of the Trustees on the 13th of April, 1805, the Trustees entered upon the duties prescribed in the founda- tion of a Professorship of Natural History, At the meeting in May, Joseph Russell and Dr. Dexter were appointed a committee to offer for sale the township of land granted by the State, by advertising for written proposals to purchase the same, in one or more of the pubHc newspapers printed in Boston. This Committee reported that they had received an offer of sixty-two and half cents per acre, which was accepted by the Trustees, provided the purchasers comply with the conditions expressed in a written memorandum covering the offer. A. D., 1805. Hon. John Adams, (Ex-President of the United States) v/as chosen President, in the place of Gov. Strong. Dudley Atkins Tyng and Josiah Quincy took the places of George Cabot and Martin Brimmer. The Committee appointed for the sale of the township of land granted by the Legislature for a Professorship of Natural His- 43 toiy, reported a letter of instructions to Lothrop Lewis, and a reply from him in relation to surveying said grant, in which he says that the lateness of the season and his avocations were such as to prevent his undertaking it until spring. A letter from Hon. Timothy Pickering, on the cultm-e of potatoes from the sprouts, and one from Mr. William Bartlett, of Newburyport, upon Egyptian millet, were read and consid- ered. Letters were likewise received from Benjamin Vaughan, upon the cultivation of the potato in England by the Millwood family, also an account of a cottager's cultivation in Shi'opshire ; ft'om Nathaniel Adams, upon the cultivation of a new species of grain, called Jerusalem wheat ; from Paul Dodge, of Newcastle, (Maine) enclosing a description of a cider-press ; from Justin Ely, on the culture of " the long crooked-necked warty squash ; " from Dr. Dexter, one "on the food of plants." These were all considered, and in some form brought before the public. The sum of five hunch-ed dollar's was paid to the fund for the Professorship of Natural History. A. D., 1806. Eev. William Emerson was this year elected one of the Trustees, in the place of Hon. Christopher Gore ; and Dudley Atkins Tyng was made Secretary, in the place of John Avery, jr., deceased. John Lowell, Esq. was chosen Corresponding Secretary, in the place of Rev. Dr. Kirkland, who continued in the Board of Trustees. A committee was appointed at the semi-annual meeting of the Society to consider the expediency of oflering a premium for the best system of kitchen economy and cookery adapted to the use! and habits of the yeomani-y of Massachusetts. At the meeting of the Trustees held at Mr. Theodore Lyman's, in Waltham, Mr. Winthrop presented to the Society, from Hon. James Bowdoin, Minister of the United States to the Court of Madrid, sundry books and pamphlets on agriculture ; also specimens of earth brought from the mountains of Limoye, 44 in France, of which the Sevres and Angouleme porcelain is made. These specimens were committed to Dr. Dexter. A specimen of Jerusalem wheats from Prof. Peck, was com- mitted to Mr. Pomeroy. A communication was read from Rev. Dr. McClure, of Windsor, Coun., on the use of pomace as a manure, and on clearing the tops of hills. A. D., 1807. Hon. Joseph Pussell retired this year from the office of Vice- President, and Theodore Lyman was elected in his place. Eben Preble, Esq., was elected one of the Trustees. At the semi-annual meeting of the Society, held in February, Thomas L. Winthrop, Theodore Lyman, and Samuel Parkman were appointed a committee to present a petition to the Legisla- tiu'e, for the grant of half a township of land, in aid of the funds of the Massachusetts Professorship of Natural History. Messrs. Pomeroy, Lowell, and Emerson, were chosen the Committee on Publications. A letter from Hon. Josiah Quincy, accompanying a pamphlet on the " management of thorn hedges," by Mr. Main ; a letter from Mr. Thomas Bremer, accompanied with a present of Patagonian wheat ; an Address of the Kennebec Agricultural Society to the farmers on the river Kennebec, on the means of increasing food for cattle ; a letter from Col. David Humphi'ies, describing the progress he had made in propagating the Merino breed of sheep, and another accompanied Avith a small parcel of barley ; also a letter from Hon. Dwight Foster, enclosing sundry communications to the Brookfield Agricultural Society ; were read and considered at the several meetings of the Trustees during the year. The Trustees published another volume of transactions during this year, " under the patronage of government ;" as appears by the following brief preface. 45 Preface. Under the patronage of Government the Trustees of the Massa- chusetts Society for promoting Agriculture, and the Board of Visitors of the Massachusetts Professorship of Natural History, offer to the Public the tenth number of their Papei's. The answers to queries, sometime since proposed to practical Farmers in the Commonwealth, of which we shall hereafter more particularly speak, form the principal portion of the oi'iginal matter contained in this number. The high reputation of the Farmer's Magazine, periodically pub- lished in Edinburgh, and the probability that few agriculturalists in this country have an opportunity of reading it, together with the want of domestic communications, have induced the Trustees to make co- pious extracts from that valuable Avork. " Hints regarding Cattle," will be deemed interesting by the intel- ligent Farmer, who cannot but have observed the general inattention to the subject on which they are suggested. The papers on " The management of dung," and " the culture of potatoes," although, perhaps, alluding to practices not common in New England, ai'e well worth a preservation in these pages. ExtJ-acts from the celebrated Fourcroy, " On the philosophy of vegetation," translated and abridged for the Farmer's Magazine, are suited to awaken the attention of husbandmen to different soils, and their particular adaptation to different vegetables. The letter " On the benefit wliich fjirmers would derive from the study of Botany," is not so intelligible as it would be, if the publica- tions to which it refers were annexed ; but it may serve to excite a curiosity in those who have leisure to obtain an acquaintance with this subject. The answers to queries in a digested form, occupy tliirty- seven pages of the volume, and are replete with interest ; and if it is found that it will not extend this work too much, the entire article will be added at the close of the volume. A. D., 1808. The Board of Officers and Trustees continued the same as the last year. At the meeting of the Trustees on the 25th of June, it was voted that the Secretary of the Commonwealtli be requested to make and to execute to Dudley A. Tyng, Esq., the conveyance of a township of land authorized by the General Court in 1805. 6 46 Messrs. Lowell, Dexter and Wlutlirop were authorised to correspond with the persons who heretofore contracted with this Board for the said township, and to make any new contract, if needful, with them, or to rescind the same, at their discretion ; in such an event to sell it for cash, credit, or exchange, as they may think best, at their discretion. A communication on the raising of potatoes, from Caleb Stark ; and one from Elkanah Watson, with enclosures, asking aid of the Board for printing the same, were received. The Corresponding Secretary was requested to inform the latter that if upon examination of his manuscripts the Trustees 'approve of the same, they will print them fr-ee of expense to him, and will forward to him such a number of copies as he may wish to dis- tribute. There was presented to the Society this year, by Sir John Sinclah, "A plan of the reprinted reports of the Board of Agri- culture in Scotland ;" also, the first volume of the " Memoirs of the Agricultural Society of Philadelphia" was received from that society. A list of premiums was reported to be published in the next volume of the Transactions of the Society. The aggregate amount of the premiums was more than one thousand dollars. One of them was " To the person who shall import into this Commonwealth, directly from the Kingdom of Spain, the first five rams of the Merino breed, the sum of fifty dollars, each, and for the first ten ewes, the sum of twenty-five dollars each. The other premiums related to the destruction of Canker- worms, Slugs, &c. ; the raising of wool and mutton ; the best method of raising water for irrigation ; the best Hortus Siccus exhibiting the different kinds of grasses and their respective qualities ; the best plantation of oaks and other hard-wood trees ; the best analysis of soils ; best method of curing clover hay ; best experiment of ploughing in green crops for manure ; best essay on the apphcation and effects of manures, &c. 47 A. D., 1809. Theodore Lyman retired from the Board and S. W. Pomeroy was elected Vice-President in his stead. Eev. J. T. Kirkland became Eecording Secretary in the place of John Lowell, and Peter C. Brooks, and Samuel G, Perkins were added to the Board of Trustees. A letter from Col. Robert Gardner on raising coffee in this State was received and referred to the Publishing Committee. A committee was appointed to take into consideration the state of the finances, and report on the expediency of devoting any part thereof to the purchase of books, models, &c., for the use of the Society. Subsequently an appropriation of five hundred dollars was made for this purpose. It was also voted that the books procured for distribution should be placed under the care of such associations for improving the husbandry oj the country, as now exist, or hereafter may be formed in this Commonwealth.* Papers from Mr. Lowell, on the early maturation of grapes ; from E.. B. Livingston, on the advantages of rearing Merino sheep ; from Mr. Mansfield, with remarks on agricultru*e ; a memoir on the use of Palmetto plank for sheathing ; were laid before the Trustees. The Committee on Publications was requested to publish, in the newsjDajDcrs, the best short account to be obtained of the peculiar marks of the Merino sheep. Capt. William Bartlett received a premium of fifty dollars for the importation of a Merino ram. The volume of Transactions, which was issued this year by the Trustees, appeared under the title of the " Georgick Papers for 1809," with the following motto : " Without encouragement of agriculture, and thereby increas- * It may be well to remark that the Library of the Society has lately been placed under the charge of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture, at the State House ; and as many valuable books belonging to the Society have been lost under the old system of management, it is hoped by the Trustees, that if any of these should be found and identified, they will be returned to Mr. Flint, the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture. 48 ing the number of its peojsle, any country, however blessed by nature, must continue poor." — Swift. Tlie following Preface, together with much of the original matter, was evidently written by Hon. John Lowell. Preface. Although in their papers for 1809 the Trustees of the Massa- chusetts Society for promoting Agriculture are unable to number many original communications, they, however, hope that their selec- tions will be found adapted to the design of the Institution. The intimate connection subsisting between chemical knowledge and improvements in husbandry is well known to intelligent farmers, and is an obvious reason for devoting many of the following pages to an extract on the nature of vegetables. By knowing the operation of different substances upon each other, we learn what is the proper food of plants, and, of course, how most successfully to cherish their growth. The art of improving and managing breeds of cattle and sheep be- gins to exercise the attention of wealthy and patriotick landholders, who thus give jiromise of serving at once the agriculture and manu- factures of the nation. In this view. Lord Somerville's memoir to the Bath Society, and the elegant letters of Col. 'Humphreys, on the habits and excellence of the Merino Sheep, will be no less interesting to the American Publick, than they are creditable to their authors. The disposition of the Trustees, also, to encourage the propagation of the Merinos in this country will be seen by the premiums which they oifer to importers. The naturalist will be amused, perhaps instructed, by the history of the Curculio and of the Mole. The tract on the latter is a trans- lation from an ingenious French writer ; and though the depredations of this animal are not the subject of general complaint in this part of the country, yet it is elsewhere troublesome and destructive. The badness of the butter, usually marketed in this vicinity, frequently excites disgust and murmurs. Li the hope of doing somewhat towards remedying the evil, the Trustees have this year republished a paper, which they published in 1793, containing Dr. Anderson's aphorisms on the management of a dairy. The extract from Mawe is made for the benefit of those who are destitute of the work itself, and of the still more useful treatise on the same subject by M'Mahon : but the American gardener must recol- lect, that the difference between the seasons here and in England is considerable. The valuable communication from Kennebec, and several miscella- neous articles, entitle the gentlemen who furnish them to the thanks of the publick. The Trustees, in superintending the concerns of the Society, have no objects in view other than those which should inspire a deep and •common interest, the inuuediate improvement of husbandry, the rela- tive advancement of the arts, and the ultimate prosperity of the 49 country. As it was the origiiial design of their Association, so it is still their desire and purpose to encourage by suitable premiums an attention to agricultural pursuits ; to throw into the publick stock the knowledge of such useful improvements as they may severally pos- sess ; and to procure models of approved machines to be examined and imitated. It is evident, however, that these objects cannot be completely attained without farther legislative aid, than they already enjoy, and a spirit of more liberal inquiry and communication among practical farmers, than has yet been manifested. On the last article, particularly, therefore, they beg leave most earnestly to repeat a request, which they formerly made, that farmers in the interior and distant parts of the Commonwealth would favor them with original communications. It is by no means necessary that a man, profitably to write for this work, should be intimately acquainted with the structure and character of plants, or with the modes of farming in foreign countries, or with the ornaments of style, or with even the rules of grammar. Plain facts in plain language ; journals of labor performed, and of the time and manner of sowing the same seeds in different grounds ; and hints on probable improvements in the tillage of old farms, and the subduing of new ones — will ever be acceptable to the Trustees, who, to the best of their power, will methodize such facts and observations, and publish them for the general benefit. Boston, May 24, 1809. A. D., 1810. Dr. Warren and Eev. William Emerson having resigned, they were succeeded by John Prince and Rev. J. S. Buck- minster. The fourth article of the Constitution was altered at the annual meeting, making nine members to constitute a quorum at the semi-annual meeting of the same year. A quorum not being present, no business was transacted. Since that period the semi-annual meeting has been discontinued, except upon the occasion of cattle shows. The Committee appointed for the sale of the two townships of land granted by the Legislature, in aid of the Massachusetts Professorship of Natural History, reported : — " Having caused the said lands to be duly advertised in the Columbian Centinel, for more than six weeks before the time of sale, and also in two other papers printed in Boston, during the 50 week preceding the time of sale, and having selected, as the time of disposing of the same at auction, the 5th day of June instant, when the two branches of the Legislature were in ses- sion, and gentlemen of all parts of the State were assembled in Boston, and having, for the sake of giving greater publicity to said sale, adjourned the auction, from the 5th day of June to the 12th of the same month, at which time the same Legislature was in session, they caused the same to be put up at auction, when they were obhged to bid in, for the account of the Pro- fessorship, the located towfiship, no real purchaser appearing to pay any price whatever. They then set up for sale the unlocated township, and the same was purchased by Abiel Wood, Jr., Esq., of Wiscasset, at the rate of thirty-two cents per acre, which amounted, for the township, to six thousand, nine hundred and sixty-nine dollars. The Committee, after due inquuy, took his note, payable in five years, with interest yearly, and gave him a contract for a deed, when the same shall have been located, he giving a mortgage of the premises to secure his note. " The Committee convinced from inquiry, as well as by the aforesaid ample trial of said property at auction, that they had ascertained the value thereof, did, thereupon sell the located township to Dr. Aaron Dexter, and Eben Preble, Esq., for the sum of seven thousand dollars, they having frequently and very honorably expressed their readiness to give up said pur- chase, in case any member of the Board shall think said sale dis- advantageous to the public." The report was immediately accepted, approved and recorded, and it was voted that Dudley A. Tyng, in whom the title was invested, be authorized and requested to convey the same, in fee simple, to Messrs Dexter and Preble, upon the purchase money being paid, or secured to the Treasurer of Harvard College. It was also voted that the purchaser be requested to call the township Linnoeus. F. C Lowell, Secretary of the Subscribers to the Funds of said Professorship, laid before the Boaixl an exemplification of the foundation, rules and princij)les of the same, engraved on parchment, under the signature of the Chairman and Secretary. A Committee on the Canada thistle was appointed. 51 Dr. Dexter was authorized to send to England for a newly- invented plough, making it a condition to his correspondent that the plough has been found to answer a useful purpose, and that the invention is an improvement. Mr. Pomeroy was requested to have printed instead of the pamphlet commonly pubhshed annually by the -Trustees, a thousand copies of Elliot on Husbandry, and that he be re- quested to insert such notes . as he may think proper, and omit any part of the work he may deem expedient. The premium of two hundred and fifty dollars was awarded to Cornelius Coolidge, for the first ten ewes imported from Spain. Sundry parcels of seeds were presented for distribution, by Daniel Parker, Esq., of Paris. Thi-ee hundi-ed dollars were contributed towards the encour- agement and support of the Botanic Garden at Cambridge. A letter was communicated from an anonymous source, con- cerning a more humane method of killing cattle. Another volume was published this year by the Trustees, in which much of the space was devoted to the advantages of increasing and improving our flocks of sheep. A. D., 1811. Richard Sulhvan, Esq., was chosen Recording Secretary, in the place of Rev. Dr. Kirkland, and John Prince, Esq., in the place of Rev. Mr. Buckminster, as Trustee. A copy of a work entitled " Advice to Shej)herds, on the Management and Care of Sheep," translated from the French of M. Daubenton, by a Gentleman of Boston, was presented by Mr. Belcher, the Publisher, and committed to Messrs Winthrop, Parsons, and Dexter, to examine it and report upon the expe- diency of recommending it to the public. The Committee sub- sequently gave it a full recommendation.* * The translator of this work was the Hon. James Bowdoin, one of the first Board of Trustees, Mmister to Spain, and son of the Governor, who imported many Merino Sheep, and kept large Hocks at Nasahwn Island. The original work is an authority in France, at the present day. 62 The Recording Secretary was ordered to distribute this year's publication, as follows : To the Berkshire Agricultural Society, thirty copies ; to the Western Society of Middlesex Husband- men, thirty copies ; to the Brookfield Association, twelve copies ; to Benjamin Vaughan, twenty copies ; and to each of the Trustees, for further distribution, twelve copies. One hundred dollars was given to Professor Peck, to be ex- pended in the pxu-chase of trees and plants, for the Botanic Garden, at his du'ection. The sum of two hundred dollars was also voted this year, towards the general sujDport of the Botanic Garden ; " it being the opinion of the Board that the support of that institution is important to the purposes of agriculture." Communications on the subject of Florin* grass, by John Winthrop, and from Elkanah Watson, and others, on various subjects connected with agriculture, were received, and duly considered. This year the Trustees commenced a new series of their pub- lications, and in the preface they say, " Should the stock of communications put it in their power to issue them hereafter quarterly, they shall execute the duty which will devolve on them, with great pleasure." A. D., 1812. Hon. John Adams, having declined serving again as President, Dr. Aaron Dexter was elected in his place. Samuel Pomeroy was elected first Vice-President ; Thomas L. Winthrop second Vice-President, and John Prince Treasurer, and Josiah Quincy took his place in the Board of Trustees. * Fiorin (agustis stolonifera) is only a variety of the ■white-top, or agustis alba, which gained great notoriety in. England and Ireland — volumes having been written in its praise, while it received the execrations of those who found it troublesome to eradicate it, on account of its creeping and stoloniferous roots. C. L. Flint's Report for 18o7, p. 28. For a full account, see Mr. Winthrop's Letter, Mass. Agricultural Journal, vol. 3, p. 32. 53 Justin Ely, of West Springfield, presented to the Society at the annual meeting a quantity of seed from the oat grass,* with a letter upon the subject. A circular having been issued the year previous, recommend- ing the formation of societies in the towns for the promotion of agriculture, the Secretary was ordered to furnish a copy of the publications of the Society to each Association that should be thus instituted. The model of a double plough was ordered to be procured, the original being in the possession of Benjamin Vaughan. M. Tessiers' work on Merino sheep was referred to the Pub- lishing Committee, — a review of which was afterwai'ds pubhshed. See vol. 3 of the Transactions. Several extracts from English publications on the culture of carrots were read and referred to the PubHshuig Committee, and afterwards published by the Society. Mr. Whitlow made known his discovery of a new species of urtica, wliich he recommended as a valuable substitute for flax ; a full account appeared in the printed Transactions. The Corresponding Secretary communicated a letter from Elkanah Watson and others, praying pecuniary assistance in aid of the Berkshire Agricultural Society. He was requested to retui-n for answer to said letter, " That this Board does not con- ceive itself authorised by the charter of the Society, to favor, by grants of money, any one in particular of the several respectable agricultural societies within the Commonwealth ; and that, there- fore, however much it may wish for the prosperity of the Bei'k- shire Society, it cannot make any appropriation out of the funds to the exclusive benefit of one section of the countrj^. That this Board will cheerfully co-operate in any measui-es, which will promote the general interests of agriculture, at the same time that they favor the objects of the Berkshire Society, and will immediately take into consideration the expediency of offering premiums for the same improvements for which the Berkshire Society have offered premiums." Subsequently two premiums were offered, at the suggestion of the Berkshire Society, of one hundred dollars each, for a * See Mass. Agricultural Journal, for Not. 1813, p. 38. 7 54 specimen of madder of good quality, the largest amount grown by any person in the Commonwealth, within three years, not less than one thousand pounds ; and the same with regard to woad, not less than five hundred pounds grown within two years. A communication from Mr. Lowell, the Corresponding Sec- retary, was read, " On the present low state of agriculture in this Commonwealth, and the general neglect of the means of improvement," and recommending that measures be adopted by the Board, to awaken, if possible, a livelier interest in this important subject. The letter was referred to a committee, which at a subsequent meeting made a report, and after some amendments, it was accepted ; and it was also voted : " That one thousand copies of the letter reported by the Committee, addressed to farmers, be printed ; and that a copy be forwarded by the Kecording Secretary to the town clerk in every town in the Commonwealth, with a request that he would cause the same to be read to the inhabitants when assembled in town meeting, and that he would, as soon as convenient, report to the Recording Secretary, any measures taken by them in conformity with the wishes of the Trustees. " That the important queries suggested by the Corresponding Secretary, together with those heretofore printed by the Board, be printed, and a copy sent to each town, accompanying the letter addressed to farmers. " That the clergy of the respective inland towns be admitted honorary members of the Society, and that the Corresponding Secretary be requested to address a letter to them, on the im- portance of attention on the part of the people to the means of improvement in husbandry, which are within their reach, and request the exertion of their influence in aid of the measures of the Board."* A committee was appointed to confer with Dr. Gorham,t respecting the analysis of the various soils and manures, and consider the expediency of employing him for that purpose, and * For the queries see the 3d vol. of the Mass. Agricultural Repository, p. 55. t A scientific and distinguished physician and chemist of Boston. 55 also to collect and digest, for occasional publication, what has hitherto been printed on this subject.* The library of the Society was this year removed to the Boston Athenaeum, and placed under the charge of the librarian of that institution. Much activity was manifested by the Trustees this year. Those members who had farms under their immediate care, were requested to communicate their experiments, and any interesting facts which come under their notice, with a view to pubhcation. ' The Board subscribed for all the foreign and domestic journals of agriculture, and the information extracted from them was disseminated through the pages of the Agricul- tural Eepository. Much of this was due to the active and energetic character of the Eecording Secretary, Hon. John Lowell. One hundred dollars was given for the purchase of trees and shrubs for the Botanic Garden, and fifty dollars for the pm-chase of roots and seeds, to be raised there, for sale and distribution. A. D., 1813. No change was made this year, in the Board of Officers and Trustees. The Hon. Josiah Quincy read a communication giving a de- tailed account of his method of cultivating the "American Hedge Thorn," the progress of its growth since 1808, when first planted, and the expense attending it. It was referred to the Publishing Committee.f Gorham Parsons presented a specimen of Derry "Wheat, (so called) raised by him at Brighton, with a description of the same. A letter from Mr. Moses P. Gray, giving an account of the making of sugar from the sap of the butternut tree, with a sam- ple of the sugar, was read. * The report made by him is in the 3d. vol. of the Repositoiy, p. 83. t This hedge is still alive and vigorous in Quincy, at the residence of its public-spirited planter. 56 Various other subjects, such as the method of grafting trees by approach ; on an improved method of propagating the white thorn by cuttings from the root ; on the cuUivation of wild oat grass, fiorin, and other grasses ; on the cultivation of madder ; on the rotation of crops ; on refining cider ; on the advantage of cutting the tops of carrots while growing ; an account of a new chm-n ; and on the merits of several machines for raising water, received the attention of the Trustees. Six hundred dollars was loaned by the Society for the use of the Botanic Garden. A Committee was appointed to apply to the legislature dur- ing its present session^ for an alloAvance in addition to the pres- ent yearly grant, for defraying the expense of printing the Society's publications, and also for pecuniary aid to the Massa- chusetts Professorship of Natural History. An act was obtained to allow them their accounts that shall be well vouched, for any sums paid by them for printing and circulating their publi- cations on agriculture only, for the raising of seeds and plants, or the expense of any experiments made by them with a \iew to promote agricultural knowledge, provided that the same shall not in any one year exceed one thousand dollars. In consequence of this liberal appropriation by the State, the Corresponding Secretary prepared a report, making such a divis- ion between the printing and the public garden as in his opinion would best advance the cause of agriculture, allowing four hun- dred dollars to the former and six hundred dollars to the latter. Two principal objects were to be aimed at in the second appro- priation, viz. : 1st, to introduce into cultivation as many native plants as possible ; 2d, to devote an acre of land to raising seeds of culinary vegetables, and also "to have specimens of /orm grass, oat grass, woad, and any other plants rare and curious." A committee of five, consisting of Messrs. Lowell, Preble, Perkins, Prince, and Parsons, were appointed to take charge of the garden. It would have been difficult to find five other per- sons in the State equally competent for the task. A considerable number of answers to the queries which had been circulated, were received during this and the previous year, which were digested and published by the Trustees. 57 The first number of the vohime of transactions for this year, appeared under the new title of the " Massachusetts Agricultural Journal," with the following preface : The Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for promoting Agri- culture, offer to the public the first number of a new series of their publications. Should the stock of communications put it in their power to issue them hereafter quarterly, they shall execute the duty which will devolve on them, with great pleasure. The various topicks of Agriculture have already been treated by able writers, and frequent attempts made to rouse the spirit of care- less and improvident cultivators, by eloquent appeals to their interest, patriotism, and philanthropy. But the kind of book from which the farmer will, without doubt, derive the greatest advantage and the in- struction of which he stands most in need, is, that which makes known to him the practice and exi^erience of the most active and intelligent men, inhabiting the same district of country with himself, and not dissimilarly circumstanced as respects climate, soil, and the general face of the country. There are maxims in Agriculture of universal application, and hints derived from a foreign country sometimes lead to important im- provements, but the attention is more deeply engaged, and the memory more strongly impressed by what passes in our own neigh- bourhood, besides, narratives of improvements in distant countries are commonly viewed with distrust, and disregarded often as mere innovations. It is far otherwise with what takes place in the society, town, or county, or State to which we belong ; the accounts can either be verified by our own observation, or are admitted without question as true, from the known credibility of those from whom they are derived. How far modes of culture practised in other countries are suitable to our own, is matter of inquiry for gentlemen of leisure and intelli- gence ; their testimony will be heard with interest by the farmers at large, and their recommendations adopted with thankfulness and fol- lowed as the sure road to wealth. From these remarks it will appear to be the object of the Trustees, in their future publications, as in their former, to open a channel of communication between the several Agricultural Societies in this Commonwealth, and between the individual farmers of the same county and of the same town, to promote as far as it may be in their power, a frequent and familiar interchange of practical hints — to carry the knowledge of new facts from one farm to another, and to. record for the benefit of the present generation and that of our pos- terity, the course of husbandry of the good farmers of Massachusetts. A work of this kind, lays no claim to literary distinction. It will be open to the communications of all farmers. Their inquiries will receive respectful attention ; and any doubts or difficulties will be im- mediately considered and answered, or published for the consideration of the speculative. 58 The simple, plain, and familiar style used in common life, is found often to convey as precise ideas on subjects of business as the more refined language of the scholar. It is hoped, therefore, that our in- telligent husbandmen, who have not leisure to attend to the arts of composition, will not be deterred by too great delicacy from commu- nicating for publication, the results of their experience. They should reflect, that it will operate to induce others to do likewise. And the mutual encouragement afforded by example, will thus be the means of bringing together a mass of information, highly interesting and profitable to all. Great expectations are formed from the numerous town societies, instituted recently for the promotion of agriculture. The promptitude with which they have been organized, and the zeal they have manifested is highly flattering to the object. All such societies will be entitled, of course, to a copy of these publications, and to a number for distribution to individuals, as a reward of good husbandry. Correspondents will also be entitled to a copy of the number in which their communications shall appear. In this volume a description of the madder plant is given, with the mode of its cultivation. There seems to be no reason why it could not be successfully cultivated in this State. Many hundred thousand dollars are annually paid by our manufactur- ers for it, wliich is all imported from Eui'ope. A. D., 1814. The Board remained the same as last year. Mr. Prince communicated to the Board a written statement of the increase of his flock of Merino Sheep, since the year 1810, and the average weight of fleeces each year, showing an increase of weight each year, with a discernible difference in quality. A premium was awarded to Mr. Andi^ew Haliburton of Portsmouth, for a machine for cleansing butter ffom its whey, without working it by the hand. The premium for the best machine for cutting straw, was adjudged to Elisha Hotchkiss, of Brattleboro, Vermont ;* and that for the best herd of swine to Ely Cooley, of Deerfield. Communications on the comparative productiveness and value * The patent right was afterwards purchased by the Board, for the benefit of the State. 59 of different species of grass, and the importance of plaster of Paris as manure ; of an experiment carefully made by Josiah Quincy, showing that the topping of carrots while growing, to be used as fodder, is injurious to the crop ; on the result of an experiment, by Mr. Brooks, on the raising of wheat; from Thomas Hews, Esq., of Dorchester, showing from experiment the superior advantages of drill husbandry over broadcast ; from Mr, Taft, of Uxbridge, and Capt. John Jenks, of Salem, giving an account of their wheat-crops ; on wheat, barley and carrot crops of the past season, by Gorham Parsons, Esq. ; fiom Asa Andrews, giving an account of a disease in the feet of cattle, not unlike the foot-rot in sheep, cured by cutting off the fore- ends of the hoof; also, various answers from the different town farming associations to the queries issued by the Board. Several threshing machines were exhibited for the premium offered by the Board. A Committee was appointed to invite the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Trustees of the Boston Athenasum, the Massachusetts Historical Society, and the Linnaean Society, to appoint Committees to confer upon the expediency of apply- ing to the Legislature for authority to raise by lottery, the sum of Forty Thousand Dollars, for the purpose of purchasing a lot of land, and erecting a fire -proof building, suitable for the accommodation and preservation of their respective libraries, documents, &c. One hundred dollars was appropriated to the purchase of native forest-trees, to be planted in the Botanic Garden. One hundred pounds was devoted to the purchase, and im- portation of Agricultural Works. The expediency of establishing a seed store, under the patron- age of the Board, with a list of the seeds to be kept on hand, was referred to a Committee. Five hundi-ed and fifty dollars was contributed to the Pro- fessorship of Natural History. 60 A. D., 1815. Samuel G. Perkins retired from the Board, and EdAvard A. Newton was elected to fill his place. Upon his declining to serve, a special meeting of the Society was called, and the Rev. John T. Kirkland was chosen to fill the vacancy. It was voted that each member of the Society should pay an assessment of one dollar annually, or on payment of five dollars, he should be considered a member for life, and be exempted from futuL-e assessments. Messrs. Lowell and Parsons were appointed a committee to report a plan for a general cattle show, should they deem it expedient to patronise one. They subsequently reported in favor of an annual exhibition of this kind, under the patronage of the Board in the month of October. Models of several new agricultural implements, or improve- ments upon old ones, were subjects of trial tliis year, of which the only one that seems to have met the entire approval of the Board, was the straw-cutter of Mr. Hotchkiss. The patent of this was purchased, and a person was employed to manufacture and distribute them among the agricultural societies of the State. Among other inventions was a machine, by the aid of which, a ciuTent where there was no head of water might be used as a water-power, and applied to the working of machinery. Upon trial, however, it did not equal the expectations enter- tained of it. The sum of five hundred and fifty dollars was paid to Professor Peck, for the use of the Botanic Garden. A letter was read from Obed Mitchell, of Nantucket, stating that in consequence of the severity of the last winter, (1814—15) and the scarcity of fodder, one-half of the sheep of the island had perished. John Kenrick, Esq., of Newton proposed for consideration, a new and cheap method of destroying the canker-worm in a clirysalis state. 61 A. D., 1816. E, Hersey Derby of Salem, was elected in place of Dr. Kirkland as Trustee. This was the only change in the Board. The subject of holding an annual cattle show had been con- sidered by the Trustees, from time to time, for several years, and it was finally acted upon by the adoption of the necessary rules and regulations, fixing upon Brighton as the place where they should be held. The following printed announcement appeared in the number of the Journal for June. ANNUAL CATTLE SHOW, AT BRIGHTON IN THE COUNTY OF MIDDLESEX. The Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agri- culture, taking into consideration the importance of improving the breed of domestic animals, and influenced by the example of enlight- ened societies in all parts of Europe, who have established annual exhibitions of such animals, and encouraged the cultivators to produce them by suitable rewards, and wishing as far as possible to fulfil the expectations of the Legislature of this Commonwealth, who have liberally patronized this institution, have determined to establish an Annual Show of Cattle in a situation, and at a season of the year, the most convenient for the citizens at large. They have therefore adopted the following regulations, of which the Farmers throughout this State will please to take notice ; and in order to save trouble to the Trustees and themselves, they will con- form thereto, whenever they may see fit to become competitors for the prizes. I. The annual show of cattle patronized by this society shall take place at lirighton, on the second Tuesday in October in every year, the first to be exhibited on the second Tuesday of October, 1816. II. In order to assure to the competitors the most perfect fairness in the distribution of the Premiums, the Trustees will nominate thi-ee judges from among their own members, and two other gentlemen well skilled in such subjects, to be joined with them ; the decision of a major part of whom shall be final, and the premiums shall be paid accordingly. IIL The Premium shall be divided into two classes, with respect to each description of animals, in order to encourage those who, hav- ing failed to attain the first premium, may yet be entitled to some reward for their exertions. IV. The object or animals for which premiums shall be awarded, and the rates of such premiums shall be as follows, viz : 1. To the person who shall produce the finest Ox fitted for slaughter, of not less than thirteen hundred pounds weight, forty 8 62 dollars, or a silver cup of equal value, at his option, which cup shall be ornamented with a suitable inscription. 2. To the person who shall produce the next best Ox fitted for slaughter, twenty dollars, or a silver cup of like value. 3. To the person who shall produce the best pair of working Oxen, forty dollars, or a silver cup of equal value. 4. To the person who shall produce the next best pair of working Oxen, tioenty dollars, or a cup of equal value. 5. To the person who shall produce the best Bull, having regard to his size, form, and other qualities, thirty dollars or a silver cup of equal value. 6. To the person who shall produce the next best Bull, having regard as aforesaid, twenty dollars, or a silver cup of equal value. 7. To the person who shall produce the best Milch Cow, Avith the requisite proofs of her goodness as to quantity and quality of milk, twenty dollars, or a silver cup of equal value. 8. To the person who shall produce the next best Milch Cow, fifteen dollars, or a silver cup of equal value. 9. To the person who shall produce the best Merino Sheep, not less than five in number, whether rams or ewes, having regard to their forms and fleeces, /or Trustees. The Treasurer was authorized to pay to the Treasurer of the Board of Managers of the National Exhibition of Horses, the sum of two hundred and fifty dollars, for distribution in premi- ums in aid of then- objects as solicited. One of the Alderney Cows, fed upon grass and corn-stalks gave milk yielding an average of 12 lbs. 3 oz. of butter a week for seven months, under the charge of Mr. Motley. 125 A letter was received from Col. Chandler, President of the Middlesex County Agricultural Society, suggesting the expedi- ency of districting the Commonwealth into four districts for the purpose of offering premiums of seventy-five, fifty and twenty- five dollars in each district in successive years, for the best daiiy stock of not less than six, and that the premiums be paid by the Trustees of this Society. An appropriation was afterwards made for this object. The sum of one hundi'ed dollars was oriven to aid the Lesfisla- tive Agricultural Society in obtaining lecturers. Mr. Everett resigned his seat in the Board. Six hundred dollars were paid to Dr. Slade for his lectures in the State House, on the Horse, and two hundred and fifty dollars to the National Horse Exhibition. A. 1)., 1854. No change was made in the Board this year, Mr. Everett having remained in the Board, by particular request. A communication from the Worcester Agricultural Society, suggested the offer of a premium for an experiment of five cows of different breeds, and all fed and treated alike. A conversation was held with Mr. Newton, of Berkshire, who wished the attention of the Trustees called to a supposed discovery of the cause of the potato disease. A vacancy occurred in the Board this year, by the death of James Brown, Esq., a gentleman distinguished for his integrity, liberality, his practical good sense, and the amenity of his dis- position and manners. A legacy was bequeathed to the Society this year by the late Dr. George C. Shattuck.* One hundred and fifty dollars were contributed' to the Berkshire and the same amount to the "Wor- * It has been accumulating by the A\ill of the donor, until the present time, and now amounts to the sura of nine thousand one hundi-ed and sixty-six dollars. 16 126 cester Agi-icultural Society, to be expended in premiums. One hundred dollars in piu'chase of a Jersey bull presented to the State Kcform School, at Westborough, and one hundred dollars in the imjiortation of turnip seed for distribution. A. D., 1855. The vacancies in the Board, occasioned by the death of Mr. Brown, and the resignation of Messrs. Everett and F. C. Lowell, were filled by the election of Messrs. Stephen Salisbury, Wm. S. Lincoln, and R. S. Fay. The sum of six hundred dollars was appropriated for a premi- um, or premiums to encourage the introduction and use of mow- ing macliines. One thousand dollars was given in aid of the United States Agricultural Society's show, in Boston, two hundred and fifty- nine dollars to county societies, for special premiums, which, with the expenses on account of stock, and other gratuities of about eight hundred dollars, exhausted the annual income of the society. The premium ofiered for mo^ving with a machine excited a general competition tlu'oughoiit the State, and gave a great im- pulse to then- introduction and use, as well as to the improvement in the manufacture of them. The following report upon the subject was made by a Committee of the Trustees, in whose hands it was placed. The undersigned, being a committee appointed by the Society to take charge of the subject of a premium of six hundred dollars, offered by the Society " to the possessor of the mowing machine which shall cut, during the present season, with the greatest economy and to the best advantage, not less than fifty acres of grass within the State, the machine to be worked by horse or ox-power," beg leave to report : — Immediately upon their appointment, they issued a printed circu- lar, oifering the premium with the conditions attached to it by the Trustees. They likewise invited the County Agricultural Societies to assist them in their duties by observing the work performed by the 127 competitors within their districts. They also prepared a blank form which was sent to each competitor, with a view of obtaining a uniform return upon all the points deemed to be necessary in making up their award, and also such information as might prove useful hereafter, both to farmers and to the manufacturers of machines; copies of each of these documents are herewith appended. Forty entries were made for competition within the time limited by the trustees ; of these, but sixteen complied with the conditions by making a return of their work before the tenth of September. Of these, Mr. Lyman desired not to be considered a competitor, making his return only for the purpose of adding to the general information sought for by the trustees upon this subject. The return of the Hon. Josiah Quincy came too late to entitle him to claim the premium; but it is recorded with the rest as a valuable addition to the knowl- edge sought for by the committee, as also his remarks, a portion of which will be found in the Appendix. It was originally proposed that the labor of supervising the work of the competitors should be divided among the members of the com- niittee. It was soon apparent, however, that this method would not give them that knowledge of the comparative merits of the competit- ors, which was absolutely necessary in the final award of the premi- um. It was therefore arranged that one member should visit each competitor and examine his work, thus creating one general standard by which the whole should be judged. Mr. Lincoln undertook this extremely laborious task, and the report of his observations is here- with submitted for your examination. Much good, although some misapprehension, has arisen from County Societies having appointed public trials of mowing machines, connect- ing them with this premium ofiered by the trustees of this Society. This has been caused, in part, by the fact of the premium offered for the hest mowing machine to be awarded in 1856, and partly from the great interest which has sprung up among the farmers in relation to the subject. These trials, although interesting and instructive in themselves, have had no weight or influence in making up their award. The committee have directed their attention singly to the work done, and to the skill and economy with which it has been accomplished. They are fortunately relieved from passing any judgment upon the comparative merits of any particular patent or the work of any manu- facturer at this time, because they have seen no machine as yet, which, in their opinion, is not capable of very great improvement ; and they feel confident that by the coming year, we shall see many modifications which will add to the efficiency of the instrument, and (the committee hope) much better workmanship than has thus far been exhibited by the makers. The field is still open for the patentees and manufacturers, and every effort will be made that a fair trial shall be had to determine whose machine is the best, as there has been this year, to determine who has shown the greatest skill in the management of those now in use. The returns of the comi)etitors, (an abstract of which is herewith appended,) furnish much useful information. They establish conclu- sively, that machines can be used to mow with advantage a 'much 128 larger range of field, as to quality and condition of land and grass, than one would have supposed to be possible at this early stage of their introduction. Rough land covered witli stones, hilly and broken surfaces, reclaimed bogs, salt marsh, all seem to have been brought under the dominion of the machine, with as few casualties to it as usually fall to the common scythe. At the same time the returns show with equal clearness that the farmer v/ill gain in the end, by putting his field into better condition for the use of the machine ; and it is to be hoped that one consequence of their introduction will be clearer and better ordered fields, and the removal of stumps and stones that have been too long an eye-sore and a disgrace to many of our farms. The returns in detail show how minute the sub-division of our farms has become from the smallness of the fields cut over, not aver- aging, with the exception of tlie river bottoms, four acres. These small fields are great impediments to good farming in every point of view, and particularly to the use of machinery moved by oxen or horses- It would not be too much to say that one field of twenty-five acres can be more cheaply and better cultivated, and with a better pecuni- ary result per acre to the farmer, than twenty acres cut up into three, four or five lots. The time employed in cutting with the machine is of considerable importance in reference to its labor-saving properties ; and if we were confined to the returns themselves, it would be impossible to de- cide how far this economy has been carried. Some of the competit- ors have doubtless deducted for all stoppages ; that is to say, they have made an exact return of the time during which the machine was actually in motion, while others have counted from the time when they commenced work to the moment when they finished, without deduct- ing for stoppages to rest and repair. Nearly all the competitors, however, have cut a measured half acre before Mr. Lincoln ; the average of the time being about twenty-two minutes to the half acre. The land selected for these trials was equal, if not better, than the aver- age, and the horses were driven as fast, at least, as they were accustomed to be worked. This would therefore prove, that a fair average per- formance of a machine would be for cutting one acre, forty-four min- utes ; whether a pair of horses could continue this rate of work for any great length of time is not so certain ; but the facts before us and our own observations lead us to believe that an hour per aci-e would not be an overtask for horses, including all ordinary stops, and that a pair of horses could continue the work so as to cut, without undue exertion, from ten to twelve acres per day. The time table as j^resented by the competitors, is evidence of the value which they attach to speed, and too much haste has in conse- quence shown itself in the work performed. The machine has, in too many instances, been dragged over without cutting the grass, for want of time to permit the knives to operate, and a mane of grass has been left between the swarths in the endeavor to get the full benefit of the cutting bar. The competitors have nearly all erred in these respects; but the fields of Mr. Lyman, which, since he has withdrawn from the competition, we feel no hesitation in speaking of, 129 present a complete exception, affording a beantiful illustration of even and correct speed, and evincing no common judgment and skill in the operator of the machine. We allude to this for another reason, from the fact that the o])erator had never before worked or seen a machine at work ; the important truth is established, that it requires no apprenticeship to work a mowing machine, but that it is at once a useful instrument in the hands of any one possessing a fair amount of judgment and discretion. The returns are uniform in their testimony as to the ease Avith which the horses have performed their work. They have been gen- erally of light weight, not averaging more than 1,050 pounds, and they have gained in flesh during the season's work, several of the com- petitors cutting from sixty to ninety acres, and doing all the raking, carting, and other usual farm work. The accidents which have been recorded by the competitors have been much fewer and slighter in character than it would have been thought possible in fields not properly prepared for the machine, and they have generally been repaired upon the spot, and they have too often been the result of imperfect workmanship. A nut should never get unscrewed or a finger, pin, or pole break, unless some great violence is done to the machine by the unskilfulness of the operator. Yet all these accidents have occurred without any apparent good reason, in too many cases. The remarks of the competitors upon this point are well worthy the attention of the makers of mow- ing machines. There is another gratifying fact which has come under the obser- vation of the committee, and which they deem worthy of mention, and it is this, that the better and stouter the grass, the more perfect has been the working of the machine, in all respects. This is another in- ducement to better cultivation, which, it is to be hoped, will not be lost upon farmers. We come now to the delicate and difficult question, to which com- petitoi'-or competitors shall the prize be awarded? In order to arrive at a conclusion, satisfactory to ourselves, we have made an abstract of the returns, and have given to each competitor credit for what he has done, taking time, quantity, quality, and economy of work into each account. We have also had the benefit of Mr. Lincoln's report upon the performances of each competitor, and have deduced from it, as well as we could, the comparative excellence of the work done. We have also been aided by the reports and the observations of county societies and committees. It will be borne in mind that the trustees, in offering the prize, reserved to themselves "the right of dividing it among equal claimants." This, fortunately, relieves the committee from a very great embarrassment ; for it is impossible for them to de- termine which, of two competitors, stands the first. All other things being equal, the highest number of acres cut would have settled the question, but tliis is not the case, no two things being equal — each having a superiority, in some points, over the othei\s. They recom- mend, therefore, that the premium of six hundred dollars be divided, in equal sums, and paid to the following competitors : Marcus Bar^ RETT, of Auburn ; Samuel Parsons & Sons, of Northampton. 130 Accompanying the returns, there have been several letters and com- munications addressed to the committee, by competitors and otliers, portions of which are annexed to this report, as bearing upon points about which it was the design of the trustees to procure information. The committee have received the ready and cheerful co-operation of the county societies, whose services have been rendered in a most liberal spirit. They have likewise been met by the competitors in the best feeling, and with an earnest desire, on their part, to do all in their powei', not so much to gain the premium otFered, as to test the value of the mowing machine as a labor-saving implement. They cannot, therefore, take leave of the subject without an expression of thanks to all who have been engaged in the competition, and to those who have assisted them in their labors. General abstract of the returns of the competitors. Number of competitors, do. acres cut, .... Hours occupied in cutting, Average time per aci'e in cutting, minutes, Number of hoi-ses employed. Average weight, . . lbs. . Fingers broken or lost, Knives, ...... Pins, screws, bolts, .... One track clearer broken, . 4 " pole, . . . . . • . " axle, " iron brace, ..... " crank, ...... " cog wheel, ..... 17 1,457 1,067 44 34 1,029 93 18 17 1 1 1 1 1 1 A. D., 185G. Hon. George T. Bigelow Avas elected a Trustee, in place of W. P. Mason, Esq., resigned. Encouraged by the interest excited last year in relation to mowing machines, the Trustees offered a premium of one thou- sand dollars for the best machine, to be competed for during this year. The introductory remarks in the Transactions, as well as the Report of the Committee, not being Trustees, who were selected to award the premium, will be given hereafter. The Society also held a dairy show at Worcester, in connec- 131 tion with the annual shoAV of the Worcester Agricultural Society, appropriating- twenty-five hundred dollars in premiums, and likewise exhibiting and afterwards disposing of the Jersey Stock, owned by the Society, at auction. The shoV was a very credita- ble one, as far as it went, but the Trustees were generally dis- appointed at finding that, after all the expense and labor which it had cost the Society, so little State feeling could be roused upon a subject of such paramount importance to the interest of agriculture. It was remarked by one of the Trustees at the dinner, after the show, " that good animals and good faiaus went together, and he was sorry to see so few evidences of the latter at the show. . A farmer cannot bring his thrifty acres to Wor- cester, to exhibit them, but he might bring the title deeds of them, in the form of well-fed stock." A very able report on Classes Nos. 1 and 2, in the Dairy Stock Premiums, was prepared by the Hon. Levi Lincoln, in which great regret was expressed that there was not a larger and wider competition for the premiums ofiered. "It is now," says the Report, " more than a year since the Trustees of the State Society, with munificent liberality, appro- priated a sum exceeding two thousand dollars, for the encour- agement of dairy stock, of which sum one thousand and fifty dollars were offered, in published proposals of premiums, for dairy cows, in two classes of six and four animals respectively, to be exhibited at the annual cattle show of the Worcester County Society, the present year. The competition was made open to farmers from all parts of the State; and to equalize localities, as far as might be, liberal compensation for travel was provided for competitors, in proportion to their distances from the show. Four premiums were proposed in each class, var}dng in the first class, from ^250, the highest, to ^100, which was the lowest ; and in the second class, from $L50 to $40. It might have been expected that an amount of bounty so nearly corresponding with the value of the animals to be exhibited, and so richly remunerative of any care and labor in giving an account of their qualities, and their management and product for a single season, to say nothing of the incentives and influences of a public spirit, would have secured general attention, and attracted 132 numerous competitors in the trial. The committee have to regret that such has not been the case. There are even fewer competitors than the number of premiums offered for distribu- tion; and of these, 'with a single exception, all are from the county of Worcester. After the repeated efforts which, in years past, have been ineffectually made to obtain, by statement and exhibition, the means of comjiarison and preference between the dairy stock of different districts of the Commonwealth, and to gather reliable information of the product of dauies and the mode o]^ then-. management, there is little to encoui'age a persist- ence in this mode of inquiry. Uut we may be comforted in the assurance, that the progress of improvement, though slow, will be certain to follow individual interest and enterprise, and trust to time, at last, for the fruits of experience and success," The " Transactions," for 1856, were almost entirely devoted to the subject of Dauy Stock, and the first No. of an article by T. Horsfall, from the Eoyal Agricultui-al Society's Journal, (England,) was added. It will be found worthy the attention of every farmer in Massachusetts. Two thousand copies were printed, by order of the Trustees, for gratuitous distribution, a number having been sent to each Agricultm-al Society in the State, and a portion left with C. L. Fhnt, Esq., the Secretary of the Boai'd of Agriculture, to be similarly disposed of. EXTRACTS FROM THE TRANSACTIONS OF 185G. Introductory Remarks. The operations of the Society during the present year have been of more than usual interest. This has been occasioned by the dairy show, which took phice at Worcester, under the auspices of the Wor- cester Agricultural Society, in connection with their usual exhibition, and by the trial of mowing machines entered in competition for the premium of one thousand dollars. By referring to the records of the Society it will be found that from the earliest period of its existence much attention has been paid to the improvement of the breed of cattle, and more particularly with reference to dairy purposes. Importations of stock have been made from time to time at very considerable expense, and the animals have been placed in a way to disseminate their breed throughout the State- In this manner the Devon, Ayrshire and Jersey cattle have been successfully introduced. Without increased attention, however, to the keeping of stock, and more care in selection for breeding purposes, the simple act of bringing good animals into the country will do but 133 little good. It has consequently been the aim of the Society by the oiFer of liberal premiums, to advance the improvement of the stock thus introduced, as well as to excite a more general interest in this subject. By an arrangement made with the Worcester Agricultural Society, one day of their show was devoted to the exhibition of the dairy stock, for which premiums were offered by this Society, although the com- petition was not as general as could have been desired, falling far short of the expectations of the Trustees, it has, nevertheless, been of service in awakening attention to this important branch of agricul- tural economy. One reason for the smallness of the numbers com- peting for the various premiums offered may be found in the difficulty of forwarding cattle to any distance, and the injury occasioned to dairy stock by a change of food and from exposure during the exhibi- tion. In view of this, the Trustees would suggest that hereafter, in all cases of premiums for dairy stock, the Committees to whom the awards are confided, should visit each competing animal, examine the mode of treatment and the management of the dairy at the home of the competitor, and make the awards before the day of exhibition, requiring only successful competitors to send their animals to the show. The Jersey cows belonging to the Society were exhibited at Wor- cester, and at the conclusion of the show all the animals were offered at public auction and sold without reserve. This herd has been in the possession of the Society for five years, and by an arrangement with Thomas Motley, jr., the male progeny has been from the first his property, and all the bull calves have been raised and sold for breeders. The sale of the cows and heifers has now been made, and an opportunity afforded to the farmers of the State to possess one or more of them. The thanks of the Trustees are most cordially given to the Wor- cester Agricultural Society for the ready aid and co-operation of its worthy President, Mr. John Brooks, and the other officers of the Society, upon this interesting occasion, and also to the Committees, who cheerfully gave much time and attention in making their awards. Nor will it be thought invidious or unjust, if, from the number of those who thus aided the Society, the Trustees should name in an especial manner the services of Ex-Governor Lincoln. His labors, as well as his distinguished knowledge upon the subject committed to him, sufficiently appear in his able and interesting report on the two first classes of premiums offered ; it needs no word of praise to commend it to the attention of all farmers in Massachusetts. But the Trustees feel it to be a pleasure as well as a duty to speak of one so long and so honorably distinguished in the public service, who in the retire- ment of private life still occupies himself so usefully and beneficially for his fellow men. Indeed, without his aid, this effort to collect and embody useful information and to excite emulation where both are so greatly needed, would have lost much of the good which it is hoped has been effected. Not less interesting in the transactions of the Society for the pres- ent year, and of special importance also, to the agricultural commu- 17 134 nity, has been the competition for the premium on mowing machines. Every step made to save manual labor by the use of machinery in tilling the soil, and in bringing agriculture as nearly as possible under the control of labor-saving implements, is in the right direction. The principle means of accomplishing the economy of human labor in agriculture, as in other departments of industry, are the exercise of skill and the employment of machinery, both of which indicate a high state of advancement, and may be regarded as a true test of its pro- gress.* There are two principal points, therefore, in relation to this subject, to which attention ought to be directed ; one is, the introduc- tion of agricultural implements, in all cases where their profitable use can be satisfactorily ascertained ; the other is, that these implements be manufactured at as low a cost as possible consistent with perfect workmanship. It follows, of course, that the more general the use of any instrument is, the cheaper it can be afforded ; but it is also true that, for want of skill and care in their manufacture, farmers often suffer much inconvenience, and are discouraged from purchasing and using many implements for fai'm work, of a really useful and labor- saving character. Last year the Trustees offered a premium of six hundred dollars, to the person who should cut not less than fifty acres of grass by a machine moved by horse or ox power. The object which the Trus- tees had in view, was, principally, to bring out skill in the use of a mowing machine comparatively new, without reference to the particu- lar merits of the several kinds then offered to the public. They felt strong hopes, also, that so large a premium would incite many to try the experiment of mowing with a machine, who would otherwise wait to see whether it was successful or not. In this they were not disap- pointed, the number of competitors for the premium having been large, and the competition very close. It will be seen by referring to the report of last year, that although there was but one opinion upon the economy of the machine over scythe mowing, there w'as a general complaint of bad workmanship ; and as each competitor was obliged to report every accident which his machine met with, it did not require complaints on the part of competitors, to convince the Trustees that there was a screw loose somewhere. No machine went through the trial without more or less breakages, which, although generally of a trifling nature, involved a certain loss of time. The offering of the premium of last year resulted most success- fully, since it developed a skill which has been too long dormant, and demonstrated very clearly that the mowing machine, if well made and constructed upon correct principles, might be successfully inti-o- duced and used as a great labor-saving implement throughout the State. Having arrived at this point, the importance of jjerfecting this labor-saving implement, and of iKiving one constructed that should * See "The Journal of Agriculture, &c., of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland." No. 53. New Series. 135 unite every possible requisite to make its use general, being fully shown by the trials of last year, the premium of one thousand dollars was offered for the best mowing machine, to be awarded the present year. In oi'der to do justice to competitors, and to arrive at a satis- factory result upon the merits of different machines offered in compe- tition, the machines were subjected to separate trials in every possi- ble way, under the inspection of three gentlemen, distinguished for their good judgment and knowledge in every thing pertaining to the matter confided to them, viz. : Col. Moses Newell, of West Newbury, Col. T. W. Ward, of Shrewsbury, and Thomas E. Pay son, Esq., of Salem. They undertook the task, with a fidl conviction of the impor- tance of the duty assigned to them, and devoted themselves to it with unwearied zeal. Their report, which is appended, speaks for itself, and shows the care and labor they bestowed upon the matter, and the conclusion which they arrived at met with the unanimous approval of the Trustees, who, in accordance with the report of the Committee, awarded the premium of one thousand dollars to the Heath nlachine, entered by D. C. Henderson, of Sandusky, Ohio. The Trustees have now done all that lies in their power to intro- duce the mowing machine into use as a great labor-saving implement. They hope not only that it will be adopted, but that it will lead the way to the use of others equally labor-saving and quite as essential to the prosperity of agriculture in Massachusetts. Nor does there seem to be any reason why almost all the labor of the hay harvest, which is at present the most trying and expensive in its nature of any of our farming operations, should not be done by machinery worked by horse-power. The mowing machine, the hay-maker, — • such as is now in use in England, — and the horserake, with the aid of two men and three horses, are quite competent to perform the work now required of twelve or fifteen men, allowing only one man per day to the acre, for cutting and making hay. The farmers have also a duty to fulfil. It is only by their pur- chasing labor-saving implements, and using them whenever it is in their power to do so, that they can be 2:)erfected. In this way encoui*- agement is given to invention and mechanical skill. Agricultural Associations, with their addresses and their premiums, are valuable only as the pioneers in the march of improvement. They can direct public attention to objects, but they cannot accomplish much unless a right spirit exists in the breast of every tiller of the soil. Their labors are of little avail unless their recommendations and exhorta- tions are met by the ready zeal of all. The great cause of agricul- tural improvement will always falter and move with feeble steps, when those who have it in hand are out-numbered by the listless and apathetic. The obstacles in the way of success to a Massachusetts farmer, are serious enough under the most favorable circumstances, but they are perfectly discouraging, unless they can be met by the united will and firm purpose of all to overcome them. Careful inves- tigation, and the experience gained even by common observation of what is passing in other lands, must convince every reflecting person, that agriculture as a pursuit must languish, unless more strenuous efforts are made to increase our mechanical skill in the cultivation of 136 the soil ; and it is from this strong conviction, that the Trustees thus earnestly speak upon the subject. Mowing Machines. To the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture : The subscribers, selected by your Honorable Board to inspect the work of the different mowing machines entered for premium, and to judge of their merits, respectfully I'eport : Of the number who had signified their intention to compete for the premium, there were, at the time of our appointment, ten who had complied with the conditions on which it was offered, and had given notice of the places selected by them for the operation of their several machines, to wit : Messrs. J. C. & D. Elliott, A. Dietz, Howard & Wood, Nourse, Mason & Co., J. P. Adriance, A. D. Briggs, R. L. Allen, Jones & Thompson, E. Danforth & Co., and D. C. Henderson. These competitors were all notified to be in readiness to mow five acres or more of grass in our presence, at the several places by them selected for that purpose, on a particular day named, a day having been assigned to each. The Messrs. Elliott, Dietz, and Howard and Wood gave notice that they were not prepared to exhibit their machines at the time ap- pointed, and withdrew from the contest. Messrs. Jones & Thompson exhibited their machine, but did not attempt to mow five acres. They likewise withdrew from competi- tion. Their machine was new, had scarcely before been tried in the grass, and its operation probably afforded as little satisfaction to them as it did to us. In its main features, and particularly in its cutting arrangement, it resembles the machine of E. Danforth & Co. As we shall notice that machine hereafter, it is not necessary to give a further description of this. The six other competitors each cut more than five acres of grass, the time occupied varying little on the average, from one hour to an acre. The machine entered by Mr. Adriance, was the only one which did its work in less than that time. Eive acres and twenty- seven rods were mowed by him, in four hours and fifty-one minutes. In speaking of the time occupied, no deduction is made for stops. It will be readily seen that these trials furnished very insufficient data by which to judge of the comparative mei'its of the different machines. The ground had, in all cases, been selected by the competitors themselves, or by some one in their behalf. The character of the crop, and the condition of the surface varied in different localities. Generally favorable to the successful operation of a machine, some lots were much more so than others. In several instances, horses and driver were perfectly familiar with the working of the particular machine which they used, and both understood exactly what to do to show it to the best advantage. Others were worked at great disad- vantage in this respect, and in one case neither horse nor driver had ever seen a mowing; machine before. 137 In order, therefore, to give the machines a fair test on equal foot- ing, as well for the competitors as for our own satisfaction, we con- cluded to operate them ourselves in the same field, under similar cir- cumstances and in similar grass, with the same pair of horses, and a driver who had no interest in any machine. This seemed to us the readiest and most feasible mode of testing the machines, and in fact the only mode which would enable us to arrive at a decision at all satisfactory, and for which we could give a sufficient reason. For tins purpose, three lots of grass, differing in quantity, quality and situation, were obtained on the farm of Mr. Thomas J. Field, in Northfield, a driver procured who was entirely unacquainted with mowing machines, and five of the competitors notified to have their machines at Mr. Field's farm on the morning of tlie 29tli of July. In the trial, the owners of the several machines were directed to give the driver just such instructions as they saw fit in relation to the management of their machines. Our only instruction to him was, to drive them all as nearly as possible at the same rate of speed. E. Danforth & Co. were not notified, because, in our opinion, there is an objection to their machine, apparent on inspection, which must prevent its general use in New England. It has two sets of cutters or knives, worked by a double crank in opposite directions, the edges of the blades of the under knife being serrated, and in their operation cutting very like shears. It has no fingers and of course no finger bar, and is probably as little liable to clog as any other machine. In many parts of the West, where it is manufactured, and where a mower may be used a whole season without once touching a stone, it undoubtedly works well. There a blade is rarely broken, while here they are constantly liable to damage, and are in fact often broken. In other machines the blades are riveted or bolted, or otherwise secured to the knife-plate, so that, in case of injury, one can be more or less readily substituted for another. The blades of Danforth's knives are not bolted or riveted upon a knife-plate, but plate and blades are one entire piece of steel, like a saw with very large, blunt teeth. They are, in fact, saw plates. The only way to repair a broken blade, there- fore, is to weld it. Now we take it that few mechanics, in a machine- shop even, can weld a broken saw-tooth without injuring or destroy- ing the entire plate. Certainly, in the country, the place where mowing machines are to be used, nobody could be found able to do it. A broken blade would probably involve the necessity of an entire new knife. This seemed to us an insuperable objection to the ma- chine, without looking for others which may or may not exist, and for that reason we did not desire to put the Messrs. Danforth to the trouble and expense of a further trial. The five other machines were upon the gi'ound at the time appointed, or on the next morping. The first lot of grass mowed contained about six acres, sown with Timothy in September last. The bottom was not thick, and the ground very far from being swarded over, might appropriately be termed dirty. The crop was not heavy, but uniform in quantity and quality. An acre was mowed by each machine. We were satisfied at this trial, that any further experiment with 138 the machine patented by "W. H. Hovey, on the 15th of April of the present year, and entered by A. D. Briggs, was not desirable. Without a drawing it would be difficult for us so to describe its sev- eral parts as to make ourselves understood. It is, perhaps, enough to say, that the blades are not bolted or riveted to the knife-plate, and are yet so fastened as to be held firmly and securely in their places by an arrangement so sim2)le that any farmer or laborer can substi- tute one for another without the aid of a mechanic, and almost with- out the aid of hammer or wrench, in an instant of time. This we consider a great merit. The knife-plate covers the finger-bar entire- ly, and being constantly in motion when the machine is in operation, leaves no stationary surface for the cut grass to fall and rest upon. This is claimed, by its inventor, as a great advantage. In its work- manship, also, it is quite equal to either of the other machines. But the amount of draught required to operate it, makes it a very se- vere load for a pair of the stoutest horses. Whether the power is wrongly applied, or whatever may be the cause, the fact is so. This, if there were no other objection, makes the use of it to any extent, in its present form, entirely impracticable. The four other machines were tried upon another lot of grass, on pieces of equal dimensions, each in succession, both when the grass was wet, and dry. This was a heavy crop of clover, Timothy and redtop, mixed, some of which was lodged. Portions of the lot were rolling, and the surface generally quite as far from level as are our ordinary grass fields, so that upon the whole, it was an excellent lot to test the machines. They were also tried on a meadow bottom which had never been ploughed, where various natural grasses, both coarse and fine, were intermixed. The trial, you will thus perceive, was a thorough one, and by it we were able to form a satisfactory judgment of the merits of the differ- ent machines. The remaining machines and between which we were to judge, Avere patented or known as Ketchum's, Manny's, Heath's, and the Allen machine, entered by R. L. Allen. The owners of the Ketchum machine allege that Mr. Allen has infringed upon their pa- tent, and has no right to build or sell his machine, except within the limits prescribed in a license procured from them, and that Massachu- setts is not within those limits. However that may be it is of no con- sequence so far as our report is concerned, for we did not regard the consideration of that question as within our province, and it therefore had no weight with us. The Ketchum machine, entered by Nourse, Mason & Co., has probably been in use longer in this State, and is more generally known, than either of the others. The one which they entered for premium differs from those which have been built by them in years past, in having a driving wheel of comparatively small size, wrought iron substituted for castings wherever it was deemed practicable, and every thing about the machine so made as to reduce its weight. In this they have succeeded ; their machine, with pole and whippletrees attached, weighing only about 460 lbs. The price of the machine has also been reduced from $100 or upwards, to $75. We think that in this they have made no mistake, but that the reduc- 139 tion in weight is a great mistake. The difference in the amount of draught required to operate a machine of 400 lbs. weight and another of 700 lbs. weight, other things being equal, would probably be almost imperceptible, except by very accurate dynamical tests, and may it not be that the difierence would then be ibund to be in favor of the heavier machine ? Without entering into any speculation upon the matter, we think that it was a fact apparent to every careful observer, that this light Ketchum machine actually required more power of draught, when in operation, than either of the four, and that the one which required the least power of draught was almost twice as heavy. So light indeed was it, that with the weight of the driver superadded, and driven at a rate of speed sufficient to cut the grass well, — which, by the way, is a little higher than that required by the other ma- chines,— inequalities in the surface, even slight ones, caused it to bound in such a manner as to throw up the extreme end of the finger- bar several inches above its true cutting level, leaving the stubble uneven and wavy. Allen's machine required less power of draught than the Ketchum machine. Its weight, with pole and whippletrees, is about 600 lbs. No machine that we have seen is so readily thrown in and out of gear as is this. It has a wooden, instead of an iron finger-bar. In our opinion an iron finger-bar is preferable. The weather cannot affect it, as of necessity it must a wooden one, and the grass which falls upon it leaves it a little more readily. Outside of the driving wheel is a light wheel which runs on a spring axle, and is claimed to be ad- vantageous in turning and in working the machine upon a side hill. The Manny machine also requires less power of draught than did the Ketchum machine. In this respect, the difference between it and the Allen machine was almost imperceptible. It has a wheel at the end of the knife-bar, which greatly assists in turning and backing, and makes it much more comfortable to transport from one field to another. We think that, other things being equal, a machine with a wheel at the end of the finger-bar has an advantage over a machine without it. Although very different in construction, we regard the Allen and the Manny machines as very nearly alike in point of merit, and if it had so happened that it was necessary for us to decide be- tween those two machines, our judgment would have been made up cautiously and with much hesitation, for each has points of excellence which the other does not possess. Both these machines did their work generally well, but not so well as the work done by the Heath machine. This, like the Manny machine, has a wheel at the end of the finger- bar. Like that, too, it has a reel, which may or may not be used, as circumstances require. But its cutting arrangement differs entirely from either of the other machines. They each have a single knife, with the blades riveted to the plate, and not operating through cast iron fingei-s or guards, which, especially when the knifie is dull, may be liable to get filled up, and thus clog the blades. Instead of these, this machine has virtually a double set of cutters, the under set being stationary, projecting an inch beyond the upper, and thereby acting in the double capacity of guard and cutter. These, as well as the 140 upper blades, are each independent of the other, and each attached to its bar by a screw bolt. The upper set of blades is held down by a spring pressure bar, so that the operation is similar to that of shears, the grass being cut between two sharp edges, and the machine work- ing nearly as well at one rate of speed as another. In case of acci- dent, therefore, a blade can be removed by any body and another sub- stituted, in an instant of time. Both the upper and lower cutters are made like the best edge-tools in use, of the best cast-steel, with wrought iron backs. The iron furnishing strength, the steel can be made as hai'd as desirable, without so much danger of breaking by use, and being made hard, do not require to be so often ground. The lower cutter, or guard, as you may please to call it, is half an inch thick and one and one-fourth inches wide. The upper blades are about twice as thick as those used* on any other machine. This ma- chine very evidently required less power of draught than either of the others, and did its work the best. The Manny machine weighed about 600 lbs. This weighs about 850 lbs. In its cutting apparatus, which is, perhaps, the most important featui'e of a mowing machine, we regard it as very much superior to either of the others. In its ease of draught, perhaps the next most important feature, we regard it as superior. We regard it also as less liable to clog than any ma- chine with fingers or guards, like those of Ketchum, Manny and Allen. In other important features it is equal to the other machines. We therefore unhesitatingly, confidently and unanimously, express the opinion, that the Heath machine, entered by D. C. Henderson, is entitled to the premium of one thousand dollars, if that premium is awarded the present year. Moses Newell. Thomas E. Payson. Thomas W. Ward. Boston, September 12, 1856. An arrangement was made and completed for tlie transfer of tlie library to the custody of the Secretary of the Board of Agri- culture, at the State House. An application was made by Mr. Langstreth, for aid in im- porting Italian bees, and it was referred to a committee with full powers, if they thought it exjoedient, to aid him to the extent of two hundred dollars. A j}remium of two hundred and fifty dollars was offered for the best practical essay on the compara- tive economy of horses and oxen, for farm purposes in Massa- chusetts, the offer to remain open to 1858. A letter was received in relation to a bequest of the late Andre Michaux, the distinguished naturalist of France, payable on the decease of Madame Michaux, to this Society. The sub- 141 ject was placed in charge of a committee, who subsequently made a full report, the purport of wluch may be understood from the minute of a later meeting of the Board. The Secre- tary stated that in pursuance of the votes reported by the Com- mittee and passed at the last meeting, relative to the bequest of the late Andre Michaux, that all the necessary papers were pre- 25ared and had been forwarded to Monsieur Germain, notary at Pontoise, to wit: a copy of the resolutions accepting the be- quest ; of the vote of condolence to the family of the deceased ; a power of attorney executed by the President of the Society, and duly authenticated, in favor of Monsieur Germain ; an affi- davit made by the President, Vice-President, and one of the Trustees of the existence of the Society, and of its legal right to receive the bequest ; a certificate of the election of Monsieur Michaux as an honorary member of the Society, in the year 1816. These documents were translated into French, and both (the original and translated) were duly received and acknowl- edged by Monsieur Germain. It is very doubtful, however, if the bequest can ever be made available or useful to the Society, from the nature of the condi- tions which are attached to it. The facts, as reported by the Committee are, that Monsieur Andre Michaux, by his will, bear- ing date the thirtieth day of May, in the year eighteen hundred and fifty-two bequeathed to the American Philosophical Society, of Philadelphia, the sum of fourteen thousand dollars, and to the Society of Agriculture and Arts of the State of Massachu- setts, Boston, the sum of eight thousand dollars, — and that> in a supplementary and explanatory will, bearing date the eleventh day of October of the same year, and in which he describes himself as a member of both societies, he states the purposes of these bequests, as follows : " The legacies are made with the same intentions, that is, for the progress of agriculture, principally, in the States of Penn- sylvania and Massachusetts, and subordinately in those of New Jersey, New York and Connecticut, New Hampshire and Maine. I express the wish that four fifth parts of these two legacies shall be invested by these two Societies, in buying a little farm or lot of land, to be cultivated in cereals or grasses. 142 so that the yearly grant may be employed at the end of each year in honorary premiums, to arboriculturists or horticulturists, who may have introduced, cultivated or improved useful trees or vegetables, either indigenous or exotic, or even remarkable for their beauty, but which shall nevertheless grow in the open ground. The authors of papers in these two rival branches of economy, arboriculture and horticulture, who shall have pro- duced, or read before these two learned societies, shall have a right to these premiums, if they shall have been adjudged by these societies worthy of publication. These premiums might be in medals of gold or silver, or works treating of agriculture, or horticultui'e. The remaining fifth part of each of these two sums, that is to say, twenty-eight hundre.d dollars for the Philo- sophical Society, and the other, of sixteen hundred dollar's for the Agricultui'al Society of Massachusetts, shall be invested, foui" fifth parts in buying, on the borders of the sea, one or sev- eral lots of sand and soil, and also some lots in the mountainous regions, the most stony, or most boggy and quaggy soils, con- sidered hitherto so unproductive as not to have been cultivated, soils which I shall show them can be made very useful and pro- fitable, by the cultui'e of resinous trees." " The other fifth part of these two sums, that is to say five hundred and sixty dollars, and three hundred and twenty dollars shall be employed by these two societies in sowing and in plant- ing these lands as I shall direct, in a kind of instruction in which I shall make known the means which have succeeded best in France, "with those soils which have remained for centu- ries uncultivated and spoiled by complete sterility." The Committee after stating the facts, proceed to say, " it will be observed that this Society is not accurately described by its corporate name ; but it is believed that no doubt can exist that it is the same intended in the will, as there was then no other exist- ing to which the description could apply, wliile it does substan- tially indicate this ; and inasmuch as he appeai-s upon oui* rolls as an honorary member, and no other society of the like kind, in this State, can be supposed thus to have enrolled his name, the identity of this Society with that designated in the ^^ill, ap- pears to be clearly established. It may be further remarked 143 that the entire will has not been received, and the extracts which have been furnished are translations, and not in the original language of the will." At the February meeting, Mr. Winthrop, who represented the Society as delegate to the State Board, stated that a propo- sition had been brought before that Board to hold a State Agricultural Show the coming autumn, and that the aid of this Society was solicited. After a full discussion, it was the unani- mous opinion of the Trustees that it would be better to delay it for another year, as it would interfere with the county shows, the arrangements for which were generally made ; at the same time the Board was desirous of meeting the views of the State Board, which from its composition was the best judge of the matter. Mr. Winthi-op was therefore instructed to say that if the show were concluded upon, to be held the present year, this Society would contribute the sum of two thousand dollars in premiums, or if it should be postponed to the following year, he was authorized to pledge the sum of three thousand dollars towards carrying it out. A letter was received from Mr. Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, in relation to the importation of stock by the Society, which was referred to a Committee. At a subsequent meeting that Com- mittee made a report, from which the followino- are extracts : " That the disposable funds of the Society are insufficient at the present time to permit any expenditures, of the comprehen- sive nature proposed by Mr. Dodge. In the opinion of the Committee, however, looking back to the past history of the Society, its usefulness has been more apparent, more marked and more permanent in its character, through the efforts it has made for the improvement of stock, by importation and other- wise, than in any other field of its labors ; and it is deeply to be regretted that these efforts should not be systematically and steadily continued. With the present income of the Society, however, much of which is usefully and properly ajoplied to the promotion of agriculture in other branches, but httle can be done in the way of importation or care of stock." " The Committee have been led to consider, in consequence of the letter of Mr. Dodge, and of other similar applications. 144 whether some plan could not be adopted of a permanent and practical nature, having for its principal object the improvement of all kinds of farm stock. To do this, it is not only necessary that it should be carefully selected with a view to its adapta- bility to our soil, climate and uses, but also that when brought together, it should be kept in such manner as that pure races should be bred, and kept up to the highest point of excellence, with a view of their being disseminated in that condition throughout the State." As the subject is now under consideration of ^he Trustees, the plan for doing tliis, proposed by the Committee, is not inserted. The day of the meeting of the Boai'd was changed to the second Friday of each month, to accommodate Trustees living at a distance from the place of meeting, when impossible or incon- venient to go and return the same day. Benjamin Guild resigned his office as Assistant Recording Secretary, after the annual meeting in June, 1856. The Committee, on the resignation of Mr. Guild, reported the following resolutions : — *' Resolved, That the Trustees have received, with sincere re- gret, the resignation of Benjamin Guild, Esq., who has faith- fully and gratuitously discharged the duties of Assistant Record- ing Secrectaiy of the Society, for a term of nearly forty years.*" " Resolved, That the grateful acknowledgments of the Trus- tees, and of all the members, are due to Mr. Guild for his intel- Hgent and earnest efforts to promote the interests and objects of the Society, dming so large pait of its existence, and that we cannot forget that the term of his service includes a period when the Massachusetts Society had but few coadjutors in the cause of agricultural improvement, and when the duties of its officers, * The duties of Recording Secretarj' were so much increased by the estab- lishment of annual shows, that an assistant became necessary. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, the Society, at its annual meeting in 1818, created the office of Assistant Recording Secretary, and elected Mr. Guild to fill the same. Since that period the records have been kept by Mm to the present time, both of the doings of the Society and those of the Trustees. The shows having been discontinued, the vacancy created by the resignation of Mr. Guild has not been filled. Mr. Guild died on the 30th day of March, 1858. U5 and particularly of its Eecording Secretary, were highly impor- tant, responsible, and arduous." " Resolved, That an attested copy of these resolutions be com- municated to Mr. Guild, and that they be laid before the whole Society, at its next annual meeting, for entry upon its records." Hon. John C. Gray also resigned his office of President and Trustee during this year, having been a member of the Board for twenty-nine years, and its presiding officer for ten years, and the thanks of the Trustees were presented to him " for the faith- ful and efficient service rendered by him to the cause of agricul- tui-al progress and improvement, by the discharge of his official duties, so honorable to the Society and so beneficial to the public, and by his writings and example." George W. Lyman, Esq., senior Vice-President, succeeded him in office, and the vacancy in the Board was filled by the election of David Sears, jr., Esq. A. D., 1857. The Trustees having disposed of then- Jersey stock, the ques- tion came up, as to the expediency of continuing the efibrts which have been made by the Society from almost the com- mencement of its existence, in improving our breeds of cattle by importation of superior stock from England. Aided by past experience and by careful inquiry, as to the effect produced by bringing different breeds into the State, and looking at the wants of Massachusetts farmers in this respect, it was concluded that the introduction of good Ayrshire cattle would, on the whole, be the most advantageous for the State. The funds of the Society are not large enough to import many animals, and it was thought best to confine its efforts to one breed, and to keep the stock together, instead of distributing it as heretofore, dis- posing of the animals that shall be raised from it, from time to 146 time, in such a manner as to secure its increase, and permanence in the country. In accordance with these views, the sum of fifteen hundred dollar's was appropriated in November last, for the piu'chase and importation of Ayrshire cattle. The season, however, was so far advanced, that it was thought expedient to defer sending out imtii the spring. The Committee to whom the subject was referred, reported at the meeting in May, that they had made an arrangement with Mr. Sanford Howard to go out to England for the purpose of selecting and pui'chasing Ayrshii'e stock, four bulls and ten heifers, the cost of which they estimated, including the expenses of Mr. Howard and the passage of the animals, would not ex- ceed thirty-four- hundred dollars. They recommended that the appropriation heretofore made for this object be increased to this sum, (afterwards increased to thirty-five hundred dollars.) The instructions to Mr. Howard were " to pui'chase stock known here as the Swinley, color reddish brown, hregularly spotted with white, and small brown spots in the white. Horns, usually irregularly shaped, small horns preferred, thin in the neck, escut- cheon mark desii'able. Age of bulls from nine to twelve months, heifers two years old, and in calf by superior bulls. These direc- tions to serve only as a general guide, great rehance being placed upon Mr. Howard's judgment in selecting superior animals. If the cost should exceed the estimated amount, the number of animals to be decreased, but not the quality, which must be the best that can be obtained. The animals to be shipped in two difierent vessels, and the arrangement for freight to be made be- fore final purchase." The report was accepted, the appropriation increased as recommended, and the committee was requested to keep the subject in their chai-ge until after the animals shall have arrived in the country, and a permanent disposition made of them.* An application was made to the Board requesting the Trus- tees to import Devon stock. It was declined, for reasons which will be apparent on reading the preceding pages, and also, be- *■ Mr. Howard took out orders from individual Trustees and others, to a large amount, for stock of various Icinds, so that much good is expected to re- sult from his mission. 147 cause in the opinion of the Board, there was ah-eacly in the country as good Devon stock as could be purchased in England, which can be obtained at a comparatively moderate cost. At the meeting of the Boai'd in August, an account of the successful working of the Heath mowing machine in England was read, it having received the highest premium as a mower, from the Royal Agricultural Society in England. A discussion took place as to the cause of the want of success by those made f for use this season, by Nourse, Mason & Co., who had purchased the patent. It was stated that the machine which went out to England, and the one which received the Society's premium the last year, were made at Sandusky, Ohio, and that the latter had been in successful operation during this season, by the person who pm-chased it after the award. It was decided to refer this matter to the Committee, under whose supervision the compet- ing machines were placed, Messrs. Newell, Payson and Ward, and by whose recommendation the award was made, to investigate as to the working of the machine the present year. That Com- mittee subsequently reported that the machine made by Noui'se, Mason & Co., was defective in workmanship, and varied in some essential particulars from the original Heath machine. This had arisen partly from a serious injmy to Mr. Nourse, who had been prevented from giving his personal attention to the matter. The Committee transmitted a letter received from the purchaser of the Heath Mower confirming their original opinion as to its excellence and superiority. The Committee could not, therefore, " retract the opinions they had given as to its superiority over the other competing machines, contained in then- report." It having been stated that great improvements had been made in tedding or hay-making machines in England, by which a great saving in labor had been effected, it was voted to order two of them, in order to set them in operation and test their usefulness here, and, if found to be adapted to the wants of Massachusetts farmers, to encourage their manufacture and use. These machines have been received, and are operating success- fully, and it is hoped that they will prove as important labor- saving implements as the mower is, upon all tolerably well- prepared lands. 148 The following premiums were offered for Essays : — I. An inquiry as to the best breed of Cattle for the State of Massachusetts, taking into consideration heef, milk, and work. Does such a breed exist ? If not, can it be made, either by crossing known breeds, or by selection, without reference to breed ? II. Manui-es, natm-al and artificial. The best mode of prepara- tion. The best mode of apphcation, — having especial reference to the soil, climate, and crops of Massachusetts. III. The most useful system of instruction, by which to acquu-e a practical agricultural education, such as would fit a young man to commence the business of a farmer upon the average farming lands of Massachusetts, IV. Best Essay on the advantages to be derived from establish- ing regular fairs or market days throughout the State, for the sale and exchange of agricultural products, together with the best practical method for commencing and continuing them so as to create new markets to the farmer. No Essay will be entitled to a premium, unless it shall be considered by the Trustees or by those appointed to decide upon its merits, to be of sufficient practical value to agriculture, to make it worthy of publication in the Transactions of the Society. The Essays must be sent in to the Secretary on or before Octo- ber 1, 1858, and the name of the author must accompany his Essay, sealed up in an envelope, and not to be opened unless a premium is awarded to the writer. A Committee was appointed to ofier premiums on root crops. The Chairman reported, at a subsequent meeting, that inasmuch as premiums were offered for these crops by the County Socie- ties generally, and as they can best supervise the method of cul- tivation pursued by competitors within their respective limits, and from the inherent difficulties of a formal examination of any particular crop throughout the State, it was not considered expe- dient to offer premiums for crops of this nature. It was recom- mended however that a premium should be offered, to be con- tinued from year to year, or in some other form, so as to comply 149 , with Statute, Ch. 42, Sect. 6, for the raising and preserving of oaks and other forest trees, best adapted to perpetuate within the State an adequate supply of ship timber. In pursuance of the above recommendation, It having been stated that the object Intended by the statute above referred to, was to secure the raising and perfecting the growth of forest trees, and not simply planting them — that this could not be accomplished by annual premiums as for a vegetable crop — that the terms of the statute are fully complied with, both In the letter and in the spirit, by offering annually a premium, payable at a distant day, whereby the object of offering it can be attained, the following premium was recommended and finally adopted. Premium of One Thousand Dollars. " The above sum is offered for the best plantation of trees, of any kind commonly used for, and adapted to, ship-building, grown from seed planted for the purpose, or otherwise, on not less than five acres of land, one white oak at least to be planted to every twenty square yards. Notice In writing must be given to the Secretary of the Society, on or before January 1, 1860, of the Intention to compete for the premium, stating where the land is situated, the nature of the soil, and what has been done In relation to the plantation up to the time of giving notice. The premium will be awarded In 1870, In case the success of any competitor has been such as. In the opinion of the Trustees, or of those appointed by them to adjudge the same, to give a reasonable probability that the plantation will produce eventually a fair supply of ship timber, In proportion to the number of acres planted. The Society likewise claims the right, after awarding the premium, to designate from time to time what trees shall be reserved for timber, and the successful competitor shall give security, that the trees so designated shall not be cut for any other purpose." 19 ANNUAL REPORT TO THE STATE. 1858. The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, heg leave to offer the following Report : The operations of the Society during the present year have been mainly confined to the offer and award of premiums for essays upon subjects calculated to awaken a spirit of useful in- quuy upon points deemed vital to the prosperity of agriculture in Massachusetts : to the importation and dissemination of seeds, with a view of inciting farmers generally to a more extended cultivation of root crops, especially beets and turnips : to print- ing for gratuitous distribution, several, selected essays upon topics important to every agriculturalist, and also the essays for which premiums have been awarded ; and to the importation of a herd of Ayrshire cattle, for the purpose of improving the dairy stock throughout the State. An abstract of the doings of the Society from its commencement has Hkewise been printed, which is intended to form the beginning of a new series of pubhcations upon agricultural subjects. The Ayrshire herd has, with the exception of the two-year-old bull sent into Wor- cester County, been placed temporarily upon the fai-m of the Essex Agricultural Society in Topsfield. A description of the stock, taken from the Report of Mr. Sandford Howard who purchased it for the Society, is hereto appended, in order that a pedigree of the animals may be preserved in the Annual State Agricultural Report, where it can always be readily referred to. The Trustees of the Massachusetts Society wish also to call the particular attention of all those interested in the subject, to a new labor-saving implement, two of which they imported this year frora England with a view of thoroughly testing the merits of the machine. It is called a tedding machine or hay- maker, and after a constant trial during the haying season they can confidently recommend it as being a most valuable labor-saving implement. It is earnestly hoped that successful 152 efforts will be made without delay, to have a similar machine manufactured in Massachusetts, at a price which will bring it into general use. The imported machines will be placed at the disposal of any responsible manufacturers, Avho shall apply for them. A description of the working of these imple- ments is given in the letters of Messrs. Lyman and Loring, which are annexed. It is a matter of especial congratulation, that there is an evi- dently increasing interest awakened upon the subject of agricul- ture in Massachusetts, and a better direction seems now to be given to the efforts at progress in this highly important branch of industry. There is a wide field for improvement and a fair encouragement for those who may choose to enter upon it. The improvement of our stock of all kinds, both as it regards selec- tion of a better class of animals to breed from, and greater care as to their food, shelter and general management, — the intro- duction and use of labor-saving implements, — a better system of markets, and the adaptation of our husbandry with reference to them, — the education of young men with a sj)ecial view to their following the occupation of a farmer, — all these points should be kept in view by those who seek to promote the cause of agri- cultui'e in Massachusetts. This Society is, as it has ever been, desirous to co-operate with the other Agricultural Societies in every measui-e which shall tend to a steady and substantial advancement of agricultural improvement ; acting under the firm conviction that, in so doing, a great philanthropic as Avell as patriotic work will be accomplished. It is intended to print annually a volume con- taining articles of importance to the farmer, and communications from all persons interested in the subject of agriculture are so- licited. To each of the other Societies wdll be intrusted a cer- tain number of copies for distribution. The following premiums are offered by the Board of Trustees for the year 1859, which will, it is hoped, excite a wide com- petition. 1. A premium of one thousand dollars for a plantation of forest trees. For the particulars of which, see j)age 149, ante. 153 2. A premium of five hundred dollars for the best conduct- ed farm. The above sum is oifered, in one premium, for the best con- ducted farm in Massachusetts, of not less than forty acres, taking into consideration the mode of cultivation, farm buildings, breeding, selection and keeping of stock. Farms devoted to market gardening will not be admitted to competition. The Trustees reserve the right of withholding the premium, in case no farm offered shall be considered worthy of it, and also of dividing it, in case no one farm shall be considered decidedly the best con- ducted. Notice of intention to compete for the premium must be given to the Secretary of the Society, on or before the first day of April, 1859, accompanied by the payment of an entrance fee of ten dollars. A written statement, verified by the oath of the com]3etitor, will be required, containing an acciu'ate state- ment as to the management of the farm, with an account in figures showing the results of the year's operations. The account to commence on the first day of April, 1859, and to terminate on the thirty-first day of March following. All farms entered for the premium shall be subject to the visits and inspection of the Trustees, or by others appointed by them for the purpose. No Trustee or ofiicer of the Society will be allowed to compete. 3. A premium of one hundred and fifty dollars for the best Essay on the best breed of cattle, taking into consideration beef, milk and work, adapted to the wants of this State. Does such a breed exist ? If it does not, can it be made by crossing or selection ? The premium not to be awarded, unless the Essay shall be considered by the Trustees of sufficient value to be printed in the Transactions of the Society. The essays to be sent in to the Secretary, on or before October 1, 1859. All which is respectfully submitted. GEORGE W. LYMAN, Preset EicHARD S. Fay, Sec'y. Boston, December 10, 18i38. APPENDIX. Description and pedigree of Ayrshire Cattle, imported bt THE Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, 1858. Purchased in Scotland by Mr. Sandford Howard. Bull, No. 1. Albert, brownish red and white, two years old, purchased of John Steele, near Ochiltree, bred by James Hendrie of Drumdrock, sire, Jock, bred by Mr. Bowie, of Riccarton, winner of the 1st prize at Killock cattle show, 1855. Grandsire, Geordie, bred by Mr. Hendrie, winner of the second prize as a two-year-old, at Galston, 1849, and the second as a three-year-old, 1850. Dam, Kirstie, by Geordie (before mentioned), grandam, Nancy, (never shown), by Hilburnie, the winner of the first prize as a two-year-old, at Galston, 1845 ; also, the first at Grongar, 1846. Albert won the second prize as a yearling, at the show of the Agricultural Association, 1857 ; also, the first prize at Ochiltree same year, and the second prize at same place as a two-year-old, 1858. Mr. Howard says, " With the exception of Mr. Parker's bull, which took the prize over him at Ayr, he is the best of the breed, of his age, that I saw in Scotland." No. 2. Troon, brownish red, with a few small white spots, two years old, purchased of Andrew Alton, Esq., of Craigend, near Troon, bred by Mr. Kirkwood, of Highland Muir. Sire, bred by John Parker, of Nether Broomlands. Irvine, dam, considered one of the best in Mr. K.'s herd. No. 3. Tam Sampson, brownish red and white, white predomin- ating, one year old, purchased of John Mickle, bred by Andrew Alton, who says : " He was got by a bull that was from a cow which gained the first prize at the county (Ayr) show ; his dam, a cow bred by myself, whose grandam gained several prizes. I consider him as well bred as any bull in the county." No. 4. Irvine, color red. Calved May, 1858, purchased of and bred by Mr John Parker, of Nether Broomlands. Sire, bred by Mr. Parker, winner of several prizes and of the noted family possessed by him for nearly thirty years. Dam, bred by Mr. Parker, winner of the first prize at the county show, she is also dam of the cow which took the first prize in 1858. Mr. Parker says: "The dam of the bull-calf gained the medal at the Ayr county show when two years old, and when in milk gained many prizes at Ayr, and other shows. The dam of his sire has also gained many first prizes." Heifer, No. 1. Miss Aiton, light red, flecked with white, three years old, purchased of and bred by Andrew Aiton. Sire, dam and grandam bred by Mr. Aiton, bulled by Troon, July 16th. 156 No. 2. Mavis, brownish red and white, spotted, two years old, purchased of Mr. Aiton, bred by John Dunlop, near Stewarton, whose breed is reputed to be of very fine quality, bulled by Troon, July 9th. No. 3. Lilly, brownish red and white, white predominating, one year old, purchased of and bred by John Parker, sire and dam bred by him. The latter is also dam of the celebrated bull, Cardigan, who has taken twenty-four first prizes. Lilly is a twin, and a late calf last year. No. 4. Panzy, brownish red, with a few patches of white, one year old, purchased of and bred by John Parker. Sire, bred by Mr. Parker, and got by Cardigan's sire. Dam, bred by Mr. Parker, and " winner of many prizes." No. 5. Daisy, brownish red and white, one year old, purchased of and bred by David Wilson, of Irvine. She is seven-eighths of the blood of Mr. Parker's herd. No. 6. Harriet, light red and white, two years old, purchased of John Mickle, of Brownhill, near Tarbolton ; bred by Mr. Camp- bell, of Woodside, Monckton, and said to be out of the best cow of his herd. In calf by a son of Cardigan. No. 7. Ruth, light brown, one year old, purchased of James Mickle, of Claxton, near Tarbolton, bred by Mr. Campbell, of Dalgig. Sire, Cardigan. Dam, a fine cow owned by Mr. Campbell. No. 8. Miss Markland, light red, two years old, purchased of and bred by James Reid of Torcross, near Tarbolton. Sire, bred by Mr. Reid, grandsire, won the first prize at the Ayrshire show, as the best aged bull. Dam, bred by Mr. Reid, a superior cow, grandam also bred by him, and a winner of several first prizes ; bulled by Mr. Reid's Sir Colin, July 7th. No. 9. Miss Smith, red, two years old, purchased of and bred by George Richmond, near Dalrymple. Sire, Geordie, who was by Kilmaurs, whose dam won several prizes. Dam, sister to Young Grammy, winner of several prizes. No. 10. Rosa, light red and white, two years old, purchased of and bred by Hugh Lambie, near Tarbolton. Sire, Alexander. Dam, Jean, both bred by him from Ayrshire stock kept by him for twenty years. No. 11. Miss Anderson, brownish red and white, white j)re- dominating, two years old, purchased of James Anderson, of Kirk- hill, near Ayr, bred by Alexander Bruce, of Shawe, out of one of his best cows, and reputed fisrt rate stock on both sides. 157 Waltham, Sept. 1, 1858. ^ My Dear Sir, — I have the pleasure to report to you about the working of the Tedding Machine imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture. The machine has been used witli great advantage, and has given satisfaction to the haymakers. No part of it has broken, or yielded to the hard work done by it. It has been applied to the swarths laid by the mowing machine when they were dry enough to be turned and in the direction of the mower. If grass is cut by the scythe it works best by being driven across the swarths. The machine has two motions, communicated by geers in the hubs of the wheels — one forward, which lifts the grass and throws it above, over, and behind the machine. The other motion is a reverse one, lifting the grass and throwing it behind. Both motions lift, open, and spread the grass, more perfectly than can be done by a man and fork, and the machine does its work as fast as a horse carries it for- ward. It is heavy, does much work very quickly, and requires one good horse to draw it. I have been away from my farm much of the time of haymaking, but I may safely say that the men who have used it commend it highly as a labor-saving machine, doing its work without any delay. The machine weighs 1090 lbs. Wheels, axle and frame-work, are iron. Very repectfully, your obed't serv't, GEORGE W. LYMAN. To E. S. Fat, Esq., Secretary of the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture. Salem, Aug. 21, 1858. My Dear Sir, — I desire to express to you the satisfaction I have derived from the use of the Tedder imported by you for the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture. It was sent to me by Mr. JMotley, after he had used it, and I only regret that I could not obtain it sooner. The difficulties we have all met with in making hay during the un- certain weather of this season, have given us peculiar opportunities for testing the value of any machine intended to facilitate the process of drying. And I was surprised to find with how much greater ease I could overcome these difficulties after I obtained the Tedder than before. "With diligent use of the machine, 1 found one good drying day sufficient. Hay, which under the ordinary treatment would have been raked and cocked as unfit to go to the barn until the next day, was thoroughly made by applying the Tedder twice in the afternoon. And every farmer knows the value of this in a season when every " next day" was almost sure to rain. 20 158 The machine works with great rapidity and ease in almost all places. I tried it on rough land and smooth with equal success. I used it on hay lying in swath and in windrow opened by the fork, and it worked equally well in both instances. I found that it would thoroughly spread an acre of grass in fifteen minutes, without extra exertion — and the work when done was really done as no man with a fork could have done it, in any length of time. Not a particle of the grass had escaped exposure to the sun and air. The construction of the machine is simple, strong, and entirely ap- propriate to the work. I found it better in heavy grass to use two horses, tandem, as the weight was rather more than I liked to put upon one — although this was choice, and not necessity. It required no repairs during my use of it. I can safely say, that I have found no labor-saving machine more perfect. It enables us to make our hay easily, rapidly, and thor- oughly, and makes us entirely independent of that kind of manual labor which requires constant watching, especially in the process of spreading and turning hay, and which is all that can be obtained in these modern days. It seems to me almost indispensable on large farms. After I obtained it, I set apart a field of about five acres for experiment in machinery. It was cut with the simple and admirable grass-cutter, Danforth's patent, sent to me by Mr. Thompson, of Greenfield, — it was spread with the Tedder, — it Avas raked with the horse-rake in common use — and was ready for the barn, without hav- ing had any manual labor applied to it, except to open the windrows, the morning after it was cut. I can only say that no five acres of my grass this season have been made into hay Avith half the economy and expedition that I was able to apply to these, by means of machinery. I would express my obligations to you for bringing the machine into my notice, and I really trust our farmers will, ere long, be ena- bled to obtain them at reasonable prices, and of American manu- facture. Truly, your friend and serv't, GEO. B. LORING. R. S. Fat, Esq., Secretary. \ 159 [circular.] ciety for j Boston, Dec. lOif/^^lSSS. Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, \ Sir, — It is thought by many intelligent farmers that much good would result by a greater attention to Sheep-Husbandry, in this Com- monwealth, considered as a matter of simple profit, besides improving the land. It is a constant subject of complaint, that our pastures are running out ; and inquiry is constantly being made, how they can be renovated. There are a great many thousand acres in the State which have become too impoverished to afford pasturage for cattle, and which are too rough for cultivation. There is no doubt but much land of this character might be improved by grubbing up the bushes which have been gradually overspreading them, and by the application of plaster, or other manures, in the form of top- dressing. This, however, requires a large outlay of capital. If sheep will thrive upon worn-out pastures, it becomes an interesting subject of inquiry to ascertain whether they can be profitably used for this purpose. The following questions have been prepared by order of the Trustees, for the purpose of getting all the information possible upon this subject, which it is proposed to embody in a Report. An early answer to the questions herewith submitted, together with any suggestions you may think proper to make upon the subject, will be thankfully i-eceived. Very respectfully, your ob't serv't, RICHARD S. FAY. 160 QUESTIONS. 1. To what extent is Sheep-Husbandry carried, in your town and county ? 2. What kind of sheep is usually raised, — ^long-wooled, or short- wooled ? 3. What is your calculation of the profits to be derived from sheep ; taking into account food, labor, &c. ? 4. What is the usual winter management of sheep — especially hous- ing and feeding ? 5. What is the usual summer management — especially as to shear- ing, weaning, pasturing, and folding ? 6. At what time is it most profitable to have your lambs dropped ? with the reasons therefor ? 7. Are there any impediments in the way of sheep culture in your county ? and if so, state what they are — with any suggestions for their removal? 8. Has the statute passed in the session of 1858, to indemnify sheep owners for the ravages of dogs, been enforced in your town ? Can you suggest any amendment to the law, to render it more effectual for the purpose intended ? 9. Do sheep, in your opinion, improve pasture-lands ? and will you 1 state what kind of land is the most improved by them ? r NO. 1. n Lnew seriesJ ON THE HISTOEY, CULTIVATION, COMPOSITION, AND FEEDING PROPERTIES OP MANGOLD WUEZEL. BY JOHN TYNAN, A PUPIL OP THE ALBERT NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTION. REPRINTED, FOR GENERAL DISTRIBnTION, FROM THE DUBLIN EDITION, UX THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AQRICCLTURE. 'WORK AND I, KARN. BOSTON: 1858. J. n. EASTBUUN'S PRESS. NOTICE. The annexed extracts from " The Journal of the Chemico- Agri- cultural Society of Ulster," (No. 12, New Series) fully explain the circumstances which induced me to attempt writing on the Cultiva- tion, &c., of Mangold Wurzel. JOHN TYNAN. Albert National Agricultural Institution, Glasnevin, Dublin, \st March, 1858. CHEMICO-AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ULSTER. COUNCIL MEETING. January 1. — John Andrews, Esq., J.P., High Sheriff of Down, and afterwards William Sharman Crawford, Esq., D.L., Vice Presi- dent, occupied the chair. There were also present — Rev. George Smyth, Carnmoney ; Professor Hodges, chemist to the society ; Pro- fessor Thomson, C.E., Queen's College ; Dr. Hamilton, Belfast ; "W. B. Ritchie, Hon. Secretary ; Robert Shaw, Ballymechan ; Geo. C. Hyndman, Belfast ; Oliver Devlin, Ulster Model Farm." PRIZE ESSAY ON THE CULTIVATION OF MANGOLD WURZEL. Dr. Hodges read the following letter, which he had received from Dr. Kirkpatrick, Head-Inspector of Agricultural Schools, in reference to a copy of a pi'ize essay which he forwarded, and which was direct- ed to be published in 2he Journal : — "■ Albert Institution, Glasnevin, Dublin, 2Qth December, 1857. My DEAR Doctor, — A distinguished American agriculturist,* who visited the Albert Institution and Farm in autumn last, was so greatly pleased with the mangold wurzel crop that he begged I would favor him with full particulars relating to it, the preparation of the laud, the manures applied, and the after-management of the crop. It struck me that the making out of such a statement as he expressed a wish to have, would be a useful exercise for the pupils, and at the same time test the agricultural knowledge which they had attained, and show their capabilities of composition, &c. I accordingly oft'ered one or two prizes for the best written essay on the history, cultiva- tion, &c., of mangold wurzel, and shortly afterwards received about twenty essays. As it was most desirable that the merits of the sev- eral essays should be decided upon by a person not only competent to form an accurate opinion, but who was also unacquainted with any one of the writers, I submitted them to my friend, John Fisher Mur- ray, Esq., who most kindly and obligingly gave them a minute and * Henry F. French, of Exeter, N. H. careful examination, and I now annex the following gratifying extracts from a letter which I have just received from him: — " ' John Tynan's essay is the best, reads most fluently, while con- taining all the information of any of the others ; the paper of Wm. Birnie deserves honorable mention for fluency of style ; that of Patrick Cooke for the minuteness and precision of the details ; and that of George Elwood for the neatness of penmanship, besides a fair store of the merits ascribed to the former ones. " ' It is a very close run ; the competitors tread upon the heels of each other ; the winners come in at no very great distance before the rest. " ' All the essays are creditable ; not many years ago it would not have been credited that so many productions, respectable alike in matter, arrangement, and style, could have emanated from young men accustomed to labor with their hands. " ' The young men, the institution, and the public at large may congratulate themselves and each other upon the prospect opened to society by such productions as the essays in question.' ♦' I herewith send you Tynan's Prize Essay, which, I think, should be published, as it contains a large amount of valuable and useful information on the cultivation, &c. &;c., of a green crop, which, in my oi^inion, merits greater attention than it has hitherto received from the agricultural community. " I shall not distribute the prizes amongst the successful competi- tors until you come to us, which, I hope, you will be able to do in the early part of next week. — I am, dear Doctor, yours faithfully, " Thomas Kirkpatrick. " Professor Hodges, &c. &c., Belfast." Dr. Hodges having read the prize essay referred to in Dr. Kirk- patrick's letter, John Andrews, Esq., said that he had had many opportunities of observing young men who had received their education at the Agri- cultural Schools of the National Board, and also at the Templemoyle School, and he considered that the training which was given to the pupils in these institutions was of the most useful kind, and of great importance to the country. He thought that they should thank both Dr. Kirkpatrick for the essay forwarded, and also express their opin- ion of the value of Agricultural Schools in the present circumstances of the country. Dr. Hodges, Professor Thomson, and the Chairman, having ex- pressed opinions in accordance with the vicAvs of the High Sheriff, the following resolutions, on the motion of Mr. AndrcAvs, seconded by Professor Thomson, were unanimously adojjted by the meeting. It was resolved — ' That the thanks of this Society be given to Dr. Kirkpatrick, for his attention in communicating this essay, and that he be informed that for the purpose of giving it extended circulation, it shall be printed in the Journal of this Society.' " Resolved — ' That this Society cannot fail to recognise the im- portant advantages conferred on tlie Agricultural community by the Albert Institution in the education of young men, who are destined to conduct and direct the practice of Agriculture in Ireland, of which the essay now before us, being one of twenty, and all of whicli have received commendation from the judge to whom they were submit- ted, is a striking proof.' " Resolved — ' That this Society desires to express its anxious hope and expectation, that abstract views of economic science will not be permitted by the Government of this country to interrupt the pro- gress of Agricultural instruction at the Albert Institution, and the local establishments under the care of the Commissioners of Educa- tion, which, in the yet unimproved and backward state of the art of Agriculture in Ireland, is so well calculated to contribute to the pro- motion of national prosperity.' " ESSAY. History of the P/a?if.— Mangold Wurzel, or, as it is often called, " Mangel Wurzel," which signifies " root of scarcity," has been, like all our cultivated green crops, obtained by culture from the original wild species. Botanically considered, the Mangold Wurzel {Beta Vulgaris Campestris), or, as it is sometimes called, "field beet," is a species belonging to the genus Beta, which is contained in the class Pentan- dria and order Diyynia of the Linnean system of classification, and in the order Chenopodea of the natural system. It was introduced into Great Britain from the Continent of Europe at no very remote period ; but the precise time is not easily ascer- tained, as a considerable diversity of opinion exists amongst authors on this point ; ])robably it was the year 1773, as would appear from the following extract, taken from The Penny Cyclopcedia of the Soci- ety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge: — "The common field- beet for cattle, which has been long known in Germany, was intro- duced into England at the latter end of the last century," to which it may be proper to add, " and its introduction is generally attributed to the late Dr. Letsom, a physician of great reputation, and one of the Society of Friends." At its first introduction it was grown only by a few enterprising gentlemen, but it gradually extended, and sub- sequently found its way into this country, where it was, (like the potato at its first introduction,) for a long time looked on as a curios- ity, rather than cultivated as a useful auxiliary to cattle feeding. At length the success which attended its cultivation by a few individuals who ventured to give it a trial, induced others to follow their exam- ple, and it thus gradually, but steadily progressed, till, at the present day, it holds such a place in the green cropping of this country, as no longer to deserve the title of root of scarcity ; but, at the same time, is not yet cultivated to such an extent as its merits seem to entitle it. Climate and Soil. — It is capable of accommodating itself to a great range of climate, fiourishing in Europe, between the parallels of 46° and 56° north latitude (if the situation be not too bleak or exposed), fair crops having been raised in the latter latitude in Scotland ; but the climate which is considered to be best suited to it is that of the south of England, where frosts clo not set in early, and Avhich has a high summer temperature. In' this country, where the summers are 6 not so warm as in England, though enjoying a mild and genial climate, with a more moist and humid atmosphere, large crops have been obtained. " Local climate," says Professor Johnston, " modifies very much the relative quantities of the same crops obtained in different localities. Thus, in the Southern part of Wigtonshire, 30 tons oi Swedes, 20 tons of Mangold, and 20 tons of White Carrots per acre, are equivalent crops, while in Berkshire, it is as easy to grow 30 tons of Mangold as 20 tons of Swedes per acre." — Elements of Agri- cultural Chemistry^ p. 341. It likewise adapts itself to a great variety of soils, having been grown in this country on nearly all descriptions of land, yielding remunerative crops even on light soils, provided they be not too light and gravelly, and on clays that are not of too stitf a texture ; it will, however, yield fair crops on clays too stiff for turnips ; but it attains its greatest perfection, and yields its maximum produce only, on a deep, friable loam, in good condition, and which contains a considera- ble quantity of vegetable or organic matter, with a sound, dry subsoil, and in a situation not too exposed. It also yields very heavy crops on reclaimed bog-land, rendered sound and dry by judicious improvement. " It is suited," says Mr. Bond, " to our dry climate. It will grow as Avell on the stiff soils as upon the light ; it is peculiarly a heavy land root ; its early maturity suits the retentive soil, as it can be har- vested before the wet season sets in, and its keeping property renders it invaluable, especially on such lands, because of the lateness of the growth of the grass for food in spring." — Farmer's Magazine. Varieties as Adapted to the Different Soils. — Like all our culti- vated crops, many varieties of the Mangold Wurzel have been obtain- ed by hybridization and other processes in connexion with vegetable physiology, and which, if not produced by art, will often be effected by nature. Though there are many varieties produced in this Avay, yet there are only a few, comparatively speaking, extensively culti- vated, the principal being the Long Red, Long Yellow, and Long Orange, and the Orange, Yellow, and Red Globes. Where the land is deep and heavy, or of a peaty character, the long varieties are best suited, but when of a lighter texture, the Globes are to be preferred. Having now described the properties of the Long and Globe vari- eties when considered in relation to soils, the question would naturally suggest itself to the reader — What are the comparative merits of the respective varieties of each sort, as, for instance, the Red, Y"ellow, and Orange Globes ? This is a question very often asked, but it is one to which no very accurate answer can be given, as there are instances where the produce of the Red exceeded that of the others, and so of the Yellow and Orange, even on the same land. These variations must be attributed to many circumstances, such as changes taking place in the soil, climate, manures, &c., which in most instances, can- not be defined. The Orange variety, however, appears to yield the best crops, and adapts itself to the greatest range of soils.* The * On this (the Albert Model Farm), where the soil is a rich loam, containing a large amount of organic matter (over 14 per cent.), and which is well suited to the growth of Mangolds, carefully conducted experiments for several years past, have shown that the Orange Globe invariably yields the largest and best crops. same observations may be made with respect to the long varieties, amongst which the Red holds the same position as the Orange amongst the Globe varieties. The Silesian, or Sugar Beet, is another variety, but as its produce is generally much inferior to any of the other sorts, it is scarcely ever cultivated as a direct food for cattle. On the Continent of Europe it is, in some places — as, for instance, France — grown largely for the manufacture of sugar. With these preliminary observations, nothing now remains but to enter upon its cultivation, and the fii-st subject which presents itself for consideration is the Preparation of the Soil. — Being a green crop, its place in most rotations is after a corn crop. Assuming then, that the land is in stubble, in autumn, and either thorough-drained or naturally dry, it is to be treated in precisely the same manner as if preparing for any other green crop. The land, whether autumn cleaning is carried out or not (if it be, so much the better), is to receive a deep ploughing in autumn or early winter. As this crop, of all others, requires deep culture, if the field intended for it is has not been recently subsoiled, and the soil and subsoil suited for this operation, it should be per- formed now, the subsoil j)lough following in the track of the common plough, and in this way the land is thrown over with a good rough furrow, leaving a large surface to the amelioi-ating influence of the winter weather. It is a common practice with many farmers to plough in the farm-yard manures intended for the crop, at this season ; and if the land be well suited for autumn manui'ing, it will not only materially forward the spring work, but also the constituents of the manure will be in a very available state at the time the young crop requires them, besides being intimately incorporated with the soil by the subsequent operations performed on it. The land having been ploughed up in a rough state in autumn, or early winter, as before mentioned, may be allowed to remain so till the following spring, when it should receive a harrowing to destroy any seedling weeds that may be springing up. When the sowing season approaches, the land should be cross-ploughed, harrowed, and rolled, and afterwards repeatedly grubbed, harrowed, and rolled till it be reduced to a fine state of tilth. After each harrowing, all weeds should be carefully collected and removed, and the proper cleaning of the ground, pre- vious to the sowing of all kinds of green crops, cannot be too strongly inculcated. The number of ploughings, grubbings, &c., necessary to be given in order to obtain the required degree of pulverization, depends on the nature of the soil and its previous treatment ; where the soil is naturally loose and friable, a single ploughing with one or two operations of the two-horse grubber, will suffice ; but where it is of a more tenacious character, the labor will proportionately increase. When the desired degree of pulverization has been effected, it is to be finally rolled and drilled. In those districts where the climate is very dry, and the soil also dry and light, and liable to become destitute of a sufficiency of mois- ture for the growth of the young crop during the summer months, green ci'ops ai'e usually grown on the " flat ;" but in this, or any other country possessing a humid atmosphere, and consequently little 8 danger of the above results, the raised-drill system is to be recom- mended, and is almost universally adopted. The land being prepared as above described, drills should be opened, twenty-seven to thirty inclies apart, with the double mould board plough, or, if it be not at hand, the common plough must be used. If the manure had not been applied in autumn, it should at least have been carted out during the winter months to some conven- ient place closely adjoining the field intended for the crop, in order to facilitate the application of it now. When the drills are opened the manure should be immediately deposited in quantity proportionate to the requirements of the land, all lumps well broken and divided, and evenly spread in the bottom of the drills, and at once covered in, and the seed sown. No more drills should be opened at a time than can be manured, covered in, and sown on the same day ; for, by an adhe- rence to this principle, a great portion of the fertilizing ingredients of the manure is preserved from loss by exposure to the atmosphere, and the seed being sown in the fresh earth, germination is materially assisted, circumstances on which the secret of successful cultivation in a great measure depends. 3Ianure. — Of all the manures employed in the production of any crop, farm-yard manure may be considered the staple, but particu- larly so for the Mangold, of which large crops are raised by its aid alone ; good crops have been also grown, where the soil is naturally rich, by the application of guano, vitriolized bones, and other artifi- cial or special manures, or, where a sufficiency of farm-yard manure is not to be had, the deficiency may be made up by the use of extra- neous manures, and in such proportion as circumstances may require.* The farm-yard manure, whether alone or in conjunction, should be very well decomposed, and well mixed by turning, before its applica- tion in spring. The quantity applied should be commensurate with the requirements of the soil ; but to land of average fertility, 25 tons per statute acre, when applied alone, would be sutficient. If extra- neous manures be used alone, 5 cwt. of guano, or 7 cwt. of vitriolized bones, would be a fair application ; it is not advisable, however, to raise Mangolds with these manures alone, where farm-yard manure can conveniently be obtained, unless the soil be very rich. A dress- ing of common salt is highly beneficial to this crop ; whether it produces its effects by acting directly on the crop, or indirectly by rendering available some constituents of the manure or soil, or whether they may be attributed to both, is not well known, but it has been ascertained, by chemical analysis, that the ash of both tops and bulbs contains a large amount of common salt.f The quantity of * On light chalky soils, a mixture of guano, nitrate of soda, and common salt, at the rate of 2 cwt. each per acre, has been found very eflicacious in the growth of Mangel Wurzel. — Nesbit's Agricultural Chemistry, p. 100. t Mr. Austen, of Chitworth, near Guilford, who farms on the green sand, has informed me, that with common salt alone on his land, he has succeeded in growing an excellent crop of Mangold Wurzel, by applying it after the plant was up in successive doses of 2 cwt. per acre up to 6 or S cwt. Every fresh appHcation appeared to give the crop a new siixri." —J ohtiston s Experimental Agriculture, p. C3. common salt contained in the Mangold is so large as to be quite per- ceptible to the taste in the growing plant, especially the leaf; the amount of sugar contained in the bulb counteracts the taste of the salt in it. Tliough a moderate application of common salt is found to inci'ease the produce, yet too large an application is not attended with similar beneficial results, as appears from experiments made on this farm* during the present year, for the purpose of ascertaining the efficacy of common salt on the Mangold crop, in both large and moderate quantities. The following table is quite sufficient to illus- trate this. All the circumstances connected with the cultivation were precisely similar, except in the case of the salt applied. Variety of Quantity of Manure per Statute Acre. Produce per statute Acre Mangold Wurzel. Farm-Yard Manure. Common Salt. of Bulbs. Orange Globe. Do. Do. Do. Do. Tons. 18 18 18 Cwt. 7 14 Tons. 30 32 31 Cwts. 10 6 17 The best mode of applying the salt is to scatter it over the manure when spread in the bottom of the drill, and by this means there is no danger of its coming into contact with the seed, the vitality of which it would otherwise destroy. When any other of the exti'aneous ma- nures are used with the farm-yard dung, they may be applied in the same manner, or spread along at the back of the first bout of the plough when the drill is being formed, and is covered in by the second bout, which completes the drills. By this latter mode it will be nearer to the young plant when the seed has vegetated, and, there- fore, will be sooner available. There are various modes of applying them, but in all cases care must be taken that they do not come into contact with the seed, as, like the salt, they have all a tendency to destroy its vitality. In the summer of 1856, Mr. Caird, M. P., had an interesting series of experiments carefully carried out on his farm in Kent, with the view of ascertaining " the kind of manure which, at the least cost, will produce the greatest effect " on the Mangold Wurzel crop. The following table gives the quantities and cost of the different manures, the produce of each plot, &c. : * I may be permitted to remark, that the various experiments conducted on the Albert Farm are very correct and perfectly reUable, as great care and atten- tion are exercised in carrying them out ; besides, being generally conducted on a pretty large scale, and the entire produce weighed, there is no danger of those errors which so frequently occur from the present system so generally adopted for ascertaining the acreable produce. 10 No of Kind and Quantity of Manure Cost per Cubic Yard Total Cost of Manure Produce Lots. per Acre. or Cwt. per Acre. per Acre. £ s. u. Tons. Cwts. '{ 20 cubic yards of Dung, 3s. 6d. per yard. V 18 0 23 16 4 cwt. Guano, 12s. Od. per cwt. 20 cubic yards of Dung, 3s. 6d. per yard. 2) 4 cwt. Guano, 5 CAvt. Salt, 12s. Od. per cwt. Is. 6d. is 6 6 30 12 r 1 20 cubic yards of Dung, 1 cwt. Guano, 3s. 6d. per yard. 12s. Od. per cwt. 3^ 1 cwt. Super^ohosphate, 78. Od. " >i 18 6 25 10 1 cwt. Nitrophosphate, 6s. 6d. " 2 cwt. Salt, Is. 6d. « 4 40 cubic yards of Dung, 3s. 6d. per yard. 7 0 0 21 3 r 2 cwt. Guano, 12s. Od. per cwt. "" 5< 2 cwt. Superphosphate, 7s. Od. " >2 14 0 20 6 2 cwt. Nitrophosphate, 6s. 6d. " 2 cwt. Salt, Is. 6d. " 6 7i cwt. Guano, 12s. Od. «' 4 10 0 17 17 7 12 cwt. Superphosphate, 7s. Od. " 4 4 0 14 19 8 12 cwt. Nitrophosphate, lA cwt. Guano, l| cwt. Superphosphate, 6s. 6d. 12s. Od. 3 1 18 0 15 6 9< 7s. Od. " >1 16 0 19 11 lA cwt. Nitrophosphate, l| cwt. Salt, 6s. 6d. " Is. 6d. " 10 5 cwt. Guano, 12s. Od. « 3 0 0 12 15 11 8 cwt. Superphosphate, 7s. Od. " 2 16 0 11 18 12 8 cwt. Nitrophosphate, 6s. 6d. 2 1% 0 12 11 Each plot occupied the tenth part of an acre — each containing three rows of roots — the middle one of which was weighed in testing the results. " It will be seen that in every instance where salt forms an ingredient of the manure the produce is increased." Time and Mode of Sowing. — The season for sowing the Mangold Wurzel, in this climate, extends from the middle of April to the middle of May ; but the last week in April is considered the best time. If sown too early, the liability of the plants to start to seed during growth, the greatest evil attending their cultivation, is increased ; if too late, the crop remains in a backward state during the growing season, and never attains its full perfection, especially if dry weather set in immediately after sowing. Mr. Miles, M. P., in a paper on the " Cultivation of Mangold Wurzel," in Vol. II. of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England, says : — " The earlier in April your Mangold Wur- zel is sown the better ; the deeper the tilth the greater probability of a heavy crop." And a recent writer in the same journal (Mr. Paget, of Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham,) states : — " The best seed- time in this locality is, in my opinion, from April 7th to April 10th. It is useless, in general, to sow it earlier, because the temperature is, I think, too low for the germination of the seed. My experiments do not lead me to believe that this comparatively early sowing pro- duces many more ' runners,' and our Summers are too short to admit of unnecessary delay in sowing." — (Vol. XIII. p. 405.) 11 When, however, through any cause the seed cannot be got in at the proper time, by steeping it in sand or earth moistened with water, or in dilute liquid manure for three or four days, germination will be so far promoted that it will be equivalent to having it, at least, the same time sown. Indeed, many persons recommend the steeping of the seed in all cases, but it is not always safe to do so, for should dry weather occur after sowing, the germination thus artificially produced receives a check which often proves fatal or injurious. The drills being opened, the manure spread and covered by split- ting the drills with the double mould-board plough, the drills thus formed should have their tops slightly levelled by a very light roller, and the seed sown either in a continuous line along the crown of the drills, or deposited in tufts or bunches at the distance apart which the plants are intended to be left at the time of thinning. Owing to the peculiar construction of the pericarp, in which the true seeds are contained, no sowing machine has hitherto been generally employed. If, however, an efficient machine be available, it is, by all means, to be recommended ; but in the absence of such, the hand and common hand-hoe, or dibble, are efficient, though rather slow substitutes. Under these circumstances, the method most commonly practised, and which is most to be recommended, is with the hand-hoe to open holes at the required distance apart, and from an inch and a half to two inches in depth ; another person follows and drops three or four cap- sules (or, as they are commonly called, seeds) in each hole, followed by a third, who, with a spade, shovel, rake, or any other convenient implement, draws a sufficiency of mould over the seeds to cover them to a depth proportionate to the texture of the soil, the average being about an inch and a half; but if the soil be of a light nature, and the weather dry, two inches would not be too deep. By this mode of sowing, three careful boys, women, or girls, would sow at least an acre in a day. About 6 lbs. of seed per statute acre is the quantity usually sown, which, if not saved on the farm, should be procured from a respectable and trustworthy seed merchant, in order to ensure what is genuine, as great losses are often sustained by farmers from purchasing cheap but bad seed.* In forming holes for the seed, the dibble is sometimes employed, which makes from four to six holes at a time by a single pressure of the foot, and is much more expeditious than the hoe ; but it has been objected to for two reasons ; the first and more important is, that the holes are two small, and the seeds, when put in, fall together, and consequently grow up intertwined with each other, which is very injurious to their early growth, and troublesome at the time of thin- ning ; the other is, that the soil immediately about the seed is consoli- dated, instead of having that loose texture which is so essential for promoting the growth of the minute and tender roots. These objec- tions may, in a great part, be obviated when the teeth of the dibble * I have found that sowing too deeply is more to be guarded against than the opposite ; an inch is quite sufficient depth for the seed sown early in the month of May. Steeping the seed for 24 hours ui water insures a rapid germi- nation, and does not prevent sowing by a drill, if, before sowing, the seed is shaken up shghtly in a bag contaming a little dry sand. 11. S. f. 12 are made pretty large and the soil light and friable. In sowing the seed, it is well to bear in mind what has been previously said when treating of the varieties as suited to the various classes of soils. In addition to this, it may not be out of place to insert here a table of the produce yielded by the different varieties grown this year on this farm, though, at the same time, similar results are not to be expected in all climates or classes of soils. The desci'iption of soil has been alluded to in a note at a preceding part of this essay ; the manuring and all things else connected with the cultivation were, in each case, the same, and the following are the results : — Variety of Mangold Wurzel. Produce per statute acre. Tons. Cwts. Orange Globe, 32 6 Deep Orange Globe, 29 18 Long Red, 28 15 Long Yellow, 28 14 Red Globe, . 26 14 Sugar Beet, . 30 12 It is surprising to observe the extraordinary produce of the Sugar Beet, being superior to most of the varieties of Mangold, while in ordinary cases it averages about three-fourths the produce of the Mangold, or about 18 tons per acre. After Culture. — Like the turnip, the after culture of the Mangold Wurzel may be said to consist in timely and careful thinniiKj, atten- tive weeding^ and keeping the soil in a loose and friable state by means of the drill-grubber, drill-harroto, and hand-hoe. But, to be more particular, the young seedling plants will appear above ground in about ten days after sowing, — sooner or later, as circumstances are favorable or otherwise ; and when sufficiently advanced, the drill- grubber, or, where the land is tolerably loose, the drill-harrow, should be run between the drills to destroy whatever weeds may be growing, and at the same time to assist in tilling the soil. When the plants show a pretty strong leaf, and before there is any danger of injury from allowing them to grow up too strongly, thinning and weeding should commence. If the seed had been sown in a continuous line by machine or otherwise, this operation may be performed by the hand- hoe, taking care to alloAv tlie strongest and healthiest ])lant to remain. The distance apart at which the plants are to be left is determined by the size they are expected to attain. Where the soil is rich and everything favorable to their growth, the greatest space is allowed. When the seed was sown in tufts or bunches, the hand must necessa- rily be used in thinning, and the distance determined at the time of sowing ; from twelve to sixteen inches are usually alloAved. In thin- ning, the plants must not be completely singled out at the first opera- tion ; it is better to allow two of the healthiest and strongest to re- main together, and at the final thinning, which takes place in about a month afterwards, the more promising plant should be left. This 13 plan is most necessary to be adopted to prevent the losses which oth- erwise are likely to happen, by many of the plants starting to seed, and which is materially checked by having the one which presents symptoms of seeding* pulled, and the other left to grow. As the thinning proceeds, any blanks that may occur should be filled up by transplanting ; this is the only case in Avhich the trans- planting of Mangolds is to be recommended ; and even then,, unless the weather be favorable and the operation very carefully performed, the result will not be very successful. Moist weather is the most suitable for this purpose, and the best way to proceed is to open a hole with the spade, where the blank occurs, large enough to receive the whole tuft of plants, with as much clay as can be raised about them. When deposited in the hole, the clump must be carefully firmed, and all the plants then drawn out, except the one intended to be left. This method of transplanting cannot be practised Avith the thinnings of the crop, as the entire bunch must be used ; therefore, at the time of sowing, it is necessary to sow a small plot in some conve- nient place for the special purpose of transplanting, and by" observing the above conditions a fair return may be expected. When weeds are again beginning to appear, after the first thin- ning and weeding, the crop should be hand-hoed, and again grubbed and drill-harrowed. In hoeing, great care must be taken that none of the plants be disturbed or in the least degree injured, as the slight- est wound inflicted on them in the young state increases during growth, producing a kind of canker in the part, which not only pre- sents a vei'y unsightly appearance, but also greatly injures the value of the bulb, no other of our green crops being so susceptible of injury. In drill-grubbing and harrowing there exists no danger of injury, pro- vided the implements be properly adjusted and carefully employed ; but in all the operations great care must be exercised. Another hand-hoeing and drill-grubbing should be given some time before the crop is so far advanced as to render it unsafe to work amongst it. In conducting the after culture of the crop, it is well to keep in mind that the number of operations need not be restricted to those above mentioned, for when the soil is a strong one more will be re- quired to keep it in a loose state, to admit of the passage of the minute spongioles and delicate fibres in search of food ; but on aver- age soils those enumerated are suificient. Regarding the propriety of divesting the plants of a jiortion of their leaves, so much practised in many places, and which yields such a large supply of valuable feeding at a time when other green food is scarce, diffex'ent opinions are entertained ; but there is no disputing the fact that if they be removed too early, while in a succulent and active state, the produce of the growing crop will be diminished, which will appear to be an evident and unavoidable result when we reflect on the important functions performed by the leaves of plants. * The principal symptoms indicative of a plant likely to run to seed are : — The heart of the tuft of leaves appears high and forward, thus evincing a tendency to produce a seed stalk ; there is also an absence of that healthy succulency observable in a better-disposed plant. 14 On the other hand, if the leaves be not removed till they are observed to droop or flag, showing by their appearance that they are no longer actively employed in performing their special and valuable functions, then they may be removed with safety. The first removal of the leaves may commence towards the middle of September, when those exhibiting the above appearances should be collected, and a fresh supply for a second gathering will be ready towards the middle of October. By this means a large quantity of excellent cattle-feeding may be obtained, which would otherwise be either lost or come in at a period when it would not be of half its value, other feeding being then plenty. The value of Mangold leaves as a food for milch cows stands high amongst green fodder, as tested by a series of carefully- conducted experiments made at this (the Albert) Institution, of which the following; table shows the results : — No. Date of Experiment. Kind of Feeding. Butter produced bv 40 quarts of Milk. 1 2 3 4 1857. 4th May. 5th Sept. 28th Sept. 6th Oct. Italian Rye Grass alone, . . Italian Rye Grass & Pasture, Mangold Leaves and Pasture, Mangold Leaves alone, . . . Lbs. 3 3 3 4 Ozs. 5 13 14 The mangold leaves are very much rehshed by milch cattle, and from six to eight stones* per day in alternate feeds, with hay or straw, is a good allowance for an ordinary sized beast. " The leaves of the plant," remarks Pi'ofessor Wilson, " also appear to possess a far higher value, both as a feeding and as a manuring substance, than we ai'e accustomed to assign to them. Boussingault (Annales de Chimie) gives us an organic analysis of the roots and the leaves, of the plants ; a comparison between their respective compo- sitions Avill be very much in favor of the leaves for the purposes just mentioned. The substances were dried necessarily previous to their analysis. Their proportions of water were about the same, and their elementary composition was as follows : — Root. Root. Leaves. Carbon, ..... Hydrogen, .... Oxygen, Nitrogen, ..... Ash 42.75 5.77 43.58 1.66 6.24 42.93 5.94 43.23 1.66 6.24 38.1 5.1 30.8 4.5 21.5 thus showing that, in a chemical point of view, the leaves were three times as valuable as the same loeiglit of roots ivould he." — Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England., Vol. XIII. p. 160. * A stone is 1-1 lbs. weight. 15 Storing. — About the beginning of November* the crop will have arrived at maturity, and then no time should be lost in getting it into the farm-yard, as should frost occur, the bulbs are liable to be injured severely. The opportunity of dry weather should, if possible, be seized upon for this purpose, even should it occur in the end of Octo- ber, for it is only in dry weather this can be done without injury to the land, whilst the crop will thus be taken up in the best state for securing its safe keeping, even to a late period of the following sea- son. Having selected a convenient place for storing the bulbs, the operations of pulling, topping, carting, &c., should commence, and proceed with all possible despatch. The bulbs growing in every four drills should be placed together in the hollow space between the two middle ones, and by this means the carts can pass between two rows, and be filled from both at the same time ; the leaves may be thrown in heaps also, in such a manner as not to interfere with the carting. In topping, i. e., taking off the leaves, a sharp knife or sickle may be used, but the utmost caution must be taken that the tops be not sev- ered so close to the bulb as to wound it, as should it happen to be cut, the juice or sap exudes through the wound, and not only is a great part of its nutritive properties thus lost, but it is also very liable to decay. To avoid this danger, many persons have the tops twisted off with the hand, which performs the work very expeditiously. No more should be pulled and topped in the field than can be carted in and stored the same day, for should frost occur over night the de- nuded bulbs will suffer severely, while if standing and protected by their broad leaves, its effects will be greatly lessened. If any una- voidably happen to be left out, they may be kept safe by making into heaps and covering them with the leaves. Should any, however, be frozen, by unavoidable exposure, they should be kept separate, and consumed as soon as possible, as they will not keep for any length of time. In selecting a place for storing, if a wall with a northern aspect and dry situation be at hand, nothing better can be desired than to store them up against it neatly, making the heap about six feet wide at the base, and sloping up against the wall to the height of six or seven feet. When this method of storing is not convenient, the bulbs may be built into roof-shaped heaps, about six feet in width at the base, and five feet in height, in a dry place. Another very good way to store them, is to build two dry stone walls, parallel to each other, sufficiently distant to allow a cart to pass between them, about four feet high, and of any required length. Hurdles may be substituted for stone walls, and enclosures made by brush-wood, &c., when found more convenient. Into these enclosed spaces the bulbs are put and- piled up, terminating in a ridge. This latter method of storing is a good means of economising space ; and if it be adopted, the dry stone walls, (if hurdles, &c., be not used in their stead), require to be plas- * The hai-vesting of the beet in Massachusetts should commence a month earlier, say in the lirst and second weeks of October, and stored before the other root crops. This happens to be fortunately the most convement order for har- vesting with respect to future use, as the beet root is not wanted until after the turnip, carrot, and other root crops are exhausted. H, S. F. 16 tered or dashed with mortar, to prevent frost from entering the crevices. Whatever mode of storing is adopted, the same great ob- ject is to be kept in view, viz : — the safety of the crop by preserving it from frost and wet, by carefully thatching as quickly as the heap is made, and making provision for the removal of all wetness caused by rain or otherwise. Being carefully stored, thatched, and kept dry, the mangold may be preserved in a sound state till midsummer, if required, and even longer, with their feeding properties little impair- ed,— especially if the heap be turned over in spring, and any young shoots rubbed off, besides removing any decayed roots. Produce. — The produce varies with the climate, soil, season, ma- nuring, care bestowed on cultivation, &c. Where all these are favor- able, over forty tons per acre have been obtained ; but twenty to twenty-five tons may be considered as the average, and twenty-five to thirty tons may be reckoned a good crop. The Mangold Wurzel is less variable in its produce than the turnip, not being so liable to casualties during its growth ; the prin- cipal ones to which the former are liable, are the occurrence of occa- sional blanks owing to the failure of the seed in germinating, vitality having been destroyed, perhaps before sowing, or afterwards by some accident ; but these will, indeed, be few, if care be taken in procuring genuine seed, sowing it in favorable weather, and not at too great a depth ; if these blanks be filled up by transplanting, little loss will be sustained. Starting to seed is the greatest evil attending its cultiva- tion, which, however, may be greatly checked by taking the precau- tion described in thinning. Any plant that may afterwards start should have the seed stalk within broken, or cut off, and this opera- tion repeated, if necessary. By this means, those plants which would otherwise be worthless, may be made to produce tolerable bulbs. Most economical mode of Oonsumption. — On all farms where the Mangold Wurzel is grown, there is a sufficiency of Swedes and other turnips raised for food for the cattle during the eai'ly part of winter, mangolds not being suited for early use, as they contain a peculiar acrid principle, when freshly taken out of the ground, which exercises an injurious effect on cattle, producing a very laxative state of the bowels, but which, in the course of a couple of months, either entirely disappears, or undergoes such a change as renders their use harmless ; and cattle are thus found to thrive better on them when kept over till towards spring. The best way, therefore, is to consume the Aberdeen and other soft turnips first, then the Swedes, which should at least hold out till January or February, when the Mangold will be ready for use. The change from the turnips to Mangold should be gradual, whether the animals be fattening, milking, or store cattle, in order to prevent the latter producing those laxative effects above alluded to. Hay or straw should be given to the cattle, between each feed of Mangolds. The bulbs may be sliced or pulped, but they are frequently given whole. Value as a Feeding Stuff. — Every animal on the farm has a great relish for Mangold AVurzel, and thrives remarkably well on it. They are excellent food for milch cows, producing a large flow of milk and IT not communicating any disagreeable flavor to it or the butter made froni it. Steamed for pigs, they form, with the addition of a small portion of meal, valuable feeding. Horses also relish them, and small farmers, who cannot afford oats to their horses, may keep them in excellent condition during the winter and spring months fed on boiled mangolds mixed with a little bran or bruised oats, in addition to hay or oatstraw. About six stones of mangold, with intermediate feeds of hay or straw, is a fair day's allowance for an ordinary sized cow. It appears to me desirable to give the following extracts from the opinions recorded on the value of Mangold as food for fattening cattle, milch cows, and other animals, by gentlemen distinguished by their practical and scientific attainments : — " The Mangold is known to be good for all animals giving milk. But it also appears, from a remarkable experiment of Lord Spencer, that this root is good for fattening also. The two beasts put up by him made even more progress when fed alternately upon mangold than upon turnips, and he considei's the result to be decisive." Mr. Pusey (Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Enqland, Vol. III. p. 201). if J J ' " All stock like it, even horses thrive upon it ; it is cheap food, and may be given to cattle in autumn if chaff is but admixed with it to counteract its laxative effect."— Jfr. Bond (Farmer's Magazine). " This root is a very valuable food for cattle, is much relished by them, fattens well, and gives a rich milk." — Professor Johnston (Highland Society's Journal, p. 607). "Its use is principally as food for milch cattle, for which it is superior to all other kinds of green crop, yet its culture has not ex- tended by any means in proportion to its value." — Professor Murphy (Agricidtural Instructor, p. 52). ^ " Field-beet is the best of the root class of vegetables for a cow giving milk." — Martin Doyle. I' My experience of the value of this root has been so long and so uniform that I have no hesitation in calling upon my brother farmers who are similarly situated as to their climate and soil, to participate' in its advantages."— Jf?-. Paget (Journal of the Royal Agricidtural Society of England, Vol. XVII. p. 408). " Experiments have been made to test the value of Mano-old "Wur- zel compared with Swede turnips in the fattening of cattle. The experiments which have come under my knowledge — the estimate of the increase of weight of the animals experimented upon havin"' been made from external measurement, and not in scales — do not appear to me to be decisive, but only indicative of considerable superiority in ' the fattening properties of Mangold Wurzel over the Swedes." 3fr. Golman (European Agriculture, p. 260.) In the interesting experiments in fattening cattle on different descriptions of food, which were carried out on Colonel M'Douall's farm in Wigtonshire, and the results of which are recorded by him in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, (Vol. XIII. Part I.) the valuable feeding properties of Mangold are clear- ly established, but in that climate and soil, as stated in a preceding 18 part of this esstiy, a considerably larger acreable produce of" SAvedes can be obtained. The following note was appended by the late Mr. Pusey to Colonel M'Douall's observations on the relative merits of Mangolds and Swedes. " There is no doubt that in this part of England, (Berkshire, for instance,) it is as easy to grow thirty tons of Mangold as it is to grow twenty tons of Swedes to the acre. Assuming Colonel M'Douall's results to be such as would ordinarily take place, the supei'ior profits of Mangolds over Swedes is very great, for the money returns will stand as follows : — Mangold, £13 2 6 per acre. Swedes, 6 5 0" The Money return from the Mangold therefore appears to be more than double that from the Swede. There is also the great advantage of the land being clear for the timely sowing of barley, by feeding stock on Mangold, which, of course, has been stored, instead of keep- ing the sheep on Swedes run to seed in April, while the seed time for barley is passing or gone. This experiment strongly confirms those of the late Lord Spencer, which appeared some years since in this Journal. The laxative tendency of Mangold is easily, as in this case counteracted by the accompaniment of bean meal." Dr. Voelcker has recently drawn attention to the singular circum- stance that although the Mangold is " justly esteemed on account of its fattening properties when given to beasts, yet it appears to be about the worst description of roots that can be given to sheep." And again he says, " On further inquiry I have learned that this observation is confirmed by many practical feeders. Mangolds, therefore, ought not to be given to sheep."* The following table shows the quantity of milk yielded by cows fed at the Albert Farm on mangolds, as compared with that given by the same cows when fed on Swedish turnips. The turnips and mangolds were prepared in the same manner (washed and sliced), and in both instances the cattle were out for water and exercise an hour daily ; and their treatment in every other respect was precisely similar : — Date. O S 1858. Feb. 15. " 16. " 26. " 27. 23 23 23 23 Quantity of food consumed by each cow daily. 6 1 St. Swedish Turnips, Oat Straw, ad libitum. Do. Do. 6^ St. Mangolds, Oat Straw, ad libitum. Do. Do. o'« , o ^a gals. gals. gals. Is 28^ 29 blh 31 32 63 5| n * " On the Chemistry of Food," p. 30. 19 The change of food from Swedes to mangold took place on the 17th, and with the view of preventing the secretion of milk, either as regards quantity or quality, being influenced by the former mode of feeding, the second experiment was not made until the 26th. As fully three-fourths of the cows were heavy in calf, and the quantity of milk yielded by them naturally on the decrease, the period which elapsed between the "trials on the 15th and 16th and those on the 26th and 27th would, to some extent, lessen the result in favor of the mangolds. The annexed table gives the results of an experiment recently niade at the Albert Farm, by churning some of the whole milk* yielded by the cows when fed on mangolds and oat straw : — Quantity of milk churned. Butter pro- duced. Cream yielded. Quantity of cream to produce lib. Butter. Quantity of milk to produce 1 qt. Cream. Butter produced by 1 qt. Cream. Quantity of milk to pro- duce 1 lb. Butter. Quarts. 40 lbs. ozs. 4 U Quarts. 4 2-5 Quarts. 1 1-15 Quarts. 9 1-11 OZS. 15 Quarts. 10 (nearly.) Oomposition of Mangold Wurzel. — Dr. Voelcker, in his very valu- able and recently published work, " The Chemistry of Food" (p. 28,) says ; " Mangolds have been analyzed by Professors Way, Johnston, Wolff; and myself; but as it will be of no practical utility to mention these various analyses in detail, I shall leave them unnoticed, and state at once the average composition of good mangold wurzel, which has been calculated from 13 published analyses of this root : — In Natural State. Calculated Dry. Water, Flesh-forming Constituents, Woody Fibre, . " Sugar, Pectin, Gum, &c Inorganic matters (ash) .... 87.78 1.54 1.12 6.10 2.50 0.96 12.60 9.16 49.91 20.45 7.88 100.00 100.00 " Mangolds, it will be observed, contain on an average as much water and dry matters as carrots, and on the whole, are almost as nutricious as carrots, if they are given to fattening beasts after a few months keeping The superior fattening value of stored mangolds, when compared with the fresh root, may be due to the * The Lactometer indicated 11 per cent, of cream. 20 a1)sence of this acrid principle in old roots, but doubtless it must be attributed also to the lai-ger amount of sugar which stored mangolds contain. An examination of fresh and old mangolds, has shown me that, on keeping, the pectin in the fresh roots is gradually formed into sugar, which appears to be more conducive to the rapid fattening of beasts than jjectin. For tliese reasons mangold wurzel ought not to be supplied to animals before the latter end of December or the beginning of January." According to the analyses of Professor Way, and Mr. Ogston, of Long Red and Yellow Globe, mangolds gave the following results (in 100 parts) : — Long Eed. Yellow Globe. Bulb. Leaf. Bulb. Leaf. Potash, 29.08 27.53 23.54 8.34 Soda, ..... 19.05 5.83 19.08 12.21 Lime, ..... 2.17 9.06 1.78 8.72 Magnesia, .... 2.79 3.10 1.75 9.84 Peroxide of Iron, 0.56 0.48 0.74 1.46 Silicia, ..... 4.11 1.35 2.22 2.35 Sulphui'ic Acid, 3.31 6.26 3.68 6.54 Phosphoric Acid, 3.11 4.39 4.49 5.89 Carbonic Acid, 21.61 6.11 18.14 6.92 Chloride of Sodium (com. Salt), 14.18 29.85 24.54 37.66 Total, .... 99.94 99.96 99.96 99.95 Per centage of Ash. . 1.60 1.91 1.02 1.40 It may be observed by an inspection of the foregoing table, that the tops or leaves are richer in jjhosphoric acid, lime, and magnesia, than the bulbs, but contain less of the alkaline carbonates, ^. e., car- bonates of potash, soda, &c. It will also be seen that both tops and bulbs contain a large per centage of common salt, which accounts for the beneficial results arising from its application to the crop. Professor Johnston says, " the dry matter of the mangold wurzel and the carrot resembles in oomposition that of the turnip. Some varieties of these roots contain still more sugar. They likewise sur- pass the turnip in their per centage of dry nutritive matter. This in the three roots, is nearly as follows : — Turnip. Mangold. Carrot. Dry nutritive matter,. . . . 8tol2 15 14 to 20 Water, 92 to 88 85 86 to 80 100 100 100 Hence the generally more nutritive quality of the two latter roots, weight for weight. — (Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, p. 326.) r NO. 2. -\ INEW SERIES. J ON HORSESHOEING. WILLIAM MILES. REPEINTEI,, .OR GKNERAI, BISTRIBtlTION, PROM THE JOrRXAI. OF THE ROYAL AORICCT.TtJHAL SOCIETT OP ENGLiND. VOL. 18, P. 270. BOSTON: 1858. J. H. EASTBURN'S PRESS. HOESESHOEmG. Although the subject of this paper may not legitimately come under the head of agriculture, it is nevertheless so intimately con- nected with the interests of the agriculturist, and has been so woful- 7 neglected by him, that I may perhaps be excused for attempting to arouse hnn to a sense of its importance in a pecuniary point of view Horses are essential to the carrying on of his pursuits, he cannot possibly do without them, and a lame one is a very serious and expensive incumbrance to him. My object, tlierefore, shall be to show him and others how they may insure to themselves a much larger amount of good and etficient service from their horses than has hitherto been obtained from them, at the small cost of a little attention to the mode in which they are shod and the general treatment of their feet in the stable. It is too much the habit to consider that shoeing has accomplished all that can be expected of it, if the shoes are only firm on the horse's feet when ins master requires his services ; whether they are tight and pinch inm, or are easy and comfortable to him, are matters that are seldom considered, so long as he can go at all, and contrive to keep himself on his legs, and not diminish his marketable value by tumbling down and breaking his knees ; all the pain he endures passes unheeded, except by the poor brute himself, and until he becomes positively ame and useless he receives no sympathy or care from those whose Dounden duty it was by timely attention to have spared him. " No loot no horse" is a truth that 1 doubt not has been realized to many ot my readers, when, in the expectation of an agreeable ride either on business or pleasure, they have found their horse emerge from the stable marking tune with his head at every step with the precision of a drill-sergeant. -z i t- The first thing that occurs to every one on such occasions is to travel yesterday's journey over again in the mind's eye, in the hope ot discovering some particular hole in the road, or some particular stone that must have caused the unlooked for and unexpected calam- ity; the bare possibility of its being the gradually developed result ot long continued bad shoeing, and bad treatment in the stable of course never suggests itself, because the horse has always been treat- ed as other horses are treated, and therefore those thino-s can have nothing whatever to do with it ; and this would be considered a suffi- cient and satisfactory answer to any one who had the temeritv to sur- mise such a cause. I will nevertheless venture to assert, that in nine Hundred and ninety-nine cases of foot-lameness out of every thousand, bad shoeing and bad stabling have had more to do with it, than the supposed accident that causes the horse to '> drop his head to it," and thereby show that the culminating point had at last been reached, and that he is indisputably lame. Foot-lameness is a very insidious aflfair, particularly that most painful and common form of it, navicular lameness. It steals on very gradually, and for the most part unobserved by all but the unfortunate horse ; he, poor beast, notes its every stage, and if those who look after him, and those who employ him, would only attend to the indications he gives them, they would know as much about it as he does, excepting the pain. His courage enables him to bear a good deal without muc'h flinching, nevertheless he soon shows to a close observer that mischief is brewing; the first indication he gives is the straightening of the pastern bone, so as to place the weight of the leg more on the coffin bone, and less on the navicular bone ; then, as time goes on, and the pain increases, he relaxes the fetlock joint, and bears less weight on the foot altogether ; still there is not much in his mode of standing to attract the attention of a casual observer ; bis next plan for obtaining relief is to advance the foot slightly, so as to bring the toe of the lame foot a little in front of the toe of the oppo- site foot, whereby he removes it in some degree from the base which supports his weight. All this may have been going on for months, and no one have ob- served it, until at last he can bear the pain no longer, and he thrusts his foot fairly out in front of him in undisguised " pointing ;" never- theless he contrives, when he is at work, by shortening his stride and stepping a little quicker, to conceal the lameness ; and the groom and his master become in time so accustomed to his posture in the stable, that they look upon it as a mere trick, and say, " it is all nothing, he always stands so when at rest :" the latter may be true, but the former is something more than doubtful. Some horses are unquestionably given to tricks, but no horse ever indulges in a trick which compels him to stand almost constantly on two legs instead of four; the pain and inconvenience of such a pro- ceeding would soon induce him to relinquish it as a matter of amuse- ment. Before he can point a fore foot he is obliged to dispense Avith the support of the opposite hind leg. which he does by relaxing the muscles, lowering the hip, bending the joints, and resting the limb on the toe ; he then has to divide his weight as equally as he can be- tween the other hind leg and the opposite fore leg, and having done this he raises the lame foot and deposits it sufficiently forward to insure its exemption from sustaining any portion of his weight ; he then lowers his head and neck with a view of still further diminish- ing the weight on his feet, and presents altogether such a picture of misery, that it would require a very lively imagination in the beholder to suppose the horse is merely indulging himself in an agreeable trick. The horse's foot is made up of a variety of textures so elaborately and beautifully combined as to form one complicated but perfect spring, and unless that spring is permitted to have constant freedom of action, it very soon gets out of order, the more delicate parts lose their elasticity, and the power of expansion, which is so essential to the soundness of the foot, becomes first diminished, and ultimately destroyed, whereby the horse is soon rendered useless. I take it there are few persons who will dispute the expansion of the horse's foot, but whatever the general theory about it may be, the all but universal practice is to treat it as an inelastic solid, whose chief use is to pound MacAdamized roads. The horse in a state of nature roams about at will with his feet unfettered, and they take no harm, simply because he is permitted to look where he is going, pick his way over difficult ground, and direct his own pace ; but as soon as he enters the service of man these val- uable privileges and safeguards are withdrawn, and the various uses to which he is put, and the rapid rate at which he is required to travel over all sorts of roads, call for some efficient protection to his feet, and it is not only our duty, in return for the important services he renders, to see that it is applied in the manner the least detri- mental to him, but it is our interest to do so in anticipation of the lengthened service it will insure to us. If horses were always prop- erly shod, and properly stabled, they would repay the care thus bestowed on them by the increased length of efficient service they would perform. When a horse has worked seven or eight years it is no uncommon thing to hear his master say, "he owes me nothing," which may be perfectly true, considering the treatment he has re- ceived ; but if he had been properly treated during the time he would be still some eight or ten years of active service in his master's debt. Ihe horse is a much longer lived animal than people generally suppose him to be ; but the prevalent mistake as to the length of his natural life may be attributed to two opposite causes : First, the very large number that are known to die at an early age — victims, it may truly be said, of over-work, bad management, and cruel treatment; and next, the great difficulty there always is of ascertaining the real age of a horse when the mark has disappeared from his mouth. Horses are marketable commodities, and very few persons are dis- posed to lessen their value, by recording very accurately the number of years that pass over their heads, after the mark is gone ; the con- sequence is, that they remain about nine or ten years old so long, that their actual age becomes buried in oblivion, and at last no onli really does know how old they are. Many a man at this moment is using a horse, perhaps some eight or ten years older than he thinks he is. I remember many years ago purchasing an active showy horse, said to be about the mysterious age of other people's horses, and there was nothing in his appearance or powers of work to indi- cate greater age ; but on tracing his history I discovered that he was twenty-nine years old, and the sire of a very large progeny. Now, if I had not taken the trouble to trace him back I should never have' known within fifteen or sixteen years how old he really was. I have, at different times, met with four horses who were all ' known to be over forty years old, and were still at work ; one of them was shot at the age of forty-five, not because he was incapable of fur- ther work, but because his master saw the servant ill use him. But perhaps without taxing my memory for further facts, those supplied by my own stable in November of last year may sufficiently illustrate my position, that the natural life of a horse is longer than it is o-en- erally supposed to be. I had at that time six horses in my stable whose combined ages amounted to one hundred and forty-five years 6 and five of them are still there, with clean legs and hoofs looking like colts' hoofs. The sixth I had destroyed last December at the age of twenty-six. AVhen I purchased him nineteen years ago he had incipient navicular disease, but I contrived by shoeing and stable management to keep it at bay all that time. The patriarch of the lot, who was bred only five miles from Exe- ter, has just completed his fortieth year ; his early history does not redound to his credit ; he was a very unruly, unmanageable brute, and was perpetually changing masters for running away and kickmg carriages to pieces ; two hackney men in succession tried hmi, but were obliged to part with him ; at length he was handed over to the tender mercies of a commercial traveller, whose long journeys through Devon and Cornwall, after a few years, subdued him, and he became a very useful horse, and at the age of fourteen was sold to a friend of mine, from whom I purchased him exactly twenty years ago. He is a high stepper and remarkably handsome, and if you do not look in his mouth his general appearance would pass muster for nine or ten years old ; he is perfectly quiet out of the stable, but he had been so teazed and worried all his life, until he came into my hands, that even now he will not permit a stranger to enter his box alone. The next in seniority is twenty-nine years old, and is the best hack I ever rode. Seventeen years ago, the smith who usually shod him declared his feet to be so far gone that he could shoe him no longer ; and he was on the point of being shot, as "used up," and "quite done for," when I came to the rescue, and accepted him as a present, with the view of trying what I could do to put him on his feet again, and the result of my trial has been seventeen years of very efficient service. There is no speciality attending the history of the other three : one is twenty-one years old, and has been in my possession sixteen years ; another is sixteen years old, and has been in my possession nine years ; and the last of the six above-named horses is thirteen years old, and I have had him eight years. The horse I purchased to replace the one that was shot in December is seven years old, and was in hard work up to the time I bought him, and although he has been only five months in my possession, his feet and legs have Avon- derfully improved, and begin to resemble those of my other horses. _ If I were asked to account for my horses' legs and feet being in better order than those of my neighbors, I should attribute it to the four following circumstances : First, that they are all shod with few nails, so placed in the shoe as to permit the foot to expand every time they move ; secondly, that they all live in boxes instead of stalls, and can move whenever they please ; thirdly, that they have two hours daily walking exercise when they are not at work ; and fourthly, that 1 have not a head-stall or rack-chain in my stable : these four circum- stances comprehend the Avhole mystery of keeping horses' legs fine, and their feet in sound working condition up to a good old age. Another case occurs to me, where the same result has followed simi- lar treatment in a mare I purchased for a friend twelve years ago ; she was twelve years old when I bought her, and had done a great deal of work ; she has ever since been shod by the smiths Avho shoe my horses, has lived in a loose box, is never tied up, and continues to do her work as pleasantly as ever she did. I may mention, in con- firmation of the fact, that my horses are never tied up ; that a short time ago a veterinary surgeon, who had occasion to apply a liniment to the throat of one of them, asked for a halter, and learnt to his astonishment that there was not one in the stable ; we substituted a ■watering bridle, and afterwards fastened the horse to the ])illar reins, to prevent his rubbing his neck, instead of adopting the usual plan of tying him short by the head to the wall : a watering bridle is at all times preferable to a halter either for commandin"; or leading a horse. _ I am often assured, when talking of shoeing, that it is quite impos- sible to persuade country smiths to listen for a moment to any new suggestion, or to adopt any new plan, that they are an obstinate prejudiced race, and nothing can induce them to relinquish any of their old notions. I can only say in reply, that this does not at all accord with my experience of them as a class ; on the contrary, I have found them, for the most part, to be hard-working, painstaking men, evincing great interest in their work, and anxious to do it as well as they could. I do not mean to say that there are no excep- tions, because I know there are ; but the exceptions do not disprove the rule. Before we consent to condemn them in a body let us see how the matter really stands between them and their employers, who accuse them of prejudice and obstinacy. We must not forget that they have been accustomed from the period of their apprenticeship to shoe horses in one particular manner, which has hitherto given satisfaction, and, as far as they know to the contrary, they have never lamed a horse. We must not be surprised, if, under these circumstances, they should show great reluctance to relinquish plans which long habit has rendered almost second nature to them, or if they require to be thor- oughly convinced of the practicability and superiority of a new plan, before they consent to give up the old one ; and as it is much more difficult to efface what has been already learnt than to teach what is new, he who undertakes to become an instructor, must at least be sufficiently master of his subject to be able to point out pretty clearly the advantages of the plan he proposes over that which he desires to alter ; to which end he must acquaint himself with the details of his plan before he ventures into the forge, for an intelligent smith will make a very accurate estimate of his fitness to teach before he has been many minutes there ; and I have no doubt but much of the ob- stinacy and perversity one hears of may be traced to the smith's hav- • ing received impracticable, if not impossible, directions. And surely it is not very unreasonable in him to object to carry out details which he does not comprehend, and which he strongly suspects his instructor is not very clear about, when he knows full well that he would decline to share the blame with him, in case the experiment should fail, and the horse cast a shoe. I have been sometimes surprised at the readiness with which smiths have yielded their opinion to me, as soon as they found that I really knew what I was talking about, and that I could not only give them directions, but show them exactly how to carry them out in detail, and, if I had only possessed the brawny ai-m which is necessary for such a purpose, that I could have forged the shoe and fitted it to the foot. They all feel that horseshoeing is open to improvement, and as a class they are anxious for information that they can depend on, but they are naturally very shy of relinquishing plans which they have been long accustomed to for others which they do not comprehend ; but any gentleman who will take the trouble to acquaint himself with the principle and details of the plan which I advocate, will very soon become a welcome visitor at the forge, and while he is improving the condition of his own horses' feet, he will find that he is indoctrinating the whole district to the great benefit of his neighbors ; for although they will not take trouble themselves, they are soon ready to avail themselves of the trouble taken by others, and will send their horses to the man who can shoe them best, and that causes the other smiths to look about them and change their plans. A few years ago I rented a house for the summer near to a coun- try village, and was very soon waited on by the smith with specimens of his shoes, and a foot shod in his very best manner ; and as exam- ples of careful finish they were very pretty things to look at ; but when I descended from the ornamental to the useful, and began to point out the defects one after the other, he looked astonished, and not very well pleased ; he was, however, somewhat consoled by my telling him that I would have one of my horses brought to his forge on the following morning, and then I would show him what I meant. I kept my word, and finding that he entered with interest into my views, and tried his best to understand and carry them out, I took some trouble with him, and frequently looked in and directed him at his work. One day I found him turning store-shoes of a better form than any I had yet seen in his forge, and observing to him that they were more like what I meant, he said, " Oh yes, I have got it now, Sir ; my shoes were all too short to fit as they ought to do ;" and pointing to some that were hanging against the Avail, he added, " before you came here I used to feel very proud of those shoes, but now it makes me ill to look at them, and I don't think I could ever make one like them again." He had become a really good shoer, and understood how to fit a shoe properly, and I think he would have found it a difficult job to fall back on his old pattern again. His fame soon spread, and he obtained the shoeing of all the gentlemen's horses for several miles around him. Similar results have followed in other instances where I have bestowed a little trouble, and I must say that I have invariably received civility and attention at the time and on many occasions expressions cf great gratitude afterwards. Many persons have been deterred from interfering with the smith, because, as they have told me, they knew nothing whatever about the anatomy or physiology of the horse's foot, and had neither the time nor the inclination to study it ; but such knowledge is not at all necessary to a thorough acquaintance with the principle and practice of horseshoeing; if it were, they might well be excused for not attempting it : all that is really required of them is to take one anat- omical and one physiological fact on trust, and believe that the horse's hoof is lined by a very sensitive membrane, which must on no account ever be wounded, and that the hoof itself is elastic, and expands when the weight of the horse is thrown on the foot, and contracts when it is taken off" again ; all the rest is purely mechanical and merely calls for the exercise of a little thought and patience to understand the princi- ple and apply it. But before I enter on details let me dispose of one subject that has given rise to much unnecessary thought and controversy — I mean the very generally entertained notion, that particular kinds of roads and certain kinds of work call for separate and distinct methods of shoe- ing— which has greatly complicated and mystified a very simple and straightforward matter : the truth is, that no system of shoeing is worth one moment's thought or consideration that will not answer equally well in every description of ground, and for every kind of work. It has been supposed that the hunter forms a special exception, but the experience of a large number of gentlemen in various parts of the country during the last ten years has entirely dispelled the fallacy, and proved beyond dispute that the torture inflicted on hunters by nailing the shoes from heel to heel, with a view of keeping them on their feet, is an unnecessary act of cruelty perpetrated to support the notion, that deep ground would pull the shoes off unless they were secured by extra nails: but if a shoe fits the foot as it ought to do, and is pei-fectly fastened to it by five nails, nothing short of a violent wrench from the smith's pincers can remove it. This has been proved in numberless instances, not only by myself but by others in various hunting countries, who have kindly communicated to me the result of their experience after a fair trial of the plan of shoeing and general treatment of the hoi'se's foot, which I recommended in a work I published some years ago on that subject, and which an officer of Prussian Hussars desired my permission to translate and publish in German ; and he writes me that he and several of his brother oflftcers have had their horses shod as I have directed, and that they never lost a shoe. It would be a useless waste of tim(3 to go over all the proofs again ; nevertheless, as I am now writing for agricultural readers, it is desirable that I should be able to show to them, beyond the possibility of doubt, that the mode of shoeing which I recommend will stand the test of the deep clay ground their horses are sometimes called upon to work in ; and in order to qualify myself to speak with authority in this matter, I have lately instituted an experiment which I think will carry conviction to the mind of the most sceptical. The two subjects of my experiment were horses employed in draw- ing materials for a large public building in course of erection in a deep clay meadow, and I chose the particular time for making the experiment, because the unusual quantity of rain that had fallen during the preceding six weeks had rendered the ground, both in the meadow and at the quarry from which the stone was drawn, as deep and cHnging as it is possible to conceive ground to be. One of the horses was the property of the builder, and the other belonged to the person who had contracted to draw the stone from the quarry, and whose horses are chiefly employed in drawing either timber or stone, 2 10 than which no work can be more trying to the security of horses' shoes at such a season, and in such a county as Devon. I was pres- ent at the shoeing of these horses, and saw them both shod with five nails only in eacii tore shoe and a clip at the toe. The shoes were plain waggon-horse shoes, with stamped holes and no fullering. The builder's horse was a fair average cart horse 15 hands 3 J inches high, and the shoes that were put on him weighed 1 lb. 14 ozs. each. The contractor's horse was a heavy waggon horse 16 hands and an inch high ; and I could scarcely have found a fairer subject for my experi- ment : he has remarkably weak feet, with hoofs full of what smiths call shaky places, and he is so hot and impetuous in his work that the driver never can prevent him doing much more than his share. I had one of his shoes measured and weighed just before it was nailed on, and found it to be 6 inches across from side to side at the quarters, and 7 inches from toe to heel, and it weighed exactly 2i lbs., so that each nail in his shoe had to retain half a pound weight of iron and hold it to his foot. I visited both the horses at the end of a fortnight, and found their shoes not only safe on their feet, but not a clench had risen, neither had either of their shoes shifted in the smallest degree. I was for- tunate enough to meet the larger horse coming from the quarry with a load of stone, and anything more satisfactory to me, as regarded my experiment, or less satisfactory to the poor brute, I cannot conceive ; for he was literally plastered up to the knees and hocks with a thick layer of red clay, and the spokes of the wheels were in a like condi- tion up to the nave, showing pretty clearly the kind of ground he had had to deal with, and the sort of test that had been applied to the security of his shoes. At the expiration of another fortnight I again examined the shoes of both the horses, and finding those of the larger horse completely worn out, I had them taken oft' and replaced by new ones fastened by five nails ; the shoes of the other horse not being worn out, I permit- ted him to carry them another week, and then, considering he had worn them long enough for my purpose, I had him reshod ; but wish- ing to make my experiment as perfect as I could, I had two of the nails omitted, and shod him with three nails only in each fore shoe ; and at the end of four weeks I saw him at work with his shoes safe on his feet. I do not mention this fact with the view of trying to persuade others to shoe their horses with only three nails, although I have not had more than three nails in a fore shoe of any horse belong- ing to me for several years past, neither do I intend to increase the number : I merely record the fact to show that no one need fear to trust their horses' shoes to the keeping oi jive nails. The result of the numberless experiments I have made at various times, on all sorts of horses doing every kind of work, is, that there is but one principle to be observed in horseshoeing, which will admit of no variation or compromise : the shoe must fit the foot^ whatever the sha-pe of the foot may happen to he, and it tnust be nailed to the hoof in such a manner as will permit the foot to expand to the weight of the horse; this latter condition will be best complied with by placing three nails in the outer limb of the shoe, and two in the inner limb 11 between the toe and the commencement of the inner quarter ; a laro-er number than five nails can never be required in any shoe of any size, or under any circumstances, excepting for the sole i)urpose of coun- teracting defective and clumsy fitting. I will now proceed to describe, as shortly as I can, the details of the plan I recommend ; and if it should appear, to those who have done me the honor to read what I have already published, that I have repeated myself, I can only answer that the details of a fixed plan will admit of no variation in substance, and very little in words. The first thing requiring attention is the removal of the old shoes, which should be done with much more care than is usually bestowed on it, and without any of that violent wrenching from side to side one too often witnesses, whereby the clenches are dragged through the crust by main force, and the horn wantonly and unnecessarily destroyed. It is very little trouble to raise the clenches with the buffer, and, if the nails should still retain a firm hold and resist a moderate effort to displace the shoe, the punch should be used to loosen them, so as to cause the shoe to come off easily and without damage to the hoof. The smith will be amply repaid for his trouble by the unbroken horn he will find to nail to, and the firmer hold he will obtain for his nails when he comes to nail on the new shoe. Having taken off the shoe the rasp should be passed round the lower edge of the crust before the foot is let down, to remove the jagged edge, and also to ascertain that there are no stubs remaining' in the horn : if the edge is not rasped it is apt to split and break when the horse moves, which he is sure to do as soon as his foot is on the ground again. No horse should have more than one foot bared at a time ; however strong his feet may happen to be, he is sure to stand quieter on a shod foot than he can on a bare one, and it will prevent his breaking the crust. A horse with weak flat feet is in positive misery when forced to sustain his whole weight on a bare foot, while the opposite foot is held up. Previous to preparing the foot for the reception of the new shoe, we must consider, first, the kind of foot we have to deal with ; and next, the condition of the' roads it will have to travel upon ; for it would be manifestly improper to pare a weak flat sole as much as a strong arched one, or to pare either as much when the roads are hard and covered with loose stones as when they are moist and even. No general rule, therefore, can be laid down that would apply to all kinds of feet, or indeed to the same foot at all times ; the amount of paring the foot is to undergo must entirely depend on the above consid- erations. A strong foot with an arched sole, when the roads are in good order, will require to have the toe shortened, the quarters and heels lowered, and the sole pared, until it will yield in some slight degree to very hard pressure from the thumb ; but on no account should it ever be pared thin enough to yield to moderate pressure : the angles formed by the crust, and the bars at the heels, must be cleared out, and all the dead horn removed therefrom, and the bars should be lowered nearly to a level with the sole. A weak flat foot, on the contrary, will bear no shortening of the 12 toe, and very little paring or lowering anywhere ; the heels of such feet are sure to be too low already, and the sole too thin : in fiict, the less that is done to them the better beyond clearing out the dead horn from the angles at the heels, and making the crust bear evenly on the shoe ; but tlie hollow between the bars and the frog, or the frog itself, must never be touched by a knife in any foot, whether it be a weak one or a strong one, and as these latter directions differ so ma- terially from the usual practice of smiths, I may perhaps be expected to state my reasons for wishing to enforce them in opposition to what they no doubt consider a time-honored custom ; I mean, the invete- rate habit they all have of trimming the frog, and opening out the heels at every shoeing ; but I think I shall be able to show, ^that " it is a custom more honored in the breach than the observance." The bars are not separate and distinct portions of the hoof, but simply continuations of the crust reflected or turned back at each heel in the direction of the centre of the sole, where they meet in a point and form a triangular space for the reception of the elastic cushion, usually called the sensible frog : each of these reflected portions, at its deepest part, rises about an inch into the cavity of the hoof, and is connected at its upper part, throughout its whole extent, on one edge ■with the horny sole, and on the other with the horny frog, whereby the horny covering of the foot is completed and made continuous. This doubling back of the crust on each side, from the heel to the point of the frog, together with the increased thickness of the crust itself at the extremity of each heel, is evidently designed to keep the heels apart, and prevent their pressing inconveniently on the struc- tures within the hoof; and if the substance of the horn be thinned by paring the sides of it, it is clear that its power of resistance must be diminished, the natural action of the foot damaged, and the chance of contraction greatly increased. Many smiths, who are merciless in paring the'sides of the bars, which ought never to be touched by a knife, waste much time and patience in preserving the portion that projects beyond the surface of the sole, which they had better have pared down nearly to a level with the sole, as it only impedes the removal of the dead horn from the corner of the sole at the heel, and would have been worn away, if the presence of the shoe had not prevented it. The frog may be said to consist of three portions, viz., the horny frog, the sensitive frog, and a thick elastic cushion, which is interposed between the sensitive frog and the navicular joint, for the purpose of protecting this important little joint from injury : the portion, how- ever, with which we are now more immediately concerned, as con- nected with the mechanical art of shoeing, is the horny frog. No part of the foot shows the diflPerence between good shoeing and bad so soon, or so palpably, as the frog. The frog of a foot that has been well shod for some time presents a full, plump appearance, with an even surface and a broad oval cleft, with a well-defined edge, not broken through at the back ; whereas a frog, that has been long sub- jected to bad' treatment, is shrunk and hard, with a ragged uneven surface and a narrow cleft broken through at the back, and extending up between the bulbs of the heels. The horn of the frog is thinner 13 and of a closer and more delicate texture than the horn of the hoof, and is evidently intended not only to protect the parts immediately above it, but also to prevent the evaporation of the moisture which keeps these parts in a soft, yielding condition ; but it cuts so easily, and looks so clean and trim when its surface is pared otl", that very few smiths indeed can be prevailed on to leave it alone, and not even cut off the rags ; nevertheless they had better do so, for those very rags which they think it desirable to remove were caused by paring off the surface of the horn at the last shoeing, whereby a part was lam bare that never was intended to be exposed to the action of the air, and which in consequence became dry and hard, and soon cracked, and the edges having curled outwards formed the rags which are so offensive to the eye of the smith ; and, if he should be tempt- ed to remove them, he will again lay the foundation of other cracks and other rags, until at last the frog will have dwindled down by small degrees to half its original size. Now if, instead of persisting m this gi-adual work of destruction, he would only leave the frog alone, and never touch it with a knife, the rags in due time would entirely disappear, and the frog become covered by a coating of newly secreted horn. The horn of the frog, when left to itselt;1s always undergoing a process of exfoliation and reproduction. The exfoliation for the most part occurs in small particles, resembling the dust which adheres to Turkey figs ; but at other times the whole surface of the frog will exfoliate in a mass, leaving a smaller, but still perfect, frog beneath, covered with sound horn. The small particles of exfoliated horn may best be seen in the feet of horses shod with leather, where the artificial covering has prevented their escape ; and so little is this natural process of exfoliation understood by horse-masters in general, that I have frequently had my attention gravely directed to the accu- mulation of these particles, as unmistakable evidence of the leather having rotted the frog. The shoe should be neither too light, nor too narrow in the web : light shoes are apt to bend before they are half worn out, and narrow- webbed shoes expose the sole and frog to unnecessary injury from stones in the road. Every fore-shoe should be more or less seated on the foot-surface, to prevent it pressing on and bruising the sole ; but a perfectly flat surface should be preserved around the edge of the foot-surface of the shoe from heel to heel for the crust to° rest upon. The amount of seating to be employed must be determined by the description of foot to be shod ; for instance, a broad foot, with a flat sole and weak horn, will require a wide web, considerably seated, to prevent it coming in contact with the sole and bruising it ; but a narrow foot, with an arched sole and strong horn, will require less- width of web and less seating, otherwise the dirt and grit of the road would become impacted between the shoe and the sole, and cause as much pressure and injury as the iron would have done. The safest guide to the proper amount of seating is to apply the shoe to the foot, and observe whether there is room for a picker to pass freely between the shoe and the sole ; if there should not be suf- ficient space for a free passage all round the shoe the seating must be increased ; and if there should be more than is necessary, i" must be 14 diminished. The smith, having carefully prepared the foot, and selected a shoe with a proper amount of seating for it, has next to cut off the heels, and fit the shoe to the foot ; and he must always bear in mind that fitting the shoe to the foot does not mean fitting xhefoot to the shoe — an error that smiths are prone to fall into. I have very frequently had occasion to remind a smith, that he was saving himself trouble at the expense of the horse by accommodating the foot to the shoe, instead of altering the shoe to the foot ; and it must be confessed, that unless a smith is encouraged to take an inter- est in his work, by the owner of the horse paying an occasional visit to the forge, and showing that he, too, is interested, it is very tempt- ing to him, when he finds the foot and the shoe do not come well together, to adopt the more expeditious and less troublesome course of substituting the knife and rasp for the hammer and anvil. Every forge is expected to be supplied with store shoes " turned in the rough," and if they were left longer in proportion to their width, and straighter at the quarters, with the heels wider apart than we usually find them, the labor of fitting the foot accurately would be greatly diminished, as we shall see when we come to consider that part of our subject. The first thing, however, that demands our attention is the mode of cutting off the heels to the re- quired length ; and for this purpose a curved chisel, as shown in Fig. 1, is a more convenient tool than a straight one, and saves the smith much trouble in " filing up" the shoe before he nails it to the foot; it removes the corners and rounds the points of the heels at once, and enables him to fit the heels of the shoe to the heels of the hoof with greater nicety than he can possibly do when they are cut off square. The best manner of proceeding is to remove a small corner outer rim on each side, and a larger and longer por- the inner rim, as shown by the dotted lines ABC, in Fig. 2. By this mode of cutting off the heels the outer rim of the shoe is lengthened, and the inner rim shortened, with- out diminishing the width of the web, as shown at A C, in Fig. 3. After the heels have been cut off, as directed above, the nail- holes should be opened ; and the best mode of do- ing it is to make them pass straight through the shoe, instead of inclining inwards in the direction of the centre of the hoof, rihiring laborers, have long been in successful operation in Great Britain. To the farmers there they are of great importance, constituting their chief, or perhaps their only, opportunities of effecting profitable sales or purchases of stock. 1 he different breeds of neat-stock, of horses, of sheep and of swine, are exposed to sale, often in large numbers and of great excellence,' at the local fairs in the quarter where they are raised ; and they attract to them dealers from a distance, with the certainty that they can find just the description of animals they are in want of This, with the local attendance, usually ensures a brisk business. And so great is the convenience of a market-day considered to be to the neighborhood in which it is held, that new fairs are constantly spring- mg up, the only limitation to their number being the amount of busi- ness which may be controlled by them. Besides live-stock, fruit, vegetables and grains find purchasers at these fairs, and they are offered for sale either in bulk or by sample, the latter being the more usual way of disposing of large quantities of any commodity. Most of these fairs, too, have a well-known and specific character, and are noted, some for the superior quality of one kind of stock or of produce, and others for that of another kind. And they often receive their name from the predominant article exposed to sale, as, for example, a fair at which large quantities of cherries are presented, is called the Cherry Fair, and one of which sheep is the characteristic feature is called a Sheep Fair. But in this country, or at least in New England, we have nothing answering to these fairs or market-days. The nearest approach to them are the cattle markets established in the immediate vicinity of our largest cities, and mainly for the supply of the meat for their consumption, as those held weekly at Brighton and Cambridge, in our own Commonwealth, and which are the only markets of aify ex- tent for the sale of live-stock, within her borders. These, however, differ in some important particulars from the fairs proposed for con- sideration. They are exclusively for the sale and purchase of live- stock, and that stock is mostly brought from a distance, sometimes even from the far West. They afford a good opportunity for farmers in the surrounding country to purchase such animals as they stand in need of, and they are resorted to very generally by them for this object. But they are not intended to encourage the sale of stock by these farmers, for the very obvious reason that but little or no stock is raised by them. They are also very inconveniently located, being at one extremity of the State, and therefore can be attended by the larger part of the farming population only at great expense. What, then, would be some of the benefits of regular fairs or market- days, established throughout the State, for the sale and exchange of agricultural products— benefits that might reasonably be expected from them ? In the first place, they would offer to every enterpris- ing farmer in their neighborhood a home market, or a market near at°hand and easy of access. Studded all over as [Massachusetts is — especially on her eastern borders— with cities and large towns and manufacturing villages, it might be thouglit that the farmers are amply supplied with good markets and .at their very doors. To some extent this is indeed true, but it is equally true that very many farmers — a majority perhaps— are obliged to travel eight or twelve miles and sometimes more, in order to reach their nearest market town. The loss of time in thus travelling to and from market, and the wear and tear of horse and vehicle, are no inconsiderable items of expense to the farmer who is placed in this unfavorable position in regard to markets. Suppose that he follows the market weekly for two thirds of the year, there are then thirty-five days to be deducted from the working-days of the year, and if in the fall he goes to market two or more times in a week, the number would be fncreased fully to fifty days, including the occasional days in winter devoted to this object. But the establishing of regular market-days in towns near to these farmers, would prevent very materially this heavy loss of time and the expense, to which they are now subjected. If there were twelve such market-days in a year, that is, monthly markets, where they would be sure of finding purchasers, they would save the difference between twelve and fifty days of time, which they then would have to spend on the farm in increasing its productions, besides malung a corresponding saving in the service of horse and wagon. This sav- ing to the fjxrmer may perhaps be more sensibly measured and appre- ciated, by considering what has been so justly stated by Henry C. Carey, in the Plough, Loom and Anvil, for September, 1851, in respect of labor. " The first of all the taxes to be paid by labor is that of transporta- tion. It takes precedence even of the claims of government, for the man who has labor to sell or exchange must take it to the place at which it can be sold. If the market be so far distant that it will occupy so large a portion of his time in going to and returning from his work, as to leave him insufficient to purchase food enough to pre- serve life, he will perish of starvation. If it be somewhat less distant, he may obtain a small amount of food. If brought near, he may be well fed. Still nearer, he may be well fed and poorly clothed. Brought to his door, so as to make a market for all his time, he will be well fed, well clothed, well housed, and he will be able to feed, clothe, lodge, and educate his children." What is here said of labor applies with equal force to the products of labor, the nearer the market the more perfect is the power to ex- change them and the higher is their price. Trite as is Franklin's proverb, it is not the less true, that " time is money." And vet our JNew England farmers, trained as they are to habits of thi-ift and economy in other particulars, and certainly not wanting in any of the essential qualifications for trade, seem, too many of them, in this im- portant matter of marketing their produce, to set scarcelv any value at all upon time. But if their time be worth to them anything at all, It It will yield any return when skilfully employed, it surely ought not to be thus misspent, not to say squandered in a reckless and shameful manner. In the second place, market-days, by bringing the purchaser to the producer, or rather by creating a lialf-way place and common ground ot meeting for business, instead of the producer being obliged, as is now most frequently the case, to go to the purchaser with his com- modities, would tend to make better prices and quicker and more cer- tain sales for them. As at present managed, the farmer takes or sends to his nearest market town such things as he has to dispose of, and unless he has a regular set of customers, he may be put to much trouble and inconvenience to find a purchaser, and must then often sell to a disadvantage. If, on the other hand, there is collected a large number of buyers at a stated time and place, and there are assembled such products of the farm as all are desirous of purchasing, It is clear that there will be more or less competition, and that sales will be readily etFected at remunerating prices. The tendency of trade in this country is to centralization. The large manufacturers of cotton and woolen goods and of boots and shoes, instead of selling at their factories, have their places for making sales in the metropolis. And where the manufacturer and the sales°- man are united in the same person, it makes but little ditference whether the factory and the shop are in one and the same place or at a distance from each other. But where the manufacturer sells his goods to the merchant, who buys to sell again, — as is the case with boots and shoes — then it makes oftentimes all the difference to the manufacturer, of a living profit by the sale of his goods, or no profit at all,^ whether the purchaser comes to the manufacturer, or the manufacturer goes to the purchaser. The scripture adage — " It is • naught says the buyer," — will operate in the former case'vvith unre- stricted vigor, while in the latter it will fail of its object to depreciate the price of that which it is known is wanted by the purchaser. In the third place, no small advantage would accrue to the farmer by the establishing of regular market-days, from their tendency to equalize the prices of agricultural products. At present, prices are left to depend too much upon caprice and accident, and but little difference is made between different qualities of the same article. An inferior article often brings as much as, or more than, a superior one; so tliut the sale of ngricnUural products resembles more a lot- tery than a fair and equable traffic. "What luck to day?" is the usual interrogatory put to the farmer on his return Irom market, meaning thereby not whether a sale was effected of his produce, but at what rates. And as a consequence of this uncertainty in prices, there is but little inducement to prepare for the market any com- modity— such as butter or cheese — of a superior quality, when it is well understood that as a matter of dollars and cents, an inferior one, requiring less time and labor in its production, will pay much better. The advantage of an open maiket where products of a simihir kind are exposed to sale side by side, is that a standard of prices is readdy fixed, each takes its place according to its merit and commands the pi-ice to which it is fairly entitled. And this advantage enures to the buyer as well as the seller, and gives character and stimulus to the market. In the fourth place, in connection with tliis benefit and closely allied to it, is the healthy emulation which is excited by bringing different specimens of the same products into comparison with one another. Competition of the right kind at once springs up — a competition to excel in the quality of the article produced and not merely in the price obtained for it. The man who has been contented to produce an ordinaiy article, because he has generally obtained a good price for it, or because he has never seen any thing sujierior to it, is stimu- lated by the success of his neighbor, both as to the quality and price of his products, to produce a better; whilst tlie other to maintain Ins advantage and to avoid the mortification of being surjjassed by his competitor, increases his skill and pains-taking. It is thus that pro- gress in all the ai-ts is effected, aud it is only thus that progress in the important art of agriculture is to be achieved. Besides this ben'eticial result, these fairs would tend to diffuse infor- mation, just as our cattle shows do, by promoting intercourse be- tween men engaged in a common pursuit, and bringing their minds into contact on subjects connected witli it. Enquiry into the ditler- ent processes by which results are obtained in the various branches of husbandry is thus excited, and the why and the whereibre of each are freely discussed. It cannot be otherwise than that the farmer must return from these fiirs a wiser man, or if he thought that all wisdom would die with him, that this conceit must be rubbed out of him by the friction to which he has there been subjected. It often happens, for want of this intercourse among farmers, this interchange of opinions and mutual comparison of skill and intelligence, that indi- viduals exhibit an overweening pride in respect of certain processes or products, which is not warranted by facts and is simply ridiculous. One of these self-snlficient farmers, who had always in his own estima- tion the best of every thing, was heard to utter the boast, when speaking of the prospects for a hay crop, " that he should have had the best in the county, if his hay seed had only caught ! " There is no denying that as a class our farmers are set in their opinions, whether well or ill founded, and this arises as much from their living comparatively by themselves, as from that independence of character, which springs from their occupation. The commercial intercourse of these fairs would supply just what is wanting to many of our farmers, it would liberalize their views and enlarge the sphere of their observation, and as a necessary consequence agricultural knowledge would be advanced. Indeed these fairs would become a school for the young farmer, and for all farmers who were not too old to learn. The various breeds of stock could here be learned, their points noted, their peculiar marks of excellence ascertained and a vast amount of experience .and information in regard to them gained. Trained in such a school, our farmers wouUr become much better judges than they now are, of farm stock. And will any one pretend that It is not vital to the interests of the farmer to be able to judge of a good cow or of a good pair of working cattle, so as to be sefdom disappointed in making his purchases? Should he not here as in other transactions be able to think for himself, and if need be to give a reason for his opinion ? Will he not at least have more self-respect and command better the respect of others, than by a blind and hap- hazard way of doing his business ? The farmer needs to be well versed in the knowled^^e of buyino- and selling, and this knowledge can be acquired only" by observa- tion and the exercise of his own faculties. Many farmers fail here— they raise good crops and they harvest them in eood order— but when they come to dispose of them they are at fault"; they are either too early or too late in making sales, and have usually the worst end of the bargain. Now why is this ? Mainly for want of practical ex- perience in trade. The narrow round of their customers gives no opportunity for them to learn, and they go through life with but little skill in this the financial department of husbandry. The establisliincr of market-days, by collecting large numbers of buyers at one placet and by the competion excited thereby, would give to the farmer more tact in trading than it is possible for him now to acquire. In the last place, these market-days or fairs would tend to concen- trate New England farming upon fewer products, by making near and certain markets for them. As it is now, our farm products are too varied— we raise a little of every thing, and not enough of any one thing to make it profitable, from the expense of disposin"- of them._ Of many articles raised on the farm, the little surplus over what IS wanted for home consumption is taken to market. As a con- sequence, sales are uncertain and the proceeds come in by driblets. And there is at present little inducement to go largely into any one production. But create a fixed market near at hand, and our farm- mg would at once shape itself accordingly. One farmer would take to neat stock, another to sheep and anotiier to pigs, and they would all aim to have the best breeds, and the best animals to take to the market. Quick sales, too, would be had for them, if it was known, as It would be, when and where they were to be offered for sale. At the same market the farmer could l)uy wliat lie is now forced to raise or to purchase at great disadvantage. The farmer who went into stock raising, would not be likely to raise all other farm products, as he could find them at liand, on mai-ket-day, much cheaper. Tliei-e would thus be a division of agricultural labor that would be for the common 8 good. Few farmers in this State think of raising their own wheat, as they can buy flour much cheaper ; and so it will be of many other farm products, when these markets are once established. We liave dwelt thus at length on the general advantages of regular fairs or market days, if established throughout the State ; let us now consider some of the particular benefits to be derived from them. Every farmer wishes, more or less times in the year, to purchase live- stock, either young animals to keep over Avinter, stores to fat, milch cows to recruit his dairy, or working oxen, or a bull, or a horse, or swine, sheep or poultry. Some of these are sure to be needed by him, and he must either ride round among the surrounding farmers, or he must go to Brighton or Cambridge, to make his purchases. The former course is attended with much loss of time and vast un- certainty of finding the precise animals wanted. The latter involves much expense, and the inconvenience of making the desired purchase at a distance from home, which distance must be travelled by the animals as well as himself, to reach home. Now, if there were a cattle fair held monthly or quarter-yearly in his neighborhood, he might at a trifling expense resort to it with the certainty or high probability of making his purchases, and he can return with them the same day to his farm. Or suppose that he has an ox which he wishes to mate, he can drive him to the fair and he may there meet with another farmer similarly situated, and thus the two are brouglit into a position to make some sort of a trade, which may be mutually advantageous. Now these men might have ridden about a week or more exploring barnyards and fields for an odd ox — and what farmer's experience does not illustrate the supposed case ? — and perhaps be unsuccessful at last. Again, many farmers wish to purchase in the fall young stock to keep over winter, generally heifers expected to calve in the spring. Hei-etofore, when cattle travelled on foot in droves to the Brighton market, they came so near their doors as to present a good opportu- nity for such fiirmers to make their purchases. But now live-stock is mostly transported to the large markets by the rail cars, and there is hardly any alternative for the farmer to make his purchases, but at these distant markets. Were local fairs or market-days established, then there would doubtless be droves of cattle purchased at the large markets at Cambridge and Brighton, and di-iven down to such fairs to supply the demand there. The farmer could then have his choice of such stock and at a price that while it would leave a fair profit to the drovers, would be less than he could afford to pay at a distant market. This would occur only in districts where there were not young ani- mals enough raised, to supply the local demand. It may be, too, that among the benefits to be derived from estab- lishing regular fairs throughout the State, would be the encourage- ment they would thus indirectly give to stock husbandry, a bi-anch of husbandry of late sadly neglected'by us. The farmer is now tempted by the high prices ottered, to sell his best calves at an early age to the butcher. And in ftict their slaughtered carcases are brought by the cars and by steamboats from New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine, to supply the Boston market. Thus the number of neat animals raised to maturity, has not kept up with the wants of the community, and as a consequence the price of beef animals, milch cows and work- ing cattle, has experienced a most unprecedented increase. If the farmer could find pui'chasers for two-year-old heifers and steers, as readily as for calves and at corresponding prices, what should hinder his making the attempt to rear them ? It will be said perhaps that he has not the fodder to keep them over winter in any numbers, with- out encroaching on the feed of his other stock. Now here is just where he should rouse himself to more enterprise to meet this want, especially by the cultivation of root crops. It is remarkable what immense burdens of carrots, ruta-bagas, mangel wurzels and sugar beets, can be raised on small plots of well-manured land, and with no more skill and labor than are required in the cultivation of a corn crop. The turnip-culture is often said to be the foundation of mod- ern British husbandry. Why ? Because it enables the farmers of Great Britain to raise and keep a much larger number of animals — both neat stock and sheep — than they would otherwise possibly be enabled to do, and by this means to increase the manure heaps by which to augment the capacity of the soil for future crops. We have talked a great deal about the benefits of the root culture — it forms one of the standing topics of cattle show addresses — but it has made but slow progress among us. If we would once set about it in good earnest and begin to rear young stock, we should know by actual experience the inestimable value of roots for winter feeding, and should help introduce into more general practice their culture. And the prospect of a home demand for young stock — such as would spring up from the establishing of market-days — would certainly tend to this desired result. Again, there is a growing demand and at high prices, for good milch cows, especially for those giving rich milk, well adapted for the table and for butter. Let a regular market-day be established in their neighborhood, and an additional inducement would be offered to farmers to raise their most promising heifer calves, by the certainty of finding purchasers of their cows, just as soon as they were ready for sale ; and the competition of a full attendance of purchasers would most likely create brisker sales and higher prices than would other- wise be had for them. The great question which is the best breed of cows for dairy purposes — if indeed there be one — would after a time be in a fair way to be settled. If the Jersey or the Ayrshire breed be the best adapted to our pastures and our climate, and the most to be depended upon for the dairy, it would assuredly be found out; for at a Fair where dealers and farmers thus meet together, they would com- pare their experiences and make up a judgment accordingly. Or if a new breed of milch cows — pure natives perchance — should be origi- nated among us, that should meet all our requirements, that would then be the one to receive the most attention to propagate it in its purity. Why ? Because quick sales, large prices and a certain market at our very doors, would operate as a stimulus to such stock raising, and it would be seen that it would pay, when we returned from the market with the proceeds. 3—2 10 So too we should raise our pigs, instead of being dependent, as for years we have been, on New York and Ohio for our supply, notwith- , standing the disease which has proved of late so fatal to those brought from these States. The loss from this source to the farmers and drovers of Massachusetts has been immense. Can any one say, in view of such a loss, that its recurrence should not be guarded against by increasing the number of breeding sows, and making a home mar- ket for their'litters by the establishing of regular markets for their sale ? They can readily be taken to market in wagons fitted for the purpose, or they could be driven in droves, if grown to be shoats, and the supply, it is safe to predict, would not for a long time, if ever, exceed the demand. And here too, as in the case Avith milch cows, there would be greater inducements, by the establishing of such markets, to bestow more attention to breeding than has as yet been practiced among us. Let us come now to farm products other than live stock, — how would they be aftected by the establishing of these fairs ? Some pro- ducts, such as hay for example, would hardly be offered for sale, unless it should be pressed in bundles so as to be made available for transportation. Wherever grains Avere grown in any considerable quantities, they would rarely fail of finding purchasers at these fairs, for it is well known that the supply of these have not for a long time been at all adequate to the wants of the State. And it is equally well known that the Indian corn and the rye raised in New England, is far superior in quality to that imported from the Middle and South- ern States — for domestic consumption, indeed, no one having tasted of the former would use the latter, unless from sheer necessity. But- ter, cheese and eggs, articles that are now frequently sold at the door to travelling agents, or at country stores, and without any competition to enhance their price, would be brought to these fairs in sufficient quantities to attract purchasers for the larger markets, and sales would be made at their full value and for ready cash payment. In regard to apples, large quantities of which are some years raised in the State, the advantage of regular market days or fairs for their sale, would be very great. As they are a bulky article, their transportation to market is no trifling affair. Six or eight barrels are usually taken at a load in a one-horse wagon, requiring on an average thirty trips to sell a crop of two hundred barrels, besides the time consumed in finding purchasers. Now if the farmer were sure that on a particular day in the fall, dealers would attend the fair in his neighborhood, and make large purchases of this fruit for shipping or for re-sale at the larger markets, he could take with him samples of his different varieties, and thus dispose of his entire crop, to be deliv- ered at the cars or in the city, as might be agreed upon. By this comparatively small outlay of time and money, his net profit would be vastly greater than it now is. In the same manner, onions and other vegetable crops might be disposed of with advantage, both to the seller and the buyer. And here we are reminded of an incidental advantage to be derived from these fixirs, and one by no means to be overlooked in forming a 11 correct estimate of them. Some crops, such as the apple, for exam- ple, are extremely variable, being one year abundant in some parts and scarce in others ; and another year, vice versa. Some crops too, such as the onion, are raised in large quantities, in some sections of the^ State, and not at all in other sections. Now an abundant sup- ply of any commodity gluts the market, and often reduces prices to a ruinous extent. Hence, where there is an excess of these crops beyond the demand for home consumption, it could readily be disposed of to purchasers from a distance, who would be drawn to the local fairs by the knowledge of this very contingency. Besides the opportunity thus afforded for traffic at these fairs, they would be attended with peculiar convenience to the farmer in hiring laborers. He is now put to great trouble and uncertainty in obtain- ing such as are needed — doubtless owing in part to the fact that na- tive labor has been of late largely superseded by foreign. But even this labor cannot always be commanded at the time it is most wanted by him. He cannot spend much time in the busy season in riding round for work-people, and unless they happen to offer themselves at his door, he must suffer for want of them. Now at the opening of the sprjng work, at haying and at harvesting, if the farmer could be sure of meeting at the fair in his neighborhood, a large number of men in want of work, of whom he could take his pick, it would assuredly be no small convenience both to himself and to the persons hired. From this arrangement, a scale of prices, which would be highly desirable, would soon be fixed for the different kinds of labor- ers, and as a consequence there would be more uniformity of wages paid by our farmers. And if it were deemed expedient, a registry might be opened for the names of the persons thus seeking employ- ment, and of the place where they last worked. But it would be difficult to specify in detail, all the benefits, which might be expected to be derived from establishing regular fairs or market-days throughout the State. We have endeavored to enume- rate but a few of them — sufficient, however, to give some definite, and it is to be hoped, favorable views in regard to them. Doubtless here, as in other new enterprises, many of the advantages would far exceed the most sanguine expectations, whilst others would in time spring up that were entirely unlooked for. Take for illustration, our railroads — many of us can remember with what distrust they were regarded by a large part of the community, when they were first proposed for consideration. The stage-coach companies thought that they should be ruined — and the farmers reasoned very naturally that the general introduction of the iron horse, as a means of transporta- tion, would diminish if not destroy the demand for hay and other ■ provender. But how has it turned out ? The stage companies have become the proprietors of the omnibuses running from the various stopping-places of the rail cars. And for the use of those omnibuses, and for drays, coaches and private vehicles, and more recently for horse railroads, the number of horses in the State, and their price too, has probably doubled or trebled since the first rail was laid here, and the consumption of hay and oats has increased in a corresponding 12 ratio. Other interesting particulars will leadily suggest themselves, illustrative of the incidental benefits of railroads, equally unibreseen by their projectors and the community at large. Let us now consider some of the objections that would be likely to be urged against the establishing of these fairs. It may be said per- haps that they propose too great an innovation on the present modes of disposing of agricultural products, to meet with much favor from the farming community. We all know with what reluctance farmers quit long established habits and practices, and how slow they are to make any change in them. Nor can it be denied that a most radical change is here proposed to them, and one which needs to have a fair start given to it, in order to overcome the standing objections to every new enterprise. To take again for illustration the case of railroads, when they were first talked of, the conservative men on all sides cried out against this change from the long tried and well approved modes of tr'avel on the public highway. Those in any way interested in keeping things as they were, joined in the cry of " let well enough alone." " But," says J. R. Williams, in an address before the Michigan State Agricultural Society, in 1850, when speaking of the old maxim that it is best to "let well enough alofte," "it depends upon what 'well enough' means. As a maxim for a farmer it is pernicious. I hold in my hand two peaches. They grew upon trees which sprung from different pits of the same original tree. This large, blushing, richly- tinted, melting, thin-skinned" and small-stoned peach, is cultivated fruit. The small, woolly, tough-skinned and large-stoned peach, is the natural fruit, the 'let well enough alone' kind. I hold in my hand two apples, plucked from the same tree, one from a grafted, and one from a natural branch. One is the cultivated fruit, the other is the 'let well enough alone' kind. You perceive the distinction is as marked in the apple as in the peach. These are a type and fit illustration of progress and perfection in every branch of agri- culture." Notwithstanding the doubts of some, and the gloomy forebodings of others, the railroads were started and they who at first were most opposed to them, have been as ready as any to avail themselves of their benefits. So it would most probably be with these fairs — once start- ed under favorable circumstances, they would give the best proof, by actual experiment, of their superiority over the present modes of sell- inw and buying agricultural products. It would doubtless take time to turn the current of trade into the new channels — but it would come — and the wonder Avould then be that the Avork had not been undertaken long ago. It may be objected to these fairs, too, that they are not adapted to the habits of our people — that they partake too much of the character of holidays to be favorably received by them. But, it may be asked, how can this be determined without making the trial ? In fact, it is in our power to give to them just such a character as we please. And should they become the means of inducing our farmers to spend a few hours occasionally in innocent and rational recreation, it may well be questioned whether the effect on their minds or morals would be at 13 all injurious. It is the bow that is always bent that loses its elasticity, so the mind that is constantly intent on business and is never unstrung in social intercourse, loses its quickness of perception and its keen- ness of judgment ; the heart that is never warmed into a genial glow of cheerfulness and pleasure, becomes cold and torpid. We should not be sorry to see as an effect of these fairs, more of the " good humor and all social affections and generous sentiments among the people," which the Constitution specially enjoins upon legislators and magistrates in all future periods of this Commonwealth to counte- nance and inculcate. Other objections might be raised to an enterprise so novel and untried as this Avould be among us. It is not necessary, however, to go into the further consideration of them for the reason that we can- not conceive of any sufficiently serious to require it. It should be borne in mind that the practical question is, not whether there are any evils to which these fairs might be liable, but whether they would be overbalanced by the positive benefits resulting from them. And this question could best — and perhaps only, be settled by an actual experiment of establishing them. And this brings us to the consid- eration of the best practical method of commencing and continuing these fairs throughout the State, so as to create new markets for the farmer. And first it would be highly desirable, if not essential, that the farmers of the Commonwealth should be more fully informed as to the working of these fairs and the advantages to be expected from them, in order to their co-opei'ating with earnestness and energy in their establishment. If it be true — and of this it is too late to doubt — ■ that " where there is a will there is a way," the first great object in starting this enterprise is to secure the hearty good-will — the intelli- gent and the united will of the farming community in its favor. This, we are persuaded, is vital to its success. With this view, meet- ings might be held in the winter months in the different counties, the question fully discussed and a vote taken upon it. A series of such meetings might be held in different parts of the same county, until the subject was brought before its whole agricultural population and their minds were known, with some degree of certainty, upon it. And in addition to this, circulars might be issued by the State Soci- ety, to be distributed through the County Societies, setting forth the advantages of these fairs, and requesting the opinions of those to whom they were addressed, as to the practicability of establishing such fairs in their several neighborhoods, and the times and places at which they could best be held, also desiring each person to say what part, if any, he would take in giving them his support by his attend-- ance and otherwise. When all this had been done, we should be in a position to judge whether it were advisable to proceed in establishing the fairs, or not. If tlie whole popular current was decidedly against it, or such a degree of apathy and indifference was manifested in respect to it as to make its success highly doubtful, then we should say that it was best to wait for "' the good time coming," rather than to attempt to force its advent. But if the public sentiment, as thus 14 ascertained, were favorable to the undertaking, especially if a certain enthusiasm wei'e excited in the subject, start it then, by all means, and the sooner the better. There need be but little formality about it. Let individuals in the several neighborhoods near the fair, asso- ciate themselves together by agreeing to attend, either to buy or sell, one taking this and another that article, and all determining to lend his aid and encouragement to it. One enthusiastic person in a neigh- borhood— an energetic, persistent man, not easily deterred by trifles, one that sees few or no obstacles in the way when a good enterprise is started ; or, seeing them, summons fresh pluck to surmount them, will certainly succeed in enlisting the heai'ty good-will and co- operation of nearly all with whom he comes in contact. With book and pencil in hand let him call on his neighbors and talk over the matter freely with them, and then note down what this one and that will do to help on the fair, — specifying the articles they would sev- erally agree to carry to it. The power of associated action and the force of example, would in this way operate quietly but etfectually. A few such men — young men, if they can be enlisted — will act like leaven to leaven the whole mass. There need be no regulations made and published as to the buying and selling, not even that the sales shall be for cash payments, which would certainly be the most desirable mode of trade. The fair would be the farmers' exchange — just as the mei'chants have their exchange in the city — where they meet to transact business, and self-interest and mutual convenience make the bargains. Neither are there need- ed any public yards or buildings for the display of animals or other products of the farm ; but they would be offered for sale at particular points, which would soon become well known to the public. On the 23d of June last, Sanford Howard, of the Boston Cultivator, attended a cattle fair at Kilmaurs, in Scotland. In a letter published just after- wards in that paper, he says, " there were there about four hundred head of cattle, mostly Ayrshire cows and heifers, the greater part of which changed hands, although the market was dull. They were collected in the principal street of the village, the lots of the different owners being kept separated by men and dogs. The purchasers looked over the animals, and having decided on the ones they wanted, and asked the price, made offers, at the same time extending their hands. If the offers were accepted, the parties shook hands and that consummated the transaction." The whole is a very simple affair — as simple as Columbus making the egg stand on its end — if we would but take hold in earnest and determine to have it succeed. Only make a beginning by collecting together on a fixed day and at a fixed place, agricultural products and men in sufficient numbers, and the market is established. The success of one such day would be almost sure to command success on the next, and after a few such days the market-day would become a permanent and ^Jopular institution, and would be noted in the almanac, as the different terms of the Courts are noted. Another important question, and one requiring much care and de- liberation in deciding it, is, how often and where shall these fairs be 15 held ? It is clear that this must be left with some body of men, in whom the public have confidence. The different Agricultural Socie- ties that receive the bounty of the Commonwealth, and are required to make an annual return to it of their transactions, might be request- ed to take upon themselves this duty. Composed as these societies very generally are of farmers, they have the confidence of the farmers, and they can best fix the times and places of the fairs, with the proper discretion. By their trustees, or by committees chosen for the purpose, they might exercise the necessary power with regard to the whole matter, with but little danger of its being abused. They should, in the first place, map out the county, and then select such points as would best accommodate the population, having refer- ence to railroad and other facilities. The railroad companies could well afford to encourage the fairs, by charging but half-price to those who pass over their roads to the market. To make this matter more specific, let us take for example the County of Essex — that being the county with which the writer is most familiar — and let four towns be fixed upon as near as may be to its four corners, as the places where monthly fairs or market-days shall be held throughout the year. Such four places might be Danvers, (at the Plains,) Ipswich, Newburyport, and North Andover, (at Sutton's Mills.) Three of these towns have at least two railroads running directly to or through them ; and one, Ipswich, has the Eastern Railroad passing through its center. Hav- ing settled upon these towns and the points in them, at which the market could best be held, on the first Wednesday in January let a market be held at Danvers, due notice having been given to that effect. On the second Wednesday in January let a market come off at Ipswich ; the third Wednesday at Newburyport, and the fourth Wednesday at North Andover, and so go through each month in the year, observing the same order as to the days. In this way, it would soon be known that the first Wednesday of every month was market- day at Danvers, and so of the other towns, they would always have the same Wednesday in the month for their market-day. At first these markets might not be so fully attended, but still they should be observed, rain or shine, brisk times or dull. As the fairs are started, in respect of place and day, so they should be continued, for the reason that a change would be ditlicult ; but more especially that the habit of attending a particular market at a regularly recurring time, would thus become fixed in the life of the farmer. And in order to accommodate the whole county by a larger display of stock, let some central town, such as Topsfield or Georgetown, having good railroad facilities — be the place for holding a market day lor neat stock and horses in the spring and fall, the first Friday in May and. October being suitable days for that purpose, and not interfering with the other markets. And in order to encourage this whole enterprise in its infancy, it might be advisable for the Agricultural Societies or public spirited individuals to offer premiums for certain farm products, that cannot so well be presented at the regular cattle shows, and do not receive any encouragement from them. For example, the best poultry in all 16 its varieties, dressed for the market, rautton, pork, veal and other meats, might thus be noticed. The best lot of honey and eggs, of butter and cheese, of cranberries, quinces and apples, and of fruits and vegetables generally, might also receive the Ibstering aid of the soci- eties. The advantage of this mode of bestowing premiums is, that it would be the best lot of a given product, as prepared for market and exposed to sale, that would receive them, and not the best specimens, culled and fitted for parade, as is too often the case at our fairs. r NO. 4. -| LNEW SEIIIES.J PRIZE ESSAY ON THE PREPAEATIOIf Ai\D APPLICATIOJf MANURES. BY JOSEPH REYNOLDS, M.D., OF CONCORD, MASS. BOSTON: 1858. J. H. EASTBURN'3 PRESS, ESSAY. In treating of the preparation and application of Manures, several other points naturally, and almost necessarily suggest themselves. In discussing their preparation, one can hardly avoid inquiring into their composition, and the sources from which their component elements are derived, and before one is prepared to apply them, he must ascer- tain the etfects which they produce, for it is by a careful observation of these effects, that he is to be guided, rather than by rules derived from theory. The Preparation of Manures. In considering the best mode of preparing ony substance, we must obviously ascertain, at the outset, of what it consists. Our first inquiry then must be, what elements are essential to constitute any substance a manure. To this inquiry I reply, 1st. Manures consist of carbonaceous matter already combined wnth oxygen, or in a condition to be combined with it, thus forming cai'bonic acid. Carbo- naceous matter is formed by the decay or decomposition of the woody fibre of vegetables, of starch, gum, sugar, and oils, into the composition of all which, carbon largely enters. Carbon constitutes the frame- work, or chief bulk of all vegetables, and is left, more or less free from all other elements, in decayed vegetable substances. It consti- tutes the bulk of all the solid excrementitious matter, which passes through animals. Hence all ordinary manures, whether consisting of animal excrement, or of vegetable matter, in the form of muck, decay- ed grasses, straw, leaves, fruit, wood or other vegetable growths, are composed very largely of carbon. 2d. Salts. Manures contain the salts of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, silex, ammonia, sulphur and iron, all of which, except ammonia, are found in vegetables, and are derived from the soil. They are all found, also, in the secretions of animals, especially in their liquid secretions, being derived by them chiefly from the vegetables on which they feed. Ammonia is abundant in animal secretions, being formed in them by the chemical union of nitrogen and hydrogen. This is an important element in many manures, as it furnishes for the use of plants, nitrogen and hydrogen, and also operates as a stimulant to their secreting and assimilating vessels. What are called animal manures, which consist of decaying animal substances, as Hesh, haii-, feathers, skins, &;c., yield a large quantity of ammonia, it being formed in the process of putrefaction, by the chemical union of their nitrogen with the hydi'ogen of water. 3d. Gases. Manures contain elements in the form of gases, as oxygen, hydro- gen, nitrogen and their various compounds with other substances, as sulphuretted hydrogen, consisting of sulphur and hydrogen ; phos- phuretted hydrogen, composed of phosphorus and hydrogen ; and carbonic acid, compounded of carbon and oxygen. Ammonia usually exists in manures in a gaseous form, except when combined with sul- phuric or other acids. 4th. Acids. Acids, either in a free state or combined with alkaline bases and metals, are also found in manures; as sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, phosphoric, carbonic acid, &c. These acids, with the exception of the carbonic, are seldom ibund in a free state, but generally in a state of combination ; as sulphate of lime, nitrate of potash, phosphate of ammonia, &c. 5th. Water. The fifth important element contained in manures, is water. This contains in solution, the earths, acids and gases. It is the universal solvent employed by nature, and is always present, when vegetable or animal growth is going on, furnishing to the vessels of the dilferent organs, in that state of minute division, which can be obtained only by solution, the elements which they require to construct their various tissues, and not only so, but freely yielding up the oxygen and hydro- gen of which itself consists, when one or both are required. These elements, viz. : carbon, alkaline salts, silex, sulphur, iron, gases, acids and water, are the elements usually found in manures. They are rarely all found in any one manure, and are found in different pro- portions in different manures. Hence thedifferent effects of different manures. Manure consisting chiefly of carbonaceous matters, when applied to soils containing a kirge percentage of humus or carbon, will produce but little effect upon the growing crop. Such a soil requires manures containing a large quantity of alkalies or nitrogenous matter. A manure consisting largely of carbon, is specially adapted to sandy loams, from which the carbon has been exhausted. How many of the elements above named are necessary to constitute a manure ? In order to answer this question understandingly, it is necessary first to determine the condition of the soil to which it is to be applied, for that may be considered a manure, which supplies any want of the soil ; and secondly, the elements specially wanted by the crop to be cultivated upon it. All the constituents above named are necessary to furnish a perfect manure ; that is, a manure that shall be suited to all kinds of crops, in all kinds of soils. But were all manures so constituted, it is probable that a portion of the elements would be wasted in all cases ; or, in other words, that they would not all be wanted, in any one case. Several of these elements are vola- tile in their character, and of course, will not remain permanently in the soil. If they are not wanted for the immediate crop, there will be a waste of material. Could we determine, in all cases, the wants of the soil, and the wants of the crop, and then apply only those elements of manure that will meet these wants, it is obvious that a great amount of material would be saved. But the difficulties in the way of determining; these wants, and of so combining and adapting the needed manurial elements, are so great, that they can never be wholly overcome, and we must be content to submit to the loss result- ing from our ignorance and inability. But science and observation may do something towards meeting these difficulties. Here is a fine opportunity for the exercise of the discrimination and judgment of the cultivator. Having now spoken of the elements contained in manures, we are prepared to speak of the sources from which they are derived, and of their preparation. Carbonaceous matter, as we have seen, results from the natural decay or chemical decomposition of vegetables. Accu- mulated masses of vegetables, as leaves, wood, grasses, straw, the stalks and stems of all plants, fruits, roots, grains, &c., under favora- ble conditions, rapidly undergo, first, the fermentative, and secondly the putrefactive process. By favorable conditions, is meant the proper degree of temperature, and the proper amount of moisture. When there is too much or too little heat, or too much or too little moisture, the process of fermentation will not go on. When masses of vegetable matter are collected under favorable circumstances, their fibres soften and swell, and become permeable to air and water. Their salts, starch, sugar and gluten and extractive matter are dissolved ; their carbon combines with oxygen, and car- bonic acid is rapidly formed, and permeates the whole mass. This acid combines with the alkalies that may be present, and thus carbon- ates of lime, potash, soda and ammonia are formed. After a time, certain elements in the mass take on the putrefactive process. This process is due chiefly to the presence of gluten and nitrogenous ele- ments, such as those derived from animal sources. Animal substances rapidly pass into the putrefactive process, and the larger the propor- tion of such substances combined with the vegetable masses, the more rapidly putrefaction occurs. Hence the addition of a portion of animal manures to vegetable matter, greatly facilitates putrefaction and decomposition. By this process, nitrogen is set at liberty, and combines with the hydrogen of the water, or with that which it finds in a solid form in the vegetable substance, and forms ammonia, which, combining with the carbonic ■ acid which is being rapidly evolved at the same time, forms carbon- ate of ammonia, the form in which ammonia is usually presented to us. Hydrogen is also rapidly developed by the putrefactive process, and combines with sulphur and phosphorus when present, forming sulphuretted and phosphuretted hydrogen, the gases which so oftend our sense of smell in manui'es. These gases are highly volatile, and when the surfaces of the putrefying mass are freely exposed to the atmosphere, are rapidly dissipated. Some subatauccs have the power 6 of absorbing a large amount of these gases, and of retaining them '«\'ith considerable tenacity. Carbon itself, Avhen nearly pure and dry, has a strong affinity for them. Hence the addition of dry pulverized charcoal or of peat, will absorb them in large quantities. From this property is derived the power of these substances, as deodorizers. The sulphates of lime, iron and zinc have a similar power. These sulphates have also the power of decomposing carbonate of ammonia, displacing the carbonic acid, and forming sulphate of ammonia, which is not volatile. Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and chloric acid Avill de- compose carbonate of ammonia, forming sulphate, nitrate, or chloride of ammonia, which salts are not volatile. Hence the value of these acids to combine with alkalies, and especially with ammonia, forming with them soluble salts. The result, then, of decomposition as we usually find it, in the form of vegetable compost, is carbonaceous matter, combined with certain salts. Vegetable substances are also decomposed in the digestive organs of animals, by a process, in many respects, similar to that Avhich we have already described. The vegetable fibre is comminuted by the teeth, and softened and permeated by the fluids contained in the organs of the animal. A large portion of the starch, gum, sugar, gluten and salts, are dissolved out, and taken up by the lacteal vessels of the animal, to serve the purposes of nutrition. The remainder, mixed as we have said, with the juices of the animal, containing in solution various substances, is ejected. This process is accomplished much more rapidly than the orilinary process of vegetable decay, and the substance resulting is mixed with a large amount of animal mat- ter, which fits it for rnpid j)utrefaction. The animal matter acts the part of a leaven, which sets up the putrefactive process, whenever the necessnry conditions are present. There is this difference between the reduction of vegetables by the ordinaiy process of composting, and by the process of animal digestion, viz. : that in the latter ])ro- cess, vegetables are made to afford nutriment to animals, while under- going reduction, and yet in consequence of the condition to which they are brought, and of the additions which they receive, they are more valuable as manures, than when, without serving the purposes of nutrition, they are reduced by the former process. These two processes, vegetable composting, and the feeding of animals witii vege- tables, are the sources from which carbonaceous manures are chiefly obtained. But the slow decomposition of vegetables is always going on in nature, and thus one generation of plants is made to afford nutriment to those that come after it. The carbonaceous matter resulting from the decay of vegetables, is not all taken up, as it is formed. Immense masses of it have accumulated in meadows, swamps and basins, by the action of obvious causes. These accumulations of vegetable debris, mingled with more or less of insoluble earths, constitute muck or peat, and are capable of fur- nishing an almost unlimited amount of carbonaceous matter, in a con- dition to be made rapilly subservient to the purposes of cultivation. This material difiers considerably in condition, and in composition. Iq some deposits, it is much more purely carbonaceous matter, than in others. In some, the decomposition is more complete than in others. But the most important dijBTerence in different parcels of muck is, that one contains acids, or minerals combined with acids, in very sensible proportions, while another is nearly or quite free fi-om such compounds. When acids abound in muck, it is unfit to be used in a simple state, but needs to be corrected by alkalies ; and of these, lime seems to be the best adapted to remedy the evil. Quicklime mixed ■with peat, has the effect of rapidly rendering it pulverulent and light. Its influence seems to be extended through the whole mass, like that of yeast through the whole mass of dough, while at the same time, it neutralizes the acids, and decomposes the salts of iron or other min- erals, forming salts of lime, which themselves are essential to the growth of many crops. When muck is free, or nearly free from acids, it may be used by itself, with great profit, on light sandy soils, or on any soils, in which the humus is exhausted, or it may be com|)osted with stable manure, ashes, guano, or animal matters, with peculiar advantage, since it has, as we have already observed, the power of absorbing and con- densing the gases arising from the ])utrefaction of these substances, and thus will be formed a manure adapted to nearly all the uses of the garden and the field. No other substance seems so well adapted to composting with night-soil or urine as muck, since it deodorizes these substances, and retains all their valuable elements, and renders them at once manageable, and easy of application, and affords the dilution which concentrated manures requiie for their safe application. Composted with putrefying fish, it forms an exceedingly valuable manure. The best mode of preparing muck for use, is to throw it from its bed in the autumn, and let it be exposed to the action of the frosts of the succeeding winter. If it is designed to be composted with lime or ashes, it may be used the following season. But if it is to be composted with stable manure, night-soil, or animal matters, it is better to let it remain until the following autumn, when it should be deposited in the barn-yard or cellar, and be mixed with the drop- pings of the animals, from time to time. It should be provided in sufficient quantity to be used freely as a deodorizer about the premises, whenever or wherever it may be wanted. It will thus become charged with gases and salts, and be converted into a highly valuable manure, especially serviceable in garden culture. The chief sources of carbonaceous matter are then found in vegeta- ble composts, animal excrements, and muck, and combined with them, as we have seen, are various salts and gases. But these elements, which are equally essential to vegetable growth, either as component elements, or as stimulants, may be found in more concentrated forms, . in much smaller bulk, and capable of more easy and direct applica- tion to plants. These fertilizing elements, variously combined and condensed into a small bulk, constitute what are called artificial mu' nures. All plants take from the soil more or less mineral matters. Some require them in large quantities. Such plants are said to be exhausting to the soil on which they grow. The small grains, which appropriate in their culms and seeds, a large amount of silex, lime and potash, are instances of this class. Other plants take less from 8 (he soil, and feed coiDiously upon the elements found in the atmos- phere. The turnip and cabbage, which are furnished with a large array of leaves for this purpose, are an instance of the latter. The elements to which we now refer, are all soluble, and are dissolved and washed out of the soil by the rain, and from land that is well worked and in fine tilth they are rapidly washed out, and, unless they are supplied by artificial means, the cultivated soil becomes rapidly de- prived of them. These elements may be directly and easily supplied to the soil. The nitrogenous manures, as guano, night-soil, pou- drette, urine, hair, fish manure, and animal substances generally, con- tain in solution, or in combination with acids, a large quantity of mineral matter, chiefly lime, potash, and ammonia, and it is to these that they owe w^hatever permanent value they possess, their other elements being so soluble and volatile, that the effects of this class of manures are immediate and temporary. Another kind of nitrogenous manures to which but little attention has been paid in this country, may be found worthy of attention. I refer to nitre beds, which are formed of soil mixed with potash, lime and soda, and are protected from the rain by roofs open on all sides, to expose them to the free circulation of the air. The mixture is frequently stirred to expose new surfaces to the air. The alkaline substances thus treated, combine with the nitrogen of the aii', and thus in time, nitrates of lime, potash and soda, are formed, and the whole mass becomes strongly impregnated with them. The principal use that has been hitherto made of the substances thus treated, has been to leach them, by which the nitrates of potash and soda are dissolved out, and reduced to a solid state, by evaporation, for the manufacture of gunpowder, and other purposes in the arts. There can be no doubt, that large quantities of manure might be thus prepared, which would be highly valuable. Experience only can" determine whether it can be done economically. But the principal means by which mineral matters are restored to the soil, is the direct application of lime, gypsum, bones, ashes, salt, sea-weed, and nitrates of lime and soda, and muriates of lime, soda and ammonia. The effects of such substances upon many soils are very apparent, especially when their application is followed by crops, into whose composition such sub- stances largely enter, as wheat, oats, potatoes, &c. Having spoken somewhat at length of the composition of most of the substances in common use as manures, I will speak briefly of their preparation. It has already been seen, that most of the natural manures contain elements that are soluble and volatile. It follows, of course, that when such substances are exposed to the rain and snow, the soluble elements will be dissolved and washed out, and that, if they are exposed to the free action of the atmosphere, their volatile elements will be dissipated, as fast as they are developed, and this will be, at least with respect to several of them, nearly in proportion to the elevation of the temperature. The free action of the air will not only dissipate their gases, but will carry off the moisture which is necessary to support chemical action. Hence it follows that in col- lecting and preparing manures for the soil, whether they consist of unmixed stable manures, or these composted with soil, muck or other vegetable or animal substances, they should be protected from the action of" the weather. There are lew who can afford to submit to the loss to which they would otherwise be ex[)0sed. The barn cellar is perhaps the most convenient arrangement for the protection of manures, and this is coming rapidly into use throughout this State. The cellar should be easy of access, — should be made with a bottom impervious to water, protected frum currents of air, and if possible secured from frost, so that the fermentative and putrel'active processes may be going on through the winter. Material siiould be provided and placed in or near the cellar, and be spread frequently over the fresh di-o]>pings of the animals, that it may absorb the liquid portions, and absoi'b the gases as fast as they are formed. The materials pro- vided should be as dry as possible, that they may retain the liquid excrement, and besides, in a dry state loam and nuick are more ea-ily pulverized, and mix more thoroughly with the droppings. If the mass, thus gradually formed in the cellar, is suffered to freeze, very little decom|)osition or chemical action take place during the winter. But if the frost is kept out, the laboratory will be at work more or less actively, through the en.lire winter, and the manure will be fit to be used in the early spring. It will become softened and rendered fine, by its own internal action, and will not require to be oveihauled, for the sake of breaking and pulverizing it. \Vliereas, if it is kept frozen, or near the freezing point, the animal excrement will be in the condition of green manure, and will not so readily combine with the soil, or act so innnediately upon the growing crops. The farmer who has no cellar, should cover his manure with a roof, at least, to protect it from the rain and sun. It would be well for the farmer who does not cover his manure, to remove it during the win- ter, into his field, and deposit it in as large masses as possible, that it may present the smallest surface to the weather, and cover it neatly with soil, that may protect it from the rain, atid absorb the gases as fast as they are formed, which will be \ery slowly during the cold Aveather. A quantity of dried muck may be provided in the autumn, near where it is intended to deposit the manure from the barn, and be mixed with it as it is deposited, and used to cover the heap. Heaps of compost thus prepared, require to be overhauled in the early spring, and the ingredients to be well mixed. It is an excellent practice to mix with them, as they are being overhauled, gypsum, or a solution of sulphate of iron, or diluted sulphuric acid, as these will cotnbine with, and retain the ammonia, as it is formed in tiie ferment- ing mass. Ashes or quicklime should never be directly combined with green manure, or urine, or any substance, as guano, for exam- ple, which contains a large amount of carbonate of ammonia, as they will combine with the carbonic acid, and set free the ammonia in a gaseous form, which, unless some other substance having a strong affinity for it, is present, to combine with it, will of course be lost. "When it is desirable to apply lime or ashes to the same soil with stable manure, or compost consisting partly of stable manure, the best method probably is, to plough in the manure, and spivad the lime or ashes broadcast over the surface, or apply it in the hill with the seed, when hoed crops are to be cultivated. The principle, which should 4-2 10 ever be kept in view, in the preparation and application of manures, is, that they should be applied to the soil in their integrity, that is, containing all the elements belonging to their constitution. If a por- tion of these elements are diffused into the atmosphere instead of the soil, it is obvious that a portion has been lost, and that portion is usually the most active and the most stimulating. Some persons pre- fer to introduce stable manures into the soil, in a crude or green state. In this condition it is in a state of integrity, and all its elements, as they are developed, are absorbed by the soil, and we are not sur- prised that those who have never experienced the advantages of com- posting in a cellar, should prefer this mode of application. We have already referred to the combination of muck with night- soil. Probably there is no better mode of preparing this highly valua- ble substance for common use, as a manure, than by mixing it with a sufficient quantity of muck in a dry state, to absorb its moisture, and destroy its odor. If a quantity of plaster, or a little diluted sul- phuric acid be added to this composition, we shall have one of the best manures that can be composed, for most crops, and especially for garden and fruit crops. Liquid Manures. The saving and use of liquid manures is deserving of more atten- tion than it has yet received in this country. It is easy so to arrange the stalls of cattle, as to receive their urine into troughs under the floor, and to convey it into a cistern in the cellar, or outside of the barn. This may be pumped into a water-cart, to which a spi-inkler is attached, similar to those used in watering the streets. If it is pumped in through a strainer, the sprinkler does not become clogged, and it may be rapidly conveyed to the field, and distributed as a top- dressing, upon grass or grain, Avith immediate effect. "When the soil is not deficient in cai-bonaceous elements, there can probably be no better top-dressing applied. It is not as permanent in its effects as the solid excrement, but more immediate, and it may be applied twice a year upon grass, with less expense of labor than one dressing of solid manure. The cost of the necessary apparatus for saving and distributing it, is small. As a top-dressing for a field where turnips are to be grown, it is very excellent. As a top-dressing in the spring, or during the summer, for pasture lands, it is perhaps superior to any dressing that can be applied. If the undiluted urine is thought too strong, it may be easily diluted in the field, if water is at hand. A gentleman of my acquaintance, who has been using it as a top-dress- ing for grass, during the three years past, considers it fully equal in value to the solid excrement of the same animals, and he states that one man can dress as much land in this way, in one day, as two men can, with solid manure, in two days, without taking into account the expense and labor of collecting and mixing the material of which compost is made. If this statement be correct, it must be moi'e economical than any compost, as a dressing. When applied to land in which humus is deficient, it will not probably be found to meet all the wants of the crops. Its effects will be much like those of guano, on similar soils. It remains to be detei'mined by experience whether 11 it IS of equal value with superphosphate of lime, ashes, plaster, guano, or other concentrated manures, as a top-dressing. These may all be applied Avith equal facility, and with even less labor, and some of them, as ashes and lime, ai'e more permanent in their effects. In applying liquid manure as a top-dressing, the labor of one man and horse will top-dress an acre in a day, within a quarter of a mile of the barn. This would be worth not far from three dollars. Will that value of any other dressing add as much to the amount of the grass or grain crop as will the dressing in question ? This must be deter- mined by experiment. English iarmers are making extensive appli- cation of liquid manures. They apply them largely diluted, and the effects may be due, in some measure, to the quantity of water in which they are dissolved. Liquid manures may be applied so strong as to injure tender plants. It is well known that guano applied directly to the germinating seed, operates as a caustic upon its softened substance, and entirely pre- vents its growth. The same thing is true of ashes and lime under certain circumstances, and it is also true of urine ; for when this is applied in large quantity, upon young and tender grass, it will often kill it entirely. There js no doubt that the English mode of applica- tion is much the safest, but in order to attain the same result, the labor is much increased ; and we are hardly prepared to believe that the fertilizing power is increased in proportion to the dilution, as is said to be the case with the medicinal power of homoeopathic medicines. Within certain limits, the immediate effects of fertilizers may be, and doubtless are increased by dilution. The particles of solubje bodies are more finely subdivided, and are more readily taken up by the radicles of plants, and carried into the circulation. Indeed, this is doubtless the principal reason why liquid manures are more immediately active than solid. Water must always be present to render manure of any kind effective. Potash, lime, soda and all other salts, must be in a state of solution, before they can be absorbed by the rootlets of plants. Hor- ticulturists well understand that all such substances can be applied with moi-e immediate effect, in a state of free solution. Such sub- stances, applied in a solid form to the soil, in a season of drought, have little or no effect, until the falling rain dissolves them, when they will sometimes operate with almost magical effect. Guano applied as a top-dressing, is sometimes almost wholly inoperative, unless the ap- plication is followed by rain. Hence, when this fertilizer is applied in this way, it should be applied in the early spring, while the ground is still wet, or during a rain, or upon an April snow, in order that it may be dissolved and carried into the ground, and thus be protected from the atmosphere, as well as be applied to the roots of the grass and grain. There can be no doubt that lime and ashes applied in the form of lime-water and weak lye, would be more immediately effi- cacious, than when applied in the ordinary way. But it would be attended with, more labor and expense. How far this mode of apply- ing manures Avill be found economical in this State, where labor absorbs so large a pait of the working capital of the cultivator, each must judge for himself. 12 Our own opinion is, that with the exception of urine from the stable and the liouse, which may be easily saved, and wliich is apt to be lost, in great measure at least, by any other mode of management, the ap- plication of liquid manures Avill be confined chiefly to the garden. For garden uses, soap-suds and the sewage of the house is usually sufficient to fertilize a garden that will supply the family with vegeta- bles. All the liquids from the house should be conducted to a reser- voir. A garden-engine, or a hand water-cart, Avith a few feet of hose and a sprinkler attached to it, will afford all the machinery needed. The soil may be well sprinkled before the seed is sown, and at such times subsequently, during the growing season, as may be convenient or necessary. A little practice will soon teach the needful skill in the application. If plaster or a solution of sulphate of iron is occa- sionally added to the reservoir, it will both act as a deodorizer, and add to the efficacy of the manure. Much excellent manure might be prepared in this way, if every farmer, and every family cultivating a garden, would take the pains necessary to provide a suitable reser- voir. The material that now runs to waste, and is, for the most part, a nuisance around our premises, might thus be made to add no incon- siderable amount to the products of our soil. Every family in a country town of five hundred families, might save manure to the amount of five dollars annually. This would amount to twenty-five hundred dollars, or one dollar for each individual in town. This would be sufficient to pay the highway tax, and build one good school- house every year ; or it would pay the entire school tax of most towns of that number of inhabitants. This amount of manure, properly applied, would produce five thousand bushels of corn or vegetables of equal value. If such would be the value of this saving to a single town of five hundred families, the value to the whole State would be a very large sum. In our discussion thus far, we have had direct reference to natural manures, but we have introduced several observations relating to the composition and use of artificial manures. Most of these manures, as they are received from the manufactories, need little or no prepara- tion, but are ready to be applied directly to the soil, or to be compost- ed with other manures, or to be dissolved for use in a liquid form. It is not probable that they can be economically prepared, except upon a large scale, at establishments erected for the special purpose, and by machinery suited to the manipulations to which the ingredients are to be subjected. Superphosphate of lime consists of ground bones, sup- plied with an additional dose of oxygen by means of sulphuric acid and water. Blood manures consist of blood and animal fibre deodor- ized by substances capable of absorbing their nitrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen and moisture. Muriate of lime is either the waste of bleach- eries, or more commonly, burned shells or quicklime treated with sea water, which imparts to the lime its salts, and a certain amount of muriatic acid. But as the farmer will not be likely to undertake the preparation of these and similar manures upon his own premises, it is unnecessary to go into a description of the machinery or processes used in their manufacture. 13 The Application of Manures. We have already said so much upon the application of manures, while treatinnj of their preparation, that the reader \vill very naturally expect, and probably hope that this division of our subject will be very briefly disponed of. But before givinj; any dii'ections resijectino; the application of manures, we must first institute an inquiry into the effects produced by manures upon growing vegetables, and upon the sod. Were the theory correct, that vegetables derive all their nutriment from the atmosphere, the application of manures to the soil would be of no advantage to tliem, unless it were to stimulate them to drink up the carbonic acid and the hydrogen, and in some cases the nitrogen of the atmosphere, more eagerly. But experience everywhere te°aches us, that the free application of manures causes vegetables to grow with much more vigor, and to attain a much more perfect develop- ment. The obvious inference from this fact is, that manures furnish to plants the elements of nutrition, which they eagerlv devour, and appropriate to their growth. We know that in animals the food is received mto the stomach, where it undergoes a sort of solution, and IS then carried forward into the intestines, where it is presented to the mouths of myriads of little vessels, which drink up the fluid portion, and convey it to larger vessels, by Avhich it is conveyed to the heart. Then by the heart, it is sent into the lungs, where it is acted upon by the air, in the lung-cells, and is then returned to the heart, and by means of the arteries, sent to the various tissue-formino- vessels throughout the body. The blood in the arteries is apparently a homogeneous fluid, but is in fact, a very compound fluid, containing in solution, various elements that previously existed in the foodt The tissue-forming or assimilating vessels are endowed with the won- derful power of selecting from the compound mass presented to them, such elements as they need for their respective purposes, and of re- jecting the remainder. From the materials selected, they build their several structures, and repair the waste that is constantly going on in them. Thus one set of vessels forms bone, another muscular fibre another skin, another hair, &c. Other vessels from the same circu- lating fluid, eliminate the various fluids contained in the body, as serum, milk, urine, &c: We knoAv also that a circulating system' in many respects similar, exists in vegetables, and that fluids drunk in by the hair-like radicles by which their roots are covered, are convey- ed upward, in vessels arranged for this special purpose, and that when they have passed through the trunk, they are distributed to the leaves. The fluid passing upward from the spongioles to the leaves, is called the ascending sap. In the leaf, the sap is acted upon by the elements contjvined in the atmosphere. It then becomes the descending sap and IS presented to the various tissue-forming vessels in all parts of vegetables. It is now apparently homogeneous, but in truth exceed- ingly compound, containing the various bodies in solution, which were drunk up by the radicles, and which have been absorbed from the atmosphere, by the leaves. u The vessels of vegetables have the same wonderful, and seemingly intelligent power of selection, that exists in the vessels of animals. Thej' are thus enabled to select from the compound circulating sap, what each set of vessels requires, to construct the tissue which eacii has in charge. One set selects materials for the alburnum, another for the bark, another for the leaf and the leaf-bud ; another forms the fruit-bud, and ultimately builds up the fruit. One set constructs the woody fibre, another set the starch, another the gum, another the resin, another the bitter principle, another the sweet and nutritious juices, another the poisonous elements. One set forms from the sap, the coloring matter that blushes or glows in tlie petals of the flowers, and the coverings of the fruit. Another selects, atom by atom, the lime that enters into the composition of the grain of wheat ; another set weaves the covering for this same grain, from the woody fibre. Another set deposits the fatty elements, and arranges them in layers, around the starch and sugar and lime, of which the kernel of corn is built up. Thus every tissue and every product of vegetable life, arc formed by innumerable vessels, from the descending sap. This sap must contain, then, all the elements required to form all the various vegetable tissues, and for their rapid and perfect develop- ment,— the supply must be abundant — must be in due proportion, and must be furnished at the time when it is required by the formative vessels. An animal fed upon sugar alone or upon starch alone, will soon starve and die. The various vessels cannot obtain the materials necessary to carry on their Avork. So if a plant is furnished with only one element of nutrition, it will cease to thrive, or at least, only those vessels that are supplied by this element, will carry on their proper work. For example, certain vegetables supplied with an abundance of nitrogenous manure, will produce an exuberant growth of woody fibre — of stalk — of leaf; and but little or no fruit or seed. We are now prepared to understand somewhat more clearly the effects of manures upon vegetable growth. And first — manures furnish to the sap-vessels the various elements which they need for the construction of the various vegetable tissues, in such a state of minute subdivision, that they can take up atom by atom, what each requires. All the elements existing in the soil, fur- nish their respective quotas to the compound substance constituting the sap. Some of these elements are capable of solution in the water in the soil. Others are incapable of direct solution, and without the presence of some other element capable of either acting upon them, and thus rendering them soluble, or of combining with the solvent, and imparting to it a higher power of solution, they would remain inert in the soil. Thus silex is insoluble in simple water, but the presence of lime or potash in the solvent, gives rise to a new action, and silicate of lime or potash is formed, which is soluble, and thus becomes an ingredient in the sap. Silex is an important constituent in the epidermis of several of the grasses, and of the straw of grain, and the stalk of corn. When such plants do not contain a sufficient supply of silex in their outer coats, they break down under their own weight, and lodge on the ground, before they have attained their full 15 growth. This we often witness in clover and herds-grass, and oats, upon reclaimed meadows and swamps. In such cases, a top-dressing of sand or gravel will impart to the growing stalk, the next season, sufficient hardness to enable it to stand erect, until its growth is com- pleted. In such cases, even if lime and potash are not directly essen- tial to the growth of plants, they contribute indirectly an important service. This instance aflfbrds a beautiful illustration of the chemical action that is constantly going on in the soil. Different soils require ditferent treatment. Clay soils should be treated with lime, ashes, and light composts ; such as contain straw and partially decomposed vegetable matters, keep such soils light, and furnish, by their decomposition, the humus in which they are deficient. Black, moist soils, that have been long cultivated, are generally ex- hausted of the lime and silex needed for grass and grain crops. Hence compost containing sand is especially useful on such soils. Lime may be applied freely upon the surface of such soils, in the form of slaked lime, plaster, or superphosphate, with advantage. On light, sandy soils, well worked composts, rendered as fine as possible, and containing a large proportion of muck or other carbonaceous sub- stances, and animal manures, of all sorts, are peculiarly appropriate. The influence of animal manures upon sandy soils, is Avell illustrated by the growth of corn and melons upon the sands of Cape Cod, by means of fish offal, and prepared fish manures. Such soils are hun- gry for the elements which these manures contain. Whatever ma- nures are applied to such soils, should be well mixed with the soil, and well covered in. Should manures be deeply covered in the soil, or should they be applied near the surface, are questions about which cultivators differ. The depth to which manures should be covered, will depend upon three cii'cumstances, the nature of the soil, the kind of manure, and the kind of crop. All manures should be placed at a sufficient depth in the soil to keep tliem moist, or they will be inactive. When a soil is naturally moist and heavy, it is not necessary to bury manure as deep, to insure its being kept in a moist state, as when it is hglit and dry. Manures containing a large proportion of volatile elements, should be buried deeply. These elements, when the soil becomes warm, assume the gaseous form, and tend to rise to the surface, and will be diffused through the soil lying over them, and, if there are ele- ments in the soil having an affinity for them, will be retained. Other elements, which are not volatile, as lime, ashes, salt, &c., but which are soluble in water, may be safely applied on or near the sur- face, and will be dissolved by the rain, and carried into the soil. Some vegetables strike their roots deeply into the soil, and for their perfect development require a deep tilth. In such instances, trench- ing is peculiarly advantageous. For such crops, manures should be worked as deeply as possible. In preparing a garden soil, it is good practice, to spread on the surface a coating of manure, and plough it in deeply, and then to add a dressing of fine compost or li(iuid manure, and work it in with the harrow or rake ; thus the plant will find nutriment at every stage of its growth. For potatoes, it is not neces- sary to bury the manure so deeply, as they grow near the surface. 16 The same is true of the flat turnip. The question has been often asked, how can manure be best appHed for the corn crop ; — shall it all be put upon the soil before ploughing, and be ploughed in deeply, or shall a portion of it be applied in the hill, or near the surface? "When corn is to be grown on newly turned grass land, shall the manure be spread upon the grass, and turned under the sod ? This is certainly the easiest way of applying it, and many contend that when it is applied in this way, although the corn may not be as vig- orous in the early part of the season, yet in the latter part, when the roots have struck through the rotting sod, and found the manure de- posited beneath, it will grow with sufficient vigor to make up for the time lost in the early part of the season. Others contend that it is better to turn over the soil in the autumn, and in the spring woik in the manure upon the surface of the fui-rows, with the harrow or culti- vator. In this way, it is said the corn will get a vigorous start in the early season, and when its roots strike into the mellow sod, they will find nourishment sufficient to sustain their growth. In answer to both these positions, we reply, that the largest growth of corn that we have ever seen, was produced by a combination of the two methods. Two-thirds of the manure, say sixteen loads to the acre, were spread upon the sward, in the s|)ring. This was then turned over to a good depth. The hari'ow Avas vigorously applied; and after this, furi'ows were made for the rows with a light plough. Then the other third, say eight loads, was put into the furrows and the kernels dropped ten inches apart. This gave the corn an early start, and it grew vigorously from the commencement, and its roots soon found the rich nutriment deposited below the sod. The crop in this case was one hundred and four bushels to the acre. Practical men differ about the proper mode of applying manures in the culture of corn. As the corn crop is perhaps the most important crop to the country — is in fiict the national crop, this is a subject of great importance. But it is questionable whether any rule of uni- versal application can be given. We think that different soils may require different methods of application. In a clayey, heavy soil, it is imjjortant that the management should be such as to render the whole soil warm and light. 'I'o accomplish this end, a large portion of the manure should be incorporated with the soil by the plough. We think green manures on soils of this descri{)tion should be used for this purpose. But as this soil, unless undei'drained, is cold, and does not set the crop forward early, some- thing more is needed. A small quantity of well composted manure in the hill, meets this deficiency. This process is attended with labor and expense, but we think these are fully repaid by the result. Indeed in such soils, without the use of such means, the ci'op is un- certain unless the season is favorable. In light, warm soils, the whole of the manure may be worked into the soil with safety, and perhaps with more advantage to the soil, if the object is to prepare it for fu- ture crops. In any soil, if the chief purpose is to im[)rove it, and prepare it for grass, grain or other crops, as speedily as possible, and the corn crop is a secondary object, the whole amount of barn manure should be thoroughly incorporated with the soil, and a little guano or 17 other nitrogenous manure put into the hill, to serve as a stimulus to the corn crop. In this way, when the soil is cold and tenacious, a good corn crop may be secured, and the soil rapidly prepared lor future use. The stimulant will be expended on the corn crop, and will contribute little or nothing to the |)ermanent improvement of the land. For this we must depend wholly, so far as manures arc con- cerned, upon the stable and compost manures. But we think the corn crop is of sufficient importance to be considered a primary crop, and that the mode of applying the manure in all cases, should be such as to insure a good crop, while at the same time the permanent improvement of the soil is secured. These objects are by no means incompatible, and may both be attained at the same time, and by the same ])rocess. In the culture of corn, manures should be liberally applied. There is less labor and less expense in raising sixty bushels of corn on one acre than on two, and in the former case the land will be lelt in a better condition than in the latter. One great necessity for applying manure in our climate, is, that plants may be forced more rapidly through all the stages of their growth, since if left to themselves, the season would not be long enough to bring them to perfection ; and that system of culture which pushes them forward early, that they may get well rooted, and there- fore be the better able to endure the droughts of July and August, and thus arrive at early maturity, before the frosts of September, we think must be the best system. Couhl we add another month to the summer of our climate, we could cultivate many crops, with a much less amount of stimulants than we require at present. Now we have to guard against the droughts of summer, and the early Irosts of autumn, and I do not esteem it safe practice, to deposit the manure for the corn so deep in the soil that the growing crops cannot reach it till late in the season. AVhen stable manure or compost is ploughed in deep, we would recommend the application of well diluted guano ashes or fine compost in the hill. In this way, with a season at all favorable, the crop will rarely fail. As a general rule, Ave would say that all compost should be well worked over in the early sirring, before the weather becomes' suffi- ciently warm to occasion a rapid development of the gases, and ren- dered as fine as possible. If the heap is too wet to work fine, a suffi- cient quantity of dry soil, or peat, or charcoal pulverized, or plaster should be added, to absorb the moisture and destroy the tenacity of the mass. All manures should be applied in as fine a state as is possible, without too much exposure to the action of the atmosphere. If manures are reduced in cool weather, when they are not in a state of active fermentation, it may be done without great loss of their, gases. All manures that are to be applied to the surface should be pulverized as finely as possible. Some plants spread their roots near the surface, as the strawberry, and the whole family of the cucurbit- acea. These especially require finely reduced manure. When ma- nures are to be buried deeply in the soil, this mode of preparation is less absolutely necessary. All manures, whether applied in a coarse or fine state, should be immediately covei'ed under the soil, that as much as possible of their volatile elements may be absorbed by the 4-S IS soil. These elements, as we have already said, permeate the soil, and divide its particles, and render them lijrht and easily traversed by the delicate rootlets. This mechanical effect is one of no small import- ance. A soil rendered light and porous by fermenting manure, is as much better for the operation, as bread risen by yeast is better than a mass of dough. It is the general practice of our cultivators to apply manures but once in the season. But certain manures may be applied more than once, with much profit, provided they are applied during the growing stage of the plants, and in such a form, as to mingle at once with the soil, and become a constituent part of it. It must be either finely pulverized or in a liquid state. In either form it should be immedi- ately worked into the soil in the immediate vicinity of the plants, with the rake or hoe. Many plants, including most of the smaller fruits, may be treated in this way, with good results. We have already seen that manures may be applied several times during the season to grasses, thus enabling us to take two or three crops or cuttings in a year. This is of great value in soiling cattle, as it enables us to sup- ply them with green and succulent food during the entire summer and autumn from the same ground. Did we understand more perfectly the chemical constitution of all the plants which we cultivate, we might doubtless, in many cases, supply to the soil the elements especially needed by the plants. But we do not anticipate any very important results from the doctrine of specific manures, considered by itself. Grapes appropriate a large amount of lime and potash. Asparagus, a marine plant originally, appropriates marine salts. But we cannot depend upon lime and potash to give us luxuriant grapes, nor upon marine salts alone for large and succulent asparagus. They both require in addition to these substances, a generous supply of the same elements of nutrition that other plants require. Onr discussion has already prolonged itself much beyond our expectation, and we will not go into the sub- ject of the application of this class of manures ; and will merely remark that the subject is but imperfectly understood, and that much experimental research is needed to guide us in their application, to any certain results. Nature Avorks out from a few simple elements variously combined, ■the wonderful variety of products exhibited by vegetable life. If left to herself, she always obtains a supply of these elements. But Avhen disturbed in her operations by short-sighted man, who removes from the soil its productions for his own use, instead of leaving them to decay where they grow, the soil becomes exhausted of necessary elements, and unless they are returned to it in the form of manures, she soon becomes unable to complete the processes which she com- mences, for want of material. The plant is not perfect. Its frame- work is not fully developed, or its seed does not reach a pei-fect form, or does not arrive at maturity. The crop becomes annually smaller, because the needful elements are annually diminishing. In the older Western States, we are told that the wheat crops have diminished from one-fourth to one-third in quantity, per acre ; and unless the elements that have been removed from the soil, are returned to it, the 19 crop will contihue to diminish in a still more rapid ratio, until it ceases to be a remunerative crop. In Eastern Virginia and Mary- land the soils that formerly yielded thirty bushels of wheat now yield five or six, and are being deserted because their produce will not sus- tain their cultivators. Guano has been appUed to such soils. The nitrogen and phosphates and alkalies which it contains, render solu- ble certain elements still found in the soil ; and one or two crops of ten or twelve bushels, have been taken from the soil. But this pro- cess will soon cease, and the soil be left more perfectly exhausted than before. Portions of this soil are being treated in a different way, by cultivators of market vegetables, who are applying muck, stable manure, lime, leached ashes, green crops, and whatever will restore to the soil, in the most permanent form, the elements required by such vegetables. Hundreds of acres may now be found covered with thrifty crops of strawberries, gooseberries, currants, celery, radishes, turnips, beets, onions, melons, and similar crops, which a few years ago did not repay the labor of cultivation. The favorable climate and the convenient market render such cultivation highly remunerative. The neighbor- ing cities furnish the means of restoring to the soil the elements need- ed to sustain the large draught made upon it. The outlay for manures in this case is large, and for grain culture probably would not pay. But it shows in a striking manner what manures may accomplish. There is a vast amount of manurial substance produced in all cities, the largest part of which is annually wasted. If it could be carefully collected and judiciously applied to the soils in their vicinity, it would wonderfully increase their productiveness. But the transportation of manures to the soil to be cultivated, is an expensive operation, and will prove economical only within certain limits and for certain pur- poses. The true system of farming in this State is undoubtedly to consume upon the farm so much vegetable matter, that the solid and liquid animal excrement resulting, apphed either simple or composted with other suitable materials, shall enable the farmer steadily to in- crease his crops, while at the same time, his soil shall be as steadily growing richer, and more productive. Every acre cultivated, should be left in better condition after the crop is taken off, than it was when it was put on. To attain this point, no more land should be culti- vated, than can be done without exhausting it. The good teamster will keep his horses or oxen at work steadily, without diminishing their flesh or strength. Every one who has had experience will affirm that it is the most profitable to keep his team in high condition. The same thing is true of the soil. If the good teamster has food for only two horses, he will not attempt to keep three. So the judicious farmer will cultivate no more acres than he can feed well. In most instances it is better and more profitable, and attended with less labor, to raise sixty bushels of corn on one acre, than on two. The soil in the former acre is left in a better condition, and in a better state for any succeeding crop than in the latter. We think that in general, the farmers in this State must rely upon their own farms, for their permanent supply of manures. Imported manures and artificial manures may occasionally be resorted to as 20 temporary expedients. But unless the produce can be sold at a near market and a hi^h price, their use will not be found economical in the long run. But although Ave tliink every farmer should rely upon his own farm, he may with propriety avail himself of such natural sources of supply as his own neighborhood affurds. The cultivator upon the sea-shore may and ought to use the substances thrown r.t his feet by the waves. Fish and tish otfal are a resource of great value to those within its reach. If combined with peat us a ._ ,' 1'"^ \ t W T 0 N \^- ^ *°=">a TRANSACTIONS. Agricultural Survey of Middlesex County. By Joseph Reynolds, M. D. 1859. Geography of the County. Population in 1855, 194,032. Area, 544|^ square miles. Population to the square mile, 356. Middlesex contains 348,314 acres of land, about 230,000 of which are improved. It is divided into 52 towns. It is 37 miles from Holliston on the south, to Dunstiable on the north, and 42 miles from east to west. Maiden being the most easterly, and Ashby the most westerly town. Middlesex is bounded on the north by New Hampshire, on the east by Essex County, on the south by Norfolk, and on the west by Worcester. Its outlines are very irregular, except on its northern boundary. The surface of the land is considerably broken and hilly; but there is only one elevation in the county entitled to the name of a mountain. This is Mount Watatic, which is partly in Ashby, and partly in Ashburnham in the county of Worcester. The height of this mountain is 2300 feet. There are several hills in the county, from 400 to 800 feet in height. Nearly the whole surface of the county has a northeasterly inclination. A chain of hills enters it from Harvard, in Wor- cester County, and running northeasterly, through Shirley, Groton, and Dunstable, divides the waters of the Nashua River from those of the Concord, Another chain enters it from Upton, in Worcester, and passing through the southerly part of Hopkinton, divides the head-waters of the Concord from the affluents of the Blackstone. Still another range, in 1 162 Milford, Holliston, and Sherburne, dhides the waters of the Concord from those of the Charles. A range of highlands through the northerly part of Lincoln, Bedford, and Billenca, separates the Concord from the Shawshine Eiver. The general direction of the rivers and streams is indicated by the inclination of the surface. The whole county, with the exception of the southeast corner, may be considered a part of the valley of the Merrimac. This river flows through the northeast corner of the county. It enters the tomi of Tyngs- borough, from New Hampshire, and passing through that town and the city of Lowell, divides Tewksbury from Dracut, and passes into^Essex County, and thence to the ocean at New- buryport. As we go west from the Merrimac, along the northerly Ime of the county, we enter the valley of the Nashua. This is a considerable river, and flows through a beautiful section of country. One branch of it rises in New Hampshu-e, and another in Worcester County. It enters Middlesex from Lan- caster, in Worcester. It divides the easterly part of Shirley from Groton; then crossing the western part of Groton, it becomes, for a space, the dividing line between Groton and Pepperell; then entering Pepperell, for a mile or two, it divides that town fi-om Dunstable. It empties into the INlerrimac at Nashua, N. H. Its course, after it enters Middlesex, is north by east. It is a rapid stream, and furnishes abundant water- power throughout its whole coui-se, which is improved in ritchburg, Lancaster, Shirley, Groton, Pepperell, and especially in Nashua, where it furnishes the principal motive power for the large manufacturing establishments of that flourisliing city. The soil in the valley of the Nashua is, in general, good. The hills which form this valley, especially on the western side, are many of them broken and abrupt. They yield excellent pas- turage. The lower levels, bordering on the river, fui-nish fertile mowing lands. There is but Httle intervale land on the Nashua after it enters the county, and no wet meadows. The first affluent of the Nashua from the west, is the Nissitisset, a short stream, which rises in Poponipos Pond, in Brookline, N. H. This stream enters Pepperell on its northern line, and passing 163 through the town in a southeasterly direction, reaches the Nashua just above the point where it becomes the boundary between Pepperell and Dunstable. This river is about 10 miles in length, and affords good water-power at several points in its course. A few miles to the southwest we find the Squannacook, which is the most important affluent of the Nashua. This river rises in the hills in Ashby, and crossing Townsend in an easterly direction, it turns more to the south- east, and pursues a winding course between the northerly part of Shirley and Groton, and enters the Nashua nearly at right angles, about two miles northwest of Groton Junction. East of the Nashua is Salmon Brook, which rises in Whitney's Pond, in Groton, and passing through Massapoag Pond, runs a north- erly course through the town of Dunstable, and reaches the Nashua before its entrance into the Merrimac. The valley of the Nashua includes, in the county, the towns of Dunstable, Groton, Shirley, Pepperell, Townsend, and Ashby ; and contains some of the best lands in the county. Some of the farms on the slaty soils of Groton, Pepperell, and Townsend, are under high cultivation, and yield abundant croj)s. Leaving the valley of the Nashua, and passing to the south- east, towards the centre of the county, we find Stony Brook, which takes its rise in Spectacle Pond, in the north part of Littleton, and passes through the Forge Village, in Westford, famishing a valuable water-power to the iron works at that place ; then through the westerly and northerly part of Chelms- ford, where it empties into the Merrimac. Proceeding southerly, we next come to the Assabet, which enters the county from Northboro, and traversing the western part of Marlboro, crosses the town of Stow, and enters the town of Concord. Pursuing a winding course, it enters the Sudbury Piver at the north of Lee's Hill, in Concord. The united waters assume the name of the Concord River, from this point. In its course, the Assabet receives several small streams — the most important of which are Nashoba Brook, which rises in Magog Pond, in Littleton, and passing through Acton, empties into the Assabet near Warner's Pail Factory, in Concord; and Spencer's Brook, which enters it below Barrett's Mill, in 164 Concord. The Assabet is a rapid stream, and iiifords several good mill sites. There are some good meadows on its borders. Indian Brook and Cold Spring Brook both rise in Hopkinton, in the southwest corner of the county, and running a northeast- erly course unite in Ashland, and form the Sudbury River. This passes through Framingham, into Wayland. In the northerly part of Framingham, at Saxonville, it receives an addi- tional supply of water fi-om Lake Cochituate. This supply has been estimated to be equal to one-third of the water of the Sud- bury Eiver. Some years since a dam was erected across this outlet of the lake for the purpose of turning all its water to the aqueduct leading to Boston, for the supply of the city. This dam has never entii'ely answered its purpose ; a considerable quantity of water has continued to run into the Sudbury Eiver. For some distance this river is the dividing line between Sudbuiy and Wayland. Then, for a space, it divides Lincoln from Con- cord. After it passes Fairhaven Hill, in Concord, it bears a little more to the north, and winds its sluggish way through the centre of that town until it receives the waters of the Assabet ; when, turning to the east, it soon becomes the dividing line between Concord and Bedford. From Bedford, it passes into and tlu'ough Billerica, and from thence into Lowell, where its waters unite with those of the Merrimac. This river passes through the centre of the county, from its southwest to its northeast corner, and is emphatically the Middlesex River, being wholly, from its source to its mouth, w^ithin the county. In the middle part of its course, it is a very sluggish stream, there being in the space of twenty miles, from Wayland to the Rapids at Billerica, but about twenty-five inches of descent. From Framingham to Wayland there is a pretty rapid current ; and from Billerica to the Merrimac, more than fifty feet fall. Upon its borders lie immense tracts of meadow lands, most of which are now of comparatively little value ; but which, by proper drainage, might be made as valuable for farming purposes as any lands in the State. Indeed, in former times, they were consid- ered quite as valuable as the uplands adjoining them. They yielded a large burden of grasses of good quality, and were kept in a state of abundant fertility by the deposit from the 165 annual overflow in the Spring. The hay from them was in great demand, in the towns in the neighborhood of Boston, for the keeping of cows. It is stated, as a historical fact, that the good quality of the hay in these meadows was one principal reason for the early settlement of Concord and Billerica, which were the first towns settled away from tide water. The meadows extend into Billerica, becoming gradually narrower. At North Billerica, the stream is compressed by rocky shores, and passes over a rocky bed, on which are lying many boulders. At this place the stream is considerably more rapid than at any point above. This is called the Falls. In 1708, the Commoners of Billerica granted pennission to erect a dam at this point, for the purpose of working a grist-mill, for the accommodation of the people in the vicinity. This dam did not much obstruct the river above ; for the land continued hard, and the hay good, for many years after it was built. At a subsequent period, this dam and mill came into the hands of the Middlesex Canal Company, which rebuilt the dam, raising it somewhat higher, for the purpose of making the river a feeder of the Middlesex Canal. Additions have been made to the height of the dam from time to time, until it has been raised some three feet higher than it was originally. Immediately after the dam was raised to its present height, the meadows began rapidly to depreciate. The canal has been discontinued several years ; but a manufacturing establishment now exists at the dam, which is kept up at its full height, and the water, which passed off through the canal, is retained in the mill-pond. In addition to this, reservoirs have been erected on the affluents of the stream, from which water is let clown in the dry season, so that the soil of these meadows is kept drenched with water through the whole year. It was ascertained in 1828, by actual survey, that there were but twenty-four inches fall in twenty miles of the river above North Billerica. The consequence is that these meadows, formerly so valuable, have become little better than a mill-pond for the use of the manufacturing establishment. The character of the grasses has entirely changed, and the soil is no longer capable, in its present condition, of bearing good hay. The ground has 166 become wet and miry, and it is impossible to drive teams upon hundreds of acres which were formerly firm land. Could tliis obstruction be removed from the river, there is no doubt that in a few years these lands would be restored to their former con- dition. From eight to ten thousand acres would be increased from forty to fifty, dollars per acre above their present value, and their damp surface, which now bears only coarse, sour grasses, and exhales fogs and miasms that generate consumption and rheumatism, would be covered with abundant crops of good hay and grain, and no longer be a source of suffering and death. Could the channel of the river, at the lower end of the plain, where the Rapids in Billerica commence, be cut down three feet, for one or two miles, a work which is easily practicable, thou- sands of acres would be readily drained, and w^ould be brought under the plough. The manufacturers, who now use this water- power, might carry on their works by steam, and thus relieve the thousands Mdio are now^ sufiering in property and health. Whenever this nuisance shall be abated, these reclaimed lands will add greatly to the agricultural capacities of this section of the county. The Shaw^shine River rises in Lincoln and Lexington, and passes tlirough Bedford, Burlington, the eastern part of Billerica and Tewksbury, and empties into the Merrimac in Andover. The Ipswich River rises in Burlington and "Wilmington, and, passing for a space between Reading and North Reading, crosses North Reading into Middleton in Essex. Thence through Topsfield and Rowley into Ipswich Bay, at Ipswich. This is also a sluggish stream, the country through which it passes being the most level part of the county. The land upon its borders is of the same general character as that on the Concord. Towards the mouth of the Ipswich, the tide sets up, several miles, giving to the meadows the character of a salt marsh. Manv hundred acres of meadow, in AYilmington and North Reading, have been converted into what is little better than a mill-pond, by a dam thrown across this sluggish stream in North Reading ; and land enough for a dozen good farms has been destroyed, in order that one man may get a living by a small mill. 167 The Mystic River rises in Wobiirn, and pursues a south- erly course through Winchester ; and, dividing West Cambridge from Medford, empties into the sea between Charlestown and Maiden. We next come to the Charles River, which will close our account of the rivers of the county. This river rises in Nor- folk County, and pursues a very tortuous course. Running to the northwest, it separates Newton from Needham ; then, turn- ing to the north, it divides Newton from Weston ; thence, inclining more to the east, it passes between Brighton and Watertown and Brighton and Cambridge, and empties into Massachusetts Bay, between Charlestown and Boston. The tide passes up the Charles, about seven miles, and has converted the lower portion of it into a bay. The country upon its banks, in Newton, Watertown, Brighton, Cambridge, and Brookline, is highly cultivated, and adorned by beautiful farms, country-seats, and villas ; and is, both by nature and art, one of the most beautiful sections of country to be found in the United States. Geology of the County. In considering the agricultural capacities of any district, its Geology is an important element. The knowledge revealed by its study is no less essential to a full imderstanding of the subject, than the facts made known by the thermometer and the raingauge. The composition of the stones of hills deter- mines, to a considerable degree at least, the composition of the soils which lie at their base, and in the basins and valleys between them. The stones are constantly acted upon by the atmosphere, the water, the heat, and the cold. The particles which are separated from them by these agencies are removed by the winds, and by running water, into the lower levels ; and there combining with the remains of animal and vegetable organizations, constitute the soils of these levels. We must not only become acquainted with the superficial strata, but our investigations must reach at least to the depth to which the surface-water penetrates ; for the waters of springs. 168 which ai'e but accumulations of surface-water, dissolve and bring out the constituents of the stones, and thus affect the soils of the valleys, no less than the waters which run down the inclined surfaces. But my remarks upon the Geology of Middlesex will be brief, for two reasons : First, because the Hmits which I have allotted to myself allow me but little space to devote to it; and, secondly, because the geology of the county is not strongly marked by any pecuhar characteristics. Indeed, the only pecu- liar feature of the Geology of Middlesex, is the absence of any marked feature. By far the largest portion of the county is underlaid by gneis. This stone contains the same simple elements as the granite. Indeed, in many sections, the distinction between the two varieties of stone is not clearly marked — the stratification of the gneis bemg imperfect, and not readily observed without careful examination. The soils formed by the decomposition of gneis contain the same elements as those formed by the decomposition of granite. There is scarcely any town in the county which does not furnish gneis, or some form of granite, in ledges or boulders, in. sufficient quantities for material for walls, underpinning, and posts, for all necessary uses. In the northern part of the county, especially in Tyngsborough and Chelmsford, granite of a beautiful variety is found in abundance, and has been exported for many years, to a considerable extent. This granite contains mica, and is of a beautiful color, nearly or quite free from stains of iron, and bears well the action of the weather. The quariy- ing of stone, in almost every part of the county, is a soiu'ce of considerable revenue. The greenstone, in Lincoln, Weston, Waltham, and Newton, is a valuable material for building purposes, and is more easily worked than granite. In Waltham and Lincoln it rises to more than four hundred feet above the ocean level, and extends, in irregular ridges, some ten miles. Since the quai'rying of stone has been carried on so extensively in Quincy, in Norfolk County, and at Cajoe Ann, in Essex, the quarrying of stone in Middlesex, except for local use, has much diminished. From 169 Qiiincy and Cape Ann the stone is conveyed to market by water, which renders the cost of it much less than when it is trans- ported to any considerable distance by land. There are many limited beds of limestone in the couilty, mostly in the valleys of the Assabet and Concord Rivers. The most abundant deposits are found in Boxboro, Littleton, Acton, Concord, Lincoln, Chelmsford, and Carlisle. These limestone deposits are found imbedded in gneis. In Stoneham, in the eastern part of the county, limestone is found in sienite. At many of these deposits, the limestone was formerly worked by the inhabitants ; but the scarcity of fuel now renders it more costly than lime from a foreign source. Several of these deposits are capable of yielding lime of good quality; and it is by no means certain that it cannot even now be prepared by means of peat used as fuel, at a price that will render it profit- able to the manufacturer, and place it witliin reach of the farmer, as a fertilizer. This lime is chiefly of the granular variety, and highly crystalline. Occasionally there ai'e found in it, garnets, scapolites, sapphire, and varieties of spinelle. Limestone is probably in all cases, of organic origin, or at least has entered into the composition of organic bodies. Coral reefs of immense extent, the work of minute insects, are found in various parts of the earth. Calcareous deposits are more abundant the liigher we rise, in the strata of which the crust of the earth is formed. Crystallized carbonate of lime may be produced by the precipitation of its particles fr-om aqueous solution, or by the melting of uncrystaUized masses of lime under pressure. When Hmestone is found in regular strata, it is reasonable to refer its origin to solution and crystallization. When it is found in an unstratified and irregular condition, it may be accounted for by supposing that lime deposited from' water, or the decomposition of animals, as chalk, marl, compact limestone, and corals, may have been melted, and subsequently deposited in the crystalline form. Calcareous soils are among the most fertile, and if it be true that calcareous matter is increasing on the sm-face, either by the deposit from animals, or by the transfer from the inferior to the superior strata, by heat, or by springs, it indicates that the soil is increasing in the 170 elements of fertility, and is a new proof of the beneficence of the Creator. The soils in this county are probably more deficient in lime thafi in any other element. From the constitution and arrange- ment of our rocks, I infer that the supply of lime was never very abundant. Lime is rapidly exhausted from the soil by cultivation, when the products ai-e removed. Especially is this true under a course of cultivation like that which is pursued among us — in which milk, grain, and fi-uits, are the principal products. Hence we find the application of lime in any form, productive of good results. Carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, and phosphate of lime in the form of ground bones, produce a marked increase of crops ; and a free use of these is needed to restore the fertility of our worn-out lands. Deep ploughing, which brings up the lime in the subsoil, is doing something to restore it to the surface ; but our pasture-lands are suffering from the loss of lime within reach of the roots of the grasses, and persevering and systematic means are needed to restore them to fertility. Ploughing, — and dressing with lime in some form, of which phosphates are doubtless the best, — and re-seeding are probably the most efi^ctual means, where plo'ughing can be performed. Where ploughing cannot be resorted to, from the nature of the soil, a free use of lime upon the surface will do much good. It will kill out the sour grasses and lichens, and bring in sweet grasses and clover. There is probably no subject which, at the present time, more strongly demands the attention of our farmers, than the improvement of their pasture-lands. The question is often asked, " How much lime is it beneficial to put upon the soil?" This must depend upon the nature and condition of the soil. Lime is not so much a nutritive element of plants, as a means of rendering other elements in the soil soluble, and bringing them into a condition to be readily taken up by plants and digested. Where there is insoluble humus present in the soil, the lime combines vnih it, and renders it soluble. Hence, where a soil abounds in humus, the effects of lime are at once visible. AVhen this is not present, its place must be supplied by carbonaceous manures. The more humus there is in a soil, the more lime will it bear. 171 When land has been too heavily limed, the application of manure, or swamp mud, at once supplies the remedy, and enables the lime to perform its proper office. Lime is especially efficacious in the cultivation of turnips and clover. In the cultivation of almost all kinds of fruit, it is also found an excellent manure. Lime and potash are necessaiy to the perfection of apples. Hence, a granite or limestone soil is the best soil for apples. In England, where the soils contain marl, or chalk, or lime in some form, in much greater quantity than oui- soils, five, six, and even eight tons, are frequently applied to the acre. In reclaiming exhausted pasture-lands, from twenty to thirty bushels of bone dust is the quantity usually appHed. Lime, in England, is somewhat less expensive than in this country; but my impression is that it will amply repay a free use here, even at the price which it costs us. Peat, or mud and lime, are the materials we are chiefly to rely ujjon to restore the fertility of our exhausted sandy plains. In the towns in the valley of the Charles River, graywacke and argillaceous slate-stones are extensively deposited. These stones are most abundant in Natick, the north part of Newton, Cambridge, and Charlestown. A range of mica-slate extends across the county, through the towns of Shirley, Groton, Pep- perell, and Townsend. It is also found in Dracut and Lowell. Several varieties of quartz are found combined with the mica- slate. Clay abounds in connection with the slate, in the valley of the Charles, especially in Cambridge, Charlestown, and Med- ford. This region furnishes the best clays for brick-making, in the county; and their immediate vicinity to the market gives the manufacturer advantage over all other parts of the county. The largest manufactory is in Cambridge, by the side of the Fitchburg Railroad. These works might furnish any amount of draining tiles, at a cost that would enable the farmers, through the whole eastern part of the State, to use them profitably. It is to be hoped that these enterprising manufacturers will turn their attention to the manufacture of this article, that is now so much in demand. There is at present no tile manufactory in the county. The cost of freight from the distant places where thev are made, has hitherto limited their use to the more 172 wealthy cultivators. The want of a manufactory in the county, is every year more deeply felt, as the importance of draining is becoming better understood. The advantages of tile-draining can never be fully developed, until a supply of tiles is brought within the reach of the owners of small estates. Many millions of tiles are wanted for immediate use ; for large portions of land in the county, and especially in its central part, on the Concord River, and the brooks that empty into it, cannot be subjected to that deep tillage that will bring to the surface the hme and other elements of fertility contained in the subsoils, until a thorough system of drainage has been estabhshed. Beds of clay, of limited extent, are found in various parts of the county, many of which have been worked, at different times. Some bricks ai-e still made, more especially in locations at a distance from railroads. Beds of clay are found in Acton, Concord, "Westford, Pepperell, and Lowell — at all of wliich, bricks have been made. These deposits of clay afford the means of amelior- ating the sandy soils in their neighborhoods, of scarcely less value than the swamp muck. Clay has the property of absorb- ing and retaining moisture, in which these lands are deficient. It also has a strong affinity for ammonia, and when apphed in connection with manure from the stable, or any nitrogenous compounds, it has the effect of retaining the ammonia in the soil until it can be taken up by the rootlets of plants. But clay, as a means of impro\dng sandy soils, has not been used to the extent which its importance demands. Should the farmers of the county return to the culture of wheat, as they may with advantage, the use of clay to improve the sandy loams will doubtless be found advantageous, as strong clay loams, well drained, are found to be the best wheat soils. Steatite, or soapstone, is found in Groton. It has been worked to some extent. But it is said not to be as easy to work as in some localities, owing to the presence of silex. With a few remarks upon the peat soils which abound in the county, I shall close what I have to say upon the geological formations of the county. There are extensive swamps and bog-meadows, especially in the central and eastern sections of the county. The most exten- 173 sive meadows lie upon the Concord and Ipswich Eivers. On these rivers are many thousand acres. These streams are both sluggish, and frequently overflow their banks. Slight obstruc- tions cause their waters to stagnate on the adjacent lands. The alluvium has accumulated, in many j)laces, to a great depth. Large portions of these deposits yield a valuable material for fuel, and as wood is becoming scarce, and its price increasing, the peat is coming more into use, from year to year, for this purpose. These meadows are the true coal-beds of the county ; and the opinion is gaining ground, that peat may be found a useful and economical fuel for generating steam and gas. Should this idea ever be found practical, this county will stand even more preeminent, than it now does, as a manufacturing county. But the greatest value of these low lands consists in the fact that they afford an inexhaustible means of restoring the fertility of the worn-out sandy lands in their vicinity. Not only are those deposits that have arrived at the condition of true peat, valuable for this purpose, but the mud which has accumulated in ponds and swamps is no less so. The mud is more readily pulverized, and is rendered fit for use in less time than peat. Whether the deposit is mud or peat, it should be thrown out, at least one year before it is to be used as an ingredient in compost, or to be appHed to the soil. The action of the frost pulverizes it more completely than it can be done in any other way. It should be rendered as dry as possible before being used, especially when it is to be mixed with manures. When in this state it is more easily handled, and combines more readily with any substance with which it may be composted. In this state, it absorbs a large quantity of hquid, and is a powerful deodorizer. It is doubtless the best material to combine with night-soil, or with urme. Its use is not merely that of a vehicle, to retain and ' convey other manures to the soil, but it is itself soon converted into humus, and becomes food for plants. By no other means can this necessary element, in which our soils have become deficient, be so cheaply restored to them. Different deposits of peat and mud difier considerably in quahty. A small excess of acid renders them of no value, until it has been removed or neutralized. This may be easily done by the addition of ashes 174 or lime. It is not now easy to obtain ashes in sufficient quantity, and lime seems to be the only means withm reach, to correct the acid condition of the peat. About two hundred pounds of lime to a cord of peat, produces an excellent compound. The acid readily combines with the lime, and the compound affords humus and lime, the elements which are wanting in our long cultivated lands. Meteorology of the County. Science is an accurate knowledge of the established laws by Avhich the forces of nature produce theu- results. Agriculture, the first and most important of the arts, consists in employing and directing the forces of nature, so as to increase and improve those productions of the earth which contribute to the sustenance and comfort of man. Hence, a knowledge of these forces, and the laws which govern them, is at the founda- tion of all attempts to improve the art. Among those forces which most obviously and immediately affect the growth of plants, are those embraced under the term Meteorology. As all plants are made up chiefly of elements previously existing in the atmosphere, its composition and the changes which occur among its elements, cannot fail to be an interesting and important study. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, water in the form of vapor, carbonic acid, and a minute amount of ammonia and nitric acid. When a plant is exposed to the free action of the atmosphere and the rays of the sun, it is found to increase in size and weight. This increase is owing to the carbon which the plant receives from the atmosphere. Car- bon, in the form of carbonic acid, or carbon united with oxygen, is absorbed by the leaves and green coverings of the growing branches, and, in their vessels, is decomposed by the power of the sun's rays. The carbon is appropriated to its own use by the plant, and the oxygen is thrown oft' into the atmosphere. The rays of the sun produce at least three distinct effects, or communicate three distinct impulses, viz : the lighting, the heating, and the chemical impulse. It is the latter impulse that 175 causes the decomposition of the carbonic acid in the vessels of plants. But in order that this impulse may produce its full effect, the heating impulse must be present also ; and to render the plant capable of being acted upon, moistiue must be con- tained in the air. By a proper understanding of these facts, we are able to produce an artificial climate, that may enable us to repeat in a northern zone, the growths of the tropics. The agricultural capacities of a country depend upon its soil and climate. Its climate is affected by several causes, — as its dis- tance from the equator, its distance from the ocean, its elevation above the level of the ocean, the configuration of its surface, and the constitution of its soil — for the soil exerts no inconsiderable influence upon climate. Only a small portion of the heat present in the atmosphere is imparted dii'ectly to it by the rays of the sun in their passage through it. It is chiefly radiated heat, or heat received by the surface of the earth from the sun's rays, and reflected to the atmosphere. The amount of heat imparted to the earth depends upon the directness with which the sun's rays fall upon it, and the time during which it falls. The heat reflected from the surface affects more sensibly the lower and denser portion of the atmosphere. Hence, at an elevation of a few thousand feet, the atmosphere is many degrees cooler than at the level of the ocean. It is obvious then that the distance of any country from the equator, and its elevation above the ocean level must greatly affect its climate. The atmosphere of countries bordering on the ocean is affected by the alternation of land and sea-breezes, caused by the differ- ence in absorption and radiation of heat, by the land and water surfaces. The currents of the ocean, by which the warm waters from the tropics are carried towards the noith, and the icy waters from the north rush back to take their place, serve to modify the temperature of the countries near the coast. The currents of the atmosphere arising from the difference of radia- tion of difterent portions of the earth's surface, directed to some extent, by the configuration of the lands over which they pass, greatly aftect the temperature and amount of moisture of differ- ent climates. 176 Soils differ greatly in their power to absorb and give off the heat which they receive from the sun, as well as in their power to absorb and retain the moisture which falls upon them in the form of rain and dew ; and hence the geological structure, as well as the state of cultivation of a soil, affects the climate of a country. The radiation from a dry sandy soil must be much greater than from a wet soil, or from one covered with herbage ; conse- quently the temperature of the air will be much affected by the nature and condition of the soil. Our limits compel us to confine our remarks to the tempera- ture and moisture of the atmosphere. Its condition in these respects, produces the most obvious effects upon vegetation. In order to have a good knowledge of the temperature and hygrometric condition of any chmate, we need a series of observations continued through many years; and from these we need to deduce the extremes and mean. Many plants will arrive at perfection only within a limited range of temperature. Others admit a wider range. Hence, it is important to ascertain the temperature of a climate, that we may select the crops best suited to it. If our seasons were longer, or their temperature higher, some of the plants we cultivate would yield their fruit in higher perfection. But we endeavor, and with a good degree of success, to overcome the difficulty by preparing the soil by drainage, for an earlier reception of the seed, and by stimulating the plants to a more rapid growth, by manure. Some plants will not thrive without a certain amount of moisture, the presence of which is revealed by the raingauge. If our summer droughts will arrest the growth of certain crops, it is important that they should be planted as early as possible, and in a deep tilth, that they may get well rooted, and make a large growth before the soil becomes dry. A knowledge of these and similar facts will suggest to the observant cultivator, the proper methods of managing his different crops. The temperature of Middlesex is considerably affected, espec- ially in its eastern and southern parts, by its proximity to the sea. The extremes are not as great as at points farther inland. It often rains on the seaboard, while snow is falling at a distance 177 from the coast. The snow does not remain as late in the spring in the eastern as in the western portions. The soil is fit to receive the seed several days sooner in the vicinity of Boston, than at Townsend and Ashby. The cherries, pears, and peaches, open theii- blossoms from the 9th to the 13th of May, in Cam- bridge; and from the 13th to the 18th, in the northern part of the county. The nature of the soil, and the methods of culti- vation, affect the time of planting more than the difference of temperature affects the season of the blossoming of the trees. The gardeners in the eastern portion always strive to get vegetables ready for the market at the earliest possible day. They prepare the soil to receive the seed as soon as the frost leaves the ground, by working in large quantities of manure from the stables in Boston. They thus plant a considerable breadth of ground, before the farmers in the upper parts of the county begin to work theii- lands. By this means they often get two crops of different vegetables from the same ground. But my space will not permit me to pursue the subject, and I shall present several Tables showing the temperature for the several months during a series of years, made in different places in the county, and in Boston ; and others showing the amount of rain. 178 3Iean Temperature of each month in the ten years, from 1848 to 1857 inclusive, according to a Record made at the Merrimac Mills, Lowell. Months. 1848. 1849. 28.25 1850. 1851. 1852, 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 18.32 1857. 15.64 Average per n.o. Jan. .30.80 30.10 26.77 22.84 26.83 23.90 28.48 25.09 Feb. 30.31 20.75 26.42 30.85 29.46 29.06 25.42 25.14 22.79 31.64 27.38 March, 33.13 37.32 34.18 34.16 36.64 38.06 32.57 36.12 29.51 33.12 33.48 April, 48.03 46.10 43.93 47.16 42.06 28.30 38.86 39.70 51.16 43.03 42.84 May, 55.89 54.58 53.32 55.87 54.71 55.35 58.57 57.51 53.64 56.16 56.18 June, 65.41 72.75 69.03 66.06 70.77 70.75 69.30 75.46 72.03 70.76 70.23 July, 72.74 69.12 73.70 72.03 74.48 69.19 73.86 72.60 64.00 74.27 71.59 Aug. 71.58 71.61 67.03 70.16 68.41 69.37 71.80 74.54 53.80 70.73 68.91 Sept. 58.86 60.10 60.83 03.42 58.83 58.77 * 60.33 61.20 63.00 60.57 Oct. 48.46 50.12 50.48 52.54 50.58 48.70 50.22 * 52.87 52.65 50.37 Nov. 37.56 45.00 42.41 41.51 41.16 39.13 44.53 * 38.73 41.36 41.32 Dec. 36.00 21.51 21.80 22.09 34.88 24.71 25.16 * 23.60 33.70 27.05 * Note. The above Record was made by different persons, from 5 to 7 A. M., at 1, and from 5 to 7 P. M. It will therefore probably vary, somewhat, from Registers kept at the same hour dally. Mean Temperature of each month for the ten years, from 1837 to 1846 inclusive, and of each year, according to a Register kept by Rev. Ephraim Abbot, at Westford. Months. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. Average per mo. Jan. 18.96 29.74 23.18 15.74 28.23 28.13 31.25 18.29 26.61 27.81 24.79 Feb. 24.12 15.52 28.06 30.47 23.84 32.46 19.88 27.96 25.67 21.65 24.96 March, 30.07 80.56 35.24 34.22 33.— 38.20 27.32 35.12 35.97 38.58 33.83 April, 42.64 37.05 41.89 46.73 40.42 48.76 44.10 50.49 43.74 49.65 44.55 May, 50.48 56.81 54.44! 55.87 55.43 52.36 55.76 57.14 58.34 55.35 55.10 J\me, 60.76 65.98 59.441 64.63 66.14 61.11 63.38 63.92 65.38 63.72 63.45 July, 66.33 70.70 69.19:69.60 68.65 71.20 68.82 64.81 69.27 69.03 68.76 Aug. 66.10 64.06 64.94 168.40 68.11 66.89 68.57 65.90 68.92 68.94 67.08 Sept. 55.70 58.79 60.21 60.93 61.66 57.61 63.72 60.14 58.36 65.70 60 28 Oct. 43.76 43.51 49.33 47.82 42.58 41.97 46.93 48.33 51.56 48.19 46.40 Nov. 36.50 38.62 34.43 37.— 36 19 33.32 34.83 39.01 43.23 42.09 37.52 Dee. 25.82 21.52 28.23 25.50 30.24 25.65 29.14 29.39 24.28 27.36 48.17 26.91 Mean of year. 43.44 44.41 45.71 46.43 46.21 46.47 46.06 46.71 47.61 46.13 Mean Temperature of each month, for eight years, from 1851 to 1858 inclusive — of parts of 1850 and of 1859, according to a Register kept by Rev. Ephraim Abbot, Westford. Months. 1850. 1851. 26:21 1852. 21.95 1853. 1854. 23.54 1855, 27,81 1856. 17.14 1857. 16,41 1858. 30,57 1859. 24,65 Average per mo. Jan. . 27.07 23.81 Feb. . 30.51 27.— 28.63 24.14 21,28 20,69 32,17 21.39 26.95 25,86 March, . 36.45 33.45 36.04 32.05 31,98 27,04 31,59 32,26 37,52 33,15 April, . 45.83 40.70 45.23 42.69 44,31 45.91 40,86 44,95 41.27 43.53 May, - 55.13 57.34 57.87 57.89 54.33 50,80 54,04 51,86 57.70 54.91 June, . 63.24 63.97 67.42 65,28 63.77 66.48 62,17 69.13 - 65.28 July, j 71.59 70.26 73.45 70.71 73.19 71.33 72.32 70.02 69.15 - 71.55 Aug. 167.92 68.33 66.08 68.60 69.52 66,78 66,34 67,62 64.12 - 66.32 Sept. 160.55 61.85 62.49 62.39 60.20 61,30 62,83 61,51 61,02 - 61,64 Oct. 52.21 53.87 49.73 50,71 49,87 51,79 51.71 50,13 52,15 . 51.35 Nov. 42.51 36.07 37.58 40.78 40,22 41,48 39,59 40,75 34.10 - 39,23 Dec. 26.13 23.11 47.57 35.37 30.08 48.82 23,99 30,41 20,45 45,10 33,63 26.63 46.49 27,76 Mean of year. - 47.42 46,88 47,21 46,74 47,03 179 to <1J O 1—. lS '^ ^ e rO •s o w =r^ H f«« ^ S <; « ><:: =?^ « =^. ~s 4 i-O '■« a •jaqraaaaQ •aaqmaAo^i •jaqo:)aO •jaqinajdag •^snSny •£\n£ •aunf •^■Bj^i •[udy «5 Ti< i-l Ci •O CO C.COCiCOl(3CDtDMr-l CO CO C5 CO CO 00 CO C^l O t^ CO 00 r-H 'ocrst^t^i-iciocoi-IoO'^i-^co (N-HJ>.t~.,-(OOOOOC5i-lC2.-it^ '-iooe-l CO 1^ Tjl f— Ot^CDTi0'01--^CO cocDcocoococococococococo CO T)< (M rH 00 tH (M O l-O CO i-H (M C5-*.(NOCO'— I COCO0O0OCDCO(NJ:^i-(CDt^COCD t^CD^<00C0rHCOCOl-Ic:iT^06Ti^ O OO O GO CO t^ t-^ CD ■-H OO O tH CO t^ t^ C5 C5 -H TTl r-l t^ ^ lO -^ CO ■^ N C-] O CO lO CO ■-< .— I 03 (M l^ TjH i-oo-^icoiococoo-icocoiocdco •qDJBj^ (N -ctl CO O t^ CO lO o 0 O Tt( o t^ C5 lO OD C^l (M CD GO lOcocrjcoc^coco^o-ii^TtiOi-i '^'^OS'OGOCOiOOOio.-iC^io^ cc" CO 00 CO ci <>» oi cd c-i r-l -m -h co C<10n|iMCvI-H c> CI CO CO CO oo t^ t^ I--^ CO SSS2'^*^^'**<^f^'^fo^oo OMTiHC0CDc0C5O(Nl0C0iO(M £5C5Ci(M-+lCDciTj3oi--lci-HC5 COb>. 3; Tti •* ■* rj< i;5 lO lO lO lO i-n ic lo COGOCOCOCOOOOOGOOCOOOOOOOS l-li-Hr-lt-li-Hi-(rtr-li-(rtr-lr-Hi-H 180 Amount of Rain, at Cambridge Observatory, for each month, from 1848 to 1857, inclusive. Months. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853, 1854. 1855, 1856. 1857. Jan. 2.51 2.88 3.85 1.02 2.22 3.87 1.86 7.25 6.31 7.86 Feb. 2.41 4.00 2.50 4.21 0.61 5.70 3.97 3.74 0.57 3.79 March, 3.81 2.55 3.26 2.01 2.10 3.30 2.94 1.15 0.97 3.49 April, 2.03 2.25 4.78 9.16 7.94 3.69 4.84 3.99 3.43 8.94 May, 1,93 2.75 7.22 4.14 2.29 6.45 5.45 1.50 6.73 5.16 June, 5.49 1.36 2.97 1.61 4.02 0.55 3.58 3.56 2.86 1.71 July, 2.52 1.06 2.62 3.21 1.86 3.02 3.23 4.84 4.24 6.32 Aug, 0.21 6.51 7.63 1.20 7.50 8.58 0.35 2.27 14.98 6.06 Sept. 6.53( 2.02 9.82 3.98 2.00 5.94 4.S6 1.21 4.66 2.93 Oct. 1.44 7.56 3,56 4.67 2.91 3.48 2.10 5.51 3.23 3.68 Nov. 4.94 6.43 3.39 4.95 3.82 4.91 7.98 5.32 2.89 2.56 Dec. 4.37 2.78 3.34 1.99 3.17 4.29 4.46 7.19 47.59 3.89 4.82 Ain'l for each year. 43.19 44,13 56.13 38.66 40,50 53.83 45,12 53.76 57.92 Amount of Rain, at the Merrimac Mills, Lowell, for each month, from 1848 to 1857, inclusive. Months. 1848; 1849. 1850. 3.32 1851. 1852. 1.44 1853. 1854. 2,36 1855, 1856, 1857, Average per mo. Jan. 2.83 1.13 2.07 1.52 7,81 2,83 3,86 2.41 Feb. 2.10 0.83 4,38 4.43 2.96 6.06 3,53 4,48 1,07 1.63 3.14 March, 3.54 5.07 2.75 1.76 3.06 2.05 3.34 1,12 0,90 2.58 2.61 April, 1.61 2.06 4.22 7.88 8.86 3.45 4,68 5,04 3,48 8.02 4.93 May, 7.41 4.04 7.12 3.29 1.22 5.40 4.31 1,07 5,31 3.58 4.27 June, 4.01 1.70 2.23 2.00 3.33 0.60 3,49 3,81 2,09 3.16 2.64 July, 2.16 2.20 2.78 4.26 2.31 2.36 2,12 3,99 1,73 5.67 2.95 Aug. 3.15 5.53 7.65 3.29 8.07 8.37 0,18 2,32 12,31 5.68 5.65 Sept. 4.06 2.51 6.21 2.86 1.64 4.32 4,67 0,63 4,79 2.29 3.39 Oct. 5.00 7.34 2.61 6.51 2.14 4.30 4.28 5,78 2,03 5.52 4.70 Nov. 2.68 5.70 2.92 5.30 4.78 3.79 6,28 3,90 2,53 2.26 4.01 Dec. 3.75 3.80 41.91 4.90 51.09 2.03 2.97 42.78 1.70 43.92 2,84 4.94 44,89 3,42 42,49 5.13 3.54 Am't for 4^9 pn each year. ^i'.i'O 45.68 42,08 49.38 Average amount of Rain for 10 years, 44.65. The quaMity of Rain falling in each month, as registered at the Cambridge Observatory. Mean of Observations for twelve years. Jan. Feb. March April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 2.39 3.19 3.47 3.64 3.74 3.13 2.57 5.47 i 4.27 3.73 4.57 4.31 The average amount of Rain for each of the twelve vears is 44 inches and 48 hundredths. 181 Changes that have taken place in the Husbandry of THE County. Middlesex County includes within its limits, many of the earliest settled towns in the State. While the inhabitants were few in number, it M^as important, as well as convenient, that their settlements should be near each other. Boston was the first, and for a long time the only market in the State, and the only port of entry and export. The roads and facilities for intercourse were few, and it was an important consideration with the early settlers to be as near to the capital as possible. Hence, although the lands on the Connecticut Eiver and in some other sections of the State were superior in fertility, yet the lands in the eastern sections of the State were generally occupied at an earlier period. The raising of grain and stock, and the making of butter and cheese, were the principal occupations of the farmers. The raising of apples was introduced at an early period. The manuflicturing of cider, rather than the sale of fruit, was looked to as the source of profit. The apples were generally of an inferior quality, and were little valued as food. Sheep were early adopted as a part of the farm stock, and most farmers kept a few to supply their domestic wants. This was the general course of husbandry, with but little variation, until forty or fifty years ago. Agriculture was little affected by tariffs or foreign relations, until manufactures were established, and the commercial relations of the country had become widely extended. Within the period above referred to, Boston has grown with unexampled rapidity, until it has now become one of the great commercial depots of the world, and its commerce has extended its ramifications to every part of the o-lobe. Its population has spread itself beyond its original limits, until, in consequence of the fliciHties afforded by railroads, the towns in the immediate vicinity have become so many suburbs of the city. Boston is encompassed on two sides by the lands of Middlesex, and the county has undergone its full share of the changes that have been thus wrought. Fields that were once covered by grain and grass, or herds of cattle and flocks of 182 sheep;, are noAv cut up into streets and house lots, and covered by villages, dwelling-liouses, stores and workshops. In the towns of Maiden, Eeading, Stoneham, Medford, Woburn, Lexington, Cambridge, Watertown, Waltham, Newton, and Brighton, these changes are perhaps the most marked ; but the same changes, to a more limited extent, have occurred in other towns more remote. A large portion of the inhabitants in these towns transact business in the city, and their interests are iden- tified with it. The lands in these towns have become too valuable for the more general purposes of Agriculture, and hence are devoted to certain specific objects. Within the time referred to, Lowell, in the northeast part of the county, has grown to be the largest manufacturing city in the Union. Lawrence has sprung up just beyond the limits of the county, and various manufacturing establishments have come into existence in other parts of the county, each increasing the value of the lands in its vicinity, and creating a demand for milk, vegetables and fruit, for daily consumption. The same change is taking place in the neighborhood of Lowell, on a limited scale, that has taken place in the vicinity of Boston. Tewksbury, Chelmsford, Dracut, and Methuen, are becoming suburbs of Lowell. The great business of the cultivators of the soil, in the towns referred to, is to supply the increasing demand for milk and vegetable food to the inhabitants within then- own borders, and to the markets in the large cities. Nearly every town in the county has daily intercourse, by means of railroads, with one or both of these cities, and the farmers find it for their interest to devote their lands to the business of supplying their daily markets. The Fitchburg and Worcester Railroads, with their branches, enable the farmers, in the northwestern and western towns of the county, to send daily their surplus milk to Boston, and to compete on equal terms, with fruit-growers in other parts of the State. Hence the causes are obvious which have led to great and radical changes in the Agriculture of the county. Instead of relying upon their stock for the means of fertilizing their ground, in the immediate vicinity of the cities and manufacturing establishments, the farmers transport manure from the city stables, and waste from the factories, and work 183 them into compost, and make them the means of increasing the fertihty of the soil Foreign and artificial manures, and com- posts of different kinds, prepared in the open air and in barn cellars, now add greatly to the means of the farmers and horti- culturists, and have greatly increased the productiveness of many parts of the county, and they enable the cultivators to pursue branches of culture that would not otherwise be at- tempted. The use of oxen in the cultivation of the soil has greatly diminished, and that of horses has been substituted in their place. In former years, farmers purchased a large number of oxen in the fall, and kept them through the winter, on their poorer hay, and the next spring, sent them into the country to pasture, and fattened them for the market : Now, this practice is almost wholly discontinued, and cows are kept in sufficient numbers to consume all the hay of the farm. From 1840 to 1850, the number of oxen in the county diminished 28,000. Formerly it was the practice of many farmers to sell a large part of their English hay, but now it is found better farming to con- sume it all on the farm. At one time there Avere at least 25,000 sheep kept in the county. Now there are scarcely as many scores. Since sheep culture has been almost wholly discontinued, many of the pas- tures in the interior have much deteriorated in value, and it is now a subject v/orthy of serious consideration, whether the farmers should not again resort to sheep husbandry, as a means of restoring the fertility of exhausted pasture lands, especially a^ sheep more valuable for their mutton than formerly can now be raised. Indeed the raising of mutton, ^^•ithout any reference to the wool, may be made a profitable business. It has been stated, on good authority, that mutton can be raised at a less cost per pound than any other meat. The making of butter and cheese has greatly diminished, and many of the best farmers now purchase all their butter and cheese. And along with the discontinuance of butter and cheese-making, the number of swine kept in the county has diminished also. From 1840 to 1850, the number of swine in the county diminished 10,000. Comparatively few farmers 184 now raise more pork tlian they require for the use of their fiunilies. A great amount of joork is noAV imported into the county. The culture of grain, with the exception of Indian corn, has greatly lessened. In 1840 there were raised in the county, 9,501 bushels of wheat. " 1850 " " " " 1,095 '' " " 1840 " " " " 28,539 bushels of barley. « 1850 « " " '' 7,735 "1840 " '' " " 61,105 bushels of rye. " 1850 " " " " 45,765 " " 'M840 " " '' « 86,021 bushels of oats. " 1850 « " " " 80,031 " " " 1840 " « " " 230,37 1 bushels of corn. " 1850 " " " " 269,908 " " an increase of 39,487 bushels of corn. Indian corn was the only grain crop that had increased ; and this was doubtless owing to the demand for meal as food for cows. At the present time, there is probably more corn raised in the county than there was in 1850, At the same time, there is probably nearly as much corn imported into the county by the farmers, as is raised on the soil — to say nothing of the vast amount imported for the use of all other classes of the population. The corn crop, owing to better cultivation, has increased 15 or 20 per cent, in amount, per acre, within ten years. The crops of English grass have increased, — owing to the same cause, as well as to the fact that more acres are cultivated,—^ from 25 to 50 per cent, in amount. Meadow hay, which was formerly considered of great value as a means of wintering dry stock, is now but little depended upon for keeping milch cows, as it is found that when that is fed to them, they require an additional amount of grain to keep up the milk. This is especially true in the milk-raising towns on the Sudbury and Concord Rivers, where the meadow hay has much depreciated in value, of late years, owing to the fiowage of the meadows. Formerly, most of the natural grasses on these meadows were seed-beai'ing grasses; now they are almost entirely flat, sour grasses. 185 Turnip culture, which was formerly almost wholly neglected, IS now carried on to considerable extent. The Hat turnip and the ruta-baga are the kinds chiefly raised. Some carrots, and some beets, are raised. But the turnip is chiefly relied on for feeding coavs. Flax was formerly cultivated to considerable extent; but eve» a small patch of flax is now rarely seen. In Burlington, Wilmington, Tewksbury, Billerica, Pepperell, and some other towns, hops were considered a valuable and important crop until within a few years ; but at the present tnne, only a small breadth of ground for this plant is cultivated m the county. The decrease in its cultivation is owing to several causes. Hops require a good deal of manure, but yield nothing which can be consumed by stock, to make a return to the soil. So long as the natural meadows in the hop-raising towns enabled the farmers to keep good stocks of cattle, they were able to keep up the fertility of their lands ; but since the quality of the hay on the Concord and Ipswich Eivers has so greatly depreciated, they can no longer rely on this as a source of fertilizing material, and they are compelled to raise such crops as will make some return to the soil, or it soon becomes exhausted. Hop-poles have become scarce and more costly than formerly. Another, and perhaps more important reason, is that the price of hops has been very fluctuating. The price has varied from eight to thirty cents per pound. It is found that the cost of raising hops in this county is about twelve cents. When, therefore, the price is reduced to twelve or thirteen cents, the farmers begin to plough up their vines, and put the land into other crops. The present law of the State, which prohibits the sale of strong beer as an intoxicating chink, serves to diminish the demand for hops, and, of course, to reduce the price. All these causes combined, have reduced the crop to a small amount. But notwithstanding these and several other changes of minor^, importance, the Agriculture of the county is in a more produc- tive state than at any former period. This is made obvious by many facts. The dwelling-houses of the farming population are better than formerly, and are kept in better repair. They are generally painted, and many of them furnished with blinds. 186 They are arranged with regard to the comfort and convenience of the occupants ; and there is increased attention paid to the setting out of ornamental trees and shrubbery. Many farm- houses have good kitchen-gardens, containing many of the finer sorts of vegetables and fruits for the table. Barns are very much better than formerly. jSTearly all the barns that have been built within the last ten years, are constructed with cellars for manure, and the storage of vehicles. The character, and of course, the value of horses, oxen, and cows, throughout the county, have greatly improved ; so that at the present time, no better stock can be found in any part of the State. The carriages and farm implements are of much better quality, and much more numerous. The farmers themselves and their fami- lies are much better clothed. Their houses are better supplied with household furniture, and that of better quaUty. Schools of a higher order are established in all the farming towns, and books, newspapers, periodicals, and the means of information, are now more abundant, and in the hands of every family. The value of real and personal property belonging to the cultivators of the soil, has greatly increased. These and many other facts that might be mentioned, going to show the thrift of the farm- ing population, prove that the Agriculture of the county is in a healthy and progressive state. Staple Products of the County. The leading ]3ursuits of the cultivators of the county, at the present time, are the maldng of milk, and the raising of fruit, potatoes, and market vegetables. The cultivation of grass and Indian corn occupies a large share of the time and attention of the cultivators ; but they are cultivated chiefly for the purpose of feeding cows, and may be properly considered under the gen- eral head of milk-raising. The culture of other grains, ^-ith the exception of oats, receives but little attention; and oats are cultivated more for fodder than for grain. 187 Milk. ,.Tlie farmers situated on the lines of railroads leading into Boston, are almost all largely employed in the making of milk. Their object is to produce the largest possible quantity of milk from the cows they keep. Less regard is paid to the quality of the milk, than on the farms where butter and cheese are made. It is therefore an important object to keep only such cows as will yield a large quantity of milk, that the food consumed may yield the largest number of quarts. The next consideration is to keep the cows in such a manner, and to feed them with an abundance of such food as will keep up the milk to the maximum quantity. In butter-making, regard must be had to quaHty, rather than to quantity; for it is well known that four quarts of the milk of one cow will yield more butter than eight quarts of the milk of another. Should the formers of the county turn then- attention to butter-making, they would probably be com- pelled to exchange a large portion of the cows which they keep at present, for others which would give richer milk, and to make a corresponding change in their manner of feeding them. I will consider the business of making milk under the fol- lowing divisions : 1st. The breeds of cows. 2d. The feeding and management of cows, od. Marketing the milk. I have already remarked that the object of the milk-raiser is to get the greatest possible amount of milk from his cows. I should rather say, to get the greatest possible amount from a given number of cows. It is no object for him to keep a large number of animals, as it is Avith the beef-raiser. The milk- raiser never says, I have been able to keep so many cows on so many acres, or on so much hay; but, I have made so small a number of cows eat so much hay, or so much grain, or other iood. If the milk-raiser can get the same amount of milk from two cows that he formerly got from three, he saves one-third of the outlay for stock, and something in the cost of keeping—for It costs less to keep two cows very well, than three toferably 188 well. The first object then, is to get the cows that cau be made to yield the largest quantity of milk. The breed that forms the basis of the milking stock in the county, is the old Red stock, called the Native stock. This breed has been in the country many generations, and has become thoroughly acclimated. It is a hardy, active breed, possessing many good jjoints. In 1817, Jersey stock was introduced into the State by the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. About the same time, the famous bull, Fillpai], of the Flanders breed, was introduced. These were rapidly followed by stock from the Teeswater, Holderness, Durham, and other families of the Short-horn breed. Other importations of the Alderney or Jersey breed, and more recently, of the Ayrshire, have been made. The blood of these various families has been extensively mingled with that of the Native lied stock, and has greatly improved ite character — until a good animal can scarcely now be found which does not present proof of its relation to one or more of them. The milk-raisers, until very lately, have bred but few of their cows. They have purchased from the drovers and butter- makers to replenish their stock, heifers, in the fall or winter, before they came into milk. The mixed race referred to above, affords them a good stock from which to select. They purchase the best they can find, and depend upon high keeping to make them good cows. Many of them prove good — equal, perhaps, to those of any breed whatever. On the other hand, many of them fail to come up to the standard of good cows, and have to be turned over to the butcher, and often at a loss. Within a few years past, the price of good cows has become much higher than ever before, and the milkmen are finding that they can raise their cows cheaper than tliey can purchase them, and are beginning to believe that if they would be sure of good cows, they must obtain them from some fixed breed. They find it too uncertain a business to attempt to breed cows from a mixed race. The results are too much like a lottery. This leads them to inquire what are the best breeds for their particular business. The Short-horned family grow to a large size, and with abundant keeping, make noble cattle. They produce a 189 large amount of beef, and make strong, heavy oxen. Their beef is of somewhat coarser fibre than that of the smaller breeds, and the cows do not yield milk in proportion to their size and the cost of keeping them. When crossed with the old Ked stock, they make fine animals; but these cannot be depended on to breed from. The Devons are a smaller breed, very beautiful, of a uniform red color, hardy and spirited, and docile under the yoke. The cows yield milk of a good qtiality, and do not require so rich food to keep them in high flesh as the Short- horns ; but the quantity of their milk cannot be so readily increased by high feeding, as they are disposed rather to take on flesh under such circumstances, than to secrete more milk. The Devons endure our cold Avinters better than the Short-horns, and are well adapted to the purposes of the beef-raiser, as they arrive at maturity at an early age. Within a few years past, the Ayrshires have attracted the attention of the milk-raisers. They jiresent, perhaps, more of the points of a good milch cow than any other breed. They are hardy, sprightly, good feeders, and present in their whole figure, as well as in their separate organs, those qualities that are sought in a milch cow. High keeping, while giving milk, does not cause them to lay on flesh so readily as it does the Devons, but increases rather the quantity of their milk ; and this fact, I think, more than any other, is the cause of the preference given to them by the milk-raisers. They transmit their peculiar traits to their progeny, with as much certainty as any other breed. The first cross with the old stock produces animals oftentimes equal to the pure bloods for milking, and many think sujDerior for beef. The practice of crossing them will doubtless be con- tinued, especially by those who do not wish to breed from the mixed race. Breeders who would be sure of the c'ood milkincr properties of the Ayrshires, must rely upon pure blood, or they will be subject to frequent disappointment ; for it is a -well- known law of breeding that we cannot rely, with any degree of certainty, upon obtaining the peculiar characteristics of any animal until they have been fixed, by being transmitted through several generations. The only serious objection to the Ayr- shire cows is the small size of their teats. Their udders are 190 well formed, ix^iind, compact, reaching well forward, never pendulous or Hesliy, and the milk-veins are well developed. A cross with the old Red stock generally cures the defect in the size of the teats, but often causes a pendulous or fleshy bag. The Ayrshires fatten readily when dry, and make fine beef. This stock has been known in Scotland about eighty years, and great pains has been taken to keep it pure. The breeders in Ayrshire do not allow their stock to breed until they have arrived at such an age that defects will be developed in the ani- mals if they exist in them. If a bull or heifer reaches the age of about three years without exhibiting defects of constitution, form, or disposition, they allow them to breed. If defects begin to show themselves, the animals are turned to the butcher. In this way they continually imjDrove the breed. Our farmers, on the other hand, permit the heifers to come in at two, or soon after, and put the bulls to cows when they are eighteen months old, and use them beyond their strength, so that by the time they are three years old, they are nearly worthless. I cannot but think that the course pursued by the Ayrshire dairymen is altogether the most judicious. No breeder, who regards the reputation of the stock which he raises, should ever breed from defective or imperfectly developed specimens ; and certainly no farmer who raises stock for his own use, should subject himself to the loss that will surely result from such a course. " To breed from the most perfect specimens of the best kind of stock," should be the larmer's motto. The Jerseys are from the Channel Islands. It is now more than fifty years since this stock Avas introduced into this country. There have been repeated importations from different families of this breed. The full-blooded Jerseys are small, and rather homely animals. Their milk is very rich. High feeding serves rather to enrich their milk than to make fat on their bodies. It is difficult to keep them in good flesh while they are giving milk freely. They are great eaters, in proportion to their size. They will continue to give milk until they come in again, if well fed. Instances have occurred of heifers giving ten quarts a day when they first calved, and never giving less than six quarts until the day they dropped the next calf. When dried. 191 they fatten easily, and make very delicate beef. They are well suited to the park, and to fr.milies -which keep one cow to fur- nish milk for domestic use. Ihose who regard the quality of the milk or beef rather than the quantity, will delight in the Jersey stock ; but for the general purposes of the farm, or for the milk-raisers, they will never become favorites. On the whole, I would say, the larger the proportion of Ayr- shire blood the milk-raisers can introduce into their stock, the better they will consult their interest. Very many of the farmers in the county have already ariived at the same conclusion, and the more generally they raise their own cows, the more gen- erally will they adopt this opinion. The farmer cannot expect to find, in any one breed, all the properties he might desire. He must be satisfied with the race that unites the greatest number of them. The use of oxen in this county for farming purposes, as I have already said, has considerably diminished, and the labor of horses is being substituted in its place. But few oxen, com- paratively, are now raised ; and it will probably be better for those who do not fancy oxen of the Ayrshire breed, to purchase oxen of the Devon, or Durham, or Native breeds, and raise only cows. When farmers shall be convinced that this is their true policy, they will probably be satisfied that the Ayrshires possess, in the greatest degree, those properties which render them the most profitable for that particular branch of husbandry which they are pursuing. Many farmers imagine they may find or make a breed of cattle that shall be the best for all farming pur- poses, including work, beef, mllJc, and breeding. The search for such a breed is much like the search for the philosophers' stone. It may lead to many important results, but will never lead to the very thing they are searching for. But I have pur- sued this branch of my subject as far as my limits will allow. 192 Keeping of Cows. Since the farmers of the county have turned their attention to the raising of milk, they keep their cows much better than when they made butter. At that time they depended on their pas- tures to keep their cows during the summer, or rather they made butter only dm-ing the season when their pastures afforded food for their cows, and kept them dry during the winter. The cows came into milk in April and May, and went dry in October and November. The extensive meadows in the county fui'- nished hay of a quality that kept the cows in tolerable condition. Many stocks of cows were kept entirely on this hay and the corn fodder afforded by the farm, and no English hay was fed to them until about the time of their calving. But few farmers gave their cows meal, or any other grain. What grain they gave to their stock, was given to their working oxen. Now, as they must keep up about the same amount of milk through the year, the whole plan is changed. They are compelled to keep two sets of cows, one for the summer, and one for the winter. Those for the winter come in in October, and are made, by high feeding and great care, to yield neai'ly as much milk through the winter, as the other set which come in in April and May. The dry cows, in the Avinter, are kept on good hay, with sufficient roots or grain to keep them in good condition, so that they may bear high keeping as soon as they come into milk. Those which give milk in the winter are kept on good hay, oats, and corn fodder and roots, with as much shorts, Indian-meal, oil- meal, rice-meal, or other grain, as they will bear. They are kept in warm barns the whole time, being only turned out twice a day, for a few minutes, to drink. They are fed with great regularity, receiving their grain at regular hours. The usual mode of giving grain is to mix it with hay, cut and moistened. This is mixed in a feed-trough on rollers, and dealt out in equal portions to each cow. Some prefer to mix the grain with water, and give it in the form of swill. When there is a ready sale for the milk, it is an object to make each cow eat as much as possible. The summer cows are usually turned to pasture about the last of May. They are kept in the barn during the night, usually 193 receiving a fodder of hay, or of cut feed and graiu, in the morning, before they arc turned out. By the latter part of July, when the pastures begin to fail, green corn is fed to them at least once a day. Great pains is taken to furnish them an abundance of pure water. They are generally carded once a day, and kept clean, and milked at regular hours. The care and attention bestowed upon cows is much greater now than formerly. Their droppings are thrown into the cellar twice a dav, and mixed with loam or muck, and thus large quantities of compost are made, by means of which the farmer is enabled to top-dress his hay lands, and to raise green crops for summer feeding. The general use of barn-cellars has greatly increased the quantity and improved the quality of the manure. This method of preparing and keeping manure has become a necessity to the milk-raiser. He can hardly suc- ceed without it. Without quick and strong manure, he cannot bring forward his green crops, or raise the large quantities of corn and roots which his business requires. The use of urine or other liquid maniu'es is being adopted, to a limited extent, by those who practise soiling in whole or in part. This method of applying top-dressing to grass lands enables the ilirmer to cut two, or even three large crops in a season, from the same land. It should be applied immediately after a crop is taken off. Most milk-raisers practise soiling in connection with pasturing, to some extent. By the use of liquid top-dressing on a fcAV acres of land, they may keep double the number of cows which their pastures will enable them otherwise to keep. Many farmers send their winter cows, for three or four months, into the pas- tures in New Hampshire. When they have access to good pastures, within a reasonable distance, this is a good practice, as it enables them to appropriate all their home pasturage to their cows in milk. The great difficulty with milk-farmers is to pro- vide summer keeping for their cows, as there are many more cows kept in the county than the pastures alone will feed. The deficiency must be made up by grain or green crops ; and, as these last are both cheaper, and yield more milk, various meth- ods are resorted to, to obtain a supply. Southern corn, sown in drills, is chiefly depended upon. Grass is fed green, to some extent, before the corn is grown sufficiently. Oats are some- 5 194 times sown in the latter part of July, or the first of August, and fed in the autumn, after the corn begins to dry, and is a very good crop for the purpose, as it "will keep green till the end of October, when turnip-to]3s and flat turnips come into use. Millet affords a good crojD for August, and makes a good variety with corn. The great desideratum is a green crop for June and July. I know not, fiom any extensive observation, how far the rape or colewort might be made to answer the purpose ; but it is used in some sections of England and Germany, and I think it is worthy a trial. If set early in October, on good land, it ■will be in bloom in June, and yield a large amount of food highly palatable to cows. The turnip culture is not practised so extensively in the county as it should be. Turnips do not yield milk of so rich a quality as grain or carrots, and the farmers who formerly made butter do not hold them in much esteem ; but in respect to the quality of the milk they yield, they are superior to green corn-stalks, and those who feed largely on corn in the summer, should not object to the free use of turnips in the winter. This prejudice is wearing away, and turnips and mangolds will come into more extensive use. The turnip can never be made to yield as largely in our climate as in England. It is fm-nished with large, porous leaves, and derives a great portion of its nourishment from the atmosphere. The moist chmate and marly soil of England fit that country peculiarly for this crop, and it is because of these adaptations of its soil and climate, that it is a favorite crop in that country. But if it is sown in the latter part of July, there is usually sufficient moisture in August and September to bring forward a profitable crop. The mangold is less extensively cultivated than the turnip, but would undoubtedly be valuable for spring feeding, as it keeps better than the turnip, and is more mellow and better food in the latter part of winter and spring than the turnip. The mangolds, when given in the fall, are apt to scour the cows, but after they have become ripened by time, they do not produce this effect. The mangold requires better soil and more manure than the turnip, and more labor than the flat turnip. This is the great reason why our farmers have gone less into its 195 cultivation. The fiat turnip can be raised after another crop, and it is the general practice to sow it in the cornfield, at the time of the last hoeing, or to plough a piece of grass laud after mowing, and spread on a light dressing of compost, or some ashes or lime, and work it in with the harrow, and then sow the seed broad- cast. In this way the crop is not much troubled with weeds, and no cultivation is required but thinning when the plants are too thick. When sowed among corn, from two to fom- hundred bushels to the acre are grown on tolerably good land, without injury to the corn, as the turnip grows chiefly after the corn begins to ripen. From three to four hundred bushels per acre are raised on grass land, according to the quality of the land and the amount of manure applied. The mangold requires a deep, fine tilth, and a heavy dressing of manure, and must be sowed in May, or certainly by the first of June, and requires cultiva- tion through the season. This crop is found to be much improved by a dressing of salt, at the rate of about one hundred pounds to the acre. But after they are well thinned, the culti- vation may be clone by the wheel-hoe or hand-cultivator, and the crop is larger than that of the turnip. From half a bushel to a bushel of roots are usually given to a milch cow in a day. Some persons give the turnip immediately before milking, that the cow may have the longest possible time before the next milking to get rid of the flavor of the turnip. After cows become accustomed to feed on turnips, the flavor of the milk is very little affected by them. In every town in the county, there are some fiirmers who continue to make butter. They generally have their cows come in in the spring, and let them go dry in the winter. They do not feed as high as the milk- raisers. They feed out their corn fodder and poorer hay in the early part of the winter, and reserve their good hay until the spring. They give roots or grain occasionally through the win- ter, and the better class of farmers give meal to their butter cows, from the time they calve till they are turned out to grass. What is called cob-meal, that is, corn and cob ground together, is generally used. Indeed, most of the corn fed to cattle, of every kind, is now ground in this way. As there is but four or five per cent, of nutriment in tlie cob, there is but little gained 196 by this mode, cxcqit that the labor of shelling the corn is saved. Wlien there is a good demand for milk, the farmers sell their calves as early as they can. Some dispose of them at a week old, and some at two or three weeks. The milk is thought to be worth more than the growth of the calf. Marketing the Milk. The A^alue of the milk made in the county, according to the returns to the Secretary of State, in 1855, was $348,948. It is probable that the amount is somewhat greater at this time, although during the present season quite a number of farmers have turned their attention to the makinff of butter. The uro- O J- ducers, for some years past, have obtained from three to four cents a beer quart for milk in the winter, and about two and three-fourths of a cent in the summer, delivered at their own houses. Very few of the producers now carry their own milk to market. It is put up in tin cans furnished by the milk- merchants, and taken daily at the houses of the farmers, and conveyed in wagons to the railroad depots ; from thence it is conveyed by the cars to Boston. The cans are packed in ice, by which the milk is thoroughly cooled. The milk, as soon as drawn from the cows, is mixed in a large tin canister, to make it of uniform quality. It is then drawn out into the cans ; the cans are then placed in cold water, until the milk is well cooled, when it is ready to be delivered to the agent of the milk-mer- chant. Some of the farmers carry their own milk to the dej)ot, daily, for which they are allowed from one to tAvo cents per can, according to the distance. Two sets of cans are necessary. On each afternoon, the man "s^'ho takes the milk in the morning returns the cans of the previous day. They are then carefully washed, and scalded out with boiling water. In 1855, the milk made in Lexington amounted to .^52,626; in Waltham, to $o3,210; in Concord, to $47,490; in Dracut, to 125,291 ; in Lincoln, to $18,727 ; in Burlington, to $18,000. For some years, a law of the State has established wine- measure as the legal measure of milk; but most of the 197 merchants have continued to purchase of the producers by beer-measure, although it is understood that they have sold by wine-measure. / A large part of the milk carried into the city by the cars, is taken by a class of middlemen, who supply it to their customers. These men sell it by wine-measure. This difference in measure has been a constant source of irrita- tion ; but so long as the merchant can sell eight or nine quarts from a can containing seven, he will not willingly purchase by wine-measure, A wine gallon contains 231 cubic inches; a beer gallon, 282. The difference is 51 inches. The difference between seven quarts beer-measure and seven quarts wine- measure, is eighty-nine and a quarter inches, or a little more than one and a half quarts wine-measure. This difference is gained by the milk-merchant on each can of seven quarts, making a fraction over six cents on a can, or six dollars on a hundred cans. Various attempts have been made to have a can adopted as a legal measure, and sealed like other measures. A law was enacted during the last session of the Legislature, requiring the cans to be sealed, and marked by figures showing their contents in wine-measure, and requiring the cities, and authorizing towns, to appoint inspectors of milk, and making the sale of adulterated milk penal. This is well so far as it goes. It would be better to require the cans to be of uniform size. Now they differ from one to two quarts in size — so that a can means no particular quantity. It would be a great convenience to the public, as well as an act of justice to the producers, to have the size of the can fixed by law. A portion of the milk raised within a few miles of the city, is daily carried to market in milk carts, and delivered to regular customers. The milk from Lexington, West Cambridge, and "VValtham, is marketed in this way. The carrier takes it daily, at the houses of the producers. "West Cambridge formerly produced a large quantity of milk ; but market gardening has now superseded the milk business in that town, to a great extent. It is found that their lands will yield larger returns from vegetable culture than from making milk. But more milk is made in the towns in the upper part of the county. Milk is a species of produce that can be carried to market regularly, and in uniform quantities, and at less expense of freight than 198 vegetables. Hence, towns thirty or forty miles distant, can compete in the milk business on more equal terms, with .the towns in the vicinity of the market, than they can in the raising of vegetables for the daily market. Milk is now carried fifty miles, daily, to the city ; but I think not in so large quantity at the present time, from that distance, as it was three or four years ago. Gkass Culture. Formerly, M'hen the meadow hay in the county was much better than at present, and the farmers devoted their attention to butter-making, large quantities of hay Avere carried from this county to Boston; but the milk business requires a much larger quantity of good hay, and at present, although the hay has greatly increased in quantity and improved in quality, it is nearly all consumed at home. The meadow hay, in its present condition, is of little value to the milk-raiser. He must feed the best hay he can get, and his constant study is to raise the largest possible crops of the most nutritious hay and grass. Clover, herdsgrass, and redtop, are the grasses chiefly cultivated, and these are put upon the best lands. Formerly, grass seeds were sowed, after corn, with oats or other grains, in the spring, and this practice is continued to some extent. But on moist lands, the more common practice now is to plough in August or September, spread on a di'essing of compost, and sow grass seeds, and harrow and roll the soil. The September rains bring up the seeds, and it gets well rooted before the setting in of the frost. The next season, about the latter part of July, a good crop of hay is taken off. Thus nothing is lost except the fall feed, and on land requiring ploughing, this is of little value. The rotting sod and the compost added, make a deep tilth, which will yield several good crops, after which the land is treated in the same way again. Sometimes, when the grass seeds arc put on early in August, turnips are sown at the same time, and a good crop of turnips is obtained. When grass seed is sown with oats or other grain, it is not as sure to catch, especially if the oats are thick and rank, or happen to lodge. 199 When the latter circumstance occurs, the tender grass generally dies on those spots where the oats lie on the ground. Fall seeding is now coming into general use on milk farms. Where cows are kept in the barn at night, and their food consists in part of green crops, manure is made during the summer, and enables the farmer to seed down conveniently and profitably in the autumn. Top-dressing on grass lands is practised to some extent. Ashes is found one of the most effectual means of keeping grass in a luxuriant condition. Liquid manure will probably be found the cheapest and most profitable dressing, when the urine of cows can be conveniently applied. Most grass lands may be kept in a fertile condition by means of top- dressing, at less expense than in any other way. The best time to apply top-dressing, if we regard only the effect of the manure applied, is in the early spring, about the time when the grass begins to start. But on lands most likely to be benefited by this treatment, there is this objection : the soil is full of water, and soft, and the oxen and wheels cut it up badly, leaving the surface broken and uneven, and unfit for the scythe or mowing- machine. This leads most farmers to cart their manure on to the ground in the fall or winter. Some portion of the value of the manure is lost in this way. On land that has been laid down several years, on which the sward is firm, spring dressing may be practised with advantage: Even winter dressing, on many fields, is better than frequent ploughing, inasmuch as it is attended with less expense. When moist lands are seeded down in the fall, they are apt to be thrown by the frost in the ensuing winter. It is a good custom to roll all lands in the spring, that were seeded in the previous autumn. This presses into the soil many roots that are thrown up, and would other- wise perish, and leaves the surface in good condition for the scythe and rake. Since the demand for good hay has so much increased, and especially, since flill seeding has been adopted, the crop of grass per acre, has greatly increased. On some farms it has doubled. A much greater breadth is now devoted to grass, and less attention is paid to the culture of the small grains. More atten- tion is paid to the harvesting of hay, as it is found that well-cured hay is the most nutritious. When the growth is luxuriant, the 200 grass is apt to lodge, and unless it is cut early, it will sour at the bottom, and become slimy, which destroys its flavor, and injures its quality. It is now cut earlier than formerly, and good farmers aim to get it into the barn without its becoming too dry, that they may save its leaves and aroma. Hay-caps are coming into use, by which much injury from rain is pre- vented, and the process of drying much expedited. Those who use mowing-machines are able to cut lai-ger quantities at a time, and select only good weather for the work, and thus get in the crop with less exposure to the sun and weather. In 1855, the value of the hay crop in the county was $1,483,950. Probably the crop for the present year is not much short of ^2,000,000 in value. In some of the towns it is estimated that the crop of English hay has doubled in ten years; so that I think the above estimate is not too large for the present time. Should the making of milk continue to be the leading agricultural business, the crop of hay will be greatly increased beyond its present amount. The farmers are just beginning to learn the importance of draining their low lands. Tile draining has been introduced only to a very limited extent. This will afford the means of converting many portions of land that now yield only poor hay, into land capable of yielding good grasses. Large portions of the very best grass lands in the county are yet unreclaimed. Many thousands of acres on the Sudbury and Concord Kivers, are capable of being made to yield large crops of good hay, whenever the cause that has made and still keeps them poor, shall be removed. The application of meadow mud to the sandy soils will cause them to yield much larger crops, and for a much longer jseriod, than hitherto. The value of this material for such soils is now fully appreciated by the farmers of the county, and to its use in the form of composts and as an absorbent of liquid manures, the improvement already made is, in great measure, due. This will be used more extensively in time to come,, than it has been heretofore. By these means, especially by the draining and seeding of low lands, the crojj of hay now harvested in the county, may be doubled without diminishing other crops. 201 Restoring Pasture Laxfs. The great want of the milk-raisers and butter-makers at the present time, is the restoration to Icrtihty of their exhausted pasture lands. There are thousands of acres in the county that formerly yielded good pasturage, but which now yield very little grass ; they are covered with small bushes and mosses, and yield so little grass, that ten acres will scarcely keep a cow. Many of these pastures are rocky and hilly, and cannot be ploughed. Many of them lie at a distance from the homes of the owners, and where they are susceptible of tillage, it would be too expensive to transport manure to them, even if the OAvners had it to spare. One of the most difficult cpiestions to answer is, how shall such pastures be restored to fertility ? In answering this question, we must first inquire how they have been exhausted, and of Avhat have they been exhausted ? They have been exhausted by over-cropping for a long succession of years. Many of them have been fed by neat stock for three or four generations, without the addition of any fertilizing material, except the droppings of the animals feeding upon them ; and as this dries and becomes hard upon the surface where it falls, it is of but little value. The grass is cropped short, and but little of the growth of any season is left on the ground to increase the quantity of carbonaceous matter in the soil. When grass is kept short, it can make but little root, for the material of which the root is formed must be elaborated in the leaf. When the leaf is eaten off constantly, material cannot be organized for the formation of any tissue. There is then but little root to decay and form humus : we accordingly find the turf in old pastures very thin, unlike the turf on moAving lands, where the roots grow in length and number, while the blade is maturing for the scythe. We do not expect mowing lands without irrigation or top-dressing, to continue to yield crops for successive generations. Why should we expect it of pasture lands ? Many of these lands are hilly, and when the sward is thin everything soluble in the soil is dissolved and washed into the lower levels. This is true even of the mineral elements furnished by the weathering 6 202 of the granite upon the surface. On the borders of the rivulets caused by springs from the liill-sides, and in the basins where the wash from the hills is deposited, we find the grasses still growing luxuriantly. The grasses growing upon these old pasture lands require lime and humus ; so long as they can obtain a supply of these elements, they will thrive. But the grasses, with what lime they have obtained from the soil, are taken oiF by the cattle. It is of this that theh bones are formed, and a large percentage is found in milk. A large amount of lime is thus taken from the soil annually, and to the depth to which the grass roots penetrate, it is completely exhausted of it. Little carbonaceous matter being added by the decay of the roots and grasses, the soil has become exhausted of this indispensable element of fertility also. In some of the pastures in New Hampshire, many milch cows and young growing cattle die from what is there called the bone disease, which is a condition in which the excretion of bony matter goes on more rapidly than its secretion. The grasses do not furnish the bone-making material so fast as it is carried off by the excretory vessels, and the bones become soft and yielding, and cripple under the weight of the animal. The remedy applied by the flu-mer is bone meal ; this is given mixed with Indian meal or salt : the same remedy applied to the soil, would prevent the disease in the anunals, inasmuch as it would reach them through the grass. When exhausted pastures can be ploughed and reseeded, this is doubtless the most expeditious remedy, especially if a dressing of manure or lime be given them. The ploughing brings up a new portion of soil containing the needed mineral elements, and destroys the mosses and bushes and worthless plants, and introduces sweet grasses. When this has been done effectually, they may be kept in good condition by care not to overstock them, and by top-dressing once in two or three years, with compost, or liquid manures, superphosiDhate, ground bones, plaster, or lime in almost any form. It will be in vain to expect a pasture, however thoroughly it may be reclaimed, to continue to yield good feed for an indefinite number of yeai's, without the addition of something to supply the place of that which is being constantly canied away. 203 "When the surface of old pastures is in such a condition that it cannot be ploughed, I would recommend the sowing broad- cast of plaster, superphosjihate, or ground bone, in Hberal quan- tities. A half a ton of plaster, five or six hundred pounds of superphosphate, or a ton of lime, to the acre, are the smallest quantities from which permanent benefit can be expected. The English farmers use lime in much larger quantities than we are accustomed to use it, and they find advantage from it, even on lands containing more lime naturally than do oius. When ashes can be obtained, they may be used with lime to great advantage. But I have little doubt that the keeping of sheep would be the most effectual means of restoring rough, rocky pastures, to a fertile state. There are, as I have already remarked, few or no sheep kept on forms which formerly fed large flocks. The two principal objections to the use of sheep to restore such pastures, are the high cost of fencing materials, and the great number of dogs kept in the villages for no earthly advantage to any one. The law of last winter will tepd to obviate the latter objection. The former cannot be so easily overcome. Still there are many farmers that can afford the exjDcnse of properly fencing their lands. When this cannot be done, it is probably the best thing to take off the stock entirely, and allow such lands to grow up to wood, unless they can be reclaimed by some of the means above suggested. If the large breeds of sheep are kept, which are the most profitable for mutton, the fencing will not be as expensive as when the smaller bi'eeds are kept. This subject deserves the special attention of farmers in the county, whose pastures are becoming exhausted, and especially at the present time, when the supply of milk is quite up to the demand. In most parts of the county so far removed from the cities that manure cannot be transported to them profitably, it is believed that the raising of sheep with special i-eference to the produce of mutton may be rendered quite as jarofitable as the making of milk, and they can be kept on pastures which will yield but little keeping for milch cows, and under their use the pastures may be restored to their former fertility. There is another description of land in the county chiefly used for pasturage, but which is of little value, having become ex- 204 hausted of Its fertility. I refer to what arc called pine plains. They were formerly covered with pine wood. After the wood is cut off, they are generally cropped with rye, and then pastured a few years, and then again sowed Math rye. No grass seed is sowed. A little clover and sorrel usually succeed the lye. Occasionally, when such land lies in the vicinity of their homes, farmers cultivate on it a crop of corn, putting on a light dress- ing of manure. This crop is followed by rye, sowed at the last hoeing of the corn. As might have been expected, such lands have become almost barren. Many persons are leaving them to grow up to pine and birch wood, and perhaps in many places this is as good a course as can be pursued. But in the neigh- borhood of villages, and in situations where land is valuable, some attempts to reclaim them by ploughing in green crops, have been made with good success. The following course was pursued by one gentleman, and he was well satisfied with the result. He ploughed the land in the spring, about six inches deep, haiTowed, and sowed buckwheat. In July, or when the buckwheat was in blossom, he ploughed it in, and sowed buck- wheat again. About the last of September, he turned in the second crop. The next spring he sowed oats, and turned them under in July, and sowed redtop and clover. The following year he mowed a croj) of hay, and then pastured about three years, dressing, each year, with lime or plaster. In this process the chief expense is the labor and seed ; but the ploughing is easy, and may be jierformed by one yoke of oxen. Such lands are always benefited by lime. When mud can be composted with lime on the ground, and spread and ploughed in, they may soon be brought into a tolerably good state for pasturage ; but when they are wanted for pasturage, they should be seeded with grass seeds, without taking off a crop of grain. What grasses they yield, are sweet and nutritious. Such pastures are valuable in the early part of the season. They will of course become dry after July. Were premiums offered by the county societies, for the best conducted experiments in reclaiming old pasture lands, no doubt good results would follow. It is an object well deserving the offer of liberal premiums. 205 Indian Corn. The culture of this grain is increasing in the county. There are now but two counties in the State that produce more corn than Middlesex. The value of the corn raised in the county at the present time is not less than ^400,000 per year. Corn stover is considered a valuable food for cows. When well cured, it is estimated to be Avorth more than half as much as good hay. The farmers now raise larger crops per acre than formerly. Thirty years ago, from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre was the average crop. Now it is estimated at forty ; and fifty or sixty bushels are common crops. Indeed, no good farmer is satisfied with less than fifty bushels per acre. Corn is the favorite crop of all farmers. The milk-raisers consume all the corn they raise, and most of them purchase large quantities in addition. Corn is considered less exhausting to the soil than most other grains, and, as it requires to be cultivated through the season, it is one of the best crops for breaking up and ameliorating sod land. From twenty to twenty-five loads of manure are usually applied to the acre. Some prefer to spread it all on the grass, and plough it under, and then harrow and furrow the surface, without breaking the sod, and to apply plaster, ashes, or guano in the hill. Others plough under about two-thirds of the manure, and put the remaining third in the hill. This brings forward the crop early, and when the roots find the more deeply- buried portion, they continue their growth vigorously through the season. Perhaps this method is as certain to give a good crop as any method whatever. On stubble land, it is common to plough in the whole of the manure. The corn plant grows slowly at first, and needs some stimulating manure to bring it forward, until its expanding leaves and spreading roots enable it to seek its food over a wider space of both soil and atmosphere. Corn eflects most of its growth in July and August. It requires a warm sun and intense light to bring its assimilating organs into full exercise. The small varieties only are adapted to our climate. The Canada corn, the King Phillip corn, the Lathrop 206 corn, and the common twelve-rowed corn, or a mixture of these, are the varieties chiefly cultivated. The Canada is the earliest kind, but it yields a smaller amount. The King Phillip proba- bly yields the largest crop, but is not as sure to ripen. The butts of the cobs are aj)t to remain soft, and cause the ears to mould. Since it has become common to grind the corn and cob together, the farmers have sought a kind that has a small cob, and at the same time yields a good quantity of grain. Some varieties have been obtained that approach this standard of per- fection ; but the several kinds of corn mix freely, and it is only by a careful selection of seed that a good variety can be kept, even if once found. As the corn depends upon a hot sun for its growth, and as during the period when the sun pours his rays most intensely we are most subject to drought, corn is apt to suffer for want of moisture. The best preventives against the effect of drought are deep ploughing and early planting, so that the corn may get well rooted before the coming on of the drought, and frequent stirring of the soil. Stirring the soil with the cultivator or the hoe in a dry time, when the corn is parched, Avill cause the rolled-up leaves to expand, and assume a fresher and more healthful hue. The more intense the drought, the more diligently should the ground be stirred. Corn is liable to injury from early frosts. To guard against this, many formers now cut up the corn at the ground as soon as the kernel is Avell glazed, and bind it in bundles, and cure it in small stacks or shocks. The fodder, when cured in this way, is doubtless better than when the tops are taken off and the butts are allowed to stand in the field till they become perfectly dry and hard. If the corn is cut before the kernel is sufficiently ripe, the latter will shrink, and not be as heavy as when it ripens on the root. But the difference is not more than two or three pounds to the bushel, and perhaps this loss is made up by the increased value of the stover. In a backward season, when the crop is late, this is the safest way to secure it. It is getting more into use than formerly. Since the milk-farmers have adopted the habit of feeding their cows on grain, the demand for corn has increased. It will continue to increase, unless cotton seed or some cheaper grain 207 can be made to take its place. Large quantities of Southern corn are grown to be fed to cows, in a green state. It is thought that no plant will yield so much food per acre as this. It is sown thick, so that the stalks may not grow large, as the cows do not readily eat them when large. Considerable quantities of this corn are cultivated, and cut and dried for winter fodder. Fruit Culture. This is an important branch of husbandry in the county. It has greatly increased within a few years past. Apple trees were formerly cultivated to a considerable extent, in most towns of the county, for the making of cider. But the old apple trees used for this purpose have mostly disappeared, and trees bearing ii-uit of a much better quality have taken their place. Apples are now cultivated chiefly for the table and the market. The value of the apples raised in the county in 1855, was $300,000. A great number of trees have come into bearing since that time, and the present value cannot be less than $350,000. Great attention has been paid to the introduction of the finest varieties of apples, and this county produces a much larger amount of good apples than any other county in the State. There are many nurseries in the county, which furnish thrifty trees of all the desirable varieties. The Baldwin, which is the most saleable apple in the market, originated in Wilmington, in the eastern part of the county. This a hardy, free grower, and abundant bearer. The fruit is large, fliir, of a fine red color, and rich flavor, and keeps well through the winter. More apples of this variety than of any other, if not than all others, are raised in the county. Baldwins are worth from two to four dollars a barrel, according to their quality and condition. The Hunt Russet, which is one of the best varieties, originated in Concord. This is a hardy tree, and free bearer. The fruit is smaller than the Baldwin, of a bright russet color, with a red blush on one side, very spirited in flavor, and keeps thi'ough the year. There is no apple more highly valued by those who ai-e acquainted with it. 208 The Porter and Fall Pippin are fine varieties. Large quan- tities of Porters are raised, and marketed in the autumn. The Hubbardston Nonesuch, the Pearmain, the Roxbury Russet, and the Greening, are among the most common and abundant varieties, and are raised in large quantities. Many other varieties have been lately introduced, and promise to do well. Many thousand barrels of apples raised in this county, are now annu.ally shipped from Boston, and this trade is increasing. They are carried by steam-boats to Maine and the British Provinces, and when the crop at the South is short. New York and the southern cities look to Boston for a supply. Apples are packed in barrels, and carried to market in wagons, or by the cars. The fall apples are mostly carried by wagons immediately after they are taken from the trees. The winter apples are separated into two or three sorts, and packed carefully into barrels, and large quantities are sent to market by cars. Trees are set out and cultivated with greater care than they were in former days. It is found important to select young thrifty trees from the nursery. Trees that have stood several years, and become stunted, are of no value — not worth setting out. The tree should be taken up while in a vigorous growing state, and should be removed with its entire roots. Great care should be taken that the roots do not become dry. The root- lets, upon which the future growth of the tree essentially depends, are too apt to be left in the ground by the nursery- men, in their haste to remove the tree. The ground should be cultivated, and well manured, at least two years before being set to trees. In selecting ground for an orchard, care should be taken to select that upon which the water does not stand in the winter, and from which the surface-water is freely drained in the summer. Nothing is more injurious to young trees than to have their roots immersed in water, ior a considerable time. A granite or limestone soil, or a clay loam containing a good share of sand, is well adapted to the growth of apple trees. A bed for the tree should be made by throwing out the soil eighteen inches deep, and fi'om four to six feet in diameter. 209 according to the size of the tree. This should be filled with soil well mixed with dry compost to within six or eight inches of the surfiice. The tree should be placed, and the roots carefully spread by the hand. Soil should be sprinkled upon them, and filled in around them by the hand, and the whole covered and pressed down with moderate force. The greatest care should be taken not to injure the roots in the process. It is a common fault to cover the roots too deeply in the ground, so that they do not feel the genial warmth of the sun till late in the spring. Where the ground is not properly drained, if set too deep, the roots are kej^t too moist for the health of the tree. On moist loams, or on springy lands, under draining is the best possible preparation for an orchard. The trees will start earlier, and have a longer season for growth. The soil is kept mellow to a much greater dejDth, and the roots will spread more freely. Trees should not be set nearer to each other than from thuty to thirty-five feet, and care should be taken during the first years of their growth, to give their heads a uniform symmetrical shape. All limbs that require removing, should be taken off, if possible, when small. Large limbs cannot be taken from trees without more or less injury. When it is necessary to do this, the stumps should be covered with some varnish that will exclude the water. The proper season for pruning has given rise to much dispute. It was formerly the custom to prune in the spring, because this is the most convenient season. But any one that will carefully observe the many dead and black stumps from which the limbs have been removed in the spring, and the black- ened and dead bark extending from them down the trunk, and compare them with the stumps from which the limbs were removed after the foliage was fully grown, will be convinced of the impropriety of spring prvming. My own conviction is that limbs should never be removed from fniit trees, except at the season when wood is being formed. At that season, the bark will grow so as to cover the edge of the cut wood, and the air and water wdll be prevented from penetrating between the bark and the wood of the stump, and the stump Avill remain in a healthy condition, and if it is not too large, will soon be covered 210 with new bark. Limbs that cross and chafe each other must be removed. As the tissue-forming material must all be formed in the leaves, excessive pruning is always injurious to the growth of young trees, as thereby so much foliage is removed, that suffi- cient nutriment is not prepared for their wants. The subject of pruning needs to be better understood by the fruit-raisers. Stone fruits bear pruning badly. Pears, and especially dwarf pears, permit but little pruning. It is generally better to allow them to grow as they are disposed, and retain all theu* foliage. If shoots are taken from them at all, it should be in the first year of their growth. Grafting should be done upon small limbs, and the stumps well protected from the weather. The old method of applying a ball of clay and a bandage of cloth to the stump, protected it from the drying of the bark by the direct rays of the sun, and is more safe than the modern application of a coating of wax. If wax is used, it may be covered with clay in addition. Many thrifty trees are annually destroyed by setting scions on too large limbs, and by removing too many limbs in one season. Suffi- cient foliage is not left upon the trees to enable them to mature the sap necessary to form bark to cover the wounds, and to effect a union between the tree and the scion. The whole sub- ject of pruning and grafting is one of much importance. But I have not space to discuss it fully. Pears. A good deal of attention is paid to the cultivation of pears, and with considerable success, especially in the eastern part of the county. The cultivation of dwarf pears has been followed by indifferent success in many instances. After one or two crops, the trees become diseased, and make small returns for the labor bestowed upon them. They grow, at first, luxuriantly ; but soon the roots become incapable of sustaining the task required of them, and, even if they sustain the life of the tree for a few years, are unable to supply material for a crop of fruit. Pears on pear stocks, even though of slower growth, yield surer and more permanent returns. No finer pears are to be found in 211 the country than are seen on the tables at the Agricultural Fan-s, in the County of Middlesex. Brighton, Cambridge, Melrose, Maiden, and Newton, are celebrated for their line pears. In 1855, Brighton contained five thousand pear trees — more than double the number in any other town in the county. The clay soils in this section seem peculiarly suited to the production of this fruit. They receive very high culture. It is common to keep the ground ai'ound them mulched through the year. / Peaches. In many towns in the county, there were formerly raised large crops of fine Peaches. Lincoln and Acton were noted for their peach crops. But the disease termed the yellows has destroyed most of the trees. Some are still raised in Littleton and Acton, upon hilly ground, and a few in other towns have escaped the disease. But little attention is now paid to their cultivation. Some nurserymen are beginning again to raise trees, and it is to be hoped that a new generation of trees may afford a supply of this delicious fruit. Cherry trees appear to be undergoing an epidemic disease similar to that which has destroyed the peach trees ; and it is feared that many of them will come to an untimely end. Small Fruits. Large quantities of Currants are raised in the county. They are easily cultivated, requiring only a good loamy soil, and to be kept free from weeds. They continue to bear freely for many years, and afford a delicious acid fruit, at a season when other fruits have not matured. The red Dutch currant is the most common. Several other varieties have been introduced, and thrive well. The usual practice is to set them in hills, from three to four feet apart, and to cultivate the ground with the hoe. A shovjel-full of compost or di'ied peat thrown upon each hill in the fall is all the manuring they require. Increased attention has been paid within a few years past to the cultivation of the Strawberry. Large quantities are now raised in the towns in the vicinitv of the market. 212 In West Cambridge, Belmont, Somerville, and Brighton, many acres are appropriated to their culture. The crop is said to be, in some instances, worth more than .'{J^IOOO an acre. Not much attention is paid to the culture of other small fruits, as the Gooseberry, Raspberry and Blackberry. Cranberries. A large amount of Cranberries is annually produced on the "wet meadows in the county. In 1855, the value of the crop returned was ^oT,288. Probably this was not two-thirds the amount. Cranberries are worth from $2 to ^4 per bushel, according to their abundance. More than $20,000 worth was often grown on the meadows upon the Sudbuiy and Concord Rivers, and their tributaries. Within the last few years, the crop upon these meadows has been almost entii'ely destroyed by the water let down upon the meadows from the reservoirs erected by the Boston Water Board, just at the season when the berries are formed. Water does not injure the vines, even if it cover them during the entire winter ; but it destroys the grow- ing fruit, if it covers it even a few days. Some attempts have been made to cultivate cranberries on upland. But it is found much cheaper and more profitable to raise them upon wet lands that are adaj)ted to their nature and habits. On such lands they are easily produced, and when the fiowage can be regulated, they are generally productive. They are occasionally destroyed by early frosts in the autumn. Potatoes. No crop in the county is of more importance than the potato crop. Large quantities of early potatoes are raised for the mar- ket. They are planted as early as possible, in dry, warm soils, and are well manured and cultivated. These potatoes are dug and carried to market in July and August. After the crop is taken off, the land is often sowed to turnips, or seeded with grass or winter rye. Potatoes at that season have been worth $1 per bushel for several years past. The eaidy potatoes do not generally yield as many bushels per acre as the later ones. The 213 late crop is worth in the market from sixty to seventy-five cents per bushel. The white Chenango is the only early kind which yields a sufficient crop to make it an object to cultivate them for the market, unless it be the Jackson Whites, a variety recently introduced. The Chenangoes have rotted badly for some years, so as to deter most farmers from raising them on dry soil, as a late crop. The only soil on which the crop is at all sure is peat soil. This, when tolerably drained, and the potatoes are planted with plaster in the hill, rarely fails to give a crop of sound potatoes. Many experiments have been carefully instituted, in order to ascertain the cause of this wide-spread disease, and to discover a remedy. They have been planted on every variety of soil, and with every variety of fertilizer, and they have been cultivated in various ways. But no effectual method has been discovered to prevent or avoid the disease. Planting deeply in a dry soil, and hilling deeply, before the disease shows itself in the stalk, are be- lieved to be the most effectual preventives. A dry, j^eaty soil, with only plaster in the hill, has been found to give the best results. But where disease does not show itself, the potato is much less prolific than before the disease was known. From three to four hundred bushels was formerly no uncommon crop. Now one hundred and twenty-five is considered a good crop, and that upon land which will yield a larger crop of corn or grass than in former years. The loss of fecundity seems to be not in the soil, but in the potato itself. The varieties most cultivated at present are the Davis Seedling, the Chenango, the California or Jenny Lind, the Gillyflower, the Jackson White, and the Carter. Of these, the Jenny Lind is the greatest bearer ; but the Davis Seedling is preferred by most persons for the table, and is less subject to disease than any other. It keeps well, and is eatable till the new crop comes in. The value of the crop depends upon the price in the market, which is much affected by the price of potatoes from Maine and Nova Scotia. The crop from these places does not reach the market in season to affect the price of the summer crop. In former years, potatoes were fed largely to swine and neat stock. Now no one raises them for this purpose. In 1855, the value of the crop in the county was $475,000. But the value has fluctuated for some years 214 between $375,000 and $475,000. The potato crop is raised at much less expense than the corn crop, and much of it on land that will not yield corn successfully. Were it not for the greater expense of getting the crop to market, it would be by far the most profitable crop cultivated. When manure is used in the cultivation of potatoes, it is common to spread it, and plough it in thoroughly. Lime, plaster, or ashes in the hill, keeps the potatoes free from worms, and causes theh skin to be smooth. When manure, especially stable manure, is applied in the hill, they are thought to be more subject to disease. Light, strawy manures, which are of little value for corn, do well for potatoes. Potatoes after a rye crop are found to do well. In this case, the stubble should be ploughed in in the fall. A gen- tleman in Concord has practised this rotation for some years, and always with success, getting good crops with but little loss from rot. Various methods have been resorted to, to prevent potatoes from rotting after they ai-e dug, such as drying them thoroughly in the sun, before they are put into the cellar, sprinkling them with lime as they are packed in the barrels or bins, and keeping them from the air in pits sunk in the ground. They will doubt- less rot more in large heaps, where they probably undergo a kind of heating. The best way probably is to dry them a few hours, and pack them in barrels. In small parcels they ai'e not liable to heat. The farmers now find it more profitable to sell theu* potatoes, and buy corn to feed their swine and milch cows. The crop is separated into three sorts. No. 1 is carried to market. No. 2 is reserved for planting, and No. o is given to the hogs. Repeated and varied experiment has proved that second-sized potatoes, when used for seed, will produce as large potatoes as will the largest size. In this respect, the analogy between them and the seeds of plants does not hold good. The tuber is not a seed. It consists of material prepared by the plant to nourish the bud or eye, which is a true bud, until it can form roots and leaves by AV'hich it can obtain from the soil and atmosphere its own nutri- ment. Many plants, as the tubers, the bulbs, and the lilies, lay up deposits of nutriment in reservoirs under ground, by which 215 the shoots of the follownig season are temporarily nourished. Each bud or eye has its portion of the nutriment assigned to it. The larger the tuber, the more buds belong to it. So that it often haj)pens that the eye on a potato of moderate size has as much nutriment stored up for its future groAvth as the eye of a large one. If this explanation is correct, it accounts for the fact which has caused so much surprise, viz., that small potatoes will produce a progeny of as large a size as those of larger growth. Several seedlings of much value have been obtained by planting the seeds. The tubers from the seed require to be planted about five years in succession, before obtaining their full size, and before their value can be determined. Most varieties that have been produced, after a few years' cultivation show indica- tions of disease, and should be changed for other varieties. Hence, it is desirable that every farmer should appropriate a few feet or rods of ground to the cultivation of seedlings, that new and valuable varieties may be obtained, from time to time, to supply the place of those that become subject to disease. Only a few of the varieties thus raised will be of any value. Yet a suffi- cient number will be found to keep up the supply of sound and healthy potatoes. Every man who makes the attempt to obtain a new seedling, as well as every man who succeeds, should be considered a public benefactor. Grains. The culture of Wheat requires the best land in the county, and considerable quantities of manure. Since the introduction of milk-raising, and the consequent increased demand for grass, the cultivation of wheat has been generally discontinued. As Eye is raised, for the most part, without manure, its culture' is still continued to a considerable extent. When wood is cut from a dry or rocky soil, it is common to put on rye as a first crop. Under such circumstances, a good crop is usually obtiuned — sometimes twenty or more bushels to the acre. Some farmers, as has been already stated, ai'e in the habit of putting a crop of rye, once in three or four years, on pine-plain lands. Such 216 land usually yields eight or ten bushels to the acre. Occasion- ally, rye is sown after corn on land of better quality. If the land has been well manured for corn, from twenty to twenty-four bushels is not an uncommon crop. For several years past, the straw has commanded a high price in the market, say from $14: to $18 per ton. This has induced the farmers to sow a greater breadth of rye. The very high price of wheat flour, for the past four years, has led some farmers to cultivate small quanti- ties of wheat for their own use. Some good crops of from twenty to twenty-four bushels per acre, have been raised. Wheat requires a good soil, and a thorough preparation of the ground. Good corn land, that has been well manured and cultivated two years, is laid down to wheat and grass seed, and a good dressing of compost applied. Wheat is found to be a better grain than oats with which to sow grass seeds. With such a preparation, tlie crop rarely fails. Several varieties are cultivated. Spring wheat is chiefly sown of late. The black-sea and the blue-joint are the varieties chiefly used. If winter wheat is sowed, it should be put in in August, that the stools may get well rooted before winter. At the present prices of wheat and straw, this grain may be made a profitable crop. Twenty bushels, worth $1.75 per bushel, equal to $S5, and $15 worth of straw is a good crop. If every farmer would raise his acre of wheat, he would not only be well paid, but would have the satisfaction of raising his own bread. The milk-farmers now generally mow their oats while in the milk. Occasionally they ai'e allowed to ripen. From forty to fifty bushels to an acre is a good crop. It was formerly the general practice to sow oats with grass seeds when laying down land in the spring. But since fall seeding has come more into use, oats are less cultivated. If oats are sown thick, they are apt to choke the young grasses. When oats are sown with grass seeds, five or six pecks to an acre are sufiicient. The oats will be larger and better, and the grass seeds are more sure to catch, than when two and a half bushels are sown, wliich is the usual quantity. If oats are cut when in the milk, they make good food for cows. 217 KooT Crops. \ The value of Roots has never been fully appreciated by the farmers in the county. Theii* cultivation, with the exception of that of the flat turnip, makes a large draft upon their working capital, which is labor. Labor in the county is expensive. Hence, the culture of roots has never been as popular as in those countries where labor is cheaper. Still, roots are culti- vated to some extent. Flat Turnips, Ruta-bagas, Mangolds, Sugar-Beets, Carrots, and Parsnips are cultivated, and all are wholesome and nutritious food for man and beast. The Flat Turnip is the most easily raised, and has this cir- cumstance in its favor, that it grows in a shorter time than any other root, and hence may be raised as a second crop, with corn, or after peas, early potatoes, or grass ; or it may be sown with grass seed in fall seeding. The most common way is to sow the seed broadcast in the cornfield, at the time of the last hoeing of the corn, in July. It seems to interfere very little with the raising of corn, as its growth is chiefly made after the corn has attained its full size. The only labor is the harvesting. The milk-farmers begin to pull them in October and feed them, with the tops, to the cows. They are pulled in November, and the tops cut ofl" and the roots stored in the cellar. They are chiefly fed out before the first of January. If they are intended to be kept till later in the winter, they are covered with straw or hay. They are quite equal to any other root for milk — at least, they will make as large a quantity, if not of as good a quality. In some instances, the turnip crop raised with corn is of equal value to the corn crop. They are usually estimated at ten cents a bushel, at the barn ; 400 bushels are worth ^40 — equal to a corn crop of forty bushels to the acre. The Ruta-baga requires the whole season, and cannot, there- fore, be raised as a second crop. It requires a good soil and plentiful manuring. Superphosphate of lime is one of the fertilizers best adapted to this crop. They are sowed in drills, carefully thinned and hoed three or four times. The ruta-baga keeps better than the flat turnip, and is usually fed out in the latter part of winter. 218 The Mangold requires a rich, deep soil, and heavy manuring. The method of cultivating is much like that of the ruta-haga. It keejjs better than the turnip ; and is in condition to be fed out after the turnip is done. It will keep well into March or April. AVhen fed in the early part of winter, they are apt to scour the cows ; but in the latter part, they become ripened, and are very nutritious. Carrots are cultivated to considerable extent. A deep clay loam is best adapted to them. They requu-e much labor, and the crop is somewhat uncertain, it being subject to rust. It grows slowly in the early part of the season. Such soils as are suited to them are apt to throw up a vigorous growth of weeds, before the carrots are large enough to be weeded ; and then it is difficult to remove them without distui-bing the roots. From five to six hundred bushels to the acre are often raised. This root is very valuable for horses, and when fed to cows, yields rich milk. The following method of culture is most generally pursued ; the ground is ploughed deeply, about the middle of May ; about the first of June, a good quantity of compost, say thuty loads to the acre, is spread and ploughed in; about the middle of June, the ground is ploughed again, har- rowed and raked ; the seed is sowed in drills about eighteen inches apart. This repeated ploughing, at intervals, allows the seeds of the weeds to germinate, and destroys them. As soon as the plants are visible, the wheel-hoe is run between the rows. This is repeated as often as once a week. As soon as the plants are sufficiently grown to be readily seen, they are carefully weeded and thinned, leaving them about four inches apart. The first weeding and thinning requires time and patience ; after this, there is no further difficulty ; most of the after cultivation may be done with the wheel -hoe. Carrots are worth ^10 or $12 per ton. With a good supply of turnips and carrots for the fall and early part of winter, and mangolds for the spring, a good supply of milk may be kept up through the season. But most farmers prefer to feed with shorts, or Indian-meal, or a mixture of both, after their flat turnips have been eaten up. They think two quarts per day of meal which is worth five or six cents, will 219 make more milk, and keep the cows in better couditinn, than this value in beets or carrots. For fattening stock, most farmers prefer corn-meal. They say this is raised at less expense of labor, and leaves the land in a better state. The flat turnip is the only popular root crop. My own opinion is, that roots are not estimated at their full value. They afford food peculiarly suited to the constitution and habits of neat stock, and promote their health. They serve to make up the variety of food which such animals require ; and, by proper arrangements, may be raised more cheaply than corn. If female labor could be used in weeding and thinning them, as in Europe, our farmers would be more willinsr to raise them. Market Gardening, This branch of husbandry, from causes already alluded to, has greatly increased in the towns in the vicinity of the market. It is carried on most largely and most successfully within the distance to which manure can be profitably transported from the city. In the towns within ten miles of a market, the culture of fruit and market vegetables occupies almost the whole attention of the cultivators. From these towns, the produce is carried to market in wagons. Could arrangements be made with the railroads, by which the vegetables could reach the market at a seasonable hour in the morning, the culture of vegetables would be pursued to a much greater extent than it now is in towns at a greater distance, 'I he farmers of Weston, Lincoln, Wayland, Sudbury, Concord, and Acton, and of the towns on the Maine and Lowell Railroads, might then profitably engage in the busi- ness. Agents would be necessary in Boston, to convey the produce from the cars to the market. These agents should receive for their services a certain percentage on the sales, which would make it for their interest to obtain the highest prices, and, of course, to keep the articles in the best possible condition. Market vegetables are perishable articles, and must be sent at the proper time, or they will be lost. They must be gathered and carried daily, to have them fresh and saleable. 220 Rhubarb, asparagus, lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, peas, beans, beets, melons, squashes, green corn, and other esculents, might be i-aised in large quantities all over the county, were it not for the labor and cost of transportation. Rhubarb and Asparagus are very profitable crops. The prod- uce of each of these crops has, in some instances, amounted to $1000, per acre, leaving a clear profit of $400, after paying all the expenses of cultivating and marketing. They require a deep, moist soil, and liberal manuring, with careful culture. New varieties of both these plants have been recently introduced, which command the highest prices, from their large size. The Victoria rhubarb and gigantic asparagus are the most popular kinds. Rhubarb stems weighing from one to two pounds are not uncommon. In the vicinity of Lowell are some of the finest gardens in the county. West Cambridge is celebrated for its immense quantities of fine marrow squashes ; and Brighton, for its melons. Composts made from the manure of the slaughter- houses and from night-soil, are chiefly depended on in the cul- tivation of squashes and melons. Large quantities of cabbages are raised in these towns. This is found a profitable crop. Several of the finer varieties of this family are beginning to be cultivated, as the Cauliflower and the Brocoli. They require great care in their cultivation. It is difficult to ripen their seeds. These are commonly imported from Europe. These varieties afford a delicious esculent, and command high prices. The Borecole or Kale is another variety of the cabbage family, which merits attention. It is distinguished by a large open head, and by ciu-led or Avrinkled leaves. It is a hardy plant. It is more valued in the Southern States, where it will live in the ground through the winter, with little or no protec- tion. It should be sown here early in May, and transplanted in July into a rich mellow soil. It requires the same cultivation and after-treatment as other varieties of the cabbage. It may be preserved in the winter by setting the plants in a trench, close together, and bringing the soil up to the lower leaves, and cov- ering the heads with straw or sea-weed, and a roof of boards. Cauliflower is the most delicately-flavored, and the most peculiar, of all the cabbage family ; the flower-buds grow 221 together, in a firm mass or head, sometimes a foot in diameter. The plants require to be started early in a hotbed ; they are most successfully cultivated in cold frames, in a rich fine soil. In this situation they can be protected from the hot sun in the mid- dle of the day, by mats or an awning, and from the frosts of spring and autumn. They require plenty of water, and the soil should be frequently stirred, and kept free from weeds. Late plants may be removed, with the earth upon their roots, to a cellar, and set in trenches, or in boxes filled with earth, and they will mature, and be fit for use in the winter. It is said there are nearly one thousand varieties of cabbage found in different countries. It is one of the most ancient, and most extensively-cultivated plants. It was a favorite vegetable among the Romans. The Early Dwarf, the Early York, the Battersea, the Large York, the Sugar Loaf, the Drumhead, the Curled Savoy, the Drumhead Savoy, the Red Dutch, and the Schilling, are the varieties best known in this vicinity. Of these, the Early York, the Curled Savoy, the Sugar Loaf, and the Drumhead, are the most cultivated. The time of sowing must be determined by the time when they are wanted. They require a rich and rather moist soil, and are easily cultivated. The principal enemies to which they are subject are the cut- worm and the louse, a species of Aphis. The cut-worm, on old grounds, is apt to cut off the plant when it is from two to four inches high. It commits its depredations in the night, and may be usually found, in the early morning, near the root of the plant. Sprinkling with soapsuds, or dusting with powdered lime, are the best means of destroying the lice. From three to four thou- sand heads are raised on an acre, worth from eight to ten dollars a hundred. Immense quantities of tomatoes, summer squashes, garden beans, cucumbers, sweet corn, and a great variety of other vegetables, are cultivated for the market. Land suitable for the purpose, and conveniently situated, commands a higher price than for any other department of terraculture. The business requires considerable capital, and a great share of enterprise, skill and activity. The ground must be richly manured, and kept constantly occupied with such crops as may conveniently 222 follow each other, so that two or three crops in a year may be taken from the same ground, and the culture must be varied to suit the season and the soil. The produce must be gathered with great care, so as not to injure the growing plants, or other crops on the ground, and be promptly sent to market, in good condition. In this business the most careful observation and the most unremitting diligence are the conditions of success. Agricultural Societies, &c. There are three Agricultural Societies in the County. The Middlesex, which holds its meetings at Concord, is the oldest County Society in the State. It was incorporated in 1804. The North Middlesex, which meets at Lowell, and the South Middlesex, which has its head-quarters at Framingham, have both been incorporated about five years. These Societies are all doing a good work for the cause of Agriculture. There ai-e also several efficient Farmers' Clubs, whose members meet weekly in the winter, for the discussion of questions connected with Agriculture. The clubs at Concord, Framingham, Groton, and Chelmsford, are among the oldest and most prominent. At these meetings, subjects, both of a practical and scientific character, are discussed. Essays, upon subjects assigned, are read. Inquiries are made and answered ; and the opinions and experience of the members are communicated. In these ways, much intellectual activity is awakened, which cannot fail to pro- duce its legitimate effect upon the husbandry of the county. I subjoin the following list of subjects discussed, taken from the records of the Concord Farmers' Club : Farm buildings. Rota- tion of crops, Farm implements, Reclaiming swamp lands. Agricultural books. Diseases of farm stock, New jDlants for cul- tivation. Manures, Draining, Root Crops, Garden Fruits, Pasture Lands, Flower Gardening, Preparation of the soil for the seed, Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Influence of the season upon Agri- culture, Raising and saving grass crops. Corn crops. I think no farmers can be found in the state, who, as a class, possess more intelligence, enterprise, and industry, than the 223 farmers of Middlesex. Still there is room for improvement. Perhaps their attention is directed to too many pursuits, and there is a want of system and method in their farm management. Did they apply their knowledge with more method, and confine their attention more exclusively to their proper business, their energy and perseverance would work out higher results than they now do. Our farmers have the common Yankee facility for engaging in all kinds of business, and perhaps are too apt to mingle other pursuits with their farming operations. The subjects that espe- cially claim the attention of our larmers at the present time are, a better system of rotation of crops, the reclaiming of more of their low lands, under-draining with tiles, the raising of wheat, the restoration of pasture lands, and better methods of marketing their produce. The plan of marketing now followed is attended with great labor and expense, and takes the fu-mer away from home at a season when his presence there is especially needed. Perhaps market fairs may supply the proper remedy to some extent. The keeping of more full and exact accounts is also a matter of much importance. It will furnish at the close of each year an accurate knowledge of the results of each opera- tion on the farm, and thus the experience of one year will become a Sup. phos. of lime. 278 Ijratensis (meadow foxtail), festuca pratense (meadow fescue), /. duriuscula (hard fescue), pliletwi pratense (meadow cat's-tail), and poa trivialis (rough- stalked meadow-grass), were not found in our list at all in the third season, 1858. The meadow foxtail, the meadow cat's-tail, and a fescue grass were, however, each observed on one or more of the plots in 1857. The table of the remarkable effects of the different descripticns of manure upon the complex herbage of which the meadow was composed, m developing the different kuids of plants, is thus introduced by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert:— " Allusion has already been made to the greater development of the let/u- minous herbage by purely mineral manures, and to that of the graminaceous plants, or natural grasses commonly so called, by characteristically nitrogenous manures. In fact, the plots had so distinctive a character in regard to the prevalence of different plants, that the experimental ground looked almost as if it were devoted to trials with different seeds as with different manures. So striking and characteristic, indeed, were the effects produced in this respect, that, in 1857 and 1858, the subject was thought of sufficient interest to induce us to request the examination of the plots by Professor Henfrey, to which he kindly assented. " An endeavor was also made in the second year, 1857, to separate and de- termine the proportion of the different plants in carefully averaged and weighed samples, taken from the several plots as soon as the grass was cut. Taking advantage of the experience gained in this first trial, the separations have been carried out more carefully in the case of the produce on some of the most im- portant plots in the third season, 1858. The results of these separations are recorded in detail in the table. " The mode of proceeding in making the separations and estimations may be- shortly explained. As soon as the grass on a plot was cut down, samples were taken from many parts of it. These were carefully intermixed in such a man- ner as to shake out as little seed as possible ; and then, from the whole, a cer- tain quantity was weighed out, to be further operated upon. Characteristic specimens of each of the plants in floioer or seed, or in other conditions in which they could be recognized, were then selected as types ; and a number of boys were set to pick from the wieghed sample all they could find to correspond with these types. The remainder consisted chiefly of detached foliage and un- developed sterns, which was then separated into four or five different lots, ac- cording to types selected to the best of our judgment. Each weighed sample was thus divided into from fifteen to twenty different descriptions of herbage. The weight of each of the selected portions was afterwards taken — all in an equal state of dryness. The weight so obtained, of the respective grasses, or other plants, or parts of plants, in the original weighed sample from the plot, were then calculated into their percentage relation to the collective weight of the whole of the separated portions in their partially dried state. It is the results so obtained that are recorded in the table." Attention may now be directed to the comparative development of each of the plants according to the manure employed, taking each seriatim, in the or- der in which it predominated on the unmanured land. The following tables, then, will give the amount in 100 grasses of the differ- ent varieties growing in 1858 on the unmanured plot, and on the plots ma- nured for three years with the same dressings : 279 PERCENTAGE AMOUNTS OF EACH PLANT, &c. Artificial Manures. Farm-yard Mixed mineral manure. DESCEIPTION OF HERBAGE. Amino- Mixed Mixed minera manure and Unma- niacal mineral manure double With nured. salts manure and am- quanti- Alone. ammo- k alone. monia- cal salts ty am- monia- cal salts niacal salts. r Plot 1. Plot 4. Plot 8. Plot 10. Plot 13 Plot 16. Plot 17. 1. — GRAMINACEOUS HERBAGE ; STEMS BEARING FLOWER OR SEED. Common rye-grass 16.77 14.02 14.73 14.43 23.39 6.94 32.23 32.64 12.10 26.37 29.00 10.75 14.92 19.87 "Woolly soft grass, or Yorksliire Fog. Fibrous-rooted, tall, oat-like grass.. 6.04 3.27 9.07 4.84 2.56 14.33 17.16 Sweet-scented vernal grass 5.43 0.41 1.01 0.09 0.34 0.66 Common or creeping-rooted bent grass, also black switch, &c 4.82 0.97 0.03 1.48 2.16 1.25 Common quaking grass 2.07 1.10 0.41 1.01 0.39 Crested dogs' -tail grass 0.05 .... 0.05 20.17 0.45 14.89 0.26 Rough cock's foot 1.64 1.38 Smooth-stalked meadow-grass .... 10.10 Soft or downy brome-grass .... .... .... .... 0.10 Meadow oat-grass .... .... 0.34 .... 1.57 .... 0.40 Total.... 50.25 35.91 42.18 72.66 65.08 69.76 64.62 2 GRAMINACEOUS HERBAGE ; DE- TACHED LEAVES AND INTERMI- NATB STEMS. Leafy produce — from woolly soft grass 3.41 12.28 5.46 4.06 15.35 2.24 5.55 Coarse leaf, &c. — some bent grass ; probably also cock's foot, soft brome-grass, and others 8.78 11.40 1.79 6.64 3.93 3.58 1.32 Middling leaf, chiefly bent grass, some meadow oat-grass, &c 3.41 8.18 14.33 4.43 4.03 Fine leaf, &c. — unknown 7.81 16.37 5.82 2.58 7.01 1.18 11.81 4.48 3.58 4.22 3.96 Dead leaves and stems 2.44 4.91 2.24 Total.... 25.85 53.20 29.64 24.72 32.27 17.91 15.05 3. — LEGUMINOUS HERBAGE. Yellow or meadow vetchling 2.07 2.20 4.53 • • • • 2.02 1.32 Common bird's foot treefoil 1.83 .... 0.45 Perennial red clover 1.22 .... 17.91 .... .... 1.68 0.46 Total 5.12 2.20 22.89 3.70 1.78 4. — MISCELLANEOUS HERBAGE, CHIEFLY WEEDS. Rib- grass or plaintain 10.79 0.41 0.09 0.28 0.28 1.96 1.62 0.22 8.25 1.72 1.78 Common caraway 1.71 0.78 .... Common milfoil "or yarrow 1.34 3.58 0.48 0.59 Sheep's sorrel or dock 0.67 0.61 0.49 0.12 1.02 0.23 0.88 1.08 1.12 2.02 0.11 3.10 Catchfly 1.13 0.22 Crow-foot 1.58 Field wood-rush Germander speedwell • • • • Common yellow-flowered bed-straw. or cheese-rennet .... .... 0.32 .... Total.... 15.73 1 6.14 1.71 1.85 1.67 7.05 16.43 280 The general conclusions at which the authors of this section of a very valu- able series of trials arrive, are thus summed up : — " 1. That, whether the produce of hay be considerably increased by means of farm-yard manure alone, farm-yard manure and ammoniacal ?alts, or arti- ficial mixtures of suitable mineral manui-e and ammoniacal salts, the propor- tion of the whole which will be graminaceous will be very much increased. " 2. That the produce will be ftir the most graminaceous Vv'hen the " artificial mixtures " are employed. In fact, when the increase of hay is obtained by artificial manures containing both the necessary m,ineral constituents and ammo- niacal salts — and it is then greater than under any of the other conditions — both the leguminoiis and the weedy herbage are nearly excluded, and the pro- duce is then, therefore, almost wholly graminaceous. " 3. That the graminaceous produce itself, when growTi hj farm-yard manure, is less complex in character than that grown without manure ; whilst that grown by the most active artificial manures, is less complex still. " 4. That up to an equal period in the season, the graminaceous produce, gro^vn by the active artificial manures, will be in larger proportion in floivering and seeding stems than that grown without manure ; and that the produce gro'\\'n hj farm-yard manure will be in still larger proportion in that condition. '• 5. That the description of the produce grown hj farm-yard manure alone was, upon the whole, superior to that grown without manure. " 6. That when the crop was further increased, by the addition of ammo- niacal salts to the farm-yard manure, the character of the produce was some- what deteriorated, both in regard to the descrintion of the useful plants grown, and on account of the large proportion of miscellaneous or iceedy herbage then developed. " 7. That, when in a mixed inineral or anwioniacal manure the ammoniacal salts were not tised in excessive amount, the herbage, which was then almost exclusively graminaceous, and comprised also but very few species, nevertheless, included a considerable proportion of grasses of recognized good quality. But, when excessive amounts of ammoniacal salts loere employed, the character of the produce was deteriorated, both in regard to its condition, and to the description of the grasses that were developed." The eff'ect produced by these diff"erent dressings for grass land m these experi- ments is very interesting. We have here earned out a still more valuable, yet somewhat similar series of inquiries to those of Professor Buclanan, on the results of irrigation upon the natural grasses of a meadow. The Professor's labsrs were directed to the results of watermg land ; but the object was similar to those carried on at Hothamstead. In both cases the attempt was success- fully made to ascertain the changes jDroduced in the natural grasses of a pasture by artificial applications — solid dressings being employed in the one case, river water in the other. Of the experiments of Professor Buekman (Jour. Eoj-. Ag. Soc, vol. XV., p. 402) I have elsewhere given a digest (Farmers' Alma- nac, vol. vii., p. 229). The Professor gives the following example of a meadow slopmg to the banks of the Chum, near Cirencester, and notes the changes which have taken place since it was partially irrigated. This field had a sub- soil of oohtic gravel. The following table gives — I., the name of the grasses ; II., the proportional before irrigation; III., after two years'; lY., after four years' imgation. — 281 Meadow foxtail ', Field meadow Ronghi-h meadow Quakinr^ gra>s Boostail gra-s Hassock grass Marsh bent Cock's foot Yellow oat Soft nat Meadow barley Perennial rye II. m. 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 , , 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 2 4 IV. 4 4 1 These changes, continues Mr. Buckman, become evident when there is a gravelly subsoil ; stiff c'ays, without there is a stratum of lighter matter, sel- dom succeed so well under irrigation. The changes which take place with the herbs of improved pasture are still more striking. The following table gives an instance of this, t'olumn I. gives the trivial name ; II., III., and IV. the proportional number before, after two years', and after four years' irrigation : Upright meadow crowfoot . Bulbous crowfoot Narrow-leaved plaintain.. Dutch clover Broad clover Common beaked parsley. . . II. III. rv 1 3 1 3 1 . , 3 . . , , 2 . . , , 1 2 2 1 2 1 This field, it seems, trebled in value in four years. Thc?e experiments are of considerable importance ; for not only do they show that it is v ithin our power to add. by certain dressings, to the produce of the grasses already cxis-ting in a pasture, but that the grasses themselves, by the soil bei; g thus manured, may be changed — good kinds brought forth, and the growth of the inferior sorts discouraged. Such experimental inquiries give us, with far more precision, facts of which our forefathers were not alto- gether unacquainti d 'J hey could not but observe many of the changes in the grasses, produced by some of the dressings to which I have alluded. They could not but remark that the diffirence between good and bad pastures is, in very many cases, merely the result of thtir cultivation. Instance, as Mr. Buckman remarks, a poor clay ameliorated ; its list of grasses will not re- main the same, or in the same proportions; on the contrary, bad grasses, which are ever present, to some extent, in every pasture, will either all die out, or, if not so, they will greatly improve in quality; whilst many good ones, of which scarcely an example could previously be found, rapidly increase. And again, the many herbaceous plants, such as the broad-leaved plaintain, com- mon daisy, bulbous crow-foot, &c., give place to a growth of grasses. Facts like these, I repeat, former generations of farmers must have noticed ; but they had not then the scientific accuracy, necessary to reduce these observa- tions to anything like a useful degree of certainty. The higher relative value of their cereal crops, in those days, indeed, made them more careless of their grass land ; but a different state of affairs in our time 16 282 naturally adds to our interest in everything that promotes the growth of food for our live stock. We may well, then, rejoice to see science at last well di- rected to those grass lands, for which hitherto so little has been done, as to well justify the observation that " the grasses are nature's care." These ex- periments will, moreover, lead to others of equal, if not greater importance — researches not confined to the action of manures upon the natural grasses. We have thus far treated the subject of grass and pasture lands, as if farmers were possessed of the requisite capital to put them in condition in the best and most rapid manner by the use of manures. Our remarks have been less in detail than we could wish, because a thorough examination of the subject would occupy too much space ; but we think that we have said enough to correct some popular fallacies in relation to the treat- ment of grass lands. At all events, we hope that what we have said, will tend to excite a spirit of inquiry and of practical ob- servation, which may lead to good results. We trust that farmers will soon learn, that manure is as important and as profitable in its use, when spread upon the sod, as when em- ployed in culture under the plough, and that land, intended to remain permanently in grass, must be manured just as we are obliged to use fertilizers in any other crop, and that manure so applied yields quite as much profit, to say the least, as if a course of culture is adopted solely with the view to restore it to fertility in grass. There are, however, other methods of ameliorating and improving grass lands, especially those which are incapable of cultivation, which are not to be overlooked. Of these, sheep- husbandry is one of the most important ; and as we propose to oc- cupy a few pages, in a general consideration of this much neg- lected branch of agricultural industry, its effects upon grass and pasture lands will necessarily come under notice. Sheep-Husbandry. As long ago as when Fitzherbert wrote his " Treatise on Husbandry," the breeding of sheep was looked upon as one of the most important elements of success to the farmer. He says they are " the most profitablest thing that a farmer can raise." This was written more than three centuries ago. Ellis, who fol- lowed him long after, says, " Sheep, of all beasts, next to horses 283 for ploughing and carting, are the most necessary of all others to the farmer, for the profit of their folding, for their wool, and for their flesh ; — to make this beast answer to the greatest profit, is what all farmers aim at." In Great Britain sheep-husbandry is still one of the most prominent features in its agricultural in- dustry, the number upon British soil, an area not much larger than some of our States, being upwards of 50 millions.* Sheep, from their power of adaptation, seem always to be in their place, whether ranging the almost inaccessible hills and mountains, flourishing uj)on what would otherwise be wasted, or feeding in rich valleys and in highly cultivated districts. They are pecu- liarly adapted to the climate and soil of New England, and are well suited to almost every part of the United States. Our position as manufacturers, consuming in ]Massachusetts a large portion of tiie product of the whole country, with a ready demand for the meat at high prices, makes it appear the more extraordi- nary, that sheep-husbandry has been so much neglected. 1 he number of sheep in this State has been declining for many years, so rapidly, indeed, that there is not at the present time more than one-foui'th of the number in the State, that there was forty years ago. This is a melancholy fact, when we consider the great im- portance which sheep-husbandry is confessed to be, in progres- sive agriculture. Not long since this Society issued a circular, which was veiy generally distributed throughout the State, asking for information upon this subject. (See page 160, Part 1.) Quite a number of replies were received. Among other questions asked was, "Do sheep, in your opinion, improve pasture lands ? " The answer to this question was unanimously in the affirmative, especially on * England has 55,000,000 sheep producing 250,000,000 lbs. of wool annu- ally; the United States about 19,000,000, producing only 45,000,000 lbs. New England consumes in her manufactories more than half the amount of wool grown in the United States. The amount of foreign wool imported is about 20,000,000 lbs. These, however, are mostly the coarser wools, and the introduction of them is beneficial to the home producer, by enabling the man- ufacturer to produce a wider range of fabrics, for which American wool is unfit, without the admixture of foreign wools. The introduction of Saxonj', Spanish, and afterwards of Colonial wools, into England, free of duty, doubled the woollen manufactures, and the price of English wool, instead of faLing, as it was feared, rose in a very few yeais, more than 60 per cent. 284 pastures, where the coarser grasses, briars and bushes were coming in. Our own observation, and experience has fully confirmed the correctness of the returns in this respect. We have constantly under our eye a hundred-acre lot, upon which cattle, a few years ago, could not live, that now maintains in good condition a large flock of sheep, and the improvement of the pasture has already been so great, that a dozen head of cattle, besides the sheep, now do well upon it. The reasons for this are obvious to any one, who has observed the habits of sheep. They are more indiscriminate feeders than cattle ; they nip the shoots of almost every shrub as well as weed, ex- tirpating many kinds in the couise of two or three years. They make room in this way for the grasses to come in, where they have been shadowed out, or otherwise displaced, 'i he white weed, the broom, or wood-waxen, as it is commonly termed, the golden rod, the blackberry vine, the bluebei-ry, Avith many simi- lar plants disappear before them, and the finer grasses and white clover take their place. This, however, is only one of the many advantages which sheep possess over cattle, upon pastures which are impoverished. 1 hey scatter their manure in the way to produce the largest benefit, besides which, it possesses in the highest degree the requisites essential to restoring to the land the phosphates, Avhich it loses from long depasturing with cattle. The manure, too, of s«heep, suffers no waste, being in a highly concentrated form, and at the same time, it is minutely divided and evenly distributed over the surface of the ground. So good and so economical a distributer of manure is the sheep, that experienced farmers are feeding them, when in pasture, upon oil-cake, for the additional benefit of the manure. Mr. Hamilton, a distinguished agriculturist in Ireland, in a communication to the Farmers' Magazine, for February, 1859, says : — "The experience of the practical farmer has, long ago, con- vinced him, that bought food does not pay for itself in the increase of beef and mutton, but that a manifest improvement takes place in pastures, where sheep have been fed with oil-cake." He then goes on to show, from a series of careful experiments, the gain which the oil-cake gives to the sheep and the gain to 285 the pasture in the form of increased ammonia and phosphate of lime in the manure. We give his conchision in his own -words : *' I am not chemist enough to do more than to point out the general bearings of Dr. Apjohn's analysis, but I think I have sufficiently opened the question for others more quahfied to take it uj), and shown the practical farmer that where he gives arti- ficial food to his sheep, out of every £10 expended, at least £8 155. goes to the improvement of the laud." If this be an approximation to the truth, sheep are better manure distributers, than any machine which has yet been invented. One of the questions contained in the circular before referred to, was, " What is your calculation of the profits derived from sheep, taking into account food, labor, &c. ?" The answers to this question varied very much, ranging from $150 per head to $4. Ihis might have been expected from the well- known fiict, that very few of our most intelligent farmers, we regret to say, are accustomed to the details necessary to a cor- rect estimate of the profit and loss of any farm operation, and more particularly as to stock ; the same looseness in mer- cantile or manufacturing pursuits might be fatal in a twelve- month. This question, however, is vitally important; because without something approaching very closely to accuracy, as to the cost of maintaining sheep can be arrived at, the advantage of sheep-husbandry to the farmer cannot be ascertained. Mere figures, representing the value of food in money, are very unsat- isflictory, since the cost of different articles of food varies in different localities. What the person, desirous of commencing sheep-husbandry, wants to know, is, what food is wholesome for sheep, the relative value of each kind of food, and the amount required to keep sheep in a fiiir thriving condition. With these facts before him, he can select those most available in his locality, and he will be able to form a correct judgment, as to the profit he can derive from sheep husbandry. We have seen it fre- quently stated, that in the climate of New England and New York ten sheep require for their winter's keep a ton of hay, or, in other words, that to carry ten sheep through the year, it will be necessary to give them in addition to their pasturage one ton of good English hay. This is, however, too small an 286 allowance for any sheep that it is profitable for a fanner to keep, besides, it is too indefinite as a rule for any one safely to act upon it. Hay should be taken as the standard only, and in speaking of it, we must understand it in that light, viz : — ^hay, or some other suitable food for sheej), which is equivalent to it in nutritive value. It is therefore necessay to ascertain, in the first place, what is the proper allowance for sheep, taking hay as the standard, and then to find out, what are the equivalents in other articles, which may be fed to sheep with equal advantage in the place of it. Keit, a high authority upon this subject, lays down the rule, that 2 J lbs. of hay, of the best quality, is necessary for every 100 lbs. of live weight, daily, to keep a sheep in good condition, while Spooner, one of the latest writers on the sub- ject, says that 3i lbs. is necessary for the purpose. We are inclined to adopt, as the rule, a mean nearly between the two, — to take 3 lbs. of the average quality of hay to every 100 lbs. of live weight, as the quantity required to winter sheep, so as to get the most profit from their wool and flesh. Wc have now to ascertain what other articles of food can be raised or purchased in this State, which are or may be fed to sheep, and to ascertain their nutritive value as compared with it, so that hay may be wholly or in part dispensed with, — always bearing in mind, that variety in food adds something to the ben- efit derived from the food itself beyond its stated value. The same reason that causes sheep to thrive better by a frequent change of pasture, applies to a frequent change of food in the fold, — a truth of such importance in sheep-husbandry, as to make it, in the opinion of many, the chief element of success in the management of sheep. We now give the table of food for sheep, with its relative value, taking the best quality of hay as the standard, and select- ing those articles which are likely to be, more or less of them, within the reach of every farmer : 100 lbs. of good hay is equal to 90 lbs. of clover. " " " " 102 " '' aftermath. " " " " " 374 " " wheat straw. " " " " " 442 " " rye straw. " « " " " 195 " " oat straw. 287 100 lbs. of good hay is equal to 153 lbs, of pea straw. " " 140 '' " bean straw. " " 339 '^ " mangold wurzel. " " " " '' 504 " " common turnips. " " 276 '^ " carrots. " " 398 '' " Swedish turnips. " " 45 " « clean wheat. " " 54 " " barley. " " 59 « '' oats. " " 50 '' « Indian corn. " " 45 " '^ peas. " " 45 '* " beans. " " 105 " " wheat bran. " " 167 « « Avlieat & oat chaff. " " 45 " « linseed oil-cake.* " " 45 " " cottonseed oil-cake. It will be understood by every reader that these values or then- equivalents, are only an approximation to the truth. Each of them, as well as the standard hay, vary in value on different soils and in different situations, but they are known, from long experience and observation, to be sufficiently correct to guide one safely in the practical operations of feeding, and they are also accurate enough, to enable one to calculate the cost of feed- ing, where either or all of these are used. The great advantage, to be derived from a table like this is, that it enables the sheep- grower, to take advantage of the cheapness of any article of food which he finds there, in order to replace some other Avhich is more costly. For example, if hay should be unusually high in price, and some other articles should be unusually low, the sheep-feeder, knowing the relative nutritive value of them, can effect a material economy by the use of those, in part at least, which are the cheapest, taking care always to vary the food as * The return in manure fiom oil-cake is very much greater than for any- other food given to sheep, which is not taken into account in fixing its nutri- tive value, (See ante p. 285.) 288 much as possible, and to use a due proportion of the bulky with the more concentrated kinds.* In estimating the cost of wintering sheep, with a view of ascertaining the profitableness of the pursuit, the value of the manure left in the sheepfold must be taken into the account, which is, as it will be seen, a very important element to be con- sidered in arriving at a correct conclusion. " The nitrogen in dung is that organic element to which must be attributed its chief enriching quaUty. The nitrogen is the basis, both of the production of ammonia and of the formation of nitrates, and the quantity of nitrogen in manures will form a very good element for the estimation of their value. Manures will be found rich, in proportion to their quantity of nitrogen or their power of forming nitrates. This is the great and first cause of the enriching power of dung. Though the action of all excrements has been referred to their own organic parts only, common experience tends to the explanation which has been given of the joint action of all their parts." * The following extract of a letter addressed to a friend in answer to an in- quiry as to the winter treatment of sheep, may not be considered irrelevant : "Ihe kind of food supi^lied to sheep is of hardly greater importance than the method of giving it. i-~heep are powerful digesters; and aie capable of eon- veiting the driest and coars-est herbage into food, and to extract from it more nutritive matter than any other animal ; in proportion to their Aveight, they will consume, therefore, a larger amount in bulk. Ihe insiiiK t of fheep leads them, accordingly, lo select high and dry grounds and to rang wide.y, fi-ed- ing upon every variety almott of herb and t-hrub. Linnanis found, by offer- ing fre^h plants in the ordinary mode of feeding, that horses ate 276 species, and refused 212 ; catile ate 276 species, and refused 218 ; while sheep took 387 species, and only refused 141. 1 have taken advantage of these facts in my winter management of sheep, giving tliein a fair amount of nutritive food of every kind that it was good economy to use, to keep them in condition ; but whatever the kind might be, I make it a point to add enough of a coars and bulky nat! re, to keep their bellies full. My practice has been to fetd three times a day; in the morning with good hay ; at n(;on with one of the follow- ing articles; Swedish turnips, ruta-bagas after January, carrots, oats, Indian meal, cotton oil seed cake, varying the kind given as often as possible ac- cording to my supply; at night, a full supply of wood-waxen, as we call the plant which inicsts our pastures, a species of broom, and which no other ani- mal will eat. U'his I mow in August, as it grows in the pastures mixed up with briais and every other foul wetd. They eat it with a relish and thus convert my brambles and weeds into food and manure. This is my winter treatment, always taking care to keep the flock supplied with water and with shelter. In many years' experience, I have had so few cases of loss from dis- ease, that I should have to put the percentage down to a fraction, too small to be worth mentioning. In conclusion, let me add one word of general advice, in the language of a good practical farmer: 'Ihe secret of raising the greatest amount of produce, whether in beef or in mutton, I b^lieve to be this : that you never ought to allow the animal to be so pinched or starved, that it retrogrades m the least. You should keep it progressing from the first month of its buth, and never let it lose the flesh it has acquired, because if you have an animal losing for one month, it requires another month to make it up, and then a month more to bring it into regular healthy condition.' " 289 " Sheep dung may bo placed with night-soil and hog manure. Sheep may be said to digest better than cattle. They cut their food finer and chew it better ;^ they void thus less vegetable fibre. Their excrement is more converted into geine. Fed on hay alone, their excrement is composed of: ^^/^t<5r 57 9 Bilious and extractive matter 1,7 Humus, with slime 12.8 Hay and vegetable matter '. g. Silica g Carbonate an d phosphate of lime 2. Carbonate, sulphate and muriate of soda 1.6 100.00 Others have found, ^^'ater Q^j^ Matter, soluble in water 4^0 Matter, soluble in alchohol 2 82 Vegetable fibre 16.26 Salts 8.13. 100.35 The salts were composed of phosphate of lime and magnesia, carbonate of lime, silicate of potash, common salt and silex. The nitrogen is abundant, and the amount of matter containing this nearly three-fifths greater than cattle dung." " Unless moisture is present, sheep dung undergoes but little change." "It is said that 1000 sheep folded on an acre of ground one day, would manure it sufficiently to feed 1001 sheep, if their manure could all be saved; so that, by this process, land, which can the first year feed only 1000 sheep, may the next year, by their own droppings, feed 1365. So said Anderson, forty years ago. (Rural Essays.) Sprengel allows that the manure of 1400 sheep, for one day, is equal to manurmg, highly, one acre of land. This is about four sheep per j-ear. In France, it is allowed that one sheep manures about 10^ feet square of land per night. [Dana's Muck Manual, 4th Ed., pp. 140, 152, 153.] According to the tables of Boussingault and Poyen, 36 lbs. of sheejD manure is equal in value to 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure, of an average quality. We have attempted in the previous pages to give the data upon which to form an estimate of the cost of sheep-feeding, so flir as food is concerned, which every farmer can apply by taking- the cost of food in his locality, and the value of manure ; the labor, interest, and other expenses attending the care of stock, are easily ascertained. These calculations are obviously neces- sary, if we seek to farm understandingly, though thev are too apt to be neglected. They are such as men engaged in other 17 290 business pursuits are daily in the habit of making, a neglect of which leads in many cases to ruin. If a woollen manufacturer is shown a sample of cloth, he can tell, within a few mills per yard, what he can make a similar article for. He counts the number of threads, calculates the weight, the quantity and fine- ness of the wool, its cost, the labor to be bestowed upon it, and all the other charges. He would not attempt the manufacture of it without all this preliminary study, and he is the best manu- factui-er who calculates the most correctly. The same rule applies to the manufacturer of mutton and of wool, of beef and of milk, of corn and of potatoes. One serious impediment to sheep-husbandry in this State has been the havoc committed upon flocks by dogs. The returns which this Society have received, universally ascribe as the rea- son why more sheep are not kept, on account of the injuries inflicted by dogs. We are glad, therefore, to congratulate the fai'mers of Massachusetts that a law has now been passed, which creates a fund out of which to indemnify sheep-owners against loss and injury from this cause. The present law has been in operation but one year, and its good effects are already visible in the increased numbers of sheep. Few persons* are aware how destructive dogs are in this respect, and they are gen- erally of a worthless kind, which are ch-iven from necessity to destroy sheep, in order to obtain the means of existence. The effect of the present law, by imposing a tax upon the animal, is to destroy that class ; and the tax, though small, is quite suiS- cient to cover the losses by those which are left. The pro- visions of the law are such that it is easy of enforcement, and we hope every farmer in the State will interest himself, in seeing that it is executed in his own neighborhood. The difficulties which beset the cultivator, especially in populous neighborhoods, are quite enough from depredations and trespasses of various kinds, without being obliged to watch his flocks by day and * The official returns from the several counties in the State of Ohio, for 1858, show that the total number of sheep killed by dogs, was 60,536 Total number injured by dogs 36,44 1 Total damage to sheep by dogs, $148,748.00. 291 night ; losses of this nature can only be guarded against by a law of the description which has lately been enacted.* The first question usually asked by the farmer who is about to commence sheep-husbandry, is, " What is the most profitable sheep for me to keep " ? This is to be determined in ordi- nary cases, by the soil, climate, and market. For instance, the same course of husbandry and the same kind of sheep would not be advisable in Massachusetts and in Texas, — the latter, thinly populated, with a distant market or perhaps none at all for mutton ; the former, thickly settled and with a ready mar- ket for both mutton and wool. So, too, there are local causes affecting single farms, which have their influence in determining what kind of sheep should be put upon it. A rough, hilly farm, with a small extent of arable land in proportion to the pasture, is better adapted to a small, hardy race of sheep ; while one which has better pastures and higher cultivation can main- tain profitably a larger meat-producing breed. We can only lay down some general rules which may aid the farmer in coming to correct conclusions in selecting his flock. • In Massachusetts, there is a certain and ready market for both wool and mutton, and our soil and climate seem to be well adapted to all the usual breeds of sheep ; there is nothing, there- fore, which stands in the way of our producing good wool and good mutton. Under these circumstances, we have no hesitation in recommending to the farmer, in selecting sheep for his farm, to take those which combine in the highest degree these qualities. The Cotswold, the Leicester, the Down sheep, and the various crosses of the Downs, are all of this character. Nor is it neces- sary, in order to have a good flock, that they should be pure-bred animals. On the contrary, if we were called upon to make up a flock of sheep, we should select vigorous sheep of good size, with heavy fleeces, of as uniform character in these respects as possi- ble, and breed from them, by using a pure-bred male of any of * From returns received from all the to-vvns in the State, except Beverhj, Somerville, South Reading, Granby, Tolland, South Scituate, and Kingston, it appears that 32,707 dogs were licensed in 1859, paying a tax of $35,894. It is estimated, that nearly an equal number were destroyed by their owners, as not being worth the tax, and that as many more escaped taxation altogether. 292 the breeds we have named, that we wished our flock to be aasshnilated to. By pursuing this practice for a feAV years, and selhng for mutton such as did not come up to the desired standard, a flock would soon be formed, containing all the essentials of a breed.* Sheep can be selected that will shear five to six lbs, of wool, worth thirty-five cents per lb., whose lambs, if dropped in Mai-ch, can be made marketable at $5 per head. Animals of this character, farmers cannot lose money upon. In conclusion, we would express the hope that more atten- tion will be paid to sheep-husbandry throughout New England, for there is no animal, we are confident, which will repay so well the attention of the farmer. To use the language of INIr. Grey, at the Hexham Farmers' Club, in England : " The wealth and success of a farmer may be jjretty well calculated by the amount of his sheep stock. Sheep are said to be the animals with the golden hoof ; they enrich where they go. They not only en- rich the master, but the soil. Their manure has a peculiarly efiicacious quality, and it is distributed throughout the land in a way, very different from that which is left in patches by horned cattle ; but there is this also, that while you have the mutton, probably as valuable per pound at the end of the sheep's life as beef, it has given you, year after year, the fleece, which is of it- self so important, and which in the progress of manufactures in this country, 1 think we have no reason to fear ever seeing again at a disastrous price." Agricultural Education. Agricultural Education, by Mr. French, which forms a pai't of this number of the Transactions, well deserves a careful perusal by every one who feels an interest in the promotion of agriculture. It is curious to observe how a necessity always calls forth, as it were simultaneously, an expression of opinion strong enough to induce action upon every subject which affects the public weal. We have arrived at this point : agriculture, * For breeds of sheep and their management, see the Ameiicau Shepherd, by L. A. Morrill, an American work of much practical value. 293 as an art or a profession, has in this country fallen behind other industrial pursuits, while it is admitted that it should take pre- cedence of all others ; the social, moral and political well-being of the country is seriously affected by the present low state of our agriculture. A remedy is sought for, and means are to be discovered for curing that greatest of all evils which can afflict a nation, — the deterioration of the soil and the diminution of its agricultural prosperity. We can hardly find an agricultural newspaper that does not touch upon it ; the addresses at our agricultural meetings are filled with the importance of doing something to improve the practice and science of agriculture. Perhaps no better service to the cause of '^ promoting agriculture " could be rendered than to put upon record the various movements which seem to be simultaneously making, to make American husbandry what it should be — equal, if not superior, to that of any country in the world. We cannot, however, for want of space, do more than to speak of the effort now making, by systematic education, to ad- vance the prosperity of the farmer. We will barely allude to the formation of farmers' clubs, to the establishment of market- days, to the circulation of information by means of tracts on ag- ricultural subjects, throughout the State, as evidences that public attention to the subject is fully aroused. Elementary education for those who are to become farmers, is absolutely necessary to make all our other efforts fully successful. This subject has lately occupied the attention of the State Board of Agriculture, and a plan or system of agricultural education, commencing in the common schools, was almost unanimously recommended at its February meeting. This subject, we are glad to notice, is also occupying the atten- tion of our neighboring State, Maine. The Secretary of its Board of Agriculture concludes the Transactions of 1859 with a very able essay on the necessity of agricultural education, and es- pecially of an early acquaintance with agricultural chemistry, which is daily adding to its influence and importance in regu- lating the operations of the farmer. " Whether," he says, " we kindle a fire on the hearth, or burn a coal-pit, or get up a gen- 294 tier warmth to forward tomato plants in a hot-bed ; whether we bake bread, brew beer, make soap, pile a heap of compost, or cock up hay, we bring into play laws of chemical action, and. he who best understands these laws can best control their residts to a profitable issue." The same intelligent writer, in speaking of the method of in- structing those who are to till the soil, in the laws of chemistry, physiology, and botany, so needful to the former to know, says : ♦• Until more fully advised regarding a distinct institution for teaching agri- culture, I would incline to favor the introduction of the study of natural sci- ence into all the schools now existing of a grade high enough to warrant such an introduction ; the extent and thoroughness of the instruction to vary ac- cording to the grade of the school. To the more advanced classes in our dis- trict schools enough might be imparted to draw attention to its importance, and to awaken an interest regarding the wonderful objects and operations of nature by which pupils are daily siirrounded, and to excite the desire for further knowledge. The introduction of these studies into our common schools would soon grow up a class of men, imbued with new and enlarged views and realizing the necessity of such an education." In conclusion, he says : " To the question, ' What further means can be adopted for the promotion of agriculture r ' a very brief and comprehensive answer might be given. Ed- ucate the farmer. His education, it is true, may never be finished at any school of man's making, but the youth may, at least, be taught to appre- ciate the value and to feel the necessity of a knowledge of the principles which alone can safely guide his practice. He may be taught to commence study, so that afterwards, while his bodily powers are engaged in daily toil in the great laboratory of nature whence his support is derived, he may, with only the aid of his own trained and developed faculties, mentally prosecute scientific investigations, which will yield both profit and satifaction." We believe that the time has arrived when this question of education to the farmer can no longer be left without decisive action, and we feel that we are doing good service to the cause of agriculture by bringing together such expressions of opinion upon the subject as we have met with. We do not hesitate, therefore, to conclude with an extract from the address of the Rev. Dr. Stebbins before the Middlesex Agricultiu-al Society in September last : "Till farmers and mechanics understand this honorableness of their calling, and vindicate it, they will be held in abeyance ; and the man who killed Te- cumseh, or has shot a Mexican, or captured a squaw and pappoose in the unin- habitable everglades of Florida, will monopolize the admiration of the people, and march amid deafening plaudits, under clouds of banners, to the presiden- tial mansion. The apprpropriate and important question to be asked and an- 295 swered to-day is most obviously this : — How can farmers and mechanics evince and vindicate their right to be classed among the honored and honorable of the earth ? How can young men and young women be convinced that it is as respectable, and far more profitable and prosperous and delightful, to till the soil and manage the dairy and furnish the wardrobe and the table, than it is to sell merchandise and ply the needle, play the exquisite and the belle ? The answer is swift and conclusive. These occupations must be raised to the rank of arts by their intelligent, Scientific pursuit. The reasons of things must be known, and then farming will be a delight, not a drudgery, an honor, not a disgrace, both in its pursuit and result. How then can this knowledge, essen- tial to the highest success, to any success, in your calling be obtained ? In our public schools. I know, as the public schools of the country are usually conducted, little or no attention is paid to practical science. Ghildren are taught to spell Ompompanoosuc, and name the rivers in Ethiopia and Siberia, but they are not taught why a silver spoon is tarnished by boiled eggs, or a knife by cutting an apple. They are not taught why deep plowing prevents the severities of drought, or why guano is a good fertilizer on some soils, or whence comes the carbon of the forest trees. They are not taught the differ- ence between boiled and roasted meat, and why bread is heavy. Silver dollars are put into the churn to bring the butter, and pork is killed at high, tide or full of the moon, to prevent shrinkage, because our schools spend! more time in teaching the extraction of cube roots than the extraction of butter from cream. The science of cooldng, on which health and life de- pend, is not taught, but algebra is. So our young wives prefer boarding to housekeeping, since they can work quadratives, but not the kneading trough ; they can explain the binomial theorem, but not the nature and action of yeast. It is no fault of theirs. It is the fault of the system. Our modes of education are defective, and need renovation. Boys and girls should be taught in school the science of agriculture and cooking, as they are now taught arithmetic and grammar. They should understand from germination to maturity the process ■ of growth and the food of every crop, every vegetable raised. Its parts and j the uses of each part in its growth should be known to them as well as the uses of the parts of their own bodies, — their hands, their feet, their eyes, their ears. They should know, moreover, all the Aveeds on the farm, their charac- ter and relative damage to crops, and how to exterminate them, These sub- jects should be thoroughly taught and illustrated in their schools. The young mind thus becomes interested in future pursuits, and enters upon them not as a task but as a pleasure. Labor thus becomes a j^rofession, not a servitude ; it becomes attractive as any other art, more than many now sought for. Botany, or the study of plants, grains and vegetables, should be a prominent study in our common schools ; commenced with the alphabet, and continued to gradu- ation, so that every boy and girl fourteen years of age can not only tell the growth and food of every grain and grass and vegetable, but also just what soil and season and fertilizers are best for it. Chemistry also should be studied from the earliest period till the latest, as we now study arithmetic and geog- raphy. It is vastly more important to a person to know the prime gases than the prime numbers ; the circulation of oxygen is something more necessary to be understood than the circulation of decimals ; and unlike fractions, many persons reduce their farms to the lowest terms because they haven't learned 296 how to do it. Chemistry should be studied till the composition of every soil and its adaptation to grains and grassesandvegetablesisunderstood just as well as the adaptation of the stomach of the horse, the ox, the camel, the fowl, to their diiferent kinds of food and methods of digestion, is understood. " The scholar should know what wheat eats, and how to supply it with food, just as well as he knows what an ox eats and how to feed it. He should know the different diet of the jjotato, and how to feed it, as he knows the different diet of the cat, and how to feed it. The cat does not live on grass nor the ox on mice. Wheat and potatoes do not eat precisely the same food, yet who thinks of preparing the field for the wheat differently from that for the potato, as he would prepare differently the stall for the ox and the dish for the cat. Taste of the qnince and the pear, have they not fed on different food ? Do not asparagus and squashes demand different diet ? All this and much more children should be taught in our schools. Then, Avhen they go upon the farm, it will be with the curiosity with which the chemist enters his laboratory ; not simply to see how much money they can get, but how much they can enjoy and discover. «' I press this point. Our system of common-school education is seriously, not to say radically, defective in this respect. Arithmetic, geography, and grammar are studied to the neglect of other more important and attractive branches of knowledge. Teachers should be trained in our Normal Schools, not in algebra and geometry, only or chiefly, but in botany and chemistry and meteorology. Three hundred and forty-five students were at the State Normal Schools in 1857. Of these, one-half are the sons and daughters of farmers and mechanics, and all are to be teachers in our public schools, the only school which a great portion of the children will ever attaid to fit them for the duties of life. The expense of these schools, exclusive of the real estate, is about fourteen thousand dollars annually, and worthily is it applied in spite of the deficienc}'' which I shall name. I find no special statement in the reports, of the amount of time given to the different studies pursued ; but in the Westfield School I find botany optional, one of the most important studies to farmers, and also book-keeping. At Bridgewater, the proportion of time given to literature as distinguished from scientific studies, is as three hundi-ed to five hundred ; only three-fifths as much time is given to the sciences on which all agriculture and mechanical labor and success are based, as to other studies. "Whether botany can be studied, if desired, is not stated. The reports of the schools at Framingham and Salem, give no information respecting their atten- tion to these subjects. This is a serious matter, and deserves of farmers and mechanics close scrutiny. These Normal Schools should be so conducted that teachers will come out from them qualified to teach these branches which will make labor a luxury, and the laborer skilful and intelligent. " There is much said now-a-days of a farm school for the State. I have but little faith in the result of such great and expensive establishments. They make mostly fancy farmers, and do not help farmers' wives at all in their chemical laboratory, — the kitchen. The principles of farming should be taught in every district school, and fully illustrated in the high school. The manage- ment and studies of these schools demand the attention of the thoughtful of all classes. They absorb nearly or fully one-third of all the moneys raised for school purposes, in many of our towns, (and wisely, if it is rightly expended,) 297 while the scholars in attendance are less than one-tenth of the school popula- tion. And more important still is the fact that sometimes nine-tenths or more of the scholars in attendance, are spending two-thirds of their time on studies which are of no value in practical life. " Our high schools are now often conducted as if the scholars of New England were residents of ancient Italy, and cattle were to be reared and crops raised with Virgil's Georgics and Bucolics as a hand-book. The housewifery of our daughters is taught from the domestic economy of Dido, and their delicacy beautified and their modesty perfected by mining sj-llable by syllable into the story of her shame ! Boys who are fitting to be builders, are required to study word for word, the sjmtax and etymology, and line for line, the construction of Caesar's bridge, who never receive a word of information respecting the strength of timber oi; the names of the parts of an ordinary dwelling ! Young aspirants for political honor, ardent to become selectmen, assessors, school committees, possibly representatives to the great and the General Court, are thoroughly drilled in the municipal regulations of Rome, and thumb out of their dictionaries with perspiring agony and muttered execrations, the majestic utterances of Cicero against Cataline, when they know nothing of the duties and responsibilities of a field driver, or that such a speech as that of "Webster in reply to Hajme, is in existence. It is true that the law requires schools to be kept in towns containing five hundred families, in which Greek and Latin can be taught. But it by no means requires that all the scholars who attend these schools thall study them. And it is hai-dly just to ruin the practical education of nine-tenths of the scholars, for the sake of fitting one bov or ten for college. The education of the scholars in our public schools should be such as to make intelligent men and women in the great industrial departments of life. Farmers and mechanics look to it, that your schools do this work for which they were established ; then agriculture and mechanics will be arts, not drudgeries." 18 298 MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOE PEOMOTING AGEICTJLTUKE. Premiums for experiments with manures. $100 1st Premium, 75 2d do. 50 od do. " Select a level piece of land of any convenient size, from twenty square rods ixp to as many acres or more, which should be as nearly equal in its char- acter and condition as possible. Divide it into iive equal parts, numbering them 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, for a rotation of three years. " Divide the manure which it is proposed to apply, and which should be of a uniform character, into four equal parts. At the time of first ploughing in the spring, spread evenly one-fotirth of the manure upon plot No. 1, and then plough the whole field of an equal depth. Apply another foiuth part of the manure to plot No. 2, and then cross plough the whole field to about half the depth of the first ploughing. Spread another fourth of the manure upon plot No. 3, and harrow or cultivate the Avhole field ; after which sow or plant the whole evenly, with any crop jireferred. Finally, spread the remaining quarter part of the manure upon plot No. 4. " Observe that by pursumg this course, each of the five lots will receive equally a deep ploughing, a shallow ploughing, and a harrowing or cultivating, the only difterence m them being that in No. 1 the manure is buried deep, in No. 2 shallow, in No. 3 buried only slightly, but coated with loam, and in No. 4 left exposed upon the surface ; while No. 5 gets no manure. The manure is to be spread broadcast and as evenly as possible. The after cultivation should be the same on each of the lots, and the harvest of each should take place at the same time. " Let a statement of the character of the soil, whether light or heavy, dry or moist, leachy or retentive of manures, the crop of 1859, kind and amount and mode of aj)plication of manure in 1859, size of field covered by the ex- periment, depth of first ploughing, kind and amount of manure used in 1860, kind of crop, when and how sown, number of times and manner cultivated, and weight of product on an average rod of each plot be made in 1860, and returned in the annual report of each Society. " If there is a double product, as grain and straw, corn and stover, let the weight of the secondary product be given on each plot. " If the competitor weigh the whole crop instead of estimating it by an av- erage rod, there will be no objection to such a course. " A brief synopsis of the weather for each of the following months, by di- viding each month into three parts, and using the terms dry, moist, and wet, to indicate the general character of the weather, will also be expected. FIKST THIKD, MIDDLE THIRD. LAST THIRD. Mat, June, July, August, September, " A similar report of all the above items, except the nature of the soil, will be made in 1861, and in 1862, when the premiums will be awarded. No ma- nure is to be applied to the second and third crop." 299 The above premiums are open to competitors throughout the Commonwealth. Competitors for premiums offered by other ag- ricultural societies are invited also to compete for the above, the same experiments serving for both, by filing a duplicate state- ment with the secretary of this Society. In awarding the premiums, all other things being equal, pref- erence will be given to those which are tried on the largest space of land, and also where the competitor weighs the whole crop, instead of an average rod. Notice of an intention to com- pete must be given to the Secretary of the Society on or before the first day of January, 1861, with the statement required in the terms of the premium. RICHARD S. FAY, Sec'y Mass. Soc. for Prom, Agriculture. I 1 ri y TRANSACTIONS MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. NEW SERIES, Vol. 1: PART III. BOSTON: GEO. C. RAND AND AVERY, PRINTERS, ■ NO. 3 CORNHILL. 1861. ¥ TRANSACTIONS MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY PROMOTING AGRICULTURE. NEW SERIES, Vol. 1: BOSTON: GEO. C. RAND & AVERY, PRINTERS, No. 3 CORNHILL, 1861. OFFICERS AND TRUSTEES FOR THE YEAR 1860. PRESIDENT : GEORGE W. LYMAN. FIRST vice-president: THOMAS MOTLEY, Jr. SECOND VI0E-PEB8IDENT: JAMES W. PAIGE. TREASURER : DAVID SEAES, Jr. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY: RICHARD S. FAY. RECORDING SEORETART: PETER C. BROOKS, Jr. TRUSTEES : ROBERT C. WINTHROP, GEORGE PEABODY, GEORGE T. BIGELOW, GEORGE B. LORING, MARTIN BRIMMER, WILLIAM B. BACON. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Agricultural and Geological Survey of Essex County, by David Choate, p. 301 n. Prize Essay on Farm Management, by a Scottish farmer p. 385 in. Agricultural Miscellany, by R. S. Fay p. 399 1. Agricultural Progress in Mass. 2. Experiments with Manures. IV. Drainage, by H. F. French p. 416 1. Dykes and Draias. 2. Eiparian Eights. V. List of Officers and Trustees since the Organization p. 435 #- '^ 1 /. ■■ " ~-:^^.y-^-yM ~ 0 •<.22S^ivi^ii— '■^- TRANSACTIONS. AgricuUural and Geological Survey of Essex County. By David Choate. 1860. Its History. Essex was incorporated as a county in the year 1643. It contains an area of near 420 square miles,^' and has a popula- tion of 165,602 by the census of 1860. It is situated in the northeast part of the State, and is watered upon two sides by the sea for the distance of about fifty miles. At the time of its incorporation, it consisted of but six towns and two territories ; the towns being Salem, Lynn, Ipswich, Eowley, Newbury, Gloucester ; and the territories Cochichewic, after- wards Andover, and Enon, afterwards Wenham. Essex County contains 311,014 acres of land and water within its limits, from actual survey, as returned by town selectmen in the year 1860. The earliest discovery of any part of Essex by Europeans is stated by Newhall, in his valuable Memorial, noAV out of print, to have been made by Gosnold, on the 14th of May, * The length and breadth of Essex County, as laid down in some of the books, vary considerably from the truth. According to Morse's Gazetteer, published in 1797, it is " 38 miles long, and 25 mOes wide." Mr. Newhall, in his Essex Memorial, published in 1836, makes the same statement, and Barbour, in his Historical Collec- tions, published in 1839, quotes from the others without variation. A territory of these dimensions, it is obvious, would contain 950 square miles, or 608,000 acres. Hayward's Gazetteer of 1849 makes the county contain 400 square miles. This is near the true amount of territory undoubtedly, though it is believed not sufficiently large. The irregularity of the coast makes it difficult to measure accurately. Prob- ably no two surveyors would agree. The above statement, however, of 420 square miles, is believed to be the most reliable. 1 302 1602, when, he says, they discovered the coast between Cape Ann and Nahant. The number of towns is 34. The United States census for 1850 states the number of farms to be 2,708. By the Official Returns for 1860, as published by the State Valuation Com- mittee, 17,727 acres are covered with w^ater, and 9,039 are used for roads. The other divisions of land are as follows, viz: Tillage land, exclusive of the orchards tilled, 17,335 acres; acres of upland mowing, excluding orcharding mowed, 41,124 ; fresh meadow, 13,947 acres ; pasture, excluding orcharding pastured, 94,658 acres ,• unimproved land, 27,529 acres ; salt marsh, 15,826 acres : unimprovable land, 6,734 acres : acres of orcharding of all kinds of fruit, 3,307 ; acres of orcharding mowed, 1,841. Whole number of acres in the several towns, from " actual survey," 483,015, as published, but really 311,014. The utter absence of mountains in Essex may be seen in the fact that at no point is there an elevation much exceed- ing 400 feet above the level of the sea. Thus Legg's Hill, in Marblehead, is but 160 feet high ; Rail-cut Hill, in Glouces- ter, 205 ; Thompson's Hill, in Gloucester, 255 ; Prospect Hill, in Rowley, 264 ; Powow Hill, Salisbury, 328 ; Ayres's Hill, Haverhill, 339 ; and Holt's Hill, Andover, 423. Bald Pate, in Georgetown, is one of the high points in the county, but the height is not ascertained. Nearly all these eleva- tions are rounded to the top, and are susceptible of cultiva- tion. Its Rivees and Ponds. Bass River is a short stream, but widens rapidly near its mouth. It rises in Beverly, north parish. Its course is southerly, and separates Beverly from Salem, by the bridge, 1,500 feet in length. Until 1668, Bass River was the name of the present town of Beverly. It has pleasant meadows upon its banks. Chebacco was the Indian name of Essex River. It rises 303 in several fine sheets of water lying in Essex, Hamilton, and Wenham. From the upper dam to the head of salt water, is about 240 rods, and in that distance the fall is 50 feet, afford- ing several fine mill-sites. Above the upper milldam the stream is sluggish, and flows the meadows a part of the year. After passing the point where it unites with the salt water, it runs through extensive marshes. Ipswich River, anciently, it is said, was called Great River. It rises, says Dr. Parish, from springs in the west part of Wil- mington, in Middlesex. It drains a great extent of land, receiving several tributaries from the north, as well as the Hamilton branch on the south. This latter stream is the outlet of Wenham Pond, and, on account of the small descent, it runs slowly, and overflows the meadows a considerable part of the year. A large part of its course is in Hamilton ; hence its name. Ipswich River has four dams, all in Ipswich. The meadows upon this stream, in Topsfield and the westerly towns through which it passes, are spoken of as being "fine," but it is apprehended they would be made decidedly finer by drainage. The cotton factory, operated by this river for a part of the year, contains 3,000 spindles, and consumes 150,000 pounds of cotton annually. Merrimac River is the father of waters in Essex, for its length and volume. On leaving New Hampshire it first runs into Middlesex County, after which Essex receives it, and conducts it to the sea. It receives several streams, hereafter to be mentioned. This river, as long ago as 1790, had twelve ferries in Essex County. Bridges have long been substituted for most of them. North River, receiving a part of its waters from Salem, and a part from Danvers, chiefly the former, empties into Bass River between Salem and Beverly. Boxford and Andover give rise to Parker River, which swallows up Rowley River and a stream rising in West New- bury, called Little River. Parker River falls 50 feet, says Dr. Spofibrd, in his late Gazetteer, in the course of 1| miles. Most of the course of this river is in Newbury. It has sev- 304 eral bridges, the principal being Oldtown Bridge, so called, 850 feet long. It has extensive marshes at its mouth, and empties into Plumb Island River, more properly a sound. The first woollen factory in the county was erected upon thia river, and is still in operation. Powow River rises in Kingston, New Hampshire. Dr. Spofford, in his new Gazetteer, before quoted, states that " the supply of water is not great, but a fall of 70 feet within 40 rods creates very great power." This stream has long been used with success. Dr. Morse, in the first edition of his geography, says it has a descent of 50 feet in 100 rods. It then carried one bloomary, five saw-mills, seven grist-mills, two linseed-oil mills,, one fulling-mill, and one snuff-mill. "The dams," he says, "are at short distances from each other ; the wheels and mills rising almost immediately over each other." It was upon the Powow River that Jacob Perkins first operated his machine for cutting and heading nails. Mr. Newhall states in his Memorial, before referred to, that " Kimball's Power, so called in Amesbury, is dammed up and converted into a reservoir for feeding the river in times of drought. A part of the canal which forms the communication passes under a high hill tunnel-wise. This tun- nel, on account of the very early period when it was under- taken, has always been regarded as an object of curiosity." Rowley River rises in Boxford, from several ponds. It affords water power for a number of mills, and finally runs through the salt marshes into Parker River. Saugus River has a meandering course from its origin in Reading into Lynn Bay. The tracts of salt marsh upon this river being chiefly in North Chelsea are extensive ; they also constitute about one seventh part of the area of Saugus. The historians inform us that iron works were established upon Saugus River as early as 1645, and that heaps of scoriae are still to be seen where they stood. Hale also states that " near the banks of this river a band of pirates concealed themselves in the year 1657 ; they were finally discovered, and three of the ft>ur which landed were taken to England and executed." 305 The Shawshine rises in Lexington and Lincoln, Middlesex County, and enters Essex at Andover. It has a course of more than eight miles in Essex, running the whole width of Andover, then between North Andover and Lawrence, and reaching the Merrimac near Sutton's Mills. This fine stream works 25 sets of woollen machinery in Andover, at Ballardvale and Frye Village, and 23 sets in North Andover. A large part of the 1,259 acres of fresh meadow returned for Andover lies upon this placid stream. It is but 50 feet wide at its mouth. The Spicket enters the State from New Hampshire, at Me- thuen. It has a splendid fall of 30 feet in one place, and turns the 5,500 spindles of the cotton mills in that town, after which it runs through Lawrence and loses itself in the Mer- rimac. Still other streams belong to the county and might be described, but it is thought unnecessary. Lakes. These form an agreeable feature of the county, but a mere- reference to them, as originating some of the streams or con- tributing to them, is all that will be attempted. Great Pond, in North Andover, which sends out the Co- chichewic to the Merrimac, and also Great Pond in Haver- hill, with an outlet running northwardly, are splendid sheets of water. Perch, bream, and pickerel may be caught in con- siderable quantities. " Lake Wenhan," so called, has long been celebrated for its beauty, as well as recently for the purity of its ice. Kimball's Pond, in Amesbury, already re- ferred to, Chebacco Pond in Essex, Middlcton Pond in Middle- ton, Suntaug Lake in Lynnfield and South Danvers, Wenu- chem, Wyoma, and Cedar Lakes in Lynn, with many others, greet the traveller's eye with delightful frequency. 306 Confidence in the Truths of Geology necessary for THE Agriculturist. By this it is not meant that unscientific men are expected to become familiar with the details of this noble science. The grand features, however, those in which both geolo- gists and chemists are agreed with perfect uniformity, are to be received, however large the demands they may make upon our credence. Among these features, and foremost of them all^ is the fact that all soils were originally rock, and have been produced by its abrasion, disintegration, and decomposition. Other substances, in comparatively small quantities and in different proportions, varying according to the locality^ are detected without expensive analysis, as saline, vegetable, and animal. This may be called the first lesson in Geology. The difficulty in receiving it consists in harmonizing this theory of the formation of soils with our ideas of the creation of the world, requiring, as it must, an inconceivable length of time, unless by miracle, which idea finds little favor even among Christian geologists. Geologists teach that j^^-e of the 434 kinds of simple minerals constitute nine tenths of the crust of the earth ; and with the addition of two or three more, the number will embrace nine- teen twentieths. With these seven or eight minerals, then, the veriest learner can afford to be patient. And Prof. Adams, State Geologist of Vermont, remarks that one of this small number, to wit, quartz, '' constitutes itself nearly one half of the crust of the earth," while feldspar constitutes about one tenth, — a mineral less glassy in its appearance than quartz, and not quite so hard. Limestone constitutes about one sev- enth ; hornblende, one fifteenth to one twentieth ; mica, about the same ; while talc, chlorite, serpentine, and gypsum, with rock salt and coal, are the only other minerals which form any considerable portion of the earth's crust. It is usually considered that this crust is of the average depth of six miles, and that with the exception of the granitic 307 sand and other loose materials constituting the superficial cov- ering, it is composed of solid rocks. These rocks are stratified or unstratified ; the former being deposited from quiet water in their layers of mud, sand, gravel, &c. and, according to Adams, have since become solid by the agency of heat, pres- sure, cohesion, &c. Dr. Hitchcock, in his '' Religious Truth illustrated from Science," remarks as follows : " All observation teaches us that man was one of the last of the animals that was placed upon the earth. In vain do we search through the six miles of solid rocks that lie piled upon one another, commencing with the low- est, for any trace of man. And it is not until we come into the uppermost formations, — ^that is, the alluvial, nay, not un- til we get almost to the top of that, — that we find his bones. And yet these, being formed of the same materials as the bones of other animals, would have been as certainly preserved as theirs, in the lower rocks, had he existed there." His next remark may as well be added, that " at least five vast periods of time, with their numerous yet distinct groups of organic beings, passed over this globe before the appearance of man. This is not a dreamy, hypothetical conclusion, but a simple matter of fact, which has been scrutinized with great care, and by some unfriendly to revelation, and who would gladly have found it otherwise." It is not proposed to generalize further. Indeed, but for the purpose of erecting the superstructure, most of the above foundation remarks might have been spared. Its Geology. Of this it may be said, with even more truth than of Middle- sex, by the learned author of its Agricultural Survey, Dr. Reynolds, to wit, that " it is not strongly marked by any pe- culiar characteristics. Indeed, the only peculiar feature. . . , . . is the absence of any marked feature." 308 The rocks underlying the Essex soil are of the primitive formation, exhibiting no organic remains, being chiefly gran- ite, sienite, gneiss, porphyry, and schist, or those of a slaty character. In this respect it nearly resembles the structure of the Island of Jersey, one of the English Channel Islands, and one of which, for the encouragement of Essex farmers, it may be said, on a high authority, that " it supports two in- habitants TO EVERY ACRE." And further it may be said, that while Jersey is surrounded by the sea, that storehouse for man, daily supplying his table, and as abundantly supplying his fields with the richest manure, yet the County of Essex has more seashore than Jersey Island, and may derive from the sea a good proportion of all the aids to the support of our population that that celebrated island affords." Rocks of the character above mentioned, as found beneath our soil, or cropping out at frequent intervals, generally yield, as the chemists inform us, about QQ per cent, of silica, 6 or 7 of potassa, 5 per cent, of oxide of iron, with the balance of lime and magnesia. But for diluvial action, the soils might be expected to correspond with the rocks underneath. Geol- ogists are agreed, however, in saying, that all the loose cover- ing of the rocky formation has been removed from the parent rock in a southerly or southeasterly direction, in many cases for several miles. This fact makes an analysis of the parent rock comparatively unimportant in determining the nature of the soil in a given place. Had no drift-period ever occurred in the world's history, it is evident the soil would have been coincident with the rocks; or had the removal of the detritus always been uniform in regard to distance, then, when culti- vation had produced no changes of the soil, the parent rocks would have afforded a true index to the upper strata. Or, * A writer stated in 1808, " tliat the cultivation of apple-trees for cider in the Isle of Jersey had occasioned a deficiency of arable land, the enormous quantity of 24,000 hogsheads being made annually, upon a spot containing less than 29,000 acres. Un- doubtedly many of the islanders live in a manner we should call comfortless. It is interesting to leani from recent authority that the apple-trees are giving way to crops of grain, grass, and roots." But beyond aU controversy, Essex County is capable of supporting a population far outrunning the present. 309 again, had the earthy covering been removed no farther than the boulders, the geological character of the latter would have been identical with that of the former ; but even that is sel- dom the case. The result must be, that our soils have been compounded of the different rocks lying a few miles, more or less, northerly or northwesterly of a given point. The absence of any considerable deposit of limestone in the county is the unvarying remark of all geologists. Newbury contains the only trace of that valuable rock at present known, except still slighter ones on the east side of Nahant ; and even these are too impure to admit of obtaining blocks of any size for valuable use. Asbestos, serpentine, and amianthus, are found intermixed with it in that curious cave described by naturalists under the forbidding name of " Devil's Den." * The towns of Essex that exhibit gneiss as the leading rock upon the geological map, are Andover and North An- dover. Traces of it, however, are found in Haverhill ; in Box- ford, it exists largely ; and in Methuen, in perhaps one twelfth part of the town. Sienite and greenstone trap are the leading rocks in Beverly, Lynn, and part of Danvers ; sienite in Es- sex, Georgetown, Gloucester, Groveland, Hamilton, Ipswich, Lynnfield, Manchester, Marblehead, Nahant, Newburyport, Rockport, Rowley, Salem, Salisbury, Saugus, South Danvers, Topsfield, Wenham, and Newbury. Dr. Hitchcock found graywacke in Newbury and Rowley ; mica slate in Amesburj^, universally over the town ; in Brad- ford, largely or wholly ; in Methuen, extensively ; and a por- tion of Salisbury and West Newbury was pervaded by it. Hornblende slate was detected by the same eminent geologist in Boxford, Georgetown, Groveland, in Middleton univer- sally, and in Topsfield largely. Porphyry was discovered by . the same gentleman, while exploring the State, in Lynn, Marblehead, and Swampscot. Allusion has before been made to limestone in Newbury, and it may be added that iron * Mr. Prescott, however, says fibrous, llgniform, and compact asbestos occurs also at Nahant. 310 gives evidence of being present there to some extent. There is also a deposit, it is believed, of iron of great purity, in the town of Essex. No exploration has been yet made, but the effect upon the magnetic needle is without a precedent, as it is confidently believed, viz : such as to deflect the needle 12^ in a distance of four rods. The deposit must therefore be greatly concentrated. It may prove to be a combination of minerals of very little value, yet of such qualities as to pro- duce the effect described. Its power exceeds that which was found by Dr. Hitchcock, at Canaan Mountain, in Con- necticut, and which he describes in Silliman's Scientific Jour- nal, but which deflected the needle only 50* or 52° in a distance of ten rods, but which he nevertheless supposed to be iron ore of sufficient purity to pay well for exploring. The deposit of porphyry in Marblehead deserves more than a passing remark. The following description of it has been kindly furnished by the learned geologist of Marble- head, J. J. H. Gregory, Esq. " The porphyry occurs under three varieties, as regards the structure of the deposit, viz : in ledges having a cleavage tendency, but only developed so far, while in process of cool- ing, as to shatter the rock into small angular pores, whose angles roughen the surface as though studded with spikes. A second form of deposit presents the cleavage planes so far advanced that perfect rhomboids are not unfrequently met with. Southeast of the lighthouse, well jutted into the sea, occurs a ledge of the second form of deposit. The third form of deposit occurs in slabs of ex- quisitely banded or watered porphyiy, which, with a thick- ness not usually exceeding two or three inches, overlie each other, forming a bed which makes an angle of about 30*^ with the horizon. Probably the finest specimen of this structure is the bed that outcrops along the shore, a few rods south- east of the wharf of Ephraim Brown, on the harbor side of the Neck. Beautiful pebbles of the banded porphyry may be found on the sea-beaches of the Neck. The ledge is well worthy the attention of those wealthy amateurs, whose tastes, 811 sustained by ample means, look across the water to the orna- mental stones of Europe for decorations to their dwellings. A mantelpiece made of banded porphyry would be unique, and would draw more attention than all the verd antique in Boston ; and, for aught we know as yet, its inherent beauty would sustain the curiosity that the rarity had awakened. When will the man of wealth and taste appear, who, standing head and shoulders above the crowd of weak imitators, will exhibit to admiring friends, instead of the foreign marble, tables of mosaic made from the serpentine of Newburyport, the marbles of the western sections of the State, the tour- maline rock of Chesterfield, the beryls of Royalston, the porphyry of Marblehead and Lynn, and the various orna- mental rocks which occur in his native State ? " "' It is the opinion of many modern geologists that sienite is the genuine term for much that formerly took the name of granite. Indeed, Mr. Prescott, who wrote a sketch of the geology and mineralogy of the southern part of Essex County a few years subsequently to Dr. Hitchcock, declares that no bed of granite occurs in the southern section of the county ! He found only a few scattering boulders in Lynn and Saugus, and these he traced to their beds in Boxford, where, by the by. Dr. Hitchcock, according to his map, found only hornblende, slate, and gneiss. A bed of sienite, said to differ considerably from the great mass of the same rock pervading the body of the county, found crossing the southern part of Danvers and Lynnfield with the northern parts of Lynn and Saugus, has been some- what extensively quarried. It makes superior millstones. It extends no further north than Procter's Brook, nor southeast- erly of Tapley's Brook. The width of the bed, Mr. Prescott Informs us, does not exceed three miles, " forming, in many , places, high hills of solid rock and craggy cliffs." A very narrow bed of sienite has been found in Beverly, * The above gi-apliic description of the geology of Marblehead, naturally suggests the importance of careful attention to other towns. It can hardly be that the objects of geological interest should be confined to that town. They exist everywhere. 312 beginning, according to the same scientific geologist, near the north end of Beverly bridge, and extending towards the town of Essex. It is but a few rods wide, while you find " greenstone trap prevailing on both sides of the road from Beverly to Gloucester." Boulders of the Danvers granite already referred to, are found, as might be expected, '' in Salem and Marblehead, as well as on the porphyry ridges of Lynn and Saugus," also, it is said, as far as Nahant, and oven Little Nahant. A rock of some interest has been found in the towns of Topsfield and Middleton, of which the most abundant ingre- dient is feldspar, and seems unlike any other in that section of the county. It is said to contain no hornblende, but in place of it you find green chlorite with quartz. Although this de- posit is of interest to the geologist, as being peculiar to itself, it does not seem entitled to special interest in an agricultural point of view, the yield of Indian corn in Middleton being but 25 bushels to the acre, and in Topsfield but 29-|- bushels. Greenstone trap is found extensively in several towns in Essex south. It is seen near the porphyry sections of Lynn and its neighbor, Saugus, and keeps company with the sienite ledges of Danvers and Lynn, of Saugus and Beverly. Dr. Prescott observed dikes of fine-grained greenstone or trap, from one inch to forty feet in diameter, traverse the State, and sienite in every section of Nahant and Beverly, as well as in Salem and Marblehead, though the greenstone became coarser in the two latter towns. The dividing line in Lynn, between the gneiss on the north- west side and the sienite on the southeast, is supposed to be a bed of magnesian or serpentine marble. It is from three to five miles long, and a quarry in it was opened near the centre of the town some years ago. When first quarried, we are told, it can be cut with a saw or turned with a lathe, though requiring to be dry by exposure to the air to take a good polish. It has, from the beginning, appeared to be one of the lead- ing objects that should press upon the attention of any one 313 making a geological survey of Essex, to discover, if possible, the means for improvement in agriculture. Has nature deposited manures of any kind in our soil, or under it ; and if so, where ? The sea-fund is of course restricted to those living near it. Does the land contain any stores not yet dis- covered ? anything at hand, — anything open to all ? We believe in deposits of guano, a rich and powerful manure ; but Ichaboe and the Chincha islands are a good way off. We hear of the powerful effects of green-sand in New Jersey, and a writer in the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England complains that " the Americans, in the course of the year 1858, quarried away the greater part of an islet called Sombrero, and sold the substance in New York to the amount of £100,000, for the purpose of regenerating the exhausted soils of Virginia." All this is interesting as show- ing deposits of manure somewhere ; but is there anything at home ? Marl. "No form of calcareous matter is so valuable in agriculture as marl." Dr. Plitchcock says *' that from the nature of our (Massachusetts) rocks, he had no hope of finding rich marls in any part of the State, except the County of Berkshire." The theory of this learned chemist is, that Berkshire marls are formed from " the carbonate of lime, brought into ponds, and then at length deposited. After the pond is filled nearly up, vegetables begin to grow over the marl, and thus at length a deposit of peaty matter covers the marl." This agrees with the observations of others, to wit: that all marls underlie strata of peat or muck. If all marls are formed in this manner, then it is, perhaps, useless to search further for them in Essex County. There is, indeed, a substance resembling it in many places, which, on examination, proves to contain no lime at all, while in color it strongly resembles it. This has been found in the central and eastern parts of the State. 314 Mr. Gregory, of Marbleliead, has discovered a deposit of this substance in that town, but remarks that the qualities were silicious and not calcareous. There is another deposit upon the farm of Joseph How, of Methuen. A small quantity sent me by Mr. How, under the action of muriatic acid, shows no lime at all. It is important, however, that this article should receive more attention. Mr. How has applied it to his grass lands with good effect, — a fact so significant that I deem his account of it, communicated under a recent date to me, to be of sufficient importance to make public, as I do, with his permission, reserving, however, the principal part of his letter for another topic, viz : that of peat and peat mead- ows. " In several cases," says Mr. H., '•' in and around my meadows, I have dug ditches, two or two and a half feet deep, for the double purpose of underdraining the land, and disposing of small stones. I have spread the subsoil, which in some cases was gravel, others sand, others a marly sub- stance. In every case it has had a wonderful effect on the grass." This substance does not exhibit any carbonate of lime ; yet from its loonderful effects on grass, it may still prove of great use, especially should it be found in the peat meadows generally. Col. Adams, of Newbury, finds the same thing upon his farm, though its value has not been tested. Peat Alluvium. In the utter absence of limestone rocks, from which so mucb agricultural wealth is derived in other localities, the farmers of Essex naturally begin to turn attention to the rich and extensive deposits of peat. Not indeed as peat; for coal, at present prices, is apparently destined to make peat unne- cessary for fuel. It long ago excited the admiration of think- ing men, as it continues to do, that the accumulated forests of the primeval world should have been changed to coal and laid by for the use of ages then to come. The time is now 315 come, and the amazing masses yield themselves np, and no anxiety need be felt on account of the waning of the living forest.* The world's fuel is all provided in our coal-fields, we are told, for a tlioiosand thousand years to come. So that the peat deposits may be spoken of as the manure-heap for the upland, as well as for being converted into upland itself. Dr. Hitch- cock's Geological Survey of the State, in or about the year 1837, reports but a few deposits in Esses, to wit: in Andover, 2,000 acres, 8 feet deep ; in Amesbury, 100 acres, 10 feet deep; in Methuen, 50 acres, 3 to G feet deep ; in Lynnfield, 100 to 200 acres, 10 to 12 feet deep ; and in Rowley, 500 acres, from 3 to 6 feet deep. This learned geologist informs us, indeed, that the " nearly 50 towns " of the State where he found peat, were '' by no means all in which he knew it to exist." How much more in the county was at that time known of, does not appear ; but later inquiries, and especially the statistics for 1860, have revealed the existence of peat and muck much more extensively. An a^mount little short of 14,000 acres of '^ fresh meadow " is returned by the selectmen of the * A few facts, derived from the statistics of the county, on the subject of our wood- lands, as collected by the selectmen of the towns, and returned to the Secretary of the Commonwealth, the present year (1860), lead to an astounding result. Thus, the whole number of acres of woodland in the county is 46,730, and the whole amount of wood growing upon the same is returned as 598,015 cords. The number of dweUing- houses in that county is 22,232, by the same returns. Allow the annual growth upo^n each acre of woodland to be two cords, which is near the amount ascertained by the late Commissioner, Henry Colman, and the yearly addition is 93,460 cords. Suppose six cords of wood to be consumed in each dwelling-house, only, and the quantity con- sumed for family use is 133,392 cords annually. The yearly growth, as above, viz : 93,460, cords, leaves the amount to be provided for, at 39,932 cords per year. At this rate, the wood growing, viz: 598,015 cords would last only 15 years. Should all the steam power in the county, in addition to this, make its draft upon the woodlands, everything would be swept from them in a short time, to say nothing of the other uses for wood and timber. It appears that the town authorities have estimated the quantity of standing wood at about twelve cords and a half per acre. It would undoubtedly bear to be doubled, or nearly so, and consequently the woods would continue to supply the families with fuel, in the absence of coal and aU other supplies from abroad, twice that length of time. As a drawback to this, however, it should not be forgotten that a vast many of the dwelling-houses contain more than one family; and again, there are but few families that do not consume more than six cords of wood per year, and many more than twice that amount. 316 several towns. At an average depth of six feet, this quantity would contain twenty-eight and one half million cords nearly, an amount sufficient to put 1,000 cords upon every acre of '* improved land" in the county. That a large part of these meadows is mud only, there can be no doubt. "■ I can shake an acre of it," said a farmer in speaking of the Georgetown meadows ; and the received opinion of its value will appear from the fact stated by him that " many farmers are in the habit of getting it out in the fall, exposing it to the action of the frost, and in spring of mixing it with stable manure, half and half, and it is then considered as good as the manure of cows." By far the larger part of our meadows, however, will, of course, remain meadows, and, under an improved husbandry, will become, as most of them are certainly capable of becom- ing, the very Goshens of the county. The Essex County's Transactions for 1845 contain a few remarks by the late Gardner B. Perry, D.D., of Groveland, too important to be forgotten, which may, with great propriety, find place here. " Your Committee would observe that it is their deep impression that one of the best efforts that the Essex County Agricultural Society could make, would be to secure a scientific and practical survey of the meadows of the county. In this way, great and important principles might be developed, much useless labor saved, many disappointments avoided, successful entei-prises accomplished with less expense, and the whole labor bestowed on this part of fiirming be followed by much more encour- aging reward. To give a single illustration : Some meadows in this county are flooded with water, which comes in the form of springs from the high lands in the vicinity, and can be easily drained by cutting ditches in the borders. " Others receive their waters from the springs rising up underneath, and require, therefore, a different process. " Many are simple basins, having a hard and impervious bottom. They hold the water which is rained upon them, and the little that runs in upon the surface of land around, as water runs into tubs from the roofs of buildings. " Some swamps, no doubt, are watered by a combination of all these sources. " Now, how obvious it is that in draining these swamps, a regard must be had to these circumstances ! And how few, comparatively, are as fully informed as would be good and profitable for them to be ! How could the Society do better than to investigate the subject, and inform the county ? A few hundred dollars laid out in such a survey would be followed by manifold more advantages than all the premiums that are likely to be given on reclaimed lands for many j'ears." Much meadow land is apparently irreclaimable, for want of 317 a sufficient inclination of surface. This is the case along the banks of Ipswich River, on some parts of which the meadows are extensive. In some cases meadows remote from a fall are subject to flowage, and this sometimes occurs where the owner is controlled in his draining operations by the owners below. In such cases a remedy should be provided by law. Mill privileges indeed, granted by law, are to be respected and held sacred ; but a lazy owner of a bog meadow should be compelled to drain his own lands for the good of others, just as the owmer of a city house is made to clear the snow from the sidewalks, ^ro bono jniblico. The best of land is now lying in our partly submerged meadows, and, after draining, the expense of putting it into a garden state is very small. The carting on of a few loads of soil or loam, or, as some say, even sand and gravel, yearly, in winter, is all that seems absolutely necessary. " I have never seen any garden-spots more productive/' says the late vener- able Temple Cutler, of Hamilton, " bearing the drought better than upland, and good, even in wet seasons, for vines or roots for culinary purposes." With regard to peat and meadow mud generally as a manure, it is important to observe that when it has been recently taken from the meadow and spread freely upon the soil, it often acts badly, and is said to be sour. An easy and convenient test, in order to ascertain the presence of acid matter, is to dip litmus paper into a solution of it ; if the paper is colored red, it shows that the peat or muck is sour.-- It may also be ascer- * This method of detecthig the acid of muck will occasion a smile among the scien- tific chemists, and makes feeble war upon the theory that an analysis of a soil would require " several months." The writer of this essay would yield to no one in respect for scientific chemistry; but at the same time would not hesitate to advise every farmer dealing at all with meadow mud to use the litmus paper for the purpose of ascertaining whether his deposit of muck was impregnated with acid or not. A mem- ber of the State Legislature, a few years since, requested one of the most distinguished chemists in Boston to instruct him how to analyze soil. " I will," was the answer, " but it will require an apparatus that wiU cost you $2,000. Upon these terms, of course, no practical man will be much the wiser. But by the method recommended by Dr. Dana, and approved by Dr. Hitchcock, very much is within the reach of every farmer which it is of great importance for him to know. 318 tamed by the appearance of the stones thrown out of the bogs. Dr. Jackson says, " that all those matters which acid would attack and dissolve in the bog rocks, are found to have been removed ; every trace of feldspar and mica are found to be dis- solved from a piece of granite, and a white silicious skeleton of the stone remains." In all such cases, the peat or muck requires long exposure to the action of the atmosphere, or, if needed for immediate use, the mass should be saturated with alkalies, so as to neutralize the acid. The precise amount of potash or other alkali cannot be specified with exactness. Till the acid and all noxious salts are destroyed, meadow mud cannot be profitably or even safely used as a manure. Before leaving this interesting topic it Avill be proper to review the ^opinions of Dr. Perry and of Mr. Cutler as ex- pressed on a foregoing page relative to the value of meadow land for cultivation. The Reports of the Essex Agricultural Society,from or about the year 1831 to the present time, show conclusively that improved meadows have succeeded admira- bly/or a time, and the Society has paid large premiums for improvements, yet they do not, as indeed they could not, reveal the subsequent history of the meadows upon which the experiments were made. Recent inquiries have led the writer of this essay to question the ^^ermanency of most of the sup- posed improvements. Premiums were awarded for improve- ments made, among others, upon meadows in Lynnfield in 1832, Topsfield in 1838, Wenham in 1850, Methuen in 18—, Salisbury in 1837, Lynn in 1837, in '39, and '55, Saugus in 1838, Lynnfield in 1838, Danvers in 1839 and 1852, Ipswich 1850, Boxford, 1851, Marblehead in 1851, Salem, 1852, Rowley, 1855, West Boxford, 1857.* What is the present state of these meadows ? Those of the number recently " improved " have not yet had time to develop themselves. Of all the oth- ers, with perhaps one or two exceptions, there is much com- plaint ; and although it is not an agreeable ofiice to attack a popular sentiment, one that has itself become almost an insti- * The Reports of the Society from 1841 to 1850 are not at hand, and the premiums for that time are here omitted. 319 tution, it is really time to inquire whether there is not some latent fallacy running through the whole idea of improving all bog meadows indiscriminately. The finger of philosophy point- ed long and earnestly in the direction of muck deposits as the great panacea for our hungry fields, and they have no doubt furnished the absorbent for barnyard manures from time immemorial. As long ago, however, as 1750, the attention of farmers began to be turned in another direction, viz : that of cultivating the deposit itself. Bishop's meadow in Danvers was ploughed about that time, says Mr. Wm. R. Putnam, in his valuable report made in 1857. " And for some time," says he, " it yielded large crops." It is true that some of these mead- ows now owned by George Peabody, and upon which " large quantities of gravel had been spread," and which have, no doubt, received such attention as none but rich capitalists are able to bestow, although reclaimed " more than 40 years ago, continue to produce large crops of hay." This, however, appears to be the exception and not the rule ; and Mr. Putnam himself says, " If we cannot drain the stagnant water from the meadow, it is not desirable to attempt to reclaim it." Most meadows, it is believed, are in this situation, that is, incapable of drainage without great expense. But what seems to have been nature's design in storing away these rich deposits? Analogy answers at once, that they might be diffused as the wants of man require. Why were the world's primeval forests made into coal and laid away? Not to be burned in the mine, certainly; and it would be hardly less absurd to talk of appro- priating all the wealth of the muck-bed where it lies. Scien- tific Agriculturists seem to have thought of no other use for the wealth of the muck-bed than to apply it to upland soils. *' I am convinced," says Dr. Hitchcock, " from all I have seen, and heard, that Massachusetts contains enough of this geine and vegetable fibre in her swamps to render all her fields fer- tile for centuries." Mr. Alonzo Gray, a distinguished chemist, now deceased, says: " These unimprovable lands, as they are styled, contain manure enough in some sections to cover all our tilled lands 320 a foot deep ; manure enough to render every acre of the soil as fertile as the prairies of the West ; manure enough to raise two tons of hay to grow, where now grows but one, and an equal increase in all the other productions of the farm," No intimation is here given that improvement of the meadows for cultivation was even contemplated. What has experience taught upon this subject in Essex County ? Mr. W. R. Putnam, above quoted, says of Bishop's meadow, which was reclaimed, '^ for some time it yielded large crops." The Committee of the Society in 1850, in speaking of Mr. Locke's meadow, intimate the early decline of it by saying : " This being the third crop of hay since the land Avas reclaimed, the quality probably was not quite so good as the other two years ; some natural grasses were mixed with the English," — that is, it was better the first and second year than the third. The Society's Committee for 1853, though somewhat san- guine in favor of reclaiming meadows, when speaking of the importance of thoroughness in spreading gravel and other materials from the upland upon^ the surface of the meadow^ say, so much must be put on as will " forever remove the meadow character of the land," for the reason that '' we have more than once seen meadows pretended to be reclaimed, that would not stay reclaimed." It is instructive to notice the change in public opinion which has taken place since the County Society commenced its system of encouraging improvements in meadows. The above extracts show something of it ; but the following ex- tracts from letters of very recent date, from distinguished farmers and others in the county, are outspoken, and may prove of great value. From Mr. B. F. Newhall, of Saugus : — " My neighbor and townsman, Jonathan Newhall, has just put into my hands a letter from you, inquiring about some reclaimed meadow lands, and wishing me to answer it for him. I am well acquainted with the lands to which you refer, and with all that has been done upon them, and will proceed to give you their history as they have received my observation. " The land of T. H. Brown was three or foiir acres of boggy swamp, on which I 321 formerly was a hea\7- growth of wood. Tlie bog of this swamp is of great depth, and filled with fallen logs. Brown lowered the water, and cut up and burned the hassocks and rubbish. He took out, also, when doing it, a great many cords of logs. He spent upon this piece of land a large amount of hard labor, and increased the debt upon his small farm about $1,000, in doing it. He teamed upon it a large amount of gravel and sand, and prepared it every way in the most approved man- ner. For two or three years it did tolerably well, but did not any year come up to the average of tillage land. It suffered fi-om drought much more than any other land. Since he has died, it has not had much done to it, and it has gone back so that it yields but little grass, and that very poor. From the best observation I can make, I pronounce it a failure. It has never half paid its cost. Its value now must be small." " The next is William Osborn's. This I know all about. About 1835 to 1838, I bought ten acres of swamp on which was a heavy growth of hackmatack. I cut the wood off, and sold Wm. Osborn about three acres to experiment upon. This was also a deep bog, full of decaying wood. The bog is of great depth, perhaps thirty feet. Osborn drained off the water, tore up the stumps, burned the hassocks, and spent upon it a large amount of labor. This for a year or two promised toler- ably well, but it soon began to fail. The drought pinched very badly. Osborn owns it yet, and has continued to do a good deal upon it, but it is poor land for anything, and that is the best that can be said of that. I pronounce this an equal failure with Brown's. It has never half paid for the labor upon it." " I have also another case in point which was never reported : — " Joshua Howard of Saugus bought of me two acres of the same lot which I sold to Osborn. Howard spent thereon a large amount of hired labor, and put the land in as good order as it could be. The result is the same as in the case of Osborn and Brown. After six or eight j-ears of trial, Howard gav'e it up, and sold it. Since that time it has been neglected, and is now nothing better than a boggy swamp." " I have also another case of somewhat different land. I refer to the farm in Lynn, formerly owned by Temple Cutler. Orin Daliymple bought this farm, and upon it was about twenty acres of meadow. This meadow had a soil about three feet deep upon clay bottom. Dalrymple drained tliis meadow, and put upon it a large amount of sand and gravel. No pains or expense was spared to put this land into the best state of cultivation possible. While Dalrymple owned it and put upon it an almost unlimited amount of expense, it yielded a large quantity of grass. Dal- rymple sold it at high water, and since that time it has run down, so that now its yield is small, and poor grass at that. My own observation has satisfied me in this case, that it cost a great deal more than it was worth. I think it to )je a general truth, that all reclaimed meadows have cost more than they have come to. This is true as far as my observation goes." Room can be made for only one opinion more, that of Mr. John Keely, of Haverhill. " I have regarded our numerous lowlands as nuisances to be abated, and as fur- nishing the means for obtaining large products of grass, and also for enriching our tip- lands. In ages gone by, I have considered them as ponds or pools which have been gradually filled up by the accumulation of the finer parts of the surrounding soil. 322 carried down by rain stonns (and possibly more convulsive causes), in a turbid state, and left by the clear water, as it found its outlet, until tliey have come to the level, or nearly ?o, of the outlet. K now at this point the mind reverts to what you liave very properly introduced into your theory, namely, the providential design of this gradual, but sure result of natural causes, I have thought it might fix upon three : first, that by thus changing these pools of standing water into mud deposits, the at- mosphere might become more pure, and better adapted to the condition of man. But in order to secure this result, man must co-operate with the great Designer. These lands must be drained, and the remaining stagnant water earned off. Here a second providential design might be traced, namely, a new field for cultivation in the midst of our long-worn lands, particularly adapted to produce large crops of grass ; not, indeed, as some have unwan-antably supposed without further cultivation, but with much less of either manure or labor than other lands would require. " Then as the third point in the design of Providence, I should put what I under- stand you to consider as the principal design, namely, that these deposits should furnish the means of enriching our uplands. Inclining as I do at present to the above view, you will readily infer that I should limit the use of these deposits to such parts as could be removed without reducing them to their former condition as stagnant pools or marshes. All the mud from the ditches, together with a large part of the surface near the outlet, and in some cases all the surface to a considerable depth, might thus be used, either to take first to the manure yards and cellars, or directly to the uplands, to be mixed with the soil in quantities so large as to entu-ely change the pre\-ious character. I have often thought that much labor might be prof- itably employed in thus mixing soils : clay or marl with sand, and sand with clay ; mud with gravel, and gravel with mud, &c." "Mr. Bradly's meadow in Methuen, in regard to which I presented a report to our Trustees at theh' last meeting, will present a striking illustration of these three views. It is only a few rods from his house, and the family believe that they live in a pure atmosphere ; there is a new mowing field of vast productiveness for many years at least ; and he is carrying on the manufactoiy of manure, on so magnificent a scale as to insure the very speedy enriching of all other parts of his farm." This topic, however, is too important to be disposed of hastily. There are objections to the theory of appropriating the whole mass of meadow deposits for the purpose of manure ; not the least of which is, that the reservoir contain- ing the msiSSjivhen exJiausted, would remain a receptacle of standing water, being, when deep, incapable of drainage. Yet truly, with the facts above stated of almost universal failure even though the Agricultural societies smile benignantly upon almost every experiment, a still further and more far-reaching examination of the subject seems to be demanded. I am re- luctantly compelled to omit the promised letter of Mr. Howe of Methuen on this topic, and with a quotation of some length 323 from a letter written by Mr. C. P. Preston, of Danvers, present Secretary of the County Agricultural Society, with a few remarks additional, the subject will be dismissed, " K we were obliged to convert the meadows to but one purpose, or, in otlier words, if we had not a choice in the matter, either to ditch, reclaim, and cultivate them wliere they are, or remove them to the uplands, there to enrich and fructify those lands, then we might hesitate long in the answer that should be given as to the better mode. Maiiy fanners have meadows that are too shallow to yield much muck ; those, of course, they will reclaim and convert into the most productive of grass lands. But others have meadows which are also de- posits of the best of muck. Is it not the correct policy in such cases to reclaim, render productive, and gather the crop, while at the same time the " removal of the deposits " may be going forward, enriching the remainder of the faiin ? And in many cases, a barter trade may be made between the two portions of the farm, viz : sand or loam from the upland spread on the meadows, and the muck wliich is thrown from the ditches taken in exchange to spread upon the upland." . . . The " barter trade " requires indeed that a portion of the meadows, it may be a larger one than the foregoing topic has contemplated, should be reclaimed and cultivated where these lands lie ; and may the day be distant when the voice of the early presidents and fathers of the county society shall be disregarded in this matter. The judicious reports of such committees as that in 1853, J. W. Procter, Esq. chairman, and many others, together with the brilliant and successful ex- periments of R. S. Rogers, Esq. and Mr. Page, in Danvers, Mr. Payson in Rowley, Dr. Merriam, in Topsfield, Mr. Ware, in Marblehead, with numerous others, all still point in a direc- tion which shows that the public fancy at least, and perhaps its soberest thought, will finally settle down in favor of re- claiming meadows, and the " barter " consist in drawing a small but wet and heavy load from the meadow to the upland, and a large one back ; and if by this process the meadow will but " sta}^ reclaimed," so let it be. The constantly diminishing richness of our cultivated lands, those constantly cropped and inconstantly manured fields, has naturally turned the public eye to our most extensive meadows as the substitute. The finger of agricultural philos- ophy is pointing in that direction impressively. A specula- tion or two upon the topic of a dcejj and thorough draining 324 effected hj law may not be considered out of place. A move- ment commenced in the British Parliament, on this subject, some two years ago, and is still in progress. It may seem, and may prove hopeless to attempt to lighten the mortmain grasp of an English title. There is something of the nature of the '' everlasting hills " about it, and Avhen those hills shall bow, and then only, it may be said, can vested rights be in- vaded or innocently touched. But what are the lessons of history in relation to the flow- age of lands in Essex County ? Briefly, and this is all that can be properly said in a sketch like this, when the Pilgrim Fathers set foot on these shores, the two most pressing wants were houses to dwell in, and food to eat. The log-house and the pounded corn kept those alive who lived, but the sight of mill streams which had been running to w^aste since the be- ginning of the Avorld soon reminded them of grinding corn and sawing boards. Some of the earliest acts of the General Court were those granting mill privileges. Dams were built at every fall. The virgin acres of the upland fields were so much more than suflScient for the population, that loss by flow- age was thought, no doubt, to be the best of all losses. Ips. wich River, like many others, was probably considered really improved by the dams thrown across it, and made more "/aire and delightful," by covering " a most hideous swamp of large extent, even for many miles, being a great harbor for bears," {See Fell's History of Ipswich, page 36.) The query now arises whether changes in society may not some day occur which shall make water power unnecessary ? Is not steam power already unharnessing the horse and turn- ing him out to pasture ? Has it not long since commenced its triumphs on the ice-bound rivers of the New England States, driving the million wheels which would otherwise yield to the icy king for four months in the year ? Is there not something unnatural in the idea of even a vested right outlasting the need of that right ? What becomes of it in case of a milldam where the river has ceased to run at all, as is already in numerous instances the case ? Or of what value 325 IS that dam to the owner, when other power can be brought in to drive machinery so much cheaper and better that the water is not wanted for any such purpose ? A change like this, draining the 13,400 acres of fresh meadow, at pres- ent known, because sometimes out of water, and also drain- ing the balance under water, rarely seen, and never measured, — what an addition to the agricultural wealth of Essex County! These meadows now yield 10,000 tons a year. But drainage would probably double the acres, and treble the price. What may be the result of the long controversy respecting fiowage on the Concord and other rivers can hardly yet be foreseen, but eventually the meadows, it is believed, will he drained, and nobody hurt by it. Effect of Geological Foemations on Vegetable Peoducts. It is a well-known fact that wheat was once a profitable crop in Massachusetts, and, it is believed, in this county ; and it is equally Avell known that while a few districts seem still favor- able to its growth, yet it cannot be generally raised on our soils. The operation of the law offering a bounty on wheat, resulted, for the most part, in luxuriant crops of straw I Dr. Jackson has remarked that it was interesting to the geologist and chemist to observe, during the operation of that law, in what particular districts the wheat crop did not prove suc- cessful, and important hints were derived from those obser- vations. It is a question of considerable practical impor- tance, as he well remarks, to know, by carefully conducted experiments, whether our granite soils can be so improved as to render them capable of bearing good crops of this most important grain again, without unreasonable expense. But there is one other question well deserving the atten- tion of both the scholar and the farmer, first suggested to the mind of the writer by the new President and Ex-Secretary of the County Agricultural Society (Mr. A. H. Dodge), which is, 326 whether a knowledge of the rodi, formations will enable us to determine lohat kinds of croj)S are best adapted to a given local- ity? As, for example, if scientific analysis has shown that in order to the successful cultivation of a given grain, all the fixed elements found in the grain and the straw must pre- viously exist in the minerals constituting the substantial basis of the soil, — then it would seem that little else was nec- essary than to analyze the mineral basis of the various soils, and the products which the climate would indicate as being adapted to a given district, and adapt the crop accordingly. Practically, one difficulty presents itself, which is formidable, namely, the effect of cultivation, arising from the peculiar style of farming heretofore practised, and the great variety of manures heretofore used, by means of which the soil itself may have been modified largely, must have been modified some- what. Besides this, it is suggested by the chemists, that it often happens that certain soils contain too small a proportion of the most important elements, to furnish, for a length of time, the inorganic constituents of the specific crops which the farmer wishes to cultivate. In such a case it is obvious, that how- ever well a given product might do in a given locality, for a time, yet, when exhausted of that particular mineral element upon which the plant largely depended, the crop would grad- ually diminish, whatever else was done to the soil short of restoring the indispensable ingredient. The difficulty of determining the question raised by the learned President of the Society, would be greatly diminished in a district where the soil was wholly uncultivated, as in the virgin soils of the West. But even in the long cultivated fields of Essex, it may not be without its use to inquire what, and how much, the various farm products are now yielding in the different parts of the county, in connection ivith the geolog- ical formations of the same localities. Dr. Hitchcock, State Geologist in 1837, laid down the parent rock of Amesbury upon his geological map as being mica slate. This mineral is described as follows : " One of the older primary rocks ; it produces a soil of medium qual- 327 ity. Some varieties of it underlie tracts of superior excel- lence." The agricultural products in that town in ISSS''^' yielded cash values as follows, viz : — • Wheat 10 bushels to the acre. Value, $20 00 per acre. Rye 10 " " " 1100 " Barley 18 " " " 14 00 " Oats 25 " " " 10 86 " Potatoes 75 " " " 87 70 " Onions 200 " " " 100 00 " Beets and other esculents 50 00 " Carrots 350 " " " 87 50 " Indian corn 25 " " " 25 00 " Andover lies upon a foundation of gneiss, anotlier of the primary rocks. Dr. Hitchcock's description of its agricul- tural uses, is substantially as follows, viz : " Gneiss, which differs from granite only in having a slaty structure, occupies more of the surface of the State than any other rock. Tiie soil resulting from the decomposition of gneiss need not be mistaken by an experienced eye. Its predominant ingredient is a rather fine whitish sand. The appearance of the soil from gneiss indicates uncommon poverty and sterility. But facts do not correspond to this anticipation, for in no part of the State (Massachusetts) do we find finer-looking farms, or the appearance of more thrift and independence, than in the region where gneiss prevails." The agricultural products of Andover, having a soil lying upon this mineral, yielded in the same year (1855) cash values, as follows, viz : — Indian com 35 bushels per acre Wheat 23^ " " Kye 13 " " Barley 20 " " Oats 22 " " Potatoes 100 " " Turnips 400 " " Carrots 400 " " Beets and other esculents .... Onions 400 " " $35 00 per acrc- 46 88 ' 16 25 c 20 00 ' 13 00 < 100 00 1 100 00 ' 112 50 i 160 00 ' 200 00 ' * See Industn.' of Massachusetts for 1855, published by order of the Legislature. 328 Beverly. The parent rock is sienite. It is intermediate in its char- acters between greenstone and granite, although most com- monly it is only a variety of granite. The soil is generally of a superior quality, probably from the fact that most of it must have been derived from decomposed vegetable and animal matter. It is usually of a dark color and fine texture. The principal agricultural products in 1855 yielded a cash value, as follows, viz : — laclian com 33 bushels per acre $33 00 per acre Wheat 20 Rye 20 Barley 18 Oats 20 Potatoes 70 Onions 400 Turnips 400 Carrots 400 30 00 26 60 18 00 10 00 70 00 200 00 80 00 80 00 In contrast with Amesbury, first above named, may now be compared another town of the same geological formation, viz: Bradford. Bradford produces 35 bush, of corn per acre as often as Amesbury does 25 bush. li 20 25 40 100 300 300 wheat rye barley oats potatoes onions caiTOts 10 10 18 25 75 200 350 There being no other town in the county having a geolog- ical formation wholly of gneiss, as laid down on the map, with which t.o compare that of Andover, except its adjoining neighbor, North Andover, — that town in this comparison, is omitted, and the next in order is Beverly, having a sienite foundation; — this is now put in contrast with Hamilton, also of sienite. 329 Beverly produces 33 bush, of Indian corn per acre, while Hamilton has 40 bush. 20 rye " " " 15 18 ' barley " " " 20 20 ' oats " " 20 70 ' potatoes " " 80 400 ' onions " " 300 400 ' carrots " " 600 Here, then, it is seen that the same geological basis pro- cures different results. Much of the apparent difference may proceed from the diflSculty of obtaining the actual amount of products, where all is left to the judgment of the producer, subject only to the judgment of the officers of the towns, nothing having been weighed or carefully measured, as a gen- eral thing, the difference in the modes of farming and use of manures also coming in, as before mentioned. Upon the question, therefore, started by Mr. Dodge, it is not easy to pronounce. Further information is needed. Some light has been thrown upon the subject by Mr. Tracy, of Lynn, of very great value. Mr. J. M. Ives, of Salem, has communicated the following upon this interesting topic, which is too valuable to be omitted. " You ask, ' How far the varieties of trees gi'o^ving spontaneously are affected by the geological structure of the soil 1 ' My friend, ^Ir. Tracy, of Lynn, in the intro- duction to his small work on the ' Studies of the Essex Flora,' says, ' The chemist avers that to cultivate any crop successfully in the field, a studied adaptation of the soil to the particular plant in view must ever be made. The converse of this rule would indicate that special characters existing naturally in a soil should give con-espoudiug differences in the kind and style of vegetation which it produces. If I wished for an illustration of this idea, I could hardly find a better case than appears in two formations, viz : In passing through Lynn Woods, it is not difficult to detect, even with small experience, the exact line of junction of the granite and porphyi-y within a few rods, by the style of vegetation alone. A few examples will make this more definite. On the rocky pasture hills that overlook the city of Lynn, the barbeny starts in unrestrained abundance, the privet adorns whole acres in early summer with its clusters of snowy white flowers, and the pitch pine and red cedar assert their right to the land with the vigor of feudal barons. \Vlicn we pass north- ward over this natural mark, the privet disappears almost entirely, the barbeiTy becomes the exception instead of the rule, the cedars are scarce, and the multitudes of pitch pines are only represented by a few stragglers. To replace them, how- ever, the beech (of which only two specimens grow on the porphyiy to my knowl- edge, and these I suppose to be artificially located,) starts up at once almost on 330 the veiy boundary, and stretches away from thence in vigorous condition towards the woods of Lynnfield. The chestnut ventures down into the north of Saugus with commendable strength, but cannot cross the enchanted line witliout the help of man, and in cultivation grows slowly and timidly, as if it were ill at ease. More remarkable than either, the black larch or hackmatack, which I venture to say is unknown as a native south of the granite section, is found within fifty rods of its margin." Changes and Improvements in Farming. It is hazardous to speak of improvements, lest the changes of to-day should be exploded to-morrow. A shrewd writer in the County Society's Transactions for 1855, remarks that "agri- culture, like everything else under the sway of humanity, is subject to a change of fashions, or, rather, notions. When the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture was in the vigor of its youth, (as we are informed by that Nestor of Massachusetts farmers, the Hon. Josiah Quincy,) the great criterion of a good farmer was the making of good cider, and the process of making it was one of the most studied and elaborate of all subjects of the farmer's attention ; and, in point of complexity, length, and minuteness of care and preparation, was but little inferior to the making of glass, porcelain, or Java china." '' Where," says the writer, " are cider-presses now? " This was a short five years ago ; and yet the question, then so pointed, is fast becoming iDointUss. A method has been discovered of procuring " excellent cham- pagne " from common cider, so that only the wine-taster can tell the difference. Other matters have come dancing on to the stage, since Mr. Quincy wrote the above, probably, like China Tree Corn, Rohan Potatoes, Gama Grass, Morus Multi- caulis, and Chinese Sorgho, and have danced off again, a good- natured public paying the bills. The readiness with which the Hen fever was taken shows that the end of changes, or even humbugs, is not " hy and by, ^' and perhaps it will not have been without its use, if it should break the force of the ste- reotyped slander, that farmers are the last men to alter, for no 331 grandfather ever allowed himself to be so frequently hum- bugged as we the grandchildren have been. Had the statistics of 1860 been as full as those of 1845 and 1855, they would have possessed a value almost beyond expression, as showing the changes constantly being effected. As it is, a comparison can only be made between the years 1845 and 1855. During that decade, the operations of the dairy were greatly varied, and the making of butter and cheese was restricted in many cases to the amount required for family use. The rapid increase of population in Glouces- ter, Lawrence, Newburyport, and very many other manufac- turing villages raised the demand for milk.* The quantity returned by the officers in 1845, was 261,744 quarts; in 1855^ it was 1,811,936 quarts, being an excess of over fifteen hun- dred thousand quarts. The price also advanced from three cents seven mills per quart in 1845, to five cents two mills in 1855. The number of milch cows in 1855 was 11,799, but as the number was not returned in 1845, except as included with " neat cattle " generally, the increase cannot be known. From 1855 to 1860, there was an increase of 1,441 milch cows in the county, the number in '55 being 11,799, and in the present year 13,240. It can hardly be doubted that this change will be permanent. Orchards. The number of apple-trees cultivated for their fruit in 1855 was returned at 239,127, but back or forward of that year, we are unable by the statistics to go. Upon an average, this number would give 88 to each farm. But the trees upon some farms are counted by the thousand, while very many iu- closures, not taking the name of /arm, are filled with the choicest of fruit. Pear culture also receives a good share of attention. In 1855, the number then in cultivation was 27,023. The value of the apples for the same year was esti- * J. W. Procter, Esq. gives it as his opinion, that more than one half of the milk in the county is diverted from its usual channel and sold at market. 332 mated to be $160,905; and of the pears, $12,227. Essex is believed to stand upon a proud pre-eminence, in her fruits and flowers, particularly. As long ago as 1838, Mr. Manning, of Salem, exhibited no less than thirty-two distinct kinds of pears, which had then fruited for the first time in the county, and six kinds of apples wholly new to the county. In two years more Mr. Manning's list of distinct varieties of apples and pears had grown to fifty-four. Meanwhile others had caught the idea, and were carrying it out in all directions. The en- thusiastic Mr. Ives, of Salem, electrified the county, as well by his admirable annual Reports made to the Agricultural Society for a series of years, as by his ardent and instructive descriptions at the head of the Fruit Department of the Show, — the fruits themselves being always arranged by himself or under his supervision. In his Report of 1838, while he in- forms us that he himself had that very year fruited no less than ten varieties of pear, and among them the true Capian- mont of Van Mons, for the first time, and also, six kinds of apples, nearly all of southern origin, he also lectures his brother farmers in the following style : " Although efforts have been made by several individuals to introduce choice va- rieties of fruit, still there is a lamentable negligence in many towns, of this important culture. The sixteenth part of an acre of ground appropriated to a nursery, would afibrd stocks for all the most desirable kinds of fruit that flourish well in this region." Appeals of this kind from year to year have not been wasted, but, in numerous cases, have fallen like good seed into good soil, and have sprung up and borne fruit, thirty, sixty, and an hundred-fold. As the beginning and progress of fruit culture afi"ords an important comment on the importance of associated efi'orts for the public good, it may be well to remark, that no special notice seems to have been taken by the Agricultural Society of the county, of fruits and flowers, as a distinct department, until their annual Report in 1836. Dr. Andrew Nichols in that year reported '' per order," as follows : '' That there was but little exhibited, and that little, in more productive 333 seasons, would not have been deemed extraordinary." Four persons, only, received gratuities. These were for " pound sugar pears, mammoth jpippins, peaches, and apples, pears, &c." In 1837, the Committee, Messrs. Fox, Perry, and Duncan, say, " a greater variety of fruit was presented than on any former exhibition." They proceed to name '' most if not all the specimens." Mr. Manning and Mr, Ives exhibit each tlwee varieties of pear ; Mr, Ives, three kinds of apple ; Mr. Andrew Dodge, ^' two kinds of apple ; " Mr. Wallis, " garden apples," and Mr. Lander, '' fine apples." Mr Lander also exhibited '' fine specimens of pears," and Mr. French " a basket of superior Bartlett Pears," This is all reported in 1837. It was in the year following, that Mr. Ives made his first Report above mentioned, when Mr. Manning pro- duced his thirty-two kinds of pears, &c. The Society now received an impulse which it has never lost or allowed to flag; so that in 1857, the Committee report "Nine hundred and twenty-one baskets and plates from 204 contributors ; " and in 1859, the Committee declared it to be " equal, if not superior to that of any previous year." The evidence of great advance in fruit culture, however, derived from the tables at the show, is not of the highest kind. The numer- ous acres of orcharding of all kinds of fruit, returned by town selectmen, is of itself presumptive proof of a great advance upon the time when the Roxbury Russet was the only grafted fruit in Massachusetts, and but very little of that. This subject is so well treated by Mr. C. P. Preston, of Danvei's, in a letter of Nov. 5, 1860, that no apology is neces- sary for its insertion. " I cannot forbear, after the very Icind invitation yon have given me, to say a few words in favor of the very material advances since my recollection, in one branch intimately connected with the fann, viz : the cultivation of fruits, and particularly the apple. This branch, it seems to me, has been piu'sued of late with much more system and success than formerly. And, indeed, I know of nothing connected with the farm in which greater advances have been made in the right direction, than in the cultivation of the apple. To make this plain, I will state a fact within my own knowledge. In my neighborhood, I think witliin forty years, but two farmers raised grafted fruit, which they picked by hand, possibly 200 baiTcls. Others had more or less of natural fruit, mth possibly two or three grafted trees. Now, within 3 334 the range of a square mile of tliis, in a bearing season, there are picked some 2,500 to 3,000 barrels of apples, worth say $1.50 per barrel. At the date first spoken of, the Russet Pearmain was almost the sole variety raised. Now, as you arc aware, there are some ten varieties of standard apples. The trees, even from the seed, are raised, by good orchardists, with extreme care, and pushed into a vigorous growth by means of the best cultivation and manures, the choicest spots on the farm being selected for the orchard, and with reason, for it has passed into a proverb amongst the people, that the orchard yields the greatest income, with the least labor, of any portion of the farm." The remainder of this interesting letter is omitted Avith regret, for want of room. Nurseries. As a most valuable addition to what has been said above of the subject of fruits, the two letters that here follow give a somewhat connected history of nursery operations in Essex. The reputation of the w^riters will secure for them an atten- tive reading. The first extract is from a communication of Mr. John M. Ives, of Salem. " The first sale of trees offered here was by George Heussler, the gardener of E. Hasket Derby, Sen., of Danvers. In 1790, he advertised that he had, at this garden, ' a very extensive nursery of useful plants and trees.' Mr. Derby's son, soon after this, began to raise trees, which he offered for sale on his grounds in South Fields, Salem. In 1822, Robert Manning commenced, on his grounds in North Salem. He was one of the best pomologists of the day, particularly in his knowledge of the varieties of pears. He was succeeded by his son. Their prem- ises contained, at least, 2,000 varieties of fruit. Of these were 1,200 pears, 400 apples, 200 plums, 100 peach. In 1831, Mr. John C. Lee, at his grounds in North Salem, sold ornamental trees. In 1836, John M. Ives commenced the cultivation of fruit trees, and in connection with this was agent for the sale of trees and plants, from the Linnean garden of Wm. Prince & Son, of Flushing, L. I. In 1841, Chas. F. Putnam commenced a nursery of fruit trees and plants in North Salem, and in connection with his brother Francis, cultivated the strawberry, rose, and peony. Their stock of roses and peonies was very extensive. This nursery is still con- tinued. Ephraim Wood, of North Salem, has a nursery of the apple, pear, and cherry, which still continues. Joseph Needham, of South Danvers, near the line of the Georgetown Eailroad, has thirty-eight acres of land devoted to the cultivation of the apple, strawbeny, and the smaller fruits. Nathan Page, Jr., of Danvers, at the Plains (near the famous and ancient Endicott Pear tree), has a young and thrifty nursery of pears, and extensive beds of strawberries, where all the reliable kinds of native and foreign varieties may be seen. Sam'l C. Pitman has also a nm-sery of forest, ornamental, and fruit trees in Swampscot. 335 "In addition to the above, I would say that there are many forcing-houses as well as green-houses in Salem, wliere plants are propagated and sold annually. The grounds of Mr. Rodgers, who has been for many years experimenting on the cul- ture of the grape, and also the extensive fruit-houses of I. F. Allen, arc well worth one's visit. These two gentlemen arc endeavoring to obtain, by hybridizing, a hardy out-door grape, which will ripen in our country. Mr. llodgers has from forty to fifty distinct varieties. His Nos. 19, 15, and 22 were examined at our last show, and were pronounced good. ( See our last Report. ) " Dr. Dean Robinson has kindly furnished the following in- formation: — " The first who commenced nurseries in West Newbury were Joshua and Moody Drdway in 1828- They entered into the business quite largely and with good success. Their nurseries, I believe, have been reported in the Transactions of the Essex Agri- cultural Society. Joshua sold his interest in West Newbury and left the town and the business. Moody has continued steadily and successfully at his Garrison Nurseries. Soon after the Messrs. Ordway commenced, Mr. George Thurlow went into the busi- ness quite largelj"-, selecting his best nursery trees to set upon his own farm, and sell- ing largely. He has an orchard of more than five thousand ingrafted trees, nearly all Baldwins. Three fourths are now in bearing condition. He set between his apple- trees some hundred peach-trees, which proved of no use. All are removed. He also went largely into cherries, which I judge has proved an unsuccessful enterprise. The trees, like others in the vicinity, are fast going out. Mr. Thurlow has a large farm, requiring all his time, and has quit the nursery business. He has a flock of fine Leceistcr ewes, which are fed in the orchard, which is now in bearing state. In the other orchard he lets his swine nin. His only son, Thomas C. Ordway, has entered into the niirsery business on a l^ge scale. He seems fully com}:)etent, hav- ing been in the business in Illinois, and given much attention to it. He has now a lot of apple-trees two years on the bud, of a fine appearance, and others coming on. He has also a large lot of chen-y-trees, grape-vines, currants, &c. There are no other nurseries in West Newbury, and I believe none of any ac- count in Nowburyport, Newbury, Georgetown, Groveland, Amesbury, or Salisbury." Miscellaneous Improvements. Manures — Root Crops — Indian Corn — Farming Implements — Underdraining — Pasturage. In looking at the progress of farming in Essex County, dif- ferent minds, taking their views from different stand-points, arrive at different results. The following are a few of these results to which the writers have come, the same being fur- nished for this sketch by request. 336 Mr. J. W. Procter, of South Danvers, says : — " I should say that the greatest improvement I have witnessed in the general style of farming in our county, during the forty years I have been connected with our Society, was in the preservation and application of manures ; by care in collecting and composting materials for this purpose. When this is faithfully done, crops are readily doubled, even without going off the form for fertilizers. And when it is considered that, by due attention, ten inches of pulverized soil can be secured in the place of six ordinarily used, it is easy to account for the improved crops among our best cultivators. " The introduction of root crops for the feed of stock is a decided improvement. When I first viewed farms in company with our first President, Col. Pickering, it was rare to find a field of carrots ; now it is more rare to find a good farm on which there are none grown. Forty years ago, fifty bushels of Indian corn to the acre was considered a good crop ; now, no man should be satisfied with less than seventy or eighty bushels to the acre. Such, sir, are the first impressions suggested by your letter. If they are of any value, you can use them as you may think proper." Mr. A. W. Dodge, in speaking of the changes and improve- ments in farming within the last quarter of a century in this county, says : — 1. "The introduction and very general use of machinery for farm purposes, as the horse hoe or cultivator, horse rakes, horse mowers and threshers, by which a vast saving of time and money has been effected ; the great improvement, too, in all the usual farm tools has tended to the same result. 2. " Our farmers formerly raised nearly all the articles of consumption on the farm and in their families ; noto, they buy pore to bring home and sell more from the farm. The making of milk and raising vegetables for the market, in their neigh- borhoods have become a very general characteristic of our farming. As a conse- quence, less butter and cheese are now made in the county. 3. " The greatest improvement to be made in our farms is the renovation of our pastures for pasturage. They are fast deteriorating, and the prospect for the future in the way of sustaining neat stock in summer is very alarming. Hardly anything has been done in this direction, and the progress of the faihire is so gradual that it seems to attract little attention. If sheep culture is equivalent to pasture culture, give us sheep by all means." Mr. Wm. R, Putnam says : — " In answer to your inquiry respecting the improvements which have been made in farming within the last twenty-five years, I would mention, first, the greater atten- tion paid to preserving manure from exposure to the weather ; and by constructing barn cellars, more of the liquid manure is saved ; also, the greater amount of peat or muck used as an absorbent, and in the compost heap."* " The most marked feature in the way of agricultural improvement is/' in the opinion of another correspondent, " the introduction of the special culture of certain * Most of the other improvements mentioned by Mr. P. have akeady been described. 337 crops requiring great care and attention and more than ordinary skill in order to insure success. Such is the case with the onion crop and other roots, and herbs, which are very largely cultivated in Danvcrs and in Marljlehead. The lands are liberally manured and kept perfectly clean, and while yielding great crops, they are evidently improving in fei tility. A man who has but one or two articles which he raises for market, and who confines his attention entirely to them, is more likely to cultivate understandingly, than in the usual system of general husbandry. He soon learns whether he is making money or losing it ; whether the cultivation is profitable or otherwise. The labor and manure expended on a single acre of cab- bages is, on an average, not less than one hundred dollars, and a good crop, the inevitable result of the expenditure if accompanied with reasonable skill, pays a very handsome profit. Four to five thousand cabbages are not unfrequently grown upon an acre, for which there is always a ready market, at from six to ten dollars per hundred.* " The onion crop, until rendered uncertain by the maggot, has been a most profit- able crop in the towns before named. Indeed, it is almost impossible to credit the statements which are given upon this point, although coming from the most reliable sources. Here again we see the expenditure is veiy large in manure, eight or ten cords to the acre, which is worth five to six dollars per cord ; the labor in weeding alone is at the rate of thirty to forty dollars per acre, although labor- saving implements are fi-eely used, and yet a profit of from one to three hundred dollars per acre is the result. In the case now before my eye, t the winter makes out a much larger profit per acre than the largest sum I have named, and I have seen much larger profits shown than his." Lime and Ashes as a Manure. The scarcity of stable and barnyard manures, in connec- tion with the great amount of labor necessary for making, pre- paring, and using them, naturally leads to the inquiry for sub- stitutes. The two articles above named, if not the most common, are among those easily obtained, and require more examination. That Salts of Lime, or lime in some of its forms, are indis- pensable to successful vegetation, is too well settled to be doubted. What per cent of the carbonate, or sulphate, or phosphate, is to be found in the lime of commerce, does not appear. Indeed the lime of commerce itself, is not all of the * See Transactions Essex Agricultural Society, 1860, pp. 92, 93. t Franklin Alley's. See Transactions Essex Agricultui-al Society, 1859, p. 75. 338 same qualit}' in all respects. The magnesian lime is unfriend- ly to light and sandy soils. In well-authenticated cases, it has been found to set into a perfectly hard mass, owing to its hydraulic peculiarities, so that it has been taken out of the ground in a solid plate. Where soil is charged with de- composed vegetable matter in an acid state, alkaline correc- tives are the remedy. These may be obtained in the form of leached ashes, containing a large percentage of lime, as well as silicate of potash. The ashes absorb water easily, and, unlike the sandy soil, retain it well and give it out to vegetation grad- ually. The alkaline qualities neutralize the acid substances of the soil, and change inert vegetable matters into active ones, and insoluble matters into soluble ones, easily taken up by the rootlets of the plants, though useless until thus changed. There can be no doubt that many thousand acres of land in Essex County would be improved by the application of wood ashes alone. Even leeched ashes are of great value upon sandy soils. It is indeed upon soils of this kind exclusively, or chiefly, that alkalies are useful. Large tracts in Lawrence, Methuen, Hamilton, and elsewhere, demanding relief, answer fully to the description of lands in North Providence, R. I., to wit, '' sand and sandy loam." Yet upon the farm of William Rotch, in that State, although the analysis shows but 4.5 pounds of both soluble and insoluble vegetable matter, to wit, crenic and apocrenic acid, or, to adopt the appellation of Dr. Dana, " geine, the food of plants," (and the analysis of the above-named towns in Essex shows a much larger proportion, in the parts analyzed by Dr. Hitchcock, of the same elements,) yet the agricultural products in Essex fall far short of those in Rhode Island which are treated with alkalies. Thus the "■ soil and sandy loam " of the Rotch farm above named in 1839, where this sandy and gravelly soil had been amended principally by *' spent wood ashes," and manured with seven cords of manure to the acre, the yield was sixty-four and one- half bushels of Indian corn to the acre ; while it appears by the Massachusetts Statistics of Indilstry, that Lawrence pro- 339 duces out forty bushels to the acre ; Hamilton forty, and Methuen thirty-three bushels ; and it does not appear that the sand}^ parts of the latter towns are embraced in the returns. "■ Spent wood ashes/' says a letter communicated by Dr. Jack- son, the eminent geologist and chemist, " have been the prin- cipal manure used in amending the condition of light loams, and sandy, gravelly soils. On all these they are used to great advantage. Before leaving this topic, it may be remarked that it is only the bald and sandy parts of IpsAvich, upon High Street in the northerly part ot- he town, that are included in the description of '' sandy soils : " also, that it is only the gravelly and sandy portions of the other towns enumerated, tliat are included. Upon these portions as they are, the corn would fall far short of the amount specified. Some of the phenomena relating to the salts of lime, in agriculture, present difficulties to the practical and scientific farmer, to which it may not be unimportant to recur. Whence does the soil derive the salts of lime lohich it is annually supplying to tlie vegetable ivorld ? No one principle is better settled in agricultural science, than that some convertible salt of lime is essential to the fertility of soils. Nay, the theory of Davy and multitudes of others is, that certain crops cannot he raised upon a soil destitute of lime. If it is deficient in quantity, though present in fact, the crops dependent upon it are meagre or entirely worthless. The soil of Essex generally contains no carbonate of lime at all which could be detected by the analysis of Dr. Hitchcock. Three and one half per cent, of the sulphate of lime has been found, on analysis, in West Newbury, two per cent, in Bradford, one and a half in Methuen. In Marblehead 2.7 per cent, of sulphate ; that is, gypsum is found in Andover 1.6 per cent., in Gloucester 1.5, in Danvers 2.7, and a still smaller percentage of the phos- phate of lime in the same towns. Notwithstanding this slight amount of these salts of lime in the soil, the ashes of wheat invariably contain both the phosphate, which is found in the soil, and the carbonate, which is not ; the former being an es- sential element of grain itself; and the ashes of Indian corn 340 yielding no less then 36 per cent, of the phospliate of lime ! The question recurs with increasing interest, — From what magazine does the soil supply these indispensable elements ? And, as if to create still greater confusion in our ideas, it is suggested by an eminent geologist and chemist, Dr. Hitch- cock, that this calcareous matter is increasing in quantity upon the surface by some strange transfer " from the inferior to the superior strata," so that, even without artificial supplies, enough will continue to be furnished, except for those grains which, like wheat, require more than they find."^ It may not be necessary for our present purpose to investi- gate this subject further. The amount necessary for most crops, however minute, seems to be always present, and in the aggregate that quantity we should not call small, were it necessary to supply it artificially. An accurate calculator has shown, that the apparently insignificant proportion of one per cent, amounts, in a soil whose specific gravity is 1.6 to one pound in a cubic foot of soil, and 43,560 pounds to the acre, or 21.78 tons ; or if we allow the depth of tillage to be only six inches, there will be no less than 10 tons and 890 pounds. Some of the richest of soils have been found, by a most accurate analysis, to contain less than three per cent, of calcareous matter in the states of carbonate, phosphate, sul- phate, crenate, and apocrenate of lime. A rich, alluvial soil from the banks of the Mississippi, taken from a sugar plantation 100 miles above New Orleans, was found by Dr. Jackson to con- tain only 2.8 of the carbonate, phosphate, and crenate of lime, while the insoluble silicates, the mere granitic sand, amounted to 81.4 per cent; and only 2.02 per cent, of phosphate and crenate of lime could be found by Prof. Silliman, Jr., in a * Johnston, in his Agricultural Chemistry, page 196, in attempting to account for the existence of lime in the soil, remarks that " if M'e consider that when animals die, then- bones are chiefly buried in the earth, and that over the entire globe, animal life in one or other of its forms, prevails, we should not be surprised that, in almost every soil, the earth of bones should be found to exist iu greater or less abundance. Nor can we have any difficulty in conceiving, if such be the case, whence plants draw their constant and necessary supplies of this substance." This is reasonable, and, did it not conflict with Dr. Hitchcock's analysis, would seem satisfactory. 341 specimen of rich alluvium brought from the river Nile in Egypt by one of our missionaries. This should encourage the farmers of old Essex, for it appears that in the land of Egypt there is only one j^er cent, more, even of the p7ios_pIiate of lime, than was found here by Dr. Hitchcock, when making his survey, and that in a case when the same analysis detected two per cent, of the sulphate in addition. It may be regarded as the triumph of chemistry to have discovered the first grand desideratum in the soils of our country, even if it is yet unable to inform us how to supply it ; and a triumph of equal value to have discovered that the second desideratum is geine, the food of plants, and which is itself the crenic acid of Berze- lius, discovered by him in 1832, — a substance found prob- ably everywhere, but in smaller quantities than the farmer could wish. Sea Sand as a Manure. No inconsiderable source of agricultural wealth, it is be- lieved, will erelong be found to be lying along many portions of our sea coast. Immense quantities of beach sand are every year taken from Gloucester, Ipswich, Plum Island, and probably Beverly and Lynn, for mortar used in the lay- ing of brick and stone. But it is as a manure and absorbent of ammonia that it becomes important to the farmer, or rather as increasing the value of the common and better known ma- nures chiefly or wholly by its mechanical operation. The great objection to its use is the iveight of it. But it is one of nature's appliances, and deserves more attention. Its me- chanical operation is obvious. A great desideratum, if not the great one, is to pulverize the manures and the soil itself to such an extent that the rootlets may find the nourishment they re- quire at the time when it is required. Who has not noticed a field of Indian corn laboring through the early part of the sea- son, and, indeed, in a dry year quite too long for a good crop, merely because the manure had noiheQn forked over enough (to use the common expression), a laborious job always. The ad- 342 vantage of the sand will be better understood by a little reflec- tion upon the manner in which the plant appropriates to itself the food it requires. This act of appropriating is indeed an op- eration not to he seen, hut only helieved. It is expressed variously hj the chemists. Dr. Dana says, '^ the salts and earths form voltaic hatteries ivith the roots of groiuing plants, by which the 'granitic sand' is decomp)Osed, and the nascent earths, in this state readily soluble, are tahen up) hy the ahsorhents of the roots, ahvays a living, never a mechanical operation.'' That is to say, of course, the delivery of the nutriment on the part of the soil, and the reception of it on the part of the plant is the living op- eration, that operation which is. not open to the observation of bystanders, any more than growth can be witnessed in animal physiology. Dr. Nichols, in sj)eaking of this interesting top- ic, says, " a plant is like an infant, as respects the preparation of its food. It has no teeth to masticate, no salivary glands to pour out diluting fluids, to render digestible its rocky ali- ment, and yet it can receive it only in a liquid, soluble form. Its mouths are microscopic, and nothing, not minutely subdi- vided, can pass their portals." ' These considerations will aid in understanding the use of sea sand in connection with manures and soils, but especially the former. The common method is to draAV manures from the barn- yards in autumn, pack them in the field, and in the spring to lay the new-made winter manure, from the barn windows or barn cellar, by the side of the former, — to work both kinds over and bring them into one heap or string. After this work- ing over and mixing of new and old, the mass is left to fer- ment, if it will, and is then put out on the hills with a shovel. It is even now but too often in a state most unsuitable for being taken up by the fibres of the plant. The land may be rich in carbonates and geine, but neither the soil nor ma- nure is in a condition to be used by the plant. Had river or sea sand been used liberally in the manufacture of manure, it is obvious that in point of fineness it would have been most unlike the coarse dung from the yard. Then, also, the freest use may be made of the sand for cattle bedding, from the time 343 of their coming to the barn in autumn till they leave it for the pasture in spring. For this purpose, it should be drawn from the beach in summer or autumn, in season for drying, and thrown daily upon the cattle beds, so as to mix at once with the manure. Farmers adopt different methods for using sand. It is sometimes laid over the entire barnyard, after being cleared, to remain a year, when it comes out with the mass which has accumulated above it, and goes with it to the field. The mix- ing by the time it is needed for use is sufficiently perfect, and the rootlets pass through the sanded manure with the great- est facility. It is also frequently used as a covering for the manure thrown from the barn windows through the winter, as is the case where there is no cellar. In these and in other ways it may be and is used with great advantage. The only drawback among farmers living remote from the sand banks is the heavy nature of it. But as an offset to this, it never wastes or dries up. It is evident that the same will readily admit the carbonic acid into the soil, so that it can fix its cor- rosive teeth in the minute grains as the fibres come in contact with them, thus effecting the same operation which Dr. Dana calls the discharge of the " voltaic battery." " Soluble geine is the food of plants," says Dr. D. '^ and insoluble geine be- comes so by air and moisture." The air and moisture are admitted by the sand with great facility, and hence the advan- tage of it in agriculture. As an absorbent of urine and retainer of it, sand appears to perform an office almost contradictory to its very na- ture. The grains being wholly of quartz or silica, cannot receive a liquid ; but such is the amazing fineness generally, the urine is retained in the mass until drawn forth by the living root fibres. A most successful farmer in the town of Essex, living near the sand banks, informs the writer that he annually gets some 90 "to 100 tons to be used in his manures. On clearing the cattle yard in autumn, he first covers the floor of the yard evenly with this sand. Other matters are then brought into 344 the yard, and upon these layers the cattle are yarded for the year. The sand, however, retains its identity. The whole is usually mixed by repeated shovellings over, by the time it is put in the hill for planting. But sometimes the experiment is made of trying the sand by itself; and it is found that with no mixture of other manure, except the urine which has leached through into it, it will procure as much corn as cattle dung, hulk for hulk. Another farmer, residing in Ipswich, has had similar results. He declares he can raise a crop of corn with sand if it has only heen through the grip. Changes effected by the Action of the Sea. Although these changes are not supposed to affect the agri- cultural world, yet in the sea-girt County of Essex it would be unpardonable to overlook this well-known cause of geologi- cal phenomena. The mouth of the Merrimac River exhibits decided traces of the ocean's power. History informs us that a fort, for the protection of Newburyport in the revolutionary war, stood upon the northern end of Plum Island, and consequently upon the western side of the Merrimac, at its mouth. The remains of that fort are now upon the opjjosite side of the river. Proba- bly the sea encroached upon the land, both above and below the fort, until at length it broke across and formed anew chan- nel, leaving the fort as it now is, upon the Salisburj^ side. Dr. Morse, in the early edition of his Gazetteer of the Western Continent, published in 1797, says, " there are two lighthouses at Newburyport, of wood, removable at pleasure, according to the shifting of the bar, thus showing that these changes are of no recent date. Rockport presents a scene of peculiar grandeur. Thatch- er's Island is from one half a mile to a mile southeast of Flat Point in this town. From a point opposite the western end of this island, and running eastwardly beyond Straitsmouth Island Light, a distance of one to two miles, the whole coast 345 is rock-bound. The formation is gneiss, and it is stratified to a high degree, the strata varying in thickness from a few inches to two feet, and ]ying horizontally. The shore is sloping, and 10 to 15 or 20 rods wide, rising to the level of the upland. The sea and shore are here in everlasting conflict, and, iron- bound as it is, the shore has the worst of it. It is to be re- gretted that Dr. Hitchcock did not visit this interesting spot, although Dr. Benjamin Haskell's description of it is very ani- mated and truthful. It was inserted in Hitchcock's Geology of Massachusetts, p. 133. Dr. Morse, in his Gazetteer, before referred to, says, " Thatcher's Island, on which are two lights of equal height, lies close to the southeast side of the township (now Rock- port), which itself is joined to the continent by a beach of sand, which is very rarely overflowed by the water." The island is now, as before stated, at a long distance from the main land, and separated from it by the deepest water, the sand beach having long since disappeared.* But the changes effected under the observation of living men bear ample testimony to statements of the historian and the theories of geologists. The scientific observer to whom Dr. Hitchcock was indebted for the description referred to, states orally further, that it was in the memorable storm of 1831 that the windrow of boulders, a half mile in length, was formed upon Flat Point. Those boulders were broken from the agedparent rock in blocks of from a fewhundred pounds' weight each to 10, 15, and 20 or more tons. The remainder of Dr. Haskell's description I give in his own graphic words: " There is one far more interesting than all the rest, both on account of its greater bulk and comparative regularity of shape, which renders it easy to be estimated, and thus afibrd the means of ascertaining the maximum force of the ocean in its anger. * Thatcher's Island was at first called " Thatcher's Woe and Avery's Fall," from the fact that, on the 14th of August, 1635, in a violent storm, as Rev. John Avery was sail- ing from Newburypoi-t to Marblehead, where he proposed to settle in the ministry, the vessel was wi-ecked, and Mr. Avery was drowned, his wife and six cliildren, with fif- teen others, while Mr. Thatcher and his wife were cast upon the shore and saved. JBarber's Coll, Allen's Diet 346 This rock was originally attached to a ledge about five feet above the level of the sea. The broken surfaces correspond so exactly as to leave no room to doubt from whence it was detached. Prom this spot to the place where it now lies the direction is south, a little westerly. The distance is 106 feet ; but between the two positions there is a hollowing of the ledge (that is, in the broad surface upon which the rock in question rested), the hollowing not a recent one, over which it must have passed, so that the ascent of the rock up this old-fashioned railway cannot have been less than ten feet." The " hollowing " above mentioned is a dike some ten feet wide, and once filled with greenstone trap. The trap is full of seams, and, hard as greenstone is said to be, the mighty untiring waves dig it out, slowly indeed, but surely. By allowing a block of gneiss containing 12 cubic feet to weigh a ton (the present mode of estimating), the boulder in question would weigh 30 tons instead of 28, as originally estimated by Dr. Haskell, and this is his present estimate. In accounting for the fact that boulders are found poised by some mighty power upon other rocks, and those far up the highest hills, we are compelled to call in to our aid the power of another agent ; and the glacial theory of Agassiz, and the ice- berg theory of Sir Cliarles Lydl, are made to testify and to argue in the geological court ; but the breaking up of the strata into blocks at Flat Point, the windrowing them in 1831, and spread- ing the windroAvs like straws of hay in the storm of 1851, was all done by those twin sisters, the winds and waves alone. To one who has seen this effect of the sports of the elements in a case so clear as this at Rockport, it is not altogether so incred- ible that the boulders upon Cape Cod should all point, as they do, to Cape Ann for their parent rock. An interesting change effected by the action of the sea, at no very remote period, is shown at Marblehead, on the south- westerly side of the thickly settled part of the town, and oppo- site to the farm of Ephraim Brown, upon the Neck. This inter- esting '' inlet, telling its lale of erosion," is pointed out by J. J. H. Gregory, Esq. of that town, whose knowledge of geology 347 is well known to the reading public, and who, it is hoped, in this day of instruction by lectures, will consent to instruct the public through that medium. The account will be best described in Mr. Gregory's own words, communicated by letter of a recent date. After describ- ing the appearances of this action in former ages, he proceeds : " Nor has this degrading action of the ocean yet reached its lim- it; not a storm of great violence occurs without leaving its de- structive mark along our shore line. Two prominent illustra- tions of the probable change of the coast line by ocean agency may be seen in the great curve that sweeps in from ' Bartoll's ' to ' Skinner's Heads,' also in the great curve that begins at Bass Rock, in the northeast extremity of the town (Marblehead), and tends away to the southwest, towards the entrance of Sa- lem Harbor."^" Salt Marsh Alluvium in Connection with Changes EFFECTED BY THE SeA. The existence of extensive tracts of salt marsh occurring in most of the inlets along the fifty miles of sea coast of Essex county has attracted the attention of geologists to some extent, and may properly claim a notice in connection with the subject of changes effected by the sea. It is the grateful duty of the geologist to read out unwritten history, or, in the elegant language of Edward Everett, " to rouse the generations of the elder world from their pompous mausoleums or humble graves to rehearse their fortunes." That all the territory which we call salt marsh alluvium has been, by the operation of natural causes, reclaimed from the sea, there can be no doubt. They are salt marshes, even now monthly overflowed by sea water, effected by the causes that produce tides. Creeks emptying into the sea, and twice a day being filled from the sea, flow through all this alluvium at * " See also ' Proceedings of the Essex Institute,' vol. 2, the proof-sheets containing Mr. Gregory's interesting article on the geology of Marblehead, about being published. . 348 intervals, receiving fresh water from ponds and springs suffi- cient to keep them open. The origin of this alluvium has been the subject of some speculation. Dr. Hitchcock believes it to be " the result of the joint action of two, and sometimes of three causes. 1. From the decay of salt-marsh plants. 2. From the silt brought over the marsh by the tides ; and 3. From the alluvial soil brought down by streams. The depth of the peculiar pulpy soil of these marshes," he remarks, " is rarely more than six or eight feet." This depth corresponds with the usual depth of the creeks, and favors the idea that where the marsh now is the broad river once spread out and ran ; so that the earth now bears its plants where the sea once rolled its waves. Notwithstanding the perfect uniformity of the surface of the salt marshes and the similarity of the vegetation, yet they are often of very unequal value in different localities. The usual method adopted to improve them when barren is by ditching, so as to drain off both the surface water, if any, and the more deleterious waters that often gurgle at the bottom. Fre- quently, however, all measures fail, and they seem condemned to hopeless barrenness. An analysis by competent chemists, however, might point out a remedy. At worst, however, if unprofitable in any other way, they may prove of great value as manure, and indeed it seems wisely ordered that the un- productive portions should be, as they are, near the upland, as if for easy removal to the barnyards and fields. Experi- ments made by the farmers, as well as the analyses of the chemists, both show a difference in the mud, even for the purpose of manure. It is often spoken of as too acid to be of much practical value upon the field. Dr. Hitchcock says, " it sometimes contains a large quantity of geine, and some- times but very little, while the quantity of the salts of lime, soda, and magnesia is rather large," and adds that '' some- times a mixture of marl would be of service, and sometimes not." Marl, however, that is calcareous, is not found in the neighborhood of salt marsh, so far as known ; the substance underlying peat in Essex County, so strongly resembling it, 349 being found always, so far as known, to be silicioiis Avholly, and supplying no lime. The following is Dr. Dana's method of analyzing marsh mud, with the result : — Locality. Soluble geine. Insoluble geiue. Sulphate of lime. Phosphate of lime. Granitic sand. Specific gravity. Cambridge. . Newburyport Medford . . . 13.0 1.5 7.5 .7,4 0.1 5.6 2.3 3.0 2.6 0.4 0.5 0.3 76.9 95.1 84.0 1.92 2.52 1.92 As the topic is so important to the farmers of Essex owning salt marsh, and as it has usually received so little comparative attention, and the remarks of Dr. Hitchcock are so impor- tant, while they are accessible to so few, it seems proper to quote what he has said upon the subject: " A substance so rich in geine, or salts of lime and soda, or in both, .... cannot but form a fertilizer of the soil, if spread upon it. If the soil be quite poor, those varieties should probably be chosen that contain most geine ; and this can be judged of by their comparative lightness when dry ; the lightest abounding most in organic matter. But if the soil already con- tain a good deal of inactive vegetable matter, the varieties that abound most in salts will probably be most efficacious ; though an additional quantity of geine can do no harm, and may do much good. If marsh mud be applied at random, it is not strange that varieties of it almost destitute of geine should sometimes be put upon exhausted soil, and that no good effects should follow. Hence the necessity of some fixed principles to guide the farmer. And since Massachu- setts contains so much seaboard and so much land near the coast that may be benefited by this substance, a correct mode of applying it is of great importance." It will prove unfortunate for the cause of agriculture, be^ yond all doubt, that writers have sometimes thrown ridicule upon the method of analyzing soils recommended by both Dr. Dana and Dr. Hitchcock, and that some gentlemen attending our legislative agricultural meetings should utter the same sentiments, going, as they are sure to do, into the agricultu- 4 • 350 ral newspapers, and producing a world-wide influence. A truly scientific method of analyzing, conducted in such a man- ner as to detect every element, would require months, it is said. But is it not evident that very many minute matters would be revealed which are just what the producer of crops does not wish or need to know? He does, however, need to know whether his soil would be improved by an application containing the carbonate of lime, for example, and to know it he ought to know whether there is or is not enough of it in the soil already. The method is tljis : " Put a small quantity of the soil into a watch crystal or any glass open vessel, plac- ing it in the strong light of the window ; the soil is to be cov- ered with water and stirred till the light matter has risen to the top ; the impurities are to be removed by drawing a piece of bibulous paper over it, so as to leave the water clear ; a few drops of muriatic acid are now to be added and the water to be carefully watched to see if the bubbles rise ; this they will do if there be any carbonate of lime in the soil." The acid is a cheap article, and can be purchased at almost any apothecary's shop. The same test would enable the farm- er to ascertain whether the sandy matter underlying peat, and which so much resembles calcareous marl, is such ; the absence of the bubbles on applying the acid would show it to be any- thing but calcareous marl ; and the bubbles would show the presence of lime in some of its forms. A very simple method of ascertaining whether muck contains so much acid as to be in- jurious to vegetation, is to stir a small quantity of it in a ves- sel, with sufficient water to hold it in solution, and while in this state to put r niece of litmus paper into it. Acid will color the paper. Effect op Location in Relation to the Sea. A topic of much interest respecting the eQ"ect of sea air upon vegetation has been recently started by the learned geologist of Marblehead, Mr. J. J. H. Gregory, in an article prepared 351 by him for the Essex Institute on the geology of that town. I am permitted to make the following extract from the proof sheets kindly furnished me by the author : — " Fonned for the most part from the decomposition of her primitive rocks, the soil of Marblehead, though scanty, is proverbially strong, covering our pasture lands, that have been closely fed over a century and a quarter without any cultivation or manuring, with a carpet of white clover during the rainy season. The soil of our islands is so amazingly productive of the grasses as to set all the attempts of the chem- ist to explain the fact from tlje chemical composition of the soil at defiance ; no one can reahzo it until he has visited them during the growing season, (Baker's Island is an instance, ) and I challenge any one to explain it by any theory that does not ascribe an influence far greater than has heretofore been customary to the qual- ities communicated to the air from the surrounding ocean." Upon reading this glowing description of Mr. G., also re- ferred to on another page, I conceived the idea of testing this theory by a comparison of a few of the products between the towns lying immediately upon the sea-coast in Essex County with those remote from the sea, yet within the county limits. The result is as follows, viz : — English Hay in Towns contiguous to the Sea. In Beverly, the average amount by statistics of 1855 is 1.00 ton per acre. " Gloucester, " " 1.41 " Lynn, " " 1.27 " Manchester, " " " 0.97 " Marblehead, " " 1.16 " Eockport, " " " 0.91 " Salisbuiy, " " 1.00 " Swampscot, " " " 1.27 " Salem, including Baker's Island, " 1.50 Average of EngUsh Hay in the above nine towns, 1.16 5-9 Towns eemote feom the Sea. In Andovcr, the average : . vy sta' ^tics of 1855 is 1.05 tons per acre. " Boxford, " (C {< 0.73 " Georgetown, " " Grovelaud, " a tS it {( « 0.94 0.80 " Hamilton, " " (( It 0.73 " Haverhill not given. " Lawrence, <( t( 0.70 " Methuen, It l( tt 1.10 " Topsfield, " Wenham, <( (1 (( tl 0.76 0.71 Average amount of English Hay in the above nine towns, 0.83 5-9 352 Thus by the said statistical returns the average hay crop in the sea-coast towns exceeds that of the inland towns by ^^^, or one third nearly. Same Test applied to the Indian Corn Crop. In Beverly, the average amount of Indian com by stat. of 1855 is 33 bush, per acre. " Gloucester, " " " 42 " "Lynn, " " " 43 " "Manchester, " " " 47^ " "Marblehead, " " " 46 " " Rockport, " " " 40 " " Salisbury, " " " 40| " '• Swampscot not returned. " Salem, including Baker's Island, " " 40 " Average in the above eight towns, 41 23-48 " Towns remote from the Sea. In Andovcr Indian corn 35 bushels per acre. " Boxford " 21 " Georgetown .^ " 28 " Groveland " 31j " Hamilton " 40 " Lawrence " 40 " Methuen " 33 " Topsfield " 29i " Wenham " 30 Average in the above nine towns 32 bushels per acre. The excess upon the coast being 9-|| bushels per acre. It will not be pretended that the excess of the hay and corn crops in the ocean towns over those in the interior certainly proves the fact advocated by the wi-iter (Mr. Gregory) refer- red to above, viz : that the atmosphere of the sea naturally augments the product of the farm. Other causes may be in operation. The abundant supplies of manure furnished by the sea are nearly or quite confined to the shore towns, while the facilities for muck are as great it may be in these same localities as in the interior, thus giving a double advantage to the one class of towns over the other, without calling in the sea 353 at all. Had the products been accurately weighed and meas- ured from every part of the county, and accurate and authen- tic records made for 200 years, some comparison might be made, always subject, however, to modification by causes pal- pable, seen, felt, and read of all men. But such a comparison is out of the question, and our investigations must stop. It is not in the ordination of Heaven, however, ordinarily, to give a section of country signal advantages over a sister section without leaving something compensatory. The atmosphere which seems to bring golden harvests to Swampscot, Marble- head, and Gloucester, may carry consumption and fever upon the wings of it, of which Andover, Lawrence, and Methuen know little. Or a hundred bushels of corn per acre on the sea-board may have required as many extra nights' work upon the beach in poling and drawing up eel-grass and kelp as shall make a crop of 75 bushels per acre in Haverhill fully equal to it. Sheep Husbandry. There is no topic relating to the agriculture of Essex from which we feel so repelled as this. Here is a district contain- ing over 200 sets of woollen machinery, within three hours' ride of every man in the county, working more wool into stock in a single day, by 6,000 pounds, than is produced in the whole county in a year ! Even in 1845, when the mills were making 2,650,000 yards of flannel and blanketing, and 700,000 yards of other woollen cloth, with 100,000 pounds of yarn not made into cloth of any kind, there were but 4,467 sheep, producing but some 16,000 pounds of the raw material ! And this small flock was still further reduced, in 1855, to 2,217, having gone down 55 per cent, in 10 years; and, as if they were still too numerous, a farther reduction of 23 per cent, is found to have taken place in 1860, leaving 1,717 that were over six months old, and no more, by the most careful count ! We feel almost as if — like Shem and Japheth — we would take a garment, and go backwards, and 354 cover the nakedness that is so shameful, only we reflect that we ourselves are the party that is so sadly uncovered. How large a number of sheep have ever been kept in Essex, we are not able, by any statistical table, to discover. A memory of fifty years only, brings to view very fine flocks of 40 to 50 upon almost every hundred-acre farm. Yet for aught can now be known, dogs were as numerous, as hungry and bold, then as now, and fences worse by a large per cent. And if the memory of man is worth anything, the pastures were better in that former day than now. The statistics are scarce, and to be found only in fragments, but Dr. Morse, in 1797, speaks of '^ large herds of sheep and neat cattle." It cannot be doubted that, by keeping sheep, the value of the now run-down j)astures was then standing at a higher figure. In the absence of the appropriate matter for this topic in the present essay, it may not be without its use to adduce a few of the many proofs of the fact that sheep-culture is useful to pasture lands. A Committee of the English House of Lords, in 1828, received and reported the following statements : Mr. John Ellman, Jr., of Sussex, testifies as follows, viz : '^ I do not consider it possible for the light lands upon the Downs to be kept in cultivation without flocks. I could not keep the farm I now hold without sheep. On the South Downs the wool must be grown, let the price be what it will," Mr. Francis Hale, of Altringham, Suffolk : " The descrip- tion of land I occupy could not be kept in cultivation M^ithout sheep." Mr. Henry King, Chilmark, Wiltshire : " The size of my farm is 4,000 acres. I clip usually about 6,500 South Down sheep. Such lands as I occupy cannot be kept in cultivation without the aid of sheep. Lord Napier : " If we had not sheep upon our lands (the Highlands of Scotland), they would become the habitation of foxes and snipes, and return to waste." C. C. Weston, Esq. : " It is utterly impossible that the 355 Down districts can be cultivated without sheep. We never fold our merino or other sheep ; the land is too wet." To the above is now added the following testimony of Mr. R. S. Fay, already quoted above on another topic: — " The number of sheep," he says, " is now increasing, and any one walking from Salem to Lynn during the last summer, could have seen over five hundred sheep, in good, improving condition, upon pastures which have been long utterl}^ useless for any other purpose. A visit to those same pastures in the following spring, from their superior herbage and greenness will show the action of sheep as renovators and improvers." The decreasing value of our pasture lands is attributed by Mr. Fay, without any hesitation, to the neglect of the farmers of Essex in not keeping sheep. Mr. Corliss, of Haverhill, is said to be a very successful breeder of sheep. His buck, " Dr. Kane," weighs 200 pounds ; his fleece, on 12th May last, weighing eleven pounds. He is from Cotswold, bred from the imported buck " Cedris " and an imported ewe. Eight of the ewe lambs got by this buck (" Dr. Kane ") were also exhibited at the show, of an average weight of 80 pounds each.* The Leicester sheep of Wm. F. Porter, then (1853) of Bradford, were very superior, taking the first premium against the South Downs of Jacob Farnum, of Andover, in the same year. Other gentlemen have kept, and are keeping, a few of the imported breeds of sheep, and with profit. The experience and observation of Mr. Fay leads him to give " a decided preference to the Oxford Down sheep, being, in his opinion best suited to the Essex pasture lands, and aifording the largest yield of good mutton and wool for its cost." * He took the County Society's premium, 1860, in competition with an imported Oxford Down, shearling buck, weighing 247 lbs. ; weight of fleece 14 lbs., — the animal having received a premium as a buck lamb, in England, previous to his importation. E. S. F. 356 Neat Stock. Essex has long been celebrated for the excellence of its neat stock, while, at the same time, the animals were almost wholly miscellaneous, selected from the droves from Maine and New Hampshire while on their way to the great markets of Brighton and Cambridge. The effect of these facilitiea was that no systematic efforts were made to obtain distinct breeds. Very superior animals were occasionally obtained. The Oaks cow has never been beaten ; but every effort to perpetuate her superior milking qualities in he],\ progeny was a failure. A brief sketch of the celebrated cows in Essex, of no particular breed, is here made, as being itself an argument against miscellaneous stock breeding ; for, however justly celebrated the individual cows may have been for their yield of milk and butter, they generally, if not uniformly, prove to be merely a kind of '* tenth transmitter of a rotten race." The Danvers cow — above called the Oaks cow — made 180 pounds of butter in 1813, 300 pounds in 1814, 400 in 1815,— 1 quart per day being reserved for family use, and a calf suckled for four weeks in each of the years. In one week, 19^ pounds of butter were made, and the average for three months was 16 pounds. The Nourse cow, owned in Salem, produced 20 pounds in one week, and the average for four months was 14 pounds. The Barr cow gave 7,517 pounds of milk in 268 days. The sales, including the calf, amounted to $151.15. The Putnam cow in fourteen weeks gave 3,370 pounds of milk, making 139 pounds of butter. The Osborn cow in seventy-seven days gave 3,127 pounds of milk. The cow of Charles F. Putnam, of Salem, yielded in one year 4,214 quarts, which, at five and six cents per quart, gave him $244.03, the estimated expense of her keeping and milking being $91.53 ; clear profit, $152.50. {See Society's Eeport for 1841.)* The above remarkable cows may be said to have been, as before stated, accidental. The opportunities which were so * For further information, see the Transactions of the Massachusetts Society for the year 1856. 357 long open to Essex farmers for selecting stock while on its way to the large markets, have failed since the facilities for transporting cattle by railroad began. Doubtless, superior breeds of cows might, by careful breeding, have been obtained by a fortunate choice of a bull put to the cows above named. That time having gone by, and the frequent opportunity for obtaining country cows having ceased, no method of improv- ing stock seemed left to us but that of importing stock known to be of superior quality. Public-spirited gentlemen of affluence have turned their attention in this direction with gratifying results. Mr. Fay, of Lynn, Mr. Rogers, of Salem, Mr. Franklin Haven and C. Gr. Loring, at Beverly, Gen. Sutton, of Salem, and Dr. Loring, of Salem, with several others,* are able to show the pure English breeds of cows, and some, if not all, of sheep. The unfortunate introduction of the pleuro-pneumonia with Mr. Chenery's herd, may check, but will not prevent, the further introduction of foreign breeds. In addition to the importations destined to go on, farmers will purchase the pure breeds, as their interests and inclinations may lead them. It is not intended by this train of remark to discourage an improvement of native breeds, but only to give a clear idea of the requisite labor, skill, and length of time necessary for creating distinct breeds, without which no reliance can be placed upon anything. Raising op Horses. ' "^ The raising of horses as a distinct branch of husbandry, if not quite overlooked in the early years of the County Agricultural Society, did not certainly receive very strongly * Dr. J. Kittredge, of Andover, a gentleman much distinguished for his zeal and discretion in raising stock, says, in a note of February 25, that, though he has never owned a pure Durham, yet he firmly believes it superior to all others, both for cows and oxen. The gentlemen above named have generally prefen-ed Jerseys and Ayrshires. 358 marked attention. The Society was formed in or about the year 1817. The great mind of Col. Pickering early impressed itself iij^on the Society. No mention, however, appears to have been made by him of the horse in his addresses, deliv- ered in either 1818 or 1820, notwithstanding the subject of '' live stock " is treated ably, and the principles of Bakewell, the English breeder, are examined and recommended. It does not appear that premiums on horses were offered by the Society earlier than 1831. No horses, consequently, were exhibited at the show, upon which any attention was bestowed, until the next year, 1832. Mr. Andrews Breed then reported for the Committee that " the exhibition of these animals has been highly satisfactory and pleasing. Premiums of $20, $15, and $10 were awarded, and gratuities of $5, $3, and $2. From that time, it is believed, the horse has had fair share of attention. It may be questioned, indeed, whether the principles of Bakewell and Arthur Young, and Sir John Sinclair and Mr. Knight, have been always consulted and well understood. The Morgan and Blackhawk breed of stallions, and perhaps a few others, were very fine animals, and were brought into the county at an early day, but no attention, or very little, it is believed, was bestowed upon the mares. Distinct and well- defined breeds were therefore, at first, certainly, quite out of the question. Farmers needed and sought the farm horse, without much regard to speed. This latter quality, indeed, has never been sought by the trustees or the society at large, although roadsters have become, quite recently, some- what in demand. The idea of a horse for all work will eventually be aban- doned, and w^e shall fall into the English system of a distinct breed for the road ; while, with regard to the mass of horses, the main points will come to be bone, muscle, and strength. " Weight, size, and bone," says R. S. Fay, in an unpublished letter to the writer, " are more easily^obtained than speed." ''A breeder," he further remarks, '^ will fail nineteen times out of twenty in producing an animal of such superior merit 359 for speed as to command a fancy price, but, with ordinary skill, he will succeed nineteen times in twenty in raising an animal that will bring a fair price, if he aims to produce a horse for the team. Horses bred from approved stock for this purpose, such as the Cleaveland Bay, the Clydesdale and the Suffolk Punch, will bring, if up to the standard as to size and weight, $300 to $350 in the Boston market for the truck, and the price is likely to go higher from the increasing scarcity of this class of animals. If they fall short of the necessary size and weight, they are quite as likely to make good farm horses as any of those now bred. A Yorkshire gentle- man once told the writer that he, his father and grandfather before him, had bred several horses every year during the three generations, and had always bred one each year for the turf, using the best mares they could get, and the highest cost stallion in the county, and that they had never succeeded in breeding one that would sell for seveuty guineas at three years old, while a neighbor who had never bred an animal for the turf, until within a few years, netted for his very first colt, before he was four years old, seven thousand pounds. At the same time, he said that his Cleaveland and Clydesdale stocks always paid a handsome profit. Upon the remark being made that his neighbor probably in that one profit had received more than all that he had gotten for his years of labor, — " Perhaps so," was the reply, " but my neighbor's first success will probably prove his ruin. He is now going very extensively into thoroughbreds for the turf, and if his account were made up, even in the short period that has elapsed since his first success, it would probably be found that he was out of pocket." " Depend upon it," he concluded, " it is the cart horse that pays." Lambert Maynard, of Bradford, and Josiah Crosby, of Andover, are said to have raised more horses than any two men in the county, though other gentlemen have produced many. Essex has relied upon Vermont quite long enough for her horses. It is gratifying to learn that the public mind is 360 moving in another direction, viz : that of raising her own. The danger of overdoing is quite as great an evil, however, as underdoing, and a caution to aim at the golden mean, rather than the disastrous one, should be the rule of action. The following letter from Dr. George B. Loring, written by request, is inserted as affording a salutary caution on the subject of breeding horses, as well as for its excellent matter generally. " The questions propounded by you, with regard to the breeding; of horses in onr county, are somewhat difficult to answer. I have very strong doubts whether it can be made a very profitable branch of the business of our formers. It used to be said that all a man paid for a horse over $100 he paid for fancy. I suppose that may be said now, simply substituting $150 for $100. Now, this fancy part of the business constitutes pretty much all our profit ; and this can be reached only by those who have taste in breeding and selecting, and skill in breaking and driving the horse, to say nothing of the leisure time necessary. Our farmers then, cannot afford to raise a mere beast of burthen called a horse. The animal matures slowly, and requires, for four or five years, a great deal of good food. He is liable to many accidents which may render him useless. And after reacliing maturity he may be worth but little. He is not very Hkely to pay for the hay, and grass, and grain which he has eaten. Let us see how this is. Say nothing of the loss of service of the mare while in foal, and estimate : Use of stallion, $5 (the lowest price I know of) ; keeping the first year, hay $15, pasturage $5 ; second year, hay $20, pasturage $5 ; third year, hay $30, pasturage $10 ; fourth year, hay $35, pasturage $15; making $140 as the lowest cost of the horse at four years old. At this age, few horses are worth that amount of money, and, in the ordinary mode of breeding, it is more than probable that the o^vner of such a colt would be able to suit himself better with a horse from Canada, or Maine, or Vermont for $100. It is evident that a farmer in Essex County can purchase a farmer's horse cheaper than he can raise one ; that he will be very likely to suit himself better by purchasing, and that he cannot expect to convert the products of his farm into horse flesh to so much profit as he may expect to derive from them if converted into butter, cheese, milk, beef, pork, &c. " It seems evident to me that the only horse that can be profitably bred by our farmers is a carefully selected roadster, — the American horse of all work, — that horse which will do his duty patiently on the farm, and command a high price for his speed and endurance when brought to market. It may be said that such a race of horses does not exist; that every individual of this description is an accident, and that no man can expect to arrive at this point of excellence in horse-breeding as surely as he may in the breeding of cattle, sheep, or swine. This is to a certain extent true. And yet, I think a selection of male and female may be made which will furnish the kind of horse I have described with a great degree of certainty. There is in New England an abundance of good-sized, roomy, strong mares, having courage and endurance, which can be obtained, usually, at a reasonable price. We have medium-sized, hardy, easy-gaited stallions, also, of very approved quality. 361 and bred from good trotters. When the service of such a stallion can be olTtained at a reasonable price, I have no doubt that the chances would be in favor of profitable breeding from the kind of mare I have described. It will not always be so. A good marc and good stallion may be the parents of a poor colt, owing to uncontrollable and unknown causes. But this is all the chance a farmer in Essex County has, and nothing but an experiment will teach him how well his mare will breed. I know mares in the county that have been a source of large profit to their owners. So have some, of our stallions, and that deservedly. " I think you will agree with me that horse-breeding with us is a lottery, even when conducted with great care, skill, and judgment. None but a good horse will pay for raising here. In fact, none but a good animal of any description will pay for raising ; but the large necessary outlay in the horse increases the risk over any other domestic animal." Market Days. That market clays -will erelong become a fixed fact in Essex County, cannot admit of a doubt. In England, public markets are one of the " institutions." I run back over the pages of English history in vain for an account of the origin of market days : the cloud of antiquity hangs over their origin. The London Encyclopedia has the following definition : " The Market, Clerk of the Court of — an officer incident to every fair Emd market in England, to punish misdemeanors therein. . . . The object of this jurisdiction (see stat. 17 Car. II. cap. 19 ; 22 Car. II. cap. 8 ; 23 Car. II. cap. 12) is principally the cognizance of weights and measures, to try whether they be according to the true standard thereof or no," &c. The reference here to the ancient statutes of England, carries us back to an early period. The antiquity of the English market days may also be inferred from facts of another description. Thus, Barclay's old Dictionary, embodying also a sketch of the counties, cities, and market towns (the new edition of which was published seventy years ago), mentions the following among numerous others ; it will be perceived that the days were as permanently fixed as the market itself. " Barnstaple, a seaport town of Devonshire, with a market on Fridays. It sends two members to Parliament ; is seated, 362 &c. Tlie market is large for cattle, corn, and provisions, 191 miles west of London." " Harlow, a town in Essex, whose market is on Saturdays. Distant 23 miles from London." Market Jew, a town in Cornwall, with a market on Thurs- days. It is 283 miles from London. " Marshfield, a town of Gloucestershire, with a market on Tuesdays. 100|- miles west of London." " Hampshire, an English county, 40 miles in length, and 35 in breadth. ... It contains 253 parishes, and 20 market towns." The shrewd English farmer well understands the impor- tance of bringing the consumer and the producer together. American farmers have not yet fully comprehended the idea, even if it has been considered at all, that selling to the drovers and carriers constitutes a heavy draft upon the producer. The first attempt to introduce agricultural markets in this county was made in 1854. The Annual Address of that year, thus introduces the subject to the attention of farmers. " The establishment of regular markets or fair days through the county, at the most accessible points, would be of veiy great advantage to a farming community like ours, the members of which have at all times something they wish to sell or buy, but who have at no one time enough to make it an object to go to the larger markets. To do this, if done at all, this Society should take the initiative. If fixed market days were established, we should soon see the convenience and economy of it, both to purchasers and sellers. Cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry, as well as corn, oats, rye, and other vegetable products, would thus be collected together in sufHcient quantities to bring purchasers for the larger markets, and a farmer would then be able to sell whatever he had to dispose of at full market prices, as well as to make his purchases there. . . . The danger would be, if they were successful, that every town in the county would insist upon having a market day, and, as we have seen in other enterprises, all the benefit of them be lost in consequence. If, however, the members of this Society were earnest in the matter, and would agree to uphold those established by it, to the exclusion of all others, it would soon settle into a system not likely to be distm-bed." With the subject thus brought fairly before the minds of the members, it received occasional attention, but no decided action until 1859. 363 It is not necessary to delineate the progress of the Trustees in coming to the result. It is perhaps sufficient to say that the first market was held at South Danvers ; the second at North Andover, May 20 ; the third at Georgetown, June 21, and the fourth at Newburyport; all in 1859. The vigilant Committee having charge, prepared 40 of the Society's cattle-pens. No less than 70 individual farmers and others sent in their cattle to the number of 190 head ; also 112 pigs and 96 sheep and lambs. Farm implements were also on the ground. Mr. Putnam, Chairman of the Committee, reported that " the results of the first market were all that could be expected." This was the South Danvers show, being the first. At the second market (North Andover), the unfavorable state of the weather, together with the fact of an '•' indepen- dent sale " of stock, one day previous, in the neighboring town of Methuen, ojDerated disadvantageously, as might have been expected. Still, however, the fact that 130 head of cattle, 102 swine, 22 horses, 15 sheep, and 11 coops of fowls, together with wagons and other vehicles, also numerous farming implements, were present, goes to show what may be expected when this infant of a span long shall become like a " giant refreshed with wine." The Chairman of the Committee of the Georgetown market, Solomon Nelson, Esq., reported that, "owing to the foul weather, the market was not so successful, generally, as it would have been had circumstances been more favorable." " Confidence," he remarks, " is a plant of slow growth, and it will take time to establish these days upon a permanent basis." I take the following lively description of an English market day from the recent travels of a New Englander in old Eng- land. It is true the description relates to perhaps the largest market in the world, but the same system is pursued over the entire island. " Everybody has heard of Smithfield ; in the minds of some, it is associated with the fagot and stake, with heroic martyrdom for liberty and truth, and as the great 364 confessional of Protestant England. Others, in a more mundane spirit, rejoice over Smithfield as the great centre from which noble barons of beef and the juiciest of steaks radiate into every kitchen of London. Beginning near St. Paul's Cathedral, tvro great thoroughfares, diverging but slightly, penetrate London to the westward. . . . This is Smithfield, and here the animals that are to find rest in the stomach of alderman or vagabond, lord or lout, are driven for the inspection of the butcher and for purchase. Early in the morning, a stranger living in the vicinity of any of the great thoroughfares which terminate here, will be awakened by the bellowing of oxen, the lowing of cows, and the bleating of sheep. He seems to be in the midst of some vast farmyard, instead of the heart of the most populous city in the world. It is well worth the traveller's while to leave his bed at early dawn, and watch the progress of the droves through the narrow street. The sheep, in particular, often amused me. A single shepherd, assisted by a small dog, sufiiced to guide a flock of two or three hundred of this most ■wayward of all animals through the crowded streets. The dog, assisted by an encouraging word from his master, would spring on the back of one of the flock, and race from back to back, never touching the ground till he reached the offending animal, when a single pull by the ear restores the vagrant sheep to his proper place. I once saw two large flocks meet at the corner of two streets, and going at right angles to each other. It was wondeiful to see the tact and intelligence of the two little colley dogs. Twenty men could not have done what these little creatures did in restoring order. The flocks had got into an inextricable confusion, but a pull by the wool or the ear, done with great rapidity, the dogs jumping into the middle of the flock, and selecting all stragglers which had got into the wrong road, in two minutes had the sheep all separated, and jogging again towards Smith- field. One of these shepherds told me that you might mix up a thousand sheep, and in a few minutes his dog would have the five hundi'ed belonging to his master all safe by themselves, " One part of Smithfield is devoted to the sale of donkeys, two days in the week, and an amusing sight it is. Such a pack of very sharp-looking vagabonds, with their eye teeth cut ever since they were babies, if, indeed, such hard-looking cus- tomers ever had a babyhood, I never saw. Cutting and hauling at the bridle of some meek little dwarf, and making their big cudgels resound on their hollow sides, they vnW trot then- animals up and down the short walk devoted to this purpose, and tell more lies about him than they utter sentences. His price is eighteen shillings, and he is only selling him because he is going into the draying business, and will need a larger animal ; or he is disposing of him because the child for whose use he is kept has recently died ; or the friend who owned him has gone to America. No lie that will serve his turn ever comes amiss. I never fully realized the fact that homeless boys in large cities never have a childhood, till I saw these donkey merchants. It was perfectly frightful to see lads from twelve to twenty years old with all the cunning, avarice, and brutality of a rogue in grain pictured out in their countenances. . . . An immense number of donkeys are used in England. Cheap in price, and very hardy, they cost but little in shelter and food. Half a dozen donkeys will thrive in a pasture where a horse would starve." The apparent failure of the market-day enterprise in Essex 365 is to bo attributed mainly to the panic created by the pleuro- pneuraonia, that mysterious but dreadful agent which visited our country too recently to require any description here. As a substitute for the market day at different points in the country, the Agricultural Society of the count}', at the suggestion and by the approval of their Committee on markets, proceeded to establish a market, to be held on the last Tuesday of every month, commencing on the 24th of April, near Berry's Tavern, in South Danvers. The local advantages were all that the Committee or the public could desire. The Committee, by their Chairman, Mr. Fay, expressed in their bills the hope that in course of time a large market would grow up at this point, and that those whose business it is to supply large markets, as well as those who buy for direct consumption, would find it for their interest to attend this market. Every accommodation for stock of all kinds can be found at Berry's. " No further notice," says Mr, Fay in his handbills, " is to be given of this market, but it will be left to work its own way into impor- tance, trusting to the utility of the measure alone to effect this object." The pleuro-pneumonia has passed away, it is believed. Confidence will be restored, although its growth has been a little slower than is common ; and it is believed that the market days at Berry's will soon be one of the institutions which nothing but an apparent providential frown will prevent or at all interrupt. Farms and Farmers. It may not be improper to specify a few of the farms of Essex, premising what every reader will at once perceive, viz : the difficulty of making a selection. The statements that follow have already been before the public since 1856, but as the facts were collected by the writer, and furnished by him 5 366 for the County Society's Transactions, tliere can be no impro- priety, it is conceived, on the ground of authojship, in insert- ing them as a part of this essay. Farm of Horace Ware, of Marblehead. Mr. Ware deals with manures in no stinted way, and his crops are accordingly without stint. He has applied not less, he thinks, than 200 cords the present year, (1856.) One hundred dollars worth of stable manure he purchased, and drew it, say five miles. Forty cords of muscle-bed mud were drawn off upon the ice, and about 400 loads of kelp and rock- weed from his beach make up his amount of sea manure. About 100 ox-cart loads of meadow mud, and 30 to 50 loads fi-om the vaults, both to be had for taking away, make up the mass applied to his farm. The night soil and meadow mud are mixed in the proportion of one of the former to three of the latter. Kelp, stable manure, and barn-yard manure, make the compost for the onion crop, being applied at the rate of five to six cords per acre. Stable manure costs five dollars per cord. Wherever Mr. W. has used guano upon liis grass land, aa a top di-essing, he thinks every 200 pounds has given him an extra ton of hay. Earlj- in June last, a piece of grass put on a rusty appearance and seemed dying. About the middle of June, he sowed 200 pounds of guano to the acre upon it. The weather was rainy, and in about one week he thinks the grass was doubled, being changed in color from yellow to a lively green. And yet the guano seems to have done its great work upon the cabbage crop. A large table-spoonful was put in each hill, mixed with a peck of soil. This was upon reclaimed meadow, once submerged, but now producing 4,000 noble cabbage-heads to an acre. He thinks there would have been no cabhar/e on that land icithout the guano. Of super-phosphate of lime, Mv. W. has used but little, but intends to buy guano more largely than ever. For squashes, he generally ploughs in a dressing of green bam manure, and haiTOWs, if on the sod. The hills are eight feet apart each way. Five seeds are planted in each hill, and three are left to grow. The ground is stiired five or six times with a horse hoe or cultivator, and hand-hoed three times. Two or three shovelfuls of night-soil and meadow mud, well mixed, ai-e put in each hill. The holes are made a foot and a half in diameter, and of the same depth. " The worm at the root," says Mr. W. '•■ affects none but a croj) too sparingly manured." One other fact in favor of high manuring was learned at Mr. W.'s, viz : When he took the farm, in 1833, it was oven-un with white weed ; but good culture and heavy mamiring exterminated the whole ; the grass became so vigorous as to bind it out and keep it out. Mr. W. has always raised fine crops of ^vinter rye ; 25 to 35 bushels per acre is a common crop ; and the straw is worth about as much as English hay. It grows to the height of six or seven feet, and is mowed close instead of being reaped or cradled. Mr. W. has a mile of underground drain. He estimates his crops to be worth $5,000, and says it has cost about $3,000 to cany on his farm. But, interesting as it might be to dwell on a case of successful farming, regard to brevity forbids it further. Indian Hill Farm, West Newbury, written by Dr. Loring, 367 who visited the farm with the author, and prepared the state- ment by request. Extracts from Dr. L.'s letter : — I think you will agree with me that Indian Hill Farm is one of the most beauti- fully located spots in Essex County ; and that, in addition to its charming land- scapes, it possesses a variety of soil and agricultural resources rarely met with in the same extent of territory. It has an additional interest, too, in the fact that Major Poore, the present proprietor, occupies tlie acres of his fathers, possessed by them from the earliest settlement of the country, and made rich by time in the traditions of his family. Few estates in this country have more objects of interest. The house, built as we were told, according to the architecture of the ancestral mansion in England, carries you back to the days of the lordly halls of barons, when tower and turret had an important and serious signification. The curiosities which have been collected by Major Poore tell of a busy and stormy world, whose murmur alone can reach that quiet spot. The elm-tree in front of the door, planted by Rufus King in the early days of his patriotic service, brings before you a crowd of interesting scenes, from times whose every event was replete with tlie deepest interest. The whole place, with its relics of the Province House, its antique print- ing press, its ai-mor from Malta, its sword of the revolution, its horse-shoes from Arabia, its bits from Mexico, its collection of autographs gathered from the most valuable sources, its rich agricultural library, forms an object of attraction to the scholar, the man of taste, and the farmer. Mr. Poore, in showing the farm, yon will remember, disclaimed all credit for him- self, as the improvements were projected and generally earned on by his father, Benjamin Poore, Esq., one of the eariy members of our Society. Although en- gaged in mercantile pursuits, which allowed him to pass but a few months of each year at Indian Hill, Mr. Poore was enthnsiasrically devoted to the care of his homestead. A record of his labors is contained in a detailed journal, kept under his direction, of all the work done on the farm from 1818 to his departure for Cali- fornia in 1850. This journal is continued by the present proprietor. In its account of ditching, blasting rocks, deep ploughing and building, with the importation of cattle and seeds, we can trace the gradual improvement of what in 1818 was an ordinary tract of land, with a fence around a swampy portion of it to prevent the cattle from getting mired. At first, these improvements were looked upon with prejudice, and in 1828 a committee of the Essex County Agricultural Society simply alluded to it last among the six farms entered. The underdraining, and the rotation of crops, introduced by a Scotch manager, met Mith no favor. " While it remains uncertain," says the report, " whether the innovations that have been introduced upon Yankee husbandri/, are not experiments made for display, unmind- ful of the cost, rather than experiments that will remunerate themselves, your committee feel it to be then- duty to hesitate in approving of the same." Mr. Poore, as Ms farm journals show, was not discouraged, but continued the same system, and entered the farm again in 1844, when the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture offered premiums for the best cultivated farms. Eleven fiirms were at that time entered, and the first premium of two hundred dollars was awarded to Indian Hill Farm, with an additional gratuity of fifty dollars for experi- ments in draining. Long articles from Isaac Hill, John S. Skinner, Henry Col- 368 man, and Joseph Brcck, in the agricultural journals of the day, indorse the high terms of praise awarded to Mr. Poorc, bj- Mr. Phinncy in his report, as the farm " long noted for its durable and well-contrived structures, and for the systematic culture of its grounds." The swamp of 1818 was then thoroughly drained, and produced a heavy burthen of English hay, — a remunerative experiment. Indian Hill Farm contains 121 3-4 acres, with over 200 acres of outland pasture, woodland, and salt marsh. The entire homestead is under cultivation, with the exception of eight acres, on the steep sides of the hill, covei'ed with thrifty young forest-trees. This plantation of trees, which received a gratuity of thirty dollars from the Essex Society in 1843, now contains upwards of four thousand trees, — black and i-ed oak, walnut, scotch fii', and locust. The buildings on the farm are very substantial and convenient. The bam is 120 feet in length by 42 in width, with two wings, each 80 feet in length, one of -which is connected with the house. It has a basement story of stone containing the stables, root-cellar, hennery, cider-mill, and hay press. The horses and cattle stand on stone pavements, with stone gutters leading to a large manure tank, into which loam is frequently thrown during the summer. The hay is stored in the second story of the bam, on either side of a floor 200 feet in length, upon which ten or twelve loads of hay can stand at once to be unloaded. One wing of the barn contains a carriage house, cart shed, and carpenter's shop, where all the ordinary repairing of the farm is done. The barnyard is so arranged that the drainage is can'ied into the tank above mentioned. The stock on the farm gen- erally consists of four oxen, seven cows, and four young cattle, mostly Durhams crossed with the Ayrshii-e, which cross has been found to be most profitable for the farm. Farm of Francis Dodge, of Danvers, This is a farm of 115 acres, and situated upon the summit and sides of a beautiful swell, overlooking Salem harbor and the Bay, with a large part of Essex County, and in sight of Wachusett, if not Monadnoc Mountains. The orcharding is splendid, — from 500 to 600 trees, and chiefly fmited well. This ia a milk farm to a great extent, having twenty- three cows. The other stock con- sists of six oxen, three horses, and one bull. Mr. Dodge has owned and occu- pied this farm since 1840, although singularly enough it has changed owners five times -within twenty years. It stands the present owner at $7,500, and ap- parently needs but few repairs. The stone walls are a sight worth many miles of travel to see. They stand six feet high in the clear. They are founded too upon rocks, having a ditch-wall, and are built of stone so massive, and with such finish, that a man may go with a loaded -wheelbaiTOW upon the top, round entire fields. So we are told by one of the previous owners, and we can very well beUeve it. Mr. Dodge has half an acre in squashes, which attracted much attention on account of the crop which was, like many others this year, more than large. We speak of it to say that it was manured with one part night soil to three of meadow mud. On inquiring for Mr. D.'s method of treating the yellow squash-bug, he informed us he does not kill or suffer the bug to be killed ; not, however, out of any special regard to the insect, but because in killing, you almost always injure 369 the vine itself, — that is, the tender and vital part, by pinching ; that same tender part, however, will bear the application of quicklime, which is more than the yellow-bug can bear. There could not have been less than seven tons of squashes, it was thought by some present, upon the half acre. Farm of Ephraim Brown, situated upon Marblehead Neck, so CALLED, IN MaRBLEHEAD. It need not be said that the productiveness of this farm has been a frequent topic of remark for some years. To those whose manures have been found somewhere in that long list enumerated by Mr. Richardson in 1854, where "forest leaves, chips, shavings, earth from the poultry yard, pigeon house and ash bins, scraps of leather, and coal ashes," were but small specimens, — the crops of Mr. Brown have indeed been incredible. While JMr. B. has not neglected his barn-cellar and barn-yard, for they both show that they have had the most careful attention, yet so happily is his farm located, and so wide awake is Mr. B. to the value of sea-manure, that all the wealth of his land may be referred to that one word of Mr. Richardson, precious "kelp." It is no disparagement to farmers remote from the sea-shore, that they resort to the humbler and scantier means of making manures ; it is their glory to do so ; they must do so or die, and half the world would die with them. Not one in a hundred of our farmers is situated by the sea-side. And as an apology for those who doubt the statements of the great productiveness of Mr. B.'s farm, not one in a thousand has ever stood on the leeward side of a heap of kelp in three or four days after it has been brought together. No farmer acquainted with the subject of manures can wit- ness the rapid decay and consequent odor of this article, without conviction that the published results of Marblehead farms are possible. This, then, will be presumed to be conceded. And when the due amount of skill in applying the manures, and adapting the crops to both soils and manures is brought into requisition, then, in the words of Thomson, " laborious man has done his part," and the soil will not be un- grateful. Mr. Brown has some 35 acres of land under the hoe and plough. His help is Irish altogether. He has ten to twelve men through the summer, though now (19th Oc- tober) only nine. Mr. B. keeps a blacksmith to do the work of the fann, — an ar- rangement almost indispensable, as his place is a mile and a half from the town. Mr. B. boards liis men, and pays from ninety to one hundred and thirty dollars per year for labor ; no one but the blacksmith receiving more. Before his present ar- rangement of the blacksmith's shop upon the farm, the blacksmith's bill amounted to about $150 per year. Sixteen cows are generally kept upon the farm, though at this time but twelve. No butter is made on the farm, or cheese, milk being more profitable than cither. As Mr. Brown makes neither butter nor cheese, he also raises no Indian corn. This arrangement affords a great amount of time to devote to other crops, and among these onions take the lead. It may as well be said once for all, that as be- fore stated, no man this year offers his farm for premium, and as Mr. B. in particu- lar offers nothing whatever for premium, so perfect accuracy is not expected, either in regard to the measure of land or the weight and measure of the crops. State- 370 ments will therefore be made ^vitli such accuracy only as the visitor's own juclgmcnt aided by the owner's knowledge wi',1 afford. Mr. Brown had eiglit acres of land in onions ; the largest lot containing about three and a half acres. This lot is in the underdrained field exhibited in the Transac- tions of the Society for 1854. A portion of this lot, (viz. that part which before under-draining was covered with stagnant water much of the year,) say from one fourth to one half an acre, has now upon it the greatest yield of onions, beyond all controversy, ever raised in the county of Essex. Mi-. B.'s estimate, I believe, was 1,000 bushels to the acre for this spot. I cannot estimate it at less than that, and indeed find I had marked on my memorandum as high as 1,200 to the acre for the spot referred to ; and in my present estimate of 1,000 bushels, I am fully sustained by several gentlemen, Trustees of the Society, who visited and examined this field just before the onions were pulled. They were then lying upon the ground, and perhaps seen to better advantage. This amazing yield, it is true, is confined to a compara- tively small spot ; but if the whole eight acres shall be foirnd to have less than 5,000 bushels of marketable onions, I shall be disappointed. The average would be 625 bushels, and as that amount has not unfrequcntly been reached in the county, I cannot believe it too high. The manure was cliiefly the decomposed kelp before mentioned, ploughed in, with a small quantity of compost manm-e. ]\Ir. B's usual quantity of the kelp is 8 to 10 cords to the acre, but in 1854 he put on 12 cords to the acre, and undoubtedly that extra amount is felt in this year's crop, although some fields have suffered by the drought. A lesson is to be learned from the fact, that upon one side of the under-drained field, for perhaps thirty rods, the last year's crop was turnips, — and there the onion top is yet somewhat green ; but where the onion follows a carrot crap, it is nearly as ripe as when following onions themselves. The onion rows in this and all the other lots are fourteen inches apart. Other fields in onions presented crops every way equal to the one above described, with the exception of the quarter or half acre particularly described. One of these fields, now partly in grass, was taken out of the pasture in 1836. Guano, it may be said in passing, has proved useless upon Mr. B's annual crops of all kiutls, though 200 pounds i>er acre, he thinks, has given an extra ton of hay. Feuit Farm of Dr. Mack, Salem. Trenches were first dug for the trees \\-ith a crowbar spade. Oyster shells were thro^ni into the trenches, and with the exception of muscle mud applied to the po- tato croj), no other manure was used except ashes. The trenches were dug fifteen inches wide. Hair-lime from the tanneries, or ashes have since been dug in around the trees, in spring, and a half bushel of tan is applied to each tree in the fall to defend them from the mice, being first mulched, however, for the first two seasons. Mr. A. thinks he should have lost one half of his trees had this been omitted. The previous owner (father of Mr. A.) pui-chascd Ms seedlings, some thousands in all, and had them grafted during the winter season ; they were preserved by keeping them in the cellar, and covering the roots with moist earth or sand. When quite small, the whip grafting was and still is prefen-ed, but afterwards cleft grafting. The largest of these sell from the nursery at three dollai-s and fifty cents each. 371 Many would say tlie trees are too much crowded ; indeed, the standard stocks are but fifteen feet apart ; and the dwarf trees are between the rows, thougli so set out as to stand opposite the spaces and not the trees themselves. But the great peculiarity of the system adopted is, the cutting in, or as some would say, the annual topjiing down of every tree. One half the previous year's growth is taken off in the spring. By this method, the trees are kept down ; winds affect them less, and they are within reach when pruning and picking the fruit. Tlic Urbaniste is but aljout ten feet high, and one of this kind has twenty limbs within five feet of the ground. In 1855 no manure was used at all ; this year, one half bushel of tanners' hair, with ashes, was applied to each tree. The apple orchard exhibited the same marks of attention and thriftiness as the pear. From 300 to 400 trees, cither already in, or approaching the bearing state, strike the visitor in the most agreeable manner. They stand from twenty to twenty- five feet apart. Here then is a farm of but eighteen acres, one third of which is una^'ailable for ledges, yet j-iclding a most remunerative croji. Dr. M. employs but two men, and only aliout one fiftli part of their time is spent among the trees ; or perhaps it might amount to one half of one man's time. The hay Held, the garden, the strawberries, raspberries, &c., require the remaining time. There is one object of interest upon this farm deserving the attention of the learned ; indeed, some eminent geologists have already been to visit it. It is a glacial groove, or rather two of them, in a solid ledge, one of them having once been a hundred feet long, but now broken up in part. The conjecture is, that it is the effect of long wearing of the ice, in some remote age of the wurld. Such appearances are found among the Alps, but rarely in our country. In concluding the account of this farm, it may be remarked that fruit raising is highly profitable when well managed. The doctor relieves himself for a portion of every day's heavy professional duties, to labor among the trees. No physician ever watched the varying symptoms of the patient more assiduously than he does the appearance exhibited in this orchard. And why should it not be so "? As we said before, it must pay. The many noble farms in the north part of the county, as well as those of Gen. Sutton, Dr. Loi-ing of Salem, Mr. Fay of Lynn, and Mr. Loring and Mr. Haven on the shore of Beverly, whose farm buildings are '' the best arranged that can be found perhaps in New England, taking them together/' all thene must be omitted for want of room. The farm of R. S. Rogers, of Salem, is in the highest style of the art. The buildings are surpassingly fine. One fea- ture of Mr. R.'s method may be briefly sketched as follows : " He has succeeded in testing the A'alue of mud from the bottom of a goose and duck pond, — a fact which will afford a treat to those who keep poultry of this kind. An artificial pond, of moderate dimensions, kept partially filled with muck and soil, would accommodate large numbers, and the deposits must be of the 372 richest kind. Mr. R. top-dressed ten acres from his pond. At first, either the year before the first application of the mud, or the same year, it is not certain which, the product was eight and one half tons ; the next year nineteen tons, and no-w thirti/. Says Mr. R., 'I intend to put all my land into grass, and hereafter have no hoed crops at all.' " Does the County advance in Agricultural Wealth? This inquiry is by no means unimportant in a sketch of its agriculture. The statistical tables, although not perfectly reliable, and indeed sometimes far from being so, are the only means by which even an approximation can be made. Inas- much as the same influences would seem to be in operation when giving an account to the selectmen of the town of the products of a farm from year to year, to wit, that of subject- ing one's self to heavy taxation by rendering an account of crops unwarrantably large, and that, on the other hand, of the power and duty of the selectmen to doom in case of suspected untruthfulness, we may take the tables with tolerable confi- dence in their accuracy. The importance of listening to the returns made to the Legislature Avill be seen by the following extract from the Report of the Valuation Committee to the Legislature in 1851 : " It will be seen that although there have been added to the lands under improvement, since 1840, more than 300,000 acres, and although the uplands and other mowing lands have been increased by more than 90,000 acres, or nearly 15 per cent., yet the hay crops have increased only three per cent., showing a relative depreciation of 12 per cent. ; and although the tillage lands have been increased more than 40,000 acres in the same period, yet there has been no increase in grain crops, but an absolute depreciation of 600,000 bushels ; and although the pasturing lands have been increased by more than 100,000 acres, yet there has been scarcely any augmentation of neat cattle : while in sheep there has been a reduction of more than 160,000, and in swine more than 17,000." The foregoing extract from that Report naturally stimulates '373 inquiry in regard to Essex County. Does it advance or recede? The population of Essex in 1845 was 94,987. In 1855 it was 151,018 ; an advance of sixty per cent. In relation to a few of the products of industry, the follow- ing results have been obtained from the statistics of 1845, as compared with those of 1855 : — I. — Indian Corn. In Beverly the crop, as returned in 1855, exceeded that returned in 1 845 by 649 bushels. In Georgetown 1,151 bushels. In Hamilton 5,150 bushels. In Haverhill 26,659 bushels. In Ipswich 6,643 bushels. In Manchester 1,140 bushels. In Methuen 673 bushels. In Middleton 434 bushels. In Newbury 3,977 bushels. In Newburyport ....... 4,580 bushels. In Eowley 1,620 bushels. In Salem 190 bushels. In Saugus 2,273 bushels. In Wenham 73 bushels. In West Newbury 5,127 bushels. Total 60,339 bushels. In the same years, the following towns raised less corn, to wit : — Amesbury, less by------- 669 bushels. Andover, less by -- 6,979 bushels. Boxford, less by 2,502 bushels. Bradford, less by 2,128 bushels. Danvers, less by 1,429 bushels. Essex, less by 1,826 bushels. Gloucester, less by 471 bushels. Lynn (including Nahant), less by - - - - 1,836 bushels. Lynnfield, less by 219 bushels. Marblehead, less by 196 bushels. Rockport, less by 1,440 bushels. Salisbury, less by 384 bushels. Topsfield, less by 261 bushels. Total 20,340 bushels. 374 Thus showing an increase of Indian corn, in ten years, of 39,999 bushels. Tlie potatoe crop in the same ten years fell from 515,431 bushels to 280,311, — a falling off of 235,121 bushels. This reduction was largely owing to the potatoe disease. The hay crop of Essex County stood, by statistics of 1845, at 55,907 tons; by statistics of 1855, at 57,9G0 tons, — a gain of 2,053 tons. The number of sheep, by the statistics of 1845, was 4,892. In 1855 the number of sheep had fallen to 2,217. The number of neat cattle in 1845 was 21,1G6 ; in 1855 the number was 21,073. The number of horses in 1815 was 5,140; in 1855 it was 7,099, — an increase of 1,959. The number of swine in 1845 was 10,090 ; in 1855 but 3,369. The amount of milk sold at market in 1845, was 264,744 quarts; in 1855, it was 1,811,936, — an increase of 1,547,192 quarts. Butter in 1845,602,611 pounds; in 1855, 503,783 pounds. Cheese in 1845, 205,389 pounds ; in 1855, 78,463 pounds. A correct knowledge of the value of products cannot be obtained from the Statistical Tables of 1845 and 1855. unless the fact is perceived that the same products are valued higher in 1855 than by the Tables of 1845. Thus the 10,090 swine of 1845 are valued at $104,834, while the 3,369 of 1855 are valued at $54,209, Avhereas, at the same price per animal, the value would have been but $34,960. So also the 4,892 sheep of 1845 are valued at $9,245, while the 2,217 sheep of 1855 are valued at $6,263, when by the same price per animal the value M'ould have been but $3,990. The neat cattle in 1855 were fewer in number than in 1845, by 93, but are valued by the returns higher by $237,550. The true gain in horses is $106,525, but it is put down at $371,954. The value of the hay crop for 1855 is given at $846,019, whereas at the same price per ton as in 1845, it would have been but $501,354. The columns in the tables, therefore, under the word ^' value," 375 are fallacious, where the object is to ascertain the progress made or the loss sustained in respect to the value of agricul- tural products. It is simply a marking up of the goods on hand, and in trade it is quite a different thing from having a greater number of the goods themselves. In order to answer the question, however, whether the wealth of the county advances, though it is a vital one, jet an extended examination would be necessary, such as would be incompatible with the object of this essay. The statistics referred to are of sterling value, attended nevertheless as they are, with imperfections from their nature incurable. Thus the inquiries of the marshals when taking them relate usually to the products of one year, and that, the year imme- diately preceding the one on which they are taken, and by no means cover the whole time between the years of taking. Again, the information given to the marshals even for one year is often most unreliable. Few, comparatively, are will- ing to believe that it has nothing to do with taxes for five or ten years to come. And then, the statistics sometimes return values instead of quantities, and the values vary from time to time, as seen above ; and when the quantity of a crop is given, or is intended to be given, the year to which it refers may have been an exception to all other years. These and many other difficulties, some of which are noticed above, are real, and though some of them can be cured, others, from their nature, are insuperable. No attempt is made to ascertain the amount of produce brought in to the county or carried out. A perfect system would embrace both these points as indis- pensable. It is not intended, however, to disparage the noble efforts of the State in obtaining reliable statistics. When the volume for 1837 appeared in London, Mr. Webster was struck with the effect of it upon English capitalists. Massachusetts could obtain loans on the strength of that book when no other State could. Mr. Superintendent De Bow's description is so true, that an extract from it will not be deemed out of place. " This State (Mass.) is in advance of every other in 376 the extent and accuracy with which it presses statistical in- vestigations, and is worthy of all praise. Nothing is too minute to escape attention, and among her citizens are the very first statisticians of America." * Geology axd Agriculture an occasional Common School Study. As education must be the basis of all real progress in agri- culture, it is projDer to glance at the common schools of the county, as affording preparation for the farm. The number of schools in the school year of 1839 and 1840, was 277, with an average attendance of 10,581. This num- ber of schools advanced in the following ten years to 392, with an average attendance of 17,412; and in the nine years ending with 1858-59, to 481 schools, with an average atten- dance of 20,056. The average length of the schools also advanced from seven months and twenty-one days in 1839 and 1840, to eight months and fourteen days in 1849 and 1850, and to nine months and seven days in 1858 and 1859. The county valuation increase from $24,335,935 in 1838 and 1839, to $31,110,204 in 1849 and 1850, and to $56,556,466 in 1858. The amount raised for schools by taxation was increased from $56,075 in 1839 and 1840, to $96,570 in 1849 and 1850, and to $162,807 in 1859. Had the sum raised for schools by tax- ation increased no faster than the county wealth advanced, the sum raised for schools would now have been but $130,- 297 instead of $162,807, as above; showing that the schools have risen in favor to the amount of $32,510 in advance of the means. This has occasioned an addition to the length of the schools, in the aggregate, of six hundred and fifty-four * Since the above was -written, an examination of the statistics for 1S60, sho-ws them to be far less valuable than those of 1855. By the law of that year (1855), in- formation was required relating to some two hundred and thirty topics of various kinds. Now, less tlian ninety, and among others the important products of the dairy are entirely omitted, as well as the products of the field and garden. 377 months, or seventy-two years of nine months in each year. It is true, and it gives pain to record it, and should give pain to read it, that while the number of persons in the county between five and fifteen years of age is 28,822, yet only 20,- 306 attend the schools, notwithstanding 3,209 under five and over fifteen years of age also attend, revealing the fact that 11,725 of suitable years for attending, and really due at the schools, are not found there. It might not be considered in good taste, in a sketch of the geology and agriculture of the county, to drop even a hint relating to the studies of the common schools ; but could a small fraction of time be devoted weekly to giving popular views of these two bi-anches of study, so far at least as to exhibit and name the diflerent rocks so perfectly familiar to the sight, but regarded by the children as made only to throw at the birds, how soon would every school house have its col- lection of minerals, and the geological alphabet quartz, feld- spar, mica, talc, hornblende, argillite, limestone, gypsum, and chlorite, become as familiar as the more common alphabet of the spelling-book ! And how would the tedium of the school-room be relieved, and how often would the rod be laid aside or burnt, if the teacher should be encouraged occasion- ally to analyze a sod in presence of the scholars, at least by the inexpensive method described by Dr. S. L. Dana, requir- ing, as he says, " no array of apparatus, nor delicate experi- mental tact, but one which even the country gentleman may apply with very great accuracy, and which is perfectly within the reach of any man who can drive a team or hold a plough," and yet so efiective as to detect the soluble and insoluble geine, the salts and granitic sand, together with the absorb- ing power and specific gravity ! * * The subject of Agricultural Education, second in importance to no other whatever, has been treated in a former number of this journal (Vol. 1, New Series, part 2, 1859), in an article which should be reprinted and sent out gi-atuitously to every town, village, and school district. 378 Meteorology. The great length to which this sketch has already extended, precludes the possibility of treating this subject as its importance demands. The following tables, prepared by Asa Lamson, Esq., of Salem, giving the quantity of rain which fell in the years 1850 to 1860 inclusive, and the mean heat, together with the coldest morning and the warmest noon in each month, from 1857 to 1860 inclusive, are submitted with great confidence. Mr. Lamson is proverbial in this county for the accuracy and the extent of his meteorological observations. Amount of Bain at Salem for each Month, from 1850 to 1860 inclusive, given in Inches and Hundredtlis, tJie same including Melted Snow : — Months. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1 1853. 1854. 1855. ' 1850. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1800. 5.40 2.25 1.19 4.12 4.75 3.05 2.00 6.50 3.00 4.43 7.50 3.37 3.87 0.95 4.41 1.57 2.05 1.87 5.50 3.43 0 85 February 1.91 March 4.87 2.50 3.04 1.88 3.15 1.40 0.95 2.18 1.39 0.18 2.00 April 4.50 7.12 7.33 3.72 5.20 4.72 4.22 0.00 4.87 2.52 1.15 May 7.17 4.59 1.04 0.67 2.94 1.20 1 5.33 4.45 3.02 2.75 1.88 June 2.34 2.50 3.29 0.30 1.84 1.72 1 3.02 1.91 7.28 0.22 5.35 July 2.25 1.78 1.75 2.95 2.75 2.91 1 2.94 0.27 4.21 3.02 0.40 August 4.50 2.73 0.31 10.08 0. 13 2.52 11.12 7.07 0.80 6.25 4.04 September 5.10 3.03 1.00 4.. 32 3.72 1.08: 4.15 1.75 4.75 4.17 7.. 38 October 3.17 4.8S 2.01 3.34 2.24 5.00. 2,03 4.02 2.41 3.93 1 2.04 November 3.01 5.31 3.92 5.22 7.84 4.00 3.15 2.15 2.07 3. SO 5.43 December 5 75 2.20 3.45 4.50 4.50 5.22 3.73 5.00 4.20 5.30 5.42 51.03 41.95 43.14 1 51.04 41.74 42.40 40.10 47.38 40.12 52.13 44.45 44. 44. G3i 1 48. 55. 44. j40. 47. 20} 41 1 1 27f Average amount of Rain for ten years, 46.31 inches, and the eleven years' average is 46.14 inches. The eleven years' average of Snow is 44^ inches. Average of Rain for the previous seven years from 1843, was 40.23 inches. 379 Tcthle of Mean Heat, also giving the coldest 3Iorning and loarmest Nooti in each Ilonth, Observations being made at 3Iorning, Noon, and Evening. i85r. 1 1858. 1859. 1 1860. Months. M. H. Lowest. Highest. M. H. Lowest. Hkhcst. M. H. Lowest. HIshest. [ M. H. Lowest. nlghest. January . . . February . . March April May 10 30 3.3 33 3-2 07 41 84 54 ''5 16 5 8 15 34 44 47 58 34 27 14 28 .38 05 02 02 83 84 91 85 85 05 52 « / 32 17 23 68 32 90 45 25 52 42 07 00 09 55 04 44 01 88 53 00 30 50 29 33 4 0 28 30 48 54 40 37 31 18 8 52 44 61 08 73 88 95 83 84 76 02 58 o / 2fi 08 29 20 38 12 42 88 57 33 03 33 09 84 68 07 58 07 47 67 42 03 25 33 15 6 8 24 34 40 49 46 36 24 26 9 50 46 56 08 87 95 88 86 75 78 03 63 1 o / 28 20 60 .38 17 i44 84 |55 11 06 20 07 67 09 50 59 55 51 05 44 25 27 68 °5 7 20 17 .36 47 50 52 34 28 17 50 50 08 06 85 88 86 88 82 09 62 45 June July August .... September. October... . November.. December.. 03 11 71 14 08 VZ m 04 .50 m 42 50 34 25 " The dash underneath fifrures denotes hdow zero. " The mean heat of the first 25 days of the present August (1860), is about 1" warmer than the corresponding time in last j'ear; and the range is from 52° to 86" between the coldest morning and warmest noon in that timb. We have 3.92 inches of rain in the time to Saturday noon. "August was the warmest .«ummer month in 1860, — something unusual. " My observations were made three times a day on eight months of each year, viz : at 6 a.m., noon, and 6 p.m., and for four months of each year, at 7 a.m., and 5 P.M." As respects the quantity of rain, Mr. Lamson remarks : — " It is very remarkable that in the first five months of 1860, tliere was but 7.79 inches of rain, while in the last seven months there wt)s 36.66 inches. Average of the first five months of the ten previous years was about 19 inches ; and the least quantity in that time was in 1856 and 1858, namely: 14.82 inches in 1856, and in 1858 it was 13.80 inches. " The average of rain on each of the first five months of the years 1850 to 1860, was as follows, viz : — In 1850 . . . , 24.19 inches. In 1855 . . . 18.69 inches 1851 . . . . 19.50 " 1856 . . . 14.84 " 1852 . . . . 21.41 " 1857 . 1858 . . . 19.21 " 1853 . . . . 20.27 " . . 13.80 " 1854 . . . . 18.72 " 1859 . . . 20.24 " !80 TaUe showing the Nuivher of Days during which there was either Thunder or Lightning, or both, famished hy Mr, Lamson, the Record having been kept hy him, viz : — In 1850 . . . 37 days. In 1856 . , . 34 days 1851 . . . 32 " 1857 . . . 33 " 1852 . . . 29 " 1858 . . . 39 " 1853 . . . 28 " 1859 . . . 21 " 1854 . . . 32 " 1860 . . . 25 " 1855 . . . 21 " Average, 30 1-11 days. The Time of the opening of some of the Floivers, and the Beturyi of some of the Migratory Birds. Furnished by Asa Lamson, Esq., of Salem. 1857. 1858, Feb'ry 22. Snowdrop. March 15. Snowdrop. March 16. Bluebird. " 17. Bluebird. " 17. Crocus. " 29. Crocus. April 5. W. B. Swallow. " 31. W. B. Swallow. " 23. Tree Sparrow. April 16. Tree Sparrow. May 1. Barn Swallow. " 25. Barn Swallow. " 12. Bobolink and Golden Eobin. May 7. Peach and Cheiry " 25. Lilac. " 10. Golden Robin. June 20. Locust blooms. " 12. Bobolink. " 24. Lilac. June 20. Locust blooms. 1859. 1860, March 7. Snowdrop. Feb'ry 23. Snowdrop. " 13. Bluebird. " 28. Bluebird. April 7. W. B. Swallow. March 31. W. B. Swallow. " 17. Tree Sparrow. April 16. Tree Sparrow. " 27. Barn Swallow. " 27. Barn Swallow. May 4. Peach and Cherr}-. May 3. CheiTy. " 8. Golden Robin. " 9. Golden Robin. " 13. Bobolink. " 11. Bobolmk. " 21. Lilac. " 18. Lilac. June 16. Locust blooms, June 16. Locust blooms. 381 Statistics for the Year 18C0. Land under Cidtivation in 1860, with Produce of the same. Also., unimproved Land, Sfc. Also, Cattle, Horses, and other Stock. Acres of land annually tilled, excluding orchard tilling 17,335 Acres of orcharding of all kinds of fruit 3,307 xons of hay, the yearly Acres of upland mowing, excluding or- produce of the same, charding mowed 41,1 24| 39,476^ Acres of orcharding mowed 1,841^^ 1,548 Acres of fresh meadow 13,947 10,188 Acres of salt marsh 15,826 13,792 Acres pasture land, excluding orcharding pastured 94,658 Acres of woodland 46,730 Acres of unimproved land 27,52911 Acres unimprovable 6,734| Acres owned by towns or other pro- prietary 1)4311 Acres used for roads 8,216| Acres covered with water 17,5741- Acres from actual survey in aggregate. 237,469|- Horses one year old and upwards 8,039 ' Oxen four years old and upwards 4,027 Cows three years old and upward 13,240 Steers and heifers 1 yr. old and upward 4,278 Sheep six months and upward 1,717 Swine 6 months and upward 6,245 Farm Products for 1855, (being the latest returns made.) Bushels. Value. Indian Corn 147,730^ $232,034 90 Wheat 1,260 2,466 00 Rye 16,192 20,258 25 Barley 18,139 15,339 30 Oats 28,020 18,489 90 Potatoes 290,311 236,878 7,5 Onions 1 76,640 147,136 00 Turnips 26,384 8,471 00 Carrots 202,160 18,861 55 Beets and other esculent vegetables 45,278 50 All other grain and root crops 55,691 75 6 382 Kumber. Value. Apple-trees cultivated for fruit 239,127 SlGG,905 65 Pear-trees cultivated for fruit 27,023 12,227 45 Cherries, nuts, berries, and other fruits, not in- cluded above 16,952 00 Hay. Tons. Value. English hay 36,393f 8654,432 00 Meadow hay 10,124^ 83,904 00 Salt hay .' 11,422 107,683 00 Value. Cranberries, 370 acres of meadow $8,488 00 Milk, 1,811,936 quarts 94,591 93 Essex Agricultural Society — Treadwell Farm — Concluding Remarks. The Essex Agricultural Society was instituted in 1817, and issued the first number of its Transactions in 1818, containing Col. Timothy Pickering's Address. With the exception of 1824, 1826, and 1827, when the Reports of Committees, &c. were published in the New England Farmer, the Society has never failed annually to publish its Transactions, making a pamphlet of from 27 pages in 1818 to one of 200 in 1856. Of the 1,694 members of this Society, 562 have deceased, while only 76 are marked as having removed from the county, leav- ing 1,056 acting members, as appears by the printed list, ■every town in the county being represented. Gentlemen of .all the learned professions are found among the officers and members, and although the Society is composed chiefly of Tthe substantial yeomanry, yet it is believed the time has never been known when men could not have been found lupon the catalogue who could either '* write an episode or iknock down an ox," thus realizing Addison's ideal of a man. The Library of the Society, kept in the rooms of the President at the Court House in Salem, contains some 700 volumes, besides a large number of agricultural and other publications and pamphlets, and is accessible to the members at all times without fee. All ordained ministers of the jgospel xeaident within the county, and all editors of news- 383 papers published in the coimty, are entitled to the privileges of the Library. The members of the Society receive a copy of the Transactions annually. No member is subject to any assessment. The price of membership is but three dollars. The funds of the Society, consisting chiefly of bank and railroad stock, amount to $8,396, exclusive of the Library and the Treadwell Farm. Essex has but one Agricultural Society, it is true ; but Agricultural Libraries are being established, and Farmers' Clubs formed, in many towns. The Treadwell Farm. Of the Treadwell Farm, already mentioned, it is proper though not easy to speak. The will of the testator, Dr. John G. Treadwell, late of Salem, conveying this farm of 150 acres of land with buildings, upon certain conditions, took eftect in 1858. It was given " for the promotion of the science of agriculture by the instituting and performance of experiments and such other means as may tend to the advancement of said science ; " with the proviso, however, that '' if said Society should refuse to accept said farm, or should appropriate it at any time to other purposes than those above stated, or if the whole or any part of said farm should be sold, given away, exchanged, or in any manner parted with by said Society, the whole of said farm shall be forfeited by said Society ; " and in such event it is to go to the Massachusetts General Hospital Corporation and their successors forever. The wisdom and wit of the Committee of the Trustees were taxed to their utmost limit to decide whether such a gift, loaded with such conditions, should be accepted by them at all, and if accepted, then to adopt the most feasible mode of managing it, so as to come fairly within the wishes of the' testator, and yet so as to prevent decided loss to the Society ; " the land being," in the language of the Committee, " in the lowest possible condition, w^ith the exception of the pastures and a small field adjoining the house,'' — requiring " a long 384 application of good farming before it will really warrant any system of experiments on crops with the prospect of such a return as every careful and intelligent farmer has a riglit to expect." In this state of things, the Committee, in Novem- ber, 1859, recommend that the attention of the Society be turned to the repairs of the buildings and the improvement of the land, preparatory to a series of experiments in the raising of crops. They also obtained a set of meteorological instruments and tables from the Smithsonian Institution. The " dilapidated condition of the barn " made it necessary, in I860, to take measures for the erection of a new one, a measure indispensable for the well managing of the farm, yet requiring funds where no funds were. " Most of the land, also, proving to be light, sandy, and beachy, and having been scantily manured for many years," it became almost certain that, having taken the farm, the Society would be obliged to create something out of about nothing. The indefatigable Committee have entered upon this labor, however, and in due time will work out the problem, it is believed, to universal satisfaction. Concluding Remarks. Notwithstanding the great variety of topics yet untouched, I am admonished, by the length to which this essay has extended, that it must be brought to a close. I by no means claim to have given a connected view of the agriculture and geology of the county, although that was the original intention. Notwithstanding my somewhat extensive and most agreeable explorations, it is but too true that very much land yet remains to be explored. Many thanks are due from me to the gentlemen who have so promptly responded to the printed questions sent to them, as well as many others who have replied to letters addressed to them, and still others who have devoted their time and lavished their hospitalities, or kindly offered so to do, I have long and interesting communications on hand from gentlemen who are well entitled to be heard, but which are crowded out for want of room. 385 Agriculture, it may be said, in the eloquent words of a fine writer upon another topic, " takes or should take the charac- ter of an endless experiment. It is an ever unfinished enter- prise. The hopes of its true-hearted friends run before their performance, and their anticipations are not realized. Its processes are all tentative. It works by an open pattern. A suspicion, which is probably wholesome, haunts us all that there is something secret about it not yet found out. An undertone of criticism, if not of complaint, runs through many of our reports. Greater things are felt to be in its possibili- ties than its achievements, and the heart of every workman in it, whether scientific or practical, that is Avorthy of his place, prophecies a future for it far better than the past." Prize Essay on Farm Management. We have been induced to transfer the following article from the sixty-seventh number of the Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, because it is a very clear and concise statement of a system of farming but little known and practised here, but which has placed Scotland in the front rank of successful agriculture. We hope every one will read it with critical care and attention. We need hardly to observe that, to reduce the figures to our currency, it only requires to be carried in the mind that the pound (<£) represents five dollars, the shilling twenty-five cents. Farm Management : Report on a Mooe of Managing a Farm, afford- ing AN Example of High Farming combined with Profit. By Alexander Simpson, Teawig, Beauly. [Premium — The Gold Medal.] In presenting the Report contained in the following pages, the writer is not pre- pared to say that its contents ehicidate (in the words of the Society's Premium List) " the best mode," — he is satisfied with offering a report describing a " mode of managing a farm, affording an example of high farming combined with profit." 386 To entitle a report on this subject to consideration and confidence, I believe that what is requii-ed is not an estimate of probable returns from supposed expenditure (these, when tested by experience, almost always prove fallacious), but a bona Jide return of the expenditure and receipts of a farm iu working order. This I give in a form which I conceive will be intelligible to the reader least conversant with book-keeping, while I believe it will be received by those versed in figures as a fair business statement of the accounts of a tenant farmer. As such, indeed, I confi- dently present it. Not unacquainted with business prior to engaging in my present occupation, I keep regular accounts as a matter essential to farming as to every other business ; and the profit-and-loss account presented at pages 386-.389, is simply a transcript of my own books, with the exception of one entry, which I have, for reasons fully explained, amended. The accounts given are those for the crops of 1856 and 1857. Situated as my fann is, on the northeastern coast of Scotland, I shared fully in the disasters attending the harvests of those years, which will long live in the memory of Scotch farmers. Much corn was totally lost by the opening up on the fields of the drenched stooks, more was deteriorated to a large degree by discoloration and sprout- ing ; while the harvest-work, being protracted, was necessarily expensive. The potato disease was also very destructive iu its eifects during both years. An expo- sition of the results of these two years is, I feel, putting profitable farming to a most severe test, — a test which, perhaps, in general, it could not stand, and which, iu my own case, it does stand only from my following a more diversified system of cropping than that afforded by the standard four-or-five-course shift. The total acreage on which I report is 313 : of these, 4 are occupied by houses and buildings, and 10 by banks and belts of plantation, not capable of cultivation, and of little or no value for pasturage, leaving 299 acres of arable land, which were cropped as follows in the years 1856 and 1857 : — 1856. 1857. Acres. Acres. Wheat 6J 82 Barley 39 12 Oats _32 50 Total cereals 140 14i Beans 0 5 Potatoes 24 27 Do for cottarp, &c 3 21 Mangold 0 1^ Turnips 57 38 Turnips sown for seeding 5 14 Turnip seed 0 5 Fallow after turnip seed 8 0 Tares for cutting 0 2 Grass in rotation 54 63 Do. in permanent calf, &c. parks 5 5 End ridges, and uucropped 3 2 299 293 £98 15 0 137 5 0 100 19 9 8 14 0 387 The Expenditure and Returns for the crops of these years are given in the ol- lowing account current : — Dr. Farm. Crops 1856 and 1857. 1856. June 1. To valuation of live stock, viz: — Horses £262 0 0 Cattle 52 10 0 Sheep 13115 0 Pigs ; 36 0 0 £785 5 0 1858. June 1. To purchases of Uorses. Cattle Sheep Pigs 345 13 To cattle-feeding stufTs purchased 97 13 To general farm expenditure for two crops under the following heads, viz : — Rental 975 7 2 Rates and assurances 43 1 10 Yearly servants' wages 240 8 0 Do. provisions Labor by outworkers Seeds of all descriptions Manures Bran, &c. for horses* Tradesmen and charges Implements purchased Improvements and lime To two elevenths of expense of improvements of thrashing-mill in 1856.— See page 185 9 12 3 To crop 1858 — Rental and charges on 14 acres turnip seed, harvested July, 1858, proceeds to crop 1857 35 0 0 £4,599 18 7 To balance, being profit on the investment, including interest on capital 548 16 2 £5,148 14 9 * This head does not inchide home-grown corn used for horses. Bran is used to. a large extent as food for the working horses. The lighter oats go for feeds when at full worlc; and tail barley and wheat for boiled messes. On these, and on the grass, tares, and hay used, it would be difficult to set a value; indeed, practically, it would be difficult to give an exact account of the quantities consumed; and as they are used up in working the farm, an account of them would only be useful to show the gross produce, but would not in any way affect the balance-sheet. 308 15 370 15 500 11 2 0 0 413 16 71 12 215 19 9 0 5 56 4 9 130 2 10 £3,.326 13 11 388 Cr. Crops 1856 and 1857. Contra. 1858. June 1. By cash sales during two years — of Cattle £412 9 1 Sheep 2J4 8 1 Pigs 138 9 2 Total live stock Wheat £984 18 10 Barley 478 4 9 Oats 269 2 3 Total corn Potatoes £457 1 1 Turnips to sheep 133 6 10 Turnipseed 337 10 10 Gra-'s, hay, &c 40 7 9 Dairy of 12 cows 122 11 9 Total for green-crop land Total cash sales By corn, &c. &c. used for seed, servants' provisions, and household supplies,* under the following heads, viz: — Wheat £164 12 3 Barley 13 8 9 Oats 202 6 10 Beans and tares 6 17 6 Potatoes 159 3 8 Turnip seed, and rent of land occupied by... 32 8 0 Rye-grass seed 10 14 0 Dairy 63 3 4 By valuatidn of live stock, viz : — Horses £320 0 0 Cattle 410 0 0 Sheep 140 0 0 Pigs 27 10 0 £775 6 4 1,732 5 10 1,090 18 3 £3,598 10 5 £652 14 4 897 10 0 £5,148 14 9 * The total amount included under the head " Household Supplies " does not exceed .£50 in two years, so no great error in over-estimation can have been made. The provisions used in kitchen are all charged to " Servants' Provisions," per contra; and the portion used by the female servants is considered to meet the value of their services in dairy work, their money wages going in cash book to the account of " Household and Personal Expenditure." 389 The foregoing account might be epitomized as follows : — Dr. Farm. Crops 1856 and 1857. To ordinary expenditures for 2 years, as fol- lows, viz: — Kental, rates, &c. £1,018 9 0 Contra. Cr. Labor, tradesmen. and charges 1,135 17 7 Seeds 500 11 0 Manures 413 16 9 Depreciation in value of, and food bought for horses 112 7 0 £3,181 1 4 To extraordinary expenditure, viz: Implements £65 17 0 Improvements and lime 130 2 10 195 19 10 Total expendi- ture To balance for profit and inter- est £3,377 1 2 548 16 2 £3,925 17 4 By produce for two crops of Wheat £1,149 11 Barley 491 13 Oats (besides horse corn) Total cereals.. Beans, hay, &c.. . Turnips to sheep * I'otatoes Turnip seed rrofiton live stock (deducting pur- chased food). . . . Total grass & green-crop land 571 9 1 £57 19 3 133 6 10 616 4 9 334 18 10 670 14 0 £2,112 13 8 1,813 3 8 Total returns £3.925 17 4 The purchased manures amount to 14s. per arable acre per annum. Including purchased feeding-stuffj', the expenditure amounts to within a fraction of 20s. per arable acre per annum. This is a rate of expenditure which may fairly be held to characterize a system of " high farming; " and the writer is rather inclined to exceed than to fall short of a similar liberal expenditure in future years. The gross returns are £6 11 3 per acre per annum The rental is 1 12 7 " " which, when the ^soil, &c. as described in pp. 392-395 are taken into account, will be considered a high rate. The residue to the tenant is 0 18 4 " " The foregoing accounts are not accounts " cooked " for the occasion, but, as has been ah-eady stated, are faithfully taken from the business books of the farm, and were kept without .any view to their condensation into a published statement. Having thus given, in accordance with the requirements of the Society, an account of " the expenditures and returns " of the farm reported on, I now proceed to explain, also in accordance with those requhements, " the mode of accounting " which I follow. It is very simple. The term of old Whitsunday (for convenience say 1st June) is the time of balancing the year's accounts. By this time the corn of the past season is all thrashed, and either sold or in granary. It is not valued over to the * Sold to be fed to sheep on the land. 190 next crop, the actual returns, when sold, being tlie credit to the crop it belongs to. The winter stock of cattle, sheep, &c. are then either sold, or valued and turned over to summer grazing. The seed-corn, &c. sown, is credited to the past, and charged to the incoming year at its fair value, as will be seen at the debit and credit of the foregoing balance- sheet. The fiirm work performed, the manure and straw, are not brought into account. Transferring accounts of tillage, &c. from one year to another, is an unnecessary complication, as there can be very little diffei-ence between one year and another, under one system of management ; and the valuing of ploughings, cross plough- ings, harrowings, and grubbings, only seiwes to confuse and mislead, except in the case of a change of tenancy. In like manner the stock of straw and manm-e, at any particular period, varies but little from year to year. Implements, also, do not require to be annually valued ; for it will be found that to keep up with the improvements of the day, new purchases must be made to an extent suiBcient at least to balance any pei'centage that would be required for dete- rioration on the old stock. It will be observed that £56 4s. 9d. were thus expended during the two years reported on ; and here it may be observed that, so strictly had this rule been observed that an amount of £52 18s. 6d. paid for attach- ing horse-power machinery to the water thrashing-mill, was charged against the then current year (1856); but on further consideration it appeared but right that this charge should be spread over eleven years, — the unexpired term of the lease, — any sum to be received at its termination for the machinery being considered as equivalent to the compound interest on the expenditure. Improvements effected during the year are also put down to current expenditure, not capitalized. Such will, in the ordinaiy operations of a farmer, be fuimd neces- sary in the way of additional draining, or making up defects in that already exe- cuted, and in additions to, or alterations in office-houses. These ought to be done by the landlord, but, practically, during the currency of a lease they generally fall on the tenant. For such, and for the improvement of the land by liming, it wiU be seen that a charge of £65 per annum has been incuiTcd. There remains to be noticed the valuation of live stock. Horses may, in some sense, be considered as part of the outfit of the farm, and might be classed as part of the " Capital Account." But considering that, on the one hand, deterioration by age necessarily does occur, and that considerable deterio- ration may take place from accident or disease ; and, on the other hand, that by rearing young hoi'ses the value may inci'case instead of diminishing from year to year, irrespective of purchases made, it becomes necessary to revalue them at stock taking, in the usual way, before striking a balance. In regard to the other descriptions of live stock, there can, of course, be no ques- tion as to that being the plan to be followed. In affixing a value to the live stock, every care has been taken to amve at a fiiir value ; and as the foregoing accounts were made up for private use, and not for publication, there could be no object but to make them as accurate in this respect as the judgment of the writer would allow, without calling in the assistance of others. When the valuation is made, he has as clearly in his view the profit and loss account of the crop growing, as of that clos- ing, and hence the scales are held equal. In the employment of valuators, the same 391 knowledfrc of the stock, its capabilities or antecedents, could not be expected, — the same individual could not always be secured, and a difference of judgment, caprice, or inattention, might occasion discreiiancies in valuation which would be very embarrassing to one keeping accounts as has here been done, not with a view to publication, hut for his own information and guidance. It is doubtless somewhat bold in a tenant farmer, of whose lease a considerable portion has expired, thus to come forward with not only the statistics of his occu- pancy, but also with full details of its money results. I believe, however, that by the close and jealous reserve generally observed by those of my profession in this last respect, a gi-eat deal of misapprehension is occasioned. I believe that land- owners are more disposed to over-estimate than to under-estimate the profits of farm- ing. The figures given above can do no harm in our relations with them ; they show, as will be seen hereaftei-, but a very moderate percentage on capital invested. Again, tenant farmers, from the want of keeping accounts, are apt to under-estimate their profits. Because the " balance in the banker's " is not increased from year to year, they are apt to conclude and to assert that " fanning is a losing business," although in the mean time their personal and household expenses have been defrayed, and in most cases a progressive improvement has gone on in the value of their stock, and condition of their occupancies. But it may be said that I have not given a fair view of the results oljtained by myself, and therefore no correct data for estimating those of others, from having selected as my years of exposition two in which bad harvests were experienced. But here there were compensating influences at work. " Necessity is," proverbially, " the mother of invention ; " and the urgency of rent-day, and labor and manure-bills, causes expedients to be resorted to, which, in more prosperous times, would not be thought of, or, if thought of, put aside as "troublesome." Thus, sprouted grain may put pigs more forward in the balance-sheet than they would otherwise have been ; damaged straw may cause the opinion that cattle will not make much of the turnips to be given in connection with it, and these turnips may be turned to an account in raising turnip seed, which tells in the balance sheet, and at the factor's audit ; a failure in the potato crop may make a particular variety, which lias com- paratively escaped, a matter of profit from seed demand, considerably beyond the ordinary rate. So important were those influences in the years reported on, that I believe I would not be safe in calculating for future crops, — exempt from harvest disasters and potato foilure, — a much larger balance to the credit of the profit-and- loss account than has been given above ; a balance which, as already stated, will be found a very moderate return on capital invested. This bi-ings me to consider at what that capital should be stated. Here I am free to confess that I experience much difficulty. As will be understood from a description of the land I occupy, to be given hereafter, a large proportion of it was entered upon when it was in the very lowest state of exhaustion. Much work, in the shape of permanent improvement, was executed in the way of draining, build- ing office-houses, &c. Thus it was at least a full rotation before the land was even in fair working order. During this period the " Capital Account " could not, of course, be closed ; and when these derangements were put right, and fair working condition arrived at, the intricate question presents itself, " When profit on capital Bhould commence to be computed ; " If from the begiuuing of the investment or 392 adventure, profit were to be added to capital, then too heavy an enhancement would be made of the " Capital Account." Moreover, impartial reconsideration of past expenditure might show that a good share of it was chargeable rather to " inexperience " than to " capital." To disentangle these two items would be a task puzzling to the best farmer accountant, and I shall not undertake it. I believe that a fair valuation of the farming investment, as it now (October 1858) stands, is the most correct view of the " Capital Account " on which profit is computable ; and I may add that, assuming the following to be a correct view of the immediately available value of the investment, — which I believe it to be, — the investment has, on the whole, tm-ned out very fairly as to the past. Estimate of Farm Valuation, October, 1858. Livestock as at 1st June, 1858 £897 10 0 Increased value thereof, from pasturage to date 100 0 0 Implements and mill machinery 400 0 0 120 acres corn crop, average per acre, £8 960 0 0 25 acres potatoes and winter beans, per acre £15 375 0 0 6 acres mangold, per acre, £10 60 0 0 42 acres Swede and yellow turnips, per acre, £8 336 0 0 12 acres turnip seed, contract 200 0 0 Haystacks, 30 tons, £3 90 0 0 £3,418 10 0 This is an " above-ground " valuation. An " under-ground " valuation of unexhausted manures and improvements might be entered upon ; but it would be at the best but suppositive, and dependent on unknown conditions of prices. I shall, therefore, not add it to capital ; though assuredly I would not part with it at less than one thousand pounds. Assuming, therefore, that the " Capital Account " stands at the above sum of £3,418 10s. the profit for two years appearing as £548 16s. 2d. — i.e. £274, 8s. Id. per annum, I have an annual return for superintendence, risk, and interest, of eight per cent. This is not equal to the profit expected on capital employed in mercantile trans- actions, where ten per cent, is calculated upon as the fair return upon capital invested. But a farmer is engaged in what has well been tenned by the wise and great Washington " the most healthful, the most useful, and the most noble employment of man ; " he should, therefore, be satisfied with a less annual return upon his capital than is reaped (or expected to be reajied) by his friend who, " in populous cities pent," passes his anxious days in the whirl of commerce. He has, moreover, this to counterbalance his moi'e moderate profits, that he has a house and garden rent free, and also a horse and vehicle, which, occasionally employed as part of his business outfit, is at all times a matter of personal and family accommodation, which, to commercial classes, it would cost a portion of their " profits from trade " to obtain. Description of the Farm reported on. It lies on the eastern side of Scotland, in the valley of the Bcauly Frith, and on the confines of the counties of Inverness and Ross. It consists of two separate holdings, of the respective sizes of 180 and 119 acres. 393 They are both held under current leases of 19 years' duration. They are situated at rather more than two miles distance from each other, and have separate steadings and resident servants ; but are practically worked as one farm. Horses and ser- vants are transferred between them as the aiTangement of work may requii-e ; stock also, as the consumption of grass and winter food may determine. There are advantages, and also disadvantages, connected with this division of the land. The first are, the less length of the cartage between the fields and the steadings, — the moderate size of the fields, averaging eighteen acres each, — and some emulation between the resident servants at each. The disadvantages consist chiefly in the dislocation of work, by the ordinary carrying on of it by two small parties instead of one larger united band. On the whole, I think that by it the item of labor in the expense account is somewhat increased, while the horsework is economized : thus, the advantages and disadvantages about counterbalance each other. To the holding of 119 acres, situated at about twenty feet elevation above the sea level, having the river Beauly as its southern boundary, the following desci-iption and remarks, forming a part of a contribution on the subject of "Draining " to the columns of the Agricultural Gazette in 1855, apply; — "A specimen of the soil and subsoil having been submitted, in the year 1 845, to Professor Johnston, he furnished the following analysis, appending thereto some valuable remarks and instructions (partially quoted below), which have been of much service in directing the processes of culture and management followed out- Analysis of Soil. Subsoil. By Washing — Clay, fine sand, and organic matter 93.07 97.12 Coarse sand and small stones , 6.98 2.88 By analysis — Organic matter 10.10 2.44 Alkaline salts, soluble in water 0.91 0.15 Gypsum, sulphate of lime 0.19 Trace. Oxide of iron 3.32 3.70 Alumina, soluble in acids 2.13 2.41 Carbonate of lime 1,32 0.47 Carbonate of magnesia 0.87 0.61 Insoluble silicious matter 81.17 88.25 100.01 98.03 " 'Remarks. — It is a stiff clay soil, formed, as your geological position would intimate, from the debris of the mica-slate-rock, with a little assistance from the gran- ite and old red sandstone. The proportion of oxide of iron, derived chiefly from the latter, is not excessive ; and in a proper condition of the soil, properly di-ained, thoroughly opened, and well tilled, would add to its productive character. But I observe that this oxide has formed itself into little lumps, indicating an unwhole- some condition of the soil, — -that the air is not properly admitted, and that there exist among the soil particles of ochrey matter with which it will not be whole- some for the roots of plants to come in contact. The small quantity of organic matter in the subsoil would seem to imply that it has been hitherto in a condition in which very few roots would willingly descend into it. These facts all recommend thorough drainage and subsoiling as necessary to render available to the plant the diflferent kinds of food which the soil so abundantly contains.' 194 "These remarks were written in .Tuly, 1845. Perhaps their accuracy could not be better supported than by the simple statement that the wheat crop of the outgo- ing tenant for that year was estimated by valuators at 14i bushels per acre ; an estimate which was somewliat in excess of the produce actually harvested })y me, the incoming tenant. The whole farm has been thoroughly drained, and the effects are very satisfactory, — the pi-oduce being now in the aggregate fully threefold of wliat it was prior to draining and deep tillage, though the ochrcy matter which the learned professor described as ' not wholesome for the roots of plants to come in contact with,' is not yet quite washed out or neutralized ; lience the prod- uce of wheat and oats disappoints expectation, while green crops are satisfactory. " When I begun draining, Smith of Deanston's system of furrow draining was beginning to be accepted by the more advanced agriculturists as a proved and practical improvement ; and his plan of 2}-feet drains, filled for a foot with broken stones, was the perfection of drainage engineering. Such was the system followed in the major part of the drainage I effected. My first change was to three feet depth, with eight inches of broken stones ; then came tiles, with boards below for soles, and broken stones above. It was in 1848 that I put down the fii'st pipe-tiles, three feet deep. Increasing that depth to three and a half feet, and placing 1 J-inch pipe drains in the line of greatest descent, at intervals of eight yards, we attain to what may well and truly be termed ' thorough drainage.' " Drainage on each of these s} stems has, I must say, been efficacious whatever preference I may give to one system over another. No water, even after heavy rain, lies for above a few hours on the least perfectly drained field. It is true tliat the ran through the stone drains is not so rapid as it is through tiles, but those who have scanned the results obtained by one of the most skilful and successful of Scottish agriculturists, Mr. Hope, of Fenton Barns, — which are largest from land drained on wh.at the enthusiasts for deep draining would consider very faulty princi- ples, — are cautious about trying to make ' good better ' by going again over their drained ground ; there foi-e, I am content to allow my land stone-drained, at two and a half and three feet depth, to lie as it is." On this holding the work done on or to the land has been furrow-draining, as above described ; the building with stone conduits, and filling up of upwards of 2,000 j'ards of wide open ditches ; the levelling of old fences and grubbing up of thickets, which formerly rendered useless five acres of ground, and impeded the straight working of the fields. These labors cost about £600 for hired labor, besides much work by the servants and horses of the farm; apart — £375 — of this was money obtained by the landlord's co-operation, under the Government Drainage Loan Act, for which the full interest of six and one half per cent, is paid by me, and classed in the accounts under the head of rental. Subsoiling, the use of lime, pure, and in composts (pi-incipally the latter) ; the application of guano and other portable manures, are the further means used in each year for the improvement of the soil of this holding, but it continues a deaf soil. Iron is still abundant " in an unwholesome condition," and practical farmers know well that such a soil is more productive of straw and weeds than of corn. A steading, including water-power mill and milldam, was erected by me at my own expense, with the exception that wood and slates were furnished by the land- lord. This, with the refitting of the dwelling-house, also done by me, cost little less than £500. 395 Of the other hokling, 120 .acres are in a flat, rechiimed by emhankment from the frith. All this land is below the level of high water. The dniinage water is col- lected in open ditches surrounding and intersecting the flat, and discharged at low water by sluices through the embankment. When the land was reclaimed about thirty years ago, it was a perfect swamp, not merely from the influence of overlying water from tides, but also from spring water ; for, lying as it docs immediately at the foot of a gravelly terrace of land, extending back for several miles without any nat- ural drainage outlet, the water of filtration through this large extent rises to the surface through the fliat. This rising water was originally taken from the fields into the surrounding ditches by drains formed of brushwood. These, of course, soon decayed, and were replaced by drains formed either of stones from the gravel, three to six inches in diameter, or of split trees laid triangularly together. These, again, became unsatisfactory, and are still the cause of much annoyance from frequently bursting out. Since the commencement of the present lease, the land has been gone over again, and £394 advanced by the landlord (interest on this at six and one half per cent, is also paid and included in the rental charge) has been expended in thorough pipe drainiige, — the leading drains being constructed of stones, the rejected cuttings of a lai-ge red sandstone quarry in the immediate neighborhood. The outfall is so defective, even at low water, that three feet is the utmost depth that can be attained, and there is expense continually incurred by the silting up of the pipes, and the breaking out of the old wooden drains. The containing ditches are also difficult to keep clean, as the current is very languid, and water-weeds grow rapidly, and choke them. This flat is of a peaty soil, lying on a subsoil of bluish alluvial sand, with occa- sional veins of diluvial clay through it ; and it also is charged with an unwelcome superfluity of ochrey matter, giving it a similar character to the previous division, namely, that of " a deaf soil." The other sixty acres of this holding are on the gravel teiTace, about forty feet above high-water mark. They consist of thin sharp soil, giving good returns in " dropping years," but easily affected l)y drought and overworking. The buildings on tliis holding, including water-power mill, were completed by the landlord, and are on the whole, commodious, though they have required changes at the tenant's expense (witness £52, 18s. 6d. for horse-power machinery to mill) to suit them to his requirements. Management. The two divisions of 120 acres each are managed on a six-course shift, say — 1. Grass. 2. Oats. 8. Green crop: potatoes, beans, swedes, mangolds. 4 Wheat. 5. Turnips. 6. Barley or wheat: sown out with grass. It is a rule to give a heavy farmyard manuring to No. 3 of the course, supple- mented by guano or a mixture of it ^vith dissolved bones. By the aid of composts, more or less of No. 5 is gone over with manure, and it receives a liberal supply of 396 manures in turnip drills. If wheat follows, that is put down with as much farm manure as can be gathered together in the autumn. The terrace or gravel land is managed on a five-course shift — 1, 2. Grass pastured. 3. Oats. 4. Potatoes or turnips eaten off by sheep. 5. Barley. This is a hungry soil, and swallows up much armyard manure without making much return for it. Dissolved bones are most relied on for its fructification. The above is the general course of management, but some derangement in its rotation has been caused (as will be seen by the acreage cropping at page 386) by the practice recently followed of raising some acres of turnip seed on a contract with respectable seedsmen. That practice also involves, to some extent, the curtailment of the live stock, and a consequent increase in the manure account. In other respects I do not think it involves impoverishment of the soil. The land in the end of July is in your hands free of crop ; and that crop, as earned away, has consisted of — say 12 cwt. of seed for two years' growth. To restore the constituents of that by farmyard or artificial manure is no difficult task. You have the land cleaned and manured before the commencement of harvest work, with the rotation, as it were, at your command, to begin with wheat or whatever crop you please. I have found it advantageous on clay soil to follow a crop of turnip seed by one of winter beans. These can be sown in early autumn, so as to have well-established roots before \vinter sets in, and thus they ripen in July or August, and are not trouble- some and precarious to harvest, as are spring-sown beans in late seasons. The portable manures used during 1856 and 1857 consisted almost entirely of first-class Peruvian guano, and bones dissolved by myself in sulphuric acid. The quantities used were, — Guano— owt Bones for dissolving — bushels. 1856. 1857. 230 76 262 668 It will be seen by this statement that the extravagant price put upon Peruvian guano has much limited my use of it. If sold at £10 to £11 per ton, I would use it to the extent of four fifths of my expenditure, as there can be no question that it approaches nearer to a perfect manure — i.e. one available for every crop and every soil — than any other The live stock on the farm, as now ("October, 1858) settled for the winter, con- sists of — 13 Cows (crosses). 1 Short-horn bull. 12 Two-year-old cattle for feeding. 13 One-year-old cattle for feeding. 12 Calves of this year. 90 Ewes, and 2 Leicester tups for early lambs to sell off. 20 Half-bred lambs to fill up stock. 1 Boar and 3 breeding sows, with their last and present litters. About eight acres of turnip will be let for sheep-feeding. This is not a paying practice, — giving usually less than £6 per acre ; but it sweetens and improves the ground when practi-sed once in each second rotation, — i.e. in each ten or twelve years. 397 Tho labor is performed by the following permancut servants, viz : — Two working grieves. Five plouglimen. Tliree lads for cattle and sheep. Extra male laborers are employed as required about ditches, dungheaps, and composts. Women workers do the green crop and barn work under the grievc's supervision, and also the principal part of the harvest work, which is all done by the sickle, except the oats, which are cut by the scythe. The men have cottages, each of at least two rooms, on the farms. They are on yearly engagements, and, calculating the provisions they receive at wholesale prices, they receive, including their money wages, but exclusive of rent on their houses, .£28 per each ploughman ; the grieves, of course, receive considerably more. The boys are fed in the kitchen. Five pairs of horses are employed, five mares, and five geldings. These peiform all the tillage of the farm, and also the delivery of the grain and potatoes grown, the larger portion of which, — say, at least two thirds, — are delivered at a distance of 11 miles from the steading, being the nearest seaport and railway station. A horse for riding and driving is, of course, kept as a part of the business equipment of the farm. I have been unfortunate in rearing young horses, and I believe chiefly from the cause that the studhorses travelling in the district are overtasked with mares. It will be observed that a considerable sum C£98 15s. which is after deduction of old horses sold off) is charged for horses purchased ; and but one young horse is rearing up on the farm. I have thus given, in accordance with the requirements of the Society, a full description of the farm, and described the system on which it has been managed and cultivated, the improvements effected, stated the expenditure and returns, and ex- plained the mode of accounting. I am furtlaer instructed by the Society's Premium List " to consider how much extra or imported manure is required to maintain in high condition a farm of 300 acres, cultivated on a four-course shift, when potatoes forming one half of the green crops, and the grass, made into hay, are both sold off the farm." Before giving a reply to the question thus put, I would observe that the course of cropping pointed out, — namely, a four-coui'se shift, — is by no means the best that could be adopted for the development of high or even good farming. It gives but one cleaning in four years to the land, one manuring also. It likewise brings the grass crops into such close proximity to each other that the red clover, the success- ful growth of which is, if not indispensable, at any rate highly conducive to tho fruitfulness of the soil during the rotation, has but small chance of succeeding. Moreover, the two cereals, wheat and oats, will not, manure and cultivate as we may, give their full produce when revolving in such a close and narrow round. The course of cropping pointed out would appear as if intended to meet the case of close proximity to a town or city, where town manure can readily be obtained by pur- chase, and a high price got for eai-ly potatoes and for cutting grass and hay ; but I believe that this is precisely the situation in which the cultivation of green crops should preponderate. They are in such a situation considerably more money- producing than gi-ain crops ; and though these are also necessary, I conceivo 7 398 that in such districts corn avps should be grown to facilitate the growth of green ones ; as in more distant districts green crops are grown preparatory to grain ones. The rotation I would consider most appropriate for sucli a situation la a five- conrse shift of this nature : — 1. Turnips, swedes, and yellows, and mangold. 2. Potatoes. 3. Wheat. 4. Clover grass. 5. Oats. Or, viewing the facilities in such a district, for a disposal of dairy produce and of early lambs, I would be inclined to make it into a six-course shift by contin- uing the grass as a pasturing crop for a second year, in which case there would be sown, along with Italian lye-grass and red and alsike clovers for the first year's cutting, a mixture of seeds for second year's pasturing. The only objection is the distance of time between the cleaning crops, which, leaving an interval of three unfallowed years, might tend to make the land foul ; but as the two green crops follow in succession, an opportunity is afforded of thoroughly destroying every root-weed ; and if surfixce or annual weeds are feared, they can be kept down by di-illing the corn and hoeing it either by hand or machine. I think that even an improvement would be made on this course by taking barley after the wheat, pre- paratory to laying down with grass. It would then stand a seven-course shift j thus — 1. Turnips and mangold. 2. Potatoes. 3. Wheat. 4. Barley. 5. Clover grass for cutting. 6. Pasture. 7. Oats. Following out, however, the instructions before me, I take the case of a farm of 300 acres on a four-course shift ; say — 75 acres grass cut for hay. 75 " oats. 38 " potatoes. 37 " turnips, mangolds, cabbage, and carrots. 75 " wheat. I would apply to the grass, in March, 2 cwt. Peruvian guano per acre ; and in April or early May, when showers are falling, 1 cwt. nitrate of soda. An early and a heavy cut of grass for home consumption by horses and soiling cattle, and for making into hay, would thus be obtained. Thus treated, I would calculate on a good aftermath, to be either sold or used in the yards followed by a rich sward for sheep, up to Christmas. It would then plough down for oats, with the prospect of a heavy crop, witliout any further addition of manure. I would manure the potato and turnip breaks well, so as to have a full produce from them, and the land ready, without further manuring, for the autumn wheat crop ; storing the turnips, &c. early in November. I believe that if a moderate por- tion of oilcake or other feeding-stuffs is used along with the turnip and mangold, &c. produced in feeding cattle, the oat straw may be consumed, and the wheat straw 399 trodden into manure ; that thus sufficient " muck" (the farmer's surest friend after all) will have been produced at home to give twenty loads per acre to all the green crop break. I would give the potatoes at planting 2 cwt. superphosphate, and 1 cwt. Peru- vian guano per acre, and top dress them with 2 cwt. Peruvian guano at the first hand-hoeing. This practice I have found by experiment to give the largest produce. To the turnips, &c., I would give 2 cwt. superphosphate and 3 cwt. Peruvian guano per acre at sowing, adding to the mangold 5 cwt. of common salt. Thus treated — of course presuming careful culture in other respects — I have no doubt that even under a four-course sliift, " the land would be maintained in a high condition," though I question, for the reasons already explained, whether the produce would be so high of any crop as it would be under a more extended rotation. We would, adopting the practice thus suggested, have a total use of purchased manure to the extent of 375 cwt. Peruvian guano, at 12s £225 0 0 75 " nitrate of soda, at 18s 67 10 0 150 " superphosphate, at 7s 62 10 0 30 " salt (6 acres mangold), at Is 110 0 £346 10 0 Or a little more than 23s. per acre. This, though it may appear high, would, under the circumstances suggested, be, I believe, a wise, safe, and profitable rate of expenditure. Agricultural Miscellany. It was originally intended that this number should com- plete the first volume of the New Series of the Transactions, and it was a part of the plan that a portion of its pages should be devoted to an abstract of the contents of the original volumes, which date back almost to the commencement of the century. This design has been postponed, but not abandoned ; and the delay, we hope, will be the means of securing a better execution of the work than would have been possible if it had been confined to the limited pages of the present number. In the mean time, we shall avail ourselves of the facts and opinions which we find recorded in the earlier pages, in speaking of the progress which agriculture has made in Massachusetts within the present century. Indeed, it is only to the old Transactions of the Society 400 that we can refer to for this purpose. The very first pages of its earliest volume contain a series of questions, addressed to farmers, which cover the whole ground of agricultural practice. Many replies to these questions were received, and are to be found in the subsequent volumes of the Trans- actions. Some were prepared with care by gentlemen dis- tinguished for their practical information and general intelli- gence, and others by associations of farmers, who in this manner brought their individual knowledge and practice into a common stock. The materials thus collected are of very great value in elucidating the subject now before us, and by their aid we can gain a pretty correct knowledge as to our agricultural progress. In taking for our starting-point the existence of this Society, we meet with one important fact at the outset, which is, that the average size of farms has not varied materially for the last fifty years. The returns made to the Society in 1807, from various parts of the State, agree with the census returns of 1860, in fixing the average at about one hundred acres. Whatever progress, therefore, that we have made or whatever may have been our decline, it cannot be ascribed to a change in the size of our farms ; it is need- less, perhaps, to add that their tenure also continues the same ; farmers now own, as they have always done, the land which they cultivate, constituting stii^alarge and influential class in the body politic. /We know no more satisfactory method of measuring our actual progress in agriculture than by comparing the amount of the principal products per acre of the two periods, half a century ago and at the present time, and also the value of land, as nearly as it can be ascertained, at the same periods. If, upon this comparison, we find an increased agricultural production and an enhanced value in our farming land, we may safely conclude that we have made a decided progress ; if we could show that every acre produced thirty-three per cent, more in food than it did fifty years ago, while the value of the land has increased, during the period which has elapsed, 401 % twenty-eight per cent., as is stated to be the case in England * ^1^ should unhesitatingly assert these facts as conclusive evidence of increased agricultural prosperity. Passing by the system of cultivation, which has varied in no important particulars in Massachusetts, except in the use of better implements, and taking the leading crops of 1807 to 1810, and comparing them with those of 1855, the following are the results. Average Indian com per acre, in 1807, was Slbushels. In 1855, was 28J bushels. Wheat " " " 19 " " " 15 10-13 " Eye " " " 16^ " " " 12 6-14 " Barley " " " 22 3-5 " " " 20 " Oats " " " 26^ " " " 21} " English hay " " " 2,3811bs. " " 1,953 lbs. Throughout the list a marked decrease in production per acre is exhibited, but in the growth of animal food, the falling off in quantity is still more striking. In 1807, the amount ot neat stock to a farm of one hundred acres was about fourteen head ; it is now but seven, and sheep, which averaged twelve to a farm, now hardly come up to four. In horses, also, kept for farm work, the number has lessened, though there has been a considerable increase of those kept for other purposes. The result of this examinatioii, thus far, is not very encouraging, and do not afford any evidence of agricultural progress ; on the contrary, it would seem as if we had been retrograding. Massachusetts, striped all over with railroads, dense in population, with twenty consumers of agricultural products to one producer, richer in the ability to purchase food than any other people in the world, shows but one beast to every seventeen acres, and one sheep to every forty acres. While England, under similar circumstances as to population, but far inferior to Massachusetts in its general ability to purchase food, raises one beast to every thirteen acres, and one sheep to every five and a half acres, to say nothing of the great superiority of the stock raised in weight and quality. Notwithstanding our great inferiority, however, compared with English agriculture at the present time, and * The Farmers' Magazine. London, Jan. 1861. p. 51. 402 compared with our own fifty years ago, the Transactions of the Society during the intermediate period show a conditio of things wliich give us some encouragement for the future. After the institution of this Society, and as soon as its labors had commenced, there was a very marked improve- ment in every department of agricultural industry. This continued until after the war of 1812. Then it was that emigration to the West began upon an extensive scale, robbing us of our most enterprising farmers, and carrying with them the intelligence, skill, and capital which was needed at home. From that time to this, the exodus has been constant. The ill effects of it, however, have not kept pace with the original cause. Since the war, we have become a manufacturing people, and the growth of our indus- trial population, not engaged in agriculture, has been pro- digious ; the demand for such agricultural products as from their perishable nature or from the cost of transportation, could not well be brought from a distance, has consequently given a fresh impetus to home agriculture. We think, from all that we can gather, that the greatest point of depression was reached as early as 1820, and that little change took place for the ten or twelve following years. Since that time, however, an improvement, accompanied by an increased attention to the subject, is distinctly visible. Horticulture led the way, and it is perhaps to the success which has attended the labors of those who have been engaged in it, and from the skill which has been developed in its several departments, that we are indebted for much of the progress which agriculture has made during the last twenty years. The success of the horticulturist is readily explained by the creation of a large home market for our manufacturing population, and the reason why unsuccess attended so long all agricultural eflForts. The great increase of our non-pro- ducing population by the introduction of manufactures created large towns which required a daily supply of fruits and vege- tables, that could only be grown in the vicinity where they were required for consumption. The enterprise of the man- 403 ufacturer stimulated the energies of the neighboring cultiva- tor to meet the demand. Those, too, who were engaged in the mill, or the machine-shop, and more particularly those who overlooked their operations, possessing perhaps more intelli- gence and more leisure, commenced a higher system of cul- ture in their own gardens, and thus became examples which were not lost upon the neighboring farmers, who turned to garden, rather than to field culture, for a remunerative busi- ness. The farmer more remote from the town did not feel the benefit of this new demand for food, and of the examples which had been set for its profitable production. He plodded on in the old way, competing all the while against the great, growing, and fertile West in raising, as his fathers had done, crops which could be grown more abundantly and cheaper elsewhere. While, therefore, a home market had been estab- lished which gave life and vigor to one class, the other was struggling for existence against a competition that the former^ had not to contend with. Notwithstanding, however, the introduction of railroads, which has made transportation cheaper every year, we think that the increasing intelligence of the Massachusetts farmer, a better knowledge as to the method of manuring his land with a view to increased production and a greater economy in labor, has about balanced the advantage which the Western farmer at one time had over him, taking into account another fact, that while the Western States are generally being scourged by a fatal system of crop- ping, producing greatly less per acre, we are now slowly but certainly increasing our production, and improving the fer- tility of our soil. There are cheering indications of a more rapid improve- ment in the next five years than we have made within the last twenty, — some of which we shall point out hereafter, — all of them founded upon the only sure basis, — an increasing profit derivable from a higher and better system of cultiva- tion. We place no reliance for our future progress upon any cause except that of success in tlie business of agricultui'e. We do not think any one a benefactor to mankind simply 404 because he makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before ; he must also produce them at a less proportional cost ; nor have we the least desire to see any one embark in the business of agriculture on account of any supposed dig- nity that may be supposed to lie in the pursuit. The only question we care to see discussed is, whether it will pay a good round profit. Any honest pursuit that will do this possesses the elements of dignity and usefulness ; and if it will not, it had better be let alone. If money cannot be made by farmers in Massachusetts, they ought to know it ; if it can be made a profitable business, it is equally important for them to know it. For, the more profitable the business can be made to be, the more dignified it is, and the more advan- tageous to the Commonwealth, We have then to consider what the impediments are to suc- cess, and how far they are capable of being removed, for it sometimes happens that the very obstacles which oppose us may be turned into advantages. Competition in business is generally supposed to create additional skill, so much so that it is often called the life of trade. If the virgin soils of the West yield more abundantly than our own, and if cheap transporta- tion has almost brought us upon an equality in our home markets, for such products of the soil as we have been accus- tomed to raise, we are not to give up the contest without seeing what more skill and more capital can do, nor without seeking to find something we can raise at a profit, which is not affected by these conditions. We ought to take heart from our English friends, who, when the corn-laws were re- pealed, which gave them ample protection against cheap food from abroad, went to work with an energy worthy of all praise. The result of it was that they succeeded in making wheat at fifty-seven shillings per quarter pay as much profit as seventy shillings per quarter did before. Better farming and greater skill and economy accomplished this wonderful result. Instead of the short-sighted course which was taken in Massachusetts, under similar circumstances, by which our soil became shamefully deteriorated, the English farmer 405 increased his outlays in draining, manuring, and in labor-sav- ing implements, to an extent that would hardly be credited by the farmers of New England. It cannot be said that in Massachusetts the high price of land is an obstacle in the way of a farmer's success. Farms of good natural capabilities, well fenced, and, in many cases, with house, barns, and every reasonable convenience, can be bought for less than the improvements ; that is to say, the land can be had for about nothing. Nor do the taxes levied upon lands used for the purposes of agriculture amount to a sum worth consideration. We have, therefore, really noth- ing to contend against, unless it be from better not cheaper lands in the West, to which we ought to oppose higher skill and more capital. Indeed, we have heard it said that the one great impediment to a greater progress arises from the fact that our farmers get a living so easily that there is no induce- ment to greater exertion, and it has been gravely maintained that we should be in a more prosperous condition, if, like the English and Scotch farmers, we not only had heavy taxes, but a high rent to pay. The imposition of a heavy tax per acre would certainly teach us to consider well the use of the land, and of its value in that important view, — profit, before we ventured to become one of Ralph Waldo Emerson's •' Nature's noblemen," on a very large scale. We are inclined to the opinion that the chief obstacle which stands in the way of a Massachusetts farmer's success lies in himself. A farmer has no right to expect to make himself rich, who does not bring to his farm a proper amount of capi- tal and skill. This is the condition Avhich is attached to all other industrial pursuits, and there seems to be no reason why the agriculturist should be exempted from it. As in all other business, perhaps in a higher degree than in most, the farmer should thoroughly understand the work before him. He must arrange his system of culture and of his crops according to the nature of his soil, and the situation of his farm as to markets, and he must know the cost of everything he raises, and the extent to which capital, in the form of labor, 406 manure, and other amelioratives, can be most profitably ap- plied. We have heard it said that such knowledge is out of the question in farm management, — that farmers can not calcu- late upon the weather, and a thousand contingencies which do not affect other operations. To this it must be replied that there are as great contingencies affecting the course of all trades, and no one however wise and prudent can always command success. He, however, who calculates the chances most closely, and who guards against them with the greatest skill, is pretty sure of eventual success, no matter what the business is that he undertakes. That the farmer can calcu- late as well as other men is illustrated by the tenant farmers of England, where as few failures occur as in any other pursuit. The English farmer hires his farm, and carries upon it a large amount of capital, and pays a high rent ; a bad- cal- culation would be ruinous to him in a very short time. His rent presupposes a certain profit to be made, and the necessity of the case forces him to learn the capacity of the land to produce that profit before he enters upon it. That there is some profit in agriculture, even as it is prac- tised in Massachusetts, cannot be denied ; for, unless it be so, no one would follow the business : that it is less than in many other departments of industry maybe inferred, since so many are willing to relinquish it altogether, or to seek more invit- ing fields for its prosecution. Probably every one of our readers know of cases where farming has been and is now profitable, the farmer acquiring a handsome competence, if not great wealth, from the cultivation of the soil. Such in- stances, however rare they may be, serve to prove the capacity of the land to produce a profit ; the more numerous they are, however, the stronger argument they afford of the profitableness of the pursuit, while the same rule does not apply to failures and want of success to prove the con- verse of the proposition. If a dozen men are engaged in a similar manufacturing or commercial pursuit, and nine out of the twelve fail in it, while the other three succeed, the success of the latter establishes the fact that the business is 407 capable of being made a profitable one, and the failure of the nine only shows that they did not understand the business. So with agriculture ; if two or three farmers in a neighbor- hood make their business profitable, while all the rest just rub and go, or fail utterly, the same general truth is estab- lished that farming can be made profitable, and that when it is not so that the fault lies with the farmer and not in the land. We are not then to decide upon the profitableness of farm- ing in Massachusetts by looking up cases of failures, unless it may be for the purpose of investigating their causes, with a view to seeing how they can be avoided, and this can be done far better in another way. If we can find instances of successful and profitable cultivation, and we can ascertain the method or system by which these results were obtained, we can very reasonably conclude that the cases of failure grew out of a want of that method or system, or from its mis- application. A clay farm treated in the same way as a grav- elly one, woulH probably prove a failure, and so vice versa, and it is, perhaps, to our want of that practical education, which teaches us how to discriminate and to adapt our operations to the soil we cultivate, that a large portion of our failures occur. A farmer is half his life learning in this respect, what he should have known at the start. To return to the capacity of land in Massachusetts for profitable cultivation. The Transactions of the agricultural societies furnish annual statements of premium crops, and some of them do, and all should give a careful and minute account of the nature of the soil on which the crops are grown, the amount of manure ap- plied, and the various operations connected with its cultivation together with the amount produced. This is done, as we all know, in the form of an account, showing the profit and loss of the crop. These statements may not be strictly accurate in all respects, but when it is remembered that they are usually made by our most intelligent farmers, and that they are sub- jected to the scrutiny of other intelligent farmers, who award the premiums, it must be presumed that they are not very far out of the way. We have taken from such of the Transac- 408 tions as are at hand, covering nearly the entire Commonwealth, those which have the greatest appearance of care and accu- racy, and not those, in all cases, which have shown the great- est profits, and we have discarded all where the product and the profit per acre were not made up by competitors them- selves and subject to the scrutiny of a committee making the award. The following table is the result. Kind of Crop entered Average product Average profit for Premium. No. of entries. per acre. per acre. Wheat 7 37 bush. $46 Oats 7 63 " 28 Barley 5 36 " 23 Eye 7 35 " 31 Com 7 88 " 51 Carrots 7 875 " 159 Potatoes 7 238 " 81 Onions 7 691 " 310 Turnips 8 588 " 100 Mangold 2 889 " 117 By the above statement, it appears that the five principal cereals can be grown in Massachusetts at an average profit of $35.80 per acre, and the five principal root-crops at $153.40 per acre. These figures, incredible as they may appear, are not cooked for the occasion, though, of course, we cannot vouch for the correctness of the returns from which they were made up. We can only say that they appear to be as reliable as any that we are accustomed to regard as conclusive in similar cases. If they approach within half way to the truth, they certainly establish the fact that the capacity for profit does exist in some farming lands in Massachusetts, and that there are farmers who know how to avail themselves of it. It must be borne in mind that these are the statements of our best farmers, and these crops could only be produced, as we all know, by heavy manuring and careful cultivation ; there- fore, we say, important facts are established by them, viz : that high farming in Massachusetts will pay as well, nay, ten times better than high farming in England or Scotland, where it is the rule, and not as with us, the exception; — that, if raising fifteen bushels of wheat or thirty bushels of corn to 409 the acre will not pay, we must increase the production ; — that the capacity of increase in the soil, if skilfully managed, exists to a degree that Avill command a very large profit. We commenced agriculture, as in all new countries, with a system the very opposite to that which ought now to be pur- sued. The natural fertility of the soil has been exhausted by low farming and by unscientific cultivation, and we have long ago reached the point where, to make the land remu- nerative, we must do something more than dig, plough, and plant. We must apply more capital and more skill, if we wish to succeed as farmers. Capital never fails to lend its aid whenever and wherever an opportunity is presented for its profitable employment, and skilful husbandry off"ers a more tempting field to intelligent enterprise than many other branches of industry ; the difiiculty consists in finding it, and not in giving it employment. Even in our trading commu- nity, most men cling to the idea of a farm of one's own with a strong tenacity, and if the possession of one could be made to satisfy cupidity, as well as the natural pride attached to the ownership of land, capital would readily flow into the channels of agriculture, which have been slowly drying up from a want of skill in its application. Many pages of this volume are already occupied with re- marks upon the necessity of higher agricultural education, yet we do not like to leave this subject without one more appeal upon this point; for we firmly believe that agriculture can be made a profitable pursuit in one way only. We must have men who have been thoroughly educated and trained to the business. Our much-vaunted system of education, how- ever, tends to drive our children from the farm and to send them to more exciting occupations. The heads of our young men are cultivated at the expense of their hands. We manu- facture a crowd of future politicians and free-thinkers, who take to a trade or occupation in some large city or manufac- turing town, which, with its lyceum lectures and debating societies, acts as an entering wedge to a further development of their training at school. The quiet and regular labor of 410 the farm is irksome to one who has been taught a little of everything except what is needful to the young farmer. Ploughing is dull work to the boy whose exploits at school have been crowned by declaiming extracts from the speeches of Pitt, Fox, and Burke, — of Patrick Henry, Clay, and Web- ster. We rear a multitude of lions, which life, with all its vicissitudes and trials, is not long enough to tame and make useful in carrying forward the real purposes of our existence. One cause of this, and we think it the chief one, is the difficulty of finding teachers in practical agriculture, and in the labor, both mental and bodily, which is required to make a farmer much more than " a hewer of wood and drawer of water." We can find an army of men who can teach the abstrusest of sciences from well-prepared text-books, but when the book of nature is opened, and the practical pro- cesses are to be unfolded through which its operations are converted into abundant food for man by the aid of science and the exercise of skill, the teacher for all this is not easy to be found. Science and practice are two very difi'erent things; and in agriculture, as practised in this State, where landlord, tenant, and laborer are united in the same person, they must both be mastered in order to constitute a perfect farmer. Now who is there to teach, where so much is to be learned ? We have amongst us a fair amount of agricultural science, and there are farmers who excel in correct practice, but they are few and far apart, and their example is therefore limited in its effects. Primary schools and schools of practice would do something towards a higher development, and in time systems of instruction might be introduced which would change for the better our entire farm husbandry. " The Farmer and the Farm,"* we hope, will pardon us for abridging his excellent article on the requirements which are necessary in order to be a successful farmer in England, selecting so much of it as applies to the farmer in Massachusetts. Judging from these requirements, we shall find that the edu- cation of a farmer is not to be obtained at our common * In the Farmer's Magazine. London, July, 1861. 411 schools, followed up by a year or two of practice in tbe com- mon routine of the farm, in Massachusetts. He says : " Take the former of one of the more general of our larger farms, i. e. a mixture of arable and pasture land of various tenacity and quality. How is each to be managed to the best advantage? And belt known that in these modem days it is only this best management that will repay the farmer, while it also adds wealth to the nation ; a twofold benefit of no ordinary importance, and well worth every intelligent farmer's consideration. " Take him in the general arrangement of his business, as a planner, designer, or contriver. In this department he has to exercise much forethought and discretion. The arrangement of his business must be well contrived, and clear and distinct throughout, comprising in one view the past, the present, and the future. The management of the past month will require his present careful attention, and it will require it through the future. This he must provide for, and he must plan and lay out his work accordingly, or his business operations will soon all be crowded and in confusion. "Take him in the management of his crops. What are farm crops ? They chiefly consist of the corn or grain crops, and of the roots or esculent crops ; and farther, of herbage and seed crops. Now, the farmer has to make himself acquainted with the nature and culture of most or all these separate crops before he can sow them. He must ascertain the precise kind best adapted for the soil he cultivates ; and the varieties in these crops, and of great value are very many. Take Avheat, for instance : I have seen above eight hundred different specimens or varieties of wheat, each possessing a separate distinction and name. Barley, too, is to be found in almost endless variety ; and, indeed, the same holds good in all other grain, root, or herbage crops, and, for the most part, each is best adapted to some peculiarity of soil or climate, which the fiirmer, however homely he may be, has to make out. Then, take him as to the management of any single crop : He must be acquainted with the precise nature or habit of the plant producing the crop. It is not barely ploughing and pulverizing, and putting in the seed. Wheat, for instance, in this country, for the most part, is an autumn-sown grain ; but if he chooses a proper variety, he may be almost independent of the season. Take the last wheat-sowing season : never was there a more difficult time to get in the wheat-seed, and many are the " bad plants " this year ; but a man well acquainted with his business would decide at once as to the policy of putting in a wheat crop improperly, and would of course wait a more suitable season, and select his variety accordingly. One of the best crops of wheat ever known in the neighborhood from which this paper emanates was sown in the month of May, and one of the best crops the wi-iter saw last autumn was sown late in the spring. It was the horned spring wheat in both cases. But I need not enumerate these things to my agricultural readers : they know them well, and that the same character of remark or observation would apply to every crop he grows. He is compelled to acquaint himself with all these mat- ters, or he must fail in applying them in the conduct of his business. " The cultivation of seed crops is more difficult still. Take the turnip seed crop for instance : He has to select his bulbs, to plant them in a properly prepared soil adapted to his purpose. There is the mode of planting, the time for planting, the size of the plants or bulbs, the distance requisite from plant to plant ; then the sub- sequent hoeings by horse and manual labor ; then the constant " roguing of the 412 crops," i. e. taking out when in flower every stray kind or "bastard," and known by the color of its flower ; then comes the harvesting, thrashing, dressing, and pre- paring the seed for sale, all operations requiiing not only judgment, but great expe- rience. Now, this is the same general course requu-ed throughout, in the manage- ment of all seed crops. "Take the root crop again, potatoes, for instance. Here is again an almost end- less variety to select from. Then comes the preparation as well as selection of the field for the crop, knowing that it must be one in high condition, or else requiring a great outlay in artificial manure, which he has also to select. Then there is the preparation of the sets, theu- size and mode of cutting, the manuring of the land, and the mode in which it is to be applied, i. e. " in ridges or on the flat ; " how the artificial aids are to be sown. Then the distance in the rows, the space from set to set, the depth to be planted, the covering up ; then the subsequent culture, the oft- repeated horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing, and mouldings up, &c., &c. ; then the care requisite to prevent the least injury from disease, i. e. taking off the tops on its appearance, or the remoulding up as soon as the top decays, or the taking up and graving the crop ; then the preparation for safe-keeping, the mode of graving, the size and width of the grave, and the manner of covering all up ; then at last comes the preparation for sale, the riddling, size of mesh, the sorting into the ware, the chats, and the refuse. All these matters, and more, the farmer is compelled to learn ere he cultivates potatoes. " Take again the culture of forage plamts : the farmer has to acquire a good if not coiTCCt knowledge of their varieties and habits of growth. He does not sow sain- foin on sandy or silty loams : he chooses chalk soils and the like on which to sow. Trefoils he would put on gravels or sandy soils ; Dutch clover on any thin soils ; chicory on good deep loams of any kind ; lucerne on deep loams, clayey gravels, or chalky loams. Then he has to acquu-e the knowledge requisite to their profitable management. Take lucerne, for instance : it does not come to full perfection till the third year, — a long time to wait, — consequently he will sow it in rows near together ; and, as it grows and strengthens, he will take up every alternate row, when the full development will take place ; but he will have secured a good cutting from the fact. Then he has to attend to the forking, manming, and careful clean- ing ; nor will he, on any accoimt, sufier stock to depasture upon it. Similar in substance are the remarks to be made upon the management of sainfoin and other herbage crops, and grass-seed crops ; but these would take up too much of our space. I think sufficient has been said already to show that " the farmer on the farm " must, if he is to prosper, be a man of intelligence, and that in the applica- tion of his mind to the management of his business he has to exercise as much plodding thought and careful judgment as any other class of the community. It is this I want clearly to show and to prove, — that he is worthy of a much higher estimate for intellectual attainment or acquirements than has hitherto been accorded to him. " Take him as a breeder of stock. It may appear to the uninitiated a very simple course to breed animals for the supply of the farm on which they are to be reared for sale or fatted for the market ; but put him to the task, and he will soon discover his eiTor. The breeding of cattle, for instance : Animals bred from a good stock are of quick expansive growth, will thiive and fatten rapidly, and are very early brought to maturity ; while to breed from a herd of common ordinaiy unimproved stock. 413 they will grow slowly, they will never fatten, but remain on hand for months or even years before arriving at full maturity. And this department of cattle-breeding is carried out with consummate skill and judgment in a very many ways. It has become quite a science. No novice would be able to estimate the product of cer- tain animals being put together for breeding purposes. A breeder of standing, however, would tell you at once what would be the result. Hence the judgment in selecting sires to dams, strain of blood to strain of blood, &c. Then, again, the breeding of cattle for particular localities is attended with vast advantage. The small and beautiful Devon for the hill or mountain pastures, the Welsh and Scotch for cold climates, and mountainous heights, or the larger breeds for the fatting pastures, and the smaller breeds for the inferior pastures, — all is the result of a wise and a thoughtful class of men, who have to make the best produce from their holdings, in whatever district they are placed. " But we will take the farmer in his grazing department, independent of Ms breeding an-angement ; although we may here allude, in passing, to the rearing of his young stock; for the professional grazier buys in young stock to rear, "to grow " for future service. These he will place on his sweetest and most healthy pastures of somewhat inferior character, and generally they are intermingled with his sheep stock ; as they grow and thrive, they become qualified for removal to the better pastures, to which they are removed as openings take place, and are replaced by others equally young, and thus his succession is kept up, — the cattle adapted to the pasture, and vice versa. " The fatting cattle are of course put upon his best pastures, which are duly pre- pared, by rest and occasional manuring, to receive them. In this case he has to exercise his judgment, and purchase or select his stock according to the quality of his pastures. He will place his large oxen on first-class lands only. On his second- claiis lands he will place heifers, young draft cows, or animals from some of the smaller breeds of cattle. He knows that if he places first-class oxen on second- class grazing lands the balance must be made up by good artificial feeding. The former is the common order of cattle-grazing, but the latter is now becoming the prevailing custom, i. e. to stock somewhat inferior lands with cattle, and supply them with the best fattening food, — generally linseed cake at the rate of from four pounds to seven pounds per day. In addition to the proper " stocking of his land," he has to watch (daily almost) the state of his pastures. " The bullock pasture must be kept right ; " consequently he has to add or diminish the number of animals in accordance with the season, i. e. the growth or declension of his pas- ture, his sole aim being to keep his cattle in the highest progressive state ; failing which his profits will not be remunerative. The pasture itself he also has minutely to attend to, or it won't be " kept right." The mowing or chopi)iug n\) the rough- growing grass, the " knocking " of the manure deposits ; the shelter, the rubbing posts, the waterings, the fences, — all have to be cared for and provided. Anybody may graze cattle ; but to graze them aright requires knowledge, tact, and excellent judgment, to say nothing of the experience requisite to detect any falling off in condition, or symptom of disease, as soon as either shows itself, in order at once to prevent danger. " The grazier of breeding cattle has perhaps a more difficult task still. To graze cattle properly of each kind and age requires a very considerable knowledge of their habits and diseases, and the means of prevention and recovery. " The eye of 8 414 the master grazeth the ox." Verily, no novice need expect to prosper as a breeder or grazier of cattle. I again confidently repeat that the British farmer has as great a scope for knowledge, tact, and judgment in the management of his business as any other class of the community, in whatever business they may be engaged in." What we have quoted from the Parmer on the Farm, is a fair epitome of what a skilful farmer should know, showing what the nature and extent of his education ought to be. Is such an education to be had in Massachusetts? EXPEEIMENTS WITH MaNUEES — PeEMIUM FOE 1859. This Society has offered premiums for renewed experiments with manures, commencing with 1860. It has been induced to increase the premiums for the second series, in the hope of collecting a larger competition, believing that if they are carefully made they will serve a very useful purpose. For the premiums of I860, but 13 entries have been received. As it may be of use, as it is certainly of interest, to know something of the result of the first year's trial, the following table has been prepared, without quoting the names of con- testants, to show the effects of the application during the first year. It will be remembered that five lots of land of equal quantity and quality were to be selected; each of the five lots were to receive a deep ploughing, a shallow ploughing, and a harrowing, the only difference being that, on lot No. 1, the manure was to be ploughed in deep, the 2d shallow, 3d buried only slightly, 4th left on the surface, being equal in quantity to each lot, none being applied to lot No. 5. General Result of first Yearns Experiments, 1859, witli Manures as above described. eriment. Largest yield. 2d do. 3d do. 4th do. Lowest do. A lot 1 2 3 4 5 B " 1 3 4 2 5 C " 2 1 3 4 5 D " 2 3 4 1 5 E " 2 3 4 1 5 F " 2 4 1 3 5 G " 3 2 4 5 1 H " 3 2 1 4 5 I " 3 2 1 4 5 K " 3 2 4 1 5 L " 3 2 4 1 5 M " 3 2 4 1 5 N " 4 3 2 1 5 415 From the above Table, it appears that the plots deeply manured produced the Best Crop in 2 experiments Second " " 1 Third " " 3 " Fourth " " 6 Fifth " " 1 MANCRED SHALLOW. Best Crop in 4 experiments Second " " 7 Third " " 1 Foui-th " " 1 HARROWED IN. Best Crop in 6 experiments Second " " 4 " Third " " 2 Foui-th " " 1 LEFT ON THE SURFACE. Best Crop in 1 experiment Second " " 2 " Thu-d " " 7 Fourth " " 4 " No manure produced the least in twelve cases, the excep- tional one being experiments where it stood fourth, crop hav- ing rusted on lot No. 1. So far as these experiments have gone, they go to show that, for an immediate crop, at least, ploughing the manure under very deep does not produce corresponding return, the best result being very nearly equally divided between that v^hich was ploughed in shallow and that which was only harrowed in. Where the manure was left exposed on the sur- face a better result was obtained than where it was deeply covered. We have yet to learn the effect of manuring deeply or lightly with a view to succeeding crops, a fact of infinite importance to the farmer. The late Mr. B. V. French once tried the experiment by ploughing in the manure of half a field " as deep as he could get it," and then treating the entire field alike, manuring the whole of it equally, and ploughing it in very slightly. He kept an account of the product for several years, and the yield on each part was alike, — to use his own language, " I never saw anything of the manure which was buried deeply ; it was, in my opinion, thoroughly buried.'^ In these experiments, in order to have a completely satis- factory result, sufiicient manure, say not less than ten or twelve cords of barnyard manure, or its equivalent, should be used to the acre ; enough, at all events, to have the effects of it felt during the period of the trial. One great mistake in our farming is, to attempt manuring too large a surface. An acre 416 of land highly manured will produce vastly more for five years, without any further addition, than a fifth of the quantity annually applied for the same period. We close our sketch of the progress of agriculture in Mas- sachusetts with some notes by Judge French upon the subject of drainage. His remarks upon the legal rights of owners of land upon streams and rivers, are deemed of peculiar interest at this time. Deainage. By Henry F. Feench. Among the decided advancements in the agriculture of the world in the last half century, stand prominent those caused by the improved processes of drainage. We refer not so much here to the drainage of what are usually termed ivet lands, such as swamps and marshes, as to the thorough recla- mation of lands of a higher grade, not swampy, but yet filled with stagnant or cold spring water, to such an extent as to render them, if not wholly uncultivable, at least precarious, and dependent on favorable seasons for a crop. Of this char- acter is a large proportion even of New England. Almost every farmer has some small field which he regards with favor, because sometimes, when the season is not wet or back- ward, he harvests from it a fine crop, and yet, which he watches with ceaseless anxiety, because heavy spring rains may prevent his preparing it for the seed, or after it is planted or sown, may drown his springing crop. He wants this field just a little drier, a little earlier, and he will regard it as of more value than any other upon his farm. A large proportion of the prairie lands of the West are of this description, too wet to allow wheat to be sown in autumn without danger of winter killing, and too wet in spring to allow the proprietor seasonably to sow so large a breadth as he desires. About one half of all the land in England, Scotland, and Wales is supposed by competent engineers to require drain- 417 age. Probably fully that proportion in our Western States would eventually be judiciously improved by drainage; while in New England, although a far less proportion of the whole area would be improved by the process, yet perhaps nearly one half of the land worth ploughing^ which includes most of the interval and low lands, would pay by its increased product for thorough drainage. It is found that the rain-fall in New England is far more variable than in old England. While we have more than double the quantity of rain in the year, upon an average, it falls here not only in vastly heavier showers and storms, but in quantities very unequal at the same periods of different 3^ears. In April or May of one year, we have not unfre- quently twice as much rain as in April or May of another year. This fact renders our farming operations and our crops very uncertain. A thoroughly drained field is free from those vicissitudes ; while the soil cannot be over-drained, because it will hold by attraction all the moisture required Iw the crop; if well drained, no amount of rain ever known will pre- vent seasonable ploughing, or the maturing of our ordinary crops. Experience has already shown, that thorough drainage not only prevents injury by surplus water, but also prevents drought. It has this effect in various ways. A drained soil is finer, lighter, and more porous than when undrained, and there- fore holds more water b}^ attraction. The same water that may be forced out of a quantity of light loamy soil by severe pres- sure, may evidently be absorbed and retained again, when that soil is again pulverized, and so rendered light and porous. Again, in a drained soil the roots of the young plant strike deep downwards at the start, if they find no cold water ; whereas they spread out on the surface if they reach stagnant water; and when the drought comes they perish in the latter case for want of root, while if deeply rooted at first, they find moisture in the ground sufficient to sustain them. The capacity of the soil, too, to absorb moisture from the atmosphere is greatly increased by its pulverization, induced by drainage, A well-pulverized soil has more surface of par- 418 tides exposed. It differs from a hard compact soil, as a sponge differs from a stone, in its capacity to imbibe moisture. That droughts affect well-drained lands less than others is attested by all observers both in England and America. The Secretary of the New York Agricultural Society stated, in 1855, the great drought of 1854 being the subject of discus- sion, that " the experience of the past season has abundantly proved that thorough drainage, upon soils requiring it, has proved a very great relief to the farmer ; that the crops upon such lands have been far better, generally, than those upon undraiued lands in the same locality ; and that in many in- stances the increased crop has been sufficient to defray the expenses of the improvement in a single year." While the idea and practice of draining fens and swamps has prevailed for centuries in England, as in Holland and other countries, thorough drainage, technically so called, is, if not a discovery of the last half century, a practice not at all generally introduced in any country before that period. By thorough drainage, we understand such drainage by means of covered conduits of tiles, stones, or other material, as shall at all times, except in the midst of rain-fall, and for a few hours after, keep the water-table or line of standing Avater in the soil, nearly at the level of the bottom of the drains, and below the necessary range of the roots of the growing crop. Thorough drainage, as distinguished from surface drainage, deals with and removes the water in the soil, whether found there from rain-fall on the field, or by percolation underground, or in definite springs or currents. The necessity of such drainage became obvious long before the present efficient systems were devised. Stones, bushes, poles, turf, and various other materials were tried with various success ; but no really efficient means were generally adopted in England until tiles were introduced. Tiles seem to have been known and used for some purposes more than a century ago, for we find a statement in a note to Stephens's " Draining and Irrigation," that in a park in Lincolnshire, tiles have been dug up which must have been there more than a hun- dred years. 419 Tiles of convenient form, however, could not have been commonly known in England in 1797, for in Johnstone's Report to the Board of Agriculture on Elkington's system of draining, published in England in that year, the only kind of clay con- duits described or alluded to by him, are what he calls "drain- ing bricks," a very rude heavy contrivance, as could well be devised. Between forty and fifty years ago, small pipes were in use in various parts of England, but it was not till the year 1843, that tiles or pipes of the present approved forms were introduced into general use. The tile now most ap- proved and recommended, it is believed by every draining engineer of good standing in England, is the simple round pipe with round bore, and the minimum size is one and a half inch bore, two-inch being generally preferred. Tiles are cheaper than any other conduit, Avhere manufac- tured within reasonable distance. They are more secure, more effectual, and more durable than any other drain. Stone and other materials will cease to be used, whenever tiles are appreciated and can be obtained at reasonable cost. To Mr. Parkes, perhaps, more than to any other person, belongs the credit of introducing tiles or clay pipes into com- mon use in England. In this country, tiles were first used in Seneca County, N. Y., by John Johnston, a native of Scot- land, about 1855. He brought over patterns from that country, and had tiles of the horseshoe form, made by hand. In 1818, Mr. Delafield, President for many years of the Seneca County Agricultural Society, seeing the success of Mr. John- ston, his neighbor, in draining with tiles, imported a tile machine, probably the first put into operation in the United States. To that county and to the gentlemen named belongs the credit of the first successful experiments in thorough drainage in this country. Tile works have since been estab- lished, and many successful experiments in tile-draining have been made, in many of our States, and the supply will doubt- less keep pace with the demand. A word of caution may not be amiss to those who engage in the operations of drainage. It is an expensive process. 420 and sliould not be attempted without first counting the cost. Because drainage has usually proved profitable, it is not to be inferred that it will prove so on all lands. Drainage does not add to the elements of fertility in the soil ; it only developes those which already exist. Where soil is rich in the elements which nourish plants, and has been prevented only by sur- plus water from producing large crops, the removal of that water usually leaves the soil for a few years very productive. But it must be remembered that tiles do not manure the soil ; but only bring the elements of vegetation into their proper relations to the plant. Heavy crops must soon exhaust those elements, and they must constantly be replenished, or the land will be impoverished. We repeat it : tiles do not ma- nure the soil; and therefore it must not be expected that poor, barren, water-soaked lands will become rich and fertile by merely removing the surplus water ; nor is drainage to be set down as a humbug, because such lands, when deprived of surplus water, may sufi'er from drought. An open, coarse sand is more hopeless than any other soil. It is nearly worth- less, whether wet or dry. Clays of almost any kind are fertile if well drained, and it is upon clays that the greatest triumphs of draining art have been obtained in England. By the fre- quent percolation of water from the surface downward to the level of the drains, the character of the stiffest clay is modi- fied, so that it becomes porous and easily permeable to water, and so, not only is readily relieved of surplus moisture, but is also easily pulverized by tillage operations, and rendered light to work, and very productive under liberal treatment. As to the drainage of wet meadows, although many failures have been noted in experiments upon them, we believe the failure will, in nearly every instance, upon investigation, prove to have resulted from insufiicient drainage. The old idea that it was enough to get the water below the surface, by shallow open ditches, is utterly exploded. By that sort of treatment, a crop of herds grass for one or two years may be procured, but the wild grasses will soon take its place, and the meadow relapse into its former condition. There is occa- 421 Bionally to be found a swamp, filled with light peaty soil, which requires something more than mere draining and work- ing to bring it into a productive state. The soil lacks com- pactness, and may require an addition of clay, or gravel, or sand. In almost every case, however, swamps and low meadows are the receptacles of the vegetable deposits of the surrounding hills, brought in the form of leaves by the wind, and washed from higher fields for generations, and are teem- ing with the elements of fertility, needing only to be thor- oughly drained to be at once productive. We have great doubt whether any instance can be found in the Common- wealth, of a swamp drained thoroughly three feet deep, which has failed, under proper treatment, to pay better than the neighboring upland. Imperfect drainage — stagnant water at tlie root — is the secret of nine tenths of the failures in the drainage of swamps. Dykes and Drains. Starting from Cape Cod, and following the eastern shore of Massachusetts until it reaches the boundary line separating it from New Hampshire, there are upwards of thirty-eight thou- sand acres of land overflowed by the waters of the ocean at some periods of the tide. They now yield about thirty-four thousand tons of inferior grass, which pa^'s but little more than the expense of making into hay. These lands, could they be systematically drained by means of dykes, with traps to let off the water at low tide, would be the richest, the most fer- tile, and the most easily cultivated in the State, not excepting the alluvial soils on the banks of the Connecticut. Why this work has not yet been undertaken on a large scale, it is difii- cult to understand ; because in a great many cases, to say the least, nature has so far prepared the work to our hands, that the cost would be trifling. That experiments in reclaiming from the sea such lands as these, must prove successful and remunerative, we find abun- dant proof in Europe. The great level of the Fens in Lin- 422 colnsliire, and in the adjoining counties in England, is esti- mated to contain 1,060 square miles, or 680,000 acres, below the high tides. The greater part of this immense tract is already under the highest cultivation. The general plan of reclaiming it has been, first, to embank the rivers and streams, from the points Avhere they leave the high land and formerly emptied themselves into the Fens, and thus carry them across the marshes between embankments to the ocean. In this way they are prevented from forming bars at the land side of the Fens, and from spreading their waters over them ; and they retain, by being thus confined, power enough to keep open a clear channel to the sea. Embankments along the sea-shore are maintained ; the Fens are divided by other embankments into convenient tracts, and powerful steam engines, located at suitable points, pump up the water, col- lected by a regular system of drainage, into the embanked rivers, which pass many feet above the level of the land. These Fens are not unlike the salt marshes of our own coast. They are usually covered with a deposit of dark vegetable matter of various depth. A large proportion of them have a clayey subsoil, which is sometimes brought to the surface by trenching, and mixed with the soil. No lands in the kingdom excel the Fens in fertility. The heaviest crops of wheat grown in England, amounting frequently to from fifty to sixty bushels per acre, are taken from those lands. Immense quan- tities of the mangold wurtzel are raised upon the Fens, and sold to the upland farmers. '■■- The work of reclaiming these lands is still going on all along the eastern coast of England, the experience of generations having established the profit- ableness of the operation. Beside the Fens there are large tracts of lands on the eastern coast of England, over which the ordinary high tides formerly flowed, of a different character, being found of a light colored salty deposit, partaking more of the nature of alluvial than of peaty substance. Extensive experiments have already demonstrated that these lands, by embanking, and by the use of flood-gates, assisted by pumps, may be pro- fitably converted into wheat fields. 423 Indeed, so far as we are able to ascertain, there are no lands overflowed naturally by the tide waters which may not be brought into productive use. In many cases, on our own coast, the marshes are so situated between headlands, that short embankments from one to the other would exclude the sea from large tracts. Experiments of this nature upon a small scale in various parts of this country have, so far as we can learn, resulted successfully, wherever they have been perseveringly pursued. In some cases, after a few years of encouraging crojDs, the sea has made breaches in the banks, which had been of insufficient height or strength, and the experiments have been abandoned. Such results are how- ever attributable, of course, rather to the want of proper skill in the proprietor than to any inherent difficulty in the operation. It is hoped that those valuable lands, situated as they are in the midst of the most thickly settled portions of the country, and in the neighborhood of the best markets, will not be longer neglected. KiPARiAN Eights. Many questions of law have already arisen, and more are likely to arise, as to the rights of land owners to drain their lands. A few years ago we regarded only the surface of the soil, having most of us the impression, though not founded on any process of reasoning, that if the surface were free of water, it was of little importance what was the condition of the soil below. But as we have considered the operations of nature more carefully, and ascertained that the roots of most cultivated crops strike at least two or three feet into the earth, and many much deeper, and have established the pro- position that four feet of drained soil is the least depth that we should be satisfied with for the best cultivation, we have begun to inquire by what legal means we may be protected or obstructed in the essential matter of drainage. The rain-fall of New England in general is sufficient to cover the surface of land to the depth of about forty-two inches 424 each year. Of this, not far from one half runs off upon the surface or through the ground, coming out in springs, and finds its way in streams and rivers to the ocean, while the other half is taken up by evaporation again into the atmos- phere. This is emphatically a well-watered country ; through all our valleys, small and great, flow pure streams and rivers. Upon these streams and rivers everywhere are mills and factories, whose wheels revolve unceasing, developing the treasures of the forest into lumber, changing the corn and wheat into meal and flour, spinning and weaving the products of our home-bred flocks and of Southern plantations into use- ful and beautiful fabrics. To turn those wheels the power of water is required, and water has no power, except as it is obstructed by dams and raised into ponds. The natural streams, thus checked in their flow and thrown back upon the land, not only overflow its surface, but percolate through the subsoil of large tracts not thus overflowed, and prevent wholly or in part the natural and artificial drainage of the soil. The rights of mill owners and of land owners, both of them of public as well as of private interest, and both equally to be protected by the laws, are thus brought into sharp conflict. The question becomes every day more interesting, more vital to the interests of agriculture and of manufactures, as to the limits of their respective rights. Has the mill owner the right to overflow the land of the farmer? Has he the right to retard the natural flow of the streams so as to throw back water into, though not upon the land? Has he the right to raise the natural stream so as to prevent the natural drainage of the soil, or such artificial drainage as is necessary to its fullest productiveness ? It is the boast of the common law of England, which is the basis of the law of all our northern and eastern States, that its principles are adapted to all the vicissitudes of progres- sive civilization ; that the same principles which adjusted the rights under feudal tenures may be extended to the adjust- ment of rights involved in the construction and use of modern 425 railroads and telegraphs. The common law is not a system of rigid rules, nor an inflexible code for specified cases, but it is a body of principles founded upon natural justice and reason. In many States common-law rights have been modified by statutes, and this is the case in Massachusetts, with rights which pertain to flowage and drainage. The absolute right of the land owner to his soil has been infringed upon by acts for the encouragement of manufactures, and power has been granted, by the statutes known as Mill Acts, and Flowage Acts, to those who desire to raise water powers, to obstruct the natural flow of the streams for the purpose of creating millponds, with which to drive their machinery. A glance at the ancient landmarks of the common law may be useful, in our endeavor to adjust the various questions which arise, both in this commonwealth and elsewhere, respecting these rights of drainage and flowage. In England, the right of the land owner has always been held almost sacred. It has been said that " all true nobility rests upon the possession of land." The land owner is a freeholder, a landlord, — lord of the soil. His title is the highest known to the law ; his house is his castle, and may not be infringed upon, even by officers of the law, except for the service of criminal process. The land owner's right is not merely to the surface of his domain ; he owns to the heavens above, and to the centre of the earth beneath. His right is unlimited, except by the equal rights of other land owners. He may build as high as he pleases, he may dig as deep as he pleases, but his right to do so does not deprive his neighbor who owns land of his right to do the same. At common law, the rights of citizens in flowing streams, seem all to have been adjusted with reference to the owner- ship of land. Agriculture being the natural and primitive employment of the individual, as well as the interest most im- portant to the state, held its rights by title paramount. The rights in streams and rivers are rights incident to land, and not independent estates. The riparian proprietors have the right to use the water, as it flows, for the better enjoyment of 426 their land, for household purposes, for watering their stock, and for irrigating their fields, provided they do not unreason- ably diminish its quantity. No riparian owner has the right materially to retard or accelerate the current, to increase or diminish its natural flow, to the injury of others. The right to raise a pond is not a right incident to owner- ship of the bank of the stream. A man owning one bank is presumed to own to the centre of the stream, that is, he owns the land covered with water. If he own both banks he may lawfully erect a dam, because that injures no one. If he raises a pond by that dam, as long as nobody is injured thereby, he cannot be interfered with, for nobody has a right of action unless he is in some way injuriously affected. But whenever the obstruction of the natural flow of the stream injures another's land, above or below, his legal rights are involved, and he may have legal redress, and insist that the water shall flow in its natural course. The owner of the dam can acquire no right to injure the land of another by his flowage, except by a grant from the owner. The right to flow another's land is a right in that land, a servitude or easement upon it, to use the legal phrases. It is an incumbrance upon it, which can only be imposed with the owner's consent, by his own grant or deed conveying it, or by some legal process of the state appropriating it to some public use. In England, Parliament is deemed omnipotent. There is no power to declare its acts unconstitutional. It might grant the right to a company or person to flow the land of another, for the public good, as it has recently in several instances empowered companies to remove all dams and obstructions on certain streams, for the promotion of agriculture by drainage, providing in all cases for adequate compensation to the mill owners, and other injured parties. The course of legislation in England has always, it is believed, been favorable to agri- culture. Reasons for this may, perhaps, be found in the fact that a large proportion of the land of the kingdom is owned by its legislators, as well as in the essential importance of agriculture to the nation. 427 In Massachusetts, and some other States, the constitution limits the power of the legislature over private property, to its appropriation to the public use upon full compensation provided. The private right of a land owner is subservient to the public use, and by a construction of this power, now too well established to be shaken, it is settled in Massachusetts that the fostering of manufactures is so far a public interest that land may be appropriated by flowage, for the creation of water power to drive machinery, under the provisions for taking private property for the public use. Upon this theory rests the flowage act, which authorizes the erection of a dam and the flowage of the lands of persons without their consent, compelling the land owner to part with the use of his land, for such compensation as a board of com- missioners or a jury may award. It is interesting, however, to observe that this right, now seemingly adverse to the interests of agriculture, really sprung from a desire to pro- mote the agricultural interest. It is believed that the first grants of flowage rights were limited to their use for '^ corn mills," it being essential to the very existence of the early settlers that their crops of corn should be converted into meal. As society progressed, the water powers thus raised were used for cloth dressing, and other purposes ; similar grants were made for sawmills, and so by degrees the power in- creased until all the streams and rivers of the commonwealth have been subjected to a general flowage act, and agriculture has become, in some measure, subservient to manufactures. Not only are most of the streams and rivers of the com- monwealth deprived of their natural fall, by means of dams, but most of the ponds and lakes far back in the interior are raised far above their natural level in winter and spring, and drawn far below that level in the dry season, by means of dams and excavations at their outlets. These ponds and lakes are used as reservoirs for storing water for the use of mills and factories far below them on the streams, and the 428 control of the water by such means tends still farther to com- plicate the rights of parties below. The whole subject of the rights of riparian proprietors as to the flowage of their lands seems now to have been adjudged to be within the scope of legislative action. The doctrine of common-law rights, which made the laud owner lord of his soil, is overturned by the mill acts, to which reference has already been made. The substance of the mill act now in force in Massachusetts may be thus stated. Any person may erect and maintain a water mill, and a dam to raise water for working it, upon and across any stream not navigable, upon certain conditions. Among those conditions are the following : That no such dam shall be erected to the injury of any mill above or below it, or of any mill site before occupied, and not lost or aban- doned ; that no such dam shall be erected on laud of others, without his consent, and that the height to which the water may be raised, and the period for which it may be kept up during the year may be regulated by a jury. Provision is made by the statute for compensation to the owners of land injured by the flowage, upon petition by them to the proper court, the damages to be assessed by a jury, both annually and in gross, the land owner having his elec- tion to receive his compensation in either form. The Provincial Act of 12 Anne appears to be the basis of the legislation of the commonwealth upon this subject. The preamble of that act recites that it was intended to be applied only to '^ mills serviceable for the public good and benefit of the town or considerable neighborhood in or near to which they were erected," and it is provided that the jury shall determine '*' how far the flowing might be necessary and justi- fied by the public convenience." The principle upon which private property may be taken for mill purposes is, that it is appropriated to the public use. In all cases where the emergency is not pressing as to time, it is clearly just and proper that the fact that the public use requires the interference, should be ascertained by due form 429 of law, before the actual appropriation. In case of property required for war purposes, this might not be practicable, but there is no reason why the mill act should not provide for a hearing and condemnation of the property before it is taken. The present mill act of Massachusetts requires no notice before the erection of the dam, and no proceeding whatever on the part of the person who erects it, at any time. It puts the burden of seeking redress upon the injured party, and makes the mill owner defendant in the proceeding. Nor does the act in terms, nor by judicial construction, limit the appro- priation of property by flowage, to mills only that may be useful to the public, but authorizes " any person " to '^ erect and maintain a water mill and a dam to raise water for work- ing it, upon and across any stream not navigable." In the details of the act, we think, the farmer may find cause for complaint. His land should only be taken for the public good, and after a judicial decree establishing the fact that the public good requires it, limiting the extent of the flowage, and fixing compensation. The principle upon which the act rests is unquestionably sound. The application of the principle may, perhaps, be questionable. The operation of the mill act in the promotion of the interests of manufactures, has, no doubt, been most beneficent, and until, by means of drainage, the swampy lands near the streams began to be properly appreciated as the most valuable lands in the State, there was no general complaint on the part of agriculturists respecting it. As all land has become more valuable, and low, wet lands have been found susceptible of more profitable improvement than any other, inquiry has arisen as to the right of the legislature to authorize the flowage of land without consent of the owner, and as to its power to relieve the land of the incumbent water, when the public interest may seem to require such action. The views adopted by the highest judicial tribunal of the State have, upon all points, been eminently enlarged and liberal. The interest of manufactures, as has been already 9 430 said, has been recognized as a public interest, for the promo- tion of which private property may be taken under the pro- visions of the mill act, upon proper compensation to the owner. The power of the legislature to overflow the land of a citizen without his consent, through the appropriate pro- cesses of law, has not, perhaps, been seriously questioned for a generation. The power of the legislature to restore the land to the owner by removing the water thus artificially raised upon it, would seem to follow as an almost necessary infer- ence,— yet this view of the subject seems never until quite recently to have attracted the attention either of the legisla- ture or of the courts. In a recent case, however, the whole subject has been brought to the attention of the public, and of the legislature, and finally to the judicial consideration of the Supreme Judicial Court. A brief sketch of this proceed- ing, with historical, though not with minute legal accuracy, may claim a place in this volume. At Billerica, in the County of Middlesex, a dam across the Concord River has long been maintained. It was erected in 1711, by one Christopher Osgood, under a grant from the town of Billerica, made to him, on condition that he should main- tain a corn mill. In 1793, a charter was granted to the Middle- sex Canal, and that corporation soon after bought the old dam and mill privilege, and in 1798 built a new dam, which remained till 1828, when the present stone dam was built. Since the disuse of the canal, a few years ago, the dam has been used entirely by the Messrs. Talbots, and others, for private manufacturing purposes. The fall in the Concord River, above this dam, is ascertained to be not far from two inches to the mile for a distance of twenty-one miles. It is obvious, therefore, that a very slight obstruction of the current may afi'ect the owners of laud upon the banks, to a vast extent. Believing themselves to be aggrieved by the maintenance of the dam at Billerica, the towns of Wayland, Sudbury, Bedford, Concord, and Carlyle, which lie along the banks of the river, in 1859, applied to the general court, by petition 431 representing that large tracts of lands on and near tlie river were overfloAved and injured by the water kept up by the dam at Billerica, and prayed for the removal or abatement of the dam, or other appropriate redress. These petitions were referred to a joint committee of the two houses, with authority to sit in vacation, and report to the next legislature. This committee, after sessions of more than thirty days? and careful examination of the dam, and the river and lands' through their whole extent, made an elaborate report to the legislature of 1860, covering some five hundred printed octavo pages. They report, as conclusions, that more than ten thousand acres of land are injured by water raised by the dam at Billerica, and that through insuflScient or improvident legislation in grants to the Middlesex Canal Corporation, the land-owners had never received any compensation for their injury. Their report was referred to a second joint committee, which reported a bill providing for the removal of the whole dam. This bill, was, however, modified, and finally passed in a form which provided for the appointment of three commis- sioners, by the governor, with authority to remove thirty- three inches of the Billerica dam, at any time after the first day of the September following, and that when the same Avas removed it should never be rebuilt. The act further provides that any person injured in his property, by the removal of the dam, may have redress by a specified process, with a final right to trial by jury, and that the damages thus ascertained be paid out of the treasury of the commonwealth. To test the constitutional powers of the legislature to abate their dam in this way, the Messrs. Talbot procured a tempo, rary injunction from a Justice of the Supreme Court, against the commissioners appointed by the governor, and a hearing was had upon a motion to diss olve the injunction, which re- sulted in an opinion of the whole court sustaining the act of the legislature. This opinion has not yet been published, nor has it been delivered in full. The principles, however, in- 432 volved in and established bj it, have been announced by Chief Justice Bigelow, and will in due time be reported. The court fully recognize the interest of agriculture as a great public interest, equal at least in importance to that of manufactures, and hold that, as by the mill act, the property of land-owners may, when the public good demands it, be appropriated to promote the interests of manufactures by covering the land with water to create water power for driv- ing machinery, so, on the other hand, when the public good requires it, the legislature, for the promotion of agriculture^ may remove all obstructions to good husbandry, whether natural or artificial. The power of the legislature on this subject, for good, is limited only by its own discretion. Wherever the public interest requires its exercise, there may its power be felt. "Whether the farmer's land be wasted by stagnant water by nature, or by dams or other artificial obstructions, the legislature has full power to authorize their drainage, not only by opening ditches through adjacent lands, under general drainage acts, but by special acts like that in question, just compensation in all cases being provided for all whose rights are injuriously affected. This act and this decision of the Supreme Court mark an epoch in the history of agriculture. They place the great and leading interest of agriculture upon a strict equality with what has been regarded as the favorite interest of manu- factures. The rights of agriculture are fully vindicated. The authority of the legislature to assist the farmer to the fullest extent, in thoroughly draining his land, is firmly established, and milldams and manufacturing companies are found to be no obstacles to its general power to promote the ffood of the commonwealth. As agriculture progresses this will be found to be a prin- ciple of more and more importance. The streams are the great natural drains of the country. As deep drainage is more appreciated and put in practice, it will become manifest that vast tracts of valuable lands near the rivers, cannot be cultivated to the best advantage without drainage into those 433 rivers, and that no such drainage can be effected without removing dams and other obstructions, and allowing the waters to subside to their natural channels. This subject is receiving great attention at the j^resent time in England. Water powers are becoming less valuable there, because the tendency of thorough drainage is to send all the waters of the rains, in a very few hours, to the streams, instead of its remaining in the soil, and slowly yielding itself up for weeks and months, as it must do, when compelled to percolate through the undrained soil. Streams which formerly were uniform throughout the season are now found, in thorough- drained districts, to rise in tremendous freshets after heavy rains, and to become suddenly dry. For protection from these freshets, as well as to gain fall for drainage, measures are urged for the removal of all obstructions to the streams, and for deepening them and straightening their course. The British agricultural press abounds with articles upon this subject, under the titles " Arterial Drainage," and ^' River Drainage." It is fortunate for the commonwealth, that its Supreme Court is keeping pace with the progress of an enlightened age, and guaranteeing to agriculture, almost in advance, the rights, which elsewhere have been reluctantly yielded or entirely denied. The particular case which elicited the decision in question has not yet been definitively arranged. The act of 1860, authorizing the abatement of the dam at Billerica, has, by an act of 1861, been suspended during one year, for an investiga- tion and report of a board of engineers as to the effect of the dam upon the lands lying on the river, the owners of tlie dam still insisting that it causes little or no injury to those lands. The report of this board will form the basis of future legisla- tive action in the particular case, but the principles of law established by the court will remain unaffected. LIST OFFICERS AND TRUSTEES OF THE SOCIETY SINCE ITS ORGANIZATION. PRESIDENTS. Thomas Russell 1792 to 1796 John Lowell . . . - 1796 to 1802 ; 1823 to 1828 Caleb Strong 1802 to 1805 John Adams 1805 to 1813 Aaron Dexter 1813 to 1823 Thomas L. Winthrop 1828 to 1841 John Welles 1841 to 1846 John C. Gray 1846 to 1857 George W. Lyman 1857 VICE-PRE SIDENTS. John Lowell 1792 to 1796 Moses Gill 1792 to 1800 Joseph Russell, Jr. 1796 to 1807 Aaron Dexter - - 1800 to 1813 Theodore Lyman 1807 to 1809 Samuel Pomroy 1809 to 1823 Thomas L. Winthrop 1818 to 1828 Israel Thorndike 1823 to 1829 Thomas Handyside Perkins - . - - - 1828 Peter C. Brooks 1829 to 1846 John Welles 1829 to 1841 Wm. Prescott 1841 to 1844 435 436 John C. Gray 1844 to 1846 Daniel Webster 1846 to 1853 Abbott Lawrence 1846 to 1850 John C. Warren 1850 to 1853 Francis C. Lowell 1853 to 1855 Wm. P. Mason 1853 to 1856 George W. Lyman 1855 to 1857 Charles G. Loring 1855 to 1860 Robert C. Winthrop 1857 to 1859 Thomas Motley, J. 1859 James W. Paige 1860 COKRESPONDING SECRETARIES. Oliver Smith ... ... 1792 to 1797 Jonathan Mason, Jr. 1797 John Thornton Kirkland .... 1798 to 1802; 1805 Dr. Samuel Parker 1802 to 1805 John Lowell 1806 to 1823 ; 1828 to 1830 Richard Sullivan - - - - 1823 to 1828 ; 1330 to 1835 John Heard, Jr. - 1835 to 1839 John C. Gray 1839 to 1844 Josiah Quiney, Jr. 1844 to 1853 Charles G. Loring 1853 to 1855 Robert C. Winthrop 1855 James W.Paige 1856 to 1860 Richard S. Fay 1860 TREASURERS. Aaron Dexter 1792 to 1800 Thomas L. Winthrop 1800 to 1813 John Prince 1813 to 1827 John Heard, Jr. 1827 to 1835 Henry Codman 1835 to 1853 Thomas Motley, Jr. 1823 to 1859 David Sears, Jr. 1859 RECORDING SECRETARIES. John Avery, Jr. 1792 to 1806 Dudley Atkins Tyng 1806 to 1809 437 John Thornton Kirkland 1809 to 1811 Richard Sullivan 1811 to 1823 Gorham Parsons 1823 to 1833 John C. Gray 1833 to 1839 Josiah Quincy, Jr. 1839 to 1844 Abbott Lawrence - 1844 to 1846 Elias Phinney 1846 to 1850 Francis C. Lowell 1850 to 1853 George W. Lyman 1853 to 1855 Robert C. Winthrop 1855 Richard S. Fay 1856 to 1860 Peter C. Brooks, Jr. I860 TRUSTEES. Cotton Tufts - - ■ 1792 Loami Baldwin 1792 to 1796 James Bowdoin 1792 to 1796 Christopher Gore - - . . 1792 to 1796; 1804 to 1806 Charles Vaughan 1792 to 1799 Martin Brimmer 1792 to 1805 Samuel Parker 1793 to 1899 George Cabot 1796 to 1805 John Codman 1796 to 1800 Theodore Lyman 1796 to 1807 Thomas L. Winthrop 1799 Fisher Ames 1800 to 1804 John Warren 1800 to 1810 John Thornton Kirkland - 1802 to 1804; 1806 to 1809; 1815 Samuel W. Pomroy 1804 to 1809 Dudley L. Atkins Tyng - . . . 1805 to 1806 ; 1809 Josiah Quincy .... 1805 to 1809 ; 1813 to 1826 William Emerson 1806 to 1810 Ebenezer Preble 1807 to 1817 Peter C. Brooks 1809 to 1829 Samuel G. Perkins 1809 to 1816 H. Buckrainster 1810 John Prince - - - 1810 to 1813; 1827; 1832 to 1834 Gorham Parsons 1811 to 1823 E. H. Derby 1816 to 1840 Nathaniel Ingersoll - .... 1817 438 John Welles 1818 to 1829 Aaron Dexter 1823 to 1826 William Prescott 1825 to 1841 Jonathan Amory 1826 John C.Gray 1827 to 1833 Richard Sullivan 1828 to 1830 James Jackson 18- J Israel Thorndike, Jr. 1829 to 1837 John Lowell 1830 to 1833 Daniel Webster 1834 Henry Codman 1833 to 1835 JosiahQuincy,Jr; 1834 to 1839 Abbott Lawrence 1835 Elias Phinney 1837 to 1846 John C. AVarren 1839 to 1850 Francis C. Lowell 1841 to 1850 Levi Lincoln lo41 John A. Lowell 1842 David Sears 1844 to 1850 William P. Mason 1844 to 1853 Daniel P. King 1846 Martin Brimmer 1846. George W. Lyman 1847 to 1853 Charles G. Loring 1850 to 1853 Edward Everett 1850 to 1855 Thomas Motley, Jr. ----- - 1850 to 1853 Robert C. Winthrop 1853 to 1855 Samuel Lawrence 1853 to 1858 James Brown 1853 to 1855 George Peabody 1853 James W. Paige 1853 to 1856 Richard S. Fay 1855 Stephen Salisbury 1855 to 1860 William S. Lincoln 1855 to 1861 George I. Bigelow 1856 David Sears, Jr. 1857 George B. Loring ..---- 1858 Martin Brimmer 1860 William B. Bacon 1861