EAU NU ANNE ative Smee taster ube vs +) tale’ - Sian iss ae adele H t , ) HK Se Ass etd cs Sai thiess i, diay pope he ona] aa ie at Pay vo iy Oe OH uy 3 RURIAS be ‘ve he oy Feta rey Lath Ae Ha : VAY ahh te ys + fa" 3 Le natal 4 Nt) a aide Benin 2a wry LE it twas « ean P é 4 THe ¢ RAY MPa hitahs tab ‘t Pt Le Me = =i. iy te Be vy Nia wie pert ah * meat < eS 5 Pn ee Ae ith i vial ‘) Ne actiat sis 8 Eh ats a bine iis Sid 7 Ay ) va ¥; 4) ca Pt baat ' ih ee ANS bey gibi Lt Hagens Ko AA a, ra ays tiy} y ait w Of a ie iA afi ss AAA sat 4 ha Any ists A Paley itateeu i aie od os rh id a ight ee 4 rhe « v4.8 64 eg hs es A SAYS Se Ae yh ABLES Fg ¢ i 1 LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDENT LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN; — ' 7 ‘ ) 1) » v. ari a Ge ; ad : = _ £ Aka ae i Hid ok Bye ; a eds CLetiay aie, 4 ue i aN TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. SECRETARY AND TREASURER, ROBERT GALLOWAY. VOL. XY. EDINBURGH: FRENTE FOR THE SOCIETY. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. 1898. RV NEW voor 2 : on LIBRARY I Vy Y ORK BOTANICAL GARDEN AYO! YTA1002 GARUTIUOMIO€IA Hall c aisha UMA YRATaROES YAWOMAD THERON YX LOV | “ALOE LL | (T1004 @BT 20T aati TA4014 Mek AVON 2 BALOUOd YEP ¥ Seer = ' 7 — CONTENTS OF VOL. XV. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. Te 1G III. EY. VE Letter from the President read at a General Meeting held on 3rd August 1896, ; : F The Importance of Density in Sylviculture. By Dr ApAm ScHWAPPACH, Professor of Forestry, Eberswalde, Prussia, Report on a Visit to the Forests of Scotland in August 1896. By Dr ApAm Scuwarpac8, Professor of Forestry, Eberswalde, Prussia, . The Genus Pissodes and its Importance in Forestry. By R. SrEewarT MacDovueatt, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Entomology, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, . Is British Forestry Progressive? By Arruur C. ForsEs, Wood Manager, Bowood, Calne, Wiltshire, On the Rearing of Natural and Artificial Undercover for Game. By ALEXANDER M‘RAg, Forester, Castlecomer, Kilkenny Co., Ireland, . REPORTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS, Nores AND QUERIES, EXCURSION OF THE SOCIETY TO THE Upper FortH AND Locu Lomonp DIstTRICT. EXCURSION OF THE SOCIETY TO ARNISTON, MIDLOTHIAN. List oF MEMBERS. PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoyAL ScoTTISH ARBORICULTURAL Socrery. PAGE ty 44 iv VIL. VAULT. Ix. X, XI. XII. XIII. XIV. Ye CONTENTS. Address delivered at a General Meeting held on 16th August 1897. By R. Munro Fereuson, M.P., President of the Society, . Forestry Education. By Dr WiniiiAm Scuiicn, C.1.E., Professor of Forestry in the Engineering College for India, Coopers Hill, Forestry in Scotland in the Reign of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria. By MAncotm Dunn, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith, Experiments with Tree Seeds. By WrLL1AM SoMERVILLE, D.ic., D.Sce., F.R.S.E., F.L.8., Professor of Agriculture and Forestry, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Report by the Judges on Essays on ‘‘The Best Form of, and the Best Method of Establishing, an Experimental Forest Area in Scotland, for the Exhibition of and for Instruction—Theoretical and Practical—in Scientific Forestry,” . On Establishing an Experimental Forest Area in Scotland, for Instruction in the Theory and Practice of Scientific Forestry. By ArrHur C. Forses, Wood Manager, Bowood, Wilts (‘‘Moon Raker”), On Establishing an Experimental Forest Area in Scotland, for Instruction in the Theory and Practice of Scientific Forestry, By D. F. Mackrnzis, Factor, Mortonhall, Midlothian (‘‘ Nil Desperandum”’), Reports BY THE HONORARY SCIENTISTS, Notes AND QUERIES, PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoyaAn ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL Society, Establishment of State Model Forests for Scotland, Letter to Right Hon. W. H. Lone, M.P., Working Plan for the Pit-Wood Working Circle, Raith Estate. By Colonel F. BaiLey, assisted by GkorcE U. MAcDONALD, . PAGE 81 89 109 133 148 155 179 186 197 201 221 223 CONTENTS. XVI. Recent Investigations in Prussia in Regard to the Quality of Timber. By Professor WILLIAM SoMERVILLE, M.A., D.Sc., D.Cc., . XVII. Mr H. C. Hill on the Forest of Dean. By Colonel Battery, REPORTS BY THE HONORARY SCIENTISTS, NoTES AND QUERIES, List oF MEMBERS. PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoyAL ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL SocrEry. PAGE 301 317 uot pita. | * stl ee a ae 7 aan be Yeah olga fajiuws br judy, Gane "ai f + * \aperreaio® caanexoH sur ve . ae eee wt. | see et Geto Tie Toe | catetige ey Tien tliat vie ae i ie? he tay! i’ Wiles 1 May ary ey e 4 ea ristiicie tvaie® Me “n aes, boy, . -_ 7? wy & es Kee ae xs ya by roto ¢ ~ ‘ — : eck ay (el eigen e al moy gy a, oes the aan , Oe. LsieWigium, 1& Dreetecate! Pe cal Seg, Sve Lea (ete Fal bc ife of Dauil (ive Terie bbe Thee aliest > = = ahesaiae © al —ellis ° ert ior J > a Wess = ty war?y, a ii oe } 7 ti: lp, wy Bowness fete Aire fo team, lor eclieee ass iR shin ae ,.< Seewasay hs lise y ane Pirnetiew o Qeenetllio Parte ¥ bergme a Nour, Weed Mavegn, Sew, WUis . > ¥ ‘ oe os) ee eee, ee em Bi. ‘ fi pes! ath) Fees. cy, Cece iemetiy—tas te tiie + a) ee a“ ! - o Syn ™ <8 We yen? “3 reer P,, Magpie ae a a iuie ap SR 4 - re @ s a hes Pi) aa nD e “a. ° Recep ae Nef as ce Sestlent, - Pathe (Ph So a eee, Sey re he 7 ee Belly “a Pete sew 1 | NEW EDITION-THE FOURTH-RE ae er nee ro rrr een aE EEE SIXTEEN ADDITIONAL MAPS ALL MAPS CORRECTED TO DA ar eae=new, 4 =e NEW EDITION-THE FOURTH-READY. SIXTEEN ADDITIONAL MAPS ALL MAPS CORRECTED TO DATE ENTIRELY NEW INDEX INTRODUCTION REVISED PRICE AS FORMERLY Prease Lurn over NOW READY. Fourth Edition, thoroughly revised to date. pA a THE WORLD-WIDE ATLAS A WONDERFUL FPROYDUVUCTION. > eee CONTAINING AN INTRODUCTION GIVING AN ACCOUNT OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY AND POLITICAL TERRITORIAL CHANGES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. By Dr J. SCOTT KELTIE, SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Two Frontispieces—THE FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS, AND THE TIME OF ALL NATIONS The following 128 Thoroughly Accurate and Carefully Coloured Plates of Maps, Plans of Cities, Ete, :— Map Map Map North Polar Chart - = . & 1 | The Riviers, Strait of Gibraltar, Gibraltar, Australia = 2 ST World, Mercator's Projection E 2 Heligoland, Andorra, Balearic T#lands 47 | New Sonth Wales and Victoria - - 88 World, in Hemi Mheren (Bothy -Orographical) : 8 inin, Corsica, Sicily, San Marino, Venice, Queensland - 5 = 89 Europe, Political = 3 4 Lagoons of Venice * = : + 48 | South Australia = - - - : 90 Europe, Physical - P > 3 5 | Channel Islands, Malteso Islands, Crete, Naples 49 | West Australin : - 9% England and Wales 5 = E : 3 6 | Novaia Zemilia, Spitzbergen, Franz-Joseph Land, New Zealand, North Island. : : 92 En North - 2 ~ 3 q Toaland, Baltfe and Corinth Canals - ‘' 50 | New Zealand, South Island : - 93 Wale i z = § | Asia, Political - : : - 51 | New Guinea 4 England, Bast : : 2 9 , Physi - = - > 62 | Philippine Islands, ‘Tasmania, North Borneo, Knglanid, South-West ma, 104] - - 58 runoi, and Sarawak = - 95 Eng! England, South-East aL - = )\4 | Melboume, Bort FhUlip, Otago arbour, Fi tian - = Wy - : : - : 96 Scotland, North-Rast . : Eas! : - - 56 syaney, ‘Ruelnide, “Brisbane, Perth, Hobart, z © ee - : - - 87 Wellington, Auckland, Port Jackson S 3 3 > 45 | India) South-Rast = - - 68 | North America, Political '- Beotland South-West - : - 16 | Burma, Ceylon, and Malay Peninaula : 59 | North America, Physical - g Scotland; South - 7 | Purkeyin Asia - - 60 | British North America = - Ireland =u: ’ > 18 | Balestine - 81 | Cannda East, and Newfoundland Ireland, North 19 | Red Sen = - : 02 | Manitoba '- 2 Ireland, West - : : - 20 | Persia : : 63 | Saskatchewan, Ausiniboin - Trelanil, South-West - ~ a1 | Afghanistan and Baluchistan Oo Ireland, Sonth-Bast - : é 22 | Siam, Anam, Cambodia, Cochin China anil Tong British Tales, Physical ~ : - 38 King '- 65 | United States, Bp and Portugal - c 94 | China 2 - - 66 | United States, ~ 95 | Russia in Asin > : : Or | United States! N Netherlands, Delgium, and Luxemburg 5 = 96 | Japan, Corea, Formosa - : : - 68 | United States, N. W. Central Switzerland’ - - - 97 | Gyprns, Hong-Kong, Wrangel Island, Anjou United States, 8 Empire of Germany - : - as Islands, Tokio, Pekin, Jeruaalem | - 60 | United States, 8. W Central Sweden and Norway - 20 | Aden, Perim Island, Caloutts, Madras - - 70 | Mexico Denmark with Schloswig-Holstein. : 30 | Bomlay - : : > 71 | West India Islands - ‘Anstro-Hongarian Monarchy - 81 "| Africa, Political — - : : : : 2 | Jamaica, Bahamas, Bermudas, Trinidad Tuly= - é - 32 | Africa, Physical — - : : - 78 | Guba, Lesser Antilles, British Honduras Buropean Russia - : 38) ‘Algeriniwith Tonia, - : - ~ 74 | Quebeo, Montreal, Ningara Baltic Sea - 34 | Maroceo : - - > 75 | Now York, Washington, Siearagna Canal ‘Tarkey in Europe and Bulgari gi | Tews Egypt, Sinai, Ete. - 76 | South America, Political - Rumania 40 | Upper Nile and East Sudan, Suez Canal - - 77 | South America, Physical - Bosnia, Servin, and Montenegro - 87 | Abyssinia - : - 78 | Colombia, Ecuador Galapagos Islands : 88 | North-West Africa - - - : - 79 | Venezuela and the Three Guianas Binck Sen - : . ~ 89 | Central Africa, West - - - 80] Pen - — - - Caspian Sea - : : - = 40 | Central Africa, East : 81 | Bolivia - : Planof London — ~ . - 41 | Rhodesia - : = 82 | Eastern Braril Lonilon, Edinburgh, Dublin, Madrid, and Lisbon 42 | Caps Colony 83 | Ghile- — - Paris, Browels, Amsterdam, ‘nnd Genova = 1 | South African Republic, Orange Free State, Uruguay, Paraguay, North Argentina Berlin and Potadam, Copenhagen, Christiania, Natal, Bamto Land, Ete. > 84 | South Argentina |= anil Stockholm - 44 | St Helena, Ascension,’ Mauritius, Madagascar, | Buenos Aires, Valparaiso, Valparaiso and Environs, Vienna, Rome 45 Socotra, Madeira, Canary Islands, Cairo, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro Harbour, St. Peterabuirg, Athens and Pineus, The Bosporns The Cape, Cape Town - : > $5 | Limaand Callao, Panama Canal, Galapagos and Constantinople - 40 | Oceania : - 86 Islands - 198 AND COMPLETE INDEX TO 60,000 PLACES NAMED. Royal Quarto, 12} by 10 inches, Handsomely Bound in Cloth, Price 7s. 6d. HE PUBLISHERS have the greatest confidence in placing the WORLD-WIDE ATLAS before the public. For family use, educational purposes, or for reference in mercantile offices, no such compendious yet handy Atlas of Maps has ever emanated from any Geographical Establishment. t= IF YOU WISH A COPY OF THE WORLD-WIDE ATLAS FILL UP THE ORDER-FORM ATTACHED TO THIS AND SEND IT TO ANY BOOKSELLER, Residents Abroad can cither procure the Atlas from the Local Bookseller, or remit 8s. 2d. direct to the Publishers for a copy. COMPLETE CATALOGUE OF ATLASES, MAPS, GLOBES, WALL /LLUSTRATIONS, Etec., posted free to any address. Ww. & A EX. JOHNSTON, (ESTABLISHED 1835) Geographers to the Queen, Educational and General Publishers, EDINA WORKS, EASTER ROAD, AND 20 SOUTH SAINT ANDREW STREET, EDINBURGH. 5 WHITE. HART STREET WARWICK LANE, LONDON, EC. aa WORLD - WIDE ae) JOHNSTON'S WORLD-WIDE ATLAS—A WONDERFUL PRODUCTION.— a < rr) 5 o > & (zp a | uo a Fd | | oS uo = | 5.8 < | { = o | Si 2 | a Z & < fo} ut t os = 1 & a ace] z | c 9 | a = o cA z i io) | 3 5 ES z | x s io «| NS ene “SVTLV 30/M-G1HOM S.\NOLSNHOP— JOHNSTON'S WORLD-WIDE ATLAS—A WONDERFUL PRODUCTION.—, JOHNSTON'S WORLD-WIDE ATLAS —A WONDERFUL PRODUCTION, TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULIURAL SOCIETY. VOU XV. PART. : \ . | BF cant watts : | EDINBURGH: PRN peehOR THE SOCIETY. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. MDCCCX6VI. a eee PRESS NOV 4 LIBRARY | " 16 1972 BY SPECIAL NURSERYMEN AND SEEDSMEN a 7.0 THE (QUEEN: 5 NVITE the attention of intending Planters to their large Stock of Seedling and Transplanted Forest and other Trees and Shrubs. They are this season in a healthy and vigorous condition, and well suited for successful transplanting. Evergreen and Deciduous Shrubs. Shrubs for Game Covert, and Underwood. Trees and Shrubs for Sea-Side Planting. Thorn and other Hedge Plants. SPECIMEN ORNAMENTAL TREES for producing immediate ~ effect on LAWNS and AVENUES. RHODODENDRONS—all the Best Varieties. we FRUIT TREES of the Best Kinds. 4 ROSES—all sorts worthy of cultivation. SAMPLES ON AYP PLACA TIOM SPECIAL PRICES FOR LARGE QUANTITIES. Seed.Warehouse: 15 PRINCES STREET. Nurseries: LEITH WALK, WARRISTON, AND FETTES. EDINBURGH. ADVERTISEMENTS. STANDARD WORKS ON FORESTRY: Priced List Free on Application POUG LAS Fr OULIS ENGLISH AND FOREIGN LIBRARY 9 Castle Sineets Edinburgh TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY FOR THE NEWEST BOOKS | 4 Vols. | 6 Vols. | 10 Vols. | 15 Vols. | 30 Vols. | = | 1 Month | 5/- 6/- 8/- 12/- 24/- | 3 Months 15/- 18/- 21/- 30/- 60/- 6 Months 25/- 32/- 42/- 55/- I10/~ 3 HOLS 42/- Epi 70/- le = i and LT bree Volumes Sor every additional Guinea per annum SB eeerinitona may commence at any date and are payable in Paowarics Library Catalogues, English and Foreign, gratis to Subscribers SPECIAL TERMS FOR BOOK CLUBS DOUGLAS & FOULIS’ Catalogues of Surplus Library Books are tssued on or about the following dates in each year: February 1, March 15, May 1, June 15, September 1, October 15, and December 1 Gratis and post free to any address at home or abroad, and also CATALOGUE of Ancient and Modern BOOKS Including many Rare and Curious Works in SCOTTISH HISTORY, TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES, POETRY Natural History, Biography, Travel, Fine Arts, Theology and Foreign Literature | DOUGLAS & FOULIS, BOOKSELLERS AND LIBRARIANS, 9 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH, | IMPORTANT TO GARDENERS. To effectually destroy Weeds use SMITH’S PATENT POWDER WEED KILLER, BEST AND CHEAPEST. 4 Tins to make 100 Gallons of Liquid, 6s., Carriage Paid. Write for Full Particulars to MARK SMITH, LTD., LOUTH, LINCOLNSHIRE. a ADVERTISEMENTS. BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT TO H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES. Care Telegrams, PTI a) Telephone, “ HOTHOUSE, EDINBURGH.’ &) Fah fates) €e S&S No. 805, EDINBURGH. MACKENZIE & MONCUR, Linen, HOTHOUSE BUILDERS AND HEATING ENGINEERS, Registered Office and Works—UPPER GROVE PLACE, EDINBURGH. London Office—8 Camden Road, N.W. Branch—43 Victoria Road, GLASGOW. HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS of every description erected either in Wood or Iron, in any part of the Kingdom. All latest improvements adopted. TEAK WOOD HOUSES A SPECIALITY. Pavilions, Summer Houses, Band Stands, Boat Houses, Etc., Etc. Our Conservatories have been awarded 5 Gold and Silver Medals at Exhibitions, London and Edinburgh. HEATING.—pustic BUILDINGS, CHURCHES, SCHOOLS, MANSION-HOUSES, WAREHOUSES, COACH HOUSES, HARNESS ROOMS, &c., heated in most efficient manner, on the Low and High Pressure Hot Water Systems, or with Steam. er Will be pleased to forward copies of our New Illustrated Catalogue to Ladies or Gentlemen contemplating work in our line, or to their Gardeners. ADVERTISEMENTS. FOREST, FRUIT, Xo. AND ALL OTHER “ot TREES AND PLANTS. EVERGREENS, ROSES, DEHCLIDUOUS SHRUBS. => HERBACEOUS PLANTS. &. STOVE anp GREENHOUSE PLANTS, SEEDS ror FARM aAanp GARDEN. JOHN DOWNIE, tee PRINCES: STREET, EDINBURGH. Telegraphic Address—‘‘ DOWNIE, EDINBURGH.” Telephone, 2155. Grown from carefully selected - seed—robust, hardy, and finely ; rooted— In our New Grounds at THE CASTLE NURSERIES, LIBERTON. mIiCKSONS & CoO,, 1 WATERLOO PLACE, EDINBURGH. Established prior to 1770. Address for Telegrams, ‘‘ Dicksons, Edinburgh.” Telephone No. 1066, FRUIT TREES, ROSES, and SHRUBS. Fine Plants of all the best Varieties. Clean, healthy, and well grown. DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES FREE. FORESTRY AND GARDENING TOOLS of every description. ADVERTISEMENTS. stablished 1801. SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES. Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Roses and Fruit Trees. JAMES DICKSON & SONS, 32 HANOVER STREET and INVERLEITH ROW, em DON BO GE CATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION. JAMES DICKSON & SONS received the highest awards for ‘‘ Conifers” and ‘* Hardy Plants” at the International Chrysanthemum Exhibition, Edinburgh, 1889; and again at the great Chrysanthemum Exhibition of 1890. —+ Grown from Seed collected in the = North of Scotland, on high-lying grounds, and under the exposure of a rigorous climate. Hardy Ornamental Conifers, Evergreen Trees and Shrubs, Plants for Game Coverts, Hedges, &c. All are Fibrous-Rooted, Robust, and Grown Unsheltered. SENT TO ALL PARTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. SPECIAL OFFERS FOR LARGE QUANTITIES, and Carriage Rates Reduced. CATALOGUES POST FREE. BENJAMIN REID & CO. FOREST-TREE NURSERIES, ABERDEEN. Vide Loupon’s ‘‘ ENcycLopH#DIA OF GARDENING” (5th Edition, published in 1827).—‘‘The Aberdeen Nursery, Messrs Reid, an old and respectable establishment, chiefly devoted to the culture of Forest Trees, and especially to Seedlings of Scotch Pine, Larch, Fir, and Thorns.” ADVERTISEMENTS. DAVID W.THOMSON'S Sai Rey wate fh AY Ml 24 i she An extensive Collection of Seedling and Transplanted Forest Trees, comprising SCOTS FIR, LARCH FIR, SPRUCE FIR, SILVER FIR, ABIES DOUGLASII, and other trees in great variety, and in splendid condition. FOREST TREES, ETC., PLANTED BY CONTRACT. VINES, ROSES, AND FRUIT TREES. My Stock of the above includes all the best Varieties grown, in fine condition for removal. Qrnamental Trees and Shrubs, Rhododendrons, Ete. In fine condition for removal, having been all recently transplanted. GATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION. CHOICE VEGETABLE SEEDS AND CHOICE FLOWER SEEDS. See Catalogue of Selected Seeds for 1897, Post Free on application. Turseries—WINDLESTRAWLEE, GRANTON ROAD. Seed UWarebouse— 24 FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. Telegraphic Address—‘‘ LARCH, EDINBURGH.” Telephone, 2034. ADVERTISEMENTS. THE CELEBRATED “ACME” WEED KILLER For Destroying Weeds on Garden Walks, Carriage Drives, Stable Yards, Moss on Stonework, etc. Saves more than twice its cost in Labour. No Smell. One application will keep the Walks clear of Weeds for at least Eighteen Months. Mr W. G. HEAD, Superintendent of the Crystal Palace Gardens, says: —‘‘ We were so satisfied with your WEED KILLER and its price, that we have used it absolutely. I have every confidence in recommending it.” STRENGTH, 1 in 25. 1 gallon to be mixed with 25 gallons of water. PRICES :—1-gal. 2/-, drum 9d.; 2-gals. 3/9, drum 1/6 ; 3-gals. 5/6, drum 2/- ; 5-gals. 7/6, drum 2/6; 8-gals. 12/-, drum 4/6; 10-gals. 13/4, drum or cask, 5/-; 16-gals. 21/4; 18-gals. 24/—-; 20-gals. 26/8; 40-gals. 50/-. Casks from 10-gals. and upwards charged at 5/— each. When ordering 1, 2, or 3 Gallons, 9d. for carriage must be remitted. Carriage Paid on 5 Gallons and upwards. DOUBLE STRENGTH. 1 gallon to 50 gallons of water. al. tins 2/— (tin included); 1-gal, 3/6, drum 9d.; 2-gals. 6/6, drum 1/6 ; 3-gals. 9/3, drum 2/—; 5-gals. 14/-, drum 2/6; 8-gals. 21/4, drum 4/6 ; 10-gals, 25/6, drum or cask 5/—; 16-gals. 40/—; 18-gals. 45/—; 20-gals 50/-; 40-gals, 90/-. Casks from 10-gals. and upwards charged at 5/— each, 1 28 Carriage Paid on 2 Gallons and upwards to any Station or Port in Great Britain, and on 5 Gallons to any Station in Ireland. Drums and Casks allowed for in full when returned, carriage paid, within two months. “ACME” POWDER WEED KILLER SOLUBLE IN COLD WATER. Sizes, Prices. No. 1. Sufficient to make 25 Gallons, . 1/9 per tin. ” 2. ” ” 50 ” . 3/3 ” ” 3: ” ” 100 ” . 6/- ” Tins Free. Carriage Paid on No. 3 Size and upwards. When ordering No. 1 tin, 44d. must be remitted for postage, and for No. 2 tin 7a. SPECIAL QUOTATIONS FOR LARGER QUANTITIES. SoLE PROPRIETORS AND MANUFACTURERS— The Acme Chemical Company, Limited, TONBRIDGE, Kent, & Carlton Street, BOLTON, Lancs. ADVERTISEMENTS. A. & J. MAIN & CO, Lp. TRON and WIRE FENCING SPECIALITIES. \ a aa LATES {i Pedi 8 is a ve af exahes: 3 5 y 3 3 Sd This Fence, as now made on MAIN’S “ Break-Joint” system, and with Flanged Standards and Patent Earth-Plates, is undoubtedly the best bar fence in the market; it is also the cheapest if its durability is taken into account. WIRE FENCING with tron Standards and Patent Earth-Plates. Main’s Corrimony Wire Fencing. Ornamental Iron and Wire Garden Fences. Wrought-Iron Entrance and Field Gates, &c. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION. MAIN’S GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING FOR ALL PURPOSES. Specifications and Estimates on Application. Made from Superior sees sessssessesscessescacestens Poultry, &c. Wire, well 38 SS galvanized, Special of full gauge 2n0, seeces Quotations and correct ‘ays ‘ for mesh. ee hy a fo 3 Quantities. Eee lula lee Le GLASGOW —Clydesdale Iron Works, Possilpark. EDINBURGH—Corn Exchange Buildings. LONDON—77a Queen Victoria Street, E.C. DUBLIN—11 Leinster Street. ADVERTISEMENTS. BAYLISS, ae & BAYLISS’ HURDLES, FENCING, GATES, ETC. oud WROUGHT-IRON Stl HURDLES, PATENT SELF-ADJUSTING UNCLIMBABLE STEEL RAILING N2 2762 WIRE FENCING FOR DEER PARKS « baht AT VeRYLAW ~ ¥ 2: PRICES. CHEAP STRAINED WIRE FENCING. 3 dasicnl J : ¥ OMS ne K 5 4 ae LAMM TERKIS BPOULTRY FENCES. cs, TEAMS, RIVETLESS HURDLE a a iy Se ) iS « ae oo om CONTINUOUS BAR FENCING SU arAE aE STEEL aU SN ANT Sw iS ENTRANCE GATES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, ay = ay i /\axtninusonunestenung// \ oh i 1% 4 "S s VARIOUS DESIGNS. » ‘a mn 4j All at very low Prices. iy Ml) SUPERIOR if pesccastet JET VARNISH, etetatete! |e et ‘’ Averages | From Is. 3d. per gal.| rs 0,0, ' D | eas. ite about cease 1s = 20 per cent. | Cheaper COMBINED Peseat By MESH GALVANIZED Fees KS 2" ase cee is ae ea a than | WIRE Ordinary | | NETTING. a Netting. | ae a = ef ais | iH 5 Casks included. } WV Write for Price List. Carriage Paid. | | WROUGHT - WROUGHT.IRON | WIRE Hilal “PROOF FENCE, No. 52 W. 2 DOG feiss edn | a mitt A | er : i nN | | yt “fi TTI A | NTT | HAUUUUGUULUNA CHS Suet ARR Pa es pe wees baad A bog oo | Bite rv | amma wr Vip = ti ia i ~~ j —— ; Ka Price on Application Lists Pree. ; Also POULTRY and | LAWN-TENNIS an Illustrated Catalogue of all kinds of Hurdles, Fencing, Gates, etc., free. MANUFACTORY—VICTORIA WORKS, WOLVERHAMPTON. London Offices and Show Rooms: 139 and 141 CANNON STREET, E.C. Please mention this Publication. Special Notices to Members. HONORARY OFFICIALS. THE Councit desires to direct special attention to the appoint- ment of Honorary Officials of the Society recently made, with the object of affording to Members the opportunity of obtaining gratuitously scientific information upon subjects connected with Forestry. The names and addresses of the present Honorary Officials will be found on page 13 of the Proceedings appended to this Part. Members wishing for information should write direct to the Honorary Official they desire to consult, sending full particulars regarding the subject of inquiry, and also, if possible, any Specimens, such as pieces of stem, twigs and leaves, fruits and seeds, fungi, insects (in all stages of transformation) and their food-plants, etc., that, bear upon and would help to elucidate it. The replies sent to Members by the Honorary Officials will, if of sufficient interest, be published in the 7ransactions of the Society. FORESTRY NOTES AND QUERIES. The Council begs to remind the Members that a few pages of the Transactions have been set apart for suitable Notes on subjects of interest connected with Forestry, which have come under the personal observation of Members, and that they are invited to send contributions. Notes should be short and duly authenticated. It is hoped that, in the absence of an organ devoted to Forestry, advantage will be taken of this invitation by a large number of Members, and that much valuable information will thus be preserved and made available to every Member of the Society. The Council also invites Members to submit Queries on Forestry Subjects, which, if suitable, will be inserted in the Transactions. Notes and Queries may be sent to the Secretary at any time ; but unless they reach him before the end of October, they cannot be inserted in the next issue of the Z7’ransactions. b THE SOCIETY’S CABINET OF LANTERN SLIDES. The Council has resolved that the Society’s Cabinet of 100 Micro-Photographie Slides—illustrative of the Structure of Timber, and suitable for the purpose of Lectures with Lantern Exhibitions—may be lent to any applicant who is willing to comply with the printed Conditions, copies of which can be obtained from the Secretary. NEW MEMBERS. The Council has prepared and printed a Memorandum containing particulars regarding the past and present work of the Society, which, it is hoped, may lead to the introduction of New Members. The Secretary will send copies of this document to any of the Members who may ask for them, and will forward a copy to any person likely to join the Society whose address may be sent to him by a Member. The Secretary will receive Applications for Membership at any time. Applicants who have been duly nominated, and _who have paid their Subscriptions, are at once admitted to all the privileges of Membership, but their election must be con- firmed at the next General Meeting of the Society. ROBERT GALLOWAY, Secretary. 5 St ANDREW SQUARE, EDINBURGH. M*°FARLANE & ERSK FPN Lithographers, Engravers, and Letterpress Printers, 19 ST JAMES SQUARE, EDINBURGH, Having an efficient Staff of first-class Artists and Printers, execute every description of ARTISTIC & COMMERCIAL WORK, AND BOOK, LAW & GENERAL PRINTING, WITH ACCURACY, ECONOMY, AND DESPATCH. Special attention paid to Orders for Black and Coloured Plates for Scientific Works, and Coloured Illustrations required by Seedsmen. Printers to the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Royal Physical Society, etc. RECENTLY PU. BLISHED, In Demy 4to, 56 pages, With 70 Pen and Ink Illustrations, Stiff Boards, 3/-; or Bound in Cloth Gilt, 4/-. Post Free on receipt of Postal Order. A &BORICULTURISTS AND OTHERS IN NORTH GERMANY, 1895. Conrents: At the Pier o’ Leith—At Sea—Bremen — Forestry —The Brocken—More F orestry — Berlin—Homeward. “It is a pleasantly written, chaffing diary. The manuscript is lithographed in facsimile, and is illustrated by humorous drawings that answer well to the comical spirit of the diary itself. Its unconventional character, and its never-failing high Spirits, will make it welcome to any one going to Germany upon a similar errand.”—Scotsman. “‘The book is brimful of pawky humour, and the numerous clever drawings by which it is embellished add greatly to its value. It is sure to be highly prized by the ‘ Boriculturals,’” —North British Agriculturist. “A very pretty, humorous, and artistic volume. The humorous tone and atmosphere are happily preserved throughout, and the reader cioses the book not only with the sense of having enjoyed a pleasant hour, but with definite pictures in his mind which he is not likely to forget, and which he will find it delightful to recall,” J jverness Courier, As only a limited number have been printed, early application for Copies is desirable. M‘FARLANE & ERSKINE, 19 ST JAMES SQUARE, EDINBURGH, Arboriculturists and Others in North Germany, 1895, ORDER FORM. To Messrs M‘FARLANE & ERSKINE 19 St James Square, Edinburgh. Boards, Stz ee Cop. Please send me eed GAS Ree an im Cloth Gilt, for which I enclose Postal Cop... Tame, Baden for... Address, Date, igia \ : Oa j é bas ry U Gat ne alien ma a en aot han ie Ce ee — oe as aesk inie ke cee Oe gen Pete dd at ee ead — we mee : ele SACTIONS. Breil ov he ; a ' ‘ i eee Ce . i PHN AE EH 0 Piha 4 HHHihY » ui) rit ae iG t a i r . pee eh) Bye) ee y iw peri 16 ah hed 5 we Dae yi! £4i Sh) ManwAl |! Wha ety PM ahem mea | pire Se ad ee Uke * a Ae i Uren alvy ne ne cy aoe AE Maver wal: Sivan via) iM He? 2S ne ry a: il ee ios +e wit 7 e2i | 7 AL Lea 7 7 AN Mev oein iif fh la , ‘eee oan Nd yd. Gage oe aby & va) ite HT NAR Hits WO « CONTENTS. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. Le II III IV T —_ VI Letter from the President read at a General Meeting held on 3rd August 1896, The Importance of Density in Sylviculture. By Dr ApAm ScuHwaPpacH, Professor of Forestry, Eberswalde, Prussia, Report on a Visit to the Forests of Scotland in August 1896. By Dr ApAm ScuwapPacH, Professor of Forestry, Eberswalde, Prussia, . - : - 4 5 The Genus Pissodes and its Importance in Forestry. By R. Srewart MacDovea tt, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Entomology, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, . Is British Forestry Progressive? By Arraur C. ForBrs, Wood Manager, Bowood, Calne, Wiltshire, On the Rearing of Natural and Artificial Undercover for Game. By ALEXANDER M‘RaAx, Forester, Castlecomer, Kilkenny Co., Ireland, . REpPorRTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS, Nores AND QUERIES, . PAGE Bl 25 44 61 70 EXCURSION OF THE SOCIETY TO THE Upper FortrH AND Locu LomMonp PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoYAL ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL Soclery. District. EXCURSION OF THE SOCIETY TO ARNISTON, MIDLOTHIAN. List oF MEMBERS, TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, I. Lerrer from the President read at a General Meeting held on ord August 1896. 46 CADOGAN SQuarRE, 30th July 1896. Dear Sir,—It is a disappointment to me to be unable to give an address to the Society for what should be the last term of my office as President, for, as our roll of members increases (and it must be a matter for general congratulation that good names are being constantly added to our lists), we should have no difficulty in finding a fresh President year by year. This must be useful, for it will attach a growing number of leading men to our cause. I fear it will be quite impossible for me to reach Edinburgh on Monday, as the Scottish Rating Bill is down for that day. f have put some amendments on the paper in what I conceive to be the interests of Forestry, which I hope may be approved by the Society. I hope, in these circumstances, to be of more use in London than at the Genera’ Meeting. I regret that no Government has as yet been able to take any decided action upon the Report of the Select Committee on Forestry. The Society must therefore continue and increase its efforts to secure recognition by the State of the need for a regular system of instruction and training for foresters. The visit of Professor Schwappach, and the paper he is to read, will draw public attention to the splendid provision made in all parts of Germany for this branch of instruction, as compared with the comparative absence of such provision in Scotland. The Professor VOL. XV. PART I. A 2 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, will, I fear, see signs of that deficiency in the course of his tour. He will recognise that we can grow timber for beauty, but that we have something to learn with regard to growing for profit. I should be surprised if, before Professor Schwappach leaves the country, he does not express the opinion that when we treat our woodlands as we treat our farm-lands, our timber area will be several times larger than it now is. My only consolation in being absent is that, during the Rating Bill debate, I hope to bring points of interest for foresters before the House of Commons. If that Bill is merely a measure “ for the relief of the occupiers of agricultural lands and heritages,” we have, of course, no case. But if it be a measure for rating reform —to classify lands and heritages for purposes of rating in Scot- land—then it is hard to see why woodlands (on which rates may be paid for a century without any profit from the crop) should be excluded from “rating reform.” Again, as the Rating Bill makes special provision for the Highlands, I believe the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society will agree that, by establishing a Forest School and experimental area in the Highlands, a great step would be taken towards social and economic improvement in these districts. In discussing the future campaigns of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, another foreign tour may be considered, I believe a trip to Norway and Sweden would not be very expensive to members, while it would afford an opportunity for examining into certain manufactures which should be developed at home. But Professor Schwappach can tell us all about that. I must thank the Executive and the members of the Society for the support they have given me, for the great pleasure and for the profit that I have derived from my association with them as President, none of which I shall forget. And with ever the most earnest wishes for the success of Forestry, and for the growth of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Believe me, Yours truly, R. C. MUNRO FERGUSON. The Secretary, Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. oe) THE IMPORTANCE OF DENSITY IN SYLVICULTURE. II. The Importance of Density in Sylviculture.’ By Dr Apam Scuwappacu, Professor of Forestry, Eberswalde, Prussia, Forestry may be defined as the management of woods upon a definite system, which shall secure continuity in the treatment and in the returns. Leaving woods that are planted for beauty or for protection against storms, etc., out of account, the owner endeavours to obtain the maximum of profit consistent with the uninterrupted maintenance of the yield—‘‘ maximum of profit” being synonymous with the maximum difference between the cost of production and gross revenue. This goal is reached by the observance of a number of guiding principles, cultural and otherwise, of which I sha]l here confine myself to the discussion of but one, namely, the influence of density, or number of trees per acre. As will be seen later on, this question has an intimate bearing upon the result of investigations into the influence of different degrees of thinning and light-felling. Other things being equal, the production of timber by individual trees stands in direct proportion to the physiological activity of their roots and leaves. The more extensive the roots, the better developed the crown, and the more perfect the proportion between both, so much the more completely is the tree enabled to utilise the nutritive substances in the soil and in the atmosphere, and, consequently, the greater will be the quantity of material which it will produce in a given time under the influence of light and heat. The best proof is found in the fact that, whereas a tree occupying an open situation in a park may produce rings an inch or more in breadth, a tree of the same species growing in a dense wood will show rings whose breadth is a mere fraction of this. On any given area we shall, therefore, obtain the maximum yield of timber if the density is so regulated that for any given age the number of trees is such as to admit of the perfect development of the crown and roots of each. On various occasions this view found expression in works on forestry early in the present century, as, for instance, in the writings of Cotta, and still more so in those of Liebich, a lecturer in the Polytechnic at Prague. The aim and object of forestry, however, consists not in the production of the greatest mass of wood, but in the production of the greatest revenue from a given area. Apart from cases that 1 Read at a General Meeting held on 3rd August 1896. 4 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. do not at present come into the discussion, revenue is ascertained by multiplying the quantity of timber produced by its value per cubic foot. Manifestly, therefore, forestry means something more than the mere production of the maximum mass of timber. It means, in fact, the continuous production of the maximum yield of high-priced timber. This object, however, will not be attained by trees which, from their earliest youth, have had space enough for the unrestricted development of their crowns. Such trees are only of moderate height, and their boles are short, conical, and clothed with numerous thick branches. However much a tree with a great mass of foliage may beautify a landscape or please an artist, it is not capable of yielding the maximum amount of profit, and the price which it will bring will be in inverse pro- portion to the requirements of a purchaser for a long, symmetrical, and cylindrical bole. A timber merchant looks out for trees as long, straight, and cylindrical as possible, with the minimum number of knots. Not only do knots detract from the appearance of timber, but recent investigations in Germany and America have shown that the strength of timber is also very prejudicially affected by their presence. Seeing that stems with the minimum of knots, and as cylindrical as possible, can only be obtained by curtailing the development of the crowns, the production of quantity must to a certain extent —under a system of intensive forestry—give place to the produc- tion of quality. The attention of a forester must therefore be directed towards selecting that particular density in a wood which will best combine the production of quantity and quality. Experi- ence, supported by careful investigation, has shown that this goal can only be reached in woods which show a high degree of closeness at an early age. The restriction in the quantity of light tends to diminish the production of leaves and branches, and it is found that under such circumstances the trees endeavour to grow in height as fast as possible in their attempt to obtain space for the development of their crowns. The most vigorous individuals will take the lead in this struggle, whereas their weaker neighbours will be over- grown and finally killed. The over-grown specimens, however, fulfil a useful function in the life of a wood; firstly, by shading the lower portions of the stems of the larger trees; secondly, by assisting in the removal of the lower branches of the dominant trees, against which they rub during gales; and thirdly, by THE IMPORTANCE OF DENSITY IN SYLVICULTURE. 5 shading the ground. It must be mentioned, however, that there is a limit to the degree of density, and if this is exceeded, the development of even the most vigorous trees will be prejudicially interfered with. It is only of importance to encourage growth in height and cleanness of stem during the time when the trees are making most of their height-growth, and the duration of this period will depend upon the species and the character of the situation. In this connection, also, the forester will have to determine what proportion of the stem he desires to see clear of branches. Nothing would be gained, for instance, by attempting to grow beeches with clear boles as long as those of the spruce or Scots fir. After this stage has been reached, the forester should direct operations in such a way that the trees shall attain an average diameter which will satisfy the demands of the timber market. From this period onwards the encouragement of growth in thick- ness harmonises more and more with the production of the maximum mass of timber. To attain this object, it becomes necessary to see that the larger class of trees are accorded an increased amount of growing space. The most important question now comes to be: To what extent shall the wood be artificially interfered with, or, in other words, what amount of thinning is most advantageous ! In their struggle for existence a large number of trees perish, and these are utilised by the proprietor of the wood as soon as they can be turned into money. Besides trees which are totally dead, one finds others which, though still alive, are hardly making any growth, and beyond these there are others in all the various degrees of development up to the largest stems. According as the operation of thinning is confined to (a) the dead and dying, (65) those that are completely over-grown by their neighbours, or (c) those whose crowns are considerably curtailed, one has to distinguish three degrees of intensity in thinning, which may be defined as weak, moderate, and strong. If one goes further with the removal of trees, and fells those with fully developed crowns —as is sometimes done—the operation is called ‘ lightening,” ‘light thinning,” or ‘‘ felling for light.” A weak thinning exerts no effects, beneficial or otherwise, upon the trees that remain. Such an operation is confined to the removal from the wood of material that is without influence on 6 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. its future development. Consequently, where it is a question of providing more space for the trees that remain, such a thinning is absolutely useless. A moderate thinning is also without appreciable influence on the development of the trees that remain, and differs only from a weak thinning in enabling the forester to obtain a larger quantity of wood, which is also of somewhat higher quality. Such a degree of thinning is practised in all woods up to the end of the period during which height-growth is principally made. It is also practised right through the rotation in the case of woods of those species of trees—more especially the Scots fir — which naturally, and without any artificial assistance, lighten them- selves. This matter will be further dealt with later on, It is only when the degree of thinning is what is called “strong” that the operation has sufficient influence to produce a marked improvement in the development of the crowns of the remaining trees, and to induce more rapid growth. In Germany a strong thinning is only practised in woods where the stems average about 8 inches in diameter. At a later period diameter- growth, which is now synonymous with increase in value per cubic foot, may be encouraged by going even beyond a strong thinning ; that is to say, the wood may be “ lightened.” Finally, it may here be mentioned that some, especially the French, recommend a system that may be defined as the extension of the thinning to the dominant class of trees. Under this system, when a wood is about thirty years old, the most vigorously growing trees are given so much room that their crowns are practically isolated, and in this way the growth of such trees is encouraged to the greatest possible extent. Having secured this isolation in the dominant trees, the forester leaves the rest of the wood intact (beyond the removal of stems actually dead), and in this way he secures the cleaning of the stems of the dominant trees and the encouragement of their height-growth, and, at the same time, the ground is properly shaded. Until the forestal investigation stations had, within recent years, carried out careful researches into the growth of treeg, people held very indefinite ideas regarding the influence exerted by the different degrees of thinning and lightening, Now, how- ever, we possess definite information on the subject, and I shall, as shortly as possible, give a brief resumé of the results of recent research. THE IMPORTANCE OF DENSITY IN SYLVICULTURE, 7 Apart from the case of the Scots fir, the three degrees of thinning result in the production of almost exactly the same quantity of timber. A partial exception to this almost general statement is furnished by beech woods, which, according to investigations in Denmark, may, in favourable situations, be made to yield an increased quantity of timber if thinnings are begun strongly, though cautiously, at a comparatively early age. In the case of Scots fir woods, on the other hand, which, even without interference, become naturally so thin that the individual trees develop large crowns, the degree of thinning that is desig- nated “‘moderate” results in the production of the largest mass of timber. Apart, then, from the case of the Scots fir, and, under excep- tional cases, the beech, the selection of the degree of thinning is determined by other considerations than that of production of quantity, One object in view is the encouragement, by early moderate thinnings, of the development in youth of stems which will ultimately furnish high-class timber. At a later period, the woods should be managed in such a way that the timber produced shall be concentrated on comparatively few trees, and in this way we have increase both in value per unit and in mass; and the intermediate returns, in the shape of strong thinnings, tend to raise the financial returns from the area. Until quite a recent date erroneous ideas were also held regarding the influence of light-fellings. It was generally con- sidered that this system of thinning resulted in the production of a larger quantity of timber than could be got from a continuously close forest. The results of careful researches prove that if Scots fir woods are lightened, even at a very early age, the trees are not able to make any very considerable use of their opportunities. They also go to show that it is desirable to take steps at a moderate age to secure cleanness of bole and the conservation of soil fertility, and this is accomplished by the establishment of an underwood. Even in the case of such trees as the beech, which respond quickly and favourably to light-thinning, the results which have attended the investigations were somewhat unexpected. The smaller class of trees, with their poorly developed crowns, are not able to take advantage of the more favourable conditions that are offered to them, while the larger trees have already developed such good crowns in the close wood that the admission of a 8 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, further supply of light is practically without effect. The only trees which are capable of responding satisfactorily to the new conditions are those of medium size. If, however, one thins the wood to such an extent that these medium-sized trees have the opportunity of making materially accelerated growth, one finds that, even with a light-felling only slightly in excess of a strong thinning, one soon reaches the limit where the gross production begins to decline in consequence of the reduction of the number of trees. The result is that one obtains a less aggregate yield of timber than would be got from a close wood, in spite of the fact that the growth of a certain number of individual trees has been stimulated. Besides the considerations affecting quantity and quality of timber, the question of thinning is intimately connected with the conservation of the soil fertility, on which the productive capacity of the ground and the maintenance of the yield so largely depend. We know from experience that if woods are over-thinned on light sands or on steep declivities, there is a danger of sand-drift in the one case, and of the fertile surface soil being washed away in the other. But apart from these cases, recent advances in our knowledge of the chemistry of soils have shown us that if woods are too thin, that is to say, if the surface of the ground is insufficiently shaded, or if the close leafy canopy is suddenly and strongly interrupted, the results may be most prejudicial to the productive capacity of the soil. On the other hand—apart from certain exceptional conditions, which may here be neglected—there is nothing to be feared in this connection from having woods too dense. Amongst the undesirable effects that follow insufficient stocking of the ground, I may mention the destruction of that porous or crumbly character of the soil which is so intimately associated with fertility, and the encouragement of the formation of sour raw humus. If the force of falling rain is not mitigated by a canopy of branches and a mantle of good humus on the surface of the ground, it will be found that the soluble plant-food is washed out of the upper strata of sandy soil, while in the case of a loam the porous or crumbly character of the soil is destroyed by the battering and consolidation to which it is subjected. In the case of calcareous ground, the soil undergoes very undesirable changes in structure if allowed to become too dry, as will THE IMPORTANCE OF DENSITY IN SYLVICULTURE. a happen if the direct rays of the sun are not effectively excluded. Simultaneously with these undesirable changes, the covering of the ground also alters for the worse. Sandy soils soon become covered by a dense turf of fine-leaved and shallow-rooted grasses, and this felted mass of roots not only exhausts the moisture in the soil, but also prevents the entrance of additional supplies in the form of rain-water. On more fertile soils the herbage which appears on the surface of the ground is composed of better species of plants, but in this case also the development of the trees is materially interfered with. Hardly anything exerts such a prejudicial influence upon the fertility of soil as the accumulation thereon of large quantities of undecomposed vegetable matter (raw humus). In a wood of normal density, raw humus is either not formed at all, or only to a very limited extent, and the soil-covering is loose and favour- able for tree-growth. If a wood is not sufficiently close, or if its canopy has been in- cautiously interrupted, the soil—especially where the situation is poor—generally becomes covered with raw humus. Simultane- ously with the formation of this material, heath usually appears on the ground, and this rapidly increases the stock of raw humus, and especially so under the unfavourable climatic conditions of a high rainfall and a low temperature, such as prevail in moun- tainous districts or near the coast. Under such circumstances the area may gradually be changed into a bog, as has happened in the case of the large boggy moors in North Germany, which were at one time covered by forests. In other cases the rain washes the organic acids out of the humus, and carries them into the upper strata of the mineral soil, where they render a large part of the plant-food soluble, and in this condition it is carried into the subsoil, and precipitated in the form of a moor-pan, a formation which is often met with on a large scale, and which is extremely prejudicial to all kinds of plant life. The principles that should guide forestal practice, so far as they are concerned with the maintenance of the factors of production in the soil, are thus intimately bound up in the preservation of a porous or crambly consistency in the soil, and the prevention of the formation of raw humus. Keeping in view the production of high-class timber and the 10 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. conservation of soil fertility, we may, from what has been said, deduce the following conclusions :— (1) That the area should be closely stocked to begin with, and that, up till the period when the greater part of height- growth has been made, a wood should be kept dense. (2) That from this time onwards the thinning should gradu- ally become stronger, such strong thinnings beginning earlier, and being carried further, when quantity rather than quality is the object in view. (3) That in the case of Scots fir woods, closeness should be maintained as far as possible right through the rotation. (4) That where increase in diameter is accompanied by an (5) If increased value per cubic foot, the degree of thinning may be pushed to its fullest extent, for in this case any appreciable reduction in the total yield of timber will be more than counterbalanced by the increased value of what is obtained. thinning has been carried so far that a close canopy cannot be restored by the accelerated development of the crowns of the remaining trees, the forester must secure sufficient shading of the ground, either by encouraging the growth of the seedlings that naturally spring up underneath the parent trees, or an underwood —a so-called soil-protection wood—must be established artiticially by seeding or planting. REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE FORESTS OF SCOTLAND. el Ill. Report on a Visit to the Forests of Scotland in August 1896. By Dr Apam Scuwappacu, Professor of Forestry, Ebers- walde, Prussia. In accordance with the desire of my Scottish friends, I beg to submit to the consideration of the members of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society the following short account of the im- pressions which I took home with me from my tour in Scotland. On August 4th, along with the members of the Society, I visited the parks and woods of Airthrey, Keir, Blair Drummond, and Lanrick Castle. On August 5th we traversed the beautiful Lochs of Katrine and Lomond, but at Balmaha I had to say ‘good bye” to the party, in order that I might fulfil some engagements that had been made for me to visit the north of Scotland. On account of illness, Professor Somerville and Colonel Bailey were unable to start with me on my extended tour, but Pro- fessor Bayley Balfour most kindly undertook to act as my guide. On the 7th of August Professor Somerville and Mr Dunn joined us at Dunkeld, and accompanied us on our delightful excursion of August 8th. After leaving Balmaha I had the pleasure of again sailing over the whole length of the magnificent Loch Lomond. From Ardlui the Highland Railway brought us to Banavie, where we arrived on the evening of August 5th. The 6th of August was occupied with the passage of the Caledonian Canal, which I found most interesting. We were met in Inverness by Mr Gossip, who con- ducted us to the most beautiful points of that charming town. The view over Inverness and the Moray Firth from the cemetery —which is unequalled for situation and beauty—was most im- pressive. Our visit to Mr Gossip’s nursery had unfortunately to be undertaken so late in the evening that we had not the opportunity of making such a careful inspection of it as we should have liked. It was interesting to find that the Highland one- year old seedling pines were very much smaller than similar seedlings grown on the Continent, and similarly with regard to larches grown from Scottish and Tyrolese seed. On August 7th we spent some hours in the extensive pine woods of the Countess of Seafield in the neighbourhood of Grantown, and in the evening we visited the magnificent larch 12 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. woods, as well as the gardens and grounds belonging to the Duke of Athole at Dunkeld. There we inspected the first larches ever planted in Scotland, and an inscribed stone standing near informs the visitor that one of the trees, which appears to be still in good health, was planted in 1738, and is 102 feet high. The distinction of being the oldest example of its species in Scotland does not appear to be quite so well established in the case of a magnificent Douglas Fir growing near, a similar claim being advanced in favour of a specimen at Murthly Castle. To me the most interesting day proved to be the 8th of August. After an early visit to the nursery and a pine wood near Dunkeld, we inspected the wonderful collection of exotic ‘trees at Murthly Castle, over which we were most kindly con- ducted by the proprietor, Mr Stewart Fotheringham. Later on in the day we visited the grounds and woods of Scone Palace, and finally reached Edinburgh at half-past nine. My trusted mentor, Professor Bayley Balfour, accompanied me to the steamer at Leith, where Messrs Mackenzie and Erskine were waiting for me, and with whom I spent a very pleasant hour till the boat sailed at eleven o’clock. On the voyage to Hamburg I had time to reflect on the very successful results of my trip, which had made me acquainted with so much that was beautiful and interesting, and during which I had received so much kindness, and this I take the present opportunity of gratefully acknowledging. In submitting my views to the members of this Society, I would ask them to bear in mind that my visit was of but short duration, and consequently I may have made some mistakes, or have been insufficiently informed on certain points. It will be convenient to arrange what I have to say under the following three heads :— (1) Forestry, (2) Afforestation of waste lands, and (3) Exotic conifers. 1. The most extensive as well as the most scientific system of forestry, according to German notions, was met with in the large pine forests belonging to the Countess of Seafield, in the neighbourhood of Grantown. These woods occupy a soil over- lying gneiss, such a soil, in fact, as would for the most part be placed in the third class—to some extent also in the second class REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE FORESTS OF SCOTLAND. 13 —according to German methods of classification of forest soils. The older woods are showing satisfactory growth, and, with the exception of those in the neighbourhood of the Castle, are exclusively regenerated by naturally sown seed. At Curr Hill it was an interesting experience for me to find a wood about twenty years old and a hundred acres in extent, which had been regenerated naturally, and which was showing a density and uniformity which, without artificial assistance, could not have been obtained in Germany, where the young trees suffer much during the felling of the seed-trees. In other parts of the forest, ¢.g., Millton Wood and Drumindunan, I found exactly the same state of things as we are accustomed to meet with in woods that have originated through natural regeneration in Germany. I refer to the condition of things where one finds some parts of the ground sufficiently stocked, but the rest so incompletely supplied with plants as to preclude the possibility of perfect density without artificial assistance. Woods of this character, from which the seed-trees have been removed, contain numerous over-branched trees, amongst which one meets with small areas which are sufficiently dense, and where the growth is satisfactory. Such woods were only too common on the Seafield property, and it struck me as remarkable that nothing was done by transplanta- tion to fill up the gaps in these natural woods, an operation that would certainly prove very profitable. The lack of uniform success that has attended natural regener- ation in the neighbourhood of Grantown is no doubt due to the varying quantity of raw humus existing in and on the soil, a substance which opposes the greatest obstacles to the system of sylviculture which is practised on that estate. When a wood is in the seed-felling stage, the soil offers satisfactory conditions of growth for the young seedlings only when the humus is in a certain stage of decomposition. This period lasts for but a short time, and unless the seedlings take root during this period it is hopeless to expect a further supply of seed to produce a supple- mentary stocking of young plants. When at Grantown I hed also the pleasure of inspecting a wood, about twenty years old, at Croft-na-Haven, which had been established by planting, and which was growing in a most satisfactory manner. Mr Thomson informed me that from 2500 to 3000 plants were used per acre, and that this is the usual number employed in the woods under 14 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. his charge, a number that corresponds to what we are accustomed to in Germany. The main difference in the management of woods in Scotland and in Germany is found in the manner of thinning. The specimens of thinning that I met with at Dunkeld, Scone, and Airthrey were entirely opposed to what we would consider good practice in Germany. . It was therefore a greater pleasure to find that Mr Thomson practised and recommended a system more in consonance with scientific principles. It seemed to me during my short visit, that woods are greatly over-thinned in Scotland, and are too much managed like the trees in a park. The great mistake that Scottish foresters make is to start thinning too early, in order to give the trees sufficient room to develop large crowns, and to grow rapidly in thickness. The object would appear to be an attempt to induce the woods to furnish some saleable produce, such as sleepers, at the earliest possible age. However desirable early returns may be from thg joint of view of the landlord or of the forester, the fact must not be lost sight of that they are obtained at a great sacrifice. Trees grown in woods managed in this way have not the opportunity to clean their stems naturally of dead branches, and therefore it is necessary to incur considerable expenditure on artificial pruning—an opera- tion which is practically out of the question on a large scale. The thinnings obtained at a very early age are of such poor quality as to be of little or no value. Growth in height is inter- fered with to an extraordinary extent, and the production of a well-shaped bole becomes almost an impossibility. Further, when a wood is thinned to its utmost extent it does not contain a reserve supply of trees to serve as substitutes for those that have lost their leaders, or are otherwise defective. This matter is of special importance in Scotland, where the squirrel does an amount of damage to trees that is unknown in Germany: in consequence of the removal of the bark from the upper part of the stems, the trees develop misshapen crowns, and are greatly reduced in value. Had we a plague of squirrels in Germany such as is found in Scotland, we should set about reducing the numbers by diligent shooting. It cannot be too much emphasised that strong and early thin- ning prevents the production of the maximum mass of timber, and at the same time makes the formation of valuable timber impossible. If the commencement of strong thinning were REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE FORESTS OF SCOTLAND. 1) delayed for other ten to twenty years, the woods would give a permanent yield of timber fit for sleepers, while the main crop would develop into heavy timber suitable for all structural purposes. Instead of removing well-formed trees in the early thinnings, one ought to fell only such as are badly shaped, and I am afraid that this system is at present too little practised. Apart from the Scots fir, I found that the woods which I visited consisted for the most part of the larch—especially near Dunkeld — and the oak. During the time at my disposal, I was not able to make close inspection of the system on which the larch woods are managed, but it is probable that my views do not clash to any great extent with those of Scottish foresters regarding the sylvi- cultural treatment of this tree. At Scone Palace I inspected a very fine oak-wood, from ninety to one hundred years old. The trees were showing vigorous growth, and one can only regret that the ground was not more fully stocked, as would have been the case under a different system of management, and which would have resulted in the production of finer and more valuable stems. Between Callander and Balmaha I saw numerous woods of oak coppice on the lower slopes of the hills. These woods are managed on a rotation of twenty-one years, and furnish tanning bark and light timber, the latter being partly used for firewood. On the steep slopes with a shallow soil the system of coppicing is to be commended, but, with tanning bark as the main object, the manner of thinning appeared to leave much to be desired. Tanning bark should be as smooth on the surface as possible, and the stems which furnish it should be long and clean. I found, however, that owing to severe thinning about the seventh and fourteenth years, the bark was coarse and inferior in quality, and the stems were short and branchy. It also appeared to me that many of the stools were too old, and should have been replaced by fresh saplings. The presence of standards in a coppice is also objection- able. These have, for the most part, originated in stool-shoots, and in the shallow soil are short and bushy. They thus cast too dense a shade on the coppice poles, whose growth is materially interfered with. At Airthrey I found the ash growing well, in conjunction with the sycamore and beech—a mixture which gives satisfactory results. During the next few years such woods ought to be 16 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, managed so as to preserve density as far as possible, and the rabbits ought to be killed down. At Airthrey I received the impression (which was afterwards strengthened) that the Scots fir is not adapted for general culti- vation in Scotland to the extent that I had previously assumed. On poor soils overlying gneiss, and on sands, the Scots fir is undoubtedly the right tree to plant, but several other trees will give a better return on granite and basalt soils, as well as on diluvial ground and old moraines. Under these circumstances, the Scots fir should be regarded as a means to, rather than an object of forestry. At Grantown, where I had the opportunity of inspecting timber that was being converted in a saw-mill, I found that the timber furnished by the Scots fir in Scotland is of much poorer quality than similar wood grown in East Germany, being softer, broader in the ring, and containing more spring wood. The low quality of such timber is probably due to some extent to the lower summer temperature and the heavier rainfall of Scotland, though it is also a result of the too open character of the woods. My impressions lead me to suppose that the oak should be more frequently planted on loams, and the ash, sycamore, and beech on calcareous soils, Satisfactory results may also be anticipated from the cultivation of certain American trees—e.g., Quercus rubra, Prunus serotina, and Betula lenta. Amongst conifers, ‘the larch is probably the best for soils that do not suit the Scots fir, but as the success of this tree is now very uncertain, the spruce may to some extent be substituted for it. Although the growth of the last-named tree in pure woods cannot be relied upon to be always satisfactory, it will doubtless do well as a mixture with the larch, and the same is true with regard to certain exotic conifers, especially Pseudotsuga Douglasit or Douglas Fir and Picea sitchensis or Menzies Fir. The large parks which are so common in Scotland have proved an excellent experimental ground for testing the growth of such trees, and this is a subject to which I shall again refer. 2. In Scotland the afforestation of waste land is a matter of the utmost importance, : A stranger who visits the Highlands for the first time finds the long railway journey through districts which show but little vegetation except heather, not only monotonous, but positively depressing. This impression is intensified by the absence of Led » REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE FORESTS OF SCOTLAND, 17 animal life, with the exception of mountain sheep, while means of communication by road are few and far between. The experience is still more intensified when the traveller is a forester or a political economist, for the remnants of forests (¢.g., on Rannoch Moor), and the presence of stumps in the bogs, remind him that this extensive area was once covered by wood. At the present time such land gives a return only through its scanty pasturage and its sporting rights. The ground is not infrequently cleared of sheep in order to encourage the game, which consists for the most part of grouse and red deer; but the latter animal, judging from the antlers which I had the oppor- tunity of inspecting, is of such diminutive proportions that a stag from the poor pine forests of Germany would appear like a giant beside it. The annual grazing and sporting rent from such areas appears to fluctuate between sixpence and half-a-crown per acre. The question then comes to be whether forestry offers the opportunity of improving the revenue from such land. The favourable climate of Scotland, and the comparatively easy slopes of its mountains, make it unnecessary to undertake forestry operations for the improvement of the climate or the fixation of the soil upon the hills. The ease with which coal may be got in that country, and the facilities which it enjoys—at least for the present—for the importation of timber from abroad, make it unnecessary that planting should be undertaken either for the purpose of providing a supply of fuel or of structural timber. The possibilities of the afforestation of the waste lands of Scotland must therefore be regarded entirely from the financial point of view. Whether forestry will be financially successful or not will to some extent depend upon whether the question is regarded from the national point of view, or from the standpoint of the owner of the woodlands for the time being. Regarded from the point of view of the national weal, the question comes to be whether forestry offers the possibility of permanently increasing the nett revenue from the land. In my opinion this question must undoubtedly be answered in the affirmative, at least so far as the better classes of soil are con- cerned, and for the following reasons. Assuming that the Scots fir is employed, with a rotation of eighty years on soil of the third class, and, further, allowing 2} per cent. on the invested VOL. XV. PART I. B . 18 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. € capital, a percentage which for Britain errs on the side of being rather too high than too low, we have the following items of ex- penditure and revenue, so far as they refer to the first rotation :— EXPENDITURE PER ACRE, 1. Value of land worth ls. 6d. per annum, at twenty- five years’ purchase, 5 & slolviegs 2. Planting and beating up, : : 1 10cad 3. Annual outlay for supervision, protec- tion, rates and taxes, and road- making, . : : ‘ 025.2 By the methods of computation employed in forest valuations, the deferred value of these items of expenditure, with compound interest, at the end of eighty years amounts to about £49. REVENUE. According to my investigations,! the final felling and the deferred value of the intermediate returns (thinnings)—allowing, however, only 2 per cent. interest on the latter—will amount at the end of eighty years on soil of the third class to £87. Dis- tributed over eighty years, the balance of £38 gives an annual revenue of just over 3s. per acre, which compares with a former rental of ls, 6d. Although nothing has been allowed on account of game in the above calculations, it is not to be supposed that no revenue will be derived from this source during the whole period of the rotation. On the contrary, the game rent, during the second half of the rotation of a German forest, amounts to a very considerable sum. Apart from the increase of revenue, the afforestation of land is of great national importance as a labour-employing industry. Land under wood can maintain a larger population than land under rough pasture. From the national point of view it is manifestly also an advantage to produce timber at home, and so dispense with its importation from abroad. This matter is of 1 <“¢ Wachsthum und Ertrag normaler Kiefernbestiinde,”’ Berlin, 1889, p. 66, . REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE FORESTS OF SCOTLAND. Ms special importance in view of the fact that many countries which at present export timber must in the near future cease to do so. Many of these countries are exploiting their forests in such a reckless manner that their stock of timber will soon be exhausted. It was this consideration that mainly influenced the Swedish Government in its determination to send a delegate to the Inter- national Congress of Forestal Investigation Stations, which is this year to meet in Brunswick. When the question of afforestation is viewed from the stand- point of the private owner, it assumes a materially different aspect from that which has just been indicated. When the private individual undertakes tree-planting, he does so with the know- ledge that the small but certain rental which the ground has previously yielded will temporarily disappear. And not only so, but he has algo to face a serious outlay on account of planting and management, and he can have no guarantee that the under- taking will be a success. He knows, moreover, that he himself will derive no financial benefits from his operations, or, at best, that these benefits will be very insignificant. Under these circum- stances, the majority of owners will prefer to retain such small revenue as the land affords, rather than embark upon an under- taking which must be so absolutely unprofitable to themselves, and whose returns are so long deferred. In Austria and Germany there are many landowners who possess extensive forests, but such forests have long been worked upon a definite rotation, and yield a constant and permanent revenue. They know that their forest land yields them a better return than tillage or pastoral land of a similar character. The consequence is that they are induced to forego a portion of the revenue from their woods in order that other suitable land on their estates may be afforested for the benefit of their successors. Their action, in fact, is precisely the same as that practised by the Countess of Seafield upon her Highland estate; and her example might, with manifest advantage, be followed by other proprietors. From what I have been able to learn, however, I do not think that it is likely that any large proportion of the waste lands of Scotland will be afforested by private enterprise. Past experi- ences show that the extension of forestry on a large scale, such as is necessary in Scotland, must be undertaken by the State, or 20 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. other public body, such as corporations, county councils, ete. It is only such bodies that have the necessary means, and as there is no question of death in their case, they are in a position to wait patiently for the deferred returns of forestry. I trust that the efforts of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society in this important department of national economy may be crowned with success. In connection with the question of afforestation, it is evident that all kinds of waste land are not alike suitable for tree-plant- ing. High and exposed situations and precipitous declivities do not lend themselves to forestry operations. Then, again, there are wide areas of comparatively flat land of moderate elevation, which are covered with heather and peat to such an extent as to preclude much hope of success from tree-planting. The most suitable areas for planting are furnished by moderate declivities in sheltered situations, where peat is either absent or at least present to such a small extent as not to prevent the roots of the young trees getting at the mineral soil underneath. It is with such areas that one should begin, for it is these that will most rapidly give satisfactory results. 3. To me the most interesting part of my tour consisted in the opportunities I obtained of inspecting the exotic conifers that are so common in the parks and pleasure-grounds of Scotland. It is now fifteen years since the acclimatisation and forestal culti- vation of the various species of exotic conifers was vigorously taken in hand in Germany, and large sums have been spent upon the work. Foresters are divided in their opinions of the results and the value of these operations in Germany, many maintaining that the splendid growth which many of the trees are at present making will not be continued for many years. Seeing that such trees have been cultivated in Scotland for upwards of forty years, we are able to draw conclusions as to the probable ultimate results of their cultivation in Germany, bearing in mind, of course, that the climate of the two countries differs to a very considerable extent. The parks which I visited differed in character and situation to some extent, but all of them were pictures of sylvan beauty. Toa stranger accustomed to a Con- tinental climate, the splendid collections of conifers came as a ‘revelation, and it would be difficult to say which of them was the most interesting. To me, as a forester, Murthly appeared REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE FORESTS OF SCOTLAND. 2] as the pearl of them all. It was here that I found American conifers in the greatest abundance and of the largest size, and the trees had been treated here more as one is accustomed to meet with them in the forests. The magnificent development of the different species, and the picturesque and artistic manner in which they were grouped, with luxuriant specimens of rhodo- dendrons, hollies, bay laurels, and other plants, combined with the beautiful velvety turf of the Scottish lawn, produced an impression never to be effaced. From the point of view of German forestry, the most interesting trees that I met with were,—Pseudotsuga Douglasii, or Douglas Fir; Picea sitchensis, or Menzies Fir; Chamecyparis Lawsoniana, or Lawson’s Cypress ; Tsuga Mertensiana, or Prince Albert’s Fir; Abies grandis, concolor, amabilis, and nobilis ; and Thuja gigantea. Seeing that the trees which I met with in the parks are all standing singly, one cannot with certainty infer from them what form of bole they will possess, or what diameter-growth they will make when grown in close woods. They do, however, give valuable information regarding their annual growth in height. Even the fine wood, about 8 acres in extent of Douglas fir, near Scone does not represent a satisfactory picture of the behaviour of this tree when cultivated under true forestal con- ditions. The trees had been originally planted too wide apart (about 10 feet square), and although they have been subjected to artificial pruning, their boles are not what the forester or timber merchant would consider satisfactory. Height-growth, which is an excellent criterion for determining the suitability of a tree for its environment, was found in all cases to leave nothing to be desired. In spite of the fact that trees, when standing singly, are incapable of growing in height to the maximum extent—and especially is this the case in Scotland, where the wind has a powerful influence—the older specimens of the various species have attained a height of from 60 to 80 feet. The trees in the Douglas fir wood, near Scone, have reached an average height of about 85 feet. There is no doubt that the above-named species thrive well in Scotland, and grow quite as rapidly as in their native habitat. Seeing that some of the more important European trees do not in all cases grow very satisfactorily in Scotland, I should recommend that the North American conifers should be planted 22 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. on a larger scale, as is now being done in Germany. The spruce, for instance, does not yield a satisfactory growth in many parts of Scotland, and this is also found to be the case near the sea- coast in other countries, as, for instance, in Schleswig-Holstein. Many parts of Scotland, also, do not offer what I would consider very suitable conditions for the growth of the Scots fir. True, rabbits will materially interfere with the success of the culti- vation of exotic trees and with forestry operations in general, but there is no reason at all why this difficulty should not be over- come. Not only do many of the exotic trees give a larger yield of timber than the indigenous species—compare, for instance, the yield of woods of Scots fir and Douglas fir of similar age at Scone—but they also furnish timber of superior quality. This point gains additional importance in view of the fact that the American supply of timber of many valuable species is within measurable distance of extinction. Scotland possesses the most favourable natural conditions for producing those high-class timbers which America will soon cease to supply. I regard the evidence of the successful growth of exotic trees in the parks of Scotland as of far greater national importance than the beautifying influence which these trees exert upon the landscape. With regard to one species, however, namely, Thuja gigantea, I would utter a word of caution. In Germany this tree grew well in its earlier stages, but it has now been attacked and largely destroyed by a disease due to a fungus called Pestalozzia Junerea. Unfortunately, I found that the specimens of this tree in the nursery at Dunkeld were attacked by the same disease, and at Murthly the Thujas were also suffering from this parasite. I am afraid that this disease will interfere with the extensive cultivation of Thuja gigantea in Scotland. Although the older specimens of this tree are proving resistant to attack, it is probable that the fungus will obtain the upper hand of the young plants. We find an analogous state of things in regard to the larch, old specimens of which are comparatively free from attack of the canker which is so destructive to the tree in its earlier stages. During my visit to Murthly I often put the question to myself, whether the trees which are showing such luxuriant growth in / REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE FORESTS OF SCOTLAND. 23 Scotland will succeed equally well in Germany. When I looked around me, and saw the luxuriant growth of Araucaria imbricata, Cedrus Deodara, rhododendrons, bay and Portugal laurels, and many other species, which cannot withstand the severity of our winters, I could not help doubting the ultimate success of our attempts to acclimatise exotic trees. But when I came to compare the meteorological conditions of the two countries, the matter appeared in a more favourable light. The average annual temperature and rainfall of Perth and Berlin are practically identical, nor is there any material difference between these two places as regards the minimum winter temperature (Perth, -—17° F.; Eberswalde, — 29° F.). That Scotland is subject to long-continued frost is sufficiently evident from the popularity of the game of curling. Scotland certainly possesses a much milder climate than her latitude would lead one to expect. This is in a large measure due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. Her proximity to the sea has also the effect of securing for her a fairly equal seasonal distribution of the rainfall, while her humid atmosphere has the effect of modifying the force and duration of the sun’s rays. The centre and east of Germany, on the other hand, are subject to much greater variations of temperature, and are liable to suffer from long-continued periods of drought. But climate notwith- standing, American conifers which have been -planted for fifteen years and longer in Germany are growing very satisfactorily ; and we may therefore conclude that, although our climate may prevent the growth of Araucaria, Laurus, Cedrus, ete,, it will permit of the cultivation of the hardier exotics, although their growth may be somewhat slower than in Scotland. Such, at least, are the expectations which my trip to Scotland has encouraged. In conclusion, I may shortly summarise the points that appeared to me to have the most important bearing on the future of forestry in Scotland :— 1. In selecting the trees to be cultivated, more regard should be paid to the character of the situation. 2. The stocking, whether artificial or natural, should be denser. In the latter case, gaps amongst the seedlings should be early and carefully filled up by artificial transplantation. 24 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 3. The woods should be managed on sylvicultural principles, or and not in the park-like manner at present in vogue. . The operation of thinning should be conducted in a more rational manner, and with more regard to the future of the wood. (The more important principles of thinning are indicated in my paper on “The Importance of Density in Sylviculture,” published in the present part of 7’ransactions. ) . A broader view should be taken of the whole financial aspects of forestry. The success of forestry operations cannot be judged from the esthetic point of view, nor can it be gauged by the immediate returns; it can only be determined by the difference between the deferred or final sum of all the items of revenue and of ex- penditure. . Considerations of sport should be permissible only when they do not interfere with the production of timber, which is, of course, the main object of forestry. THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. 25 IV. The Genus Pissodes and its Importance in Forestry. By R. Stewart MacDoucatt, M.A., B.Se., Lecturer on Entomology, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. During my insect-huntings of the last several year, I have repeatedly had opportunities of observing the species of the above genus at their destructive work in woods and forests. In my work amongst its members, more than once it has occurred to me that if the insects belonging to the genus Pissodes were better known to British foresters, it might chance that observation would prove that in Britain there are really more than the two, or at most three, species which our British coleopterists admit as found in this country. It is interesting to me to know that at least one other worker in entomology shares this suspicion. With a view, therefore, of familiarising the forester with the life-history, appearance, and habits of the Pissodes, I purpose giving an account of the species—British and Continental— which have proved themselves of forest importance. In this account—keeping in view the hope that it may be the means of stimulating search among the members of the Arbori- cultural Society favourably situated for observation, so that if no species new to Britain be found, at least a better knowledge of the distribution of the admitted species may result—I will give minute descriptions of the form and appearance of the various insects, sufficient to enable any searcher to recognise a species when found. PosiTION OF THE PIssODES IN THE INSECT WORLD. The Pissodes is a genus of insects belonging to the great order Coleoptera, or beetles. The beetles are divided up into four sections, according to the number of joints in the tarsus,' and the Pissodes are classed in the section pseudo-tetramera (falsely four- jointed), in which the tarsi are really five-jointed. The fourth joint, however, is so small—requiring a good hand-lens or a 1 On examination, the leg of an insect is found to be attached to the thorax by a part called the coxa. The coxa is followed by a short joint, the trochanter, this by a strong femur, then a thinner tibia, and lastly comes the tarsus, with a varying number of joints. The tarsus generally ends in a claw. 26 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. microscope to reveal it—that for a time it was overlooked, and the members of this section were in consequence wrongly named tetramera (four-jointed), a name that is still often found in the books. ALLIES OF THE PIssoDES, AND THEIR Forest IMPORTANCE. The pseudo-tetramera section is divided into several sub- sections, one of which is termed the Rbyncophora, or weevils, whose characteristic is the possession of a rostrum or proboscis projecting from the front of the head. Of the families into which the weevils are broken up, one is termed the Curculionide, and to it the Pissodes and their allies belong. The Curculionide (using the term in a sense which will exclude at the one end the Bruchidz, whose well-known grubs are so often found in leguminous seeds, and at the other end the Scolytide, the mother-beetles of which bore in trees tunnels, along the sides of which eggs are laid) may be defined as rounded or oval beetles possessing a rostrum or beak, and distinctly elbowed antenn ; while the females do not bodily enter into the tree for the purpose of egg-laying like the Scolytidi, but lay their eggs on the tree externally (rarely), or in a hole bored from the outside (commonly), or, it may be, lay them directly in the soil. The Curculionidee larvee may be recognised as fleshy rounded bent grubs, with no legs, with biting jaws, and with a scaly, chitinised head. This family contains a very large number of genera, many of which are very important from the point of view of the economic entomologist, and some of them are very dangerous enemies of the forester. The harm may be done by the grubs, more rarely by the mature beetles, and rarest of all by both. Among the forms with destructive grubs is the genus Otiorhynchus, whose larvee, hatching out from eggs laid in roots or in the ground in their neighbourhood, gnaw the external surface of these and cause decay; our genus Pissodes; the grub of Cryptorhynchus lapathi, so harmful to the alder; the leaf-mining larve of the lively Orchestes fagi; the grub of the long-nosed Balaninus, familiar in nuts; and the Anthonomous larve, so troublesome to the apple-grower. Harmful in the mature stage as beetle is the pestiferous Pine Weevil (Hylobius abietis). bo ~I THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE GENUS PISSODES. The species belonging to this genus have a longish rostrum. Near the middle of the rostrum the elbowed antenne are inserted, their long basal joint almost reaching the small, slightly projecting eyes. The prothorax! is narrowed in front, and its posterior margin, on examination with a lens, may show two slight excava- tions. The scutellum? is round and raised. The elytra® quite cover the abdomen. Femur untoothed, tibia straight, and with a strong curved hook at the point. The third joint of the tarsus is broad and two-lobed, and the terminal fifth joint ends in two simple claws. Rounp oF Lire. In round of life most of the Pissodes agree. The females lay their eggs in the bark of needle-leaved trees, a varying number of eggs being laid in each bore-hole. The hatched out grubs, starting from a common centre, gnaw long winding tunnels in the bark, the tunnels increasing in size with the growth of the larvee, the whole, it may be, showing a ray-like pattern. This ray-like design is not so frequently met with in Pissodes puniphilus or in Pissodes notatus, The full-fed larve having reached the innermost layers of the bark, gnaw in the outermost layers of the wood a kind of little bed or cradle, oval in shape, and here, covered by a cushion of sawdust and chips, they pupate. The mature beetles, when ready to escape, bite a clean-cut circular hole through pupa-bedcover and bark. The grubs living between the bark and the wood interfere with sap-circulation, and the infested plants or trees sicken and die. The question, so often debated among forest entomologists, as to whether this species or that will attack a healthy tree is men- tioned by Altum in relation to the Pissodes, which he writes of as preferring feeble and unhealthy trees to healthy and well-grown ones, his experience showing him that where old timber had been attacked the tree had certainly previously been weakly. At the 1 Prothorax—the segment bearing the front pair of legs. 2 Scutellum—the segment bearing the second pair of legs is called the mesothorax ; what can be seen of its upper surface in these beetles is called the scutellum. 3 Elytra—the horny covers underneath which are the wings used in flight. 28 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. same time he admits that P. piniphilus and P. harcyniae will attack the branches and crown of perfectly healthy trees. Authorities are much divided on the question of the “ genera- tion”! of the various Pissodes species, but I will leave this matter to be dealt with when mentioning each species in detail. Generally it may be stated that the larve and not the imagos? do the harm. Out of the twenty or so species known in entomology, five are well known in Britain or the Continent as pests on coniferous trees, viz., Pissodes notatus, P. pini, P. piniphilus, P. harcyniae, P. piceae. These five I will describe fully, at the same time mentioning at shorter length two additional species, ?. scabricollis and P, validirostris. DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIES. Posterior corners of prothorax right- Wing - covers with angled, or pro- a narrow trans- jecting some- verse band behind what sharply. their middle—P. ( Wing - covers have The upper surface} pint. longitudinal of the prothorax rows of large dots wrinkled and ae Re meets varying in size— covered ie a cae ares we, 12 eee number of closely} yerseband behind arranged punc-| their middle. Wing - covers have (Dots medium sized tures. longitudina | —P. notatus. rows of equally sized dots. [Pots fine—P, validirostris. 2 > 4 " D ya , Beerenaricarners of Beetles black, in ground colour—P. harcyniae. the prothorax Beetles, in ground colour, rusty brown—P. piniphilus, rounded, and the deep punctures| Beetles with a more or less prominent raised middle line on not so close to-| the prothorax, generally much smaller than harcyniae, and gether. in colour not so black—P, scabricollis. A glance through the above table, which, with slight modifica- tions (I have added scabricollis) is Nitsche’s, will show that the 1 «Generation ””—the time comprised between one egg-laying and the egg- laying of the next swarm. Generation is annual if only one brood is produced in a year; double, if two broods; biennial, if two years are required to com- plete a cycle, and so on. 2 Imago—the adult insect. THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. 29 species resemble each other closely. The resemblance is close in size, colour, and round of life. Besides, the characteristic spots and bands (these latter formed from the coalescence of individual scales) so helpful in the determination of fresh specimens, get rubbed off in course of time, making the determination of isolated not-fresh examples troublesome. Size and colour of species also fluctuate within limits. For example, while a normal-sized P. piceae is not to be confused with a normal-sized P. notatus, I have seen specimens of piceae as small as an ordinary notatus, and not to be distinguished from the latter save by its different food-plant. It is possible to confuse P. pint with Hylobius abietis, but these two beetles are readily distinguished thus :— Hylobius abietis. Pissodes pint. Femur of all six legs with a No tooth on femur. tooth. Antennz inserted on the rost- Antenne inserted about the rum near its apex. middle of the rostrum, Darker in colour. As an aid to the forester in determining the work of the Pissodes (for he will have to do with the damage perhaps oftener than with the real insect), the following may be noted as char- acteristics :— (a) The Larval Tunnels arise from a common centie.—There is just the chance of confusing the eating with that of the Scolytide, but in the case of the Pzssodes no mother-tunnel is found, only larval ones. Sometimes the eggs are laid singly. This occurs with pini- philus, and, as a great rarity, with harcyniae. The resulting single tunnels are very difficult to determine, but if they are very long, one can pretty safely diagnose them as the work of a Pissodes. (b) The tunnels are long, a considerable distance intervening between the place of egg-laying and the pupa-bed. If the tunnels, for some reason or other, instead of winding on, form a sort of interlacing network confined to one place, then the work may be confused with the larval borings of some of the long-horned beetles. Several times I have found Péssodes larvee and the larve of long-horned beetles working side by side, In 30 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. May 1894, in Bavaria, when examining an old felled silver fir, I found hundreds of the larvee of P. piceae, and among them many larvee of a species of /thagiwm, a longicorn beetle ; and it is just possible that in such a case the latter larvee may be useful by destroying the Pissodes galleries. (c) The beds of the pup, with their coverings of sawdust and chips. The pupa of /Hylobius abzetis also lies in such a bed, but only in stumps or roots. (d) Typical host-plants— P. notatus on Pinus (various species). P. pint on Pinus, seldom on spruce (Picea eacelsa). P. piniphilus on Pinus. P. piceae on silver fir (Abies pectinata). P. harcyniae on spruce (Picea eacelsa). P. scabricollis on spruce (Picea excelsa). P. validirostris in pine cones. Pissodes notatus, the Small Brown or White Spotted Weevil. Description.—This red-brown beetle measures, excluding the proboscis, from less than } inch to a shade over 4 inch. The posterior angles of the wrinkled prothorax project sharply, and its hinder edges show two sinuous excavations. Both the upper and under surfaces of the beetle are powdered with white scales. On the upper surface of the prothorax stand four well-marked white points and a fifth on the scutellum. The elytra have two transverse bands of scales, one in front and one behind their middle. The front one, which is non-continuous at the suture,! is yellowish on either side externally, whitish internally. The hinder band has almost the same coloration, It is broader externally than internally, and is continuous right across the wing-covers. The larva is a fleshy somewhat wrinkled, curled, legless grub, with a brown scaly head and strong gnawing jaws. The only difference between larve of the Pissodes species is one of size. Away from their food-plants, they practically cannot be differentiated. 1 Suture—the line down the back of the insect formed by the meeting of the elytra. THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. 31 Distribution.—Common in Germany and France, notatus is said to be rare in Britain, but I feel sure it is far more plentiful than is suspected. In the Scottish Naturalist for 1871-72 it is described as having “‘ become common in Scotland within the last six or seven years.” Fowler gives the following localities:—Chat Moss (between Liverpool and Manchester), Sunderland (introduced in ships). In Scotland, the Dee and Moray districts. The question is sometimes asked about nofatus, has it been introduced from the Continent? Examples of introduction and spread of insects from other countries in driftwood, timber cargoes, etc., are not uncommon, and no doubt our native notatus is sometimes reinforced by arrivals from the Continent.! Life-History.—P. notatus is injurious, both in the imago state and as larva, but chiefly as the latter. The mature weevil in its feeding pierces the bark with its proboscis, making a number of tiny holes. Some of the young pines (four to six years old) which I have used in my breeding experiments with the beetle have been completely riddled from top to bottom by the feeding weevils, just as if a person had taken a needle and pierced all over with it the stem and branches. The larva tunnels in the bark, and between the bark and wood, and sometimes does immense harm in pine nurseries, especially if the attacked plants are growing on poor soil. The favourite breeding-places are young pines from four to eight years of age, but sickly “poles” are also frequented. In the world of timber-infesting beetles we meet with varied demands as regards quality of food. Some are dainty feeders, asking for better quality of material, some are easier to satisfy, while some, as regards quality, are not at all particular, e.g.— Lostrychus typographus, the eight-toothed spruce bark beetle, is dainty ; Hylesinus piniperda will practically put up with any- thing; but P. notatus, while preferring weakly material, asks for a certain quality. For breeding in, the small brown weevil chooses plants of the genus Pinus. Pinus sylvestris is the commonest host-plant, but there are records of attack on Weymouth pine, black pine, maritime pine. Spruce and larch have been known to be infested, but such instances are rare and exceptional. 1 See a most interesting note by Mr Mitchell in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc., 1895, on ‘‘ Driftwood and Insect Attacks.” 32 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. The female notatus after copulation bores a hole in the bark for the reception of her eggs by means of her mandibles situated at the end of the rostrum. The eggs are first laid, and then, taken up in the mouth, are introduced by means of the proboscis, Several eggs are laid in each bored place. If pine in the pole stage be chosen, then, owing to the sufficiency of room at the disposal of the larve, the tunnels show a star-like pattern. Most commonly, however, as young plants are chosen for egg- laying, the larvee on hatching out tunnel upwards and downwards, and indeed it may only be downwards, as the female notatus is very fond of laying her eggs immediately below a whorl of branches, and there is thus a kind of natural barrier to the up ward direction of the tunnelling. The tunnels wind in the bark and towards the outer layers of the wood, a trail of brown bore- dust remaining behind to map out the path of the larva. Arrived at the wood, the grown larva gnaws out a hole in the outer layers, and in this hollowed-out bed protected by a cover of sawdust and chips the pupation stage is passed. If one remove the chip cover ere the flight-time of the beetles, the pupa can be seen lying with the rostrum arranged along the under surface of the thorax. When the beetles are ready to escape, they bore a circular hole through cover and bark. On emergence they are light coloured, but they soon darken into their normal coloration. The weevils are somewhat sluggish, and rather timid. In collecting them, when touched, they would drop to the ground, and lie on their backs for a considerable time without movement, as if dead. This is not the place to enter into the interesting psychological questions that underlie the dropping to the ground, and the death-feigning characteristic of so many insects, suffice it to say that notatws falls on being touched, not from any lack of power to grip, for if the weevils be made to crawl over the hand or fingers, one is conscious of their ability to hold on. Incidentally, I might remark here how perfectly the beetles are adapted in coloration to their surroundings, it being a very difficult matter to pick them out on a young pine if they are motionless. The Generation of P. notatus.—Regarding the flight-times and the generation of our pest, there has been no little contro- versy; and as the question of the generation of a timber-infesting insect, from its close relation to extermination measures, and THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. oo when these should be proceeded with, is practically a very important one, I purpose to deal with it here in detail. The information we possess as to the generation of P. notatus we owe to Continental observers, and in the records which I will give it must be held in mind that in our climate these may be subject to variations. I understand that Professor Somerville has been making a series of observations on the generation of P. notatus in Britain. It goes without saying that these will be thorough, and one looks forward with interest and pleasure to the publica- tion of the details. Personally, I am engaged in some breeding experiments with notatus. These will not be completed for some time, but I will just say here what, so far as I know, has not yet been suspected, that possibly some of the difficulties may find their solution on the same lines as in the case of Hylobius abietis, and that notatws may have to be added to the not very large list of insects which possess the power of recopulation and repeated egg-laying. The various statements as to the generation of the small brown weevil may be brought together thus :-— First, the generation is normally a double one—ze¢., there are two broods produced in the year. Second, the generation is an annual or single one—7.e., one brood in a year. Third, there are, or may be, three broods produced in a space of two years. First, the generation is a double one. Henschel champions this view, which needs for its fulfilment a very early appearance of the mature weevils in spring time, as early as March. From eggs laid then larvee would be hatched, and after pupation a brood of beetles would appear in midsummer. These, in turn, would copulate and lay eggs, the beetles appearing to complete the cycle the same autumn, The autumn-appearing beetles would hibernate as such, starting to breed in the next March. My comment on this is that, while not impossible, for example, in exceptionally favourable weather conditions, it is little likely to be the normal condition. At any rate, one desires a little more evidence. Second, the generation is single or annual. The great mass of evidence is in favour of this. There is some difference of opinion, however, as to the details, one set of authorities considering that the winter is passed in the imago stage, VOL, XV. PART I. c 34 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the other writers standing out for hibernation in the larval stage. Those who believe that the mature beetles hibernate, look upon swarming as taking place in May and June, the larval stage in June and July, pupation in August, with the beetles appearing in September, to pass the winter assuch. Graphically, according to Nitsche’s calendar, this might be represented thus :— | | | ee Feb. | Mar. |April, May. June. |July.| Aug. Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. 1895 B |BBB|BLL|LL| PP} BB| B| B| B ie EE | | | Hib erna|ting Feedjing | 18964. Bel Bal B. |B. Bea. B eae at | ee eee E | Hib]erna/ting | | Note.—B=beetles; E=eg¢; L=larva; P=pupa. That this calendar represents what is often the case there is little doubt. Altum and Nitsche both quote instances in proof of it; while Pauly experimentally has proved that three anda half to four months is an average time for development from egg to beetle in fair weather conditions. That the mature beetles often pass the winter as such is beyond question. They winter in crevices in the bark, in the litter covering the soil, even in the soil itself. In my experiments I was witness to their hibernation in moss which I had supplied to them for the purpose. At the same time the evidence of trustworthy observers forces us to admit that sometimes hibernation takes place in the larval stage. Perris, working in South France, declares that hiberna- tion is always in the larval state. According to him, the beetles start breeding at the end of June, July, and August; that the larve hatch in September, continue as such till the following April, when they pupate, the beetles appearing at the end of May and in June. We have seen that hibernation in the larval con- dition is not always the case; but yet it has been noticed by Ratzeburg, Perris, and others. The truth is that the last two views under discussion, viz., the hibernation as beetle and the hibernation as larva, are not neces- sarily mutually exclusive. Both may be true. A common meeting ground for the holders of these two views is afforded by THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY, 35 the additional admission of our third proposition, viz., the pos- sibility of three broods in the space of two years. Most believers in a one-year generation would, I think, be prepared to assent to this possibility. The females, it would appear, take a long time over their egg-laying. One can imagine that in very favourable weather conditions the first eggs might be laid early enough to allow of all the stages being passed through, so that beetles might emerge in time for copulation and egg-laying in the same season. The larve from the eggs of these early beetles would, of course, be overtaken by the winter, and when they did arrive at the beetle stage in the following year, the next generation from their eggs would emerge to hibernate as mature beetles. Means of Prevention and Extermination.—It is pleasant to know that, troublesome as our pest often is, vigorous and timely measures are certain to prevail against it. The great principle is the rooting out of all weak trees. As guides denoting attack may be mentioned the bead-like drops of resin that issue from the wounded bark, the drooping of the plants, and a reddening of the needles, Infested plants should, before the escape of the weevils, be uprooted and burned. In districts on the Continent which have at different times suffered from fire, it was noticed that notatus was attracted to the singed and weakened pines, hence the recommendation that, in the case of an onset, here and there in the nursery or planta- tion plants should be artificially weakened. These weakened plants, taken possession of by the beetles for breeding purposes, will later on be dug out and destroyed. Some help is given from parasites. More than once J have found noéatus larve attacked by ichneumons. Pissodes pini, the Larger Brown Pine Weevil. Description.—This pest measures 2 inch, and is red-brown to brown-black in colour, with sparse yellow scales on both upper and lower surfaces. The punctured thorax has a fine raised middle line. Its posterior corners are right-angled, and the hind edges show scarcely any sinuosity. In front of the elytra two yellow spots on each side. Below the middle of the elytra a small continuous transverse band, composed of yellow scales compacted together. There are rows of long deep pits down the wing-covers. 386 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Distribution.—Fowler gives Northumberland, the Forth, Tay, Dee, and Moray districts. Life-History.—The larger brown weevil lays her eggs on old stems of the genus Pinus, Scots pine and the Weymouth pine figuring most largely in notices of attack. The thinner parts of the tree are not neglected by the females; indeed Altum, generalis- ing from his experience with pint and other Pissodes, proclaims that in the first instance it is the upper thinner parts, and later in the progress of the attack that the lower thicker parts are infested. Spruce is sometimes used for egg-laying. A varying number of eggs are laid in a hole bored by the female in the bark. The larve start from their common hatching- place and bore out in all directions, the tunnels, however, running chiefly in the long axis of the stem. In one case Altum counted no fewer than thirty of these tunnels springing from one point. The tunnels are long (I have found specimens up to a foot in length) and winding, and they often cut one another. The pupa-beds, with their characteristic covering of chips, are always at least partly in the outermost layers, and sometimes, as, for example, where thin material has been attacked, altogether in the wood. We have no experimental information as to the generation of pini, but Nitsche suggests the following calendar for middle Europe, the generation being an annual one :— Jan. | Feb. | Mar.|April| May. | June.) July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. Dec. 1895 BB |BB |LLL| LLL} LLL) LL LL F\eedin |g Hiber|nating 1896 | LL LL | LL| LL| PPP| PBB Hiber|nating} Fee|ding The mature beetles do some harm by piercing a number of holes in the bark. Such harm has also been noticed on twigs of larch, and to the tufts of needles. Extermination Measwres.—I can speak from observation of the great service against this pest of catch trees. So many trees are marked out and felled as brood material, and these are barked at the proper time. The bark containing the broods of larve ig burned, THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. a0 Pissodes piniphilus, the Pine-Pole Weevil. Description.—The pine-pole weevil measures less than a quarter of an inch in size, and ia colour is rusty brown, powdered all over with whitish scales. The posterior corners of the prothorax are rounded, being more round than in any of the other Pissodes species. Scutellum whitish. In place of the ordinary transverse band behind the middle of the elytra, there are two large rusty yellow spots, one on each side, between the suture and the outside edge. These spots are very characteristic, and, along with the absence of the band at the front of the elytra, are of great service in determination. Distribution.—This bettle, widely spread over Europe from France in the south to Sweden in the north, is said by Fowler to be rare in Britain. Mention is made of it as found at Sunder- land in imported timber, whence doubtless it has or will spread. Life-History.—This troublesome and sometimes very harmful pest attacks, as its name indicates, chiefly pine forest in the pole stage. While trees from twenty to forty years old are the favourite breeding-places, yet piniphilus is not uncommon on old pines, its tunnels being found, not in the thick-barked underparts, but in the thin-barked upper parts of the branches of the crown. While tunnels of a star-shaped pattern are not unknown, the female pine-pole weevil seems most usually to lay her eggs singly in the small needle-like prickings made by her rostrum. On peeling off the bark from an attacked stem, the larval tunnel is easily traced by the brown-black bore dust which fills it. The tunnels measure from 4 to 6 inches in length, but, as each tunnel winds in and traverses the bast at different levels, one is apt to think, from the comparatively small part presented at any one level, that the tunnels are much shorter. The pupal cradles gnawed in the wood by the grown larve are small, in keeping with the small-sized weevil, and the covering consists of very fine particles. Whilst weakly trees are preferred, piniphilus also besets healthy trees, which may soon succumb to this quickly- spreading pest. As piniphilus makes its onset on a tree high up, and not on lower, more easily seen and examined parts, the determination of attack is rendered difficult. There is this, however, in favour of the forester, that pinephilus does not pass through its round of life rapidly, but that, as it takes two years from the tiie of egg-laying till the beetles are 38 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. mature and ready to escape, time is given for observation and procedure against it. I must say that this two-yearly generation of the pine-pole weevil, when its small size is remembered, has often seemed to me hard to believe; and yet I am forced to admit that, so far, all the evidence forthcoming points to its correctness. At present I am engaged in some experiments with a view to determining beyond doubt the generation of piniphilus. On the Continent the weevils issue in June and the beginning of July, the eggs are laid in July, and the larvee live as such for over twenty months. Nitsche’s calendar is as follows :— ted nating | | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | apt, | May. ae sept, ont Nov. | Dee. Mei. kay |. ARB ot de) 0) el | | | ‘ | Feledin 'g | Hiber nating’ 1395 are TRRGCRERCMEMCMO Gal: ) _Hiber Hiber, nating iss Ane rac, ne Hiber nating 1896 | L Eide) | LEP!) PR,|BB'|w lw onlthiakianl | iE het Feed- | kK | | =| ing Prevention and Remedy.—Sickly poles with the needles of the crown discoloured should be felled about the spring of the second year’s attack, i.e., before the flight-time of the mature beetles. The felled poles should be barked, and the bark burned. Any pupa-beds in the alburnum must also be destroyed. Altum insists on the necessity of destroying the tops of the felled trees, as these tops are often left lying, and are used by piniphilus as breeding-places. From some specimens of a twenty-year-old pine cut in the forest as attacked by the pine-pole weevil, I secured many examples of a parasitic ichneumon. Pissodes harcyniae, the Harz Weevil. The Harz weevil measures from } inch to a little more in size. It is thin and black, and sparsely sprinkled over with white scales. Posterior corners of prothorax rounded, its upper surface scaled with white. Scutellum also whitish. Two interrupted transverse bands, one before and one behind the middle of the THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. 39 elytra, yellowish-white. The elytra have rows of deep similarly- sized punctures, and the longitudinal lines alternating with the rows of pits are somewhat raised. Life-History.—The Harz weevil, not a native of Britain, receives its name from the region where it is so plentiful and sometimes so havoc-working, as it also is to the spruce on the hill slopes of the Erzgebirge and the Riesengebirge. Although the mature weevils may do some harm to bark and needles by pricking, it is the larva chiefly which is the pest. The females choose for egg-laying only spruce, and of an age varying from fifty up to one hundred years. The upper, thinner, smooth- barked parts of the tree are first used for egg-laying, the under thicker parts later. In each place bored by the female a small number of eggs is laid. The star-shaped pattern of tunnelling is well marked. As with the others, a bed is gnawed in the outer wood layers. Sound trees as well as sickly are attacked. In districts in Saxony where the smoke from factory chimneys had weakened spruce grown in the neighbourhood, the weakened trees were attacked by harcyniae, and soon succumbed. Indeed, in several such situations the growing of spruce has had to be dis- continued and leaf trees grown instead. The Harz weevil is also a pest, because it usually brings in its train several other injurious bark beetles. Such following beetles soon compass the death of a tree previously weakened by the onset of harcyniae. Generation.—There is very little certainty as to the generation of the Harz weevil. Some consider the generation as annual, corresponding to pint, but the majority of forest entomologists hold by a two-yearly generation, that between two egg-laying periods twenty-four months elapse. Preventive and Remedial Measures,—Careful and repeated revision of the areas planted with spruce, so that all weakly and suppressed stems may be felled and removed. ‘The weevil will thus be deprived of favourite breeding-places, while the sound trees left behind are better fitted to resist attack. The attacked trees are marked, felled at the proper time, and the bark burned along with the inhabiting larvee. The helps in diagnosing attack correspond for the most part with those appearances discussed earlier in the paper. (a) As in notatus and the others, an exudation of resin results from the wounds made by the rostrum of the attacking beetles. 40 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. From some recent observations on the Harz weevil, it seems that one cannot always be certain, from the presence of large resin outflow, that larvee will be found on examination of the bark, for the outflow of resin may have been such as to stifle any hatched out larve. This, I think, is most probable, and likely to happen not infrequently with the Harz weevil, as it attacks sound trees. Miss Oriwerod, in her ‘‘ Manual of Injurious Insects,” adduces examples of the grubs of the Elm Bark Beetle being drowned out by excessive flow of sap following the wounding of the tree; and I myself have been witness to an attack on a seventy-year-old spruce on the part of the adult beetle Hylesinus micans (not a British species), an attack which was quite beaten off owing to the great outflow of resin following the woundings of the beetles. (6) The smooth bark where the eggs have been laid will be found to be ridged up somewhat over the larval tunnels. (c) Discoloration of the needies. Catch trees have proved successful with harcyniae as with pini. Jchneumons here, too, are serviceable. In one of the specimens which I have prepared to illustrate this paper, the cocoons of an ichneumon are seen, eloquent witnesses of a great tragedy. In the pupa-beds, dug so laboriously by the parasitised harcyniae larvee, no harcyniae pupe are to be found, but in their places useful ichneumons, descendants of the one, ‘* Who for her embryon young Gored with sharp horn the caterpillar throng. The voracious ichneumon maggots had accomplished their work so thoroughly, that of the harcyniae larve nought remained behind but their indigestible horny jaws and an empty skin or two. Pissodes piceae, the Large Silver Fir Weevil. This beetle measures up to 2 inch in size, and is dark brown in colour. Wrinkled prothorax, with posterior corners projecting somewhat, and its hinder edges somewhat sinuous, Several white dots occur on the surface of the prothorax, which is traversed by « median longitudinal slightly raised line, Scutellum whitish. The whole upper surface of the beetle is covered with brownish-yellow scales. Below the middle of the wing-covers is a yellowish band, broader externally, and inter- rupted at the suture. The hollow pits arranged in longitudinal THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. 4] rows down the elytra differ in size, some being distinctly larger. Not a native of Britain. Pissodes piceae is found exclusively on silver fir. Its damage is done on old grown timber, and it never appears as a nursery or plantation pest. For egg-laying, sickly growing stems, freshly felled stems, blown down trees, stacked timber, are all made use of. Eggs may be laid in the thick bark of the under stem parts, several together. The wide coarse larval tunnels end in the usual pupa-bed, covered with very coarse chips. The end of June and July, in middle Europe, seems to be the flight-time for the beetles. From specimens of bark containing grown larve and pupe, collected by me in the middle of May, I have bred out the beetles by the end of July. The generation is said to be an annual one. In absence of what we found to be a guide suggesting attack with the other /Pissodes species, viz., needle-discoloration, the German forester suspects piceae attack when woodpeckers are found busy in their visits to the silver fir. ‘The woodpeckers come for the enclosed larvee. Pissodes scabricollis. This is the smallest of the Pissodes species, measuring without its rostrum sometimes less than } inch. It is brownish-black, posterior corners of prothorax rounded. Upper surface of pro- thorax has a raised middle line not quite reaching the base. On each side of this middle line is a white dot, while round the edge are yellowish-white scales. Scutellum white. On the elytra we find a yellow spot on each side in front of their middle, and behind their middle a broad, somewhat interrupted, yellowish- white band. Pauly, who has more than once found it wrongly named in collections, insists on the following as characteristics :— Smallness, blackness, and the broad, white, and yellow band behind the middle of the elytra. P. scabricollis is a form regarding whose life-history and work much remains to be investigated. The beetle has been taken in large numbers, but up till now its larve and pup are not certainly known in a state of nature. Dr Pauly, of Munich, by keeping a number of these weevils in captivity, and supplying them with spruce, has succeeded in breeding the beetles, obtain- ing all the stages from the egg onwards. It will be remembered 42 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. that harcyniae also breeds in spruce, and in an endeavour to dis- tinguish the two in their work I will give Pauly’s measurements :— harcyniae. scabricollis. Average length of the PieieeE ye) ‘ covering of chips over the pupa- “ 11 -183 mm. 11 -13 mm. bed, Average breadth of same, . 44-6 mm. 4 - 45 mm. Average length of hole gnawed in _ — : 4— 9% . splint for bed, i 8 -10 mm 63- 95 mm Average breadth of same, . ; 25- 3; mm. 2 — 24 mm. Length of full-grown larve, A 93-11 mm. iz— 9) mim: Larval tunnels, ae ic It is discouraging to find how little possible it is to distinguish their work, always, of course, in the absence of the beetles. Last summer I thought I had made a lucky find, as I procured at Kirchseon in Bavaria some spruce bark with larve and pupa-beds and pup. The beds were smaller than I had ever seen for harcyniae. I waited impatiently for my beetles to emerge, and when they did they proved to be only a small harcyniae. Tar-Rings or Sticky Bands as a Possible Aid in Extermination of the Pissodes.—During the great devastation in the spruce forests of Bavaria in 1890-91, when the ravages of the caterpillars of the Nun Moth (Liparis monacha) cost the Bavarian Govern- ment £100,000, as a means to prevent the caterpillars from ascending the trees, a ring of tar (of a special preparation) was placed round each tree in the forest. Vast numbers of insects other than the one against which the rings had been primarily directed were met with under the rings. In the spring of 1891 Pauly noticed, among other insects, numbers of Pissodes, chiefly P. scabricollis and P. harcyniae. In one district alone, that of Sauerlach, it was estimated that over 1,000,000 Prssodes were collected from under the rings, where they had stationed them- selves, with their proboscis buried deep into the bark, feeding and perhaps egg-laying. Again, in the forest of Nuremberg, where thousands of pines had had a tar-ring put round them to prevent the ascent of the caterpillars of the Pine Moth (Gastropacha pint), many piniphilus were got in the spring time. In view of these facts, then, such ringing may prove of great value as a proceeding against an onset of Pissodes. THE GENUS PISSODES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FORESTRY. 43 Pissodes validirostris. This brown or red-brown weevil is very like notatus. The posterior corners of its prothorax are right angled, and the hinder edges slightly sinuous. Scutellum white, while white scales are dotted not very thickly over the beetle. Elytra with two trans- verse bands. The front one yellowish and interrupted at the suture. The hind one is somewhat irregular and yellowish exter- nally, whitish internally. Rows of very fine dots along the elytra. P. validirostris I have only seen as a museum specimen, and only include it here for the sake of completeness. Some hold there is no difference between it and notatus. The larve is found in pine cones. In concluding this communication on the Pissodes, 1 wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to the works of Nitsche and Altum, and also to my old teacher, Professor Pauly, of Munich, who placed so many facilities in my way for studying the Pssodes. 44 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. V. Is British Forestry Progressive?! By Artuur C. ForBEs, Wood Manager, Bowood, Calne, Wiltshire. The not inconsiderable amount of attention paid to forestry by certain sections of the public during the last few years, and the various opinions which have been expressed in connection there- with, must be my only excuse for bringing the subject of this paper before the members of this Society. Since the Forestry Exhibition of 1884 many events have taken place which have had, or ought to have had, an important effect upon the condition of forestry in this country. I need not take up time by enumerating these events, as no doubt they are familiar to all present, but I may remind you that the only tangible and permanent effect of them hitherto has been the inauguration of instruction in scientific forestry. Since Professor Somerville delivered the first course of lectures in Edinburgh University, the subject has been and is being taught in other centres, and is gradually being recognised by various examining boards and educational institutions as one worthy of encouragement. [Farther reaching in its effects, perhaps, than even this instruction, has been the publication, in the English language, of several well-known standard German works on forestry, the appearance of a Manual of Forestry from Cooper’s Hill, and new editions of old works on British Forestry, all of which have brought a knowledge of the subject within reach of all classes, With all these aids to advancement, it might reasonably be expected that British forestry would show some signs of awakening from its torpid condition, and although sufficient time has not yet elapsed to permit of any great improvement in the actual condition of British woods, yet some signs of activity ought to be observable. The landowner, for instance, should be fully alive to the advantage of having his woods properly managed ; while the practical forester, on his side, should be well up in the most approved methods of planting and rearing crops of timber, and the general management of a woodland area. No doubt, if things were as they appear to be at first sight, such would have been the case by this time, and British forestry would now be seen slowly but surely emerging from its old state, and taking its proper place in the rural economy of the United Kingdom. ' Read at a General Meeting held on 3rd August 1896. IS BRITISH FORESTRY PROGRESSIVE 4 45 But unfortunately for the realisation of such expectations, many factors operate upon British forestry which cannot be allowed for in any abstract reasoning or theorising upon the subject. In the first place, British woods have no distinct individuality. They are not represented by so many thousands of acres devoted to the production of timber, but are part and parcel of so many separate estates, of which they form by no means the most important part. They possess a relative rather than an absolute value, and the purpose they serve in estate economy is merely a subordinate one. In the second place, they are in the hands of private owners, and their condition and treat- ment are determined, not by the merits of a particular sylvicultural system, but by the individual tastes, interests, and objects of their respective owners. To clearly understand the effect of these several existing conditions, one must have filled the position of forester on a private estate, as no outsider, howevg intimate his acquaintance with the subject of forestry in general, can have anything but a faint idea of the numerous influences which are continually at work upon an estate. It may be possible, however, to give a faint idea of what I mean by glancing at the influence an estate owner exercises on his woods in his threefold capacity of individual, property or land- owner, and the head of a noble family. As an individual, his inclinations may run in the direction of sport, arboriculture, or landscape effect, and according as one or other of these inclina- tions preponderates, so will he wish his woods treated. As a landowner, the return he derives from his property is what chiefly concerns him; and a present rent of two or three shillings per acre is of more value to him personally than a prospective one of three or four times that amount in sixty.or eighty years time. As the head of the house, tradition and sentiment enter largely into his actions, and any wide departure from the course adopted by his predecessors is not readily taken. The proprietor of a fine old family estate has a natural repugnance to treat his woods ag a financial concern, and to consider them as so many cubic feet of timber to be disposed of at a certain period in their growth. They have been before his eyes as long as his memory can go back, and it is only natural that he should wish to hand them over to his successors with their most distinctive features still unimpaired, The above are only a few of the numerous obstacles to the 46 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. introduction of economic forestry on private estates. Another, and probably the one most readily recognised, is the financial side of the question. It is very rarely that a proprietor derives any pecuniary benefit from tree-planting during his own lifetime. If he is a natural forester—like so many Scottish landowners— it must always be to him a source of gratification to see young woods clothing what was once a bare hill-side or a bleak moor ; but it is only wealthy estate owners who are able to indulge in this form of recreation. When we consider what has been done on many Scottish estates during the last two centuries in the way of tree-planting, we might be tempted to be equally hopeful as regards the future; but we must remember that the financial condition and prosperity of landed estates are by no means so good as they once were. For a millionaire or capitalist with a taste for estate improvement, the afforestation of land is a healthy and highly cammendable means of employing spare capital. Such gentlemen might well follow the example of Mr Vanderbilt, who, upon his estate of Biltmore, in Carolina, has laid the foundation of a scientifically organised forest on the Continental principle, a feat which the Government of the United States, as well as other Governments, appear unable to accomplish as yet. But go to an average landed proprietor, whose broad acres include a good many barren ones, and explain, as forcibly as you can, the economic, philanthropic, hygienic, and esthetic importance of planting waste land, and wait for results, If the waste land in question is adapted for conversion into a game-preserve, planting of a kind (but not your ideal) may be indulged in to a slight extent; but you need not look for extensive forest-planting where farms are lying derelict, buildings are out of repair, and rents are little more than nominal. Any money invested in planting by a private estate owner is money for which he has no immediate need, and on which he expects no interest during the next twenty-five years. Such investments are not characterised by a close observance of those economic principles which guide the ordinary investor, and are regarded more as additions to the amenity of an estate than as interest-bearing speculations. Con- sequently such plantations are more frequently used for the preservation of game, and the supply of material for estate purposes, than regarded as timber-producing crops. But I may be reminded that the prospects of future planting do not comprise the whole question of British forestry, and that IS BRITISH FORESTRY PROGRESSIVE ? 47 there exist some two to three millions of acres of woods and plantations in Great Britain, the improvement of which deserves attention. Unfortunately for the discussion of this subject, the returns published by the Board of Agriculture do not show the purpose for which British woods are maintained, and no dis- tinction is made between game-preserves, ornamental woodland, and plantations ostensibly formed and tended for the production of timber. Indeed, the distinction between these three classes is probably so obscured by the points of view of individual pro- prietors, that, as regards the majority of them, it would be extremely difficult to decide under which heading they should be placed, although they are usually utilised for all three purposes. Many woods again owe their designation to the fact that a few old or stunted trees still remain scattered over the ground, the actual quantity of timber present being very small. Consequently a return of the nominal woodland area of Great Britain affords little indication of the extent of bond-fide plantations of timber trees. Generally speaking, however, while English woods are chiefly used and maintained as game-cover, plantations in Scot- land have been formed with a partial view to timber production, and are considered as of some economic importance. But here again there is a difficulty in discriminating between those which are managed with a definite view to profit, and those which are valued quite as much for the shelter they afford and the effect they produce on the landscape as for their timber-yielding capabilities. By far the larger proportion comes into the latter category. I believe that forestry pure and simple has but a very limited existence in British woods, Planting, thinning, and felling may go on with comparative regularity, and some system, more or less complete, may be apparent in the management of most estate woodlands; but the general idea which permeates the whole management of a state forest—namely, that of keeping the growing stock of the forest in as nearly as possible a normal or well defined ideal condition—is lacking in this country. No provision is made for maintaining a continuous and uniform yield, and where we find one estate on which the annual fall of timber over a series of years represents a comparatively constant sum, there are ninety-nine on which that sum fluctuates between wide limits. It is probably owing to this absence of uniformity that proprietors take so little interest in the financial aspect of their woods. They are more apt to regard the revenue they 48 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. derive from them as a reduction of capital than as interest upon it, and forget Mr Gladstone’s somewhat ambiguous axiom, that “the best way to preserve timber is to cut it down.” It is probably to this indifference on the part of the owner that the existing condition of British forestry is due. The most enthusiastic reformer may expatiate without success on the deplorable condition of a proprietor’s woods, and the enormous advantages of economic forestry, and its influence upon our industrial welfare. The proprietor listens, thanks him for the information, believes he is quite right, and before parting asks his advice regarding the planting of a bit of game-cover, or the preservation of an old tree—Stc itur ad astra. Old customs and ideas die hard, and the promotion of forestry in this country not only involves the teaching of new systems but the abolition or modification of old and deeply-rooted prejudices. This is the task which this Society presumably set itself at the outset, and we are justified in inquiring—“ With what result has British— or if you like—Scottish forestry shown any improvement of late on that of fifteen or twenty years ago? Are proprietors taking a greater interest in tree-planting, and the production of first- class timber? Are they more eager than of old to get the best advice on the management of their woods!” These are questions of vital importance to British forestry, which is entirely in the hands of private estate proprietors. What is the all-absorbing topic in rural life in this country but agricultural depression, and what is its effect upon landed estates? So far as can be seen at present, the general tendency is in the direction of a reduction all round in acreage, in working expenses, and in outlay of capital, and all this is hardly conducive to the advancement of scientific forestry on private estates, which demands, if not a greatly increased expenditure, at least a certain sacrifice of the pecuniary interests of the present to those of the future. One of the first indications of an embarrassed estate is generally an excessive felling of timber, which is seldom followed by com- mensurate planting operations, and when this is the case woods soon fall into a neglected state. It is only on large estates, again, where the acreage of woodlands is proportionately large, that an efficient staff of workmen can be maintained for the various operations necessary to keep the condition of woods up to a proper standard. On a small estate the woods are attended to when time and opportunity permit, and this often means that IS BRITISH FORESTRY PROGRESSIVE 2 49 next to nothing is done to them. Theoretically, there is no reason why the woods on a small estate should not be as well cared for as those on large properties. Facts and experience prove, however, that the smaller the acreage the more likely are they to be neglected, or simply treated as game-cover or ornamental woodland. With these facts before us, it cannot be said that the prospects of British estate forestry are particularly promising. We have had several remedies suggested of late, it is true, but none of them is, in my opinion, of great efficacy. The most likely are, perhaps, ‘education for the forester,” and ‘pecuniary loans to the planter.” It is a fondly cherished idea in some quarters that proprietors have hitherto been retarded in their efforts to improve their woods, and to inaugurate a better system of forestry, by the inefficiency of their foresters. The latter are said to be thoroughly practical, but lacking in scientific knowledge, and owners are accordingly handicapped in their efforts to improve their woods by the want of better trained men. This is a beautiful theory, but one which unfortunately vanishes when it comes to be analysed. That mistakes have been made in the past I am quite ready to admit, but it is hardly fair to put the whole responsibility for them upon the forester. How often are thousands of young trees destroyed in a few weeks by ground- game? How often is the forester obliged to cut into immature woods in order to satisfy estate requirements? And last, but not least, how often are his own ideas and wishes overruled by the powers that be in the matter of planting, thinning, and felling. Perhaps in all the operations of practical forestry over-thinning has been the great blot which has disfigured British forestry in the past. But the day has scarcely disappeared when a forester who thinned a Scots pine or spruce wood on what are now generally admitted to be correct principles, was regarded as totally incompetent, and as having ruined the plantation. After all, however, from whom comes this complaint of a lack of properly trained foresters? In all the correspondence and discussions which have appeared in print or taken place on the subject of forestry education, the names of really representative woodland proprietors or their representatives are rarely seen. Scientists, economists, nurserymen, gardeners, and foresters them- selves have all raised their voices in support of the various schemes that have been suggested, but the party for whose benefit this praiseworthy movement has been set on foot, whose income from VOL, XV. PART I. D 50 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. his woods is to be so greatly increased by it, and who is expected to welcome the “‘new” forester with open arms—where is he? How is it that in a House of Commons, the majority of which consists of landowners, any debates on the question of a school of forestry, or the recommendations of the select committee, have been dismissed in a few words, and with apparent indifference 4 If anything like unanimity prevailed on this point, surely land- owners as a body would have both the will and the power to carry through such a comparatively small undertaking. Only within the last few weeks, while the Agricultural Land Rating Bill was passing through committee, woodlands were excluded from the provisions of the Act with but one dissentient voice. This does not look as if proprietors were so very anxious regard- ing their woods after all, although there are doubtless exceptions to this state of indifference. yeryone who read or heard the eminently practical address of the esteemed President of the Society, Mr Munro Ferguson of Novar, which was delivered at last year’s annual meeting, must feel that in him we have a friend and powerful ally in the cause of scientific forestry. But even that gentleman, in spite of the brilliant example he sets to his brother landowners, appears to have little faith in the advance of estate forestry nowadays. The best means we have of testing the truth of these assertions is by the demand which exists for men with the amount of technical knowledge supposed to be necessary or desirable. If proprietors really wanted their woods managed on sound sylvi- cultural principles, there would be a strong inducement held out to the practical forester to qualify himself for such work, for in men, as in other commodities, the class of article most in demand will always rule the market. But, so far as I am able to judge, so long as a man has sufficient experience of the practical working operations of woods, and has proved himself thoroughly trustworthy and capable of managing men, his knowledge of scientific forestry is rarely called into question. Of course, it must be admitted that it has hitherto been impossible to get men with anything but practical experience, and consequently the demands of the past afford no criterion of those of the future. But it must also be remembered that the average Briton, whatever position he may occupy, has not yet adopted the motto, “Practice with Science,” with anything like enthusiasm. Science pure and simple he has a great respect for, but when he finds anyone who IS BRITISH FORESTRY PROGRESSIVE ? 51 ‘has practical work to do with a smattering of it, he shakes his head, and remarks that “theory” is all very well, but give him experience. On estates the purely practical man is favoured, for several reasons. The principal one, however, is apparent when we consider what the duties of an estate forester are. Theo- retically, they are the management of woods and the superin- tendence of the staff employed therein. Practically, they are just what the proprietor considers most expedient for the economical working of the estate. If the woods are of small extent, other duties are often entrusted to the forester, such as attending to roads, fences, draining, and sundry other work peculiar to an estate, according as its character and other circumstances render a grouping together of certain duties advisable. A knowledge of scientific forestry is consequently considered by most proprietors a superfluity, and although I should not like to say that the possession of it was a disadvantage to a candidate for an appoint- ment, I don’t think it would be likely to help him very much. The class of men wanted on the majority of estates nowadays are not specialists, but jacks-of-all-trades, who can turn their hands to anything and turn up their noses at nothing. If a young forester, after studying forestry and the allied sciences, is willing to begin work on this understanding, and put his science in his pocket till it is asked for, all well and good. But if, on the contrary, he puts on an air of superiority, substitutes scientific language for his mother-tongue, and falls into that lamentable condition peculiar to the immortal Jack Jones, it would have been better for him to have remained as Nature intended him to be, Any- one acquainted with the average estate labourer in the south of England will know that any attempt to alter his methods of taking that gentle exercise which he euphemistically terms ‘ work,” or to introduce new tools, is simply labour in vain, and a little tact and judgment are of more use than a great deal of science. Under present conditions, it is only the young forester, who has a genuine affection for his profession, and to whom the receipt of so much per annum is not the sum total of his ambition, that can benefit by a scientific education. Every bond- fide forester is more or less a naturalist, and beyond the mere stock of facts furnished by a study of such subjects as botany, chemistry, zoology, etc., it will enable him to make accurate observations—an advantage which needs no recommendation. Bat in the present condition of British forestry, the number of 52 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. landowners with appointments to fill who are desirous of secur- ing the services of scientifically-trained men is limited, and therefore our young foresters of the new school must not give way to despondency if, on finishing their science course, they do not at once find the opportunity of putting modern sylvicultural methods into practice. Nor need they, under any circumstances, expect to have a perfectly free hand in the management of their employer’s property. But even if they have frequently to act in a manner which is not in conformity with good sylvicultural practice, it cannot be doubted that the knowledge which educa- tion has given them must, on the whole, have a beneficial influence on the woods placed under their charge. As for the prospect of estate forestry being encouraged by loans to planters, I cannot put much faith in it. As already pointed out, the planter derives no actual benefit from his work, and in most cases suffers personal loss, and I do not see how this loss would be obviated (although it would doubtless be diminished) by aloan. Interest would have to be paid upon it in any case, and a proprietor who planted a deer forest or grouse moor would simply change his position from that of a rent-receiver into that — of a rent-payer for someone else’s benefit. Some assert that the private ownership of land forms no great obstacle in the way of economic forestry, and point to the Continental forests owned by private individuals. Bat I am afraid they forget that the tradi- tions and conditions are totally different in the two cases. In the first place, these forests are regarded as such, and game is not the only objective consideration. In the second place, they exist, and have existed for centuries, and the owners have come to regard ~ them as constituent elements of the estate. In the third place, forestry is a recognised institution, and Governments and legis- lation keep an eye upon it in a fatherly spirit. With us, no such advantages are present. To begin with, we have no forests on an extensive scale, our woods are valued according to their game-producing powers, and whenever a landowner converts a barren waste into a productive property, he is promptly taxed for it. Forestry and the utilisation of waste land concern the nation at large, and not merely an individual or a particular class, and I see no reason why a proprietor should sacrifice his own interests for the good of a public who are quite able to carry on work of this kind for their own benefit if they choose. Un- fortunately, the British public wants a good deal of education on IS BRITISH FORESTRY PROGRESSIVE 2 by: this point, and [I noticed that the Minister of Agriculture himself expressed an opinion, when replying to the Scottish deputation on Forestry last year, that State forests might possibly do estate owners an, injury, by adding an element of competition into the growing of timber in this country. The facts, in my opinion, rather lead to an opposite conclusion, viz., that an increased production of timber would tend to enhance its value by placing the home-timber trade on a sounder basis, and inspiring greater confidence in the minds of merchants regarding a steady supply. At any rate, action by the State or other public body is the only means by which a rational system of forestry can ever be properly established in this country, and the only way to bring this about is by united action on the part of all interested in the matter. There ought to be no great difficulty in enlisting the sympathies of all societies which have the welfare of the land at heart, and in this connection it is gratifying to note what has been done by the Highland and Agricultural Society to promote forestry. But considering the intimate connection between agriculture and forestry in any part of the country, I do not under- stand why a national society like the Royal Agricultural Society of England should pay little or no attention to this subject. State forestry would do far more for rural England, Scotland, or Wales than many minor industries encouraged by that Society; and although the latter may have no power in itself to carry on such work, yet its sympathy and support in such a cause would carry great weight. That we are likely to see State forestry established on a large scale is hardly to be expected for many years to come at least, but when once a beginning has been made, the most elaborate dreams and aspirations may ultimately be realised. In conclusion, I only wish to say that if my opinions and views on British forestry and its future prospects are regarded as too pessimistic, no one will be better pleased to be assured of this than myself. That an improvement in the detailed management of woods (in Scotland, at least) will result from the educational work so ably carried on by Professor Somerville, Colonel Bailey, Professor Bayley Balfour, etc., during the last few years, I cannot but believe, and the only question is, ‘ Will proprietors of wood- lands do their share in promoting economic forestry?” for upon them depends everything, not so much as regards actual operations, as the principles and motives which underlie them. How this aspect of the case affects the question, I have already tried to make clear, 54 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, VI. On the Rearing of Natural and Artificial Undercover jor Game. By AtexanpER M‘Rag, Forester, Castlecomer, Kilkenny Co., Ireland. Practical forestry of the present day embraces a field of opera- tions which is at once wide and varied. In the main the forester is expected to raise and manage plantations so as to produce the best possible quality of timber at the least possible expense; but at the same time, on the great majority of our estates, he must also provide ample facilities for sport and the preservation of game. On large estates, where the plantations are extensive, and of all ages, and in all stages of growth, the task of providing cover is not very difficult, especially if the older plantations are well stocked with underwood, which is well managed on the rotation system. By this method the supply of cover is continuous, and if the locality is a good one, and the underwood produced is of good quality, the revenue will also be continuous, a phase of the question which is somewhat important in these times of depression. But if good sport is required on small estates, where the planta- tions consist of mere slangs and long narrow strips, with here and there a wood containing several acres, it becomes absolutely necessary to preserve and encourage all natural undercover, and also to introduce covert plants suitable to the soil and situation. The reason for this is obvious. On small estates it is very diffi- cult to keep game, and especially pheasants, from straying into the enemy’s camp unless good, comfortable covers are provided for them. By way of following the subject up from the beginning, we shall suppose ourselves on an estate where the renovation of the game covers is an item of importance. The first step will be to examine the condition and position of the covers, and the next to decide— after consultation between the proprietor, the gamekeeper, and the forester—which of the covers is first to be operated on. We shall suppose the plantation chosen consists chiefly of hardwoods of timber size, with a fair sprinkling of overgrown underwood. It will be necessary to commence operations by making a careful examination of the trees forming the standard crop. If they are moderately thin, and distributed pretty equally over the ground, little need be done; but where the standards stand thick it is advisable to thin them out, care being taken to regulate them so as NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL UNDERCOVER FOR GAME. 55 to leave the best specimen trees, by cutting out all the poor trees and everything that is crushed up. All the tall, lanky underwood should also be cut out, so as to get a fresh growth from the stools. By these means an additional supply of ght and air will be obtained, and the conditions will be much more favourable for all sorts of undergrowth. If any of the underwood is of a thick, bushy habit of growth, it is advisable to cut it off from 3 to 4 feet above the level of the ground, thereby forming nice compact bushes at once. Elder bushes, if not too lanky, can be made into splendid cover by cutting them about half.through near the ground, and afterwards bending them down. ‘They will then throw up a mass of young shoots from the root and all along the stem; while fern, bracken, briers, and other rubbish will grow up through them, forming a good hide for game. Hazel, birch, alder, oak, thorn, beech, elim, etc., can all be treated in the same way, provided rabbits are not very numerous. When the felling has been completed, the standard trees ought to be pruned. If this operation is properly carried out, and all the dead, broken, and superfluous branches neatly cut off, it will greatly improve the appearance of the job. If, after having removed the timber and all the useful brushwood, planting is decided on, all the remaining rubbish ought to be burned up so as to effect a clear- ance. It must be kept in mind, however, that a good many gamekeepers prefer to have some rubbish littered about the bottom, and there is no doubt it is useful for nesting, etc.; but if any rubbish is left where planting is to be carried on, it should be piled round the stems of the standing trees, so as to leave all the open ground available for planting. At this stage all drains in the cover should be put into proper working order, and the fences repaired where necessary. The foregoing operations should be completed, if possible- between the months of November and March, because if done then the underwood will throw up a much stronger growth from the stools than it would do if cut during the growing season. If there should be a fair quantity of oak to fell during the thinning, it would likely be advisable to clear out all the under- wood and other trees first. The oak could then be felled during the peeling season—for a few tons of bark are a consideration— and the clearing up could be done afterwards, in readiness for planting next season. Rabbits should be kept well down for a 56 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. year or two after cutting up, so as to give the underwood a fair start. If a piece of cover, such as a heading corner, or a portion of a wood that seems well adapted as a preserve for pheasants, is required to be specially good, it is advisable to enclose it with wire netting for a few years, so as to exclude rabbits and hares. A greater variety of plants can then be used in the composition of the undercover, and the stuff gets a chance to settle and make a fair growth before being molested. PLANTING. Having completed the preliminary operations, we shall now proceed with the planting, which may be carried on any time from November to March, according to circumstances. The more open spaces which show a good bit of headroom should be planted with evergreens of an upright habit of growth, such as spruce, Douglas fir, or common yew, and a few Scots fir or other varieties of pine. These should stand from 8 to 10 yards apart, and if given sufficient headroom they will soon develop and form splendid roost and shelter. If grown close they will run up too quick, and lose their lower branches at too early an age. Common spruce is really the best tree for the purpose, because it can be obtained cheap, and generally does pretty well when trans- planted into an old plantation, while pheasants are very fond of it for roosting. Well furnished young plants, about 6 feet high, are the most suitable for this purpose, if they can be obtained from young plantations on the estate, or from the home-nursery. They ought to be lifted, and conveyed carefully to the place of planting, so as to have the balls as large as possible. The pits should always be dug large enough, in fact, a good deal too large for the present requirements of the plants. Large stones and old roots can then be disposed of, and the soil will in consequence be rendered more favourable for the reception of the rootlets. This rule should be insisted on in all cases of underplanting, because it is impossible to trench the ground, and large pits are therefore the only alternative. When the standards have been planted, the ground should be filled up, to about 6 feet apart, with such a mixture of covert plants as may be considered most suitable for the position and circumstances. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL UNDERCOVER FOR GAME. 57 The common rhododendron can nearly always be used in under- planting, and is a splendid plant for the purpose. It is not particular as regards soil, and soon forms a good, thick, dark cover; one great point in its favour being that rabbits and hares do not interfere much with it. The following would be a good mixture for ordinary cases, viz., one-third Rhododendron ponticum, one-third hazel, and one-third common evergreen privet. For ordinary cover these plants recom- mend themselves, because they can be obtained cheap, and when once settled, they soon make considerable growth. I have found it quite customary to plant masses of rhododendron alone for cover, the plants being so close together, that in about five or six years they are all growing into each other, and three or four plants are then occupying the ground which ought to be filled by one. When rhododendrons are so thick together, it is very difficult to get game out of them, and as a rule pheasants do not seem to like them. A mixture of other stuff, such as hazel and privet, helps to keep them open and dry. In regard to rhododendrons, a good deal of money could be saved on many estates by making use of the hundreds of seedlings which come up around the old bushes. In fact, I have seen estates where, with a little care and management, rhododendrons for cover purposes need never have formed an item on the nursery- man’s bill. Privet could soon be grown in any quantity from cuttings, while hazel might be bought as seedlings, and afterwards grown in the home-nursery, strong and bushy, just to the mind of the planter. d/ahonia is also a very good cover plant, and can be obtained very cheap ; it is a valuable addition to covers of a semi- ornamental nature. In damp places alder should be used pretty extensively, as it stands a good deal of cutting, and grows freely. -A whole host of other plants might be used, such as Rosa rugosa, yew, laurel, holly, box, ete., but as a rule they are far too expensive for general cover purposes. I would only just mention, that for covers in exposed situations on the sea-coast, nothing succeeds better than the sea buckthorn and the tamarisk. For successful cover planting the plants used should not be too large; while in the nursery they should be transplanted rather frequently, so as to ensure their being well furnished with fibrous roots, and encourage them to assume a compact bushy habit of growth. Long lanky stuff, such as we often see used, 58 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. whether bought or home grown, is not worth the trouble of planting. MANAGEMENT. For the first two or three years after planting it may be necessary to clear the young plants a little, because after the thinning and pruning there is sure to be a much thicker growth of grass, bracken, briers, nettles, or other rubbish, which would be apt to choke the young plants, or at least retard their growth. Undergrowth for game cover should never be allowed to get too tall and lanky. As soon, therefore, as the tops begin to run up, it is advisable to go round and switch them off about 3 to 4 feet high; this encourages a thick bottom-growth, and saves the standard evergreens from being lashed and weakened. It also gives the beaters a better chance of working the game out, while the guns have more uniform sport, because the birds rise gradually, instead of all running forward under a mass of top-growth, and rising in flocks at the heading corner. In regard to switching the underwood, it would be advisable to divide it into sections, and do a part every year, each section being gone through about once in four or five years, according to growth, etc. It is best to do the switching in winter, and especially during hard weather, because the branches and young shoots thus cut off take up the attention of the rabbits, and help to keep them from gnawing the roots and stems of the trees and plants. Covers so treated, if started on while young, may be kept in good condition for many years. If there are any young plantations, or portions of plantations, on the estate composed chiefly of spruce, say from six to twelve years old, they can be converted into splendid covers in the following manner :—The best trees should be picked out and left standing from 8 to 10 yards apart for standards. The leaders should then be cut out of all the intermediate plants, about 3 feet above the ground, and the rubbish trampled down underneath. The standards will then have plenty of room to develop, and will form nice specimen trees. They will also help to retain the unbroken appearance of the plantation when viewed from a distance. The topping should be done while the plants are still clothed to the bottom with fresh green branches. The plants so treated will throw up several leaders, and an oceasional switching is all that NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL UNDERCOVER FOR GAME, 59 will be required to make them spread and keep them from running up too high, This forms an excellent cover for pheasants and foxes, as it is always so dry and comfortable ; with a little care and patience it can be produced on any estate at a merely nominal cost, and if properly looked after, will last for a long time. Where rabbits and foxes are the main objects in view, the very best cover for preserv- ing them is, without doubt, gorse or whin. Of course, if there is a good supply of natural grown whins, little need be done, except an occasional cutting or burning, just to keep them in good condi- tion, and this should be done on the rotation system—say a patch every year, so as to keep up a regular supply of cover. The burn- ing or cutting should always be done before the plants get too old and weak, because if left too long, the roots are apt to die out. On a good many estates, and especially in the principal hunting districts in the midlands of England, good patches of natural gorse are rather rare, consequently it is quite a common practice to raise them from seed. In connection with the selection of a site for an artificial gorse cover, the following points might be observed :— The site should be of a hilly nature, composed of light sandy soil —say the worst piece of ground in the district. It should not be in too close proximity to arable land, because a large number of rabbits can soon do enormous damage to grain or root crops, and they prove a constant source of annoyance to the farmer. An ideal site for a gorse cover would be in the middle of a large park adjoining the mansion-house. There is then plenty of food for rabbits, and it is handy for shooting, while in the hunting season it is rather interesting to watch the ‘‘draw” from the windows or pleasure-grounds. If the soil is light and sandy, gorse-growing is almost a certain success, provided the seed is of good quality. If the proposed site is old turf, it is advisable to plough it a fair depth in the autumn, and let it lie all winter, so as to let the turf rot as much as possible. In the spring, the ground should be worked pretty well, so as to kill as many of the weeds as possible, and then the seed may be put in early in April, just like an ordinary cereal crop. If the ground is very dirty, the seed should be sown in drills, say 20 to 24 inches apart. Cleaning can then be attended to during the summer months, thereby giving the crop a fair start for the first season. If 60 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the seed is good, about 20 lbs. per acre is sufficient for cover purposes. The patch should be fenced so as to exclude cattle and sheep. If the gorse occupies a rather prominent position, the effect on the landscape might be rendered more pleasing by plant- ing some nice specimen spruces, or other conifers, at intervals of 12 to 15 yards apart. These plants would, however, require to be encl sed with wire netting, so as to protect them from the rabbits. If properly managed, the gorse will form splendid rabbit cover in two years from time of sowing. Artificial gorse, as a rule, is very apt to run up tall, instead of assuming the compact, bushy habit peculiar to the natural growth, and especially if it is grown thick on a pretty good soil. In this condition it is very liable to be blown down, or crushed with snow, and the one-half smothers the other in a very short time. This might be prevented by going over it when about two years old, and switching off all the long leaders with a sharp hedge-bill, repeating the operation every year, which would tend to encourage a thick growth, and allow the gorse to come up very gradually. Of course it will be apt to’ run out in course of time, so that cutting or burning will have to be attended to, as in the natural growth, but if kept comparatively low, it may last for many years. If a patch of gorse is grown on one side of a plantation, it forms a valuable addition to the game cover. It makes a splendid head- ing corner, the birds being forced gradually out of it, and there is generally capital sport among the rabbits. Heather and bracken are both good natural undercover, but they are generally qualified to look after themselves. All masses of game cover should always be well intersected with shooting tracks, so as to give the guns every opportunity of reach- ing the game; and sometimes, in very thick places, it is necessary to cut little zig-zag paths for the beaters, so as to enable them to work the game out properly. REPORTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS. 61 REPORTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS. 1. Report on the Meteorology of Scotland for the Year ending September 1896. By R. C. Mossman, F.R.S.E., Honorary Consulting Meteorologist. The following remarks are deduced from the bi-diurnal observa- tions made at sixty-seven stations of the Scottish Meteorological Society, the data being already reduced by Dr Buchan, and published quarterly as an appendix to the Registrar-General’s returns. Other sources of information, such as the monthly abstracts issued by the London Meteorological Office, have also been utilised. It is hoped that some scheme will be inaugurated during the coming year whereby the relations of climate to forestry will be shown in their more immediate and _ practical bearings. In the meantime, the following statement, summarising the more salient features of the weather experienced over Scotland during the twelve months under review, is submitted. October 1895.—The weather of October was very changeable. The month opened with a continuation of the phenomenal warmth of September, the temperature at many places exceeding 70° in the shade on the first two days of the month. Cold, arctic con- ditions, however, set in about the end of the first week, with the result that the mean temperature of the month was nearly 4° below the average. The depression of temperature was relatively greater in the south than in the north of the country, being greatest in Galloway. Rainfall was a little over the average, but was distributed throughout the country in a capricious manner. In the counties of Roxburgh and Berwick more than double the average precipitation was recorded, while the deficit was considerable over nearly the whole of the western districts. Bright sunshine was in excess of the average. November 1895.—The weather throughout the greater part of the month was very unsettled, gales and heavy rains being 62 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. frequent. The mean temperature was above the average over the southern counties, and also in the Hebrides; but a deficit was recorded in the vicinity of the Caledonian Canal, and at some places situated on the coast from Dunrobin to Banff. The rain- fall was 15 per cent. below the normal, the deficiency being greatest to the north of the Grampians, especially at those places to the westward. On the other hand, the precipitation exceeded the average by 50 per cent, at places on the east coast, as well as in one or two widely scattered districts. Bright sunshine was in excess of the average at northern and western stations. December 1895.—The weather of December was extremely unsettled. Gales were frequent, and were accompanied in many cases by snow and hail showers ; while thunderstorms were a very usual concomitant, especially on the western seaboard. The temperature was just the average, there being a slight defect at some south-western stations, but over the greater part of the country the values were quite normal. The rainfall was above the average over the eastern districts, the excess being most marked in the counties of Aberdeen and Banff. Over the west of Scotland, on the other hand, there was a considerable deficiency, which was most noticeable in Sutherland. Sunshine was scanty, few places having more than 10 per cent. of the possible duration. January 1896 was characterised by a temperature nearly 3° above the average, the mild weather being accompanied by a remarkably high barometer, which in some places reached the phenomenal elevation of 31:10 inches on the 9th of the month. Rainfall was very deficient, save in the counties of Ross, Suther- land, and Caithness, where it exceeded the average by from 40 to 50 per cent. The smallest rainfall was recorded at stations to the south of the Moray Firth. Slight falls of snow were experienced between the 21st and 23rd, which soon melted. Sunshine was very prevalent in the north-east, Aberdeen being the sunniest station in the British Isles. February 1896 was dry and mild, in marked contrast to the corresponding month of 1895. The mean temperature was 3° above the average, the excess being much the same over the greater portion of Scotland. The mean rainfall, taking the country as a whole, was two-thirds of the normal, but was above the average in the north-west, the wettest station being Fort- William, with over 8 inches, Bright sunshine was considerably REPORTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS, 63 less than the mean, the defect being greatest at Aberdeen, which had only one-third of the average. March 1896.—Very unsettled weather prevailed throughout the greater part of the month, falls of rain, sleet, or snow being of frequent occurrence. The temperature was high, a result of the predominance of winds from the west and south-west. Rainfall was much in excess of the average at places on the west coast open to the prevailing winds, but in the north-eastern counties there was a marked deficit. Bright sunshine was slightly below the normal, the maximum amount being recorded in Aberdeenshire. April 1896.—Changeable showery weather characterised the first half of the month, during which time showers of snow, sleet, and hail were of frequent occurrence, whilst thunderstorms were often observed. The mean temperature was 3° above the average, the excess being greatest at places in the east, situated some little distance from the sea. Rainfall exceeded the average in the west and north, but was below the normal in the east. Sunshine was fairly abundant, except in the northern districts. May 1896.—The weather of May was exceedingly dry and warm, a severe drought being experienced over nearly the whole country, while abnormally high temperatures were of common occurrence. The mean temperature was 4° above the average, the greatest excess being 6° at Ochtertyre, and the least, 2°:5, in the Shetland Isles. Rainfall was less than half the normal, taking the country as a whole, while in many places the down- fall amounted to only one-quarter of the average. There was a slight excess in the north of Sutherland and in Orkney and Caithness. Bright sunshine was very abundant. June 1896.—The weather of June was characterised by great variability, being on the whole changeable, with an excess of rainfall, a deficiency of sunshine, and, rather curiously, a high temperature. The mean rainfall exceeded the normal by 37 per cent., and, as frequently happens, was distributed over the country in a capricious manner. The temperature was 3° above the normal in the south-western districts, but cool weather pre- vailed in the north. Bright sunshine was below the average. July 1896.—The weather during this month was in an unsettled state generally, and particularly so from the 25th to the 27th, when gales were experienced. Fine and warm con- ditions prevailed about the middle of the month. The temper- ature was above the mean at stations on the east coast, but in 64 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. other districts there was a small deficit. The mean rainfall was in excess of the average, but was rather under it in the northern counties generally. Sunshine was deficient in all the districts. August 1896 was characterised by dry, cool, and sunless weather. The mean temperature was a degree and a haif under the average, the deficiency being greatest in the northern and least in the western districts. The unequal distribution of the rainfall over the country was a striking feature, Stornoway and Scourie having double the average precipitation, while only one- third of the normal quantity fell to the south-east of the Cheviots. September 1896.—The mean temperature this month was slightly under the average, the rainfall nearly 33 per cent. above the average, and the sunshine deficient to an unwonted extent. The temperature was slightly below the average at eastern, but above the normal at western stations. The mean rainfall was nearly 40 per cent. above the average, the greatest excess being on the east coast of Scotland. The year ending September 1896.—The year under review was characterised by a temperature about 1° above the normal, by a rainfall just the average, but falling on thirteen days more than the average, and by a great deficiency of sunshine, equivalent to 23 per cent. of the average. The first half of 1896 was exceptionally warm and dry, although bright sunshine was less than the mean in most districts, owing to the prevalence of polar winds. The summer of 1896 was cool and wet, with little sunshine, although August was decidcdly better than for many years past. REPORTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS. 65 Abstract of Observations of Temperature, Rainfall, and Sunshine as recorded at Sixty-seven Stations of the Scottish Meteoro- logical Society during the Year ending September 1896, and compared with the Averages of the previous Forty Years. Mean Temperature. Mean Rainfall. que aoe s6 12 | 38 (li Seales ald cnlvwaeth as | 418s) 82 | 2 | 82 [BO] ba | ok | Sa = | 28 | 82! 28 | 3a fa Poa!) ga | se se | 22 |22| 42 | 82 | 22 128 | BE | Se | 22 ne i ee ° ° Ins Ins | Hrs Hrs October 1895, | 42°8 | —3°6713°2| +1°3| 4°61) —0°56 18 | +1 104 | - 1 November ,, | 41°38) +1°2]10°5| +01] 4:44] +062] 18] +2 54 | —19 December ,, 37°4| —0°4} 8:9] -—0°7| 4°38] +0°41 19 | +3 31 | —26 January 1896, | 39°7 | +2°6710°2| +1°0| 2°53) —1°37 15 | -2 48 | -13 February _,, 41°4} +3:0] 9:9] —0°2|] 2°00) —1:06 MA ee 51 | -—34 March > | 41-2 | +1°8913-5 | +1°5| 4:12) +1°327 21) +6 | 111|-18 April ao 47-0 | +2°9114°3} —0°0} 2°03) —0-11 15 | +3 137 | —24 May 4 53°0| +4°0419°6 | +4°2} 0°98] —1°30 727 B26r e380 June An 56°2) +1°4714°8; —1°0|] 3°39] +0°91 17) +4 140 | —75 July es 56°6 | —0°5414°9 070} 3°89] +0°72 16} +1 144 | —58 August ,, |55-0| -1:6]14°5| 0-0] 2°75| -o-90] 16| 0 | 136 | —40 September ,, 52°4| —0°-4]12°1}) -1°7] 4°87 | +1°33}] 21] +5 76 | —66 oo 47-0 | +08] 13-0 | +0°4 | 39°99 a +13 | 1258 |-339 2. Report by R. Srewart MacDovueatt, M.A., B.Sc., Honorary Consulting Entomologist. Since the declaration of my appointment as Honorary Consulting Entomologist to the Society a few months ago, I have received queries relating to the Pine Beetle (Hylesinus piniperda), and also an interesting communication regarding the Squirrel (Sciwrus vulgaris). THe Pine BEETLE. This is one of our very worst pests in Scotland—one that every forester has opportunity of becoming acquainted with, and as, in order to cope successfully with it or to proceed against it at all intelligently, a knowledge of its round of life is quite necessary, I purpose giving a general account of its life-history, and means of prevention and remedy. The mature beetles always come out of their winter-quarters at VOL, XV. PART I, E ay , ' 66 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the end of March and the beginning of April, and after pairing, the female, under cover of the bark scales, begins to excavate her tunnel in some sickly standing pine, or in a stump, or in felled or fallen timber—preferably of the genus Pinus. As a rule, the place chosen has thick bark, although I have repeatedly found the tunnels where the bark was quite thin. The tunnel crooked to begin with, but throughout the greater part of its length vertical (Somerville has well compared its shape to a golf-club), is com- pleted in from four to five weeks, and along its sides, in little excavated niches, the hundred or more eggs are laid. The tunnels average 3 to 4 inches, although they are often longer, one I cut from a tree two summers ago having a length of 114 inches. From the eggs hatch out grubs, which begin to gnaw tunnels in the cambial region. These grub-tunnels are at right angles to the mother-tunnel, and ultimately become winding, increasing in size with the growth of the larve. When full-fed, each grub pupates (passes into a resting stage) in a little cell formed in the bark at the end of its tunnel. The perfect beetles appear in June and July, according to the order of egg-laying, in some seventy-five to eighty-five days from the laying of the eggs. The earliest issuing beetles start breeding at once, with the result that a second brood of beetles appears in September. In unfavourable weather condi- tions there may be only one brood in a year, but with the weather conditions favourable, Somerville has proved beyond dispute that in Scotland two generations appear in the year. Taking the favourable weather conditions, the following may stand as the Calendar for the Pine Beetle :— | Noy. 1895-| End of | April and | March1896.| March. May. June. | July. August. September| October. eras aaa =a ome emer | Beetlesin| Beetle | Larve. | Pupa Eggs. | Larve. | Larve. | Beetles. | winter jand eggs. Beetle. | Larve. | Pupa | quarters. | | Beetle. | The second generation of beetles, which emerges in September and October by boring their way through the bark from their pupal cell (the flight-holes giving the bark an appearance as if riddled with small shot), make their way to the young shoots of the pine, and bore into these—not for egg-laying, but for feeding purposes— a little ring of resin marking the entrance hole. These bored shoots can be found in large quantities below the trees after a gale. Repeated attacks of the Pine Beetles, and loss of these shoots, soon REPORTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS, 67 alter the shape of the tree, and result in the scraggy straggling tops so familiar to those acquainted with piniperda attack, which appearance has earned for the beetle the name of Wood-gardener or Forester. It is only exceptionally that the beetles winter in the shoots, their winter-quarters as a rule being in moss or in cracks in the bark, or in holes bored into the bark at the base of the tree. Without going more into detail, I have said enough to show the application of certain general principles with a view to protection. There must be careful oversight of the wood on the part of the forester, who should make it an axiom to remove from the wood as quickly as possible all felled or blown pine timber. It is not always convenient, or perhaps possible, to remove quickly, but it cannot be too strongly insisted on that such felled logs, stumps, etc., if left unbarked, are favourite places for egg-laying, and every such unbarked stem is a direct invitation to the beetle on the part of the forester, and an encouragement to a future plague. A glance at the Beetle Calendar will suggest the dates before which removal of timber had better take place, or when barking should be done. A cutting out of sickly trees and their removal is also advisable. As a remedial measure once the pests have got to work, no means can compare in efficiency with the system of “ catch-trees.” From February or March onwards till the autumn let there be a series of such traps, to be examined at regular intervals, and peeled, and the bark burned. These “ catch-trees” may be sickly pines standing in the forest and marked, or else trees felled here and there at intervals for the purpose. In such trap-trees or logs the pine beetles will breed, and in the peeled and burnt bark eggs and larve will be destroyed. There must be careful and systematic revision of the traps, else the remedy may prove worse than the disease. The traps must not be left too long, a new series being prepared say every month. How fruitful in destruction to the pests this method of “catch-trees” is, I can testify from much experience of their use. I have in my collection a piece of bark of Scots pine which I stripped from one such “catch-tree.” It measures 28 inches long by 12 broad, and in it I count 30 mother-tunnels, and allowing 100 eggs for each, no fewer than 3000 beetles might have escaped from this piece alone. Description of the Beetle.—A little over ¢ inch in length. Glossy black in colour, although red-brown on first emerging. 68 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Antenne and legs reddish-brown. On examination with a lens, the wing-covers show longitudinal finely punctured stripes. The spaces between these stripes have a number of little knobs carrying bristly hairs. These little knobs, however, are absent at the hinder end of the second space on each side of the middle line. The grub or larve is about a quarter of an inch long, with a fleshy, bent, legless body, whitish in colour, and a yellow-brown head. THE SquirReL (Scowrus vulgaris). In the month of August I received an interesting communication relating to the habits of the Squirrel from Mr D. Robertson, forester, Dunrobin. From Mr Robertson’s letter I quote the following :—‘‘ Some days ago I noticed that large numbers of blown Scots fir trees, full of the grub of the Pine Beetle (Hylesinus piniperda), were being peeled, and the grubs eaten by some bird ormammal. At first I was inclined to think it the work of birds ; but to-day, having a few hours to spare, I went on a tour of discovery, and to my surprise I found that the peeling and the destruction of the grubs was being done by squirrels. I watched six of the squirrels at work, and got quite near to several, and saw them quite clearly. They ran along the fallen trees, passing over those which were quite old, and in which there were no grubs; but when they came to a tree in which grubs were numerous they began operations, pulling off the bark immediately above the grub- galleries and eating the grubs. The squirrels were always followed by three kinds of small birds, the wren, the bluebonnet, and I think a chaffinch. The squirrels usually began operations near the top of the trees, and worked towards the base, until the bark got too strong for them to break. Since seeing the above, I am beginning to think there is some good in Mr Squirrel after all.” Mr Robertson then goes on to ask if this is a common occurrence. I replied at the time that this was quite a new observation, not that the squirrel should eat insects (I know of his taking cock- chafers), but that of set design he should strip only those trees which were grub infested, and at the places of infestation. In diet the squirrel is both vegetarian and carnivorous ; indeed, it may be described as omnivorous, as will appear below. Perhaps the chief food of the squirrel may be said to be the “seeds” of trees—acorns, beech-seeds, hazel-nuts, and _filberts. The seeds of conifers are specially liked, the cones of pines, REPORTS BY THE HONORARY OFFICIALS. 69 larches, spruces, etc., being robbed of their seeds. My own observations would lead me to think that spruce seed is a favourite. I have picked up scores of spruce (Picea eacelsa) cones pulled off and destroyed by squirrels, and now and again have come on a spruce stump on whose cut surface lay several cones that had afforded a repast for the squirrel. The cones are damaged in a characteristic way, as all the scales are pulled off bodily except a few at the top. Cones damaged by Crossbills (Lowia curvirostra) show quite a different appearance. Buds of trees and also young shoots are destroyed, and much harm may be done by the squirrel barking pines and larches. The bark may be removed here and there in patches, or the tree may be quite “ringed,” the squirrel hanging on to the wounded bark by its sharp claws, and licking the sap on the exposed places. Galls are also taken by the squirrel, the oak gall (Cynips Kollari) for example. In Roslin Glen this summer I found some of the galls of the spruce gall aphis (Chermes abietis), which had been picked to pieces by squirrels. When the squirrel comes to the ground, he may do harm by scratching up sowed seeds or very young plants. Truffles are hunted for by scent, and Mr J. E. Harting has noticed squirrels breaking up and eating the large white fungus (Boletus edulis). Now and again the squirrel takes eggs and young birds. Abroad it has been noticed that in places much frequented by squirrels, the song birds show a marked decrease in a few years, and I have in my notebook authenticated records of birds (sparrows and starlings) being killed and eaten by them. In view of this very bad record, the economic zoologist’s verdict in the case of Sciwrus vulgaris must be “Guilty”; and even if the taking of a few galls and insects, and his beauty (and the squirrel’s grace and liveliness in the wood will never fail to cover a multitude of his sins), are pled as extenuating circumstances, should squirrels be very numerous the forester must forget the wsthetic and use his gun. 70 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. NOTES AND QUERIES. Lear-Mou.Lp. The leaf has been called the laboratory of the plant. It is in it that the great process of reduction goes on by which wood is made, and it is there that a host of other vegetable matters are elaborated under the action of sunlight. The raw material for this manufacture is chiefly carbonic acid, got from the air, and water brought up to the leaf from the soil; but the process of wood- making could not advance one step if this water did not contain, dissolved in it, inorganic substances which had been dissolved out of the soil by the root, or found by it already in a state of solution. The destination of these inorganic substances is, in the first place, the leaf, where they take part in the formation of complex organic matters which are required for the flower and fruit, and in the latter they are for the most part stored up to serve as nourish- ment for its young—the embryos wrapped up in the seed. Although the final destination of these inorganic matters is not the leaf itself, yet a very considerable proportion is unavoidably retained there, having been unable to find its way back into the stem or into the root, where the surplus store of material is usually preserved for future use. Thus it happens that when the dead leaves fall in autumn, they convey to the earth a very notable amount of the materials which plants require as food. These, in the living leaf, are in the form of organic salts chiefly; but as the organic matter of the leaf decays, they are left in the form of inorganic salts, viz., phosphates, sulphates, carbonates, etc., of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, and other bases, These are some- times described as the mineral constituents of the leaf, and some- times the ash constituents, for they are found in the ash when the leaf is burned. A very important constituent of leaf-mould that is not found in the ash is the nitrogenous matter. It exists in the leaf as albuminoid matter, but during the process of con- version into leaf-mould, it is more or less completely converted into ammonium salts and into nitrates. The process of conversion into leaf-mould is a slow and complicated one, and the products NOTES AND QUERIES. 71 vary according to many circumstances, and notably according to the greater or less exposure of the mass to the air. The outside of a heap of leaves has a brown colour, and is undergoing a somewhat simple process of slow combustion or decay under the action of the oxygen of the air. In the deeper layers the colour of the vegetable matter is dark brown or black, and therein changes of a more complicated kind, called putrefaction, are proceeding. In all these changes the action of living micro- organisms takes an important part. The conversion of the dead leaf, whose form we can recognise in the dark-coloured formless mould, is one in which the organic matter of the leaf is chiefly concerned. It is partly oxidised; the carbon being converted into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen being converted into water. These volatilise and escape into the air, and as they do so the layer becomes gradually more and more consolidated. The mineral matter remains behind, and becomcs relatively more abundant as the volatilisation of organic matter proceeds. Much interest attaches to the nitrogenous matter of the leaf, whose fate varies much according to circumstances. Some of it decomposes in such a way as to give off its nitrogen as free nitrogen gas. Some of it escapes as carbonate of ammonia, while the greater part of it remains behind as nitric acid, in combination with lime or other base. The composition of leaf-mould is thus very variable, but some notion of its value can be had from knowing the composition of the dead leaves from whose decay it is produced. As regards nitrogen, the dry dead leaves of some of the more common forest trees have on an average about one per cent., viz.:— Per cent. Nitrogen. Beech leaves, . ; j : : 0:8 Oak leaves, : i . d : 1-0 Spruce Fir, 5 : : : ; 13 Scots Fir, F : : : : i Larch, . J : : c : 0:9 That is a large amount of nitrogen, averaging twice as much as is contained in ordinary well-made farmyard manure. That it is not so active as farmyard manure is due to its not being sufficiently rotted to enable any of the nitrogenous matter to be converted into soluble substances, such as ammonia salts or nitrates, but 72 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. these substances are gradually formed as the processes of con- version into mould proceed. As regards the mineral constituents of leaves and forest litter generally, it will be seen from the following table that the leaf is very rich in manurial constituents :— Average Composition of Forest Litter in parts per 1000 of Dry Matter. sy Senet a oD = & <= 5 Leaves of 2 = E 3 et ge 2 cee J = S S) = oS Og, | SF] so = Ay & R a = | re) at jas al | Beech, .. .. | 56| 3:0] '-6 | 25-0] 3°6 | 1°5.| 3-0 | 1°0 | gum | Oak, L . | 49] 16 | 3 | 24-01 2:0] -3 | 4:0 | 2°2 | 15 Tarchays, ‘ 40 1°8 5 8739/27 Sa) On|) des 6 || 23 | Scots Fir, : 15 15 6 6:0 | 1°5 5 (a 5 | 2 Red Spruce, . AD | 156°) °6 12020) }>223") 1-00) 21 °7 |G) | White Spruce, . 38 | 2°6 5 | 24°0 | 25 | 10 | 2:8] 10) 28 | Mosses, . NBL TV a B68) ee ee | Ferns, . . | 67 | 24:0|2:7| 8314-7] 111 5-5 | 2°3 | 14 | Heather, . Se | | eS Bee | 1-0) 125. 1-0 ees | Wheat Straw,. | 54] 70] -7| 3°:0|11°3! ‘3 |] 2°6 | 1°3 | 36 | Barley ,, . | 48| 11:0] 2°0| 4°0|1:2| -3 | 2-1 | 1°8 | 25 | Oat aca Ps | 47 |10°4]1°4] 4:012°0| -7| 2°01] 1°5 | 28 Along with the leaves, there is given in the table the composi- tion of mosses, ferns, and heather, which form a large proportion of forest litter; and there is also given, for the sake of comparison, the composition of the straw commonly used as farm litter. Jt will be seen that the litter produced by the leaves of forest trees is distinguished by the large amount of lime, and the com- paratively small amount of potash it contains, thus differing from the straw of cereals, which is rich in potash and poor in lime. Poorest of all in ash constituents is the leaf of the Scots fir. The leaves of the oak and the beech are relatively rich in manurial constituents, and it is to the large amount of phosphoric acid and nitrogen that the former owes its reputation as a source of good leaf-mould. It is evident from the above analysis that the removal of forest litter, for the purpose of making leaf-mould, which is now a con- siderable industry here as well as on the Continent, must result NOTES AND QUERIES. 73 in the gradual deterioration of the forest land. Doubtless forest trees have the power of extracting nourishment from a larger area and a greater depth of the earth than have agricultural plants, but the nourishment so obtained is small in comparison with that which they get superficially from the mould formed by the accumulation of their own leaves. This leaf-mould is the natural manure of forest trees, and should not be removed, It is not alone the manurial constituents of leaf-mould that make it of value ; the physical effects it produces are of perhaps even more importance, and chief among these is its power of absorbing and retaining water, and of regulating the temperature of the soil, whereby the trees are sheltered from extremes of heat and cold and of wetness and drought. Below the moist covering of leaf-mould, in all stages of forma- tion, there is a mild, moist atmosphere, rich in carbonic acid, whose effect is to hasten the disintegration of the subjacent rock, whereby it is caused to yield up its mineral matter, and contribute to the formation of a soil whose fertility is slowly but steadily increasing. A. P. Arrxen, M.A., D.Sc., Honorary Consulting Chemist to the Society. THe CONNECTION BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND FORESTRY. In the practice of forestry it is inevitable that questions should arise in which an acquaintance with geological science should prove a valuable assistance. The forester, like the farmer, applies his labour to the soil, and only if that soil be suitable will his labour be repaid. It is important, then, for him to understand the methods by which the soil is formed, and the geological agents which effect the decomposition of the solid rocks. And as the soil depends on the rock which underlies it, different rocks yielding different soils, the forester must often require to know on what formations his land is situated, a point which only a geologist can satisfactorily settle. Of rocks, as of soils, a chemical analysis is often of the greatest value; but without a geological examination much of its value is lost, and it may even prove misleading. The same chemical substances, in very much the same proportions, may exist in two rocks which yet are entirely different for all practical purposes. It is only by a very gradual 74 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. and complex series of changes that the minerals of the rocks become transformed into soluble matters which are adapted for plant-food and the insoluble matters which form the basis of the soil, The farmer, by the process of tillage, can facilitate those changes, and modify in some measure the natural processes. But the growth of the forest is slow, and the forester must rely in a far greater degree on the slow operations of nature for the nourishment and growth of his trees. A knowledge also of the conditions which favour the preservation of the soil when formed, and prevent its removal by running water and other agencies, will in many cases be of value. The growth of the forest in itself greatly promotes the accumulation and preservation of the soil, while the rapid deforesting of a district may result in such injury that the subsequent growth of trees may be rendered almost impossible. In another way, also, the nature of the underlying rocks affects the forester, for some are loose and open, others, such as boulder clay, are compact and almost impenetrable. Such rocks prevent the downward passage of the surplus water from the soil. They are damp, cold, and stiff, and require artificial drainage. They offer such resistance to the progress of the roots as greatly to hamper the growth of trees after a certain size has been attained. This influences also the holding power of a tree, and the ease with which it will withstand a storm. The geologist, by his study of a district, is often in a position to offer useful advice on questions of water supply. The drainage of water from the soil depends on the nature and structure of the underlying rocks, and this determiaes also the possibility of obtaining water supplies by boring. The underground circula- tion of water depends on circumstances which only a careful geological examination can bring to light. Other questions, to which I shall only briefly refer, as in- fluencing opinion as to the geological forces at work in any area, are situation and exposure, prevalent winds and rainfall, exposure to frost, to floods, and to storms; and the importance to the forester of the accurate knowledge of such conditions as these can hardly be overestimated. Joun 8. Fiert, M.A., B.Sc., M.B., C.M., Honorary Consulting Geologist to the Society. NOTES AND QUERIES. 15 SEASON AND THE GROWTH OF TREES. The year 1893 and 1896 will long be remembered in the south of England on account of their remarkably dry summers. In 1893 drought set in at the beginning-of March, and continued practically without a break until the early part of July, when a few days showery weather revived vegetation wonderfully, although it again suffered from the intense heat of the following August. In the present year (1896) the dry weather com- menced about the end of March, and continued until August 19tb, although thunder showers and _ occasional sprinklings totalled up to about an inch of rain throughout that period. These remarks only apply to the locality in which they are written, as the great feature of the 1896 drought was its extremely partial character, neighbouring counties, and in some instances neighbouring parishes, receiving widely different amounts of rain. Taking the rainfall for the whole of the two seasons, however, an important difference may be noted. The drought of 1893 succeeded one of the wettest Februarys on record, and the ground at the commencement of the dry weather was fully saturated. That of 1896, on the contrary, followed an exception- ally dry autumn and winter, and although the month of March was rather wetter than the average, the rainfall for the ten months, commencing November 1895, was greatly below the average. These two years were separated by a damp and grow- ing season in 1894, and one with a dry spring and wet July and August in 1895. With the idea of ascertaining, if possible, what effect these four seasons have had upon the growth of trees, so far as the breadth of the annual ring is concerned, a number of trees belonging to four different species—oak, beech, Scots pine, and larch—were tested by means of Pressler’s ‘growth borer.” The maximum and minimum ring breadths in each section are alone given, while the ring showing the maximum or minimum zone of summer wood is indicated by a thick or thin line respectively. The trees were bored about four feet from the ground, and on the north side. The results are given in the following table :— | SPECIES. | I. Scots Pine, Il. Scots Pine, 1 ») 93 a 99 3 99 4 » 5 23 6 3 7 ” 8 ” 9 »» 10 III. Larch, 1 bi) 2 7) 2? v 3°? 4 PP) 5 » 6 3° 7 | 33 8 9° 9 5 10 (eV arch: 2? V. Scots Pine, 1 oF CO bP 1 2 99 30 4 5 120 120 100 20 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULLURAL SOCIETY. YEAR. ri = REMARKS. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. | * . max. min Crowns free. Soil se. ae sandy. Shaded ‘ | by undergrowth WIS Gib of Elder, Syca- nun max. MOre,, eybics ties =e Moderate humus — z ‘ layer. min. max max. min min. max. min, | ms) max, min. max. oe Crowns free. Soil 5 4 == ae nandy. pete ae eine grass covered. : —— |, No humus layer. max. ES Separated from max. min. preceding 10 by ae Sain: fence, and grass — : fed by sheep max. | min, and deer. shies max.. | min max. min, max min. Soe ees min. max Crowns free. Soil | ee min thin loam, over- | : lying rock on ' | max. min side of hollow. ) max, min Shaded by under- —— aril : wood, brambles max min , : ? = ivte ties “lattiee max. min humus. max. min. max min. min. max. min max. max. min, Sandy soil. Plant- | ies Ep ation thinned in : spring of 1895. max. min, max. | min. eons Z max, min. min. max. Sandy soil. Plant- ata ae ation thinned in - =— spring of 1895. min. max, max min, max. min. NOTES AND QUERIES. -~I ~J SPECIES. AGE. 1893. 1894. mVaAS arch, . 1} 20 max. a 2 min. 5p 3 max. HE q max » 5 Va.Scots Pine,1 | 20 min. max, a5 2 max oe 3 max 43 4 max, as 5 max. VI. Oak, 1 min. A 2 min. 55 3 min. ” 4 min. a 5 min, 8 6 max. min. » 7 min. i 8 min. ” 9 ‘ 5 10 min, VII. Oak, LTO) min. cr, 2 max. " 3 min. 9 4 max. min. Pe 5 max. VITA. Oak, 1] 110 ” 2 > 3 - rh 4 min. » 5 VIII. Beech, 1 | 120 min. max. 6 2 min, » 3 9 4 | min. ; a min. — ear VIilla.Beech, 1 | 110 max. min, Pe 2" min. 5 3 | min ae 4 | min. 5 | max. = REMARKS. 1895 1896. min. | Sandy soil. Not has thinned for : some years. min min. max. min. Sandy soil. Not min. thinned for - some years. min. min min. max. Standards in cop- max. pice. Soil stiff max. loam. Crowns max. full. North max, aspect. Coppice cut in 1894-95, max. | max. | max. min. | max. max, Sandy soil. Trees min. drawn up among max. Beech. Thick humus layer. min, max. min. | Standards in cop- max, min. pice, on sandy max. min. soil. Coppice max. cut in winter of max. min. 1895-96. Crowns full, and exposed to south. Sandy soil. Stems max. clean and close, ieee iL with perfect leaf s oe canopy, and max | thick humus max layer. Sandy soil. Stand- i ing in narrow —— belt. Stem LD fairly clean. max. Surface grassy. min. From the above it will be seen that the season has had a decided effect on the growth of the majority of those tested. Lots I. and II. 1 No summer wood, 78 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. are of especial interest, as showing what is evidently the influence of the humus layer in counteracting or modifying the effect of variations of season. While no particular year, for instance, is especially marked as promoting or retarding the growth of those where this layer exists (Lot I), the years 93 and 96 are par- ticularly conspicuous by the maximum growth of the majority taking place in the former, and the minimum in the latter year in Lot IL, where the surface is grassy and exposed to sun and wind. In the larch (Lot III.) the year ’96 also exercised considerable influence, with a similar result to that noticed in Lot II., but the maximum chiefly occurs in the damp season of ’94. In the unthinned larca (Lot IVa.) the minimum is found in four trees out of fivein 96, The remaining lots call for no special comment. The most striking fact in connection with these trees, however, is the almost invariable decrease in the production of summer wood in ’96, while the dry summer of 793 rather favoured the formation of this zone than otherwise. In eighteen trees out of twenty larch and Scots pine of twenty years of age, the minimum breadth of this zone occurred in ’96; while in fourteen out of the same number the year ’93 produced the greatest bulk of summer wood. As with the total breadth of the ring, so with the summer wood zone, season had no predominant influence in the case of the ten Scots pine, the roots of which were protected by a humus layer; while with those not so protected the majority attained the maximum breadth in ’93 and the minimum in’96, In the larch (Lot ILI.) the maximum and minimum ring breadihs and summer zones coincide. Coming to the hardwoods—beech and oak—it is apparent that the same climatic influences produce different results in these trees to those noticed in the conifers. In the trees examined of both these species, the (popularly termed) growing season of 1894 is conspicuous by reason of the small amount of wood produced in that year in eight out of the ten oaks in Lot VI. growing on stiff soil, and in three out of the five growing among beech on light soil. The maximum breadth occurred in seven trees in the former lot in 1895, and in that year in the whole of Lot VIJa., while in those standing among beech 793 shows the best result. It must be noted, however, that the oaks in ’93 were visited in spring by a strong attack of the oak-leaf roller moth, and it is very likely that those in question suffered from this attack, and the natural course of growth would be disturbed. ‘This is the more probable NOTES AND QUERIES. 19 when the growth of those standing among beech, which un- doubtedly escaped the attack, is seen to be an exception to the remainder in regard to ring breadth in that year. With the beech somewhat similar results are seen, the minima prevailing in ’94, and the maxima in 795. While the breadth of the summer zone increases with the breadth of the ring in the oak, the wood rings in the beech show little relation between breadth and summer wood zone, and resemble the conifers a good deal in this respect. In those trees (beech) growing with a thick humus layer, 793 appears to have produced the greatest quantity of summer wood ; but in no tree in this lot does it coincide with the maximum ring breadth. In three out of these five the maximum was produced in 93, and the mivimum occurred in Lot VIilTa. in four trees in 96. Although the limited number of trees examined precludes any definite conclusions being arrived at from the above facts, yet they enable us to gain some insight into the effect of different seasons upon the same and different species of tree. In Scots pine and larch the fact is pretty clearly demonstrated that the effect of any one season upon the breadth of the wood-ring and the development of summer wood is greatly determined by the nature and condition of the soil. Comparing the two dry seasons 93 and ’96, it is seen that the former produced the maximum growth in ten out of twenty Scots pines on deep sandy soil, while the minimum occurred in exactly the same number in’96. In the larch on the loam, ’94 gave the majority of maxima in breadth and summer wood, and ’96 the majority of minima. In the larch on sandy soil, ‘93 again comes out favourably, ’96 unfavourably. The great difference in the results of these two seasons can only be accounted for by the fact that soil moisture was sufficient in ’93 (on all but the thin soil in which Lot III. grows) and deficient in 96, owing to the rainfall of the previous winter. With the hardwoods the dry spring of 95 appears most con- ducive to growth, and the damp summer of ’94 least so, probably owing to increased power of assimilation and higher soil tempera- ture in the former, and the reverse of these conditions in the latter year. A. C. Forses, Wood Manager, Bowood, Calne, Wiltshire. , Adj ae ¥-. bY PAP ae Syne hades witha 4 ay ‘yl ee ie \) Se 6 yeni | if bod | it aden more . | ot Ua il eT QL ae Te 4 yoygsl ie Me © cd? papi’ ja? 7 v a i> @4 =» «)) Gag 4 4 uy SE Pe ae TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL = SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. VOL. XV.—PART IL. SECRETARY AND TREASURER, ROBERT GALLOWAY. — OOOO eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeelellElTETeNGeeTeTeeTOOTOTOTO ee eae ees ea EDINBURGH: . PRLN TED. EO ~ THE. SOC a revys SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. MDCCCXCVII. A ee eeeeeeOeOEOSSS ES BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT. THOMAS METHVEN & SONS, NURSERYMEN AND SEEDSMEN @ TO THE QUEEN, 9 NVITE the attention of intending Planters to their large Stock of Seedling and Transplanted Forest and other Trees and Shrubs. They are this season in a healthy and vigorous condition, and well suited for successful transplanting. Evergreen and Deciduous Shrubs. Shrubs for Game Covert, and Underwood. Trees and Shrubs for Sea=Side Planting. Thorn and other Hedge Plants. SPECIMEN ORNAMENTAL TREES for producing immediate effect on LAWNS and AVENUES. RHODODENDRONS—all the Best Varieties. Ms FRUIT TREES of the Best Kinds. P ROSES—all sorts worthy of cultivation. SAM PLAS. Om APE LiCA TIOA- SPECIAL PRICES FOR LARGE QOANTITIES. +o Seed Warehouse: 15 PRINCES STREET. Nurseries: LEITH WALK, WARRISTON, AND FETTES. EDINBURG HEL. i” ADVERTISEMENTS. STANDARD WORKS ON FORESTRY: Priced List Free on Application DOUGLAS & FOULIS ENGLISH AND FOREIGN LIBRARY 9g Castle Street, Edinburgh TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY FOR THE NEWEST BOOKS 4 Vols. | 6 Vols. | 10 Vols. | 15 Vols. | 30 Vols. | 1 Month ee G- Sy2 r2/- | 2af= | 3 Months 15)— alll oe TS] 21/- 30/- | 60/- 6 Months 25/- 32/- 42/- 55/- 110/— | 12 Months 42/-

, FORESTRY EDUCATION. 95 thus involving a serious loss of time. No doubt this is in some cases compensated for by a rapid increase of the volume and value of the shelter-trees, but this does not occur in all cases. In not a few cases, after having waited for a number of years without obtaining a new crop, or only a partial one, artificial regeneration has, after all, to step in and complete the crop, or even do the whole work. There can be no doubt that the successful conduct of natural regeneration under a shelter-wood requires the highest skill of the forester; and if the regeneration of a mixed wood is in question, the process may justly be called an “art,” which only the greatest attention and skill can lead to a successful issue. In the case of hardy species, especially if they are light- demanding from early youth onward, artificial regeneration is generally indicated, and leads to more satisfactory results than natural regeneration. Amongst this class of trees may be mentioned the larch, birch, Scots pine, and even the Weymouth pine, and in many cases also the spruce. Then the soil, and especially the climate of a particular locality, have a decided influence upon the choice of method. Where the quality of the soil and the nature of the climate are unfavourable, a shelter-wood is indicated, so as to prevent a deterioration of the productive factors of the locality, or the springing up of a noxious growth of weeds. Where the climate is favourable, and especially where a too rapid drying up of the soil is not to be feared, as in most parts of this country, artificial regeneration may safely be ‘resorted to. In this respect you will, no doubt, have found a decided difference between North Germany and Scotland. In this country I should not hesitate for a single moment to regenerate larch, Scots-:pine, Weymouth, and even spruce by artificial means. As to the comparative cost, it is generally asserted that sowing or planting requires a certain outlay, which is not necessary under natural regeneration, but it is only too frequently overlooked that under the latter process much time may be lost, and after all “time is money.” Hence it cannot be said off-hand that the one method is cheaper than the other. Do not let me, however, be misunderstood. There are many cases in which I should adopt natural regeneration; all I mean to say is, that there are others, in which artificial regeneration is just as good, and not a few where it is better. From the above remarks we are justified in concluding that there is no reason why just as good timber as that now imported 96 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. from abroad should not be grown in this country, provided improved sylvicultural treatment and a systematic working of the forests are introduced. - Our TimBeR Imports. The next subject, then, before me is to inquire whether there is a sufficiently large field open to us for extended action. An examina- tion of the tables of imports and exports which are issued annually show that the nett imports represent a sum of money by no means to be despised. Taking, for instance, the returns for the years 1890-94, it will be seen that the average annual imports, in- cluding wood-pulp timber, came to 7,600,000 tons, representing a value of £19,000,000, of which sum about four millions went to the colonies and fifteen millions to foreign countries. By going back some years, it will also be seen that the average imports have increased by about £2,000,000 during the last eight years. Here, then, are facts which claim our attention, and we may well ask ourselves, whether, if not the whole, at any rate a con- siderable portion of that timber could not be produced, at paying rates, in this country? A detailed examination of the returns shows that, as far as the climate is concerned, about seventeen millions worth of the timber could be grown at home, leaving about two millions for timber which comes from species which have no chance of thriving in these islands. Of the 17 millions, no less than 14} millions represent coniferous timber, while the other 24 millions are made up by oak and other hardwoods. And what are these conifers? They are—(1) Baltic red pine, or our own Scots pine; (2) Baltic white pine, or the common spruce; (3) American white pine, the bulk of which consists of Weymouth, a tree which, introduced into this country about one hundred years ago, has been proved to be quite at home with us, yielding heavy crops of timber. All this timber could be grown in these islands, and, as far as Scotland is concerned, the conifers would require special attention. But have we the land for the purpose? To produce all the timber mentioned above, we should require at least five million acres. Are they available? A definite answer to this question could only be given after a detailed investigation, taking one county after another. But a general idea may be obtained by looking at the official Agricultural Returns. There we find that there are in FORESTRY EDUCATION. * 97 the three kingdoms—(1) Waste land not used, about 13} million acres; (2) mountains and heath lands used for rough grazing, 124 million acres, making a total of 26 million acres. Of this area about one-half is situated in Scotland. No doubt a fair proportion of the waste lands could be used for afforestation, but it must not be overlooked that the greater part of it is unfit for the purpose. Taking both kinds of land together, I do not hesitate in saying that much more than five million acres are fit for afforestation. At the same time, we must remember that, apart from rough grazing, by far the greater portion of the area is used for shooting, at any rate all that part which is fit for planting, and that shooting rents are high. I am told that they run from 6d. to 2s. 6d. and 3s. an acre. Hence these lands cannot be dealt with wholesale up here in the north. The income derived from shooting, including deer forests, is so con- siderable, that the proprietors are very touchy and suspicious in respect of anything that might affect this important source of income. Still, I am satisfied that, under proper arrangements, ‘a considerable portion of the lands in question could be planted without interfering to an appreciable degree with shooting rents. In the case of deer forests especially, I believe that afforestation of the lower portions of the area would be likely to increase their value in this respect, while gradually an increasing revenue from the planted areas would be secured. But I go a step further, by saying that in all cases where a proprietor is the owner of both land under wood and of waste land fit for planting, he can put a certain portion of the latter under forest without sacrificing a single shilling of his present income, while building up a higher rental in the future. I think it is worth my while explaining this by an example :— Supposing a proprietor has 100 acres of woods, with a regular distribution of age gradations from 1 year up to 100 years old. In the ordinary way he would cut every year | acre of 100 years old wood, which would give him, say, £75 income. Supposing he has now another 100 acres of waste land, which brings him 3s. an acre a year from grazing or shooting, or £15 a year, and he proposed to put it under wood in the course of 25 years; he would have to spend £3 an acre for planting, or £12 a year. Let us also assume he had to sacrifice his grazing and shooting income at once over the whole area, so that he would have to find £27 every year. This he would find by cutting every year about VOL. XV. PART II, M 98 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 14 acre of mature wood; in other words he would, during the 25 years, cut about 9 acres more than the ordinary area. In this way he would gradually press down his rotation from 100 to 91 years. On the other hand, he would have another 100 acres planted with young woods ranging from 1 to 25 yearsold. Then, as the thinnings begin to yield some return, he would gcadually reduce his cuttings of mature wood until he has raised the rota- tion again to 100 years, and from that moment he would enjoy a considerably enhanced income, because he would then cut over 2 acres every year, thus realising £135 a year instead of the previous £75. You will observe that I have based my example upon unfavourable conditions, because the owner need not lose the grazing or shooting rents all at once over the whole 100 acres. In this way a scheme could be worked out for every estate, according to its proper conditions. Dogs 1T Pay To PLANT? But we must not forget to ask the question—Would it pay to plant? Great difficulty is experienced in getting hold of reliable data regarding the receipts and expenses of British wood- lands. I have succeeded in securing these in a few instances, and they, coupled with my personal experience as a practical wood manager, have enabled me to show that, here in the north, land which is capable of producing on an average 1} ton of © coniferous timber per acre annually, can be profitably afforested if it does not yield an annual soil rental of more than 7s. 6d. per acre. The calculation is made with 24 per cent. compound interest throughout, and on the supposition that the thinnings are sold for pit props, and the final crop for construction, both at current rates. I shall, of course, not weary you with further details of this question, but assure you that the calculation has been based on moderate expectations. In this connection I should like to give you a few figures regarding the Saxon forests which I have already mentioned to you. The forests of Schwarzenberg have an area of 46,000 acres, and are situated from 1000 to 2500 feet above sea-level. The annual yield from them is 3,640,000 cubic feet of wood of all kinds. Of this 3,045,000 cubic feet are timber, equivalent to 51 cubic feet English measure, by the quarter girth, per acre over the 46,000 acres of their area, The total receipts are £70,488, FORESTRY EDUCATION, 99 and the expenses are £24,239, leaving a nett revenue of 20s. 1d. per acre. If you calculate out the price, you will find that it is not a high price they received for their timber. The woods are mostly of spruce, the trees having beautiful clean, cylindrical stems, 60 to 75 feet in height; but you will find that they only realise 44d. per cubic foot. In Marienburg the price was a little better—the nett revenue being 27s, per acre. It seems to me that, taking all these matters into consideration, as well as the fact that large and suitable areas are available for planting in Britain, a large sum of money might be kept in this country which is at present sent out of it for the commoner kinds of timber, and that a strong case can be made out for extended action as regards the afforestation of waste lands in the country. Who 1s To ProvipE Forestry EDUCATION 2? Supposing now that we are all at one as to the need of improved forestry education, the first question is—Who is to provide it, whereby a staff of wood managers would gradually be educated, who are well versed in modern economic forest management ? The efforts of this Society and others interested in the matter have, up to date, been only partially successful, and the demand has gone forth of late that the State should do something to further the business. A deputation of this Society had, as you are aware, an interview some time ago with Mr Long, the President of the Board of Agriculture, and the latter promised to see what he could do. This opens a question about which I should like to say a few words. The State as such has, no doubt, duties to perform in respect of forestry, but its action must be limited by what is wanted in the interests and for the welfare of the nation as a whole. The nature and extent of the measures which the State should take in this respect depend chiefly on (1) the special requirements of the country; and (2) the nature of the proprietorship of the forests. Where forests are required for their indirect effects, or where the means of import and of distribution over the country are deficient, the State might be called upon to interfere. But these cases do not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, at any rate, not at present. Generally speaking, these islands do not require forests for climatic or similar reasons, and, owing to their rich- 100 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. ness. of coal, their sea-bound condition and extensive railway system, all parts of the country can be easily supplied from abroad. In this respect, then, State action could hardly ; be justified, especially in a country like this, where free trade and private enterprise are the very foundations of national life. Referring now to the second point, I must mention that, apart from about 100,000 acres of Crown forest lands, situated almost entirely in the southern half of England, there are no State forests. On the other hand, we have about 2,700,000 acres of private forests, and almost the whole of the 26,000,000 acres of land of which I spoke a few minutes ago belong to private parties and not to the State. Hence it is to the proprietors that we must look for assistance in the first place, though the State should give a helping hand. In this respect the action of Continental countries has some- times been misunderstood. We have often seen it stated that France has two forest schools, and Germany some ten; but then the former country possesses upwards of 2,000,000 acres of State forests, and upwards of 4,000,000 acres of forests belonging to communes, which are, by law, under the management of Govern- ment forest officers. Germany has some 11,000,000 acres of State forests, and about 6,000,000 acres of communal forests, managed by State forest officers. These forests represent a capital value of several hundred million pounds, and the revenue derived from them forms an important item in the State budget. It is, therefore, but natural that in these countries the Government should take care to give their forest employés the highest possible — training in their profession, it having been recognised for a long time past that a high-class training of the forest managers means a high return from the forests, The Government of India, as you are aware, has for the last thirty years acted on the same principle, thanks to the enlightened views pressed upon that Government by Sir D. Brandis. That Government is the proprietor of more than 100,000,000 acres of State forests; and it has established two forest schools, one at Coopers Hill for the training cf the European part of the staff, and another at Dehra Dun, chiefly for the training of natives of India. And yet instances are not wanting where private enterprise has done as well, and I cannot do better than refer you to the measures taken by the private forest proprietors of Bohemia and FORESTRY EDUCATION. 101 Moravia in Austria, who established the following forest schools :— (1) Weissmasser, in 1855, by the Bohemian Forestry Society, and taken over in 1862 by an Association of Landed Proprietors. Graf Waldstein, Wartenberg, attached an area of 3000 acres of forest to the School for the practical instruc- tion of the students. (2) Eulenburg, in 1852, by the Moravian-Silesian Forestry Society. (3) Lemberg, a similar institution, existing since 1874. All three train forest managers for private woodlands. (1) and (2) are entirely self-supporting; (3) has an annual grant from the State. The above facts indicate that, as far as this country is con- cerned, we can expect only limited assistance from the State. Considering the large imports of timber, and a certain amount of uncertainty regarding future supplies, the State’s action might reasonably be expected in the following four directions :— (1) Assistance in the equipment of forest schools and training grounds, (2) Management of, at any rate, a number of Crown forests on systematic economic principles. (3) Advances at moderate interest (24 per cent.) to landed proprietors who are desirous of planting. (4) In some cases—for instance, where additional work is wanted in congested districts—surplus areas might be acquired and put under forest. At the same time, we cannot close our eyes to the fact that, as the proprietors of forests are the people most interested in the systematic management of their woodlands, it rests, in the first place, with them to afford the means for a proper education of their agents, if they really want it, though, of course, the State will do well to help. Assuming this to be the case, why should we not be able to do as much as has been done, for instance, in Bohemia and Moravia? I do not expect any landed proprietor in this country to make a present of a large tract of forest land, nor is this necessary ; but would it be too much to expect that the proprietors 102 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. should, between them, provide the means towards the cost of forestry education in this country? Supposing, for the sake of argument, they determined to take up the matter in real earnest, and to contribute one penny per acre of actual woodland annually, say for the next ten years, we should have for Scotland alone a sum of £3600 a year, as there are some 900,000 acres of woods. And if only one-half of the proprietors joined such an association, it would still have about £1800 annually at its disposal, a sum quite sufficient to pay for the desired forestry education, apart from any help which the State may be willing to afford. Or if they only gave jd. per acre, it would still be £900 a year. Iam sure there is nothing so very startling in these proposals, which, after all, ran on the same lines as those adopted in many other cases in this country. At any rate, they are thoroughly in accord- ance with the foundations of national life in Britain. How 1s Forestry EpUcATION TO BE ARRANGED ? Assuming, then, that the necessary funds for a proper start became available, the next question would be—How the course of education should be arranged? Perhaps the best way of explain- ing my views on this point will be to tell you shortly what we have done and are now doing at Coopers Hill College, and then to indicate my views as to what course should, in my opinion, be followed to suit the requirements of this country. More than thirty years ago, when Sir D. Brandis arranged for the education of candidates for the Indian Forest Department, he informed the home authorities that, as there were no forests in Britain managed on systematic economic principles, the training must be done on the Continent. He arranged, accordingly, that one-half of the candidates should be sent to France, and the other half to Germany. At the same time he suggested that some of the English Crown forests should be taken under systematic management, so that they might, in course of time, become avail- able as training grounds for British forest students. Of the latter suggestion no notice was taken. In the year 1883, when the Secretary of State for India had decided to start forestry education at Coopers Hill College, I induced the Government of India, in my capacity as Inspector- General of Forests to that Government, to point out to the home authorities that, if forestry education in Britain were to become FORESTRY EDUCATION. 103 a living thing, the first step to be taken should be to place the principal Crown forests under systematic economic management. In making this proposal, both Sir D. Brandis and myself had in our minds’ eye the idea that such a step would be beneficial, not only for the candidates of the Indian Forest Department, but also for students who wished to devote themselves to the management of forests in this country and in the colonies. However, for the second time, no notice was taken of the pro- posal, and a start was ordered to be made at Coopers Hill without proper training grounds in this country. When I was subsequently deputed to organise the forestry branch at Coopers Hill College, I had no choice but to propose that our students should go to the Continent for the principal part of their practical training. Gradually the arrangements were perfected, and they are now as follows :— ARRANGEMENTS AT Coopers HILL. 1, The students join the College in September, and remain under tuition for three years, divided into nine terms. 2. During the first seven terms they study at the College, being instructed in the auxiliary sciences, including Botany, and in the theory of forestry. During this time they visit all in teresting forests in the vicinity of the College, one day a week being set aside for this purpose, and at the close of the first vear they are taken for a fortnight to Brittany, principally to study the treatment of beech and oak woods, partly pure, but chiefly mixed with each other. In this way we enable the students to follow and understand the study of the theory of forestry. At the end of seven terms, the students are sent to Germany and placed, in batches of two, with specially selected Prussian forest officers, under whom they work for five months, so as to see and learn to understand all the operations carried on in a well-arranged and well-managed forest district. Then they are all brought together, and under the guidance, until lately of Sir D. Brandis, and now of myself, they visit a selected number of specially interesting forest districts in South Germany. After that they are con-— sidered fit to be sent to India, and to enter the forest service of that country. In arranging this course of study, we were guided by the following considerations:—(1) Theoretical and practical training 104 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. in forestry must go hand in hand; (2) the student must become thoroughly acquainted with the work in a systematically managed forest district; (3) the student must study varying conditions, over and above those found in any one district, so as to acquire a sufficiently ripe judgment, which will enable him to decide on the correct measures to be taken in any conditions which he may meet with subsequently in his work. Before applying what I have said to the case of Scotland, I must clear the ground a little more. The demand for better forestry education has gone forth, but I have nowhere seen it clearly stated what is really wanted. There are a large number of foresters in Scotland who look after the woods on estates of varying extent. Some proprietors have only a few hundred acres, or even less, while others own areas up to many thousands of acres. The former employ a forester or woodman, whom they pay hardly more than any untrained industrious labourer can earn; and even in the case of the latter the emoluments of their wood managers reach only a very moderate figure. Now, every labourer is worthy of his hire, and before a young man makes up his mind to devote several years of his life, and a not inconsiderable amount of cash, in acquiring a thorough knowledge of a profession, he must see his way towards obtaining afterwards a position and emoluments which make it worth his while to proceed. No man in his senses would go through a systematic course of study if all he could look forward to at the end of it were a salary of say £70 a year. But then a proprietor will say—How can I afford to give more, if I have only a small area of woods to be looked after? The fact is that we require two distinct classes of foresters, the ordinary working forester, and the wood manager, or forest expert if you like the term better. The former would be in charge of the ordinary current works, while the latter lays down the method of treatment, and supervises the execution of the work. Every proprietor would have one or a number of working foresters, according to the size of his woods, and a wood manager or a share of one. If his estate is of sufficient extent he will engage his own wood manager, and if he owns only a small area, he will secure the occasional services of one. There are endless examples where a land agent manages a number of estates, and there is no reason, as far as I can see, why the same should not be the case as regards wood managers. In that case they would FORESTRY EDUCATION. 105 secure an income commensurate with the sacrifices which they have made in educating themselves. The working forester would be a practically trained man, who _ need not necessarily, at any rate not at present, visit a forest school, unless he desires to work himself up to the position of a wood manager. The future employés of the latter class require superior training. Unless you keep this distinction clearly in yiew, all your attempts are likely to lead to disappointment, On looking over what has been done up to date, I find that there are three distinct means of acquiring a theoretical knowledge of forestry—(1) The training of working foresters at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh ; (2) the lectures given in connection with the Department of Agriculture of the University of Edin- burgh ; and (3) those given in the Edinburgh School of Rural Economy. Over and above, I see it stated that it is intended to start forestry instruction at various other places. - Although I have considerable hesitation in expressing an opinion, owing to my incomplete knowledge of the local con- ditions, still, as an outsider, I cannot help thinking that energy and money are likely to be wasted by running on too many lines all at once. For some time to come your chief energies should, in my humble opinion, be directed to the education of the future wood managers, while the working foresters will, for the present at any rate, do well to seek their training in well-managed forests. In my opinion, you would do better if you, at the start, were to concentrate operations, so as to make one definite scheme a reality, and that scheme should be to perfect the education of your future wood managers, or under whatever title they appear upon the scene. In other words, I should advocate one centre of instruc- tion, consisting of (1) theoretical instruction in connection with a university or agricultural college, where instruction in the auxiliary sciences is already provided ; (2) woodlands where the practical instruction can be imparted, because in forestry theory and practice must go hand in hand. As regards the first point, theoretical instruction,—a_ beginn- ing has been made in this very city, where my friend Colonel Bailey is delivering lectures on forestry. The arrangement needs only further development, and to be put on a proper footing, so as to bring the subject of forestry, as regards its importance, on a par with other branches of learning. The difficulties are much greater in coming 1o the practical 106 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. training, viz., the provision of forest districts in which the practical part of the instruction can be conducted. To meet this difficulty, some members of this Society have proposed to start a model forest under the auspices of a joint-stock company. Now this is a novel idea, which at first sight may recommend itself to some people, but for myself, I confess I do not think much of it, for several reasons. For one thing, the buying of a tract of land and planting it up would be equivalent to postpon- ing progress for about another generation, during which time not much more could be learned in it, except what can be seen in hundreds of the forest estates existing in this country. For I need hardly point out to you that, as far as planting opera- tions are concerned, our Scottish foresters may proudly enter the arena, never minding whom they meet therein. Indeed, in this respect, Continental foresters may learn a good deal by coming to Scotland. For immediate use we require something more, and that is a considerable area of actually existing forests, which can at once be placed under systematic management and regular sustained working. There is no necessity that these should at once be put into apple-pie order, All that is wanted is that a plan of operations, or a so-called working plan, should be drawn up for each, under which the forest (while safeguarding the interests of the proprietor) is gradually, and in the course of a number of years, led over into a model forest. There would be an annual return at once, which would gradually increase to the highest possible yield which could reasonably be expected from the area. Operations like those involved in such a conversion would be the very thing for the instruction of students, and this all the more, as they would, when entering upon independent activity, in all probability have to introduce and conduct similar opera- tions. Any forest area which is fairly stocked would therefore do for our purpose, provided it offers a sufficient variety of conditions. For the latter reason it would be best to have several forests, situated in different parts of the country. Nowadays all parts are easily accessible, so that those estates could be conveniently reached, but it would be a distinct advantage if one of them was sufficiently close to the place where the theoretical instruction is given, so that it can be visited by the students in the course of a day, while at the others the students would pass through a regular apprenticeship. FORESTRY EDUCATION. 107 WHERE ARE THESE Forest Estates To BE Founp? As continuity of action, extending over a long period of time, is required, nothing would be more proper than that the State should take up the matter ; Crown forests should be used for the purpose. There are something like 100,000 acres of forests under the manage- ment of Her Majesty’s Commissioners of Woods and Forests, who act under the control of the Lords of the Treasury. -These forests are the property of the Crown, and they are leased to the State during Her Majesty’s life. Whatever arrangements may be made hereafter, they represent areas in which the temporary wishes or necessities of the owner are not likely to interfere with the management, and they are therefore eminently fitted for continued systematic management. Unfortunately, none of these forests are situated in Scotland, but if we look at Great Britain as a whole, I think a renewed effort should be made to bring the principal Crown forests, in so far as they do not serve as Royal shooting grounds, under systematic economic management. I am inclined to think that the Commissioners of Woods and Forests would not be unwilling to consider any proposals in this respect, if it is made clear to them that systematic economic management does not mean cutting the woods down, but, on the contrary, leading them over into a condition in which they will give an increased yield and revenue. There being no State forests in Scotland, I think the Govern- ment would not go out of its way if it were to buy an estate, a considerable proportion of which is already under wood, and to affiliate it with the Forestry School at the University of Edin- burgh, with a duly qualified wood manager in residence on the spot. This wood manager, under the advice of the Lecturer on Forestry and a duly constituted committee of control, would have to draw up a working plan of the area, giving full details of the objects to be aimed at, and the manner in which they will be utilised. This area could at once be utilised for the practical illustration of many of the theories set forth in the lecture-room, and it would also afford opportunity for the training of working foresters. Proposals for the establishment of such a training ground are, I understand, now before the President of the Board of Agriculture, and I trust he will see his way towards providing the means for its utilisation. But can we not achieve something more? Could we not 108 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. persuade a few, or even one, of the great landed proprietors of this country to make the experiment of placing their forests under systematic economic management? Let me assure them they need not fear for the esthetic beauty of the estates. True forestry is not barbarous; on the contrary, the proprietors would soon find that their estates would be just as beautiful as before, besides improving in yield capacity and additional cash in their pockets. Nor need forestry interfere with the income from shooting, at least not more than what would be fully covered by additional receipts derived from the sale of forest produce. Of course,we must not forget that this is a century which marches ahead at a quick pace, while forestry is an industry which pro- ceeds but slowly. Haste has no place in forestry. Still, there is no reason whatever to doubt, as I have already shown, that an estate can be subjected to systematic forest management without curtailing the revenue hitherto derived from it, while giving promise of a considerabiy higher revenue in the future. At the outset, occasional visits to suitable Continental districts would probably be necessary, but they may be reduced in the same degree as the systematic management of the home estates improves, until they would become unnecessary. The sooner the latter stage is arrived at the better, because, apart from political considerations, these visits are a source of great inconvenience and expense. And now, gentlemen, I fear I have kept you long enough. The subject of forestry education is one in which I take a great interest, and I only trust that the realisation of your aims in this respect may be accomplished at an early date. National and private interests of considerable magnitude are involved in their realisation, which I hope will not be put back for another generation, FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA, 109 IX. Forestry in Scotland in the Reign of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria. By Matcotm Dunn, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith. In taking a survey of the progress of forestry in Scotland during the sixty years which have passed of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, it cannot but be evident to every close observer that a very substantial advance has been made within the period. Not only have numerous new species and varieties of trees and shrubs been introduced, many of which are of the greatest value to the arborist, and many improved methods and appliances adopted in the management and working of our wood- lands; but a much deeper interest has been taken by the public in forestry questions during the past twenty years, and especially in the improvement of the education and training of foresters, with the view to a greater and more profitable development of our forests. Considering the condition of Forestry in this country in the first quarter of the present century, it may be safely asserted that it has made much greater progress within the period of Her Majesty’s reign than either of the sister arts— Agriculture and Horticulture, much as they have undoubtedly advanced during the same period. It may also be noted that Forestry, as it is known and practised in Britain at the present time, is almost entirely a creation of the Victorian era. It is true that the trees chiefly employed in the formation of plantations when Her Majesty ascended the throne sixty years ago were of the same species as those now in vogue, and which will probably remain popular with planters for ages to come, not- withstanding many fine newer introductions. Plantations formed in Scotland in the early part of this century, before the Queen began to reign, were as a rule wholly composed of three species of the Conifere—Larch, Zaria europea; Scots Fir, Pinus sylvestris; and Norway Spruce, Picea excelsa; and five species of broad-leaved trees—Ash, Prawxinus excelsior; Beech, Fagus sylvatica ; Scots Elm, Ulmus montana; Oak, Quercus Robur ; and Plane or Sycamore, Acer Psewdo-platanus. All other species of trees cultivated in Britain at that period were seldom planted as forest trees, but were almost entirely confined to the embellish- ment of parks, pleasure-grounds, and gardens, where their value as decorative objects in the landscape was the first consideration, 110 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. British AND Earty Intropucep Exotic TREEs. The primeval forests of Britain are believed to have been mainly composed of Oak, Quercus Robur, and Scots Fir, Pinus sylvestris; the former predominating on the rich lands of the low country, and the latter on the poorer soils of the moors and exposed uplands. The remains of both are found in abundance, and often in a wonderful state of preservation, after the lapse of many ages, at the bottom of peat-bogs, which have grown up over them to a depth of many feet in the course of centuries. About a dozen other species of large trees, 30 or more feet in height, and with a stem of a foot or more in diameter at 5 feet up,—including Alder, Alnus glutinosa; Ash, Yraxinus excelsior; Beech, Fagus sylvatica; Birch, Betula alba; English Elm, Ulmus campestris ; Scots Elm, Ulmus montana; Hornbeam, Carpinus Betulus; Lime, Tilia ewropea; Poplar, Populus alba and others; Spanish Chestnut, Castanea vesca; Sycamore, Acer Pseudo-platanus ; Willow, Salix alba and others,—are considered to be indigenous, or have been introduced at such an early period that all record is lost of the date, and they are now as much naturalised in Britain ag any native tree. Of smaller British trees, indigenous or naturalised in far back ages, there is a greater number, and some of them produce timber of considerable value, beside being among the most useful and effective of ornamental and fruit-bearing trees. In this section are the Apple or Crab, Pyrus Malus; Aspen, Populus tremula ; Bird Cherry, Cerasus Padus; Box, Buus sempervirens; Buck- thorn, Rhamnus catharticus; Bullace, Prunus msititia; Elder, Sambucus nigra; Gean, Cerasus Avium; Goat Willow, Salix caprea; Guelder Rose, Viburnum Opulus; Hazel, Corylus Avellana; Hawthorn, Crataegus Oxycantha; Holly, Ilex Aqui- folium; Maple, Acer campestre; Medlar, Mespilus germanica; Pear, Pyrus communis; Plum, Prunus communis; Rowan, Pyrus aucuparia ; Sea-Buckthorn, Hippophe Rhamnoides ; Service-tree, Pyrus Sorbus; Sloe, Prunus spinosa; Spindle-tree, Huonymus europeus ; Strawberry-tree, Arbutus Unedo; White Beam, Pyrus Aria; Wild Service, Pyrus torminalis ; and Yew, Taxus baccata. Among the more notable indigenous or naturalised shrubs, the following may be mentioned :—Barberry, Berberis vulgaris ; Black Currant, Aibes nigrum; Bladdernut, Staphylea pinnata ; Bog Myrtle, Myrica gale; Broom, Cytisus Scoparius; Butchers’ FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 111 Broom, Ruscus aculeatus; Dogwood, Cornus sanguinea; Goose- berry, fibes' Grossularia; Heath, Hrica cinerea and others; Juniper, Juniperus communis; Mezereon, Daphne Mezereum ; Mistletoe, Viscwm album; Osier, Salix viminalis; Privet, Ligustrum vulgare; Raspberry, Rubus Ideus; Red Currant, Ribes rubrum ; Rose, Rosa canina and others ; Tamarisk, Tamarix Anglica; Spurge Laurel, Daphne Lawreola; Wayfaring-tree, Viburnum Lantana; and the Whin, Ulex europea. The chief of the ligneous climbers and trailers that are natives of Britain are the Bramble, Rubus fruticosus; Brier, Rosa arvensis and others; Honeysuckle, Lonicera Periclymenum; Ivy, Hedera Helix ; and Traveller's Joy, Clematis vitalba. These lists comprise all the ligneous British plants that are of any economic value, or which are of service to the forester, and previous to the fifteenth century they probably were the sole occupants of their kind—trees and shrubs—of our forests and woodlands. With the advent of the sixteenth century a taste for tree- planting appears to have sprung up. In the reigns of James V. and Mary Queen of Scots, 1513-1567, we find royalty and the nobility beginning to display an interest in arboriculture, by planting the domains around their castles and mansions with the best of the trees and shrubs at their command. Trees are still extant, and in vigorous health, which are historically, or tradition- ally, closely connected with these Scottish sovereigns, and around old Scottish family seats are seen many venerable trees that were undoubtedly planted in those early days by the arborists of the period. The resources of the native trees and shrubs, as given in the above lists, would appear soon to have failed to satisfy the tastes or wants of our arboricultural ancestors, and then exotics began to be introduced from European countries and other acces- sible parts of the world. From about the middle of the six- teenth century we possess tolerably authentic records of the introduction of the hosts of exotic trees and shrubs that so beautifully adorn our gardens and pleasure-grounds, and form a large and important part of our planted woodlands. The earliest of these, Turner’s Herbal appeared in 1548, and in it is recorded that on or before that date the Norway Spruce, Abies excelsa ; Stone Pine, Pinus pinea; Cypress, Cupressus sempervirens ; Oriental Plane, Platanus orientalis; Savin, Juniperus Sabina ; Sweet Bay, Lawrus nobilis; and Spanish Broom, Spartiwm junceum, were among the plants introduced from Europe. The 112 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Walnut tree, Juglans regia, was introduced about 1562; the Holm, or Evergreen Oak, in 1581; and before the end of the century the following trees and shrubs had been added to the introductions, as recorded in Gerard’s Herbal,—Silver Fir, Abies pectinata; Maritime or Cluster Pine, Pinus Pinaster ; Arborvite, Thuja occidentalis; Laburnum, Laburnum vulgare ; Laurestine, Viburnum Tinus; Lilac, Syringa vulgaris; Mock Orange, Philadelphus coronarius; Judas Tree, Cereis Siliquastrum ; Phillyrea, Phil/yrea latefolia; and about sixty other ligneous plants of lesser growth. Some of the most interesting to the arborist of the trees and shrubs introduced in the seventeenth century need only be here noted, the first and perhaps the most important being the European Larch, Larix ewropea, which, according to Parkinson, in his Parnasus, was introduced before 1629, but by whom is not recorded. The same authority also records that about that time the Horse Chestnut, Wsculus Hippocastanum; Hickory, Carya alba; Black Walnut, Juglans nigra; Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana ; Common or Oherry Laurel, Cerasus Laurocerasus; Alaternus, Rhamnus Alaternus ; Pyracantha, Crategus Pyracantha ; Ameri- can Bird Cherry, Cerasus serotina; and Virginian Creeper, Ampel- opsis hederacea, were introduced; and by the middle of the century the Occidental Plane, Platanus occidentalis ; Deciduous Cypress, Taxodium distichum; False Acacia, Robinia Pseudo-Acacia ; Portugal Laurel, Cerasus lusitanica; and Poison Oak, Rhus Toxicodendron, had appeared in Britain. The last half of the century saw the introduction of about eighty species of ligneous plants, many of them being obtained from the eastern States of North America, then British colonies, and long a fertile source of new trees and shrubs. A few of those most useful to the arborist are the Scarlet Maple, Acer rubrum; American Nettle Tree, Celtis occidentalis ; and Butternut or White Walnut, Juglans cinerea, in 1656; the Tulip Tree, Liriodendron tulipiferum, in 1663; Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana, in 1664; the Con- stantinople Nut, Corylus Colurna, in 1665; Cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus Libani, in 1676; the Aleppo Pine, Pinus halepensis, Pheenician Juniper, Juniperus phenicea, Scarlet Thorn, Crategus coccinea, Dwarf Aimond, Amygdalus nana, in 1683; Magnolia glauca, M. longifolia, and Aralia spinosa, in 1688 ; Scarlet Oak, Quercus coccinea, and Cockspur Thorn, Crategus crus-galli, in 1691; Balsam Poplar, or Tacamahac of North America, Populus FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 113 balsamifera, and Babylonian Willow, Salix babylonica, in 1692 ; Cork Oak, Quercus Suber, Dwarf Chestnut, Castanea pumila, and Candleberry Myrtle, Myrica cerifera, in 1699; and the Honey Locust, Gleditschia triacanthos, White Spruce, Picea alba, and Black Spruce, P. nigra, in 1700. The eighteenth century saw about five hundred species of ligneous plants introduced to Britain, of which North America contributed about three-fifths, Europe one-fifth, Asia about eighty, including half-a-dozen species from Japan, a country which in later times has been so fertile in fine trees and shrubs, Africa about a dozen, and South America three species. Of that large number of trees and shrubs, only a few of the most useful call for mention, beginning with the Weymouth Pine, introduced by Peter Collinson from North America in 1705. The White Ash, Fraxinus americana, in 1723; Catalpa syringefolia, 1726; Azalea nudiflora, A. viscosa, and others, Rhododendron maximum, Andromeda racemosa, Kalmia latifolia, and Magnolia grandiflora, all from North America, in 1734; Turkey Oak, Quercus Cerris, Sugar Maple, Acer saccharinum, 1735; Hemlock Spruce, Abies (7'suga) canadensis, White Cedar, Cupressus thyoides, and the American Larch, Lari microcarpa, in 1736; Red or Champion Oak, Quercus rubra, Black Jack Oak, Q. nigra, and Live Oak, Q. virens, in 1739; Pinus Cembra in 1740; Kentucky Coffee Tree, Gymno- cladus canadensis, in 1748; Arclanthus glandulosa, 1751; American Lime or Basswood, 7Z%lia americana, Biota orientalis, and Juniperus thurifera, in 1752; Maidenhair Tree, Genkgo biloba, 1754; the Striped-bark Maple, Acer pennsylvanicum, and other Maples, 1756; Lombardy Poplar, Populus fastigiata, 1758; Corsican Pine, Pinus Laricio, 1759; Rhododendron ponticum, 1763; Red Beech, Fagus ferruginea, 1766; Cottonwood of America, Populus canadensis, 1769; Black Italian Poplar, Populus monilifera, 1772; Pyrus spectabilis, 1780; Aucuba japonica femina, 1784; Pinus montana, 1789; Pinus Pallasiana, 1790; and the Chilian Pine, Araucaria imbricata, and Thuja plicata, 1796. The last two fitly close the list of the best of the ligneous introductions of the eighteenth century. A new era was commencing, in which the farthest corners of the world would be ultimately ransacked by intrepid travellers and explorers in search of useful trees and shrubs. With a few important exceptions, the trees which had been introduced hitherto had not proved valuable to the planters of timber- VOL, XV. PART II. N 114 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. producing forests, however useful many of them were to the ornamental planter and the landscape gardener. Towards the end of the century, travellers and collectors of plants began to push their way into most of the accessible parts of the world, and to freely ransack them of their treasures in the way of trees and shrubs that promised to thrive in the British climate. Among those fearless and enterprising travellers, Scots- men hold a prominent place, as the introducers to the British Isles of many of the finest of hardy exotic trees and shrubs. Without going farther back than the period we are now dealing with, a few of those intrepid countrymen of ours may be mentioned. Archibald Menzies, a native of Perthshire, was born in 1754, at Weem, in Strathtay, and accompanied, as naturalist, the famous Captain Vancouver on his voyage round the world in the years 1790-96, bringing home with him, in the latter year, Araucaria imbricata from Chili, and Thuja plicata from British Columbia. John Fraser, a native of Inverness, who travelled widely over the Eastern United States and the West Indies in search of new and useful plants, and, between 1784 and 1811, introduced many trees and shrubs from those regions to this country, including Abies Frasert in 1811, which was named after him. John Lyon, a native of Forfarshire, also travelled much in the Eastern States of America between 1802 and 1812, and collected many new and rare species of trees and shrubs, which he introduced to Britain chiefly through Loddiges & Sons, then eminent nurserymen at Hackney, London. And last of the noted band, but most inde- fatigable of all the pre-Victorian travellers and plant-collectors, David Douglas, who was born at Scone, near Perth, in 1799, and travelled in various parts of America for the Royal Horticultural Society of London from 1823 to 1833. He sent home to Britain within that period more hardy trees, suitable for forest culture for commercial purposes, than all the plant-collectors who had gone before him, or any one that has come after him. Beside the now popular Douglas Fir, Abies Douglasii, which was one of his first introductions from the north-west coast of America, and most worthily commemorates his name, he introduced upwards of fifty hardy trees and shrubs, many of which have proved to be of special value in forestry, and all are exceedingly useful in gardens and pleasure-grounds. Amongst Douglas’s introductions were such fine stately trees as Abies amabilis, A. Douglasii, A. grandis, A, Menziesti, and A. nobilis; Pinus insignis, P. Lambertiana, FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 115 P. macrocarpa, P. monticola, P. ponderosa, and P. Sabiniana ; Acer circinatum and A, macrophyllum. Of the smaller trees and shrubs, mention may be made of the Mahonia, Berberis Aqui- Solium, Garrya elliptica, Gaultheria Shallon, Arbutus procera, Amelanchier florida, Ribes aureum, R. niveum, R. sanguineum, Caprifolium Douglasii, Clematis Douglasii, Spirea ariefolia, and many others more or less noteworthy and useful to the orna- mental planter. Through ‘these and other channels, about eight hundred species of exotic trees and shrubs were introduced to Britain in the early years of the present century, before the Queen’s reiga began in 1837, all of which were supposed to be sufficiently hardy to grow in the open air in some part of the British Isles. A few only of the most notable trees may be mentioned beside the introductions from America by Douglas, Fraser, and Lyon already referred to. The Himalayan Spruce, Abies Morinda, was introduced from India in 1818, by Dr Govan of Cupar, Fife ; and the first plants of it were raised from seed at Hopetoun, by Mr James Smith, gardener to the Earl of Hopetoun, after whom it was called Abies Smithiana, by Dr Wallich, who himself introduced from the same regions, between 1822 and 1829, the beautiful Silver Fir, Abies Webbiana, Cupressus torolosa, Juniperus recurva, Pinus excelsa, and P. Gerardiana, all very beautiful conifers, requiring a warm and sheltered position, however, to thrive well in Britain. The Indian Cedar, Cedrus Deodara, was introduced by the Hon. W. Leslie Melville in 1831 ; the Pyrenean Pine, Pinus pyrenaica, by Captain Widdrington, in 1834; the Austrian Pine, Pinus austriaca, by Lawson & Son, Edinburgh, in 1835; and the Indian Silver Fir, Abies Pindrow, by Dr Royle, early in 1837. Forest-Tree NURSERIES. Early in the eighteenth century, public nurseries for the rearing of young forest trees to meet the increasing demands of planters, and for the propagation and distribution of the newly introduced trees and shrubs, began to be established in Scotland. The first nursery formed in Scotland was started in the year 1729, by Robert Dickson, at Hassendeanburn, near Hawick, Roxburgh- shire. This enterprising gentleman was the common progenitor of the numerous race of Dickson who have established nurseries in various parts of the United Kingdom, until the name has 116 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. become, in the forest-tree nursery trade, as familiar to foresters and others as a household word. At the beginning of the Queen’s reign, those public nurseries for the rearing and sale of trees and shrubs had been established by a Dickson, or some other enter- prising sept, in every important business centre in Scotland. At Edinburgh they were numerous, and are so to this day, and they were also to be found at Aberdeen, Perth, Dundee, Inverness, Forres, Glasgow, Stirling, Kilmarnock, Ayr, Dumfries, Kelso, and many other places, which shows that the demand for young forest trees had arrived at considerable commercial importance at that period. Earty LITERATURE OF FORESTRY. It may be safely said that until the advent of the Victorian era the literature of British forestry was of a meagre character ; but such of it as was of any value in practical forestry was mainly the work of Scottish authors. Evelyn’s Sylva appeared in 1664, and it is still a popular book with ardent lovers of trees. The Earl of Haddington, in 1760, published a small Zreatise on Forest Trees, but it was of little use for practical purposes, and is chiefly valued for its rarity, and as the production of a famous planter of trees, A useful book, and one that was much valued in its day, was a Treatise on Forest Trees, by William Boutcher, a nurseryman at Comely Bank, near Edinburgh, published in 1772. Another useful treatise, The Practical Planter, by Walter Nicol, appeared in 1779, and a revised edition of it, by Mr Sang of Kirkcaldy, in 1812. Monteith’s Forester’s Guide followed in 1819, and Sir Henry Steuart’s Planter’s Guide in 1829, may be said to com- plete the list of useful books on practical forestry prior to the commencement of the present reign in 1837. Forestry APpPpLIANCES—TooLs AND IMPLEMENTS. The appliances at the command of the Scottisl forester in pre- Victorian times, for the execution of his work, were almost confined to the axe, saw, pick, and spade, and the various forms of those use- ful cutting and digging tools in vogue at the time for particular purposes, The means of transport were limited to the drag-chain, and the timber cart or waggon drawn by horses or bullocks. The friendly aid of the spring floods in the nearest river was invoked to float the timber to a seaport, often many miles distant. No lines of railway, light or heavy, steam cable, or electric; no traction FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 117 engines and portable saw-mills; no penny post, no telegraph, and no telephone; few books, and no forestry periodicals; no Arboricultural Society, nor meetings to discuss questions of interest to foresters; in short, few or none of the improved methods and appliances were then available which we are now in the habit of considering as absolutely indispensable for the efficient performance of the duties of a forester. He might plant woods and grow the timber to the highest perfection, but for want of an easy access to a market where forest produce was in demand, the trees would scarcely pay him for cutting them down. If at any time a greater quantity was cut than met the local demand, it was a serious undertaking for the forester to seek for and find a good market for the surplus, Letters travelled slowly, and postage was high, and the cost of travelling from one part of the country to another by stage-coach, or perhaps, in outlying districts, by a lumbering carrier’s cart, was almost prohibitory when added to the loss of time, and unless the forests were so extensive as to induce moneyed men to embark in the timber trade, and lay con- venient to good water communication, their owners reaped a poor return from the sale of the produce. From a variety of circum- stances, these primitive methods were on the wane when Her Majesty began to reign, and at the end of sixty years, in 1897, they have been generally supplanted by vastly improved methods and facilities. THE VICTORIAN ERA. At the ascension of Queen Victoria to the throne of these realms, in the year 1837, a general upheaval was taking place among the arts and sciences. Old things were passing away, or fast becoming reorganised under the teachings of science and the beneficial influences of the spirit of inquiry and improve- ment that were abroad, and before half the period had passed during which Her Majesty has reigned, the old order had practi- cally disappeared, and the new ruled in its stead. The general use of steam power, and the consequent development of railways and steamboats, which were in their initiatory stages in 1837, was undoubtedly one of the most potent of all the influences which tended to the rapid advancement of all branches of rural, as well as of urban industries. In 1837, Wheatstone and Faraday were busy at the invention of the electric telegraph, which has assumed such a wonderful development in the course of the Queen’s reign, 118 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. almost annihilating time and space. It and its junior electric invention, the telephone, have quite revolutionised the rapid transaction of business and the development of trade throughout the civilised world. Another, and not the least important factor in the wonderful progress of the industries of the country in the past sixty years, was the invention of the penny post by Sir Rowland Hill, and its inauguration in 1840, when letters under half an ounce in weight were carried at a uniform rate of one penny. The weight of the letters was increased to one ounce in 1871, and, in commemoration of the Diamond Jubilee of the Queen in the month of June last, the weight was further increased to four ounces for one penny—an immense boon to the public. The beneficial results of the development of these and other important inventions in the course of Her Majesty’s long reign are seen on every side and felt in every line of life, and have proved a great stimulus to the progress of forestry in this country. PLANTING OF FORESTS. The formation of extensive woods, or forests, was carried on in Scotland with great enterprise and public spirit by landowners in the last half of the eighteenth and the early part of the present century, so that when the Queen ascended the throne in 1837, many large tracts of land that were bare, treeless wastes, in the previous century, were well clothed with thriving plantations. During the same period, and especially towards the end of the last century, when the extensive natural pine forests in Strathspey were cut over, much of the natural woodlands were entirely cleared of their crop of timber, and some of the Jand then cleared remains still an unafforested waste. Most of it, however, has been restocked with timber, either by natural or artificial seeding, or by planting. Among the most noted of the earlier planters of forests in Scotland were the Dukes of Athole in Perthshire, who, in the forty years immediately preceding Her Majesty’s reign, planted of Larch alone about 9000 acres, as well as some thousands of acres of Scots Pine and Norway Spruce, the two latter being also extensively planted in the Moray and Strathspey districts by the Duke of Gordon and the Earl of Seafield. After a lull of a short period at the commencement of the present reign, those extensive planting operations have been carried on all through it with more or less continuity; and judging from the extent and generally flourishing condition of \ FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 119 our forest-tree nurseries, which annually raise seedlings enough to plant many thousands of acres, and for all of which there seems to be a steadily growing demand, it is natural to believe that our forests are spreading in their extent, and yearly adding to their acreage. Statistics, so far as they are available and their accuracy can be depended upon, prove this to be correct, and for at least the past three decades, the forest areas in Scotland have had upwards of 4000 acres added to them annually, over and above the restocking of woodlands that have been cleared of their crop of timber. In the future the rate of increase is likely to be much greater, when the improved methods now being developed show their success, and the true principles of forestry are better understood and generally practised. Forest-TREE NURSERIES. The institution of home nurseries on large estates is an important feature in connection with the planting of forest areas in Scotland during the present reign. They are a considerable advantage to the planter, where extensive planting operations are being carried out in a systematic manner; but although they are found on most estates of any pretensions from a forestry point of view, they do not seem to materially affect the increase and expansion of the public nurseries. In every populous and improving district in Scotland, we now find established one or more well-stocked and thriving commercial nurseries ; in fact, some favoured centres may be said to be crowded with them. The annual output of forest and ornamental trees and shrubs from the whole of these nurseries must be something marvellous; but we have no trust- worthy statistics available to show how many millions of plants they distribute to the public in the course of a season. Through the enterprise and public spirit of the nurserymen, a vast addition has been made within the past sixty years to the numbers of our choicest and most beautiful trees and shrubs, Much improvement has also been made by them in the methods of rearing a healthy and vigorous stock of plants and placing them on the market in the best condition, thus adding materially to their value and success when the trees are planted in their permanent position, and, with due care on the planter’s part, rendering failure almost an impossibility. The rearing of a clean and vigorous stock of trees is one of the most important functions r 120 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. in Forestry, because the future success of a plantation depends largely upon it. A low price for the plants should never induce anyone to plant weak, sickly, or insect-infested trees or shrubs of any description. PLANT-COLLECTORS. The search for hardy trees and shrubs in foreign countries, and their introduction to Britain, received a great impetus from the success which Douglas attained in introducing so many stately conifers, and other valuable plants, from North America, in the decade immediately preceding the Queen’s reign. In fact, although Douglas gathered his spoils in California, Oregon, and British Columbia, and introduced them to Britain through the Royal Horticultural Society, before Her Majesty ascended the throne, their dissemination throughout the country, and their rise into popular favour and demand, may be said truly to belong to the Victorian era. Stimulated by the history and success of those notable intro- ductions of Douglas and other earlier travellers, plant-collectors, as they were called, were sent abroad, or went on their own account, to ransack every accessible spot in temperate regions, to discover plants that might be worthy of introduction to this country. To name even a tithe of the useful and interesting plants introduced to Britain by the plant-collectors in the sixty years of Her Majesty’s reign, would far exceed any reasonable limits of a paper of this kind, and mention will only be made of a few of the leading collectors and the most notable of the trees which they introduced, taking them generally in chronological order. In the year 1837 Dr Royle sent home from India the hand- some Indian Silver Fir, Abies Pindrow, which is, however, only hardy in a few of the mildest spots in Britain, In that and a few following years he introduced to Britain a few other Indian or Himalayan trees, but none of them are of any value to the forester. In 1838 Mr A. B. Lambert introduced the Monterey Cypress, Cupressus macrocarpa, from Monterey, California, a beautiful ornamental tree of rapid growth in mild localities, and one of the best of the Coniferze for maritime planting, as it resists the effects of salt spray better than most other trees. In 1839 the beautiful Eastern Spruce, Picea orientalis, was intro- duced from Asia Minor; and that fine ornamental tree, the Spanish Silver Fir, Abies Pinsapo, which thrives so well on chalky FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 121 or strongly calcareous soils, arrived in the same year from the mountains of Spain. With the beginning of the “forties,” a period of great activity set in among collectors and introducers of hardy exotic plants, and before the decade closed, many rich additions were made to our trees and shrubs. When David Douglas lost his life in the Sandwich Islands in 1834, the Royal Horticultural Society after- wards resolved to send another collector to America, and Karl T. Hartweg, a native of Baden, in Germany, was selected in 1836 to proceed to Mexico to travel over the mountains and higher parts of that fine country, in search of new plants that would thrive in the climate of Britain. He spent about seven years in Mexico and other parts of Central America, and discovered many fine trees, chiefly Conifers, but most of them have proved too tender for the climate of the British Isles, unless it be in some of the mildest spots, such as Fota Island in the County of Cork, where such beautiful Conifers as Abies religiosa are seen in luxuriant growth. In 1845 Hartweg visited California, and during the next two years sent home a few new trees, the most conspicuous being the Redwood, Sequowa sempervirens, which had been discovered by Menzies about fifty years previously, and also seen by Douglas and other plant-collectors, but had not been successfully introduced until Hartweg sent it home to the Royal Horticultural Society in 1846. Again the Royal Horticultural Society, ever active in searching the world for new plants, turned its attention to the Far East, and despatched thither in 1843, as their pioneer collector, Robert Fortune, another Scotsman, from Berwickshire, who gained much well-deserved celebrity for his great perseverance and success in travelling through the “ Flowery Land,” China, and introducing therefrom many rare and beautiful plants, including some of the choicest and most interesting occupants of our gardens and pleasure-grounds. In the first year of his travels through China, in 1844, he sent home from Shanghai the now well-known Japanese Cedar, Cryptomeria japonica. In 1846 he introduced the Chinese Golden Larch, Larix Kempferi; Fortune’s Fir, Abies Fortuner; the Chinese Funeral Cypress, Cupressus funebris ; and the Lace-bark Pine, Pinus Bungeana. In 1847 Torreya grandis from Northern China; and from the same country, in 1849, the two species of Plum-Fruited Yews, Cephalotaxus drupacea and C, Fortune. Proceeding to Japan in 1860, when that interesting country 122 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. was first opened to foreign travellers, Mr Fortune, then collecting plants on his own account, was the means of introducing some of the finest Japanese trees and shrubs that are now such favourites with the decorative planter; the hardy Conifers again forming a leading feature in his introductions. Among them were the Japanese Cypresses, Retinospora obtusa, R. pisifera, and numerous fine varieties of them; Zhwiopsis dolobrata variegata, and the curious Umbrella Pine, Sciadopitys verticillata. He was also the introducer of many free and showy flowering plants and shrubs from both China and Japan, but they belong more to the garden than the forest, and need not be specified here. Among plant-collectors, William Lobb, a Cornishman, will ever occupy a high niche as the introducer to Britain of the Mammoth Tree of California, Wellingtonia gigantea. He first went out to South America in 1840 as plant-collector for Mr Veitch, nurseryman, Exeter, and sent home many valuable tropical plants from Brazil and the adjacent countries. After- wards crossing the continent from east to west, he visited the great forests of the Chilian Pine, Araucaria imbricata, in Southern Chili, and collected a large quantity of its seeds, which he brought home in 1844, and thoroughly established the tree in Britain. It had been introduced fifty years before by Archibald Menzies, but was still rare. Trees raised from Lobb’s seed are to be found in every part of the United Kingdom, the most of the largest specimens originating in that importation. Visiting South Chili again for Mr Veitch in 1847 to 1849, he introduced from that country and Northern Patagonia, in 1848, such fine shrubs as Hscallonia macrantha, Desfontainea spinosa, Berberis Darwiniti, Philesia buxifolia, and the beautiful climber, Lapageria rosea; as well as, in 1849, such interesting Conifers as Mtzroya patagonica, Libocedrus tetragona, Podocarpus nubigenus, and Prince Albert’s Yew, Saaxe-Gothea conspicua. Proceeding to California in 1849, Lobb sent home to Mr Veitch large consignments of cones and seeds of many of the discoveries of Douglas, Hartweg, and others who had explored the country before him, and the plants raised from those seeds made some of the scarce species common and popular. In a country so often and so closely traversed by keen-eyed collectors, Lobb’s original discoveries were not numerous; but his introduction of the Wellingtonia to Britain in December 1853, from the Calaveras FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 123 Grove, on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in California, will ever render his name famous among the intro- ducers of exotic trees. The African or Mount Atlas Cedar, Cedrus atlantica, was introduced to Europe in 1841, from Northern Africa; the Chilian Arborvitea, Libocedrus chilensis, in 1847; and the handsome Abies Nordmanniana, from the Crimea, in 1848. At the commencement of the second half of the century, a few noblemen and gentlemen formed at Edinburgh the Scottish Oregon Association, for the purpose of exploring the north-west of America, with a view to introducing to Britain the trees and other plants, particularly Conifers, found in those temperate regions. The Association appointed John Jeffrey, a native of Fifeshire—who had been trained as a gardener, like nearly every other famous plant-collector, including Douglas, Fortune, Lobb, and Hartweg—as its collector, and despatched him in June 1850, by way of Hudson’s Bay, from whence he crossed the continent in the winter to British Columbia, and was ready to begin his collecting operations in the spring of 1851. A keen and indefatigable worker and explorer, he collected and sent home during his first year, 1851, a splendid consignment of seeds, especially those of the Conifer indigenous to the regions he explored, including such grand species as Prince Albert’s Fir, Abies Albertiana; A. concolor, A. magnifica, A. Pattoniana, and Pinus flexilis, all introduced for the first time by him to Britain. Next year, 1852, there were among his original introductions such fine things as Cupressus Macnabiana, Pinus Balfowriana, P. Jeffreyi, which commemorates his name, and Thuia gigantea ; and in 1853 Libocedrus decurrens, a distinct Conifer, but for some years afterwards much confounded with Thwia gigantea, The latter has borne several synonyms, and has recently been declared, on high authority, to be the original Thwia plicata. The large quantities of seeds sent home by Jeffrey, and distributed by the Oregon Association, proved generally fertile, and many thousands of the newer Conifere from North-West America were raised from them, and planted freely in the pleasure-grounds, parks, pineta, and woods in Scotland, where they now form numerous stately and handsome trees, adding fresh interest and beauty to the landscape, and some of the species are promising to become in time valuable forest trees. One of the most beautiful and hardiest of the Cypress tribe, 124 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the Yellow Cypress of British Columbia, Cupressus nutkaénsis, was discovered at Nootka Sound by Archibald Menzies, in 1794, but was not introduced into Europe till 1850, when it reached St Petersburg, and eventually arrived in Britain. Another interesting Conifer, the Japanese Thuia, 7'huiopsis dolobrata, was introduced in 1853 by Thomas Lobb, a collector of plants in the East for Mr Veitch of Exeter. From Japan, in 1854, Dr Siebold sent to Europe the Japanese Hemlock Fir, Abies T'suga; Pinus densiflora, and P. Massoniana, the two commonest pines in Japan, and very similar in their characteristics. In 1854 William Murray sent to Messrs Lawson & Son, nurserymen, Edinburgh, from North-West America, the Cypress named after the head of that firm, Cupressus Lawsoniana; and also introduced from the same regions, Abies Hookeriana, which so closely resembles Jeffrey’s Abies Pattoniana that they are now considered synonymous. In the year 1860, immediately after the Island Empire of Japan was opened to travellers, John Gould Veitch, a member of the eminent nursery firm of James Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, London, —the Exeter branch of which had'been so actively employed intro- ducing new plants, and especially of the newer Coniferz, in the forties and fifties,—resolved to visit that far-off land, to collect whatever he met with of interest to cultivators in this country of trees, shrubs, and other plants. Arriving in Japan about the same time as Mr Fortune, they covered a good deal of the same ground, and introduced to Britain simultaneously, in 1861, many valuable plants. With characteristic aptitude and energy, Mr Veitch practically cleared the ground he traversed, and left little of value for future travellers to gather up. Among the many fine acquisitions for which the lovers of Conifers are mainly or solely indebted to him for introducing, are Abzes aanensis, A. Alcoquiana, A. firma, A. polita, Cryptomeria elegans, Larix leptolepsis, Pinus koraiensis, P. parviflora, Retinospora obtusa, R. pisifera, R. plumosa, R. squarrosa, Sciadopitys verticillata, Juniperus rigida, and many other trees and shrubs, evergreen and deciduous, all brought home from Japan in 1861, These and other introductions from the islands of Japan have generally proved hardy and thrifty plants in Britain, and add greatly to the beauty and interest of our ornamental grounds and shrubberies, if but few of them have yet shown themselves to be serviceable to the forester, as trees to cultivate for their timber. FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA, 125 The introduction of Abies Nwmidica from Algeria, and Picea Englemanni from the Rocky Mountains, in 1864; Abies brachy- phylla from Japan, in 1870; and Abies Mariesti, A. Sachalinensis, A, Veitchiz, and Picea Jezoensis, in 1879, the last four by Charles Maries, a collector who explored the forests of Japan in search of new trees and shrubs for Messrs Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, must close the list. Nothing of special interest to the forester has been brought from abroad since that period, showing that the old fields have been closely gleaned, and that fresh ones must be discovered before the arborist can expect many new species of trees to be again introduced to Britain from their native habitats abroad. It is worthy of notice, before leaving this subject, to observe how largely the Coniferee predominate among the hardy trees introduced during the Queen’s reign ; and those that are likely to become profitable forest trees are entirely Conifers. No species of broad-leaved tree introduced within the period gives promise of special qualities as a timber tree. Most of them are, however, exceedingly interesting to the arborist, and of great value to the landscape-gardener for the embellishment of domains, public and private parks, and the pleasure-grounds around country seats, or the smaller areas of city mansions and villas. The wealth of richly-tinted foliage possessed by many of them, their graceful habits and brilliant flowers and fruits, give a richness and charm to ornamental grounds and gardens which could not be produced in their absence, Forestry LITERATURE. In no branch of the subject has there been such a marked advance, especially in recent times, as in the literature of British Forestry. It has been already shown that, at the commencement of the Queen’s reign, it was poor in quantity, and generally of a mediocre character. Within a few years afterwards, the public press began to take special notice of arboriculture, and since the Gardeners’ Chronicle was established, in the year 1841, it has devoted particular attention to the subject, and has acquired a high reputation as an authority upon trees and shrubs, and especially in regard to the introduction of new species and varieties. Other journals and magazines dealing with rural affairs have treated the various branches of forestry more or less exhaustively in the course of the years that have passed, and several attempts have been made to establish a periodical dealing 126 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. exclusively with Forestry, but so far they have not met with the needful support from the owners of woodlands, foresters, and others who are directly interested, to command the success which their efforts merited. Twenty years ago, in 1877, the Journal of Forestry was established by J. & W. Rider, of London, amid con- siderable enthusiasm in the ranks of the profession, and promised well for a time that it had come to stay. After a stout fight to maintain itself, and its removal from London to Edinburgh, to be published in the centre of Scottish Forestry, it too had to succumb, in 1886, for want of support, like all other periodicals which have tried to occupy the field and supply British foresters with up-to-date literature and the newest information about their profession. No attempt has since been made to establish a forestry periodical, although the need for it is evident to everyone who has given a thought to the subject. Turning from the periodical literature to the books on forestry and cognate subjects which have appeared within the past sixty years, we find that one of the most important works on trees and shrubs in the language—J. C. Loudon’s Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, or “The Trees and Shrubs of Britain ”—was first issued in May 1838, less than two years after Her Majesty ascended the throne. Its appearance marked a great step in advance of all that had gone before, and supplied arborists with a valuable compendium of the history, characteristics, cultivation, and uses of all the trees and shrubs then grown in the open air in Britain. The comprehensive nature of this standard work may be judged from the fact that the letterpress, with about 2600 small engravings illustrative of the text, occupies 2700 closely printed pages, forming four large octavo volumes, with four other volumes of plates illustrating the habits and peculiarities of typical trees. The second and last edition of this splendid work was issued in 1844, and, so far as was then known about trees and shrubs, it has not been improved upon to this day. In 1842 an abridgment of the Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum was published by Mr Loudon, under the title of “Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs,” which has passed through several editions, and is still a popular book with arborists, as it gives the gist of the standard work at about one-fourth of the price. The text is freely illustrated with woodcuts, and it forms a large octavo volume of about 1240 pages. At this period appeared another highly important work on the FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 127 science of plant-culture—Dr John Lindley’s Theory and Practice of Horticulture. It deals exhaustively with the origin and growth of plants, and the various methods of raising, propagat- ing, and cultivating them in accordance with the principles and teachings of science. A perfect storehouse of clear and concise information on the principles of science applied to cultivated plants, trees, and shrubs, the book is worthy of the careful study of every forester, farmer, and gardener in the country. Selby’s History of British Forest Trees was issued in 1842 —a beautifully illustrated work, giving the history of British trees, with their treatment for effect in the landscape, and in plantations for commercial purposes. In the year 1847 there appeared Zhe Forester, by James Brown, which long maintained the position of the leading work on British Forestry. It passed through five editions, and three years ago it was thoroughly revised and brought up to date by Dr Jobn Nesbit, of the India Forest Service, and is much appreciated by practical men. Nothing else of special importance to forestry appeared in the latter half of the forties, but from 1851, the year of the first Great International Exhibition held at London, onwards to the present time, there has been a steadily increasing flow of forestry literature from the British press. At the present rate of increase it bids fair to become soon as abundant as the forestry literature of France, Germany, and other foreign countries, where, from the necessities of their case and the force of circumstances, they have been compelled to give earlier and closer attention to a system of forestry founded on sound prin- ciples. The number of books on British forestry which have appeared since 1851 is far too numerous to permit us to review it in detail, and a mere list of the principal works and their authors, with the years in which they appeared, in chronological order, must suffice. 1851. Coniferous Trees in britaan. Knight & Perry. 1853. English Forests and Forest Trees. Ingram, Cooke, & Co. 1856. Trees and their Nature. Dr A. Harvey. » Forest Trees of Britain. C. A. Johns. 1858. The Pinetum. George Gordon. 1859. British Timber Trees. John Blenkarn, 1860. Pinetum Britannicum. Peter Lawson & Son. 128 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 1863. 1865, 1866. 1870, 1875. 1876. ” 1877. 1879. 1880. 1881. > 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1889. Firs of Japan. Andrew Murray. The New Forest. John R. Wise. Remarkable Trees of Scotland. Highland and Agricultural Society. Arboriculture. Grigor, Forres, Pinacee. “ Senilis,’ Lyndhurst. Trees and Shrubs for English Plantations. Augustus Mongredien. Handy Book of Ornamental Conifers. Hugh Fraser. Notes on Forestry. C. F. Amery. Cultivated Plants. F. W. Burbidge. The Tree Lifter. Colonel Greenwood. Handbook of Hardy Trees and Shrubs, etc. W. B. Helmsley. Tree Planting. Arthur Roland. English Trees and Tree Planting. W.H. Ablett. Manual of the Conifere. James Veitch & Sons. Manual of Injurious Insects. Miss E. A. Ormerod. Elements of Sylviculture. George Bagneris. The Larch. Christopher Y. Michie. Woods and Forests of Perthshire. Thomas Hunter. Modern Forest Economy, and other works on Forestry. Dr J. C. Brown. Forestry and Forest Products: Report of 1884 Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh. Manual of Forestry, vol. i: Introduction to Forestry. Prof. Wm. Schlich. Timber and Some of its Diseases, Prof. Marshall Ward. Familiar Trees. Prof. George 8. Boulger. . Timbers and how to Know Them. Prof. Wm. Somerville. . Manual of Forestry, vol. ii: Practical Sylviculture. Prof. Wm. Schlich. . Conifere : Report of 1891 Conifer Conference, at Chiswick, London. Royal Horticultural Society. Timber and Timber Trees. Thos. Laslett and Prof. Marshall Ward. . Flowering Trees and Shrubs and Practical Forestry. A.D. Webster. British Forest Trees. Dr Jobn Nisbet. . Studies in Forestry. Dr John Nisbet. Diseases of Trees. Prof. Wm. Somerville. FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA, 129 1894, The Forester. James Brown and Dr John Nisbet. 1895, Manual of Forestry, vol. iii.: ‘ Forest Management.” Prof. Wm. Schlich. Manual of Forestry, vol. iv.: “ Forest Protection.” Prof. Schlich and W. R. Fisher. 1896. Manual of Forestry, vol. v.: ‘ Forest Utilisation.” Prof, Schlich and W. R. Fisher. 1897. Yews of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr John Lowe. ” The above list is not exhaustive of the treatises on Forestry subjects which have appeared in the Queen’s reign, but it includes the most useful and important, and is sufficient to show that our Forestry literature has made great progress in the period. The completion of Dr Schlich’s standard work, Manual of Forestry, about a year ago, as appropriately marks the close, as Loudon’s great work, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, marked the opening of the Queen’s ‘‘ Diamond ” reign. We can only refer in a few words to that invaluable section of Forestry literature comprising the 7ransactions issued by this Society, “‘A Forester’s Library” in themselves ; and many other valuable papers in the Z7’ransactions of the Edinburgh Botanical Society, the Highland and Agricultural Society, and others of the learned societies. A vast amount of the science and practice of forestry is to be found faithfully recorded in these and similar publications of the Victorian era. Forestry EDucATION. The education of British foresters in the science and art of their profession is entirely a creation of the past sixty years. Indeed, it may be truly said that no attention was given to the question until 1854, when the Scottish Arboricultural Society was instituted by a small band of intelligent and far-seeing foresters, who were anxious and determined, so far as lay in their power, to raise the status of their profession, and place Scottish forestry on a sounder basis as an important section of rural industry. How far their views may be ultimately carried out time alone can tell; but all through its existence the Society has kept Forestry education prominently before it, and employed every means at its command to press it forward. A great im- pulse was given to the question in 1884, when the International VOL. XV. PART II. a) 130 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Forestry Exhibition was held at Edinburgh. The contributions to that great exhibition from all parts of the civilised world clearly showed to the public mind how deeply interested were the leading foreign countries, India, and even the smallest of our colonies, in maintaining their forests in a high state of produc- tiveness, and how thoroughly educated and trained in systematic Forestry were the men whom they entrusted with the management of forests, and the utilisation of their products. A series of lectures on Forestry subjects, delivered by experts, was one of the educational features of the Exhibition, and the stimulus that was given thereby to the public interest in the question, led to the promulgation of several schemes for the education and training of foresters. The chief among those schemes was the creation of a Chair of Forestry in the University of Edinburgh, and a considerable sum of money was raised for that special purpose, but it still remains unaccomplished. After much delay, and no small amount of effort by this Society and others interested in the question, a Lectureship of Forestry was established in Edinburgh University in the autumn of 1889. Dr William Somerville being appointed lecturer, he delivered the first course of one hundred lectures to a considerable body of students during the session 1889-90. On Dr Somerville being appointed Professor of Agriculture and Forestry at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne, he was succeeded in the Forestry Lectureship in Edinburgh University by Colonel F. Bailey, R.E., who has since carried on the class with much success. Forestry education also forms one of the important branches of rural economy taught in the Royal Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, under the direction of Professor I. Bayley Balfour. In the curriculum of most of the universities in this country Forestry now finds a place; and it is taught in a more or less systematic form at all of the leading centres of education. Still it is felt that this country does not yet afford the complete training to foresters which prevails in all the principal states of continental Europe, and until that is accomplished by the establishment of a fully equipped forest school, with a proper forest area attached to it for practical work and scientific experi- ment, foresters cannot rest satisfied with the provisions made to qualify them for filling important positions in their profession, however grateful they may feel at the substantial advance made during the Queen’s reign. FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA, 131 Forestry APPLIANCES. Here the march of improvements in tools, implements, and other Forestry appliances, is perhaps more marked than in any - other division of our subject. Even in the shape and quality of the commonest articles—the spade, pick, axe, and saw—a great improvement has taken place, and the number of new and better implements and appliances for performing the various operations in Forestry, are seen everywhere in daily use. Hand-tools gener- ally are light, clean, and well made of the best materials, and specially adapted for every class of work. The implements and appliances used for horse-power are far in advance of those employed two generations ago, and improvements in their design and construction are regularly appearing. It is, however, in the domain of mechanical power, and contrivances for saving manual and animal labour, that we find the greatest advance on pre-Victorian times. The general employment of steam as a motive power has been coeval with Her Majesty’s reign, and it has worked quite a revolution in all branches of Forestry by the cheap and powerful help it supplies. Steam is now the motive power of traction engines that can haul the heaviest load, with the greatest ease, which our roads can carry. It is applied to the heavy work of felling, hauling, and sawing of timber; the driving of machinery of every descrip- tion for the manufacture of timber, and for its transport by railway on land and by steamship at sea. It is also usefully employed in clearing land of surface stones and tree roots, and reclaiming the soil for tree-planting. It cuts out canals and roads, and breaks stones to macadamise the latter. Asa portable motive power it still stands unrivalled ; although it is hard to tell what electricity may do in the future, when it is better developed, to supersede steam. At present it is too costly and unmanage- able to enter into serious competition with steam as a motive power. As a stationary motor, water is the cheapest of all, and might be with great advantage more often employed where steam is used. A good head of water and a turbine wheel develop great power at little cost for upkeep. The employment of the water in our rivers for floating timber from far inland districts to seaports has almost become one of the lost arts since the use of steam became general in this country. It might easily be reorganised and improved, to the advantage of all concerned, 132 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, Forest PRODUCE. After all the trouble and cost of raising forests of timber trees for commercial purposes, the labour of the forester will be in vain, unless the produce is of first-rate quality, and put into the market in its best condition. Straight, clean timber, sound and free from knot and blemish of every kind, thoroughly ripe or matured, well seasoned after being felled, and cut into dimensions most suitable for the market, is the material that will return the best profit to the owner of the forest. A considerable advance has taken place in this branch of Forestry during the long reign of the Queen, but there is still much room left for improvements being effected on many of the details in the course of the twentieth century. The various species of trees that are most in demand for timber, and which thrive best on given soils, aspects, and altitudes; the most profitable ages and sizes at which to fell the trees and dispose of their timber ; the economic utilisation of the bye-products, and particularly of the small wood, which is now generally allowed to go to waste, are a few of the points that will pay for more careful thought and closer attention. CoNCLUSION. In conclusion, it appears to me that when we have passed in review all the conditions under which the forester pursued his calling in the year 1837, and contrasted them with those which prevail among us in this year of grace 1897, all will agree that, although much needful improvement has still to be effected, an immense amount of progress has been made in Forestry in Scotland during the sixty years in which Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria has reigned over these realms. EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS. 133 X. Experiments with Tree Seeds. By WittiAM SoMERVILLE, D.C&c., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor of Agriculture and Forestry, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. In the spring and autumn of 1893, and in the spring of 1894, I took the opportunity of arranging a number of experiments with tree seeds. Some of these experiments have been quite successful, and have given interesting and useful results, while others have failed for various reasons, but chiefly owing to the unusually severe frost of the 20th and 21st of May 1894, which killed such large numbers of the young seedlings of certain species (e.g., Spanish Chestnut, Sycamore, Norway Maple) as to make it undesirable to record the results in this paper. The experiments with Birch and Alder were also a failure, owing to the unsatis- factory way in which the seeds germinated ; and as I have since had occasion to be dissatisfied with the results of birch-seeding— which has also given trouble to other propagators—it would be useful to the Society if some member gave an account of a method of dealing with this seed that has proved successful. How DEEP MAY SPRUCE SEEDS BE COVERED ? During the second week of May 1893, nine plots or beds were laid down in duplicate, and were at once sowed with the seed of the Norway spruce. Each plot measured 34 square feet, and received 14 ounce of seed. By means of a suitable series of wooden frames, the seed was buried exactly to the depth indicated, the soil used for the purpose being a fairly strong loam, In the spring of 1894 the plants were lifted and counted, with the following result :— | Depth of Number of Trees produced. Plots. Covering of sia oo “A” Series. | “B” Series, ToraL. Inches. 1 0 14 11 25 2 4 558 | 484 992 3 4 308 325 633 4 2 78 | 166 244 5 1 50 95 145 6 14 26 | 33 | 59 fh 1$ 1 | 4 5 8 12 0 0 0 9 2 0 0 0 134 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. It will be seen that both series of plots give consistently the same results. The largest number of plants was got when the seed was covered with soil to the depth of only } inch. When the covering was increased by another } inch, a large proportion of the plants never succeeded in struggling through the soil at all, the total number being reduced from 992 to 633, Further additions to the depth of the covering were accompanied by a steady reduction in the number of plants, until, when the seeds were buried to the depth of 1} inch, no plants whatever appeared above the surface. While these results indicate how careful one should be in regard to the depth of covering of spruce seeds (and no doubt the results might also be applied to other tree seeds of semilar size), they also show how extremely necessary it is to have the seeds actually covered, and not left lying exposed upon the surface of the ground. Where this method of sowing was practised, I obtained a total of only twenty-five plants, and this notwithstanding the fact that the seeds were thoroughly secured by a net against the attack of birds. How DEEP MAY ACORNS BE BURIED ! In the spring of 1894 seven rows in duplicate were each stocked with fifty acorns of uniform size, which were buried at depths varying from 4 to 6 inches. A year later the plants were counted, with the following results :— | | Number of Plants produced. Plots. z oie ‘*A” Series. | ‘‘B” Series. | TOTAL. Inches. 1 4 25 11 | 36 2 1 32 31 63 3 2 42 28 70 4 3 27 26 | 538 5 4 32 25 57 6 5 18 14 32 7 6 15 13 28 | In this case the best results were got with a covering of 2 inches, a depth which gave seventy plants per one hundred seeds.! 1 The term ‘‘seed” is here, and elsewhere in the paper, used in the popular sense. EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS. 135 DRILLING versus BROADCASTING SMALL TREE SEEDS. A series of beds were stocked with the seed of the spruce, which, in certain cases, was sowed in rows, and, in other cases, broadcast. The testing of these two systems of seed-distribution was expected to prove interesting, the one (drilling) being almost universally practised on the Continent, while the other (broadcasting) is the common system in this country. The figures which our experiment furnished cannot be regarded as reliable, the disturbing cause in this case being surface cater- pillars, which are the larvz of various species of Noctuide, such as the Heart and Dart and Great Yellow Underwing Moths. In the autumn succeeding the spring in which the seed had been sowed, we began to notice that the stems of many of the young spruces were bitten through, the upper part of the plant being found lying on the ground or suspended by a thread of bark. At first we suspected that the damage was due to mice; but on turning up the soil to the depth of a couple of inches, we found that the depredators were brown or slaty coloured fleshy cater- pillars, about 14 to 2 inches in length, and furnished with eight pairs of feet. These so-called surface caterpillars are almost omnivorous in their tastes—so far as a vegetable diet is con- cerned—and are well known to gardeners as attacking turnips, lettuce, cabbages, cress, and a variety of other plants. During the day they lie coiled up and concealed in the soil or underneath clods, stones, etc., while at night they crawl to the surface and feed upon the stems and lower foliage of plants. Although they ruined our experiment, they were the means of demonstrating one advantage of having seedlings in rows, for, where the young trees were growing in this way, it was a simple matter to turn over the soil between the rows and destroy the pests, whereas nothing could be done where the seed had been broadcast. Sixty-six caterpillars were thus collected on the 33 square yards of drilled seed-bed, the removal of these pests being doubtless the reason why the drilled beds produced 1150 plants, as against 516 on the beds that had been broadcast. How sHoutp Acorns BE LAID IN THE GROUND. This experiment, and those that follow, were started in the autumn of 1893, and the results were determined in the spring of 1897, when the plants were three years old. 136 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Six hundred average-sized acorns were selected, and divided into 6 lots of 100 each, the average weight per 100 being 11 oz. Three duplicate rows were sowed with 100 acorns each, which, in one case, were placed with the thin end lowest, in another case the thin end was highest, while in the third case the acorns were laid flat. As the stem and root both come from the thin end of Fic. 1,—Plants produced by Acorns that had been placed with their thin end lowest. the acorn, it follows that where this end is lowest the root will at once get freely down into the soil, but the stem will have to curve round and get past the fruit; where the thin end is highest the stem will get freely up, but the root will have some difficulty in getting down; and where the acorn is laid flat, both root and stem will have equal opportunity of pursuing their natural path. The accompanying illustrations show that, even after three years’ ~ EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS, Loi growth, the effect on the plant of the original position of the seed is still conspicuous. In Fig. 1, which shows three typical plants produced by acorns placed with the thin end lowest, the stem and root are in a straight line, so that no curve is noticeable at the base of the former as a result of its having to find its way round the fruit, In Fig. 2, which shows plants that originated Fic, 2.—Plants produced by Acorns that had been placed with their thick end lowest. in acorns placed with the thin end uppermost, a distinct twist is apparent at the junction of the root and stem, the former having had to bend itself round in order to get down. Where the acorns were laid flat there is also a slight twist upon many of the resulting plants (Fig. 3), though this is not so pronounced as in Fig. 2. When three years old, the whole of the plants were lifted, great care being taken to get the roots out fairly entire. The length of 138 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the stem and root of each plant was determined, while each lot was weighed after washing and drying. The results are shown in Fic. 3.—Plants produced by Acorns that had been laid flat. the accompanying Table, which gives the average figures for the duplicate plots :— Average = aes + hel J . 4 Plots. Position of the Acorns. No. of Plants aber Height Average Lene Produced, of Stem. of Root. Inches. Inches, 1 Thin end lowest, . 90 5°8 20°1 Z Thick ,, 91 6°0 19°2 3 Laid flat, : : 93 6°0 19°8 Weight per 100 Plants. lb. 2 OZ. 14 12 12 Gj EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS. 139 Judged by the tests indicated in the Table, the plants produced by the three systems of depositing the acorns closely agree with each other in every respect. The number of plants obtained per 100 acorns varies only between 90 and 93; the average length of stem does not vary more than 0:2 inch; while the root-length and weight also show close agreement. Evidently, therefore, it is only in the matter of straightness of stem that the position of the acorn in the ground can exert any influence, and although the twist on the stem (Fig. 2) has had no appreciable influence on the height or weight of the plant, it cannot be regarded as a desirable feature, and might possibly prejudicially affect the value of the timber in the mature tree. One would therefore appear to be justified in concluding that acorns should not be planted with their thick end lowest ; while, as regards the other two systems, there is practically nothing to choose except on the score of con- venience, when the preference would be given to laying acorns on their side, as, in fact, is usually done in actual practice. Wuat INFLUENCE HAS THE SIZE OF THE SEED ON THE VIGOUR OF THE PLANT? This experiment was carried out with acorns which were in all cases laid flat. Four duplicate lots of one hundred acorns were selected, which gave the following weights per hundred :— Plot 4. Large acorns, ; : . 14 oz. Plot 3. Medium acorns, . ; : ~ wlvlees,, Plot 5. Small acorns, , : -, noe, Plot 6. Very small acorns, . : cele, These were sowed early in November 1893, and, when the plants were lifted at three years of age, the following results were got :— Average | Average ; : Number of feito) ae | Average Weight Blaniac. ean of | ee | per 100 Plants. Peer Ree ha B.S ok see Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | 1b. oz. | Ibe oz. Large acorns, . .| 98 109| 65 | 81| 188 | 2162 12 | 3 15 Medium acorns, ,j| 87 99 4°8 | 7°3 | 18°2 | 2-5 2-8 | 3. 4 Smallacorns, . .| 89 90| 4:0) 6:2|)161|1777|/1 14).2 1 Very small acorns, . | 84 75 | 36 | 5°5 | 15-8|185|1 10)1 11 | | 140 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. It will be seen that in each of the four tests applied, the results come out in favour of the large seed. In the first place, it is interesting to note that in one case the hundred large acorns have produced 109 three-year-old plants, which shows that a very considerable proportion of large acorns contain more than one seed, As a matter of fact, the ovary of the oak contains six ovules, and the fruit is therefore potentially capable of containing six seeds, but, as a rule, only one of the ovules develops into a seed, though, as the above figures show, the case where an acorn holds two seeds is not so rare as is usually supposed. At the lowest computation, 9 per cent. of the “ B.” series of large acorns have been double-seeded ; but as it is fair to assume, firstly, that all the acorns did not germinate, and, secondly, that some of the plants succumbed to various influences during the three years of growth, the actual percentage of double-seeded acorns is no doubt even larger than the figures indicate. The size of the acorns has apparently affected the length of stem more than the length of root, though this may be more apparent than real, owing to the difficulty of getting long roots out of the ground entire. Four average plants produced by the four sizes of acorns are represented in Fig. 4, which shows the gradual reduction in vigour of the plants as a consequence of the reduced size of the seed. Although it is unquestionable that a much larger number of plants will be got by sowing, say, a stone of small seed than by using a similar weight of large seed, it is more than likely that the large seed will prove the more profitable in the end. Although this experiment furnishes no definite information regarding the final results at the end of fifty or one hundred years, it is extremely probable that, under similar conditions of soil, exposure, etc., the plants that were strongest at three years of age will provide the largest and most valuable timber trees. It would appear, however, to be more necessary to be careful in the selection of large seed, and therefore of vigorous plants, for the stocking of a mixed than of a pure wood. Suppose that, in the former case, young oaks are introduced at intervals of 20 feet or so, with the object of leaving them to form the final crop after the nurses, or thinnings, have been removed, In this case it is the manifest intention of the forester that every oak which he plants shall stand till the end of the rotation, and if—as EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS. - 141 is likely — the vigour of the original seedling materially in- fluences the vigour of the resultant tree, the careful selection of the seed, as regards size, becomes a matter of the very highest importance, For a pure wood, selection of seed is of less importance, so long as the seed employed contains a fair proportion of large individuals. Fie. 4.—Plants produced by large, medium, small, and very small Acorns, in the order given. When a wood is stocked with seedlings all of the same species and of similar age, though varying somewhat as regards size and vigour, competition for air, light, and growing space generally, will at once begin, with the result that in a few years the vigorous plants will be spreading their crowns more or less above the level of their neighbours, while the weaker ones will be partially over- 142 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. grown and suppressed. The latter will from time to time be removed in the thinnings, and although these will be valuable in proportion to the size of the stems that furnish them, the effect upon the financial returns as a whole will be less than if the volume of the final felling were also seriously reduced. Of course, if the whole of the seed used to furnish the plants for a pure wood is of small size, the loss will be quite as great as, in fact rather greater than in the case of the mixed wood; but if the seed is a mixture of small and large individuals, natural differ- entiation, aided by artificial thinning, will secure the largest stems—that is, the produce of the largest seed—for the final crop. In a year when nearly every oak is bearing a crop of acorns, one finds that the size of the fruit varies much on different trees. If the tendency to bear large fruit is in any sense hereditary, and if small fruit means slow-growing trees, it follows that in a natural forest the trees that reach maturity and bear seed— that is, that propagate the species—must chiefly belong to the large-fruited varieties. In the course of time one may therefore expect to find an increase in the average size of the fruit or seed of any species of tree, but where the duration of the generation is to be reckoned in hundreds of years—as, for instance, in the case of the oak grown in natural forests—the inquiry becomes one that is almost paleeo-botanical in its character, and possibly may never have been undertaken. , When young trees are being sent out from the nursery, it is a common practice to retain those that are of small size, so that the further growth of two or three years may make them of a more attractive size. Suppose, for instance, that 70 per cent. of all the plants in a bed of five-year-old oaks are 3 feet high, and are sent out, while the 30 per cent. which are less than 3 feet in height are transplanted into a fresh plant-bed and retained. Let it be further supposed that it is not till they are seven years. old that the plants originally rejected reach an average height of 3 feet. The question then comes to be—Are young trees of varying age, but of the same size, all alike suitable for planting, or, in other words, are one thousand of the above-indicated seven- year-old oaks as valuable as the same number of the younger age? For my own part I doubt if they are, and, further, I think it is probable that if such slow-developing individuals are alone depended on to represent any particular species in a wood, EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS. 143 whether pure or mixed, they may occasion very serious loss to the owner. The danger, in fact, lies in the selection or classifica- tion that has been made in the nursery, sensible though it would at first sight appear to be. Had all been planted out at the age of five, whatever the size, the small individuals would soon — at least in pure woods— have been suppressed and removed, but the final yield would not have been affected, seeing that it would have consisted of the originally more vigorous trees. But where one plants nothing but naturally feeble plants—even though these, through being older, may be of normal planting size—one has not the opportunity of select- ing naturally strong individuals at the periodic thinnings, so that both the intermediate and final returns may be seriously reduced. It is perhaps worth pointing out that in a seed-bed of ordinary density the plants that lag behind in development do so because the seeds from which they sprang were of less than average size, and not because, with an equal chance to start with, they have happened to get the worst of the crowding. No doubt, when a feeble plant finds itself amongst vigorous neighbours it tends to become relatively still more feeble, but that crowding in itself is not the primary cause of debility in certain individuals is evident from the results of the experiment just cited. The acorns were in all cases placed exactly the same distance apart, so that each plant had an equal amount of growing-space. But as small plants require less growing-space than large ones, it follows that the conditions of growth for the small plants of Plot 6 were relatively more favourable than for the larger ones of Plots 5, 3, or 4, and yet, in spite of such advantage, the small-sized plants have done but little, if anything, to overtake the plants which originated in the larger seed. An experiment with seeds of three degrees of size was also carried out in duplicate in the case of the horse chestnut, and furnished results similar to those obtained with acorns. In this case the weights for fifty of the seeds were :— Large chestnuts, ; 2 Ibs. 8 oz. Medium chestnuts, . i ; bows 0k aight Small chestnuts, Mohs eich Ge 144 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. The results were as follows :— | | Average Average * | Number a = Average Weight Height of || Length of = of Plants. Sa. | Raat per 100 Plants. | A) Bs A. B. A. IBS Mile pas B. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins, | Ins. | Ib. oz.| Ib. oz. Large chestnuts, . 38 | 38 | 16°6 | 91 | 21°2 | 28°0 Medium chestnuts, | 34 | 41 | 14°3 | 8:0 | 23°6 | 28:1 | 21 5 11 14 Small chestnuts, . 28 | 40 | 11°0| 6:4 | 25°6 | 248/17 1)| 8 8 Although there is not absolute regularity in the results, the variations are not more than may be looked for in garden experiments. The most important test, namely, the stem-measure- ments, gives quite concordant results. It may be mentioned that variations between the “A.” and ‘ B.” series of plots, here and elsewhere, are accounted for by the fact that the duplicate plots were always in a different part of the garden, and were consequently subjected to somewhat different conditions of growth. May THE FoRMATION OF A Tap-RooT IN YouNG OAKS BE PREVENTED 2? Foresters and nurserymen are well aware how troublesome in many ways is the long bare tap-root that is characteristic of seedling oaks, Spanish chestnuts, walnuts, etc. Such a root- system makes transplanting difficult and uncertain, and repre- sents a form which is the exact opposite to what is wanted, namely, a dense fibrous mass of rootlets. By means of frequent shifiings and root-prunings in the nursery, the formation of the tap-root may be largely suppressed, and the production of lateral roots encouraged; but as such operations are costly, and frequently attended by a considerable death-rate, any simple form of treat- ment that will improve the root-formation must be of considerable practical value. In the autumn of 1893 a few hundred average-sized acorns were spread out on a moist earthen floor, and covered by a damp sack, In three weeks a large proportion of the seeds had protruded their radicle or young tap-root to the distance of 2 or 3 inches, and, when this stage had been reached, 200 of such acorns were selected from the heap and divided into two duplicate sets of 100 each. By means of a knife, or pressure between the finger EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS. 145 and thumb, the radicle was removed or “ pinched back” to within a quarter of an inch of the seed, after which the acorns were planted. At three years old the plants were lifted, when it was found that, instead of having a single large tap-root, most of them were provided with two, three, or more (up to six) smaller roots (Fig. 5), and although these were still but poorly furnished with Fie. 5.—Plants produced from Acorns that had been allowed to germinate before sowing, and whose radicles had been pinched back. lateral rootlets, and persisted in going straight down into the soil, they cannot but be regarded as an improvement on the typical form of oak-root as seen in Figs, 1-4. As the accompanying Table shows, the treatment may possibly, in one set of experiments (the ‘‘B.” series), have had a slightly prejudicial effect on the germination and on the height-growth, though in the other series no such effect is visible. The root- VOL, XV. PART II. P 146 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. measurements and the weight per hundred show considerable vari- ation under the two systems, but as the root modifications are of the nature of an improvement, while the aggregate weight is largely influenced by the curtailment of the development of the massive tap-root, the figures in the respective columns cannot be said to tell against the system. The following figures deal with the results of using acorns of approximately the same size, which were in every way treated alike, except as regards the shortening of the radicle. -. Average Average E c Number ‘ = | Average Weight of Plants. aa pera per 100 Plants. | Mere. | |B, c| ace oe, Ke B. | Ths. | Ins. Ins. Ins. Ip, oz: | Thietez, | Radicle not shortened, | 87 | 99 | 4:8 | 753. 18°25) 21:5. | 22 eel ee | Radicle shortened, .| 87 | 81 | 4:8! 6°5|17°5|141] 115! 2 9 | | Can AsH SEED BE INDUCED To GERMINATE IN THE First YEAR? The seed of the ash is one which, when sown in spring, lies dormant for a year. It is therefore generally “stratified,” that is, buried in the soil in a layer or stratum, or mixed with soil in a heap, or treated in some similar way, and finally sowed in the seed-bed after the lapse of a year. But it is evident that this delay of a year in the germination of ash seed must in all cases be undesirable, and various methods of treatment of the seed have been tried with the object of stimulating germination in the first year. Some considerable measure of success is said to have attended certain of these methods, two of which were put to the test in the College garden. In one case the seed was steeped in spring for an hour in water, at a temperature of about 120° Fahr., while in the other case it was stored in damp sand throughout the winter and sown in spring. It may be men- tioned that another lot of untreated seed was sowed on November 3rd, while a further supply was stored dry during winter, and sowed in spring. The result was that in no case did a single plant appear in the year succeeding that in which the seed ripened, so that this experiment furnished only negative results. Some propagators are said to have succeeded in obtaining a large proportion of plants in the first year, by pulling the ash EXPERIMENTS WITH TREE SEEDS, 147 seed before it has quite lost its green colour, and sowing it at once. This period will usually be reached about the end of October, an1 we have this year arranged an experiment to test the point, but with what success remains to be seen. I have recorded the results of these simple experiments, not so much for the information that they convey, as in the hope that they may encourage some of the younger members of the Society to take up similar work. There are many simple problems of a forestal character, whose solution only requires the careful avoid- ance of disturbing factors of growth, scrupulous accuracy in all weighings, measurements, and record-keeping, and a little patience, but which are yet capable of adding considerable interest to the routine of a forester’s occupation, and of furnishing results of no small practical importance. 148 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. XI. Report by the Judges on Essays on “The Best Form of, and the Best Method of Establishing, an Experimental Forest Area in Scotland, for the Exhibition of and for Instruction —Theoretical and Practical—in Scientifie Forestry.” Four essays were received in competition for the prizes offered in this subject. This number may appear to be small when the unusual value of the prize is taken into account; but, although the subject appeals to all, it is not one that many foresters may feel competent to deal with, so that the number of competitors need not cause any disappointment. In judging the essays, we have been careful to keep certain points steadily in view. In the first place, we have considered that no scheme, however attractive, could be regarded as valuable unless it appeared to be capable of practical application. We have also looked out for originality of conception in the drafting of the scheme, as manifestly the movement would not be materially advanced by a mere restatement of previous argu- ments and suggestions. It has appeared to us desirable that, in estimating the cost of acquiring an area of land for the object in view, reference should as far as possible be made to concrete cases, and this, we are glad to say, has been done by one of the essayists. With these remarks we shall proceed to state our opinion of the essays individually. No. 1, sy “ Novice.” After dwelling on the necessity of attempting to stem the tide of rural depopulation, and on the desirability of providing a training-ground for young foresters, the writer advocates the suggestion that a limited liability company should be formed to acquire at least 2000 acres of suitable land, with convenient buildings, at a cost of from £20,000 to £30,000. He looks to the landlords to subscribe the nost of the capital, and suggests that an appeal for subscriptions should be made through this Society, as well as by personal canvass, The writer does not submit either estimates or evidence, and we do not recommend his essay for a prize. REPORT BY THE JUDGES ON ESSAYS. 149 No. 2, By “South Esx.” This essayist is strongly of opinion that forestry can be demonstrated to pay much better than is frequently believed, and bis main object in acquiring an area of land for sylviculture would be to show how this can be done. He considers that the Government should provide the funds, but appears to have but scant hope of assistance from this quarter. He has also a good deal to say in favour of a joint-stock scheme, but doubts if the money can be raised in this way. Having but little faith in these two proposals, he suggests that a landlord who contemplates planting on a considerable scale in the near future should be asked to allow the work to be done under the direction of a committee of this Society. He indicates the belief that such a landlord exists within a few miles of Edinburgh; and expresses the opinion that most landlords would be glad to allow the whole or a part of their sylvicultural operations to be managed by the committee, in consideration of the valuable scientific knowledge that would thus be gratuitously placed at the service of their estate. The area of land proposed to be dealt with is 1000 acres, which would be stocked at the rate of some 40 acres per annum, involving an aggregate expenditure of £5800, which, of course, would be borne by the landlord. It appears to us that, so far as it goes, the idea is worth considering, though not as a substitute for the class of forest or forests that the Society has in view. This scheme altogether Jacks several qualifications—such as continuity of tenure and freedom of action—which are absolutely essential to the success of any scheme with which this Society should identify itself. But, as providing some means of offering extended educational facilities to the young men in attendance at forestry classes in Edinburgh, it would be a distinct gain to have an area of private woodland in the neighbourhood of the city worked upon a definite system, where improved processes of stocking, mixing, thinning, cropping, and utilising could be demonstrated. Such a woodland, being possibly more accessible to this important educational centre than the other forest areas in contemplation, would be a valuable supplement, and need in no way interfere with the larger scheme. Though containing this idea, the essay does not otherwise reach the standard that we have set up, and we do not therefore recom- mend it for a prize. 150 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. No. 3, By “Nit DespERANDUM.” The reasons that this writer adduces for the necessity of estab- lishing a model forest area and a forestry school are :— (1) The presence in this country of wide areas of compara- tively unproductive land that could be made to return a much improved nett revenue if placed under a system of rational sylviculture. (2) The rapid growth of our requirements for structural timber. (3) The rapid diminution in the extent of virgin forests abroad, (4) The necessity of a proper training-ground for young foresters. After some pertinent remarks on the duty of the State in providing facilities for forestry education and the development of commercial forestry, the writer proceeds to show that an area of land suitable for the objects in view may be obtained by lease, by feu, or by purchase. If the land were obtained on lease, a tenancy of one hundred and twenty years, with a mutual break at eighty years, and periodically thereafter, is suggested. An interesting form of lease is given—probably the first of the kind that has ever been drafted in this country—which provides that the timber on the land which is leased shall either be paid for by the incoming tenant (in this case probably a limited liability company), or shall be managed by the tenant without restraint, and the nett proceeds of the sales handed over to the landlord. All forests created or buildings erected by the tenant are to be taken over by the landlord by valuation at the end of the lease, by which time, as the writer says, ‘a good deal will have happened, and a good deal of knowledge gained.” In our opinion there are many insuperable objections to the leasing of land or woodlands for experiments, demonstrations, or education in forestry. The temporary acquisition of land in this way would probably mean its abandonment at a time when the woods had been got into a state of the highest value from an educational point of view, and this prospect alone is much too serious to make the leasing plan feasible. Although the writer dismisses the system of feuing land at, say, ls. 6d. per acre per annum, without a word of commendation, it seems to us that the proposal is quite as worthy of attention as that REPORT BY THE JUDGES ON ESSAYS. 151 of leasing; although as, in our opinion, neither mode of acquisition is satisfactory, we need not further pursue this part of the subject. In discussing the question of the purchase of an estate for the purposes of forestry, the writer points out that the area may or may not possess woods and buildings to start with. In the event of an area of purely pastoral or waste land being obtained, at a price of 36s. to 40s. per acre, plans are given for a suitable set of buildings in the Scottish style of architecture, at an estimated cost of £3000. In our opinion these plans should have included a biological laboratory and a forestry museum, though otherwise they would appear to be well adapted for the requirements of a school of about twelve pupils. The essayist gives the preference—and in this we agree with him—to an estate containing a considerable proportion of wood- land, and possessing buildings that could, if necessary, be adapted at a small cost to the needs of a forest school. He points out that many suitable estates can be purchased for £3 or less per acre, and appends a list of several that are at present in the market. He more particularly recommends that an effort should be made to secure a property with which he is acquainted in the north of Scotland, comprising some 20,000 acres, of which 3240 acres consist of thriving woodland, which he values at £32,000. Of the rest, 2800 acres are tillage, and the remainder mountain land, much of which is suitable for planting. The nett rental is a little over £3000, while the price asked is £85,000. Allowing £15,000 to make the place suitable for the object in view, the writer thinks that £100,000 would meet the requirements of the case, and fairly set the model forest area and school agoing. The great difficulty with “Nil Desperandum,” as with some others, has been the discovery of ways and means of raising the necessary funds, and this he proposes to do in one or other, or all, of the following ways :— (1) By selling Government ground-rents in London, the said rents having been at one time purchased with money realised by the sale of Scottish Crown lands. (2) By this Society making a universal appeal to Scotsmen, through the medium of lord - lieutenants, provosts, mayors, and other influential personages. (3) By appealing, more particularly to the small subscriber, through the newspapers. (4) By a yearly grant from Government. 152 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. He concludes by recommending that the institution should be placed under a department of the Government, and managed by a resident director and consultative committee, which would com- prise, amongst others, the Council of this Society. While this essay does not break fresh ground, nor really greatly advance the subject of the creation of model forests, it has a good deal to recommend it. It provides a set of plans of buildings for a forest school and other offices that it is to be hoped will be wanted some day, it contains the detailed description of five Scottish properties containing over 80,000 acres which may be purchased at about £3 per acre, and it offers some useful suggestions regarding the administration of the institution For these reasons we think that this essay should be published, and the writer rewarded with a prize of Five Guineas No. 4, By “ Moon Raker.” This writer starts with an interesting sketch of the history and present position of Scottish forestry. He recognises the beginning of organised attention to forestry in the introduction and extensive cultivation of the larch by a Duke of Athole about the middle of last century, and he proceeds to show, and with manifest reason, that the acclimatisation of this tree in Britain has been by no means an unmixed benefit. The larch, more than any other forest tree of importance, is intolerant of crowding and shading, and planters soon found that early and frequent thinnings were an absolutely essential condition of its successful growth, Probably, without giving much thought to the subject, foresters concluded that the sylvicultural treatment best adapted for the larch would also be equally suitable for other trees, with the result that our home-grown wood is a drug in the market, woodlands are unprofitable, and forestry generally is a somewhat discredited industry. In endeavouring to place British forestry on a sounder basis, the essayist very wisely deprecates any drastic or sweeping reform to start with. While no one doubts that the so-called Continental system has reached an almost ideal state of perfection, it would be most unwise to clamour for the cut-and-dry importation of this system into Britain. Landowners have not to choose between this and that system, but have got to reckon with existing woods, mismanaged it may be in the past, and at present neither profit- : REPORT BY THE JUDGES ON ESSAYS. 153 able nor satisfactory, but still woods that represent a large capital sum, and which financial, climatic, and esthetic considerations alike demand shall not be suddenly improved out of existence. The writer regards the purchase of an estate containing at least 1000 acres as the only feasible method of acquiring the necessary area, and, like “ Nil Desperandum,” he gives the preference to one containing a considerable area of woodland to start with. He submits the plan of what he regards as a suitable estate situated in Perthshire, but whether this estate is actually for sale or not is not stated. He also furnishes the plan of a set of buildings which, though somewhat restricted, are well arranged. He regards the following as the main objects of the institution :— (1) The demonstration of economic forestry. (2) The instruction of practical foresters and estate agents in the scientific management of woods. (3) Experiments and researches in connection with the principles underlying the practical operations of forestry. To meet these requirements, the buildings would have to include a lecture-room, museum, library, reading-room, laboratory, and office, besides the necessary domestic accommodation. These, he believes, could be erected for £750; but even if galvanised iron were largely used, as he suggests, it is to be doubted if this sum would sufiice. ; His estimate of capital expenditure is as follows :— Purchase of 1000 acres, .. y £ 028 5,0002000)'O Outlay on buildings, fences, and nursery, 1,000 0 0 250 acres of growing timber, 7 10,000: 10-00 Total, . £16,000 0 0 His estimate of annual expenditure, neglecting theoretical instruction, and also disregarding any revenue from the estate, is as follows :— Supervision, : i , «