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Meee a ches i (Wen ieee si yeh, Arve hs z y aise wales at Var) Grn Be Gal ae ae PAR? i = Stay ‘ tel “aa tats aw eg a NGiahaing A Lh Px 4 oe Wy 70% Huish iytdny A we is aren ga fy Ln i * hi hi Se Ra i wal teh artis 4, ¥ ia $53.9) BOS Taragt i hati BW Sh yk oer ed PSC bea ek A 1 next dye Ae 7° $0 heat A | > } Kas = ae bandit ‘ th tat BANS A Sate bE ARE He = ree ee ia ae en : cS 64ers hy Lae RS a4 Va ey 4 A NSS ara AR Mae aia nh a ef Fae es Cees ii) ‘eet 5 tb peat oy he .” y, opis. : ; vA: ils Le APS | ,: ty ively SRO a ne Seay LIBRAK Y ING VV kUnak was var GARDEN LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN “y —— * ee eee ee ; i*\ r ies wig ACD: A . i, Mit NGA weas ’ Lh A 7 7 r\ mn 7 * 2 i] us ‘ PRANSACTIONS ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. ireur-Cononsn FEF. BADLLEY, FRS EK, HONORARY EDITOR, ROBERT GALLOWAY, 5.8.C., SECRETARY AND TREASURER WV Olle, XOX. EDEN BUR G Ee: Pansies, FOR, Whos OC 2 hay. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. LO: ILIBK 43.4 MEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN : 7 CONTENTS. The Society does not hold itself responsible for the statements 1 ty 12 or views expressed by the authors of papers. . Correspondence with Lord Pentland in regard to the Small Landholders (Scotland) Bill and a Department of Forestry The Development Commission and Forestry . Early Tree-Planting in Scotland. Historical Notes, with Appendix naming Trees known HE: 1770 (with a Plate). By Hugh Boyd Watt . . Report on Tree-Pruning in St James’s Park and Piccadilly, London (with a Plate). By Professor I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., Regius ae of the Re Botanic Garden, Bdiapuceh : On the best method of Plating at High Altitudes and in Exposed Situations, and the best Species of Trees to plant there with the object of procuring (a) Shelter for Stock, and (b) A profitable Timber Crop (with a Plate). By A. W. B. Edwards, Forester, Thirlmere Estate ‘ Notes on Raising Exotic Conifers from Seed. By J. Ferguson, Forester, Gregynog, Montgomeryshire . . Continental Notes—France. By A. G. Hobart-Hampden . Notes on some Different Methods of Planting (with Two Plates). By Wellwood Maxwell, Kirkennan Thorn Hedges and their Management. ae W.#H. Whetlens Comlongon Nursery . The Annual Excursion. By George Leven. With Note he Alexander Finlayson : é : : : The Forestry Exhibition at Inverness. By Brodie of Brodie Detailed Report on the Forestry Section in the Scottish National Exhibition, Glasgow, organised by the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, May to November IgIt. By Matthew Feaks, Forester, Benmore Notes and Queries:—Estate Duty on Timber under the Finance Act of 1910—Rating of Woodlands and Railway Rates on Timber—Canadian Forests—Forest Terminology —Biltmore Forest School—Forests and Forestry Problems in Sierra Leone—Progress, in India, in the Preparation of Working -Plans—Distillation of Wood—New Forestry Books— University of Cambridge—Correction A PAGE I2 31 37 46 48 59 61 72 84 85 95 Iv CONTENTS. Reviews and Notices of Books :—The Development of British Forestry. 274pp.,71 Figs. By A.C. Forbes, F.H.A.S., Chief Forestry Inspector to the Board of Agriculture for Ireland. London: Edward Arnold, Publisher to the India Office, 1911 Elements of British Forestry. 345 pp., 92 Illustrations. By John Nisbet. William Blackwood & Sons, 1g11. Price 5s. 6d. : . : The Book of the English Oak. By Charles Hurst. 188 pp., with a Map of English Oaks and 14 Illustrations from Photographs. Price 5s. net. London: Lynwood & Co.,eleta: : ; 3 Forestry for Woodmen. By C. O. Hanson. 222 pp. 12 Platesand15 Figures. Price 5s. Oxford: Clarendon Press, I91I Town Planting, and the Trees, Shrubs, Herbaceous and other Plants that are best adapted for resisting Smoke. 216 pp., with Index and 16 full-page Plates. By A. D. Webster. London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd. Price 3s. 6d. : ; : Webster’s Foresters’ Pocket Diary. toth Edition, for 1912. Completely revised. London: William Rider and Son. Price 2s. 6d. Report on Cyprus Forestry. 93 pp., I map, 42 figs. By D. E. Hutchins, Chief Conservator of Forests, British’ East Africa. Printed by Waterlow & Sons, Limited, London, 1909 . List of Seeds of Hardy Herbaceous Plants and of Trees -and Shrubs Building Timbers and Architects’ Specifications, which is part of Haworth’s ‘‘ Timber Measurer.” By J. Davies. 234 pp. with Index. London: Alfred Haworth & Co., Ltd., 1910 ; ‘ Obituary :—Caroline, Countess of Seafield—The Late Pro- fessor Mayr (with Portrait) . 13. The Report of the Departmental Committee on Forestry in Scotland 14. On the Relation of Light-Intensity to Advance Growth in Oak and Beech Forests (with Plate). By G. P. Gordon, B.Sc. : , ; : 15. Official Notifications 16. Observations on the Annual Increment of Spruce and Scots Pine (Second Article). By J. H. Milne Home PAGE 102° 104 108. 108: IIo. 114 114 L677; 118 119 121 147 156 160 17. 18. 19. 20. 21i. 22 23 24. 25: CONTENTS. The Raising and Management of Thorn Hedges. By William Hall : : : 4 : Visit to a French Private Forest. By F. Cowley-Brown, Indian Forest Service ; Light in Relation to Tree Growth Development of Forestry in Scotland German Notes (with Plate). By Berthold Ribbentrop, C.1.E. Sections of Larch Timber, showing the Effects of different Soils on the Growth. By Gilbert Brown The Larch Saw-Fly. By Alex. Raffan The Work of Professor Louis Grandeau. By Alex. Lauder, D.Sc., Hon. Consulting Chemist to the Society Forestry at the University of Oxford Notes and Queries :—European Larch and Japanese Larch (with Plate)—Forest Terminology—Bibliography of Forestry—A Large Scots Pine—Investigation into the Current Annual Increment in Girth of the Douglas Fir— Appointment —Choice of Trees for eames for Literary Contributions : ; ‘ Reviews and Notices of Books:—Wayside and Woodland Trees: A Pocket Guide to the British Sylva. By Edward Step, F.L.S. 182 pp. of letterpress, with 175 plain and coloured plates and numerous text figures. London: Frederick Warne & Co. Price 6s. net Tree Lore. By Francis George Heath. With a Table of Indigenous British Trees and Shrubs. 304 pp. Price 3s. 6d. net. London: Charles H. Kelly : Gold Coast Land Tenure and tke Forest Bill, 911. A Review of the Situation by Casely Hayford, Barrister-at-Law. London: C. M. Phillips ; Farming and Forestry: The Cultivation of Trees for Shelter and for Timber. By J. F. Annand, Lecturer on -Forestry, Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 23 pp. with Plate. Published in the Journal of the Newcastle Farmers’ Club, 1911-12 ‘ British Trees, including the finer Shrubs for Garden and Woodland. By the late Rev. C. A. Johns. Edited by E. T. Cook and W. Dallimore. Published by George Routledge & Sons, Ltd. : : : Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 1912, with Appendices. List of Members as at 21st June 1912. 229 236 236 236 239 240 a Scotland | IssuED AS VOLUME XNXV. OF THE SOCIETY’S TRANSACTIONS 1911 EDINBURGH cy PRINTED FOR THE ni ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY Lt.-Col. F. BAILEY, Hon. Editor SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET \ In paper covers, . : 5 . 3/= net; post free, 3/3 LIBRARY PRICE ? In cloth back and stiff boards, 36 ,, a re NEW YORK TENGE i Se UE” IR NT er trang ae YOTANICAL ae GARDEN NOV 3e@ 1972 Zopal Scottish Arboricultural Society. INSTITUTED 1854. Patron—HIS MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY THE KING. Permission to assume the title ‘‘ Royal” was granted by Her Majesty Queen Victoria in 1887. FORMER PRESIDENTS. 1854-56. James Brown, Wood Commissioner to the 1882. ALEXANDER Dickson, M.D., F.R.S.E., of | Earl of Seafield. Hartree, Professor of Botany in the 3857. The Right Hon. Tar Eart or Duct. University of Edinburgh. 1858. The Right Hon. THE Eart or Sratr. 1883-85. Hugu CLecuorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., (859. Sir Joun HAut, Bart. of Dunglass. of Stravithie. | - 860. His Grace Toe DUKE oF ATHOLL. 1886-87. The Right Hon. Sir Herbert Evsrace —~-861. JoHN I, CHAatmeErs of Aldbar. MAXWELL, Bart. of Monreith. 862. The Right Hon. Tur EArt or AIRLIE. 1888-89. The Most Hon. THE Marquis oF 863. The Right Hon. T. F. Kennepy. | LINLITHGOW. | (864-71. Robert Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E. 1890-98. Issac BAYLEY BauFour, M.D., Sc. D., | 872-73. Hue CiecHorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.S., LL.D., Professor of Botany in / of Stravithie. the University of Edinburgh. 4874-75. Joun Hutrron Barour, M.D., M.A., | 1894-97. The Right Hon. R. C. Munro Fereuson, | F.R.SS.L. & E., Professor of Botany in M.P. the University of Edinburgh. 1898. Colonel F. Battey, R.E. 1876-78. The Right Hon. W. P. Apam of Blair- 1899-02. The Right Hon. THe EArt or MANSFIELD, adam, M.P. 1903-06. W. SrevarT ForHrincHam of Murthly. 1879-81. The Most Hon. THe Marauis or 1907-09. Sir KENNETH J, MACKENZIE, Bart. of Loratran, K.T. Gairloch. | | OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1ol11. / President. | Str JOHN STIRLING-MAXWELL, Bart. of Pollok, Pollokshaws. Vice=Presidents, iw. H. MASSIE, Nurseryman, 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. | ROBERT FORBES, Overseer, Kennet Estate Office, Alloa. |) «Rk KENNETH J. MACKENZIE, Bart. of Gairloch, 10 Moray |} Dk A. W. BORTHWICK, D.Sc., Royal Botanic Garden, Edin- Place, Edinburgh. burgh. |’, STEUART FOTHRINGHAM of Murthly, Perthshire. SYDNEY J. GAMMELL of Drumtochty, Countesswells House, Bieldside, Aberdeen. Council. - T. GILLANDERS, ¥.E.S., Forester, Park Cottage, Aln- | ALEXANDER MITCHELL, Forester, Rosebery, Gorebridge. wick. Sin ANDREW AGNEW, Bart., Lochnaw Castle, Stranraer. OHN D. CROZIER, Forester, Durris Estate, Drumoak, | FRANK SCOTT, Forester, Scone. i Aberdeenshire. GEO. LEVEN, Forester, Bowmont Forest, Roxburgh. | AMES WHITTON, Superintendent of City Parks, City JOHN BROOM, Wood Merchant, Bathgate. | Chambers, Glasgow. JOHN F. ANNAND, Lecturer on Forestry, Armstrong College, WILLIAM DAVIDSON, Forester, Panmure, Carnoustie. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. _¥. 8. HALDANE, of Foswell, 55 Melville Street, Edinburgh. JOHN W. M‘HATTIK, Superintendent of City Parks, City | he LORD LOVAT, Beaufort Castle, Beaaly. | Chambers, Edinburgh. » U. MACDONALD, Overseer, Haystoun Estate, Woodbine) BRODIE OF BRODIE, Brodie Castle, Forres. Cottage, Peebles. | WILLIAM DAWSON, M. A., B.Se., Lecturer on Forestry, OBERT ALLAN, Factor, Polkemmet, Whitburn. Marischal College, Aberdeen, a SPIERS, Timber Merchant, Warriston Saw-mills, Edin- | JOHN METHVEN, Nurseryman, 15 Princes Street, Edin- | urgh, burgh. Hon. Editor. Lrevur.-Cotonet F. BAILEY, F.R.S.E., 7 Drummond Place, Edinburgh. Auditor. JOHN T. WATSON, 16 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. Hon. Secretary. ] | HARLES BUCHANAN, Overseer, Penicuik Estate, Penicuik. | JAMES COOK, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. } | | The Rieur Hon. R. C. MUNRO FERGUSON, M.P., Raith House, Kirkcaldy. Secretary and Treasurer. | , ROBERT GALLOWAY, §.8.C., 19 Castle Street, Edinburgh. , ABERDEEN BRANCH. NORTHERN BRANCH. fap dent—Sypney J. GAMMELL of Drumtochty. President—BRecpdiE OF BRopIE. Yon. Secy.—Grorce D. Massik, Solicitor, 143 Union Street, Hon. Secy.—A.eEX. Fraser, Solicitor, 63 Church Street, Aberdeen. Inverness. i o 92 i Membership. Dae Roll contains the names of over 1350 Members, comprising Landowners, Factors, Foresters, Nurserymen, Gardeners, Land Stewards, Wood Merchants, and others interested in Forestry, many of whom reside in England, Ireland, the British Colonies, and India. Members are elected by the Council. The Terms of Subscription will be found on the back of the Form of Proposal for Membership which accompanies this Memorandum, The Principal Objects of the Society, and the nature of its work, will be gathered from the following paragraphs :-— Meetings. The Society holds periodical Meetings for the transaction of business, the reading and discussion of Papers, the exhibition of new Inventions, specimens of Forest Products and other articles of special interest to the Members, and for the advancement of Forestry in all its branches. Meetings of the Council are held every alternate month, and at other times when business requires attention ; and Committees of the Council meet frequently to arrange and carry out the work of the Society. Prizes and Medals. With the view of encouraging young Foresters to study, and to train themselves in habits of careful and accurate observation, the Society offers Annual Prizes and Medals for essays on practical subjects, and for inventions connected with appliances used in Forestry. Such awards have been granted continuously since 1855 up to the present time, and have yielded satisfactory results. Medals and Prizes are also awarded in connection with the Exhibitions aftermentioned. School of Forestry, Afforestation, Etc. Being convinced of the necessity for bringing within the reach of young Foresters, and others interested in the Profession, a regular systematic course of Instruction, such as is provided in Germany, France, and other European countries, the Society, in 1882, strongly urged the creation of a British School of Forestry ; and with a view of stimulating public interest in the matter, a Forestry Exhibition, chiefly organised by the Council, was held in Edinburgh in 1884. As a further step towards the end in view, the Society, in 1890, instituted a Fund for the purpose of establishing a Chair of Forestry at the University of Edinburgh, and a sum of £584, 3S. 10d. has since been raised by the Society and handed over to the University. Aided by an annual subsidy from the 3oard of Agriculture, which the Society was mainly instrumental in obtaining, a Course of Lectures at the University has been delivered without interruption since 1889. It is recognised, how- ever, that a School of Forestry is incomplete without a practical 3 training-ground attached to it, which would be available, not only for purposes of instruction but also as a Station for Research and Experiment, and as a Model Forest, by which Landowners and Foresters throughout the country might benefit. The Society accordingly drew up a Scheme for the Establishment of a State Model or Demonstration Forest for Scotland which might serve the above-named objects. Copies of this Scheme were laid before the Departmental Committee on British Forestry, and in their Report the Committee recommended the establishment of a Demonstration Area and the provision of other educational facilities in Scotland. The Government has recently acquired the Estate of Inverliever in Argyllshire; and while this cannot be looked on as a Demonstration Forest, it is hoped that it may prove to be the first step in a scheme of afforestation by the State of unwooded lands in Scotland. Meantime Mr Munro Ferguson, M.P., for a part of whose woods at Raith a Working-Plan has been prepared, and is now in operation, has very kindly agreed to allow Students to visit them. After the Development Act came into operation, the Council passed a Resolution urging that the Government should, as soon as possible, create a Board of Forestry, with an adequate representa- tion of Scottish Forestry upon it, and an Office in Scotland, where the largest areas of land suitable for Afforestation are situated, which would provide Demonstration Forests and Forest Gardens, and otherwise assist the development of University and other Educational enterprise, and would carry out, as an essential pre- liminary to any great scheme of National Afforestation, a Survey of all areas throughout the country suitable for commercial planting. The Society’s policy for the development of Forestry in Scotland has since been fully laid before the Development Commission. As a result of these representations, the Secretary for Scotland has appointed a Committee to report regarding the acquisition and uses of a Demonstration Forest Area, and any further steps it is desirable to take in order to promote Silviculture in Scotland. The Society has also published a valuable Report on Afforestation—including a Survey of Glen Mor—prepared for it by Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling, which, it is hoped, may form the basis of the Forest Survey, by the Government, advocated by the Society. Excursions. Since 1878 well-organised Excursions, numerously attended by Members of the Society, have been made annually to various parts of Scotland, England, Ireland, and the Continent. In 1895 a Tour extending over twelve days was made through the Forests of Northern Germany, in 1902 a Tour extending over seventeen days was made in Sweden, during the summer of 1904 the Forest School at Nancy and Forests in the north of France were visited, and in 1909 a visit was undertaken to the Bavarian Forests. These Excursions enable Members whose occupations necessarily confine them chiefly to a single locality to study the conditions and methods prevailing elsewhere; and the Council propose to extend 4 the Tours during the next few years to other parts of the Continent. They venture to express the hope that Landowners may be induced to afford facilities to their Foresters for participation in these Tours, the instructive nature of which renders them well worth the _ moderate expenditure of time and money that they involve. Exhibitions. A Forestry Exhibition is annually organised in connection with the Highland and Agricultural Society’s Show, in which are exhibited specimens illustrating the rate of growth of trees, different kinds of wood, pit-wood and railway timber, insect pests and samples of the damage done by them, tools and implements, manufactured articles peculiar to the district where the Exhibition is held, and other objects of interest relating to Forestry. Prizes and Medals are also offered for Special Exhibits. In addition to the Annual Exhibition before referred to, a large and important Forestry Section organised by this Society was included in the Scottish National Exhibition which was held in Edinburgh in 1908, and a similar Section is ‘ncluded in the Scottish Exhibition of National History, Art, and Industry, which is being held in Glasgow this summer. The Society’s Transactions. The Transactions of the Society, which extend to twenty-four volumes, are now published half-yearly in January and July, and are issued gratis to Members. A large number of the Prize Essays and other valuable Papers, and reports of the Annual Excursions, have appeared in them, and have thus become available to Students as well as to those actively engaged in the Profession of Forestry. Honorary Consulting Officials. Members have the privilege of obtaining information gratuitously upon subjects connected with Forestry from the following Honorary Officials appointed by the Society. Consulting Botanist.—Isaac BAYLEY BAL¥our, LL.D., M.D: scabs Professor of Botany, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Consulting Chemist.—ALEXANDER LAUDER, D.Sc., 13 George Square, Edinburgh. Consulting Cryptogamist.—A. W. BORTHWICK, D.Sc., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Consulting Entomologist.—ROBERT STEWART MacDoucGati, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Entomology, etc., 9 Dryden Place, Edinburgh. Consulting Geologist.—R. CAMPBELL, M.A., B.Sc., Geological Labora- tory, University of Edinburgh. Consulting Meteorologist. ANDREW WATT, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary Scottish Meteorological Society, 122 George Street, Edinburgh. Local Branches. Local Branches have been established in Aberdeen and Inverness for the convenience of Members who reside in the districts surrounding these centres. Local Secretaries. The Society is represented throughout Scotland, England, and [reland by the Local Secretaries whose names are given below, They Or are ready to afford any additional information that may be desired regarding the Conditions of Membership and the work of the Society. Register of Estate Men. A Register of men qualified in Forestry and in Forest and Estate Management is kept by the Society. Schedules of application and other particulars may be obtained from the Local Secretariés in the various districts, or direct from the Secretary. It is hoped that Proprietors and others requiring Estate men will avail themselves of the Society’s Register. Consulting Foresters. The Secretary keeps a list of Consulting Foresters whose services are available to Members of the Society and others. Correspondents. The following have agreed to act as Correspondents residing abroad : — Canada, Rosert Bet, I1.8.0., M.D., LL.D., D-.Sc.(Cantab.) F.R.S. of Ottawa. Chief Geologist to Government of Canada, Ottawa. India, F. L. C. Cowitry Brown, Deputy Conservator of Forests, c/o Inspector-General of Forests, Simla. British East \ Epwarp Barriscomse, Assistant Conservator of Forests, Africa, United States | of America, | Cape Colony, . Nigeri, via Naivasha, East Africa Protectorate. Hueu P. Baker, Forester, State College, Pennsylvania. W. Nimmo Brown, M‘Kenzie’s Farm, Mowbray, P.O. Western Australia, Freep Moon. LOCAL SECRETARIES. Scotland. Counties. Aberdeen, JOHN CLARK, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeen. JoHN Micuis, M.V.O., Factor, Balmoral, Ballater. Argyle, . JOHN D. SUTHERLAND, Estate Agent, Oban. Ayr, ANDREW D. PAGE, Overseer, Culzean Home Farm, Ayr. A. B. Ropertson, Forester, The Dean, Kilmarnock. Berwick, Wma. Mitnz, Foulden Newton, Berwick-on-Tweed. Bute, Wo. Ines, Forester, Cladoch, Brodick. JAMES Kay, Barone, Rothesay. Clackmannan,. Ropert Forses, Estate Office, Kennet, Alloa. Dumfries, D. Crasee, Forester, Byreburnfoot, Canonbie. East Lothian,. W.S. Curr, Factor, Ninewar, Prestonkirk. Fife, Wm. Gitcarist, Forester, Nursery Cottage, Mount Melville, St Andrews. EDMUND SANG, Nurseryman, Kirkcaldy. Forfar, . JAMES CRABBE, retired Forester, Glamis. Inverness, JAMES A. Gossip, Nurseryman, Inverness. Kincardine, JOHN Hart, Estates Office, Cowie, Stonehaven. Kinross, JAMES TERRIS, Factor, Dullomuir, Blairadam. Counties. Lanark, . Moray, Perth, Renfrew, Ross, Roxburgh, Sutherland, Wigtown, Beds, Berks, Cheshire, Devon, Durham ? Hants, Herts, Kent, Lancashire, Leicester, Lincoln, Middlesea:, Notts, Suffolk, . Surrey, . Warwick, : Wilts, Yo The Dublin, ry * 4 Galway, . Kings County, Tipperary, 6 Scotland. Joun Davipson, Forester, Dalzell, Motherwell. JAMES WHITTON, Superintendent of Parks, City Chambers, Glasgow, D. Scort, Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. JOHN ScrimcEour, Doune Lodge, Doune. S. MacBran, Overseer, Erskine, Glasgow. Joun J. R. MEIKLEJONN, Factor, Novar, Evanton. Miss Amy Frances Yue, Tarradale House, Muir of Ord. JOHN LEISHMAN, Manager, Cavers Estate, Hawick. R. V. Maruer, Nurseryman, Kelso. Donap Rogerrson, Forester, Dunrobin, Golspie. JAMES Hocarrg, Forester, Culhorn, Stranraer. H. H. WALKER, Monreith Estate Office, Whauphill. England. Francis MiITcHe.t, Forester, Woburn. W. Sroriz, Whitway House, Newbury. Wo. A. Forster, Belgrave Lodge, Pulford, Wrexham. JAMES BARRIE, Forester, Stevenstone Estate, Torrington. Joun F. ANNAND, Lecturer on Forestry, Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. W. R. Brown, Forester, Park Cottage, Heckfield, Winchfield. JAMES Barron, Forester, Hatfield. THomaAsS SMITH, Overseer, Tring Park, Wigginton, Tring. R. W. Cowrrr, Gortanore, Sittingbourne. D. C. HAmitton, Forester, Knowsley, Prescot. JAMES MARTIN, The Reservoir, Knipton, Grantham. W. B. Havexock, The Nurseries, Brocklesby Park. Professor Bouncer, 11 Onslow Road, Richmond Hill, London, S. W. Wm. ELpEr, Thoresby, Ollerton, Newark. W. Micuix, Forester, Welbeck, Worksop. Witson ToMLtnson, Forester, Clumber Park, Worksop. Grorce Hannan, The Folly, Ampton Park, Bury St Edmunds. JOHN ALEXANDER, 24 Lawn Crescent, Kew Gardens. A. D. Curistigz, Hillside, Frederick Road, Selly Oak, 3irmingham. ANDREW Boa, Land Agent, Glenmore, The Avenue, Trowbridge, D. Tarr, Estate Bailiff, Owston Park, Doncaster. Ireland. A. C, Forses, Department of Forestry, Board of Agriculture. JAMES WILSON, B.Sc., Royal College of Science, Dublin. Anrcu. E. Morran, Lessadell, Thelorgan Park. THOMAS RoBertson, Forester and Bailiff, Woodlawn. Wm. HENDERSON, Forester, Clonad Cottage, Tullamore. Davin G. Cross, Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh. ALEX. M‘Rar, Forester, Dundrum. opal Scottish Arboricultural Society FORM OF PROPOSAL FOR MEMBERSHIP. To be signed by the Candidate, his Proposer and Seconder, and returned to ROBERT GALLOWAY, S.S.C., SECRETARY, Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 19 Castle Street, Edinburgh. ( Full Name, Designation, Degrees, etc., 2 4 Address, Candidate's Life, or Ordinary Member, i ——— \ Signature, . Signature, . < Proposer’ s \ dddress, Signature, ; Seconder’ s Address, ‘CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP, see Over. CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP (excerpted from the Laws). III. Any person interested in Forestry, and desirous of pro- moting the objects of the Society, is eligible for election as an Ordinary Member in one of the following Classes :— 1. Proprietors the valuation of whose land exceeds £500 per annum, and others, subscribing annually : . One Guinea. tN Proprietors the valuation of whose land does not exceed £500 per annum, Factors, Nurserymen, Timber Merchants, and others, subscribing annually . . Half-a-Guinea. 3. Foresters, Gardeners, Land-Stewards, Tenant Farmers, and others, subscribing annually : : . Six Shillings. 4. Assistant-Foresters, Assistant-Gardeners, and others, sub- scribing annually : : : : . Four Shillings. IV. Subscriptions are due on the lst of January in each year, and shall be payable in advance. A new Member's Subscription is due on the day of election unless otherwise provided, and he shall not be enrolled until he has paid his first Subscription. V. Members in arrear shall not receive the Zvansactions, and shall not be entitled to vote at any of the meetings of the Society. Any Member whose Annual Subscription remains unpaid for two years shall cease to be a Member of the Society, and no such Member shall be eligible for re-election till his arrears have been paid up. VI. Any eligible person may become a Lzfe Member of the Society, on payment, according to class, of the following sums :— 1. Large Proprietors of land, and others, : F » 1010) 0 2. Small Proprietors, Factors, Nurserymen, Timber Mer- chants, and others, : ; : : : 5 Sad 3. Foresters, Gardeners, Land-Stewards, Tenant Farmers, and others, ; : : C ; : : 3.3 0 VII. Any Ordinary Member of Classes 1, 2, and 3, who has paid five Annual Subscriptions, may become a Zz/e Member on payment of Two-thirds of the sum payable by a xeze Life Member. XII. Every Proposal for Membership shall be made in writing, and shall be signed by two Members of the Society as Proposer and Seconder, and delivered to the Secretary to be laid before the Council, which shall accept or otherwise deal with each Proposal as it may deem best in the interest of the Society. The Proposer and Seconder shall be responsible for payment of the new Member’s first Subscription. ‘The Council shall have power to decide the Class under which any Candidate for Membership shall be placed. AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND FOREST SURVEY OF GLEN MOR AND A CONSIDERATION OF Certain Problems arising therefrom teeta BY LORD LOVAT AND CAPTAIN STIRLING oF KEIR EDINBURG PRINTED FOR THE ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY Lr.-Cor. F. BAILEY, Hon. Epiror tenets alll ' a - - 7 - ' : 7 7 7 ae « : ; 7 Se ae 7% c ‘= On “2 las & p : 4 2 2 a 7) XxX 8 4 ] = 4 CT a . = ; : _ , ‘ Do We Oe Aes ae PREP ACE: In publishing this Report, the Council of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society desires to convey its best thanks to Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling of Keir, and to all those who have assisted them, for the time and labour ungrudgingly given to its preparation. This Survey is the first serious attempt to grapple with the economic difficulties which confront afforestation in that part of Great Britain where the largest extent of plantable land—that is to say, land sufficiently good and sufficiently cheap—is to be found. It would have been easy to select an area where most of these difficulties would have been avoided, and to create a forest under ideal silvicultural conditions within a ring fence. Such areas do exist, and no one will deny that they have the first claim on afforestation. But if silviculture is to become a leading industry in the Highlands of this country, as it is in those of France, Belgium and Germany, and to be an important source of national wealth and national employment, as it is in those countries, it must invade the wintering of the high sheep farms and deer forests which occupy the bulk of northern Scotland. The writers have therefore, at the request of the Council, deliberately set themselves to face the difficulties which have there to be met. The Council cannot adopt every opinion contained in a document which raises so many new and complicated questions, but it desires to express its unreserved approval of the general method followed in this Survey, and to endorse the opinion of the writers that a Survey should aim rather at ascertaining the most favourable forest centres than at recording the number of acres fit to plant. The Council desires once more to state its conviction, which is confirmed by every page of this Report, that a general Survey of Scotland for this purpose is an urgent national need which it is the duty of the Government to meet at once. lV PREFACE. The Council believes that the Report establishes the following propositions :— 1. That it is possible to create forests in the Highlands, even in districts where the economic conditions appear most adverse, without seriously impairing existing sources of wealth. 2. That afforested areas will, even in the early stages of the movement, gain greatly in employment and population. 3. That the actual work of planting can and ought to be cautiously begun as soon as the progress of the Survey justifies the selection of definite areas. The Council does not underrate the necessity for forest education, and most heartily welcomes the steps which the Government is now preparing to take in that direction; but it believes that there will be a great waste of time and public money if the Survey and the first comparatively simple stages of afforestation are delayed until the educational machine has turned out a new race of experts. The cost of printing this Report and certain out-of-pocket expenses have been defrayed by the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, but otherwise the undertaking has been from beginning to end a labour of love. It is impossible to enumerate all those who have assisted Lord Loyat and Captain Stirling in its preparation and revision, but the thanks of the Council are specially due to Dr Nisbet, Dr Borthwick, Mr Dawson, Mr Stebbing, Mr Munro Ferguson, Lochiel, Captain Ellice, The Countess of Seafield, Colonel Baillie, Mr Bailey of Invergloy, Mr Grant of Glenmoriston, Mr Gilbert Brown, Mr Mackenzie, Mr Garrioch and Mr Galloway. The following members of the Council, and others, recorded Mr J. F. Annand, Dr Borthwick, Sir K. J. Mackenzie, Mr J. D. Crozier, Captain Ellice, Right Hon. R. C. Munro Ferguson, Mr Robert Forbes, Mr Galloway, Mr Gammell, Mr A. T. Gillanders, Mr G. U. Macdonald, Mr Frank Scott and Dr Somerville. valuable suggestions on the proofs: May 1911. CON TENT 3: CHAPTER WT: INTRODUCTION GENERAL : f A Central Boyes Ruthotity - Its First Duty Method of Procedure SURVEY OF GLEN Mor Area Selected . CHARTER: LocaL ECONOMICS Wintering Rates CHAPTER Sie DETAILED SURVEY OF THE Fort AUGUSTUS BLOCK Preliminary Treatment of Sheep Sattine - Treatment of Deer Forests Wintering of Sheep and Deer in Pianeatone Shootings: Moor and Low Ground Grouse Rabbits Mountain Hares Roe Deer Black Game Woodcock, etc. General Remarks CEVA RAMEN RS LV: RENT AND OTHER CHARGES Rent Su mma ry Rates PAGE mum & Ww N ) 9 10 ¢ ~ Rw bw WH WN OV Gs 10/0) CONTENTS. CHAPTER VY. WORKMEN'S DWELLINGS AND TENURE OF HOLDINGS Amount of Employment, and existing Labour Supply Method of Increasing the Labour Supply Houses and the Tenure of Lana Offices Type of the Grote ond Pigidies Plans of Buildings Number of Weeks’ Forest oie Number of Crofts Position of Croft General Instructions CHAPTER VI. CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT The Scheme Foresters Time Required for @manisaion CHAPTER VII. FINANCE AND EMPLOYMENT Estimated Expenditure Notes on the Employees Realisation of Timber Table of Work Natural Timber Crops Wages. CHAPTER VIII. STOCKING OF THE GROUND Aldourie Dochfour Glen Urquhart Invermoriston Inchnacardoch, Glendoe aa Dell Cullachy Invergarry Achnacarry Auchendaul CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. SKETCH OF WORKING-PLAN General Outlines Meteorological Conditions Geology General Fencing Draining Transport Facilities Planting Scheme Nursery Staff and about CHAPTER X. UriILISATION OF EXISTING WOODLAND PRODUCE Birch-Woods Oak-Woods Existing Natural Birch and ‘Stub- grown Oak: ‘Woods Conifer Woods and Plantations New and Extended Conifer Plantations Summary CHAPTER: Sale CONCLUSION APPENDIX A. CENTRAL ForREST AUTHORITY APPENDIX B. TENURE OF LAND UNDER AFFORESTATION—FIVE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS. I.—Purchase or Feu = the State II.—Long Lease by the State : III.—Co-operation by Partnership penwecn the Proprietor and the State IV.—Encouragement of Individual Effort oy Sere Loans . V.—Private Enterprise aden State Goneel Conclusion Insurance vil 79 SI vill CONTENTS. APPENDIX C. PAGE SUGGESTED HEADS OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE FOREST AUTHORITY AND THE LANDOWNER . : : 88 Compulsory Powers; Appeals ; Arbitration ; ; gI PLANS AND MAPS. PLANS OF BUILDINGS ON CROFTS. Map No. 1—GENERAL MAP, SHOWING FOREST BLOCKS. Map No. 2—Forr AuGustrus BLOCK, SHOWING THE AREA OF PLANTABLE GROUND, AND THE PORTIONS THEREOF WHICH ARE SUITABLE FOR CERTAIN SPECIES, Map No. 3—FortT AuGustus BLock, SHOWING THE ORDER OF PLANTING UP THE GROUND. Forest Survey of Glen Mor AND ESCONSIDERATION OF CERTAIN PROBLEMS ARISING THEREFROM. TOUT. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. A great deal of valuable evidence in matters relating to forestry has been printed in the various Reports of Royal Com- missions and Departmental Committees in the course of the last twenty years. It is, however, a regrettable fact, and one which those who gave their services to the inquiries would be the first to admit, that no progress has been made in the task of collecting and recording the data required for an accurate estimate of — (2) the amount of land in the British Isles which is capable of being afforested, and (/) the proportion of such land on which forestry would not only pay but would justify itself as the best economic use to which the land could be put. These two questions, or rather two aspects of a single question, lie at the root of the whole problem of afforestation, and until they are finally disposed of all schemes, however perfect in theory or carefully elaborated in detail, are of no practical value, based as they must be on purely hypothetical grounds. In the absence of exact data, the estinaates of the amount of land suitable for afforestation in Scotland given to and by the Commissions, have varied between very wide limits; while the second and more important aspect of the problem, its national economic side, has received very little attention, nor indeed could this be profitably considered until its first and simpler aspect had been removed from the region of doubt and conjecture. To take one example only, the Report of the latest Forestry Commission, originally appointed to inquire into the question of Coast Erosion. This Commission undoubtedly added to the VOL. XxXV. A 2 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. general sum of knowledge on the possibilities of afforestation. Yet notwithstanding the excellent work done by its members and the interest it aroused in the country, the colossal schemes advocated in the Report have roused the fears of public bodies whose source of revenue, and of individuals whose means of living, were bound up in the present uses of the land indicated for wholesale afforestation. ‘These fears were not unreasonable, and they might easily be converted into determined opposition towards any scheme of afforestation which is not founded on the recognition of the importance of the interests involved. It is hoped that the following pages will tend to reassure those who regard afforestation in the abstract with distrust and alarm; and at the same time will show to those who are concerned with the scientific aspect of forestry alone, how existing rural industries are not necessarily incompatible with silviculture. The aim of the writers throughout this Report has been to avoid abstractions and to give a concrete example, on a small scale, of methods which they believe are capable of application to larger areas. Taking as the foundation of their proposals the existing economic values of a single district, they deal, as fully as space permits, with the various questions arising out of a local afforestation scheme ;—to put it shortly, they aim at showing how much of the land in the district could be, and how much should be, afforested. In addition to this example of a single forest area, which occupies by far the larger part of their Report, they have been obliged to enter into some brief discussion of principles of wider application. ‘lhe very existence of a local scheme, as here set out, pre-supposes a general scheme of which the local scheme is designed to form a part, and from which, with regard to manage- ment, training, realisation of forest products, control, etc., it cannot be isolated even in imagination. GENERAL. A CENTRAL FOREST AUTHORITY: ITS FIRST. DULY In the opinion ot the writers, the initiative in any scheme of afforestation must come from a Central Forest Authority GENERAL. B (see Appendix A) definitely constituted ad hoc, so composed as to command general confidence, and invested with such powers as may be found necessary to secure the carrying out in their entirety of plans which have been thoroughly considered and adopted after adequate preliminary local inquiry. The writers consider that the first duty of the Central Forest Authority should be to ascertain, by means of a Survey, the facts on which an afforestation scheme could be founded. This Survey should include :— (2) A broad general investigation of the silvicultural possi- bilities of Scotland as a whole. (6) A particular and detailed consideration of the whole economic conditions of certain selected forest centres, carefully chosen as suitable for silviculture, for the establishment of wood industries, and for the support of a permanent population. The former, which is here called the ‘‘ General” Survey, would indicate the localities in which individual forest centres might be established, rather than attempt to give the total number of isolated acres which would grow trees. The latter, and more important, here called the ‘ Detailed” Survey, would not in any way depend on the completion of the whole of the General Survey, which would be used as a means by which proposed forest centres could be marked down for future detailed examination. The physical and economic conditions of Scotland prevent any one scheme of afforestation from being applied to the country as a whole. Besides the differences in soil, climate, population, and systems of agriculture, between Highlands and Lowlands, and East and West coasts, there is a still stronger argument for local schemes as opposed to any one general scheme of afforestation. The land suitable for afforestation in Scotland occurs more in irregularly distributed patches than in continuous blocks. In the Highlands the suitable areas are separated by wide stretches of high, poor land; in the Lowlands the enclosed and cultivated country has the same effect of isolat- ing the areas in which afforestation can take the leading place. METHOD OF PROCEDURE. When the General Survey indicates a prima facie case for the creation of a forest centre in any district, a Detailed Survey, 4 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. undertaken at the instance of the Central Forest Authority, and following some such lines as are indicated below, will be the next step towards the formulation of a local scheme. The heads of such an inquiry would be— 1. A detailed survey of the ground with regard to its capacity for growing a crop of trees. 2. Thorough consideration of all the existing economic factors, and the extent to which they would be modified by afforestation. . Recommendations as to the extent of ground which could be planted with due regard to both of the above. io>) 4. Recommendations as to what parts of the area are proposed to be— (a) Purchased by the Forest Authority. (6) Leased by the Forest Authority. (c) Planted in co-partnership with the landowner. (Zz) Planted by loan to the landowner. (ec) Planted by the landowner at his own expense, under supervision. 5. Recommendations on points affecting the working-plan— (a) Position of the local centre, including nursery, sawmills, etc. (4) Holdings for workers. (c) Proposed method for dealing with— (1) Sheep farms. (2) Deer forests. (3) Grouse shootings. (dz) Compensation under the above headings. (e) Purchase and treatment of existing wood crops. (f) Utilisation of the prospective timber crop. 6. Sketch of working-plan. With the findings of the local Inquiry Committee in their hands, the Central Authority would consider the pros and cons, if necessary listen to evidence for and against its recom- mendations, and decide whether or not a case had been made out for he creation of a forest centre. 3y this method of procedure a_ thorough investigation of the facts would be ensured, and a full opportunity would be given to the opponents of afforestation, as well as to SURVEY OF GLEN MOR. 5 its advocates, tobring forward their arguments, first, before the local Inquiry Committee, and afterwards, before the Central Forest Authority.! SURVEY OF GLEN MOR. The Report here submitted presents the concrete example of a single Highland district exactly as it would be dealt with in the General and the Detailed Surveys under a scheme of afforestation. It reviews the district’s interests, its population or lack of population, its burdens, its systems of agriculture, and the existing opportunities for employment of labour. It shows how, under a properly constituted Central Authority, the plantable area could be afforested to the greatest economic advantage; and the benefits which would arise from a continuous scheme of management, and from operations conducted under a thoroughly considered working-plan. It reviews the employ- ment that could be given in the improvement and _ utilisation of the existing woods, and in the creation and management of new plantations, and it shows the various tenures under which a permanent population could be fixed on the soil. After careful consideration, it has been decided to leave the question of the ownership of the land outside the body of the Report. Experience in other development schemes has shown that this subject is so absorbing as to distract discussion from the particular object on which it is wished to focus attention. As regards the various forms of ownership of land with which the Forest Authority would have to deal in any general scheme of afforestation, the opinion of the writers will be found in Appendix B. AREA SELECTED: Glen Mor, through which the Caledonian Canal runs, has been selected for the first Survey for the following reasons :— (a) It has the general approval of the Royal Scottish Arbori- cultural Society, eighty of whose members visited it in June 1910. 1 For the question of appeal against the decisions of the Central Forest Authority, v7de Appendix C. 6 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. (6) It contains 60,000 acres. of *mmedrately plantable ground, without including land more than 8 miles from the main glen.! (c) It presents both East coast and West coast conditions of population, climate and soil, (d) It is a particularly suitable area for the creation of small holdings, owing to the low elevation of the main glen, and to the considerable extent of the arable land on some of the sheep farms. (e) It contains tracts of natural woodland and of planted woods, and it therefore gives an opportunity of check- ing by actual results the calculation of crops obtain- able. (f) It contains sheep farms, agricultural farms, crofts, common grazings, deer forests and grouse moors, and therefore gives an opportunity of dealing with all the possible economic difficulties which can arise. (g) The Caledonian Canal makes it possible to bring to a central depot the forest products of the whole area, thus showing the advantages that would be gained by undertaking forest operations on a large scale, with the accompanying concentration of manufactures and subsidiary industries. (4) The proprietors are friendly to forestry, themselves plant on a considerable scale, and have helped this inquiry in every way in their power. The amount of land in Glen Mor indicated by the General Survey as being at present plantable is 60,300 acres (see Map No. 1). This figure has been arrived at by taking an upper limit of 800 feet” above sea-level, except in certain sheltered hollows where the upper limit is higher; and by deducting from the total area below these limits all arable land, crofts, and common grazings, as well as any small patches suitable for the creation of new holdings, and ground which is incapable of growing a ' In calculating the plantable area, only that has been included on which the configuration of the ground and the existing woods indicate satisfactory silvicultural conditions, As the afforestation of a glen proceeds, however, the woodlands will gradually creep higher and higher up the hills, and the plantable area will, in consequence, become extended. * Vide Chapter IX, SURVEY OF GLEN MOR. i profitable crop of trees, including sour, undrainable land and rocky places. This afforestable area of 60,300 acres divides itself naturally into five blocks of unequal size, which are distinguished by capital letters on the map; and they may be further described by the names of the centres round which they are respectively grouped :— A Dores. B- Fort Augustus. C Glen Urquhart. D_ Invergarry. E Gairlochy. Of these, the Fort Augustus Block has been chosen for the purpose of illustrating the procedure under the Detailed Survey (see Maps Nos. 2 and 3). In making this inquiry, every effort has been made to arrive at accurate figures, the services of experts having been obtained for each branch into which it has naturally divided itself. Full use has been made of local experience, and, as far as possible, each decision or recommendation has been referred to men wha have actual local knowledge of the soil. The extent of the plantable area (see Map No. 2, and Chapter VIII.) has been surveyed by Mr Brown, woods manager to Lady Seafield, and Mr Mackenzie, head forester to Mr Munro Ferguson of Novar, aided by foresters of great local experience, such as Mr Noble, Mr M‘Lean, Mr Coupar, Mr Anderson and others. Problems connected with deer forests have been sub- mitted to Lochiel, Mr Grant of Glen Moriston, Major Fraser Tytler of Aldourie, Mr Baillie of Dochfour and Mr Angelo, and the opinions of experienced deer stalkers have also been obtained. Questions connected with sheep farms have been con- sidered from the points of view of the employment afforded, the present and former rents, etc.; while the difficult question of grazing values has been calculated both on present rents and on the rents of similarly situated lands in the neighbourhood. The rating question, as affecting the County Council Districts and the various parishes concerned, has been discussed with the principal rating authorities, and the technical questions of work- ing-plans, creation of nurseries, timber manufactures, forest toads, thinnings, crops, rotation, planting, fencing, etc., have been submitted to men who have wide experience both of 8 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. theoretical principles and of practice. Mr Dawson, the lecturer on forestry at the University of Aberdeen, working on general lines laid down by the writers, has been kind enough to deal with the working-plan (see Chapter IX.). From his extensive knowledge of the district, and his experience of East Highland conditions generally, it will probably be agreed that no better authority could be consulted. Dr Nisbet has given most effective aid both in the shaping of the Report and the treatment of the chapter on Utilisation of Existing Woodland Produce (see Chapter X.). Apart from the position he occupies as a writer and exponent of silviculture, he speaks with great authority on West coast conditions and the handling of timber on a large scale. The writers have also been so fortunate as to secure the co- operation of Mr Stebbing, who throughout the inquiry has given most valuable advice. Mr Borthwick has also been very helpful, both with suggestions and corrections of proof. Mr Galloway has given effective aid, at different stages of the Report, by his suggestive criticism and his legal and practical knowledge. Colonel Bailey, the Society’s Hon. Editor, has materially assisted the writers in the drawing up of their Report, and in passing it through the Press. |N.B.—When reading the Report, it must be borne in mind that the figures and other details set out in it are given for the Glen Mor area only, or for such part of that area as may be specially mentioned. They do not pretend to be of universal application in the Highlands, still less so for general use in Scotland as a whole. | CHAPTER II. LOCAL ECONOMICS. WINTERING. The wintering question—that is to say, how stock can be maintained on high-lying ground from early October to the middle of May—is the all-important question on which hill farming and, as will be shown later, silviculture in the Highlands depends. The narrowness of the glens, the steep- ness of the hillsides, the relatively small area capable of being planted, and the large extent of hinterland thrown out of gear by any interference with the small extent of wintering ground available, combine to make the problem a difficult one. It is not easy to lay down any laws which are true of the wintering in all Highland districts. Broadly speaking, however, it is accurate to say that, with regard to sheep stock, the old ewes and wethers only can find a precarious existence on the lower slopes in winter ; that hoggs, and younger sheep generally, have to be moved sometimes for a distance of 200 miles to low-land feeding from October to April; that for cattle the higher grazings do not provide outside keep until the end of May; and that, in an average year, for weeks and frequently for months at a time, nothing except the fox and the ptarmigan can exist unhoused above the 1000-1200 feet level; while at these times even the grouse and the wild red deer leave the high ground for places where they can find food and shelter. In bad years, and in certain districts in average seasons, deer have to be artificially fed in winter, the ewe stock has to be hayed at intervals, and Highland stirks have to be provided with shelter and food. It is not difficult to see that ground under 1200 feet—the only ground which can be planted, and the only ground which can maintain stock in winter—has not only a value of its own for feeding, but has an even greater value as the sole means by which the great expanse of high ground can be placed in a position to feed a summer stock. 9 10 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. This is the all-controlling law of management for all outside stock in the Highlands; and it is the absence of a clear under- standing of this limiting force which has proved the destruction of so many otherwise excellent plans for the regeneration of the Highlands. RAGES: In addition to wintering, the further question of rates has to be reckoned with. When we consider that rates in the Highlands are high, that in many districts industries are non- existent, and that sporting rents and sheep farms already pay more than half the rates, it will be realised that any interference with existing values must of necessity seriously affect the incidence of local taxation. While it is probably true that the rateable value of a district would ultimately be increased by the establishment of a forest centre, yet the effect of afforestation on local taxation during the period of development requires most careful consideration. It is certain that a scheme, however sound silviculturally, which does not take due account of the present rateable values will, from the ratepayers’ point of view, be both unsound and unfair. It is proposed, therefore, to begin with a particular examination of the incidence of local taxation, and the nature of the annua! values on which it falls. In the Glen Mor district, sheep farms, deer forests and shooting rents contribute 60 per cent. of the rates. To destroy these values, therefore, would more than double the rates on the remaining subjects. In the parish of Boleskine the valuation of sheep farms, with deer forests and shootings is £ 7300 out of a total of £14,940; in Invermoriston and Glen Urquhart parishes, £9570 out of a total of £14,655; in Kilmonivaig parish, £13,200 out of a total of #,20,060; in Glenelg parish, £5090 out of a total of £7970; and in the landward part of Kilmaillie parish, £9545 out of a total of £13,900. The rates for owners and occupiers in the various parishes run from 4s, to 6s. in the £ ; and at Fort Augustus, in the centre of the forest area, the local rates, including special water and drainage rates, run to 7s. inthe £. The population of the dis- trict depends entirely on agriculture and summer visitors — tourists and sporting tenants ; and while there is plenty of work for all LOCAL ECONOMICS. II in the summer and the early autumn months, there is practically no outside employment during the remainder of the year. Glen Mor is a wide glen, and the proportion of low ground in the various sheep farms and deer forests is greater than is found on many of the narrower glens in the Highlands. Still, even here, the proportion of plantable ground to high ground which is suitable only for summer grazing for sheep or deer is not more than 1 to 4}. From the above it is evident that: I. 2. The district is a poor one. Reckless planting of the wintering ground would mean— (a) Great loss of rent ; and (6) A very large increase of the rates to all inhabitants of the district. The rates at present are high for a rural district. With the exception of the Foyers Aluminium Works, loca! industries are conspicuous only by their absence. Any large increase to the existing rates would act as a bar to the establishment of new industries. It is possible to lay down certain general laws for treating this area :— 1. That no arable land should be planted. nN It would be necessary to take certain farm lands for the creation of small holdings; but as arable land in the district carries an average of one family to every 15 acres, the population would be diminished rather than increased by taking any land away from under the plough. . That sheep ground and deer forests should be planted so as least to interfere with their existing uses and rental values. 3. That existing crofter grazing, which has a value to the inhabitants quite outside its intrinsic monetary worth, should not be included in the scheme. 4. That as the prosperity of the district largely depends, both from rents and employment, on the letting of houses to summer visitors, it is important that the amenity and therefore the letting value of such houses should not be interfered with. 5. That, especially for winter employment, full consideration should be given to the existing labouring and crofter population. CuHaprer III. DETAILED SURVEY OF THE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK: PRELIMINARY. It is necessary to commence this chapter by reminding our readers that the methods advocated for the treatment of sheep farms and deer forests are dictated by the exigencies of the situation and not by the silvicultural preference of the writers. The suggestions are based on practical experience and results visible in the area under review, not on silvicultural laws which, though admittedly sound in themselves, do not meet the economic difficulties described in the previous chapter. . The writers can only urge against those who advocate the purchase or lease of whole subjects, and the elimination of agricultural and sporting values inside the forest area, the certainty of increased initial cost, and the not less certain opposition of the rural inhabitants, due to the increase of rates and the destruction of existing means of employment. If methods based on purely silvicultural considerations were adopted, the writers would be the first to admit that better silvicultural conditions would prevail; but it is probable that the actual cost of the land to the State would be trebled (see Chapter IV.), and it still remains to be proved (in view of the excellent results already obtained in Glen Mor) that, under the altered conditions, the net profit on the whole scheme would increase in proportion to the expense involved. It might have been possible to choose an area where the whole estate or farm might be purchased and planted ; but such districts are not common, and the writers have preferred to select an area where they could meet the economic difficulties, some of which will certainly have to be faced in the bulk of the 12 DETAILED SURVEY OF THE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK. 13 land suitable for afforestation, especially in the districts which stand most in need of development. TREATMENT OF SHEEP FARMS. The value of sheep ground in this portion of Glen Mor is not high. Even in the best days of sheep farming, on certain forests, sheep rents did not equal a fifth of the gross rental which the same land now gives under deer. The summer grazing on some parts of the higher stretches of the Monaliadh barely exceeds a penny per acre per annum. Corriesoulagach, 2600 acres in extent, fetches a rent of £13, while £25 is paid for another block of 4000 acres in the immediate neighbourhood. Even on the low ground, the rents for hill grazing, apart from the value of houses and arable land, are low. The rent of £230 for the farm of Aberchalder covers 100 acres of arable land, a #1200 house, extensive steadings, and some goto acres of hill ground. The treatment advised for sheep farms differs from that advised for deer forests. The high ground of a sheep farm has its value both as a wether-hirsel and as grouse ground, even if the greater part of the low ground be taken away. The treatment suggested for sheep farms in the Fort Augustus Block is to begin at one end of the wintering of one farm, as shown in Map No. 3, and to plant the whole of it before enter- ing the next farm. The arable ground taken from the sheep farm will be occupied by the small holdings of the forest workers, and the farm houses will be used to accommodate the staff, or, perhaps, will be let to summer visitors, the high ground being let for a flying stock, ze. for grazing from June to mid- September. It is not to be taken for granted that this method of dealing with sheep farms is of universal application, even throughout the whole of. Glen Mor. In the Fort Augustus Block the sheep grazing is indifferent, and the sum to be debited against afforesta- tion, as the difference between the rents returned by a flying stock and by a permanent stock, is not a large one. From this special treatment of a selected area, it must not be supposed that planting is necessarily wholly incom- patible with sheep farming. Certain rich grazing lands on the borders, which let at a rent of nearly 5s. per acre per annum, are, no doubt, for some time at all events, rightly to be I4 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. regarded as too valuable for afforestation; and there are also great stretches of high hill sheep farms which, in view of the more suitable subjects obtainable elsewhere, are too bleak and exposed to be worth experimenting upon. There are, however, throughout the length and breadth of Scotland, tracts of what might be called “average sheep land,” rented at from gd. to 2s. per acre, which could be planted with advantage on a method exactly the same as that advised for deer forests, viz., one-third of the wintering to be afforested, and no further ground to be taken from the farm until after the ewe stock had been allowed to winter once again in the planted area. Sufficient data are available to establish the value of the grazing in woods, especially larch woods. On three of the large estates in Glen Mor sheep are allowed into the opener woods ; and in the great plantations of Lady Seafield, in the high Gran- town district, sheep are regularly allowed access to all woods after the trees have reached seventeen or eighteen years of age. Dr Nisbet, in his standard work on British Forestry, quotes land under larch, on the Castlerigg estate, Northumberland, let at the rate of 5s. per acre per annum for grazing ; and Lochiel habitually winters weak ewes in his larch woods at Achnacarry with satisfactory results. While the writers wish to point out that there is a considerable value in the winter grazing of larch woods, especially in the northern districts of Scotland, where shelter constitutes such an important factor in the care of stock, they do not argue for a moment either that, by planting coni- fers, moderate sheep ground in Glen Mor will be raised to the value of the good sheep ground of Northumberland, or that, after taking away a third of the wintering, the value of the subjects will ever exceed two-thirds of their original value. The preceding considerations make it clear that the Forest Authority should approach the sheep-farming problems with caution, and should be aided by the best expert advice. Taking over sheep stock at a valuation is a costly proceeding, and an “acclimatised stock,” once abolished, can only be replaced after many years of labour and at no inconsiderable expense. Sheep farms in many districts pay a considerable portion of the rates, provide an appreciable percentage of the local employment, and afford a means of extracting a return, even if it be a small one, from otherwise wholly barren hill ground. It is to the economic interest of the country generally that such a_ well-established DETAILED SURVEY OF ‘tHE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK. 15 industry should be interfered with as little as_ silvicultural demands permit. TREATMENT OF DEER FORESTS. The treatment of deer forests must depend largely on the extent of the wintering and on its relation to the high unplant- able ground. Broadly speaking, in the Glen Mor district, the value of a stag killed represents £25 to £30, and a brace of grouse represents one sovereign. Average deer ground is worth is. to 3S. an acre; grouse ground is worth rs to 1s. 6d.; sheep summer grazing 1d. to 3d. per acre. In certain cases it might be found advisable to plant the whole of the wintering of deer forests straight away ; to place the high ground under a flying stock of sheep ; and to charge the difference between the sporting value of the deer forest and the rent arrived at by summer grazing plus grouse, against the woods. It is economically sound to do this only in deer forests where the extent of the wintering is large, and where the values from sheep and grouse would be considerable. In the Fort Augustus Block (15,000 acres of plantable ground) the average aggregate rent received from deer forests is £5300, while, judging by old rentals and present rents of similarly situated ground, the rents that could be obtained for the summer grazing of sheep on the high ground, after the wintering had been withdrawn, would not exceed £500. In addition to the grazing rent, grouse to the value of “£1000 are shot on this area, making a total of £1500 a year. This yield from grouse might conceivably be increased by 50 per cent., but even so the reduction of the annual rent by £3300 would be too high a charge to put to the debit of 15,000 acres of afforested land; and under such circumstances afforestation would prove a misfortune, rather than a gain, to the ratepayers of the district. It is therefore evident that a method must be devised by which the value of deer forests will be maintained at its highest, as far as is consistent with a fair standard of silviculture. The following method is suggested as adapted to the special circumstances of the Fort Augustus Block :— 1. To divide the wintering ground of each individual deer forest into three portions, each portion to be planted separately, and not more than one portion to be closed from deer at one time. 16 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. 2. To choose the first portion of each deer forest to be planted with reference to: (a) Its superior compactness and consequent facility for fencing ; (6) Its superior capacity for rapid tree-growth. (c) Its causing the least possible interference with the wintering of deer ;— the object aimed at being the rapid planting of a third of the wintering, in order to allow of the admission of deer in the shortest possible time. 3. To make no further plantation in the deer forest until fifteen years have elapsed from the last year of planting in the first portion, when the whole of that area, amounting to one-third of the total wintering of the forest (less any small patches which had not grown satisfactorily) should be thrown open to the deer. 4. To commence to plant the second portion of the wintering immediately after throwing open the first portion, and to plant the remainder of the forest wintering according to the rotation laid down. 5. As soon as the area of new planting has deprived the deer of nearly one-third of the total wintering of the forest, to cultivate whins and cut bracken so as to maintain the winter food of the deer. It is believed that this treatment of the deer forests would never lessen the value of the ground for sporting purposes by more than a third, and that, provided winter feeding were resorted to, a certain amount even of this loss might be avoided. It is, of course, impossible to foresee the trend of fashion, but we may safely predict certain facts about the future of the Spots — 1. That with extended afforestation the size and weight of the deer will eventually increase. 2. That while the total yield of deer forests will be reduced by a third, more deer in proportion will be killed on the low ground and fewer on the “ high tops,” especially in the earlier part of the season. 3. That there will be sudden apparitions of big unknown twelve pointers, once the season comes round for the stags to join the hinds. DETAILED SURVEY OF THE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK. 17 It is probably fair to conclude that, in proportion to the extent of ground open to deer, equally good sport would be shown, but in rather a different way. Whether sportsmen would still take forests under these altered conditions is a question which time alone can solve. The partial substitution of wood stalking for hill work, the blotting out of some of the best beats, the unsightly deer fences, and the disturbance caused by the foresters and their employees, are all factors tending to lower the rents that sporting tenants would be prepared to pay. Deer forests more than any other form of sporting estate depend on fashion. That there is a risk of this fashion chang- ing must be admitted, and all possible provision must, in con- sequence, be made to cut down to the minimum this risk to one of the few channels through which money flows into the Highlands. WINTERING OF SHEEP AND DEER IN PLANTATIONS. It is to be remembered that the value of wintering for all stock depends on two factors : (1) shelter, and (2) food. The forest, even in the extreme case of a dense crop of 30-year-old spruce, gives shelter ; while food is supplied, on the more grassy portion under larch by spaces left unplanted, as in Germany, and, in the case of deer by the cultivation of whins on light and stony soil. The improvement of wintering by sowing patches of whins, which are fenced for two or three years and opened to the deer in the third or fourth year, according to the growth, has already been proved in the Glen Mor district, and both at Glendoe and Dell, in the Fort Augustus Block, examples of the results can be seen. Some 20 acres of established whins supply food for a large proportion of the stock of stags in time of snow. It will be argued by the silviculturally-minded that the admis- sion of sheep and deer after fifteen to twenty years will damage the woods and prevent under-planting. This is at once admitted without reserve as to under-planting, and in a modified degree as to damage to pole crops; the question for the management is whether this silvicultural loss will be balanced by the economic gain. It must be remembered that in the various sheep grounds and deer forests, the extent of ground thrown open in the first blocks will run from 450 to rooo acres. That damage will be done is certain, especially on the higher fringe of the planted ground ; VOL. XXV. B 18 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. but experience has shown that, except in small, isolated woods, the damage is apt to be confined to a very few trees. The admission of deer and grazing stock into German and French forests is a recognised practice; but while, abroad, deer are actually fenced into the woods, in Scotland they will have the whole of the high ground to resort to, coming into the woods only at times of storm and snow. ‘The greatest amount of damage is done to trees immediately around the open spaces to which the deer resort, but there the individual trees can quite inexpensively be protected. In dense young woods the damage done is small. Communal rights of grazing are often exercised in continental forests from the very earliest years of the re- stocking of felled areas, and considerable damage is then done to the young crops; but under the scheme here proposed, a period of enclosure from grazing by stock or deer is provided. The exact age at which it may be possible to admit sheep or deer into woods is a matter upon which there are very divergent views,—founded on experience of very diverse conditions. By limiting the elevation above sea-level in the first block to not more than 8oo feet ; by adopting the Belgian method of planting on turf in peaty ground ; by carefully draining wet ground; and perhaps by the substitution of Menzies spruce for the Norwegian species, it should be possible to admit deer to plantations between the fifteenth and twentieth years. No doubt there are many who can give examples where plantations twenty-five, thirty and thirty- five years old have been destroyed, and many such plantations have been examined by the writers. It will usually be found, however, that these plantations were on ground where no other woods existed, and were, for the most part, merely shelter- belts of a very few acres in extent. On the other hand, examples can be studied in Glen Mor at Glen Moriston, Dell, Inver- garry, and Loch Unagan, where deer have been admitted into plantations before the fifteenth year without much damage being done. Instances can be given in other parts of Scotland where the wintering capability of a forest has been greatly increased by a very few hundred acres of planting ; and the well-known examples of the Boblainy and Farley deer forests which, with 6000 acrés of wood and 4ooo acres of hill ground, annually yield fifty stags, show the value for deer of old mixed woods. But it must DETAILED SURVEY OF THE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK. 19 not be assumed that similar results would be obtained from woods growing under a regular rotation, with gradations of ages ; the woods mentioned are all over forty-five years of age, and are for the most part of an open character. The under-planting question is a more important one. In this particular district, where the wintering of sheep and deer is a primary consideration, the possibility of under-planting larch must be abandoned from the first. It must be pointed out, on the other hand, that at Glen Urquhart, Invermoriston, Invergarry and Achnacarry, larch woods are grown without under-planting, without disease, and, in the case of Achnacarry and Aldourie, carrying a crop sixty years of age, which, after a heavy thinning, is worth over £150 an acre. SHOOTINGS: MOOR AND LOW GROUND. The extent to which moor and low ground shootings will be affected by afforestation must be considered ; for the sporting value, and therefore the rent, will be modified by the new conditions. In the case of sheep farms there is usually a separate shooting rent, while the shootings are included in the rent of the deer forest. Grouse.—It is not probable that afforestation will reduce the letting value of grouse shootings to any great extent, for the following reasons :— (1) The best grouse moors, which, in other districts, may be rented up to 5s. an acre, are too valuable to plant. (2) Asa rule good grouse ground is not good for planting, and therefore, in the case of the less excellent grouse moors and shootings, which are partly deer forest and partly grouse moor, the part of the shooting which produces most grouse would remain unplanted. (3) The ground most suitable for planting, at present often covered with bracken and birch trees, is of very little value as breeding ground for grouse. In the cases, which the writers believe would be rare, in which good grouse ground would be taken for planting purposes, compensation for loss of rental would obviously have to be given, It is sometimes argued that large woods have an adverse effect upon the adjoining grouse moors. This is true only in 20 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. that large woods afford shelter to various kinds of vermin which are less easily destroyed in woods than in the open. In the recent inquiry by the Grouse Disease Committee, the question of the value to grouse of shelter in plantations was thoroughly investigated. The Committee arrived at the con- clusion that, on the whole, grouse benefited by the afforestation of the land fringing the grouse moor, provided that the vermin were destroyed. The Committee were of opinion that, both from young and from old plantations, grouse received an appreciable benefit in times of storm through feeding on the shoots and seeds of the long heather often found there, as well as through the shelter of the trees. 2. Rabbits—The great amount of damage done by rabbits is now so generally recognised that few people will doubt the necessity for the condition that rabbits must be exterminated both in the plantations and on the ground adjoining them. In deer forests no less than in sheep farms, the disappearance of rabbits brings nothing but gain. Where rabbit killing is neglected, the wintering suffers, and it will improve in proportion to the extent to which it had been eaten down and fouled by rabbits. On grouse moors, rabbits are generally regarded as a nuisance ; and where they are numerous they do serious damage to young heather. On the smaller shootings the case is different. Rabbits have a distinct sporting value on ground which may be of very little use for grouse or other game. Where the letting value of a shooting is reduced by the obligation to keep down the rabbits, compensation for the reduction may have to be allowed. On the other hand, the loss in sporting rent may be compensated for by the improvement of the pasture. 3. Mountain hares.—To avoid the great expense of fixing wire-netting to the fences between the plantations and the hill ground, the hares must be killed down. ‘The absence of hares is a positive advantage to moors where grouse are shot over dogs, and it is certain that a heavy stock of hares does appreciable damage to young heather. It can hardly be said that the disappearance of hares will make a difference which can be expressed as a percentage of the shooting rent, except perhaps in the case of small shootings. 4. Roe deer,—The ordinary form of deer fencing will hardly DETAILED SURVEY OF THE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK, 2 keep out roe deer; unless, therefore, some roe-proof fence can be found without increase of cost, it will be necessary to keep them down. In this case, again, though an occasional shot at a roe with a rifle may add to the pleasure of the shooting tenant, this cannot be considered as paid for in the rent; and owing to the great difficulty of extermination, and the distance which roe deer will travel to young plantations, it is probable that there will always be a certain number of these deer in the forest area, as there are in most of the forests in France and Germany. 5. Black game.—We feel a certain amount of reluctance in including black game among forest vermin. Unfortunately, it is the tendency of black game to increase rapidly where there are young plantations, and the damage done by them, usually at first confined to the Scots pine, is extended to other trees as the black game increase. Scots pine are stunted by constant destruction of the buds, larch are literally grazed down, and the only alternative to a loss of five to six years’ growth is the very costly expedient of using much larger plants. The present scheme will admit of neither alternative. When the damage done by black game becomes appreciable, they must be kept down. There are few shootings where the number of black game in the year’s bag exceeds 5 per cent. of the total of winged game, and it is probable that a reduction of 5 per cent. in the letting value will cover the loss in most cases.! 6. Woodcock, etc.—So much for the interference by afforestation with shootings as they now are. But there is another side to the question. A probable result of afforestation will be an increase in the number of woodcock frequenting Glen Mor, and this may improve the winter shooting. Also, as planting goes on, the capercailzie, a newcomer already known in the district, will extend its range and increase; and provided that the damage done by it does not prove serious, it may come to be a re- cognised addition to the sport in the woods.? General remarks.—On the whole, it may be said that the changes due to afforestation will affect the letting value of the smaller mixed shootings, where the various items are of relatively great importance, in a much greater degree 1 Cases have been brought to the notice of the writers in which a larger reduction than 5 per cent. would be justifiable. 2 It is recognised that serious damage may sometimes be done to older woods by capercailzie. 22 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. than it will affect that of shootings where grouse form the main part of the bag. Itis at once admitted that a reduction up to ro per cent. in the letting value might have to be allowed for in the case of small mixed shootings; but in the case of larger shootings it is believed that 5 per cent. or less would suffice. The question of the killing of vermin injurious to game in the planted areas will require careful attention. Shooting tenants and farm tenants might come to regard the forest areas as breed- ing ground for foxes and other vermin, and if the killing down of vermin were neglected, the damage done to adjoining shootings would be great. It will therefore be necessary to make the permanent staff of the forest responsible for the destruction of vermin on the ground under their charge, and for the forest officers to make it their business to ascertain that there is no cause for complaint under this head by shooting tenants. CHAPTER IV. RENT AND OTHER CHARGES. RENT. In calculating the rent of the ground that will be taken for forestry proper—that is to say, the ground that will actually be planted, not that which will be used for small holdings for workers, etc.— it is necessary to emphasise certain points. If the method advocated for the Fort Augustus Block be followed, it will be seen that the whole plantable area of the deer forests will be obtained for afforestation at a cost of one- third of the gross annual rent; and that, provided always that no more than 33 per cent. of the total wintering is ever enclosed from deer at any given time, the whole of the land capable of afforestation will be planted and replanted without any increase of rent. On sheep ground and on grouse ground, the loss in grazing value, charged to forests, will be represented by the difference between the rent obtained from a permanent sheep stock and that from a flying or summer stock, while the difference in shoot- ing rents will be based on the principles laid down in the previous chapter. Put into concrete form, it will be seen that the rent of the Fort Augustus Block will work out roughly as follows :— Deer Forests: Invermoriston (part of), Dundreggan, Levishy, Port Clare, Inchnacardoch, Glendoe (part of). Culachy, Total value, . ~ £5300 23 2A AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. Annual cost to Forest Authority in rent, —one-third of £5300, ; Say L1770 Sheep Farms and Grazings, including difference between ewe stock and flying stock, sport- ing rents, and allowance for grouse taken over, on Parts of—Aberchalder, rs Ardochy, _ Auchteraw, - Borlum. Annual rent chargeable to Forest Authority, . say £ 600 Total £2370 fess Deductions for arable land and common grazings on which will be settled forest workers who will pay rent for the said land, on Auchteraw, Borlum, Aberchalder, Glenmoriston, And certain improvable land on sheep farms and deer forests. Total value deducted, say, . ZL 300 Net rent chargeable to forestry proper £2070 That is to say, roughly, 18,000 acres (of which 15,000 acres fall within the Fort Augustus Block) will be obtained at a rental of £2070 a year; or, in other words, for 2s. 3d. per acre, the Forest Authority will obtain a long lease over some of the best larch ground in Scotland— ground which the late Professor Mayr of Munich, and other authorities, have declared to be the best planting ground in Europe. The German authorities have purchased land up to #15 an acre to round off a forest block. Up to 115s. an acre for waste land has recently been paid by them for land inferior to that in Glen Mor; while they have given an average of 66s. per acre for heath land which would compare unfavourably with the second grade land in the surveyed area. In addition to the annual rent paid for loss of purely grazing RENT AND OTHER CHARGES. 25 and sporting values, the Forest Authority will have to make further payments under two heads, viz. :— 1. The usual compensation for sheep valuations, including acclimatization value, tenants’ waygoings, etc., as set out in Appendix C. On the Fort Augustus Block these would amount to some £3500 of capital expenditure, payable to the sitting tenants before entry into actual possession of the land could be given. 2. Payment for loss of land for natural birch crop and silvicultural purposes generally—a value quite outside that of sporting rents. The reader will observe that up to this point there has been no mention of any payment to the landowner, other than bare compensation for the actual loss of rent which he will incur through the afforestation of his wintering. As will be seen from Messrs Brown and Mackenzie’s report, the silvicultural value of the land included in the forest area varies very considerably. And the compensation will also vary; but since it is governed by the wintering question, and is therefore to be reckoned on the loss of each subject as a whole, the com- pensation will not vary in the same ratio as the acreage or the quality of the soil. In other words, some of the bargains made by the Forest Authority will be better than others. None will be bad, or the Forest Authority would not make them, but some of them will be extremely good. The Forest Authority may, in some cases, pay as little as a shilling an acre for land which is capable for carrying £200 worth of larch after sixty years’ growth. It may, in some cases, take land which brings in a gross return of Z#10to £15 anacre for birch crop every fifty years; while, in other cases, it may include sour land on which little besides bog myrtle and scrub will grow.! It is evident that some payment must be made under this head, but, on the grounds both of equity and expediency, the 1 In the Glen Mor district, the various estates either market their birch crop at irregular intervals, when it becomes ripe, or combine together to put a regular annual supply on to the market. The money got for the sale of birch- wood and birch-brooms is, as a rule, re-invested on the estate in the form of plantations, with the result that a portion of the plantable land is gradually, though slowly, being afforested. Some 14,000 acres out of 90,000 acres available in the Glen Mor area are now under coniferous woods. 206 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND, writers have no hesitation in recommending that this payment should be a deferred one. It is most advisable that the proprietor of the solum should have an interest in the ultimate profits from the woods. ‘There must always be a certain amount of give and take in dealing with the often contending interests of sheep, deer and woods; and it is certain that many expenses would be avoided, and many differences adjusted, by some under- standing between the principals working with one common object in view, viz., a satisfactory ultimate return from the newly-planted ground, A deferred payment will reward the landlord who has given up the best soil, and who has worked in the forest’s interests during the growth of the crop; while the lesser return to the individual who has raised difficulties and failed to co-operate loyally, will be his diminished reward. The payment should take the form of a percentage of the net profits after the whole expenditure by the Forest Authority has been repaid with reasonable interest. What the percentage of net profits should be, the writers do not attempt to decide ; but what they do lay down is, that it should be sufficient both to secure strenuous co-operation on the part of the landlord, and to make the deal a fair one as between the Forest Authority and the various proprietors interested. SUMMALY. The advantages which a Central Forest Authority with a limited income would gain by leasing forest land on the general lines indicated in the preceding pages may be summarised as follows :— 1. No large initial capital expenditure. (78.—Com- pensation to sitting tenants works out at a final payment of under 4s. an acre (£3500 on 18,000 acres).) 2. All the land in the district suitable for tree-growing obtained at one-third of the present rental of the subjects affected. 3. No superfluous land, and therefore no unnecessary administration expenses (the Forest Authority would deal with silvicultural interests, and with _ silvi- cultural interests only). RENY AND OTHER CHARGES. 27 4. Zealous co-operation between the owner of the land and the grower of the trees. 5s. A minimum disturbance of existing rates, rents and employment. It should be noted that in the scheme of afforestation set out above, the writers have made the suggestion that the State should pay a rent based on a proportion only, namely one-third, of the subject which it means to use at one time; whereas in the case of lease or purchase of a whole subject, the State would be called on to pay three times the rent, or three times the capital value, which it has to pay under the scheme which is proposed. This may be illustrated by the example of a typical deer forest, 15,000 acres in extent, of which 3000 acres are plantable (under 800 to 1100 feet) with a rent of “1000. The same principle will apply also to sheep farms, with the necessary alterations in the figures :— (a) If the whole subject be bought by the State, at, say, the low valuation of 20 years’ purchase, 3000 acres of plantable ground will be obtained for £20,000, and the capital required will be at the rate of 46, 13s. 4d. per acre of plantable ground. (4) If the whole subject be leased by the State, 3000 acres of plantable land will cost A1ooo per annum, or at the rate of 6s. 8d. per acre. (c) If the plantable land be leased on the terms described in this chapter, 3000 acres of plantable ground will cost £333, 6s. 8d. per annum, or at the rate of 2s. 22d. per acre. Where the State purchases or leases the whole of a sporting or grazing estate, the same procedure as regards planting might be followed, seeing that the same interests have to be safeguarded and the same extravagances avoided. Otherwise, in the case of a and @, there remain 12,000 acres of high ground, cut off from the low ground which is used solely for silviculture and on which no grazing is allowed. For this land a rent could be obtained as grouse moor, if the hills were covered with heather ; but if it were green ground, there would be practically no value for deer, as there is no wintering. There might be a rent of 1d. to 3d. per acre as summer grazing for sheep, but in the absence of low ground under sheep in the neighbourhood of the forest centre, even this return would be doubtful. to (oe) AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. RATES. It is not easy to deal, in a few lines, with the rating question as affecting afforestation, and in view of the frequently reiterated promise by successive Governments to take up the whole question of local taxation, it would appear inadvisable to go into the matter at any length in the course of this Report. It is necessary, however, to point out that the rating question—of considerable importance all over the British Isles—appears in a specially acute form in the Northern and Western Highlands, where a not inconsiderable portion of the plantable area and waste land is situated. In the majority of cases, the parishes in the Northern and Western Highlands are poor; assessable values are low; rates are above the normal for rural districts ; and in many cases the situation is such that the expenditure of a very few tens of sovereigns, or the reduction of ratepaying subjects by a few hundred pounds, is followed by an appreciable increase of the rates. Two aspects only of the rating question will be dealt with by the writers:—(1) The probable effects the afforestation proposals would have on the rates; and (2) the degree in which the inequality of the rates in the different -districts of the Highlands would limit the advantages which afforestation might bring to the poorer parishes unless remedial action were taken. The question of valuation for rating purposes presents diffi- culties, chiefly because woodlands are at present valued at the rent at which they might, in their natural state, reasonably be expected to let, from year to year, as pasture or grazing lands ; and a lease of woodlands in the sense of the present proposals has hitherto been unknown in Scotland. This valuation will be set aside when a proprietor and a tenant agree upon a rent and enter into a formal lease of woodlands, because the rent in the lease must be taken as the basis for fixing the value of the woodlands, as of other subjects, for rating purposes. In the case of leases of less duration than twenty-one years, the actual rent or other considera- tion stipulated for in the lease must appear in the Valuation Roll. But in the case of leases of longer duration, the Assessor has power (see Sect. 6 of the Valuation Act of 1854) to set aside the rent entered in the lease, and to value the subjects at what he considers to be their fair annual value; this provision being evidently based on the assumption that the rent accepted for RENT AND OTHER CHARGES. 29 such a long period is fixed at an amount which is less than the actual annual value of the subjects, in order to allow the tenant to develop the subjects at his own cost and for his own ultimate profit. In such a case, the Assessor usually endeavours, and he frequently succeeds in this, to fix a higher rent for rating purposes than that which appears in the lease. In such a case also, the tenant is entered in the Valuation Roll as owner of the subjects, and is liable, in the first instance, for rates both as owner and occupier ; but the landlord, being the real owner, must repay to the tenant the owner’s rates on the rent he receives under the lease. Although there appears to be no doubt that the tenant has this right of relief against the real owner (see the Act above quoted), it might be well that the lease should set out the respective liabilities of landlord and tenant as regards rates. It will thus be seen that by leasing the subjects as proposed, at a higher rent than the present value of woodlands for rating purposes, the Forest Authority would certainly render itself liable not only in occupiers’ rates on the actual rent paid, and perhaps on a higher rent fixed by the Assessor, but also in owzwers’ rates on the difference between the actual rent and any higher rent which the Assessor might succeed in fixing. The effect of these proposals, so far as they affect the gross rental and the rateable value of the different subjects of which a part or the whole has been taken over by the Forest Authority, may be summarised as follows :— (a) Sheep Farms.—(1) When the whole farm is taken for afforestation, the present rent will be paid by the Forest Authority, and the rateable value will remain as at present. (2) When the wintering only is taken, the rent to be paid by the Forest Authority will be calculated by deducting the value of the summer grazing of the remaining area from the present rent of the whole subject. And again the rateable value will remain unaltered. (6) Deer Forests—One-third of the gross rental will be paid by the Forest Authority, and this may be taken as fair compensation for the right to enclose from deer one-third of the wintering at one time, and eventually to plant the whole of it. The remaining two-thirds of the gross rental will continue to be paid by the tenant of the deer forest, and the rateable value of the whole will therefore remain unchanged. 30 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. (c) Shootings.—These will be dealt with on similar lines, the rent paid by the Forest Authority being lable to assess- ment, so as to leave the rateable value unchanged. (2) Arable Land, Houses, Etc.—TVhe land taken for workmen’s holdings would probably be let at a slightly reduced rent, and the tenures created being crofter tenures, the houses built on the holdings would not pay rates. The farm houses, with land attached, which would either be occupied by the forest officials or be let to summer visitors, would now be separately assessed in the Valuation Roll, and would go to make up any slight loss there might be on the land let to workmen. (e) Water Power, Sawmills.—These would be new rateable subjects on which the Forest Authority and the owners would pay rates. , Eventually, the rateable value of the district would increase with the increasing population and the consequent expansion of local trades and businesses not directly connected with forestry. It must, however, be remembered that the increase of popula- tion of the labouring type would not, in the first instance, tend to lower the rates. It will be shown in the scheme that it is net intended to create anything but economically sound holdings, that is to say, holdings on which employment is assured, with sufficient ground for the maintenance of a family. ‘The effect of afforestation on local taxation would be felt chiefly through the parish rates. Owing to the increase of population, the school rate would no doubt be higher, but the poor rate need not necessarily rise; the county and district rates, dis- tributed as they would be over wider areas, would be less affected than the parish rates, though the expenditure on roads would tend to increase over the whole district, as a result of the increased traffic due to afforestation. So much for the rating question in the Glen Mor district. There remains for discussion, however, the more important aspect of the general rating question. As has been shown by the 1898-1902 Royal Commission on the Incidence of Local Yaxation, the fer capita rateable value of Scottish parishes runs from £44 to gs. per head of population, and the recent returns of rating show a variation of 3s. to 26s. in the 4. Owing to the fact that the Forest Authority has to pay occupiers’ rates on the /u/ rent under the lease, whereas woodland not held RENT AND OTHER CHARGES. gyi under lease is rated on its value as grazing land in its natural condition only; and that, under the Agricultural Rates Act, agricultural land is rated on three-eighths of its annual value ; it is not difficult to see that the Forest Authority would be tempted to give the poorer parishes of the Highlands a very wide berth. In a west-coast parish, with rates of ros. in the 4, a rent of #2000 would entail a total disbursement of £2500 (£2000 in rent, and £500 in occupiers’ rates), and in many cases would turn what might be an economic success into a financial failure. £500 per annum in rates at 3 per cent. compound interest will amount in seventy years to £118,750. If the State were to purchase, it would also be liable for owners’ rates, and this sum would therefore be doubled. Some of the best land for planting on the west coast is situated in parishes in which the rates are abnormally high ; but these parishes, from their very poverty, are the localities in which forestry would confer the greatest benefit. It would be more than unfortunate if, from this very trouble, they were to be ruled out of court. Without entering into the political side of this question, it may be suggested that when a general scheme of afforestation is under consideration, the question of State aid for a fixed period of, say, fifty years, to districts in which a large extent of forest land is taken, should also be considered. ‘The lines of the recommendations made by Lord Balfour of Burleigh in the rg02 Rating Report, referred to above, might be followed with advantage. CHAPTER V. WORKMEN’S DWELLINGS AND TENURE OF HOLDINGS. Amount of Employment and Existing Labour Supply. In considering the labour question, the Forest Authority would consider, first of all, the amount of employment that could be given to the existing population, and secondly, how the labour supply could be increased. It is very difficult to estimate the amount of employment which the resident population would absorb. In Glen Mor it is generally true to say that west of Fort Augustus very few horses can be obtained at any season, and labour is available during the winter months only. In the Eastern district the labour market is not so restricted, the glen is wider, the crofts are larger, and probably the horses now in the district would meet a considerable proportion of the forest demands. In certain portions of the Fort Augustus Block very little able-bodied labour will be found; the hunger for employment has been more acute than the hunger for land. Year after year, with little or no work to be found in winter, the more progressive of the inhabitants have left their crofts and found their way to the towns. Many crofts, including some round Fort Augustus, have passed out of cultivation, the land being poor and the cost of hired labour excessive. It is highly probable that the certainty of steady employment during the winter months would bring some of the able-bodied back to their old homes. The small five-acre croft, which of itself cannot possibly maintain a family, constitutes an attractive home if outside labour is assured in the neighbourhood. The crofter is essentially a ‘‘worker” (with land) and not an agriculturist ; and the means thus afforded of making use of otherwise uneconomic holdings, constitutes one of the strongest arguments for the development of forestry in the glens where arable land occurs in small and widely-separated patches. It is important to note that in the Glen Mor area, containing 32 WORKMEN’S DWELLINGS AND TENURE OF HOLDINGS. 33 60,000 acres of plantable ground, only 900 acres of old arable land are scheduled in the Highlands and Islands Report of 1892 as being land which can be profitably cultivated. Even allowing—(a) that, with employment guaranteed, crofts can be “lotted” on smaller areas of arable land than were taken into account in the Commissioners’ Report, and can still constitute economic holdings; and (4) that through the shelter afforded by afforestation, the altitude at which crops can be grown to profit may eventually be raised; it is evident that the arable land available for forest workers in the Glen Mor area is strictly limited in extent. No exact figure has been given as the proportion of the required forest labour which the present inhabitants of the Glen Mor district would provide, but, in Chapter VII., it is shown that the work of felling the existing woods and manipu- lating the timber should absorb the existing labour supply. Method of Increasing the Labour Supply. There are many different systems of land tenure under which the workers on afforested land might be settled on the soil. The system put forward below does not claim to be the best or the only solution of the problem, but rather to be one which is specially suited to Glen Mor, and, not improbably, to the whole Highland area. It will be readily agreed— 1. That it is advisable to create a resident population whose interest—at all events for the first generation —will be chiefly connected with forestry. 2. That the families so established should have sufficient land to keep them in food, including milk, and to give them work during the short periods when they _ are not required for forest labour. 3. That the tenure should be of such a kind as to make them as soon as possible an independent community, tied by habit and interest, rather than by compulsion, to forest employment. 4. That the crofter class, accustomed to the rigours of the climate, with some knowledge of building and outdoor employment, and a considerable ability for farming under adverse circumstances, would be the class most suited for forest work. VOL. XXV. c 34 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. 5. That in this particular scheme of land settlement, the object aimed at should be to tap employment at the fountain head—that is to say, to prevent the existing rural dwellers from going into the towns, rather than to correct an evil which has already developed, and attempt to transfer town-bred men to the country. Experience in Germany and elsewhere confirms the view that the small land-holder class provides the most satisfactory as well as the most economical body of forest workers. Having decided on a crofter population, the next step is to decide— 1. The exact tenure of the land ; 2. The size of the croft ; . The number of weeks’ employment it is necessary to offer in addition to ordinary crofting work ; and 4. The number of men that the Glen Mor scheme will provide with certain and sufficient labour. Houses and the Tenure of Land. It is suggested that in all cases the building of the dwelling- house should be financed by the Forest Authority. That the forest worker should be allowed either (1) To pay for his dwelling-house rent based on a 3 per cent. charge on the total outlay by the Forest Authority; or (2) That, if he wished to become an independent holder, he should be entitled to pay capital and interest for his house and land at the rate of 5 per cent.—that is to say, 3 per cent. on the cost of the house and 2 per cent. to a Sinking Fund. That during the time that the forest worker is paying off his debt on the house he should be a servant of the Forest Authority, dismissable on a year’s notice. ‘That in case of dismissal the portion of thé Sinking Fund, less any claims there might be against him, should be returned to him, but that the interest on the cost of the house should be regarded as a rent charge. The object of this method of tenure is to have some hold over the worker during the early, or what might be called the training period.. Once he had paid for the house by the instalments indicated, at the end of thirty years (or by agreement sooner), it might be presumed that the habit of working in the woods would have been established in him, and the woodman should WORKMEN’S DWELLINGS AND TENURE OF HOLDINGS. 35 then be given full crofter rights, with fixity of tenure, or with an option of occupying ownership, if he should so desire. Offices. With regard to buildings other than dwelling-houses—that is barn, byre, etc.,—the forest worker should, after a period of satisfactory service, have an advance of not more than a third to a half of the cost of the building material for the same : this to be paid off on the same lines as the other capital and interest charges for the house. The object of not giving the forest worker the whole of his expenses for his farm buildings is to oblige him to retain an interest in the holding, and by such means to induce him to settle down on the land. Type of the Croft and Buildings. The area of the croft should at least be sufficient to maintain one or two cows, but not large enough to free the crofter from dependence on work in the woods, the object being to create a small holder rather than a small farmer. The type of croft would be what is known in the Highlands as a 43-45 croft, some five to twelve acres in extent, with outrun or common grazing. In addition to the blocks of crofts created on arable land, there would be a few isolated crofts for outworkers on improvable land in deer forests and sheep farms; these would, as a rule,— especially in the steeper glens, on account of the small amount of improvable land to be found there—be more of the nature of potato plots than crofts; rent and the charge for the dwelling- house would be reduced accordingly.! In the first instance, at all events, it is advisable that all the crofts should not be of the same size; thirty per cent. of them should be large enough to maintain a horse as well as a couple of cows. The system of joint working of crofts is well understood in the Highlands, especially in those townships ! The amount of arable, old arable and improvable land in the average Highland glen is not extensive, and if it is desired to give a large percentage of the forest workers ‘‘the keep of a cow,” the most rigid economy in land must be observed from the first. It must be remembered that on the whole deer forest area of Scotland only 2482 acres of old arable were scheduled by the Highlands and Islands Commissioners as suitable for cultivation by crofters and small farmers ; and that even if 30 per cent. of increase, since the time of the report, is allowed for the extension of deer forest ground, the arable land is wholly inadequate for the workers that a Forest Authority might wish to settle on the land. 36 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. where crofts are small, and where only a few of the crofters keep horses. Plans of Buildings. Plans of houses with suitable byre and barns are given, with a rough estimate of their cost based on practical experience in the neighbourhood. It will be noted that the houses are of three types—(a) Substantial single crofter houses; (4) similar houses placed two together to save a gable; or (c) a cheaper kind of house with galvanised iron roof and no second storey. The cost of these buildings is based on the assumption that either the crofter does the collecting and carting of stones, or that, if he has not a horse, he gives his labour free. If he provides neither horse and cart nor his own labour in collecting building material, in the one case £30, in the other £20, must be added to the cost of the building. The rents of houses and crofts of the three classes of forest workers would probably work out roughly as follows :— Crass A.—Crofter with a horse, some stock and sheep for common grazing : 4£,150 house, of which, say, 4,110! is outlay by the Forest Authority ; at 3 per cent. interest and 2 per cent. Sinking Fund,say . £5 10 0 Loan for material for barn and byre, say £50 . 2, Tor 4o A 12-acre croft with one share of common grazing, say. : : : ; 5 50, 0 Aizen Crass B.— Crofter with no horse, two cows, no other stock: Double house £ 240, or £120 for each house, of which, say, £90 is outlay by the Forest Authority. At 3 per cent. and Loan for material for barn and byre, say £30; total outlay by the Forest Authority, £90+ £30= £120 at 3 per cent. , .| Aaaereiao Rent of croft (5 acres), say : , ; ; 2 Tow EO L6) 2 ko ' It is to the interest of the crofter to keep the capital expenditure on his dwelling-house low, as his rent is to a great extent based on the cost to the Forest Authority. The average crofter’s family includes at least one member with a knowledge of one or other of the building trades. WORKMEN’S DWELLINGS AND TENURE OF HOLDINGS. 357) In certain cases, the crofter might wish to own his dwelling ; he would then pay to the sinking fund an additional 2 per cent., on £120. Crass C.—Outworker, with cows but no other stock, on small patch of reclaimed land on a sheep farm or deer forest: 4100 house at 3 percent. . . , LZ, 01.40 Potato patch, tos. ‘ : : : Q, Lor Fe PREM Sey W (0) It will be seen from the appended plan, that the buildings on crofts are modelled on the type of the crofter houses most common in the Highlands. The rents set out above are based on the actual cost to the Forest Authority of the holdings and buildings. It must not be considered as certain, however, that in all cases the Forest Authority will be able to exact the rent indicated, at all events in the Highland area. Judged by town standards, or by the rents paid for newly created small holdings in the south, 5s. a week (that is £13 a year) will not appear a high rent for acomfortable house, a twelve-acre holding, a share of common grazing, and, probably, free fuel in the shape of peats and unsaleable waste wood. Judged by crofter standards, however, the rents are undoubtedly high, and as the idea in the Highlands is to attract crofters, it remains to be seen whether it will not be necessary to make reductions, at all events for the first few years. It may also be necessary to make the terms of repayment more attractive by reducing the rate of interest payable to 1 per cent. or 2 per cent., the sinking fund being then raised to 3 per cent. or 4 per cent. It is impossible to lay down a law on such a subject, experience alone will show the extent to which the certainty of employment and of obtaining land at reasonable rates will attract settlers. In Germany, where the recent policy of the State has been to create small holdings and buildings for workers, it has, on more than one occasion, been found necessary to lower the rents in order to attract labour. Number of Weeks’ Forest Work. The crofter is very well situated as regards forest work, because, except for a week in the end of October, when he is lifting his potatoes, and a fortnight in April, when he is preparing 38 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. his croft, his farm work and his work in the forest do not clash, or at all events they can be arranged to fit in with each other. Experience shows that his croft work keeps a crofter employed for from 1o to 15 weeks; and that, provided he can get some- thing like 30-40 weeks’ work in the forest, he can fill up any unoccupied weeks in the autumn months (until he is required for planting in the last week in October) by work at shooting lodges, or by employment in connection with the tourist season, or as a harvest hand on the large low-country farms. Number of Crofts. Forestry is an industry in which a large proportion of the money expended goes in labour. The permanent staff, especially during the planting stage, is neither numerous nor highly salaried. Fencing material, and the cost of tools and seeds, are the only payments made outside the forest area. It is therefore a- fair calculation to make, that for every #40 per annum expended in forest work proper by the Forest Authority, a worker—that is to say, one croft—can be estab- lished. The ordinary forest labourer should draw about 18s. a week. There should be work for one horse to every ten labourers for forest carting work, and for another horse to every four crofts for agricultural purposes. In nursery work, weeding, clearing plants, bracken switching, carrying plants to workers, etc., one boy would be employed to about every four men; and a certain number of boys at about gs. a week would be taken on as forest apprentices in every block. Position of Croft. In the Fort Augustus Block twenty to thirty of the crofts would be placed on the farm of Auchteraw, in the vicinity of the nursery, and they should occupy the whole of the existing arable land, with some roo acres of improvable land on the golf course and the east side of the low ground grazing. Outworkers would be established at Borlum, Aberchalder and Glen Moriston. As far as possible their settlements would be formed in groups or townships with a view to :— (a) Arrangements for common grazing, thereby cutting down expenses in fencing ; WORKMEN'S DWELLINGS AND TENURE OF HOLDINGS. 39 (2) Economy in the number of horses for the cultivation of the crofts ; (c) Easy distribution and control of work by the gangers. The largest forest labour settlement would be placed in the neighbourhood of the nursery, and any workers’ bothies which might be found necessary in the initial stages would be erected there. It is impossible to give more than a general opinion of how the preliminary work of nursery formation, establishment of new crofts, etc., would be proceeded with. In the preliminary stages, it is probable that existing farm buildings would be taken over and used as bothies; that the Forest Authority would (until crofts had been established) maintain some few pairs of heavy horses for breaking up land, farm work, and carting building materials ; and that, at the same time, facilities would be given to crofters who were able to do their own carting. General Instructions. Three general instructions may be indicated— 1. Full use should be made of local labour and local means of transport. 2. Crofts should be established gradually over a period of years. It is important, in the interest of the crofters as well as in that of the Forest Authority, to keep the capital expenditure low and to get the maximum assistance in labour and carting from the prospective tenants. 3. The “bothy period” should not be unduly extended. In addition to the attractions offered by small holdings at 4 much cheaper rate than small holders could possibly create them for themselves, and by steady and certain employment at the times when they have least work to do on their holdings, the forest scheme should be popularised— A. By ELEMENTARY CoursEs Or LECTURES given by the Superior Forest Staff, and open to all employees. The more promis- ing of the men thus instructed would probably carry their education further by entering the forest school in a Demonstration Forest. 40 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. B. By Posts oN THE PERMANENT STAFF AT FIXED WAGES. 1. All promotion to the position of forest guard should be made from the crofter ranks. 2. Gangers, foremen, etc., should be promoted from the same source. 3. Opportunities should be afforded, where intelligent youths were found, of promotion, after satisfactory service, to minor posts on the staff. CHAPTER VI. CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT. The Scheme. It is necessary, in the first place, to define the nature of the task before the Central Forest Authority. And it will be well to clear our minds at once of continental comparisons ; for we have not now to deal with the complex machinery of a great Forest Service such as France and Germany require for the control of great areas of established forests, but with the comparatively simple needs of an afforestation scheme in its infancy. ‘This chapter will be confined to a consideration of the questions of control and management which would arise in the course of carrying out the scheme which is described in this Report. These questions may conveniently be considered under two heads :— 1. The number and composition of the staff required in the first or planting period. 2. The material available at the present time. It is first necessary to explain the scheme of control and chain of responsibility, and this may best be expressed in the. form of a diagram. 3 CENTRAL FOREST AUTHORITY. b ar it al Officer controlling Survey Officers District Officers Demonstration Area, etc. | Head Forester Head Forester Head Forester Under onesie Under Forester Under Foventer Clerk ¥ Works With the Central Authority, of which the composition is indicated in Appendix A, this chapter has no concern except to note that the higher administration will be in its hands. Under the Central Authority there will be three classes of forest officers : 1. Officers controlling Demonstration areas, Education, Research and Publications. 4I 42 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. 2. Officers appointed to Survey. District Officers in charge of groups of Forest Centres. Ww The officers of all three classes will be men who have been educated at the Universities, and have attained a recognised standard of knowledge of silviculture in both theory and practice. It is probable that the first two classes—officers controlling Demonstration areas, etc., together with Survey ofticers—will absorb most of the trained men immediately available. Here it is necessary to explain that the need for the third class, that of district officers, will not arise during the early years of afforestation, and for the following reasons :— 1. The nature of the work in the first fitteen or twenty years will be simple and uniform, and it can safely be en- trusted to men of the head forester class. 2. At first the forest centres will be few and scattered, and such supervision and inspection as may be necessary can be undertaken by officers of the first or second classes. 3. Forest areas of from 15,000 to 30,000 acres, requiring the control of a district officer, are not yet in existence. Ample time will be given for the education and training of district officers during the first fifteen to twenty years of the creation of the forests, which thereafter only will begin to need their supervision. 7] Foresters. : According to the scheme, one head forester will at first be required for the 15,000 acres of the Fort Augustus Block. He will have immediate control of three under foresters, one for each subdivision of 5000 acres, and it is probable that at first the Clerk of the Works and the estate workmen could be most conveniently placed under his supervision. After fifteen to twenty years, in consequence of the increase of the planted area and the approach of the first thinnings, a head forester will be required for each 5o00o-acre block. Men of the stamp required for the initial work of afforestation, both as head foresters and as under foresters, are already to be found in Scotland in sufficient numbers to meet the immediate demand ; while, with the progress of afforestation, the number of well paid situations will be largely increased, and will attract an increasing number of good men into the profession of forestry. If young and capable men are CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT. 43 chosen as under foresters, and are given opportunities for study in the Demonstration area, at seasons when the work at their own centres is practically at a standstill, they should be able to qualify themselves for the higher position by the time that a head forester is required for each 5ooo-acre block. Time required for Organisation. The natural order of progress in State afforestation may be stated thus :-— Establishment of Central Forest Authority. Demonstration areas, Education and Research. Surveys, general and detailed, Afforestation of Selected Centres. NO oF WwW But once the Central Authority is in existence, there is no reason why progress on the three latter lines of development should not be made simultaneously. Survey work need not wait for the results of education and research; nor need the commencement of afforestation be delayed until surveys of the whole of Scotland have been completed. The writers hold that such delay is unnecessary, provided always that the amount of work undertaken is adapted to the numbers of the staff immediately available. While they do not undervalue the immense importance of silvicultural education, and the benefits to be derived from it, they consider that there is no reason for postponing practical work until the finished products of the new educational machinery are ready to hand; they are rather of opinion that, unless practical work is commenced at the same time, the educational machinery will be wasted in turning out highly-trained men for whom little orno employment will at first be found in this country. It is the writers’ belief, that not only are enough men now avail- able for the initial stages of afforestation on a reasonable scale, but that a sufficient amount of the necessary experimental work has already been done, and that the comparatively simple task of collecting and tabulating the results of a great number of most useful experiments, carried out by individuals, in planting methods, choice of species, etc., is all that is needed to put the Central Authority in immediate possession of a mass of reliable information which Demonstration areas and forest gardens can- not provide for many years to come. CHAPTER VII. FINANCE AND EMPLOYMENT. Estimated Expenditure. Lnitial Capital Outlay. 1. t Head forester’s house. : : . £500 —0rme 2. 3 Under foresters’ houses . ; . : 900. 1a) 0 3. 7 Forest guards’ houses. , 1,400 0 4. 30 crofters’ houses with byres, say £200 each . : ; : ; : : 6,000 0 oO 30 workers’ houses with byres, say £150 each . 2 : ; . : 4,500. Ole Or 6. Sheep stock valuations, waygoings, etc., of agricultural tenants. . ; ; 3,500' OF nO 7. Preparation of nursery—initial expenditure ! 100 6 © 8. ‘Tools ‘ ; , : 100 0 O 9. Office equipment ; : 50 0 6 10. Legal expenses (leases) ; : 100; 0: 40 11. Contingencies. : : ; , 450 0 Oo Note-—No estimate is made of the price to be paid for existing timber, because it is assumed that where such timber is purchased it will bring in an adequate return. The same remark applies to the purchase of horses, etc. ' The ground is already under cultivation. 44 FINANCE AND EMPLOYMENT. 45 Annual Expenditure. 1. Head forester, £ 200 to £250 ‘ -Say (6250, sorma 2. 3 Under foresters, at £75 perannumeach . 225 3. 7 Forest guards, at £52 per annum . : 364 0 4. 6 Rabbit killers, at 22s. per week (less price of rabbits sold) . ‘ : 180 0 Oo 5. Planting of 450 acres, clearing plants ana switching bracken, at £3! . : ; 1350 6. Draining . : é ‘ I29 7. Fencing (measured average for 5 years)— 4 miles deer fencing ; ‘ 260 10 40 4 miles sheep fencing. : ; : 140 8. Rent for the first five years— Invermoriston : : : 250 0 O Aberchalder . : ; 5O 510m <0 Glendoe : : 200 5Oumo Arable land at Borluin) Aperenaider etc: 300 0 O @: Kates; say. . : ; ‘ 125 Omno Io. Stationery . : : : 3 25210) 50 11. Repairs and Sukeep travelling and incidental TOO; "Ouko 43949 0 0 Note.—The above sum of £3949 does not include interest on initial capital expenditure, which, at 3 /, on £17,600= £526. Lstimated Income from Crofts (including Sinking Fund). E20. croits, at £13 : d : | 42607) ono euezoreroits, at £6, 2s. . : : : : 122) =o) Jo BuZercrolts, at £ 3, 10s. . : : ‘ : 710) OO ERAG2 On 10 Note.—No estimate is submitted of profits which might be made from the birch and other timber at present growing on the ground. 1 This figure is based on experience of the district. In other districts, where the cost of planting and cleaving runs up to £3, 10s. to £4, 10s., the amount of labour will be proportionately increased, and the figures given on page 46, under heading (A) will in these cases need a corresponding alteration. 46 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. During the first decade of operations at the Fort Augustus centre, the number of men permanently employed in forestry would be roughly as follows :— A { Head forester . I Under foresters 3 Forest guards . ; AS Sy] Employed { Estate sawmills. Employed ca ae ; : . Treatment of existing timber In connection . . a crop (excluding the timber a 4 cleared off the annual existing planting area), | Manufacture of timber. | Erection of plant. Total employed under A and B= 73 men, 6 boys. Woods (birch, Oak-siir.. etc.) N.£B.—¥*stimates for planting, house building, etc., can be put forward which are based on actual experience, and with all the necessary facts by which the calculations can be checked. But no estimate is submitted of the amount of employment afforded under (C). This must depend on many problematical factors: the amount of standing timber bought from the proprietors, which in turn governs, to a certain extent, the method of handling; the rotation in which the birch crop is (a) thinned, (4) felled; and the amount of birch-wood manufactured (bobbins, pulp, etc.) on the spot. That the FINANCE AND EMPLOYMENT. 47 amount of employment would be considerable is evident from the statements made by Dr Nisbet in Chapter X. For calcu- lating the amount of employment to be offered in the Fort Augustus Block, it may be reckoned that the treatment of existing timber crops would fully absorb the labour supply that the district could provide under’ present conditions. Notes on the Employees. Head forester.—The head forester would receive £200 to £250 (with house and garden), running up to 4300 per annum. Under foresters would receive £75 (with house and garden), running up to £150 or £200, if they qualified for the position of Head forester over a 50oc-acre forest block, after that block had become a producing area. Fforest guards.— At first, two forest guards would be appor- tioned to each of the three divisions of the planting area (vzde Chapter IX., Working-Plan), with perhaps one additional guard responsible for the central nursery. The forest guards would eventually reach fifteen in number (one for every tooo acres of woodland), and would be respon- sible for the care of and reports on the woods, destruction of rabbits, squirrels and other vermin, maintenance of firebreaks, suppression of fires, etc. These men would be quartered within the forest area, on the actual ground for which they were responsible. Flying squad of trappers.— These would gradually disappear as the forest guards reached their full number, and the planting area increased, Certain areas with rocky cairns and rough heather land would probably always require a few trappers in addition to the regular forest guards. Planters.—The planters, who constitute the main body of the men on daily wages, would be employed as follows throughout the year :— October 25th to } Planting 1,500,000 trees, including the end of _ lifting plants from the nursery, carting, March. | etc. Planting Menzies spruce, Corsican Apriltothe 15th | pine and Douglas fir; nursery work— of May. | “lining out,” weeding, etc. ; and croft work. 48 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. aN Draining ; cleaning plants; bracken switching (two years, 7.e. goo acres) ; assistance to fencers ; and croft work. 15th May to the | ist of August. | ist August to | the 25th of - October. | Practically no work in the woods ; employed at the shooting lodges and big farms ; and in croft work. In the Highlands, there is a great demand for casual labour during the shooting season; in the more fashionable districts unskilled labour commands 22s. to 35s. a week, and men for grouse driving, work on farms, etc., are almost impossible to get. Fencers.—TVhe fencers would have, on an average, four miles of deer fence, and four miles of sheep fence to put up annually in the first decade. In the first few years, there would also be some work to do in connection with common grazing and boundary fencing on crofts. Once the repair of fences began (a serious question on high ground liable to snow drift), the work would increase considerably. Boys.—One boy would be employed for every 4 to 5 men during the planting season. Boys would also be employed in bracken switching, destroying beetles, and weeding in the nursery. Men employed in clearing the planting area.—150 acres of birch would be cut per annum, 8 to rz trees being left per acre (vide Chapter IX., Working-Plan). ‘The felling, “‘snedding ” and carting of the crop from these 150 acres are included under (A) (employment offered under the head of Planting). The manufacture of this timber would come under head (C). Clerk of the Works,—A competent man would be required for account-keeping, supervision of building work, care of crofts, etc.; and during the initial stages of the scheme some additional clerical assistance might be necessary. Estate mason.—\t would be advisable to have one foreman estate mason at from £75 to £85 a year, with a house and garden. Estate carpenter.—It might be necessary to have an estate carpenter for repairs and other estate work. Labour: Building houses on crofts.—I\t is difficult to estimate the number of men who would obtain regular employment under this head. ‘The number would depend, to a considerable extent, on FINANCE AND EMPLOYMENT. 49 the amount of work done by the crofters themselves on their own buildings. A rough method of arriving at the number of men who would be employed is to calculate how much goes in material and how much in wages on the average crofter dwelling. Ina #150 house the material should cost approximately :— Timber, : : : NBEO Lime, Slates, ; 2 I Material of plumber, Material of plasterer, Paint, Sundries, ON bh Comm vat Total, Agx That is to say, about half the cost of a £150 cottage would go in labour :— 1. to the crofter erecting the dwelling ; 2. to the estate workmen ; and 3. to the men on day’s or weekly wages. Realisation of Timber. In the Fort Augustus Block there are about 7000 acres of natural timber—birch, oak, scrub and Scots pine. Annually in the first decade, the growing stock on about 150 acres would be thinned down to 8 to 12 trees per acre, and would form part of the planting area of 450 acres per annum (zvde Chapter IX., Working-Plan). The treatment of the remainder of the crop may be summar sed under the following heads :— 1. Heavy thinnings of birch woods scheduled for planting at the end of the working-plan period (in order to allow two crops of birch to be taken off certain areas before planting them). 2. Lighter thinnings of woods due for planting in the second and third decades. 3. A short-rotation “birch-broom” crop (cut when the birch is five-eighths of an inch thick at butt). 4. Special treatment of oak-woods. VOL, XXKV. D 50 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. 5. Thinning and manufacture of old Scots pine woods. 6. Manufacture of timber cleared from the planting area. (V.4.—The cost of clearing and carting of these woods is included under Planting). Table of Work. The following ‘‘ Table of Work” has been prepared to show how the labour required in the woods would increase from decade to decade :— First DECADE. Planting.—Nursery work ; 450 acres of planting, including clearing plants ; bracken switching (on goo acres), and after the first year ‘‘beating up” at the rate of 3 to 5 per cent. ; draining ; fencing ; clearing the planted area of birch and other natural crops. ffouses.— Foresters’ houses, sixty crofters’ houses and stead- ings, sawmills, etc. Land.—Preparation and division of agricultural land ; reclamation and trenching of land where arable land is not available. Felling.—TVhinning, clear cutting and manufacture of birch, oak, fir and other natural woods. SECOND DECADE. Planting, for five years—as above. Planting, from the fifteenth to the twentieth years, at 300 acres per annum. ffouses.—At the rate of 20 per decade. Land,.—Reclamation of land for new crofts, Thinnings.—After fifteen years, stake-making, etc., from larch thinnings. First thinning of Scots pine, etc. felling. —Old woods, as before. THIRD DECADE. Planting—as above, 300 acres per annum. fTouses—as above. Land—as above. lirst thinnings.— At the rate of 450 acres per annum. Second thinnings.—At the rate of 450 acres per annum. Spruce crop.—Preparation of fences and roads. /elling.—Old natural woods, as before. Vanufacture.— Posts, etc., from second thinnings. FINANCE AND EMPLOYMENT. 51 Four tH DECADE. Flanting—as above. flouses—as above. first thinnings—as above. Second thinnings—as above. Spruce.—Felling for wood pulping or other uses. VManufacture.—Stakes, posts, pulp, etc., from the planted crop. Felling —Old natural woods, as before. FirrH DECADE. Probably during, but certainly after, the fifth decade, the clear-cutting of some of the faster-growing short-rotation crops will have begun. The forest will pass into the producing stage, and the employment afforded will rise steadily up to 1 man for every 60 to 100 acres, depending on the amount of timber manufactured locally. Natural Timber Crops. Employment would also be given under the heading of Treatment and Realisation of existing timber crops by— 1. The erection of sawmills and creosoting works, also central wood pulping, acetone works, etc., some of which works would fall within the Fort Augustus Block. *2. The manufacture or treatment of timber at these works. 3. Heavy thinning outside the planting area, felling, snedd- ing, carting. 4. Light thinning, felling, snedding, carting, and_ birch brooms. Working the short-rotation birch-broom crop. The Scots pine (natural) crop—cutting, snedding, carting. Manufacture of timber from the 150 acres of planted ground. (Cost of cutting, etc., is included under Planting.) HD ur ~I Employment under this head should give, for the first twenty years, at the very lowest estimate, sufficient employment to balance the existing local supply of labour. It is important to note that employment on natural timber crops is not constant throughout the rotation, The great 52 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. majority of the 7000 acres of natural woods will be replaced by plantations by the fortieth year of the forest scheme. It is vital to the scheme that the totality of employment under A., B., and C. (p. 46), should steadily increase in amount from decade_to decade ; very careful estimates must therefore be framed to make certain that the yield of employment from the natural woods is not exhausted before the creation of employment by second thinnings from young plantations is established. Wages. It is important to show the total expenditure in wages which will be incurred in an average year of the first decade :—- Planting 450 acres per annum at the rate of 43 per acre, less deductions for cost of administration, seeds and tools : . : : . say £1150 Draining work, not including tools, at the rate of 5s. peracre . : ‘ : 110 Fencing 4 miles of deer fence, at £65, and 4 miles of sheep fence, at 4£35=£400, of which one- third is cost of labour ; ; : . 13 Men clearing the planting area, 150 acres per annum, on charges based on felling, carting, birch brooms, etc. (vzde Chapter X.) . , F 650 Wages of forest guards at £1, and of trappers at 22s., per week : . say 650 Expenditure on houses: one-tenth of £14,000, , allowing 50 per cent. of total expenditure to go in wages, £700 per annum; and allowing a reduction of £200 for the work crofters them- selves do on their own houses . ; . say 500 £30531 - !NV.8.—When comparing this figure £3053 with the total annual expendi- ture, page 45, it must be noted that wages for clearing timber off the planting area is included in the one case and not in the other. CHAPTER VIII. STOCKING OF THE GROUND. SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS MADE BY GILBERT BROWN AND Wm. MACKENZIE, FROM AUGUST Igto TO JANUARY IQII, INDICATING THE GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VARIOUS PLANTING AREAS UNDER THE PROPOSED AFFORESTATION SCHEME. The area of ground which is under consideration in connection with the proposed afforestation scheme amounts to 60,300 acres. It is situated in the main glen of the Caledonian Canal, and in the side valleys which join it at different points of its length. It is evident, even to the casual observer, that in regard to the question of transport the district is well chosen. The Caledonian Canal runs through the entire length of Glen Mor ; and there is a railway for about 30 miles, while good metalled roads, and rivers for water carriage, give facilities for transport in the side glens. It must, therefore, be admitted at the outset that there need be no difficulty in getting the wood either to a central depot or to the coast. Climate and exposure vary with the locality ; but as a rough generalisation, it may be stated that the farther west the greater the importance of shelter, the farther east the greater the danger from frost. For the purpose of more clearly defining the various points of importance which we consider it advisable to bring to the notice of the writers of the Report, it is advisable to deal separately with each of the various estates on the line of survey. Aldourie. The area of land that can be afforested on this estate is covered partly with conifers and partly with birch, while a considerable area is lying waste. The whole, being on more or 53 54 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. less sloping ground facing the north, may be said to be a very suitable area to bring under afforestation; the soil is for the most part light, with sufficient depth, and is otherwise well adapted for growing timber. Taking the coniferous woods as a whole, they present a very healthy, vigorous appearance; the matured trees are well grown and contain a large amount of valuable timber; and with a full complement of trees to the acre the crop should be a very valuable one. Both Scots pine and larch have grown well, and taking these as specimens of what may be expected from forest trees at the east end of Loch Ness (Caledonian Canal), the prospects are splendid. In taking note of small blocks of larch throughout the woods, it is satis- factory to remark that on certain areas they contain up to 3000 cubic feet of timber to the acre. And taking into account the value of larch thinnings up to about fifty years, when the last thinning might take place, the return from this source would in many cases be such that very little, if any, of the sum realised by the final crop would be required to repay the initial expenditure with interest thereon. Dochfour. The plantable area on this estate may be divided as follows :— One half containing timber of various kinds and of various ages, and the remaining half being ground from which the crop has been felled a few years ago. In dealing with the area carrying timber, the position occupied is on both sides of Loch Ness, and therefore facing either north or south. ‘The trees are of very good quality and size, and while the crop of matured timber is thinly distributed over the ground, the size of the trees shows that there are prospects of a profitable return from planting. The young crops of Scots pine and larch have also a very thriving appearance, those on the south side being, however, the more vigorous, and showing very few back-going trees. The only defect is that numbers of the larches have their stems bent by gales, and this spoils the appearance of the crop consider- ably. ‘The question, therefore, of shelter-belts must be seriously considered, especially when forming larch plantations, as the greater part of these woods will be on sloping ground, and therefore greatly exposed to wind. This is rather a difficult problem, but it is one that must be attended to, the position of STOCKING OF ‘THE GROUND. 55 the woods making it all the more difficult. ‘The tree which shows the effects of wind in the least degree in this district is the common spruce. Glen Urquhart. The plantable ground within this estate covers about 1500 acres on the Loch Ness side, principally in the glen of the above name, and it extends from Loch Ness to Corriemony ; it is accordingly on sloping ground of various gradients. The ground is mostly under birch and other scrub, with certain adjacent areas lying waste ; a small percentage, however, is under mixed conifers, and they indicate clearly that this locality is well suited for timber-growing; larch especially grows rapidly and forms timber of valuable proportions. The ground faces east or west; and the main part being on the west side is well sheltered from the prevailing winds, which is a favourable condition. The soil is altogether suitable for timber-growing, being generally deep and light; on some of the higher points it is somewhat rocky, but this deducts very little from the plantable area. Invermoriston. Here the ground suitable for afforestation is, beyond a certain area on Loch side, mainly on the slopes rising from the Moriston river to an altitude of about goo feet, the upper limit varying according to the nature of the soil, which is here the main factor determining the elevation suitable for tree-growth. In Glen Moriston, with the shelter afforded and the fertility of the soil, no argument is needed to prove the suitability of this area for tree-growing. It would be over-sanguine to expect such a large continuous tract of land to be entirely free from wet soil; but while such soil is met with in places, it occurs nowhere to any great extent, and all except the worst parts could be put into a state suitable for tree-growing at a cost for draining not exceeding an average of 5s. per acre. The soil is mixed with broken rock in parts. The rocks are, however, prin- cipally surface blocks, and although on a level plain this might necessitate the trees being planted wide apart, it will make little difference on this steep ground. The area on the south side is mainly covered with old Scots pine about 200 6 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. or to 300 years old, with a slight admixture of birch; while on the north side of the valley the crop is mainly birch with a smal! quantity of oak, a small area of Scots pine, and larch of various ages. Some of the old Scots pines are of great size and are valuable trees; but it is not at all probable that Scots pine would form the main future crop, as the conditions have altered considerably. With regard to the coniferous crop on the north side, it may be said that the trees are growing well up to about 1000 feet, the larch especially being of good proportions and strong growth. This shows conclusively that, given suitable soil and a fair amount of shelter, larch will grow to a very profit- able size; the Scots pines are also growing steadily, but are completely beaten by the larch. It may here be mentioned that one thing is everywhere apparent, namely, that far too few spruces have been planted. Inchnacardoch, Glendoe and Dell. With regard to J/achnacardoch, the nature and composition of the soil and the general aspect are similar to those of Invermoriston. Glendoe:—Most of the ground lies at a very high altitude, and does not comprise much that is fit for afforestation, as it is exposed and also of a very poor and shallow quality, altogether unsuitable for planting. But the area marked off as plantable may be said to be’ excellent for timber-growing, the soil being of a heavy, loamy nature of great depth, and quite capable of growing any of the most exacting species. Although the plantable area is limited, the prospect of quick growth upon it is everywhere obvious. On the Dell portion of this district, the conditions for afforestation are more variable than they are over the other portions. Within this area, certain blocks have been marked off as quite unfit for tree-growing, either as being on hard shallow ridges, or as being wet, boggy ground, difficult to drain; even with extensive drainage they would be defective in the qualities necessary for timber-growing. Within this area are plantations of Scots pine and larch, all in a more or less flourishing condition, but the larch have the lead both in rate of growth and in cubic contents. It may be said that a large part of the ground will be planted with spruce, and this will probably be the largest spruce forest included in the afforestation scheme. STOCKING OF THE GROUND. Oy, Cullachy. The ground suitable for afforestation is of a mixed nature, and is confined to what is known as Glen Tarff on the one side, and the lower end of Glen Buck on the other. ‘The ground in Glen Tarff is on steep slopes extending down to the river Tarff; and as the slope extends at the same gradient to the bed of the river, it presents a little difficulty in the way of removing timber. The soil in the glen being of a deep, loamy and consequently fertile nature, which is maintained up to a greater elevation than is common over the other districts, the upper line of demarcation varies, the highest point being at an altitude of about 1150 feet. It has good natural drainage. ‘The soil on the more level plains in Glen Muck does not present such favourable qualities, being more of a moorland nature, interrupted by wet parts, a large area of which has been marked out as unsuitable. Other wet parts can, however, be quite easily drained without incurring excessive expense. A great deal of water comes from the higher ground, percolating through and spreading out as it gets lower down ; but by confining the water to its natural courses, and cutting it off at various points where it breaks out, draining will be found to be quite a simple matter. Invergarry. This contains the largest area for afforestation through- out the entire Survey. In order better to show its general con- ditions it may be divided into two parts, viz., the south side and north side of the canal. ‘The south side which may include Aber- chalder, Glengloy and Glenfintaig, contains soil of a much higher quality than what may be termed “forest soil,” and on a level plain it would be quite fit for agricultural purposes ; but as it is on a very steep slope it is only suitable for tree-planting. The highest point has been fixed at an altitude of about rooo feet, but the line might be carried 200 feet higher, as the vegetation of fern and bracken is almost as luxuriant at this height as it is lower down; but the gradient is so steep that the possibility of planting higher is diminished. The soil is generally of the same nature throughout, with the exception of a few wet places of limited extent. Two plantations may be mentioned, growing on this area, which show pointedly its value for tree-growing. One of these, planted in 1905, consists of Scots pine, larch and 8 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. an Corsican pine; all the trees are growing well, even up to the highest level, where they undoubtedly fall off a little, but this could not be otherwise, as the strip is only a narrow one, tapering off toa point at the top, so that all the trees are more or less subjected to the full force of wind from all quarters ; the larch, it may be mentioned, are putting on yearly shoots up to 3 feet in length. The other plantation is a large one, and was planted about 1880; it consists of a mixed crop of larch, Scots pine and spruce; all have grown well, especially the larch, and next in order the spruce. The trees up to about 1oco feet maintain a fair size, but above that altitude they fall off in height, this probably being due to the crop being too open. On the north side of the canal, all the sloping ground over- looking it is more or less suitable for planting. There is a large area of ground extending from the canal up the valley of the loch and river Garry ; it is quite unnecessary to go into details regarding this portion, as it must be evident, even to the most casual observer, that tree-planting would be a profitable invest- ment here ; the growing species which specially demonstrate this are larch and spruce. Within this area is a small plantation formed for shelter, part of the soil being of indifferent quality and not altogether suited for forest trees. It is a noticeable fact that where Scots pine has absolutely failed Corsican pine is flourishing. Achnacarry. The plantable area here is on the north side of the canal, rising on a slope to various altitudes, but the average height is about 800 feet. The main part of the slope immediately over- looking the canal is suitable for tree-growing ; while on the extreme west, viz., Erracht, the soil is of exceptionally fine quality, being far superior to the general run of forest soils. At Achnacarry proper, most of the plantable area is under trees of various sorts, both hardwoods and conifers, and except cer- tain small areas of poor peaty soil, the whole is in a condition to plant. ‘The capabilities of the soil to grow trees is apparent from the size and general appearance of the conifers now found thereon, the larch especially is growing well; one larch plantation about 60 years of age is now of a size to command a large sum ] eT ACre. STOCKING OF THE GROUND, 59 Auchendaul. This area, between Spean Bridge and Banavie, rises in a gentle slope from the east and from the west to an altitude of about 750 feet. A large part of the flat ground at this level is quite unfit for planting, being peaty or sterile, and even with a great amount of labour and expense it could not be profitably utilised. On the flat ground at lower levels similar soil is found, and there is little hope of bringing it into a proper state for forest trees. ‘The best of the land is on the slopes facing east or west, that with a western exposure being of excellent quality for silvicultural purposes. Draining is absolutely neces- sary, to a greater or less extent according to the character of the soil. A small plot of about 60 acres at the extreme south of this area is planted with larch, Scots pine and spruce, and is on what may be termed a fair sample of the various soils through- out the whole area; the trees thereon may be said to fairly represent the results that may be expected from planting in this district. The larches have been planted on the best soil and have grown well, while Scots pines and spruces, planted on peaty soil, have been quite a failure; spruce planted on wet but good soil have, however, made good progress. The whole demonstrates clearly that, with fair soil, suitable for planting, profitable results will be attained. Note—Throughout this Survey various areas occur within the boundary line that have been marked out as unsuitable for timber-growing, having either very wet or very shallow soil. There is also a large area of ground under a Scots pine crop about 300 years old ; some of the trees being very fine specimens, containing a large amount of valuable timber. The soil on which these fine trees have developed has obviously deteriorated in later times, and it is doubtful whether it is now in condition to again produce a good crop of trees. A considerable amount of the soil has been washed down the slope to the lower valleys by water running along the pan; and with no improvement in the crop of trees, the soil having been open to the effects of the weather for so long a period, this part of the area is fast passing into the conditions prevailing in the remains of the old primeval forests in our Highlands; and under such adverse conditions it is impossible, in the meantime, to include it in an afforestation scheme. CHAPTER IX, SKETCH OF WORKING-PLAN. By WILLIAM Dawson, General Outlines.—It is unnecessary to submit a detailed working-plan for the whole area now, as many of the points with which it must deal do not affect the present question. In the abridged working-plan as here submitted, the outline of the scheme is shown, together with facts relating to the area which are of general interest. Such details as the exact position of the boundaries of each year’s planting, the species, age and arrange- ment of the planting material for each compartment, methods of planting, the location of whin and grass meadows for deer, the location of roads, paths, loading banks, etc., are of importance in the execution of the work, and should be contained in the com- plete working-plan. Under any extensive scheme of afforestation detailed working-plans should be prepared for each district, and, in addition, a special Book of Instructions should be issued dealing with all details of a technical and practical nature. Part of these instructions would be common to the country as a whole, but for each district, special instructions would be issued, dealing with its special features and needs. The area to which the present plan relates is the Fort Augustus Block. It contains 15,000 acres of afforestable land, every part of which is situated within easy distance of Fort Augustus. Prac- tically the whole of the ground is under the 800-feet contour line. Undoubtedly it would be possible to plant at considerably higher elevations in places, though it would be inadvisable to do so in the beginning. ‘The richer and more sheltered lower ground will give a quicker return, and therefore should be stocked first. The sole of the valley is only 100 feet above sea-level. In this district Glen Mor widens, so that a considerable portion of the available land is situated at low elevations, while the slopes are comparatively gentle. The same is true of Glen Moriston. 60 SKETCH OF WORKING-PLAN. 61 Meteorological Conditions.\—Vhe average annual rainfall for the period 1884 to 1903 was 44°67 inches. The highest rainfall recorded was 65°98 inches (in 1903), while the lowest was 32°67 (in 1889). ‘The rainfall at Fort Augustus is greater than that of Inverness, and smaller than that of Fort William. There is seldom snow on the lower ground, owing to the fact that the straightness of Glen Mor facilitates the access of the air from either coast. It is a very striking fact that the snow-line in some of the side glens, e.g. Glen Tarff, is often considerably lower than that in Glen Mor itself. The prevailing wind is south-west, and next to it in frequency comes the north-east wind. Peculiar gusty gales blow occasion- ally from the south-east. The temperature is free from great extremes. The mean annual temperature (thermometers in shade) for the period 1897 to 1906 was 46:06 F. The highest temperature in the shade was recorded on the znd September 1906 with 86°9° F., and the lowest, quite an exception, on the 28th January 1910, with t'9° F. For this period (1897-1906) the mean annual humidity of the atmosphere was 83°87 per cent; and in the same period the average number of hours of bright sunshine per annum was 1002°96. Geology.-—The area to be afforested in Glen Moriston and along the Great Glen from the mouth of the river Moriston to Invergary, has not yet been surveyed by the Geological Survey. But, so far as our present knowledge goes, it is believed that the rocks entering into the structure of this region belong partly to the metamorphic series of the Highlands and partly to the Old Red Sandstone. The latter form a narrow belt along the north-east side of Loch Oich, and extend north-eastwards, by Aberchalder House, towards Culachy. The remainder of the area is occupied by the metamorphic series, which comprises crystalline schists belonging to the Monic Series of the Geological Survey. These consist of quartzose flagstones, quartz-biotite-granulites and mica schists, which have an extensive development on both sides of the Great Glen. ‘They represent sandy and clayey sediments which have been converted into crystalline schists by various 1 The notes on the meteorological conditions were kindly supplied by Rev. Cyril von Dieckhoff, St Benedict’s Abbey, Fort Augustus. 2 The geological notes were kindly supplied by Dr Horne, Director of the Geological Survey, Edinburgh. 62 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. metamorphic processes. In places they are traversed by veins of granite and pegmatite, due partly to intrusion and partly to segregation. The Old Red Sandstone strata, south-east of Loch Oich, consists of conglomerates and sandstones that rest on the old floor of metamorphic rocks, and hence belong to a later period of the geological record. ‘There is clear evidence to prove that the crystalline schists of the metamorphic series were folded and extensively denuded before the deposition of the Old Red Sandstone. Reference ought to be made to the great line of dislocation that runs along the Great Glen from Loch Linnhe to Inverness, which has determined this straight physical feature, and has modified the structure of the rocks on either side. In Glen Moriston and along the Great Glen there are morainic deposits that point to the extensive glaciation of the region. The terraces between Loch Ness and Loch Oich indicate old raised beaches. General.—The surface herbage in the open is mostly bracken and grass, but heather appears in parts. A considerable portion of the ground is already covered with trees, partly natural, and partly the result of planting. Birch is the prevailing tree, but in Glen Moriston there is a considerable area of old Scots pine.! The soil varies considerably throughout the area. It is mostly of a light and friable nature and of sufficient depth. Part of it is undoubtedly first-class larch ground, while a considerable portion is heavier, and is suitable for Menzies spruce and common spruce. ‘These species with the addition of Douglas fir, where conditions are suitable, should form the crop for the first rotation at any rate. Japanese larch can be substituted for the common larch in some of the compartments. It should also be used to a considerable extent, as a “catch ” or short-rotation crop, till such time as the woods are in full work- ing order. All the species named are quick growers, and will yield early returns. The different species are not to be mixed among one another, but are to be kept in pure groups by them- selves. An idea of the proportions of the ground suitable for the different species may be gathered from Map No.2. It must not be understood, however, that larch or spruce or any other ' For details of existing woods, see Chapter VIII. SKETCH OF WORKING-PLAN. 63 species will be planted in large blocks of the same age. ‘The division of the ground into the three classes of larch ground, spruce ground and Scots-pine ground, is general, and merely intended to show the capabilities of the soil. In the Detailed Working-plan, each year’s planting will be dealt with, and all particulars as to the exact proportion of the different species, etc., will be set forth at length, so that in the areas at present marked in Map No. 2 as all larch, or all spruce, larch, or spruce will form the bulk of the crop; but the principle will be rigidly followed of forming groups of species best suited to each particular part of the ground. The size of the groups will be kept within the limits demanded by good silviculture, and where larger areas are suited to a single species, a difference in age of contiguous groups must be provided for. Fencing.—It will be necessary to erect deer fences round a considerable part of the plantations. In places a sheep fence is all that is necessary. As large areas will be enclosed at a time, the expenditure per acre will not be heavy. The deer fences must be maintained for a period of at least fifteen years. Details as to the cost of fencing in the first instance are to be found in Chapter VII. At a later period it may be possible to materially reduce the cost of protecting the plantations. Where fencing becomes necessary later on, temporary fences made from the first thinnings of the woods may be run up, as is done in Saxony. Draining.—The natural drainage of the land is good on the whole, and much of it will need little attention. It will, how- ever, be necessary to cut drains in some places, in order that compartments may be completed. Any areas where extensive draining would be necessary should be left unplanted meantime, as it would not be advisable to incur a heavy expenditure in this direction, till such time as the bulk of the good land is planted. ‘These patches of wet land may be attended to at any convenient time later on. It must be understood, however, that where draining is to be done at all, it must be done thoroughly. In this comparatively moist district, half-measures in draining would be useless. The policy must be to drain properly in the small areas undertaken, and to leave the rest of the wet ground till such time as it too can be adequately dealt with. In the first period, the cost of draining should not exceed 5s. per acre on an average. 64 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. Transport Faciltties.—The Caledonian Canal passes through the middle of the area. Every part of it is also served by good main roads converging on Fort Augustus. The upper end of the area in Glen Moriston is also accessible from Fort Augustus, by a good path over the hill in Port Clair deer forest, while the northmost end of the ground, on Loch Ness beyond Glen Doe, can easily be reached by water. Further road-making will be unnecessary in the beginning. Carting roads will ultimately be necessary in some _ places, and the various compartments must be intersected by drag roads and inspection paths. The lines of these roads must be marked off before planting begins, and strips of the requisite breadth must be left unplanted ; the making can be postponed till a later period, at which labour is easily available. It will be possible to bring the timber from much of the ground, down to the existing main roads, by means of slides or by temporary tramways. The compartment divisions should be laid down in such a way as to allow of their being used for this purpose. Planting Scheme.—TVhe actual planting will present few diffi- culties here. Deer must be fenced out, and black game kept down. Rabbits must be exterminated. The surface herbage will not be difficult to treat. Where bracken is found, it must be attacked early in the year previous to planting, and the cutting or flicking operations repeated in the same season, as often as is necessary. In a few places only will it be necessary to adopt any special methods of planting, such as planting on the tops of upturned turfs in wet places. ‘Two-year-old seedlings can be used to a large extent, although on grassy land, where spruce will be planted, older material must be used. Existing birch-woods should be utilised to afford protection to the young crop from frost and wind. Where birch exists on ground which is to be planted, total clearance should not take place. A number of trees should be left till the young plantation is established and beyond the danger of frost. The removal of these trees at a later period will present no practical difficulty. In selected places, existing birch-woods should be left intact, in order that protection from wind may be afforded to neighbouring plantations. Birch should also be left in fairly broad strips, at intervals throughout the new woods. These will serve as fire lines as well as shelter-belts, and both the strips and blocks will provide shelter for deer, meantime. The birch will, of course, be completely removed in time. SKETCH OF WORKING-PLAN. 65 In deciding on the extent and location of the areas to be planted annually, the economic interests,—sheep ground, deer forests and their rating values, etc., have had to be con- sidered, as well as the fact that it will be necessary to spread the employment in, as far as possible, ever-increasing amounts, over the various periods of the rotation. It is proposed to plant the whole of the area within fifty years, and of that nearly half will be planted in the first fifteen years. This is quite in keeping with both precept and practice abroad. When extensive bare areas are to be planted, they are invariably got under crop with the least possible delay, irrespective of what the ultimate annual felling area may be. ‘This presents no practical difficulty in the way of bringing the woods into proper rotation. It is quite a legitimate process, to shorten the rotation in parts, and to lengthen it in others, in the bringing of the whole into the normal rotation. Further, what the normal rotation will be is a point which cannot be decided at present. It has been explained in another section, that not more than a third of the deer-forest wintering, in any forest, can be enclosed for planting at one time, while the sheep ground is available at any time, and can be planted as need arises. Of the 15,000 acres of plantable ground in this area, about two- thirds fall within the deer forests, while the remainder is sheep ground. Thus, in the first period of twenty years, there are available for planting, 5000 acres of sheep ground, and one- third of 10,000 acres of deer-forest wintering,—a total of 8300 acres. It is proposed to plant 450 acres per annum, for the first fifteen years, and 300 acres per annum thereafter up to the twentieth year. It is considered that the deer can be safely admitted to the first planted section of the deer forest between the fifteenth and twentieth years, and thus, once one-third of the planted wintering has been thrown open to the deer, the remainder-of the wintering will be available, and planting can take place in it as necessary. From the twenty-first to the fortieth years, 300 acres will be planted per annum, or a total of 6000 acres in the period. The residue will fall to be planted between the forty-first and the fiftieth years. Thus 75 acres of the original ground will be planted annually ; but, by this time, it will be seen in what direction extension can best take place, and new blocks can be added. Towards the end of the period, too, the clearing of some of the parts must begin, in order that the VOL. XXV. E 66 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. woods may be brought into the proper rotation. After fifty years it is probable that clean cutting of certain areas can begin, particularly where spruce is grown; but the question of the length of the rotation is highly problematic, and must be reviewed at a later period in the light of experience of the particular ground, and of the direction in which timber utilisation tends. The planting will thus proceed as follows :— acres. Between the rst and 15th years (450 acres per annum) 6750 3 2Oth 20th 7... (300 . ) 4500 » 3st ,, goth ,, (300 a ) 3000 2? 4ist ,, 5oth ,, (atleast 75 acres per annum) 750 15,000 The whole area should be divided into three sections, which would ultimately form three separate units of management. Thus in each year the planting will go on simultaneously at three different centres within the area. To begin with, all three sections will be under the charge of one head forester, with an assistant in each of the three districts. The position of each year’s planting up to the fortieth year is shown on Map No. 3, the figures on the map signifying the year in which the planting is to take place. The different colours on the map show the positions of the three sections. The positions of the plantations from the forty-first year onwards are not shown, as in the last period the planting will consist in joining up or extending the existing plantations, in whatever direction seems most desirable. Nursery.—The extent to which the young plants can be raised locally at the outset will depend on the labour available. About 1,500,000 plants will be required annually for the first fifteen years. The plants required will be 2-year-old seedlings and 3- and 4-year-old transplants. To raise the necessary number of young plants a nursery of at least 12 acres will be required. In the first instance, one nursery will serve, although in the course of time, when the labour question has adjusted itself, it will be found expedient to have at least three permanent nurseries, one for each of the three centres. ‘Temporary nurseries should also be started in the more outlying districts. In Glen Moriston there is room for at least two of these. The temporary nursery is merely a patch of suitable ground within the enclosed area, SKETCH OF WORKING-PLAN. 67 which can be brought into condition to receive young plants without much cultivation. The plants are taken from the seed- beds of the central nursery and “lined out” here, one or two years before being planted out. ‘These temporary nurseries are of special value in serving places at a distance from the central nursery, as the material can be got at hand, in such quantities as are required at the moment, for planting out. All difficulties of transport in the busy season are thus done away with. After the district served by the temporary nursery has been planted, the nursery itself is planted up, though a small part of it should be retained for a few years, to provide plants for filling blanks in the plantation. The most convenient site for the principal nursery is at Auchteraw, a mile to the south of Fort Augustus. ‘The position is central, and it is easily accessible by good roads. ‘The soil is good, and in every way suitable for the purpose. It is at present under cultivation, and can easily be brought into suitable condition. The situation is elevated sufficiently above the bottom of the valley to be beyond the most dangerous frost region. It is airy but not too exposed, as it is sufficiently protected by the higher ground around it. ‘There is also a sufficient supply of running water. Staff and Labour.—The question of staff and labour for the whole scheme is dealt with, at length, in another section (Chapter VII.), so here, facts relating to the forest work alone will be briefly dealt with. At the outset, the work will consist of raising the young plants, clearing birch, etc., where it exists, planting and protecting the plantations. As the work will proceed on a detailed working-plan the whole area can be put under the charge of one head forester. Under him there will be three assistant foresters or working foremen to take charge of the operations at the three centres. At at later period, when extensive areas of new plantations have been created, and when the stage is reached where the woods must be thinned, it will be necessary to divide the charge. Ultimately three head foresters will be required. At the outset, however, one head forester will be able to undertake the work for the whole area. He will be responsible for the nursery work, the execution of the planting, engagement of workers, book-keeping, etc. It will also be his duty to see that the plantations do not suffer from attacks by game, or from other causes. Rabbit trappers and 68 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. forest guards must be directly under his charge. Of these twelve or thirteen will be necessary over the whole area in the beginning. The work of planting, etc., will employ about thirty men with a number of boys to assist. In addition ten men will be employed in clearing and removing birch, etc., while three men will be required to take charge of the fencing. Thus in the first period the staff will include — t Head forester. 3 Assistant foresters. 7 Forest guards. 6 Rabbit trappers (temporary), 30 Planters. 6 Boys (to assist planters). 1o Woodcutters. 3 Foremen fencers, In the season extra labour will be necessary in the nursery. The work of fencing, draining and bracken cutting can be undertaken out of the planting season, while the work of road- making can fall in any period when work is otherwise scarce. The amount of labour required will remain fairly constant for the first twenty-five or thirty years, after which it will increase considerably. The labour demanded in wood cutting, trans- port, road-making, etc., is at least three times that necessary in planting alone. CHAPYER X. UTIEISATION OF THE EXISTING WOODLAND PRO- DUCE THROUGHOUT THE AREA DEALT WITH UNDER THE AFFORESTATION SCHEME. By Dr JOHN NISBET. The existing woodlands throughout the area under con- sideration are as follows :— Dochfour : : a Aldourie E Glen Urquhart. _| NaruraL Woops—Acres. Foyers . . : | Birch, 14,021. Dell, Glendoe, Inchnacardoch , Oak and Scrub, 3,391. Cullachy Invergarry . - CONIFER Woops—Acres. Invergloy we Achnacarry . : Pals Glen Moriston | In the disposal of part of the produce from the “natural woods” of birch and stub-grown oak and ash, the remains of coppices formerly worked in regular rotation, a market has been gradually developed in recent years; but this requires con- siderable extension before all the existing mature and over-mature wood can be utilised, in order to grow better crops of timber, and chiefly of the conifers likely to be most profitable. When this can be effected, it must necessarily mean a large additional sum payable locally in wages in felling and preparing, and in transport by road, railway, river and sea. But as regards the existing conifer woods, as the market for their produce is already fully established, there can be no immediate prospect of any direct increase in the employment of local labour, although in future the maturing woodlands should, under con- tinuous good management, provide a much larger yield per acre than is now the case. 69 JO AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. I. THe BrrcH-woops, aggregating over 14,000 acres, bear on the average a crop of about ro tons of wood per acre, together with half a ton of brooms or twigs not over half an inch in diameter, as used for burning to remove the surface-scale from steel plates in foundries; for it has been found that, on the average, trees yielding 1 ton of wood give r cwt. of twigs The Brooms, which must not exceed half an inch in diameter at thick end, are made up in small bundles girthing up to 15 inches at the tying-place, and cost from 15s. to 16s. a ton to put on the railway, including a cartage of about 4 miles, costing 4s. a ton, or 1s. per ton per mile. Railway transport to the steel-works costs per ton ris. 8d. from Gairlochy station to any station in the Glasgow area, and 12s. from Fort Augustus ; and 12s, 8d. and 13s., respectively, to any station in the Edinburgh area. ‘The broom-making season extends from October till April; and at Taynuilt (Loch Etive district, Argyllshire) broom-cutters are said to be able to earn up to 4£3 a week during the 7-months’ season. Throughout the Lorne district of Argyllshire the wages at present paid to the broom- workers for cutting and tying in bundles of 20 inches to 24 inches by 14 inches girth is 4d. per dozen bundles.! Of the BrrcH TREES yielding on the average ro tons per acre, from 5 to ro trees give 1 ton of wood, about 55 cubic feet going to 1 ton weight, or averaging about 41 lbs. per cubic foot. One man can cut and sned 3 tons a day, costing about rs. 3d. a ton, and thus earn about 3s. 9d. per diem; while if the trees are barked, the piecework is paid at od. extra, or 2s. per ton. The cost of dragging and carting is found to come to about 3s. per ton for the first mile, and 6d. per ton for each additional mile beyond the first. ‘The market already established, on a small scale, for birch is for bobbin- wood in Dundee, all sizes being taken from 4 inches in top- diameter upwards. Freight by steamer from Loch Lochy to the east coast of Fife, including dues, is £35 for a 11o-ton steamer carrying from 80 to 85 tons of wood; but a returning coal- steamer can sometimes be hired for less. For shipment to Glasgow the rate is 8s. a ton, inclusive of dues. From the Inver- garry estate about 400 tons of birch were sold as bobbin-wood to Messrs J. & P. Coats, Paisley, in 1909-10, the wood being aintt? sirch twigs for smelting purposes are taken by certain firms at all times of the year. UTILISATION OF EXISTING WOODLAND PRODUCE. 71 delivered f.o.b. at the Loch Oich private pier at 13s. per ton, the forester and his woodmen doing the felling and snedding, and the local crofters being employed to drag and cart the wood at an average cost of about 1s. per ton per mile. Messrs J. & P. Coats have kindly informed me that the value of the present rough class of Highland birch as bobbin- wood would certainly not exceed rgs. per ton, delivered at their works in Paisley; but they have also added that ‘it is impossible to say what quantity of wood could be used, as from recent tests made, the spools from home birch are inferior in colour, are much heavier, and show unsatisfactory results after dyeing.” These drawbacks can, however, be to a great extent overcome by growing the birch closely in future. There is also a limited market for birch firewood in Inverness, where sawn blocks sell at from 13s. to 15s. a ton, of which from gs. to 11s. is the cost of felling, sawing, carting to sawmill and railway station, railway freight, and delivery in Inverness, leaving only about 4s. a ton as the net income from the wood. Thus, for each acre of the very thin existing mature birch- woods, for which any market has been found, local employment is given to the extent of at least 7s. 6d. for brooms, and 44s. for felling, snedding and carting, or 51s. 6d. per acre, exclusive of all the further cost of transport by railway or steamer. (See also TILT. below.) II. THe Oak-woops, stub-grown from old coppices, inter- spersed with ash, alder and birch, and aggregating over 3300 acres, produce a very hard, heavy and tough class of wood, though usually of small dimensions. At present there is little or no demand for the produce of these woodlands, and measurements have not been made of the tonnage available per acre on the average. Some of the smaller stuff is sold as firewood in Inverness at 8s. 6d. per cart load of about 18 cwts., and it is also suitable for pitwood. The 1700 acres on Achnacarry estate “range from about 30 years old upwards. Very few of the trees are as yet of a profitable size, but all have fine long clean stems, and promise to become valuable. The timber is of excellent quality with very little sapwood.” Wood of this description seems particularly suitable for making into arms for telegraph and telephone posts, if the Postmaster-General can be persuaded to give a trial order for some (in place of the foreign timber now imported for this purpose). to AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. ~! III. To ENABLE THE EXISTING NATURAL BIRCH AND THE STUB-GROWN OAK-WOODS TO BE CLEARED PROFITABLY, with a view to gradual replantation according to a definite scheme of operations, it is essential that new markets be developed for utilising the produce of the crops, such as these now are. If large areas be planted annually, a considerable quantity of fencing will have to be done, and much of the oak can thus be utilised ; and also birch, Scots pine, etc., if creosoting tanks be made for treating the wood to increase its durability to about 16 years or more. ‘The very cheapest form of fencing against hill-cattle and sheep costs £33 to £35 per running mile, or 43d. a yard, while a deer-fence (54 feet high) costs £60 to 4,65 a mile, or nearly 8}d. a yard; and in either case over one- third of the total outlay, ze. over £11 and over £20 per mile, respectively, is spent on labour employed in the construction of the fence, and in addition to the sums already paid for felling and pointing the straining posts and stobs, cartage and hauling. With special regard to birch, which comes up freely and grows well wherever sheep and cattle are taken off the land and rabbits are kept down, the present poorly-grown crops unfortunately do not yield first-class bobbin-wood of clean growth and free from knots, which can be used from 3 to 4 inches top-diameter upwards. Scottish birch is heavier than Canadian, and heavier still than Finnish; and in the case ot a very large thread business, such as Messrs J. & P. Coats of Paisley, the extra weight of the bobbins makes a considerable difference in the firm’s freight and transport bill during the course of a year. One new industry capable of being introduced locally, and of utilising both the birch and the oak and other hardwoods growing among them, is the destructive distillation of wood for the preparation of pyroligneous acid, grey acetate of lime, crude wood alcohol, and charcoal, as roughly outlined in the following process of treatment :— UTILISATION OF EXISTING WOODLAND PRODUCE. ~I io) | | Wood | destructive ly distilled | ray al | Charcoal | First distillate | he arse es) distil | again | ieee a ae Saal | Abra | Acid and Alkali | Lime | | | | | H ae neutralise |and distil | Se : ios | Grey Acetate Dilute Crude Wood | Solution Alcohol. | drie|d by distil | twice waste | heat to remojve tarry matters | and water | i ere Grey Acetate | | Crude Wood Alcohol | of Lime | (82 %) Messrs Turnbull & Co., who have wood-distilling works at Glasgow and at Balmaha (Loch Lomond), have kindly informed me that the quantity of wood needed to be guaranteed annually for a small factory of 6 retorts is from 1200 to 1500 tons’ weight (green). They pay from gs. to ros. a ton for the wood at Balmaha, and tos. to 12s, in Glasgow, the wood being in each case delivered at the works. Oak, beech and birch are taken at that price, and peeled oak is preferred to any other wood. If the oak were ringed to free it from bark and season it, a better price would be paid for it. The capital needed for a 6-retort factory would be from £2000 to £3000; and it would give constant employment in the factory for 8 or 9 men—not counting any of the employment given in the woods in felling, and in transport and delivery to the factory. And Mr Turnbull kindly told me he would willingly co-operate, though not himself prepared to erect new factories elsewhere than he has them at present (Glasgow and Balmaha). IV. THE CONIFER Woops AND PLANTATIONS, aggregating 74 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. 14,775 acres, and varying up to r4o years of age, consist mainly of larch and Scots pine, sometimes pure, sometimes mixed ; while spruce also occurs here and there, either in pure patches or interspersed occasionally among the pine and larch. The details obtained regarding all these conifer crops will be found in Chapter VIII., as to their age, composition, average number of stems, and average cubic contents per acre. Their general character may perhaps be sufficiently indicated by summarising the details for the Aldourie estate :— Old Woods | r r ) j . Tr Kind of Crop. Young Plantations | (over 35 years old; | Total. | (under 35 years old). | mostly trom 80to | | 140 years). 2 Acres. Acres. | Acres. | 1. Larch, pure or mainly | pure, A : 40 IIo | I50 2. Scots Pine, pure or | mainly pure, ; 58 350 | 378 | 3. Larchand Scots Pine, mixed, ; = | 5 390 395 | _— | —, | Total,. 73 | S50 | 028 As already remarked, steady markets being already secured for the produce from these conifer woods, their exploitation will not provide additional employment for the local population, though it is expected that the new crops to be grown on the land when these mature and are cleared will be considerably larger, and will, therefore, in course of time, give larger employment in felling and logging, hauling and carting, sawing and converting, and transport and distribution. ‘There should then be a larger out-turn per acre than at present both for pitwood of the usual dimensions (3, 5 and 7 inches top-diameter, up to 8 and 9 inches at the butt), and for the larger stem-pieces sawn into boarding for boxes, sarking, etc. V. Ip NEW AND GREATLY EXTENDED CONIFER PLANTATIONS BE FORMED in accordance with this afforestation scheme, the present small estate mills will have to be enlarged, or a large central sawmill may be erected at Fort Augustus, together with a creosoting plant, a bobbin-mill, and other works, all of which must both directly and indirectly add greatly to the amount of UTILISATION OF EXISTING WOODLAND PRODUCE. 7 Cn work provided for an increased local population. Without attempting to make forecasts having an appearance of exact- ness, but being possibly misleading, it may be more appropriate here to give a summary of actual results obtained within the last ten years from the sale of larch growing on rough grazing land ona hillside in the West of Scotland, but the exact locality of which I am not at liberty to state. The hillside has a north aspect, and is exceptionally favourably situated close to a sea-loch with easy and very exceptionally cheap transport by ship to the Clyde. The wood was felled at 41 years of age, and gave 380 trees per acre, with the following financial result :— Income. 943 cub. ft. sold at 1/3} PPARs tS 3 65 ,, for home use at 1/- AP ACHING joo lm. ft. 5 1m. pitwood at 32/- 7 115 oO © T3809 155° 4 " 19/6 7% 15 19 32 EaOcr | fA i 18/= “ fas TO Aor 3 ys 8/g° 7 Pies GF T45 Total, A2nyarorm Expenditure. Felling, Logging and Carting BE ae wpa Freight and Lighters; and Railway charges on 102 tons. ; 1 S2ORiS ee Motaliyetsomnznis giving a vet Zncome per acre of . : CALS On AO ies In this case both the expenditure on carting and also that on transport to the place of consumption happened to be exception- ally low; but they serve to show how large may be the sums payable to local labour, in respect of the utilisation of woodland produce, and in addition to wages paid for planting, thinning, tending, etc. These figures have been given by the forester who felled and sold the timber, and with the sanction of the estate factor; and I desire here to thank them both for kindly placing such interesting and instructive data at my disposal. With regard to the prospects of establishing wood-pulp and ts. a foot for good larch timber 27 s7/z is the usual market price. 76 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. cellulose factories near the woods later on, when much larger supplies and more suitable material may become available, it would seem unwise to attempt to make anything like detailed estimates. And the probability is that the pitwood and timber value of the good conifer crops that Scotland can easily produce under proper management, will always be greater than what pulp or cellulose may yield. Mechanical or ground wood-pulp could easily be produced locally by utilising the ample water-power to be found on the hillsides ; but the impression of the pulp-firms I have consulted is that, even in the future, it may probably be cheaper to buy foreign pulp, as at present. Time alone, however, can prove whether this opinion be correct or not. As regards cellulose- making at some central factory the case may be different, though no useful purpose can be served by making financial forecasts of this sort about timber crops that have as yet not been planted. It may be mentioned, however, that for making paper of the kind used for the daily newspaper press, the materials used are in the proportion of 30 per cent. unbleached sulphite pulp and 7o per cent. mechanical pulp; and to produce roo tons of sulphite pulp about 300 tons of wood are needed (preferably spruce), A paper mill can only pay if it turn out 200 tons of paper weekly, the raw material required for which would be from 400 to 500 tons of wood weekly, or at least 20,000 tons of wood per annum. But, of course, this minimum total quantity for profitable paper-milling could be cut and pulped at several different localities, to supply the central paper mill. The amount of labour that cellulose factories would provide can be judged of from the fact that the poles used have to be hand-spokeshaved to remove the bark (loss 8 per cent., against 15-16 per cent. if mechanical apparatus used) and all knots punched out, before chipping the wood previous to boiling and macerating it with calcium sulphite. VI. To SUMMARISE BRIEFLY, without attempting to give detailed forecasts, any extensive afforestation scheme will, besides giving much work in draining and other soil prepara- tion, fencing, rabbit exterminating, nursery-work, planting and tending (see Chapter IX., Working-Plan), provide new or greatly increased sources of employment throughout the district. There will be much more labour needed for felling, logging, extracting and preparing the timber for market, and in trans- UTILISATION OF EXISTING WOODLAND PRODUCE. rH porting it to its place of consumption; while new industries, such as wood-distillation, will have to be created locally to clear the natural birch and old stub-grown oak woods before the soil can be suitably prepared for planting. In this respect a reference may here well be made to the Memorandum issued, on 14th February tg11, by the Management Committee of the General Federation of Trade Unions in the United Kingdom, in which it was urged that— “To absorb surplus labour, an appeal is made _ for afforestation. ‘The employment furnished by the present uses —mostly sheep-farming—to which the land is devoted may be taken, it is stated, to average one man per 1000 acres. This does not represent one-tenth of the permanent employment afforded by the maintenance of a similar area under forest. A special advantage of forestry in relation to labour is that it offers new sources of employment. The labour connected with timber and timber products imported into the country is performed abroad; the labour incidental to home-grown timber would be performed in the country, and would afford maintenance for many thousands of families.” What the actual labour bill in extensive forests amounts to can be well judged of from the returns published regarding the Prussian State forests. With a total area of about 7,000,000 acres, they yielded, in 1904, over 412,000,000 cubic feet of wood, equal to a fall of about 65 cubic feet per acre actually stocked ; and of this more than one-half was used as timber, and nearly one-half as fuel. The gross income was over £5,854,400, THE EXPENDITURE 42,755,230 (OR AVERAGING 7S. 103d. PER ACRE), and the net income £ 3,099,107, showing a net revenue of gs. 7d. per acre actually culturable. During the year 32,000 acres were naturally regenerated, sown, or planted at a cost of £43,500; and EMPLOYMENT WAS GIVEN TO 156,772 HANDS FOR A TOTAL OF 10,479,589 DAYS. CHAPTER XI. CONCLUSION, In submitting this Report to the Council of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, the writers are well aware that individual members of the Council will not be able to accept every detail in a statement which deals almost exclusively with the special circumstances of the Glen Mor district. Minor points of “local variation,” though interesting in them- selves, do not affect the main issues under discussion ; and if the writers may ask a single favour of their readers, it is that criticism should be directed, not to detail, but to the main principles involved in the scheme described in this Report. In framing their proposals, the writers have endeavoured to show how a State-aided and State-controlled scheme of afforesta- tion might be initiated on the line of least resistance, and how the best results could be obtained from any given expenditure. Their aim throughout has been to present a solution fair both to the State and to all of those whose interests are touched by afforestation ; and with this end in view, they have taken as the determining factor in all matters of compensation or leasing, the minimum which trustees would be justified in accepting in the case of a property held on trust. They have, so far as possible, avoided debatable points on which the attention of party politicians is mainly focussed, believing that nothing could be more fatal to the policy of afforestation than to allow it to become, as it were, the private property of any one party in the State. In concluding their Report, the writers wish to recapitulate and emphasise certain convictions which have been formed in their minds during the course of this inquiry. 1. The survey of Glen Mor tends to prove that there exists in Scotland a large extent of land admirably fitted for afforestation. 78 / CONCLUSION. 79 2. Under a well-framed scheme large areas of land can be afforested without serious injury to existing interests and means of employment, and without imposing any undue burden on the local rate- payers. 3. Afforestation on the lines suggested would, eventually, not only pay its way, but bring in a considerable return to the Forest Authority. [The writers have refrained from making any forecast of ultimate profits. They prefer to rely on the incontestable evidence of results already obtained at Aldourie, Dochfour, Glenmoriston, Invergarry, Invergloy and Achnacarry to prove that profitable crops of timber can be grown in the district. It is a fair deduction from the results yielded by, or now visible in, plantations not always scientifically managed, and in no case under continuous control that improved silvicultural methods, practised under a_ regular working-plan, will give returns even more satisfactory than those already realised. | 4. A great deal of permanent and periodic employment will be given by the establishment of Forest Centres, and the periodic employment will be at the time of year and of a nature especially suited to small holders. 5. There is no reason for delay either in the commencement of the Surveys (General and Particular) or in the establishment of one or more Forest Centres. 6. The final and conclusive test of the value of afforestation must be its ability or inability to improve the existing condition of a given district as to population, employment and economic returns. If, by means of afforestation on a financially sound basis, land which is too poor to cultivate can be made to give more employment, and support a larger population than it is capable of doing under pastoral or sporting conditions, then the future of afforestation, So AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. as a means of increasing the prosperity of the High- lands, will be assured. ! 7. The progressive decrease of rural population in Scot- land revealed by the Census returns is causing grave anxiety to all who are concerned for the national welfare. Silviculture offers a remedy which (as it has been the object of the writers to show) can be put to the proof on a considerable scale at no prohibitive expense ; and a united demand on the part of the foresters of Scotland is the first step towards securing such a trial. ' The Highlands and Islands Commission (1892) scheduled in Glen Mor goo acres of old arable land as suitable for cultivation, and for extension of existing holdings or creation of new ones. If 10 acres are taken as the average holding capable of supporting a family by agriculture alone, 90 families over and above the existing population can be established in Glen Mor; if 20 acres, then 45 families. The present Survey shows 60,000 acres of land immediately afforestable. Within the first 20 years 1 family to each 200 acres of forest area, or 300 families, could be supported by afforestation. After the 40th year 600 families could be supported. APPENDIX A. Central Forest Authority. It is necessary to define briefly what is meant by a Central Forest Authority, and the objective which, in the opinion of the writers, should inspire that body’s course of action. tr. There should be one Central Forest Authority for Scotland, which should deal with the whole forestal interests of Scotland including : (a) Education. (/) Demonstration areas. (c) Original research. (dz) Surveys. (e) Creation and administration of forest centres. (f) Conversion and disposal of forest products. (g) Encouragement to private and to corporate effort. 2. The Board of the Forest Authority should be a nominated one, representative of all the interests involved, appointed for a fixed period, and independent of changes of Govern- ment, unless in its Parliamentary official representation. The changes in the personnel of the Board should be spread over such a period of time as best to secure (a) continuity of policy, and (2) the entry of new blood. . The Forest Authority should work on a fixed annual grant, paid to them direct by the Development Com- mission or the Treasury, or both. 4. The Forest Authority should be responsible to Parliament for the expenditure of all public money, and should have representation in Parliament. 5. The necessary powers should be granted to the Forest Authority by P2iiament. The two main objectives which should dictate the policy of the Forest Authority are: Oo (a) To create woodland areas, economically grown, under the best silvicultural conditions. VOL. XXV. 81 F $2 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. (6) To give the maximum amount of local employment in country districts; in other words, to fix the largest possible resident population on the soil. These are the central objects, and, from a_ political point of view, they form the ultimate driving power of any general scheme of afforestation; and all questions, such as education, demonstration areas, original research, surveys, etc., must be regarded as means to their attainment. The outlines of a Complete Forest Policy should, as far as possible, be laid down in advance; otherwise, there is danger that effort may be concentrated on the means to be adopted rather than on the end in view. APPENDIZG B:- Tenure of Land under Afforestation— Five Different Systems. The writers offer a very brief exposition of five different systems of tenure applicable to afforestation under the Central Forest Authority. I1—Purchase or feu of land by the State, and afforestation by the Forest Authority. This method has the advantage of ensuring continuous management, the avoidance of dual control, and, probably, the elimination of secondary interests. It would also, where land could be acquired at reasonable rates, secure to the State the whole of the return from the area planted. It has three main disadvantages : (a) Voluntary purchase will not secure the acquisition of the plantable areas only, for no landowner will voluntarily part with his wintering and keep the high ground. Therefore, unless the State applies compulsion to force the landowner to sell what is of value and to keep what is of little or no value, whole deer forests or sheep farms must be pur- chased, with the result that the State will have to administer the whole of the unplantable portions. (6) In most cases, only the smaller part of the area purchased would grew trees; that is to say, that only a small proportion of the money provided by the State would go into forestry proper. (c} Experience in the Highlands shows that the State, as landowner, is confronted with difficulties and expenses which are even greater than those which affect private owners. 83 (oa) aS AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. On the whole, the writers are of opinion that the cases in which State purchase can be recommended will be those in which the greater part of the subject, whether sheep farm or deer forest, is capable of afforestation. IIl.— Long lease by the State, with administration by the Forest Authority, as tn No. I. This method has the advantages that : (z) With the exception of rent and compensation to tenants, all the money provided by the State would go into afforestation ; (6) A continuous scheme of management would be secured ; and (c) The forest managers would deal with woods only, and not with whole estates. The terms of the lease, though difficult, should not be impossible to arrange, and a rough draft of ‘Heads of Agreement” (Appendix C) is submitted for consideration. This method seems specially applicable to the Glen Mor district. (For reasons, given in full, vzd@e Chapter 1V.) III.— Co-operation by partnership between the proprietor and the State. . The landlord would put up the value of his land, and the State would provide the money, parallel and separate profit and loss accounts being kept for the proprietor and for the State, the net profits being divided between them fro vata on the expenditure. This method, although it has many of the advantages of No. II., is complicated, and has many of the disadvantages of dual ownership. It might be found advantageous in many cases where the landlord could afford to be out of his revenue for an extended period, and did not wish to wholly resign his interest in the woods. It has one great advantage which no other method gives quite in its entirety, viz.: scope for the two classes of experts each to handle their own concerns—viz., the Férest Authority, the silvicultural interests ; the landowner, the sporting and farming interests ; while, at the same time, both combine for one purpose—to obtain a full yield of forest products from the soil. 1V.—The encouragement of individual effort by State loans for a fixed pertod at a low rate of interest, ‘Vhe money to be expended APPENDIX B. Ss under the supervision of the Central Forest Authority, and a lien to be given to it over the area planted, or other satisfactory col- lateral security to be provided. This method would certainly give the maximum amount of land afforested for the amount of money provided by the State. It possesses, however, two inherent practical difficulties. Experience in the past has shown that either the terms offered by the State are so onerous that the landlord is unable to take advantage of them (z/de Report of 1902 Committee}, or that, if the terms suggested are sufficiently easy and acceptable to the landlord, Parliamentary objections are raised to the Treasury disbursing any considerable sums. Further, the system has the disadvantage of being complicated, and that fire, wind, or game may destroy the State’s security for repayment. V.—Private enterprise under State control. It should never be forgotten that, with the exception of a few acres at Inverliever, planted by the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, the whole of the woods of Scotland (covering nearly go0,000 acres) have been planted by private enterprise. Assuming a desire on the part of the State to increase the woodland area, and to settle more people on the land, every inducement should be given to private individuals to proceed with the afforestation of their properties. Wherever possible, proprietors should be encouraged to place their woods under State control, and, in any circum- stances, it would be the first duty of the Central Forest Authority to assist them by advice, co-operation in marketing, formation of working-plans, etc., free of charge. Though State control of the woods belonging to private owners would be an entirely new departure in this country, it can be seen in operation abroad, where its value has been proved. Provided that game coverts and pleasure grounds were excluded, there appears to be no reason why landowners should be unwilling to place their economic wouds under State super- vision, and to submit to some such regulations as every forest owner in Austria-Hungary submits to, as a matter of course, to the mutual advantage of the State and of himself. Conclusion. In the opinion of the writers, it cannot be too strongly insisted upon that however great may be the desire of any Government 86 AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. to increase the afforested area in the British Isles, it is quite certain that the total amount of land afforested by direct State intervention will, for many generations, be but a very small proportion of that which will grow trees. It is therefore of the first importance that the whole question should be viewed on the broadest lines: that each of the five methods indicated above, or any combination of them, or other methods which from time to time may be suggested, should be considered, each on its own value, in the special area in which it might be tried. For a large area to work upon is a more vital necessity in the case of forestry than it is in any other form of occupation of land. Insurance. One further point in this connection is sufficiently important to require at all events a passing reference. Death duties, the ever-increasing burden of the local rates, and a high income tax, are factors in estate management which have come to stay. With a falling net revenue and an increased liability to charges greater than the average estate can meet out of income, zzsurance, where the income admits it, has come to bulk more and more prominently in the yearly budget. The question which requires the closest investigation is, whether it is possible to attract the moneys which at present are spent in the purchase of insurance policies back to their former line of safeguarding estates, viz., in the plantation of woods. Modern finance regulations, viz. :— (a) Special rebates on income tax for insurance policies, (6) The incidence of death duties, (c) High local rates (entirely avoidable by investment outside the kingdom) all tend to benefit the insurance companies at the ultimate cost of the country dweller. A comparison of the margin of safety which is afforded to an estate by means of insurance by planting trees as compared with insurance by insurance-policy, is one which cannot be stated simply, and it is therefore beyond the scope of this present note. One outstanding fact, however, is patent. Estate owners have in the past planted or maintained under natural wood nearly goo,cco acres of land in Scotland, presumably to improve their APPENDIX B. 87 properties. There is every reason to believe that not a small proportion of these owners, ceteris partbus, would prefer to insure in woods were it a sensible act to do so. It would seem reason- able to suppose that if there were a definite intention of extend- ing forestry, there should be at all events a prima facie case for an exchange of ideas between progressive landowners anxious to plant and a Central Forest Authority desirous of increasing: — (a) The wooded area. (6) The number of country dwellers. (c) The economic resources of landward districts. APPENDIX C. Suggested Heads of Agreement between the Forest Authority and the Landowner. In the following outline of Heads of Agreement no attempt has been made to adopt legal phraseology, or to enter into any but the most important points. The Heads of Agree- ment are numbered from I. to XIV., and the reasons for each are stated where necessary. I.—The lease of the ground should be for not less than 151 years, and the ground must be used for forestry purposes only. Forestry purposes to include afforestation, the creation of crofts, the erection of houses and plant, the making of roads, etc. A long lease is necessary so that the land may be afforested in proper rotation, and time be given for two complete 70-year rotations. II.—Power to surrender the lease should be reserved to the Forest Authority under proper safeguards, subject to fines, and after due notice has been given. It is essential that, should the Forest Authority find that the land chosen is unsuitable for tree-growth, it should have the power to return the same to the proprietor ; and that the proprietor should be bound to accept such return, provided that the land so handed over be not in worse condition as regards shelter and amenity, and as a rent producer for sporting and other purposes, than it was at the beginning of the forest lease. IlI.—Power should be reserved to the landlord to resume the whole or any part of the land, provided that such resumption does not materially interfere with the State scheme of afforestation, and that compensation for money expended, and for reasonably estimated profit, is paid by him to the Forest Authority. 85 APPENDIX C. 89 The landlord lets the land for afforestation, and he receives a rent based on the immediate loss over grazing or game rents. He should have the right to resume, for feuing or other purposes connected with good estate manage- ment, in exactly the same way as the Forest Authority should have the right to surrender. IV.—The Forest Authority should be bound to plant in accordance with the provisions of the working-plan, and this obligation should form part of the agreement, the plan to be subject to such modifications as circumstances from time to time render necessary to secure good forest management. V.—When such modification of the working-plan acts to the detriment of the landowner, compensation should be paid, at a rate to be fixed by agreement, or, if necessary, by arbitration, to cover the whole of the subject affected. It is necessary that the Forest Authority should be allowed to extend the amount of planting in any deer forest or sheep ground, and also to keep enclosed all areas in which trees have not grown satisfactorily. On the other hand, compensation must be paid to the landlord for loss of wintering, or for loss of high ground thrown out of gear by the withdrawal of winter grazing. V1I.—Payments for land taken for afforestation should come under three heads. : 1. Capital Payments : (a) For compensation to waygoing tenants, sheep stock valuations, etc. (2) For value of existing timber. 2. Annual Rents based on :— (a) The permanent loss of rent from the portion of the estate of which the leased subject formed part. (6) In the case of arable land, the full annual value for agriculture. 3. Deferred Payments, based on the loss of land for silvicultural purposes. VII.—The proprietor should relieve the Forest Authority of the Owners’ rates on the rent or other consideration he actually receives ; and the Forest Authority should pay the whole of the Occupiers’ rates, and also the Owners’ rates, on any sum entered go AFFORESTATION IN SCOTLAND. as rent in the Valuation Roll, in excess of the actual rent or other consideration payable under the lease. VIII.—The Forest Authority should have power to create new holdings, erect houses, etc., for forest workers. IX.—The arable land taken over by the Forest Authority for the purposes of creating nurseries, workmen’s crofts, etc., should be held under the same tenure as the forest areas. In case of the Forest Authority relinquishing the lease of any such arable land, it should be bound either to give over the land to the proprietor in a condition, as a rent producer, not worse than it was when it received it from him at the beginning of the lease; or, if the land had been let or sold to small holders, to pay a capital sum to make good any loss of annual income caused thereby. X.—Arbitration, except in the case of sheep stock valua- tions, should be by a single arbiter. XI.—The Forest Authority should have the right to make roads, tramways, ropeways or other appliances for transport over land not included in the forest area, on payment of way- leave, and of compensation for damage. It should also have the power to form temporary depots, and the right to take options over water-power, or make use of the means for water transport which exist in the district, under such restrictions as might be required to safeguard fishing and other rights. XII.—The Forest Authority should have power to renew the lease on giving the landlord at least ten years’ notice. XIII.—If the Forest Authority should not exercise its power to renew the lease, the landlord should have the option of acquiring the forest, and the tenants’ whole interests therein, at valuation ; but the landlord should not be expected to take over any houses or other buildings unless they were producing rent equal to a reasonable percentage on the cost of the buildings, in addition to the rent of the land. NIV.—If the lease should not be renewed, and the landlord should not exercise the above option, the Forest Authority should— 1. Have power to reap, in accordance with the provisions, the standing crops as they mature, paying pro rata rent on the area retained after the end of the lease. APPENDIX C. gI to Have power to remove or dispose ot the houses and buildings not taken over at valuation by the landlord. 3. Be obliged to return the land to the landlord in a con- dition, as a rent producer, not worse than that of similar land in the neighbourhood at the time. Compulsory Powers.—The writers believe that, provided the general interests of estates are safeguarded, the majority of land- lords in the Highlands will be sufficiently public-spirited to give leases of land for a State scheme of afforestation which will not only give permanent employment in the district, but will add to the welfare of the present inhabitants, and increase the number of small holders. It is to be hoped that occasions for the exer- cise of compulsory powers would be few, but in order to keep down the money expended in rents, as well as to avoid blank spaces in the forest area, the principle of compulsory leasing should be accepted. To enter at any length into the machinery necessary to set up compulsory powers is outside the scope of this Report. The writers, however, think it advisable to point out that if compulsory powers are, eventually, to form a part of an afforestation scheme, it is essential— 1. To safeguard the interests of the three parties mainly concerned. ‘These are: (a) The Landlords and their tenants. (4) The Ratepayers. (c) The Forest Authority. 2. That Appeals on matters of principle, or of fact, should be simple and not costly. That Arébitration on questions of valuation should be within the reach of all. 3. That no one person should both hear appeals and arbitrate ; and that if he exercise either of these functions he should not be a member of the Forest Authority. Printed by M‘FarRLtane & Erskine, Edinburgh. Ae noes - ADVERTISEMENTS. EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 18 GEORGE SQUARE, EDINBURGH. eee THE College is one of the Central Institutions administered by the Scotch Education Department, and is intended to provide for Agricultural Education and Research in the Central and South- eastern Counties of Scotland. DAY CLASSES. The Day Classes, in conjunction with certain University Classes, provide full courses of instruction in Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, and the Allied Sciences, and qualify for the College Diploma, the Degrees of B.Sc. in Agriculture and B.Sc. in Forestry at the University, and for other Examinations and Certificates. SHORT COURSES AND EVENING CLASSES. Short Courses in Agriculture and Forestry are given annually; and Evening Classes in Agriculture, Chemistry, Veterinary Science, Forestry, Horticulture, Botany, and Zoology are held during the Winter Session. Particulars of Classes, and information as to Bursaries tenable at the College, will be found in the Calendar, which will be forwarded on application to the Secretary, ALEXANDER M‘CALLUM, M.A. LIL. B: For Planting Season 1911 - 1942. We are offering Special Value in Seedling and Small Transplanted SITKA SPRUCE, DOUGLAS SPRUCE Oregon variety), THUJA GIGANTEA, LARCH, Japanese, LARCH, Tyrolese & Scotch, SCOTS FIR, True Native, NORWAY SPRUCE, &c., &c. Millions in stock of hardy, healthy, well-grown plants. Inquiries Solicited. Samples and Special Prices on demand. Special List of Tree Seeds & Seedlings published in January. CGATALOUGOLES POSTt FREE BENJAMIN REID & COMPANY, rurserymen, ABERDEEN, ADVERTISEMENTS. ‘The Forester’s Friend.” ““SMEAROLEU |W” ANTI-RODENT SMEAR. A Protective Oleaginous Smear for Young Plantations, &c., and Standard Trees in Parks and Paddoecks—Forest, Fruit and Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Thoroughly prevents ‘‘ Barking” by Rabbits, Ground Game and other Rodents, Horses. Cattle, Sheep, Deer, &c., and the Ravages of Insect Pests, &c., affecting Trees. PRICES :— In Barrels, 40 to 45 gallons, . . 2/4 Half-Barrels, 20 to 25 gallons, . 2/38 Cases, 16 gallons, . : : . 2/10 Half-Cases, 8 gallons, . ; . 3/= Drums, 12 gallons, . - ° : 2/9 6 Gallons, . F F . 3/. per gallon The Cases contain Four 4-gal. cans; Half-Cases contain Two q-gal. cans. acso makers or RIDOWE ED, tne Leaping WEED KILLER. Prices on Application. prices Carriage Paid, in lots of 20/- and upwards, to nearest Railway Station- Drums returnable; all other packages free. THOMAS & CO.’S Preparations are used on the largest Estates in the Kingdom, and in the Parks of His Majesty's Government and the King’s Nurseries, and also by the French and American Governments. Full Particulars, with Directions for Use, and Users’ Opinions, on application to the Sole Makers :— THOMAS & CO., LTD., Ceres Works, LIVERPOOL. Telegraphic Address—“ARBORISTS, LIVERPOOL.” Telephone: 307 Royal. Worth Knowing. DAVID STALKER & SON Pursery and Seed Establishinent, Nurseries: LODGEHILL, INVERNESS ROAD, NAIRN, N.B. Unper the patronage of Her late Majesty’s Commissioners of Woods and Forests, Windsor, supplying for 21 years in succession, which is a clear and tangible proot the trees sent have been highly appreciated, having sent considerably over 2,200,000 of Forest Trees during that time. The nursery stock grown by D. Stalker & Son consists of Seedling and Transplanted Forest Trees, Evergreen and Flowering Shrubs, Conifers and Ornamental Trees; also Tree Seeds, Native highland of pure quality. Fruit Trees. A great variety of Dwarf, Standard and 1 rained Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries, Y« ac he S, WC. Standard & Dwarf Roses. Bedding Plants, Florists’ Flowers and Greenhouse Plants, also Bulbs, Agricultural, Veget ble and Choice lowe Seeds. INSPEC TION INVITED. Residence: Balmoral House. Telegraphic Address: ‘‘STALKER, NAIRN.” ADVERTISEMENTS. Established 1787. FOREST TREES A SPECIALITY. Many millions of healthy, well grown, splendidly rooted trees, in various sizes, including Douglas Fir, Larch (true native), Japanese Larch, Scots Fir, Norway Spruce and Menzies Spruce. Hardwoods of every description in various sizes. Hedge and Covert Plants in large quantities, frequently transplanted and famously rooted. A choice collection of Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, including perfect specimen trees for Avenue, Park and Street Planting. Fruit Trees, Roses, &c. Correspondence respectfully invited on all subjects relating to trees and _ planting. THOS. KENNEDY & GCO., Nurserymen, er DUMFRIES.” DUMFRIES. Established 1842. FOREST TREES Large Stocks of Seedling, and Transplanted True Native SCOTS FIR, MENZIES, DOUCLAS, NORWAY SPRUGE, Etc. Ali grown from carefully selected seed, in an open and exposed Situation, thoroughly hardy, and well furnished with abundance of fibrous roots. Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Specimen Ornamental Trees for Lawns and Avenues. Trees and Shrubs for Seaside Planting. Plants for Game Coverts, Underwood and Hedges. Special quotations for large quantities, and estimates furnished for planting by contract in any part of the country. DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES AND SAMPLES ON APPLICATION. W. SMITH & SON, Purserymen, ABERDEEN, N.B. ADVERTISEMENTS. BRITISH COLUMBIA. OKANAGAN VALLEY (DRY BELT) FRUIT LANDS. [MPROVED Irrigated Fruit Farm Settlements, 10 to 15 acres each, for Sale, at moderate rates, by KELOWNA LAND & ORCHARD CO., LTD., AND SOUTH KELOWNA LAND CoO., LTD. STERLING DEBENTURES FOR 5 YEARS AT 5 %, issued by OKANAGAN LOAN INVESTMENT CO., LTD. This Company lends only on approved Mortgages :: secured over such lands as the above. :: STERLING FIRST MORTGAGE IRRIGATION DEBENTURES FOR 5 YEARS AT 53. issued by SOUTH KELOWNA LAND CO., LTD. Full Particulars from the Agents in Scotland ADAIR & GALLOWAY, S.S.C. 19 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH. The Peebles Motor Company, Ltd. 89-105 HAYMARKET TERRACE, EDINECE A ek have a reputation as straight dealers which we cannot afford o jeopardise. If, there fore. you wish To Purchase a Car (Any Make, New or Second~hand) To have a Car Repaired, To Hire a Car; or To Purchase Car Accessories Give us a trial and we can guarantee satisfaction. Telephone: 5114 Central. Telegrams: ‘‘Aviation.” BUILDINGS on CROFTS See P 36. = Crass A. = Front Evevation Section ELevATION Section GrRounD PLAN First Froor PLan NAMES OF ROOMS Erc., AND DIMENSIONS. I. Kitchen 13’ 15° 6. Bedroom 14 6° x {2° 8. Calves 2. Parlour (2~ 15 7. Bedroom 146 x 13 9. Two Cows 3. Bedroom 8x 8 10, Horse. Il, Barn, 19 13° 4. Dairy 7*6 6° 5. Scullery 7*7- 12, Carts with Granary over, 14 6*8 Criss. B: Front Evevetion Section Evevation Section SSRN Ground Pian First Fuioor Pian NAMES OF ROOMS Ere., AND DIMENSIONS. I. Kitchen 15 * 1 6° 5. Bedroom 14 ~ Il’ 6” 7.. Calves 2. Bedroom i0 «8° 6. Bedroom 8 ~ 7’ 8. Two Cows 3. Scullery 7°«7/ 9. Barn 18 ~ 13° 4. Coals. Class Cc: i Evevation Section Grouno Pian NAMES OF ROOMS AND DIMENSIONS 1. Kitchen [2x [4 6° 2.Room 12'~ 14 6” 3. Bedroom !0°« 8 4. Scullery 7°* 7’ - ¢ — = < - “ i = ~ j = nan ' rr = s - 7 ~ ote ‘ i) = : re ‘ ri 5 x = ¥ a 7 Se ~ 5 Hi i * 7 ; ra ‘ 4. i" 2 * i ae ; | . f ‘ S . 1 -f aw rome wees 7 ¢ ¢ é > « ¢ < § é ri ‘ ‘ TRANSACTIONS OF TILE ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. mek. Rv PART oe January 1912. Linur.-CoLtoneL F. BAILEY, F.B.S.E., HONORARY EDITOR. ROBERT GALLOWAY, 8.8.C., SECRETARY AND TREASURER. EDINBURGH: PRN Yep SORELLE SOCLETY. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS,. CASTLE STREET. A Y NICAL me. SAL [BRARPFice to Non-Members, 3/= ORK rA\! “ f 19/2 NOV |G tee A. &J. MAIN &C°-L™- MANUFACTURERS OF HAY & GRAIN SHEDS. In this SHED the HAY or GRAIN can be stored to within a few inches of ROOF. FOLD YARD COVERINGS, STEEL AND IRON BUILDINGS, of every description. Design No. 661. CONTINUOUS BAR FENCING, 2 IRON & WIRE FENCING, —_|_ __ ie WROUGHT IRON RAILINGS, = CATES, HURDLES, ‘| ————_ PALE FENCING, TREEGUARDS, == A il { ‘il wil | cnn MIS IN Etc., Etc. acca i 3 3 Roofing and Fencing Gataloguse on Application. ab = Menseeteuese oses ape a ee ete ae wee 7 ee Sah ecenen oe * y : tees 2 He See GALVANIZED WIRE NETTING and FENGING WIRE at Lowest Prices. SPECIAL QUOTATIONS ON APPLICATION. CLYDESDALE IRON WORKS, POSSILPARK, GLASGOW. 31 BUDGE ROw, CORN EXCHANGE BUILDINGS, ee E.C. EDINBURGH. BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT TO HIS MAJESTY ‘THE KING. Telephone Nos.- London—2117 P.O.., Hampstead. Edinburgh—Central, 2674, 2675, and 4665. Glasgow—Argyle, 2336, National. MACKENZIE & MONCUR, HOTHOUSE BUILDERS, D. Heating, Ventilating, and Electrical nadine and Iron Founders. Telegrams— “Hothouse, Edinburgh.” “Tron, Edinburgh.” “Treibhaus, London.” HOTHOUSE BUILDING. —Hothouses of every description designed and erected in any part of the country, with improved V entilation, Gearing, Staging, and Heating Apparatus complete. HEATING.—Churches, Public Buildings of all kinds, Schools, Mansions, Villas, Ca, heated efficiently by Low Pressure Hot Water, or by Steam. Also by ‘‘Barker’s” CABLE SysTemM of Hot Water Low Pressure Heating, with small bore pipes and no sunk stoke-holes. LIGHTING.—Complete Installations for Lighting by Electricity fitted up in any part of the country. Petrol Gas Lighting Apparatus fitted up complete on approved lines. FOUNDRY.— Architectural Ironwork of all kinds, Stable and Cowhouse Fittings, Sanitary Castings, Manhole Covers, Ventilators, Gratings, &c. PLANS AND ESTIMATES ON APPLICATION. EDINBURGH — Registered Office — Balcarres Street. WORKS—Balcarres Street. FOUNDRY-—Slateford Road. GLASGOW — 121 St Vincent Street. LONDON —8 Camden Road, N.W. a” ADVERTISEMENTS. BRITISH COLUMBIA. OKANAGAN VALLEY (DRY BELT) FRUIT LANDS. [ MPROVED Irrigated Fruit Farm Settlements, 10 to 15 acres each, for Sale, at moderate rates, by KELOWNA LAND & ORCHARD CO., LTD., AND SOUTH KELOWNA LAND CO., LTD. STERLING DEBENTURES FOR 5 YEARS AT 5 % issued by OKANAGAN LOAN INVESTMENT CoO., LTD. This Company lends only on approved Mortgages se secured over such lands as the above. :: 3: STERLING FIRST MORTGAGE DEBENTURES FOR 5 YEARS AT 54% issued by SOUTH KELOWNA LAND CO., LTD. Full Particulars from the Agents in Scotland— ADAIR & GALLOWAY, S.S.C., 19 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH. EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 138 GEORGE SQUARE, EDINBURGH. Tue College is one of the Central Institutions administered by the Scotch Education Department, and is intended to provide for Agricultural Education and Research in the Central and South- eastern Counties of Scotland. DAY CLASSES. The Day Classes, in conjunction with certain University Classes, provide full courses of instruction in Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, and the Allied Sciences, and qualify for the College Diploma, the College Certificate in Ilorticulture, the Degrees of B.Sc. in Agriculture and B.Sc. in Forestry at the University of Edinburgh, and for other Examinations and Certificates in the Science and Practice of Agriculture. SHORT COURSES AND EVENING CLASSES. Short Courses in Agriculture and Forestry are given annually ; and Evening Classes in Agriculture, Chemistry, Veterinary Science, Forestry, Horticulture, Botany, and Zoology are held during the Winter Session, Particulars of Classes, and information as to Bursaries tenable at the College, will be found in the Calendar, which will be forwarded on application to the Secretary, ALEXANDER M‘CALLUM, M.A., LL.B. ADVERTISEMENTS. KEITH &S Co. ADVERTISING AGENTS 43 GEORGE STREET EDINBURGH ADVERTISEMENTS of every kind are received for insertion in the Daily, Weekly, and Monthly Publications throughout the United Kingdom. Notices of Sequestration, Cessio, Dissolution of Partnership, Entail, etc., etc., for the Edinburgh and London Gazettes, are given special care and attention. Legal Notices, Heirs Wanted, and all other Advertisements, are inserted in the Uolonial and Foreign Newspapers. Small Advertisements, such as Situations, Houses, and Apart- ments, Articles Wanted and For Sale, etc., etc., can be addressed to a No. at Keith & Co.’s Office, 43 George Street, Edinburgh, where the replies will be retained until called for, or, if desired, forwarded by Post. Parties in the country will find this a very convenient method of giving publicity to their requirements. A SPECIALITY is made of ESTATE and AGRICULTURAL ADVERTISEMENTS, such as FARMS, MANSION HOUSES, etc, TO LET, ESTATES for SALE, AGRICULTURAL SHOWS, ete. LAW and ESTATE AGENTS, FACTORS, TOWN CLERKS, CLERKS TO SCHOOL BOARDS, and other Officials may, with confidence, place their advertisements in the hands of the Firm. One Copy of an Advertisement is sufficient to send for any number of newspapers; and the convenience of having only one advertising account instead of a number of advertising accounts is also a great saving of time and trouble. Addressing of Envelopes with Accuracy and Despatch. Telegrams—‘‘ PROMOTE,” EDINBURGH. Telephone No. 316 ADVERTISEMENTS. BILTMORE FOREST SCHOOL OFFERS complete instruction in all branches of technical (English and American) forestry. Its winter quarters are situated at Darmstadt, Germany; here the study of silviculture is emphasised. The Springs and Summers are spent in the Appalachian Mountains of the United States, and the Autumns in the Lake States and on the Pacific Coast. In America, the main object of forestry is the utilisation of the forests. THE BILTMORE FOREST SCHOOL illustrates its lectures by object lessons selected in the forests on both sides of the Atlantic. The expense of the full course, covering twelve consecutive months RHE vacations, is £220. Write for Catalogue, addressing C. A. SCHENCK, Director, BILTMORE, N.C., U.S.A., and DARMSTADT, GERMANY. NOT] Ce; WANTED TO PURCHASE. Any of the following Parts of the Transactions, Viz :— Parts 1, 2, and 3 of Vol. I. Parts 2 and 3 of Vol. III. Parts 1 and 2 of Vol. IV. Part 2 of Vol. V. Part 2 of Vol. IX. Part 1 of Vol. XII. Apply to THE SECRETARY, — 19 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH. ADVERTISEMENTS. The West of Scotland Agricultural College, BLYTHSWOOD SQUARE, GLASGOW. DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY. Day and Evening Classes, which provide a complete Course of Instruction in Forestry, qualifying (f7vo ¢anto) for the B.Sc. Degree of the University of Glasgow, for the Diploma of the Highland and Agricultural Society, and for the Certificate of the College, are held during the Winter Session (October to March) at the College. ?rofessor Wm. G. R. PATERSON Soils and Manures, . ; . ee N ee ee a Silviculture, ; : The Management of Woodlands, < CRANE aNeten zc Protection of Woodlands, . Professor JOHN Nisser, D.Cic. Utilisation of Woodland Produce, Chemistry, ; : 2 Professor BERRY, F.I.C., F.C.S. Syllabus and oreo regarding these Classes and Prospectus of the general work of the College, including the Course for the Examination of the Surveyor’s Institution, may be obtained free from the Secretary. FOREST TREES, FRUIT TREES, SHRUBS, ROSES, &c., Grown in a most exposed situation on Heavy Soils, therefore the hardiest procurable. Every Requisite for Forest, Farm, and GarpeEN. Estimates for Planting by Contract furnished. CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION. W. & T. SAMSON, KILMARNOCK. ESTABLISHED 1759. JAMES JONES & SONS, LTD., LARBERT SAWMILLS, All kinds of HOME TIMBER in the Round or Sawn-up, SUITABLE FOR RAILWAYS, SHIPBUILDERS, COLLIERIES, CONTRACTORS, COACHBUILDERS, CARTWRIGHTS, &c., &c. ADVERTISEMENTS. Telegrams : Telephones : “ROBINSONS, GLASGOW.” National, No. 1378 Partick. Post Office, No. 2733 Western. ROBINSON, DUNN & CO, Timber Importers, Partick Sawmills, GLASGOW. <> Sawing, Planing, and Moulding Mills at PARTICK and TEMPEE. TIMBER PRESERVING WORKS AT TEMPLE. CREOSOTING AND ‘‘B.M.” PROCESSES. For Planting Season 19J1 - 1932. We are offering Special Value in Seedling and Small Transplanted SITKA SPRUCE, DOUGLAS SPRUCE (oregon variety), THUJA GIGANTEA, LARCH, Japanese, LARCH, Tyrolese & Scotch, SCOTS FIR, True Native, NORWAY SPRUCE, &c., &c. Millions in stock of hardy, healthy, well-grown plants. Inquiries Solicited. Samples and Special Prices on demand. Special List of Tree Seeds & Seedlings published in January. CATALOGUES POST FREE. BENJAMIN REID & COMPANY, Purserymen, ABERDEEN. ADVERTISEMENTS. Established 1842. 1842. FOREST TREES Large Stocks of Seedling, and Transplanted True Native SCOTS FIR, MENZIES, DOUCLAS, NORWAY SPRUCE, Etc. Ali grown from carefully selected seed, in an open and exposed situation, thoroughly hardy, and well furnished with abundance of fibrous roots. Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Specimen Ornamental Trees for Lawns and Avenues. Trees and Shrubs for Seaside Planting. Plants for Game Coverts, Underwood and Hedges. Special quotations for large quantities, and estimates furnished for planting by contract in any part of the country. DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES AND SAMPLES ON APPLICATION. W. SMITH & SON, Rurserymen, ABERDEEN, N.B. SAVE MONEY ™ Gone or? BLACK’S GREOQSOTING PLANTS een are specially adapted for Estates and Timber Trades, —23[— THE PRESSURE SYSTEM. Most of the Creosoting Plants working on Estates in Great Britain have been Supplied by us, and References can be given. THE BOILING METHOD. 3@=— aa y ct These Plants are also suitable for Burnettizing Timber. GEORGE BLACK ~~ = ee & SONS, 3 U- Creosoting Engineers and Creosote Oil Merchants, TWEEDMOUTH BOILER WORKS, BERWICK - ON - TWEED. ADVERTISEMENTS. HARDY CROWN NORTH COUNTRY PLANTS. Very Exceptional Values Now offering in FOREST TREES, &c. . of all the leading Varieties of C hoice Stocks Forest and Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, - - ; Covert and Hedge Plants, Best and most approved Varieties. | Hollies, Laurels, &c., &c. sa Above Stocks all clean, healthy, and vigorous Plants. Inspection Invited. Samples with keenest pricesonapplication. Contract Planting of all kinds undertaken. WM. FELL & CO. (Hexham), Ltd., The Royal Nurseries, HEXHAM. ‘¢The Forester’s Friend.” ““SMEAROLEUWN” ANTI-RODENT SMEAR. Protective Oleaginous Smear for Young Plantations, &c., and Standard Trees in Parks and Paddocks—Forest, Fruit and Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Thoroughly prevents ‘‘ Barking” by Rabbits, Ground Game and other Rodents, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Deer, &c., and the Ravages of Insect Pests, &c., affecting Trees. PRICES :— In Barrels, 40 to 45 gallons, . . 2/4 Half-Barrels, 20 to 25 gallons, 7 2/8 Cases, 16 gallons, . . ; . 2/10 Half-Cases, 8 gallons, : . 3/- Drums, 12 gallons, . A . . 2/9 6 Gallons, . : : . 3/. per gallon The Cases contain Four 4-gal. cans; Half-Cases contain Two 4-gal. cans. acso makers or RIDOWE ED, tHe LEADING WEED KILLER. Prices on Application. idl prices Carriage Paid, in lots of 20/- and upwards, to nearest Railway Station— Drums returnable; all other packages free. THOMAS & CO.’S Preparations are used on the largest Estates in the Kingdom, and in the Parks of His Majesty's Government and the King’s Nurseries, and also by the French and American Governments. Full Particulars, with Directions for Use, and Users’ Opinions, on application to the Sole Makers :— THOMAS & CO., LT'D., Ceres Works, LIVERPOOL. Telegraphic Address—“‘ARBORISTS, LIVERPOOL.” Telephone: 307 Royal. ADVERTISEMENTS. DOUGLAS & FOULIS BOOKSELLERS AND LIBRARIANS > ia S35 +S> AA STANDARD WORKS ON FORESTRY Kept in Stock. An extensive Stock of New Books in all Classes of Literature at the usual Discount Prices also Books for Presentation in handsome Bindings Catalogues of Surplus Library Books at greatly Reduced Prices issued at intervals. Gratis and Post Free to any Address 9 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH By Appointment to His Late Majesty King Edward. We hold tremendous Stocks of FOREST and ORNAMENTAL TREES and SHRUBS, also of _RHODODENDRONS and other Plants suitable for GAME COVERTS, in a fine and healthy con- dition, which we are prepared to offer at CLEARING PRICES. ANYONE interested and wishing to have GOOD VALUE for MONEY should not miss the opportunity of paying us a visit to inspect the EXCEPTIONALLY CHEAP BARGAINS we are pre- pared to make. It is impossible to fully describe the various stocks offered, therefore a personal inspection is respectfully solicited. Visitors met by appointment at Darley Dale or Matlock Stations. JAMES SMITH & SONS (Darley Dale) Ltd. Darley Dale Nurseries, near MATLOCK. Telegrams—‘‘SMITHIANA,” Twodales. Telephone No. 7 Darley Dale. be IBY Appomtment = eT. METHVEN &SONS;, 1 to this Majesty Che thing. FIRST-CLASS \ ag He GOLD FORESTRY EXHIBITION : EDINBURCH ya MEDAL 5 THOMAS METHVEN & SONS. Rurserypmen, Secdsmen, & Florists NVITE the attention of intending Planters to their large Stock of Seedling and Transplanted Forest and other Trees and Shrubs. They are this season in a healthy and vigorous condition, and well suited for successful transplanting. é: Evergreen and Deciduous Shrubs. Shrubs for Game Covert, and Underwood. Trees and Shrubs for Sea-Side Planting. Thorn and other Hedge Plants. SPECIMEN ORNAMENTAL TREES FOR LAWNS & AVENUES. RHODODENDRONS~— all the Best Varieties. FRUIT TREES of the Best Kinds. - - - ROSES all sorts worthy of cultivation.- - Samples on Application. Special Prices for Large Quantities. Tuomas Meriuven & Sons undertake Landscape Gardening and Forest and Covert Planting of every description in any part of the Kingdom, also the Laying Out of Parks, Gardens, etc. Plans, Estimates, and Specifications will be forwarded on Application Seed Warehouses: 15 PRINCES STREET & LEITH WALK Nurseries: LEITH WALK, WARRISTON, INVERLEITH, and BANGHOLM. _—,_ EDINBURGH. ‘““METHVEN. EDINBURGH.” Telephone No. 22, Roval Scottish Arboricultural Society, INSTITUTED 1854. Patron—HIS MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY THE KING. Permission to assume the title ‘‘ Royal” was granted by Her Majesty Queen Victoria in 1887. FORMER PRESIDENTS. 1854-56. JAMES Brown, Wood Commissioner to the | 1882. ALEXANDER Dickson, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Earl of Seafield. Hartree, Professor of Botany in the 1857. The Right Hon. THE Eart or Ducte. University of Edinburgh. 1858. The Right Hon. THe EArt oF Starr. 1883-85. Hucu CiecHorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., 1859. Sir Joun Hatt, Bart. of Dunglass. of Stravithie. 1860. His Grace Tue Duke oF ATHOLL. 1886-87. The Right Hon. Sir Hersrrr Evsracr 1861. JouNn I. CHAtMeErs of Aldbar. MAxweELL, Bart. of Monreith. 1862. The Right Hon. Tur EArt oF AIRLIE. | 1888-89. The Most Hon. THe Marquis oF 1863. The Right Hon. T. F. Kennepy. LINLITHGOW. 1864-71. Roperr Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E. 1890-93. Isaac Bayiey Baxrour, M.D., Se Ds 1872-73. Hueu CLecHorN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., | F.R.S., LL.D., Professor of Botany in of Stravithie. the University of Edinburgh. 1874-75. Joun Hurron Batrour, M.D., M.A., 1894-97. The Right Hon. R. C. Munro FERcusonN, F.R.SS.L. & E., Professor of Botany in M.P: the University of Edinburgh. 1898. Colonel F. Battery, R.E. 1876-78. The Right Hon. W. P. ApAm of Blair- 1899-02. The Right Hon. THE Eart or MANSFIELD, adam, M.P. 1903-06. W. SreUART ForHRINGHAM of Murthly. 1879-81. The Most Hon. THe Marquis oF 1907-09. Sir KennerH J. Mackenzig, Bart. of LorTHIANn, K.T. Gairloch. OFFICE=-BEARERS FOR iogi1I. President. Sir JOHN STIRLING-MAXWELL, Bart. of Pollok, Pollokshaws. Vice=Presidents. W. H. MASSIE, Nurseryman, 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. | ROBERT FORBES, Overseer, Kennet Estate Office, Alloa. Sm KENNETH J. MACKENZIE, Bart. of Gairloch, 10 Moray | Dr A. W. BORTHWICK, D.Sc., Royal Botanic Garden, Edin- Place, Edinburgh. burgh. > W. STEUART FOTHRINGHAM of Murthly, Perthshire. SYDNEY J. GAMMELL of Drumtochty, Countesswells House, Bieldside, Aberdeen, Council. CHARLES BUCHANAN, Overseer, Penicuik Estate, Penicuik. ; JAMES COOK, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. A. T. GILLANDERS, F.E.S., Forester, Park Cottage, AlIn-_ ALEXANDER MITCHELL, Forester, Rosebery, Gorebridge. wick. Sir ANDREW AGNEW, Bart,, Lochnaw Castle, Stranraer. JOHN D. CROZIER, Forester, Durris Estate, Drumoak, FRANK SCOTT, Forester, Scone. Aberdeenshire. ; GEO. LEVEN, Forester, Bowmont Forest, Roxburgh. JAMES WHITTON, Superintendent of City Parks, City JOHN BROOM, Wood Merchant, Bathgate. Chambers, Glasgow. | JOHN F. ANNAND, Lecturer on Forestry, Armstrong College, WILLIAM DAVIDSON, Forester, Panmure, Carnoustie. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. W. S. HALDANE, of Foswell, 55 Melville Street, Edinburgh.| JOHN W. M‘HATTIE, Superintendent of City Parks, City The LORD LOVAT, Beaufort Castle, Beauly. Chambers, Edinburgh. G. U. MACDONALD, Overseer, Haystoun Estate, Woodbine) BRODIE OF BRODIB, Brodie Castle, Forres. Cottage, Peebles. | WILLIAM DAWSON, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Forestry, ROBERT ALLAN, Factor, Polkemmet, Whitburn. Marischal College, Aberdeen, ADAM SPIERS, Timber Merchant, Warriston Saw-mills, Edin-| JOHN METHVEN, Nurseryman, 15 Princes Street, Edin- burgh. | burgh. Hon. Editor. Lievt.-CoLoneL F. BAILEY, F.R.S.E., 7 Drummond Place, Edinburgh. Auditor. JOHN T. WATSON, 16 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. Hon. Secretary. The Ricur Hon. R. C. MUNRO FERGUSON, M.P., Raith House, Kirkcaldy. Secretary and Treasurer. ROBERT GALLOWAY, S.S.C., 19 Castle Street, Edinburgh. ABERDEEN BRANCH. NORTHERN BRANCH. President—Sypnry J. GAMMELL of Drumtochty. President—BRovikE OF BRODIE, — : Hon. Secy.—GeEorGE D. Massi&, Solicitor, 143 Union Street, Hon. Secy.—AuEX. FRASER, Solicitor, 63 Church Street, Aberdeen. Inverness. * J = Membership. HE Roll contains the names of about 1400 Members, comprising Landowners, Factors, Foresters, Nurserymen, Gardeners, Land Stewards, Wood Merchants, and others interested in Forestry, many of whom reside in England, Ireland, the British Colonies, and India. Members are elected by the Council. The Terms of Subscription will be found on the back of the Form of Proposal for he fevan afer which accompanies this Memorandum. The Principal Objects of the Society, and the nature of its work, will be gathered from the following paragraphs :— Meetings. The Society holds periodical Meetings for the transaction of business, the reading and discussion of Papers, the exhibition of new Inventions, specimens of Forest Products and other articles of special interest to the Members, and for the advancement of Forestry in all its branches. Meetings of the Council are held every alternate month, and at other times when business requires attention ; and Committees of the Council meet frequently to arrange and carry out the work of the Society. Prizes and Medals. With the view of encouraging young Foresters to study, and to train themselves in habits of careful and accurate observation, the Society offers Annual Prizes and Medals for essays on practical subjects, and for inventions connected with appliances used in Forestry. Such awards have been granted continuously since 1855 up to the present time, and have yielded satisfactory results. Medals and Prizes are also awarded in connection with the Exhibitions aftermentioned. School of Forestry, Afforestation, Etc. Being convinced of the necessity for bringing within the reach of young Foresters, and others interested in the Profession, a regular systematic course of Instruction, such as is provided in Germany, France, and other European countries, the Society, in 1882, strongly urged the creation of a British School of Forestry ; and with a view of stimulating public interest in the matter, a Forestry Exhibition, chiefly organised by the Council, was held in Edinburgh in 1884. As a further step towards the end in view, the Society, in 1890, instituted a Fund for the purpose of establishing a Chair of Forestry at the University of Edinburgh, and a sum of £534, 38. rod. has since been raised by the Society and handed over to the University. Aided by an annual subsidy from the 3oard of Agriculture, which the Society was mainly instrumental in obtaining, a Course of Lectures at the University has been delivered without interruption since 1889. It is recognised, how- ever, that a School of Forestry is incomplete without a practical 3 training-ground attached to it, which would be available, not only for purposes of instruction but also as a Station for Research and Experiment, and as a Model Forest, by which Landowners and Foresters throughout the country might benefit. The Society accordingly drew up a Scheme for the Establishment of a State Model or Demonstration Forest for Scotland which might serve the above-named objects. Copies of this Scheme were laid before the Departmental Committee on British Forestry, and in their Report the Committee recommended the establishment of a Demonstration Area and the provision of other educational facilities in Scotland. The Government has recently acquired the Estate of Inverliever in Argyllshire; and while this cannot be looked on as a Demonstra- tion Forest, it is hoped that it may prove to be the first step in a scheme of afforestation by the State of unwooded lands in Scotland. Meantime Mr Munro Ferguson, M.P., for a part of whose woods at Raith a Working-Plan has been prepared, and is now in operation, has very kindly agreed to allow Students to visit them. After the Development Act came into operation, the Council passed a Resolution urging that the Government should, as soon as possible, create a Board of Forestry, with an adequate representa- tion of Scottish Forestry upon it, and an Office in Scotland, where the largest areas of land suitable for Afforestation are situated, which would provide Demonstration Forests and Forest Gardens, and otherwise assist the development of University and other Educational enterprise, and would carry out, as an essential pre- liminary to any great scheme of National Afforestation, a Survey of all areas throughout the country suitable for commercial planting. The Society’s policy for the development of Forestry in Scotland has since been fully laid before the Development Commission. As a result of these representations, the Secretary for Scotland has appointed a Committee to report regarding the acquisition and uses of a Demonstration Forest Area, and any further steps it is desirable to take in order to promote Silviculture in Scotland. The Society has also published a valuable Report on Afforestation—including a Survey of Glen Mor—prepared for it by Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling, which, it is hoped, may form the basis of the Forest Survey, by the Government, advocated by the Society. The Secretary for Scotland has now promised a Department of Forestry working under the Board of Agriculture for Scotland. Excursions. Since 1878 well-organised Excursions, numerously attended by Members of the Society, have been made annually to various parts of Scotland, England, Ireland, and the Continent. In 1895 a Tour extending over twelve days was made through the Forests of Northern Germany, in 1902 a Tour extending over seventeen days was made in Sweden, during the summer of 1904 the Forest School at Nancy and Forests in the north of France were visited, and in 1909 a visit was undertaken to the Bavarian Forests. These Excursions enable Members whose occupations necessarily confine them chiefly to a single locality to study the conditions and 4 methods prevailing elsewhere; and the Council propose to extend the Tours during the next few years to other parts of the Continent. They venture to express the hope that Landowners may be induced to afford facilities to their Foresters for participation in these Tours, the instructive nature of which renders them well worth the moderate expenditure of time and money that they involve. Exhibitions. A Forestry Exhibition is annually organised in connection with the Highland and Agricultural Society’s Show, in which are exhibited specimens illustrating the rate of growth of trees, different kinds of wood, pit-wood and railway timber, insect pests and samples of the damage done by them, tools and implements, manufactured articles peculiar to the district where the Exhibition is held, and other objects of interest relating to Forestry. Prizes and Medals are also offered for Special Exhibits. In addition to the Annual Exhibition before referred to, large and important Forestry Sections organised by this Society were included in the Scottish National Exhibition held in Edinburgh in 1908, and in the Scottish Exhibition of National History, Art, and Industry, held in Glasgow last summer. The Society’s Transactions. The Transactions of the Society, which extend to twenty-five volumes, are now published half-yearly in January and July, and are issued gratis to Members. A large number of the Prize Essays and other valuable Papers, and reports of the Annual Excursions, have appeared in them, and have thus become available to Students as well as to those actively engaged in the Profession of Forestry. Honorary Consulting Officials. Members have the privilege of obtaining information gratuitously upon subjects connected with Forestry from the following Honorary Officials appointed by the Society. Consulting Botanist.—Isaac BAYLEY BALFouR, LL.D., M.D., Sc.D., Professor of Botany, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Consulting Chemist. ALEXANDER LAUDER, D.Sc., 13 George Square, Edinburgh. Consulting Cryptogamist.—A. W. BORTHWICK, D.Sc., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Consulting Entomologist.—ROBERT STEWART MacDouGa tt, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Entomology, etc., 9 Dryden Place, Edinburgh. Consulting Geologist.—R. CAMPBELL, M.A., B.Sc., Geological Labora- tory, University of Edinburgh. Consulting Meteorologist. ANDREW WATT, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary Scottish Meteorological Society, 122 George Street, Edinburgh. Local Branches. Local Branches have been established in Aberdeen and Inverness for the convenience of Members who reside in the districts surrounding these centres. Local Secretaries. The Society is represented throughout Scotland, England, and Ireland by the Local Secretaries whose names are given below. They ~ o are ready to afford any additional information that may be desired regarding the Conditions of Membership and the work of the Society. Register of Estate Men. A Register of men qualified in Forestry and in Forest and Estate Management is kept by the Society. Schedules of application and other particulars may be obtained from the Local Secretaries in the various districts, or direct from the Secretary. It is hoped that Proprietors and others requiring Estate men will avail themselves of the Society’s Register. Consulting Foresters. The Secretary keeps a list of Consulting Foresters whose services are available to Members of the Society and others. Correspondents. The following have agreed to act as Correspondents residing abroad :— Canada, Rosert Bett, 1.8.0., M.D., LL.D., D.Se.(Cantab.), F.R.S. of Ottawa. Chief Geologist to Government of Canada, Ottawa. India, F. L. C. CowLtey Brown, Deputy Conservator of Forests, c/o Inspector-General of Forests, Simla. British East \ Epwarp BarriscomBs, Assistant Conservator of Forests, Africa, United States \ of America, } Cape Colony, . Nigeri, via Naivasha, East Africa Protectorate. Hueu P. Baxesr, Forester, State College, Pennsylvania. W. Nimmo Brown, M‘Kenzie’s Farm, Mowbray, P.O. Western Australia, FrED Moon. LOCAL SECRETARIES. Scotland. Counties. Aberdeen, ‘Joun Cuark, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeen. Joun Micure, M.V.O., Factor, Balmoral, Ballater. Argyll, . Joun D. SuTHERLAND, Estate Agent, Oban. Ayr, ANDREW D. Paces, Overseer, Culzean Home Farm, Ayr. A. B. Rosertson, Forester, The Dean, Kilmarnock. Berwick, Wm. MILne, Foulden Newton, Berwick-on-Tweed. Bute, Wm. Ineuts, Forester, Cladoch, Brodick. JAMES Kay, retired Forester, Barone, Rothesay. Clackmannan,. Ropert Forses, Estate Office, Kennet, Alloa. Dumfries, D. CrasBeE, Forester, Byreburnfoot, Canonbie. East Lothian,. W.S. Curr, Factor, Ninewar, Prestonkirk, Fife, Wm. GiLcurist, Forester, Nursery Cottage, Mount Melville, St Andrews. EpMunD SanG, Nurseryman, Kirkcaldy. Forfar, . JAMES CRABBE, retired Forester, Glamis. Inverness, JAmsEs A. Gosstp, Nurseryman, Inverness. Kincardine, JOHN Hart, Estates Office, Cowie, Stonehaven. Kinross, JAMES TERRIS, Factor, Dullomuir, Blairadam, Counties. Lanark, . Moray, Perth, Ross, Roxburgh, Sutherland, Wigtown, Beds, Berks, Cheshire, Derby, Devon. Durham, Hants, Herts, Kent, Lancashire, Leicester, Lincoln, Middlesex, Notts, Suffolk, . Surrey, . Warwick, Wilts, York, Dublin, Galway, . Kings County, Tipperary, 6 Scotland. JoHN Davipson, Forester, Dalzell, Motherwell. JAMES WHITTON, Superintendent of Parks, City Chambers, Glasgow, D. Scorr, Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. JOHN ScrimeEour, Doune Lodge, Doune. JOHN J. R. MEIKLEJONN, Factor, Novar, Evanton. Miss AMy Frances YuLg, Tarradale House, Muir of Ord. Joun LEISHMAN, Manager, Cavers Estate, Hawick. kh. V. MatrHer, Nurseryman, Kelso. Donaup Roserrson, Forester, Dunrobin, Golspie. JAMES HoGarra, Forester, Culhorn, Stranraer. H. H. Waker, Monreith Estate Office, Whauphill. England. FRANCIS MrrcHELL, Forester, Woburn. W. Srorre, Whitway House, Newbury. Wm. A. Forster, Belgrave Lodge, Pulford, Wrexham. S. MacBrEan, Estate Office, Needwood Forest, Sudbury. JAMES BARRIE, Forester, Stevenstone Estate, Torrington. Joun F. ANNAND, Lecturer on Forestry, Armstrong College, Newcastle upon-Tyne. W. R. Brown, Forester, Park Cottage, Heckfield, Winchfield. JAMES BarRTOoN, Forester, Hatfield. THOMAS SMITH, Overseer, Tring Park, Wigginton, Tring. R. W. Cowrpsr, Gortanore, Sittingbourne. D. C. HAmILTon, Forester, Knowsley, Prescot. JAMES MARTIN, The Reservoir, Knipton, Grantham. W. B. Havetock, The Nurseries, Brocklesby Park. Professor Bouncer, 11 Onslow Road, Richmond Hill, London, 8. W. Wm. Exper, Thoresby, Ollerton, Newark. W. Micure, Forester, Welbeck, Worksop. Witson Tomuinson, Forester, Clumber Park, Worksop. Grorck HANNAH, The Folly, Ampton Park, Bury St Edmunds. JoHN ALEXANDER, 24 Lawn Crescent, Kew Gardens. A. D. Curistre, Hillside, Frederick Road, Selly Oak, Birmingham. ANDREW Boa, Trowbridge. D. Tarr, Estate Bailiff, Owston Park, Doncaster. Land Agent, Glenmore, The Avenue, Treland. A. C. Forses, Department of Forestry, Board of Agriculture. JAMES WILSON, B.Se., Royal College of Science, Dublin. Arcu. E. Mogran, Lissadell, Stillorgan Park. THOMAS Ropertson, Forester and Bailiff, Woodlawn. Wm. Henperson, Forester, Clonad Cottage, Tullamore. Davin G. Cross, Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh. ALEX. M‘Rag, Forester, Dundrum. Ropal Scottish Arboricultural Society FORM OF PROPOSAL FOR MEMBERSHIP. To be signed by the Candidate, his Proposer and Seconder, and returned to ROBERT GALLOWAY, S.8.C., SECRETARY, Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 19 Castle Street, Edinburgh. C LODE ene RK oe ene Designation, DOT CCSACL Ga ah nee ASS SEE, LS SOR eT eee Ree REO ACS Candidate's 4 AMArESS, 6 6 escsteeessee nsession | Tiger OV AIH MACIAOCT yi cree asec a eran eae Signature, : Bhd diver canaes cot ada ace canbncuawetines ah sie sas\as ane nen encs Autnctse oer aananas senwee dots on onch ree Meee aeane Maen ater Signature, . . Saat be Seats hd cduvanseek seecbtveacss Soe eae ec Proposer’s ~ AGES, 5 were eeeenencennncecececceccnnnnnnsnnnnnunasunsnssscsensecenenceccecnceneenensnoranenannannnt Signature, eS EREBE CERES DER Hino tncib- po bac eaCe SOnDESS IRS GAD SCL oS Bae LORE CECE Sa Gtetbositoo Kenn sereereamccs Seconder’ s | Address, .. . EN ERS COP EAA. grat hi rak, cna meee [CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP, see Over. CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP (excerpted from the Laws). III. Any person interested in Forestry, and desirous of pro- moting the objects of the Society, is eligible for election as an Ordinary Member in one of the following Classes :— 1. Proprietors the valuation of whose land exceeds £500 per annum, and others, subscribing annually : . One Guinea. to . Proprietors the valuation of whose land does not exceed £500 per annum, Factors, Nurserymen, Timber Merchants, and others, subscribing annually . . Half-a-Guinea. Foresters, Gardeners, Land-Stewards, Tenant Farmers, and others, subscribing annually : : . Six Shillings. Lo) 4. Assistant-Foresters, Assistant-Gardeners, and others, sub- -scribing annually : : ; ; . Four Shillings. IV. Subscriptions are due on the Ist of January in each year, and shall be payable in advance. A new Member's Subscription is due on the day of election unless otherwise provided, and he shall not be enrolled until he has paid his first Subscription. VY. Members in arrear shall not receive the Zvamnsactions, and shall not be entitled to vote at any of the meetings of the Society. Any Member whose Annual Subscription remains unpaid for two years shall cease to be a Member of the Society, and no such Member shall be eligible for re-election till his arrears have been paid up. VI. Any eligible person may become a Zizfe Member of the Society, on payment, according to class, of the following sums :— 1. Large Proprietors of land, and others, : ; ; §4£10 Tomo 2. Small Proprietors, Factors, Nurserymen, Timber Mer- chants, and others, : ; ; 5 : 5 Sao 3. Foresters, Gardeners, Land-Stewards, Tenant Farmers, and others, ; : , : : : : 3) 835 50 VII. Any Ordinary Member of Classes 1, 2, and 3, who has paid Five Annual Subscriptions, may become a Zz/e Member on payment of Two-thirds of the sum payable by a ez Life Member. XII. Every Proposal for Membership shall be made in writing, and shall be signed by two Members of the Society as Proposer and Seconder, and delivered to the Secretary to be laid before the Council, which shall accept or otherwise deal with each Proposal as it may deem best in the interest of the Society. The Proposer and Seconder shall be responsible for payment of the new Member’s first Subscription. The Council shall have power to decide the Class under which any Candidate for Membership shall be placed. Ce hen TS. The Society does not hold itself responsible for the statements or views expressed by the authors of papers. . Correspondence with Lord Pentland in regard to the Small Landholders (Scotland) Bill and a Department of Forestry 2 The Development Commission and Forestry 3. Early Tree-Planting in Scotland. Historical Notes, with 1 5 12 Appendix naming Trees known a 1770 eg a Plate). By Hugh Boyd Watt . . Report on Tree-Pruning in St cues Park and Piccadilly, London (with a Plate). By Professor I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., Regius ace of the ae Botanic Nie Be eurch On the best method of BiniGne at High Altiendes and in Exposed Situations, and the best Species of Trees to plant there with the object of procuring (a) Shelter for Stock, and (6) A profitable Timber Crop (with a Plate). By A. W. B. Edwards, Forester, Thirlmere Estate Notes on Raising Exotic Conifers from Seed. By J. Ferguson, Forester, Gregynog, Montgomeryshire . . Continental Notes—France. By A. G. Hobart-Hampden . Notes on some Different Methods of Planting (with Two Plates). By Wellwood Maxwell, Kirkennan Thorn Hedges and their Management. fee W. H. Whellens, Comlongon Nursery . The Annual Excursion, By George Leven. With Note by Alexander Finlayson F The Forestry Exhibition at Inverness. ae Brodie of Brodie Detailed Report on the Forestry Section in the Scottish National Exhibition, Glasgow, organised by the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, May to November IgII. By Matthew Feaks, Forester, Benmore Notes and Queries:—Estate Duty on Timber under the Finance Act of 1910—Rating of Woodlands and Railway Rates on Timber—Canadian Forests—Forest Terminology Biltmore Forest School—Forests and Forestry Problems in Sierra Leone—Progress, in India, in the Preparation of Working -Plans—Distillation of ;Wood—New Forestry Books —University of Cambridge—Correction 5 PAGE 12 31 37 46 48 59 61 72 84 85 95 il CONTENTS. Reviews and Notices of Books :—The Development of British Forestry. 274 pp., 71 Figs. By A. C. Forbes, F.H.A.S., Chief Forestry Inspector to the Board of Agriculture for Ireland. London: Edward Arnold, Publisher to the India Office, 1911 Elements of British Forestry. 345 pp., 92 Illustrations. By John Nisbet. William Blackwood & Sons, 1911. Price 5s. 6d. : : : The Book of the English Oak. By Charles Hurst. 188 pp., with a Map of English Oaks and 14 Illustrations from Photographs. Price 5s. net. London: Lynwood & Go; Ltd: : : F : ; : Forestry for Woodmen. By C. O. Hanson. 222 pp. 12 Platesand15 Figures. Price 5s. Oxford: Clarendon Press, IQ1II Town Planting, and the Trees, Shrubs, Herbaceous and other Plants that are best adapted for resisting Smoke. 216 pp., with Index and 16 full-page Plates. By A. D. Webster. London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd. Price 3s. 6d. ; : : : : Webster’s Foresters’ Pocket Diary. t1oth Edition, for 1912. Completely revised. London: William Rider and Son. Price 2s. 6d. Report on Cyprus Forestry. 93 pp., I map, 42 figs. By D. E. Hutchins, Chief Conservator of Forests, British East Africa. Printed by Waterlow & Sons, Limited, London, 1909 . ; : : : C List of Seeds of Hardy Herbaceous Plants and of Trees and Shrubs , . Building Timbers and Architects’ Specifications, which is part of Haworth’s ‘‘ Timber Measurer.” By J. Davies. 234 pp. with Index. London: Alfred Haworth & Co., Ltd., 1910 é : : . : Obituary :—Caroline, Countess of Seafield—The Late Pro- fessor Mayr (with Portrait) : : : PAGE 102 104 108 108 IIo 114 114 117 118 119 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 1. Correspondence with Lord Pentland in regard to the Small Landholders (Scotland) Bill and a Depart- ment of Forestry. The Council of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society addressed to Lord Pentland the following letter in regard to this bill :— “*t9 CASTLE STREET, ‘“ EDINBURGH, 2Is¢ Octoberv 1911. **To the Right Hon. LORD PENTLAND, ** Secretary for Scotland. “ My Lorp, ‘‘T was instructed by the Council of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, at its last meeting, respectfully to call your Lordship’s attention to the great importance attaching to the appointment of a Commissioner to take charge of forestry, under the Landholders’ Bill now before Parliament. While my Council recognises with great satisfaction the prominence given to forestry in this bill, and believes that it is the intention of the Government, as expressed in the course of the discussion on the first draft, to select one Commissioner qualified to deal with forestry, it would respectfully suggest that the bill itself should provide that one of the Commissioners should have special charge of this subject. My Council feels that the future of forestry in Scotland largely depends on the appointment of such a Commissioner, and in common with every one in the country interested in forestry, eagerly desires to see the appointment entrusted to a man whose training and experience really fit him for taking charge of the subject at this critical moment.—I am, my Lord, your obedient Servant, ‘““(Sgd.) JoHN STiRLING-MAXWELL. ** Prestdent.” VOL. XXVI. PART I. A 2 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. In reply to the above letter, the following communication has been received :— ‘* SCOTTISH OFFICE, ‘*WHITEHALL, S.W., 8/2 November 1911. “6 SIR; “T am directed by the Secretary for Scotland to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 21st ultimo, and to say that, while the Government are of opinion that it is not desirable that the Small Landholders (Scotland) Bill should itself provide that one of the Commissioners, or, to adopt the phraseology of the bill, a member of the Board, should be specifically appointed to take charge of forestry, it is their intention, as has already been said, in the event of the bill which is now before Parliament being passed into law, to establish as an integral part of the administration of the Board of Agriculture for Scotland, a Department of Forestry for Scotland. This Department will be developed as the needs of forestry extend and justify; and your Society may rest assured that the head of this Department will be an officer whose training and experience fit him for taking special charge of this important work.—I am, Sir, your obedient Servant, ““(Sgd.) | Joun Lame. **SIR JOHN STIRLING MAXWELL, BarrT., “* President of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, ‘*rg Castle Street, Edinburgh.” To this the Council has returned the following reply :— ‘tg CASTLE STREET, ‘* EDINBURGH, 4th December 1911. “To the Right Hon. LorD PENTLAND. ‘‘ My Lorp, “TI was directed by the Council of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, at its meeting on Saturday, to thank your Lordship for your communication of 8th November, and to express its warm approval of the important step which it fore- shadows. (The Council has long advocated the establishment of a Department of Forestry as an essential preliminary to the orderly development of that industry in Scotland.) We ventured to call your Lordship’s attention to the question of allocating one of the members of the Scottish Board of Agriculture to forestry, THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION AND FORESTRY. 3 solely because the proposal had found a place in the earlier draft of the Small Landholders (Scotland) Bill. But the promise of a Department of Forestry, which your Lordship has now sub- stituted for that proposal, appears to us in every way an 1mprove- ment. Provided that the Department is thoroughly representative of those interested in silviculture in Scotland, and endowed with reasonable independence and responsibility, we are confident that it will prove a most valuable agent for the development of forestry.—I am, my Lord, your obedient Servant, “(Sgd.) JoHN StTiRLING-MAXWELL. ‘* President.” 2. The Development Commission and Forestry. EXTRACT FROM THE FIRST REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS FOR THE PERIOD FROM 12TH May 1910 TO 31ST MARCH IQII. It is provided in section x (4) of the Act that forestry, as one of the purposes for which the Commissioners may recommend advances, shall include :— 1. The conducting of inquiries, experiments and research, for the purpose of promoting forestry, and the teaching of methods of afforestation ; 2. The purchase and planting of land found after inquiry to be suitable for afforestation. Believing that forestry is one of the purposes of the Act which requires to be dealt with on comprehensive and national lines, the Commissioners at an early stage appointed four of their number to report on the broad principles to be applied to all applications bearing on the subject. The following Commissioners form the Forestry Committee :— Mr S. Eardley-Wilmot, C.I.E. (Chairman). Mr W. S. Haldane. Mr M. A. Ennis. Mr H. Jones-Davies. Outlines of a forestry policy have been drawn up by the Committee, and approved by the Commissioners, as a guide in dealing with all applications for grants for the developing of forestry in England, Scotland and Wales. Ireland was dealt with separately. The principles which, after discussion and 4 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. amendment, the Commissioners adopted in regard to British schemes and applications are as follows :— (a) That the first requirement for forestry development is effective education in forestry at suitable centres, regulated by organised research and demonstration. (4) That no scheme of State afforestation on a large scale can be considered until investigation has shown where State forests might be economically and remuneratively provided (regard being had to the interests of other rural industries), and until a trained . body of foresters becomes available. (c) That for the present, applications for grants for the above purposes should include provision for the creation and maintenance of such staff as may be necessary to give practical advice and assistance to those who desire to undertake afforestation, or to develop existing afforested areas. I, ENGLAND AND WALES. The Commissioners received, on the 25th March 1911, through the Treasury, a memorandum from the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries outlining a comprehensive scheme of forestry for England and Wales. (Copies of the memorandum were received direct from the Board towards the end of February.) The immediate advance desired is £9300 for the year 1911-12 but the ultimate expenditure contemplated is very much larger. The Commissioners are communicating with the Board on the subject. The application of the Wiltshire County Council for an advance of £100 for forestry purposes was also under con- sideration at the end of the year. It reached the Commissioners on the 8th March. II. ScoTLaND. The Scotch Education Department forwarded to the Commis- sioners, in the middle of November, applications from the three agricultural colleges in Scotland. These applications fall mainly under the head “ Agricultural Research and Education,” but are mentioned here because they include applications from the Aberdeen and North of Scotland College for a sum of #1500 THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION AND FORESTRY. 5 for a forest garden and necessary buildings, from the West of Scotland College for £5200 for two experimental forest areas, and from the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College for #1225 for a forest garden and nursery. In forwarding these applications, the Department reported also on a request from the University of Edinburgh for a grant towards forestry in- struction—a request which was not technically in order as an application under the Act, but on which the Commissioners, not wishing to stand on technicalities, had thought it well to seek at once the views of the Department. At the same time, the Department stated that they thought it essential as a first step towards the development of forestry in Scotland, and towards the better utilisation of existing forestry areas, that there should be, altogether apart from the colleges, ‘at least one forest demonstration area of considerable size under independent management, for purposes altogether different from those of a mere adjunct to any of the teaching centres. Accordingly the Department proposed, with the concurrence of the Commissioners, to appoint a Committee to consider and report, at the earliest possible opportunity, as to the exact function of such a forest area, the staff and equipment needed, the composition of a suitable body of management, and the relation of the demonstration area to the college and university centres giving instruction in forestry; and further, to make a selection of the most suitable area or areas to be used for the purpose indicated. The questions raised in this letter were considered at their meeting at the beginning of January 1g911, by the Commis- sioners’ Forestry Committee, who heard evidence from Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, Mr R. C. Munro-Ferguson, M.P., Lord Lovat, Captain Stirling and Mr John D. Sutherland. On the Com- mittee’s recommendation the Commissioners, on the r2th January 1911, addressed a letter to the Department concurring in the appointment of a Committee as proposed, making some suggestions as to its composition, and expressing the opinion that the proposed demonstration area should be in a central position in Scotland, and that it would be advisable that it should comprise not fewer than 5000 and not more than 10,000 acres of land. As there must necessarily be a forest school attached to the proposed demonstration area, the Commissioners thought that 6 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. such an institution ought to become the centre for expert instruction and research in forestry in Scotland, and that it would be inadvisable therefore to provide forest gardens of the size contemplated in the applications of the agricultural colleges. For all practical purposes the local needs of each college would be met by small forest gardens and by forestry museums, for both of which purposes the Commissioners are willing to consider applications. At the same time the proposals of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society were considered by the Forestry Com- mittee and the Commissioners. The Society’s main request (which was not technically a formal application) was for a grant towards the cost of carrying out a national survey throughout Scotland in order to ascertain areas suitable to afforest. The Commissioners came to the conclusion that a national survey would quickly fall out of date, but they were favourably impressed with the usefulness of the survey carried out by the Society over a large area in Inverness-shire, which they regard as valuable pioneer work. ‘They think that similar surveys might usefully be carried out as occasion arises, by the staff and students at the proposed national demonstration area. They therefore decided to postpone the question of recommending assistance from the Development Fund for such surveys until the demonstration area has been established. One further question in regard to forestry in Scotland may be mentioned here. It has already been indicated that both the University of Edinburgh and the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture have sought advances from the Development Fund for purposes of forestry instruction. It appeared to the Commissioners that there was obvious incon- venience in a dual system of forestry instruction in Edinburgh, under which the university and the college provide each its separate course of training. ‘The Commissioners consequently, after informal consultation with the Scotch Education Depart- ment, advised the .co-ordination of the work of the two institutions in this respect. As a result, a Joint Committee has been appointed, consisting of an equal number of repre- sentatives of the university and of the college, by whom will be administered any sums granted for the establishment and maintenance of a forest garden for the joint use of the students THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION AND FORESTRY. 7 at both institutions. The Commissioners have also intimated their readiness to recommend grants for the university museum and laboratories. The final settlement of these questions was awaiting at the end of the year only the receipt of a formal application for an advance from the Development Fund. III. IRELAND. Very shortly after they commenced their duties, viz., on the t8th July r910, the Commissioners received from the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland an application in respect to forestry. It contemplated an expendi- ture of £110,000 spread over five years, for the following purposes :— 1. The acquisition and afforestation of semi-waste lands. 2. The purchase of small woods by County Councils, and the planting of similar areas for shelter purposes. 3. The development of shelter plantations in the West of Ireland. 4. Experiments. At their meeting on the zoth September, the Commissioners heard evidence in support of the application from Mr T. P. Gill, Secretary to the Department; the Most Rev. Dr Kelly, Bishop of Ross, Member of the Agricultural Board ; Mr J. R. Campbell, Assistant Secretary, and Mr A. C. Forbes, Forestry Inspector. The Commissioners were at first of opinion that a decision on the Irish application should be postponed, until they had before them applications from British Departments for grants for a similar purpose: but on receipt of letters from the Irish Depart- ment of the 13th and 17th October, giving further details and in particular urging reasons why the case of Ireland should be dealt with separately, arrangements were made for a brief visit of the Forestry Committee to Ireland. This visit took place in November, and included the inspection of forestry under- takings already started there, and of certain waste lands suggested as suitable for immediate afforestation. On the recommendation of the Forestry Committee aftei their visit, the Commissioners came to the conclusion that State afforestation on a small scale might be started in Ireland immediately, on lines which it is hoped will prove ultimately remunerative. The special Irish circumstances which justify this 8 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. departure from the Commissioners’ general policy, were set out as follows by the Committee :— (a) That Ireland only has 1°5 per cent. of its total area under wood. (6) That a system of peasant proprietorship has been adopted in Ireland under which the land is being divided into properties much too small ever to admit of successful silviculture by the individual owners. (c) That there are now special opportunities to acquire available areas for afforestation purposes which are not likely to occur again. At the same time the Committee recommended, and the Commissioners agreed, that the following general principles should be made applicable to schemes of State afforestation in Ireland :— (a) That as economic silvicultural management depends upon the size of the afforestable area, no scheme for State afforestation in a particular district should be brought forward unless the area available in the present or future should be sufficiently large in itself, or would make up a group of areas sufficiently convenient to each other, to afford a reasonable prospect of being worked from one centre on commercial principles. (4) That in the acquisition of any area for State afforesta- tion, not more than the present value should be paid for the Jand, having regard, as far as practicable, to its market price at the time. (c) That the land be free of tenant right, or other conditions that might prevent its being planted. (2) That following on the purchase of any area, a scheme of management, z.e. a working-plan, should be pre- pared, prescribing for its treatment over the whole period necessary for the development of the area, such a scheme not only to have regard to the area actually acquired at the moment, but to the extent of land which might become available in future in the same locality; the scheme of management so drawn up to be submitted to the consideration of the Development Commissioners at the time the THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION AND FORESTRY. 9 application is sent in for the annual funds required for the planting and development of the land. (f) That in order efficiently to carry out a scheme of State afforestation, which may in the future admit of con- siderable development, it is necessary that prepara- tions should be commenced at once to provide a competent staff, both for executive and research : work. (g) That in order to encourage afforestation by private owners, the facilities for advice and other assistance which would be available in a research institute and demonstration area (for which purposes the existing Avondale Forestry School is admirably suited), should be placed at the service of landowners free of cost ; and that in cases where private owners are desirous of having forestry schemes prepared by the Irish Department, the staff of the institute should be authorised to report as to the suitability or otherwise of their estates for this purpose, free of cost, and regularly to inspect the plantation as long as the advice given is being followed. On the 24th November 1g10, the Commissioners recom- mended to the Treasury that advances not exceeding £25,000 in all be made to the Department, as they may from time to time be required, for the purchase of certain areas in South Ireland on the following conditions :— (a) That the advances be by way of loan, not repay- able and bearing no interest for thirty years; the question of requiring’ interest and provision for repayment to be further considered at the end of that period. (4). That not more than the present value be paid for the land, having regard, as far as practicable, to its market value at the time, ze, that save in very special circumstances not more be paid than the market value of the land at the time of purchase. (c) That the land be free of tenant right, or other conditions that might prevent it from being planted. (2) That following on the purchase of any area, a scheme of management, ze. a working-plan, should be prepared, prescribing for its treatment over the whole 10 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. period necessary for the development of the area, such a scheme to have regard not only to the area actually acquired at the moment, but to the extent of land which might become available in future in the same locality; the scheme of management so drawn up to be submitted for the consideration of the Commissioners at the time the application is sent in for the annual funds required for the planting and development of the land. (ec) That in the event of any portion of the land or property thereon being sold or leased, the Department should forward to the Commissioners annually an account of the proceeds of such sale or lease. The Commissioners stated further in their report to the Treasury, that they would be prepared to consider an application for an advance not exceeding £5000 for the acquisition of another available area of 2000 acres in the event of the Depart- ment failing to purchase it under the Land Purchase Acts; and also definite applications for annual advances towards meeting the cost of maintenance and suitable management of small woodlands acquired under the Land Purchase Acts, which a County Council is prepared to purchase, or the Department is prepared to purchase and transfer to the charge of the County (Council concerned. The Commissioners received from the ‘Treasury on the 2nd March tot, a copy of a letter from the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, urging certain alterations in these conditions. On the roth March a reply was sent agreeing, so far as the Commissioners were concerned, that proposals might be considered for temporary and wholly unavoidable deviations from the prescribed plan of management for an afforestable area. The reply stated further, that they were prepared to give prompt attention to any representation made to them by the Department in favour of the purchase of any afforestable area, which the Department have reason to believe would be more advantageous than that of any of the areas previously approved, but that they would desire that their approval should be obtained before the completion of the purchase; and that they were prepared to recommend the addition of two trained foresters (together with the necessary clerical assistance) to the staff of the Department, and to THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION AND FORESTRY. Il consider the question of an increase of staff when the Depart- ment presents a detailed scheme for the administration of each approved afforestable area. To sum up the situation on the 31st March last :— In regard to England and Wales, the Commissioners have just received a comprehensive scheme from the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. In regard to Scotland, they have agreed to the provision of a central demonstration area—for the acquisition of which preliminary steps are being taken—and of a forestry school in connection with it; and also to the provision of small forest gardens for the local use of the agricultural colleges. In regard to Ireland, they have agreed to advances of 425,000 or £30,000 for the purchase of land, and to further advances, as soon as formal and definite applications are made under the Act, for additions to staff and for the maintenance and management of small woodlands in the hands of County Councils. The following applications for purposes of forestry were officially received by the Development Commissioners up to the 3 1st March rort :— eee : A t ied Position on Cains. Applicant. In aid of— ype xe 3ist March sioners. Sout July 18, |Department of Forestry 4110,000 spread |Advance __ of 1910 Agriculture over 5 years £25,000 re- and Technical commended Instruction for conditionally. Ireland March §, |Wilts County Forestry 4100 Under consi- IQII Council deration. * * * * 'March 25, |Board of Agri- | Forestry in Eng-| 49300 for the |Under consi- IQII culture and/| land and Wales. | year IQII-12 deration. Fisheries The following witnesses in connection with forestry were examined by the Commissioners :— Forestry in Ireland—Mx A. C. Forbes, Forestry Inspector. | | | I2 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Forestry (heard by the Commissioners’ Forestry Committee) : Representing the Scotch Education Department— Sir John Struthers, K.C.B., Secretary to the Department. Representing the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Soctety— Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, Bart., President of the Society ; The Right Hon. R. C. Munro Ferguson, M.P. ; Lord Lovat ; Captain Stirling. Representing the Landowners’ Co-operative Forestry Soctety (Scotland) — Mr John D, Sutherland, Hon. Secretary of the Society. 3. Early Tree-Planting in Scotland.! HisToRIcAL NOTES, WITH APPENDIX NAMING TREES KNOWN BY 1770. (With One Plate.) By HucGuH Boyp Watt. Systematic planting of trees on an extensive scale has been practised in Scotland for a period of nearly two hundred years. The character of the woodlands has been so greatly changed, that a recent writer (6)° is not sure if there is any large wood which can be said to be wholly indigenous in Great Britain now —a statement which certainly requires the qualifications made, so far as it applies to Scotland. In different ways, we hear so much of the benefits and needs of afforestation and of neglect of forestry affairs, that it is well to recollect that Scotland has actually been the area of experiments in arboriculture (I do not say forestry) on a scale unknown in any other country of the world, except England, in some ways. The small number of kinds of trees growing in Scotland two hundred years ago, and ‘ the long list of species now found flourishing, illustrate this 1 From the Glasgow Naturalrst, vol. iiit., No. 1, November 1910 (revised by the author for re-publication by the Society). * The blocks used on Plate I. have been kindly lent by the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. * The numbers within brackets throughout refer to the authorities given at the end. EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 13 point and mark off the modern period. The present review will not extend to that period, but some account of earlier and less known times up to the year 1750 will be given—native, naturalised and exotic trees being taken into consideration. Of the early native woodlands and forests the writer has attempted to treat elsewhere (29), and nothing more need be said of them here, but in an Appendix are given the names of indigenous trees and of those introduced up to 1770. At the beginning of the historical period and for centuries thereafter, the small amount of evidence available as to tree- planting is not of a positive character. It is said that before the third century the Apple, which is conjectured to have been brought into Britain ‘“‘by the first colonies of the natives, had spread over the whole island, and so widely that, according to Solinus, there were large plantations of it in the Ultima Thule” (15). Fruit-bearing trees would probably be the first introduced by man, for in early times the need of planting for timber supply would not be felt, native trees being abundant and accessible. The Wild Pear, for instance, is looked on as an introduction which reverted to a wild character. During the Roman occupa- tion several species of trees were brought into Britain. Accord- ing to Professor W. Somerville, these number only four kinds, viz., the English Elm, the Sycamore, the Lime, and the Spanish Chestnut; but, in addition to these, the Poplar, the Walnut, the Box, and other trees of the garden and orchard have been named as contemporaneous with the Romans. I know of no proof that any of these trees reached Scotland during the Roman period. In the investigation of the remains from the Roman Military Station at Newstead, Melrose, some seven different kinds of trees were determined, viz., Oak, Birch, Hazel, Poplar (or Willow), Alder, Rowan and Whitebeam (26). The last named is native to England, but not to Scotland, so far as I know. Ash was found in the shape of handle-shafts, without evidence that it was procured locally, although this may have been the case, this tree being recognised as native in South Scotland. Coniferous and Beech wood did not occur amongst the Newstead remains (26). In referring to the Roman period, Czsar’s statement (De Bello Gallico, V. 12) that all kinds of timber (satertz) were in Britain with the exception of the Fir (Silver Fir) and the Beech must not be overlooked. The comparison is with Gaul, I4. TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. and to question Czesar would be an offence not less heinous than to speak disrespectfully of the equator. With the coming of the churchmen and the foundation of monasteries and other ecclesiastical establishments, somewhat more tangible evidence of tree-planting is forthcoming. The remains of orchards, gardens and enclosures around these old building-sites to-day afford visible, although indefinite, proofs of planting. That trees were appreciated by the residents not only for their value as timber and for utilitarian purposes, but also in an esthetic or protective sense, is shown by expressions such as that used by the writer or transcriber of the Book of the Dun Cow (early Irish, about 1100), when he says :— ** A hedge of trees surrounds me ; Well do I write under the greenwood.” Traces of old orchard trees remain to the present day at such places as Melrose, Haddington, Jedburgh and Lindores Abbey. At the last-named place old Pear trees still survive, or survived until recently, one of them reputed to be the largest of its kind in Scotland (Alexr. Laing’s LZindores Abbey, 1876). The Chronicles, Charters, and Registers of these old founda- tions, and also other records relating to land and property, while frequently mentioning woodland rights and_ privileges, such as the cutting of Oaks for timber (12), are almost entirely silent on the subject of tree-planting, probably for the cogent reason that no such practice was in existence, except in a casual and fortuitous way. In an account of the bailiff of the King’s Manor of Jedworth in 1288, the construction of ditch and hedge (/osse e¢ haye) about both the wood and meadows of the place named is charged for, and Cosmo Innes gives this as the earliest instance known of such a fence (12). In 1473 the tenants of the Cistercian Abbey of Coupar-Angus were bound to “put al the land to al possibil policie in biggin of housis, plantacioun of tries—eschis, osaris and sauchs and froit tries,! gif thei mai” (13). In 1510, a lease given by the Crown to Patrick Murray held him bound to maintain the plantations of Oak, and of all other trees necessary on certain Jands in Selkirkshire, where, apparently, plantations then existed. Traditions such as these which assert that the old Oaks of 1 Ashes, osiers, willows or sallows, and fruit trees. EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 15 Cadzow Forest were planted by David, Earl of Huntingdon, afterwards David I. (1124-1153), and the Yews of Inch Lonaig, Loch Lomond, at the time of Robert the Bruce (1306-29), to supply bows for his men, seem to be supported only by constant repetition, not by any proof or authority. John Walker (1731- 1803), whose writings on Scottish trees are a great source of original information, expressed the opinion that for the period of near one thousand years after the departure of the Romans, it was “not likely that any foreign trees were established in England” (27), and I have heard Professor W. Somerville make a similar statement. Walker remarks that the first ‘‘barren” trees planted in Scotland were those of exotic growth (28), but this requires qualifications, as will appear later on. He gives the Elder! as the first of such kinds of trees planted, and the Plane (Sycamore) as next in antiquity, adding that these are the only two barren trees planted in Scotland till towards the middle of the seventeenth century (27). Loudon writes of the Spanish Chestnut and Beech as probably introduced into Scotland by the Romans, and perhaps reintroduced by the religious orders in the Middle Ages (15). This has no certain sound, and, if I might venture on another conjecture, it is that the source of these and other kinds of trees may have been France, during the long period of intercourse between Scotland and that country which followed the alliance begun under John Balliol in 1295, or from Scottish connections with the Low Countries. The devastations and havoc of the Wars of Succession and Independence, at the end of the thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth centuries, and their after-effects, did much to waste the tree-growth of Scotland. With the beginning of Stuart times a spirit of concern becomes apparent regarding the wood- lands, as is shown by the contents and tenor of various Acts of the Scottish Parliaments (1). As early as 1424, there is an Act imposing a penalty on stealers of greenwood and destroyers of trees. In 1457, tenants are ordained to plant woods and trees, make hedges and sow broom; and in 1503 the earlier Acts are supplemented by a further measure, based on the ground of “the wood of Scotland being utterly distroyit.” That this was an exaggera- | A native species occurs in neolithic deposits near Edinburgh (24). Further, it is a fruit-bearer. 160 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. tion is clear from the Act itself; one of its requirements being that every landowner plants at least one acre of wood where there is “‘na gret woode nor forreste.” Apparently the wood had not actually been all destroyed. The year 1535 gives another strong measure, with provisions for further planting, and going so far as to enact that destroyers of greenwood should be punished with death for the third offence. In 1555, the wood of Falkland being found old and decayed, is dealt with, the Estates ordering that it be ‘‘new parkit, agane keipit and hanit for rysing of zoung grouth.” In the same year, the earlier Acts are ordered to be published anew through- out the realm, and enforced on all points. At later dates, fresh Acts of a similar tenor are passed, and the older Acts for planting and against destroying wood are ratified and extended. An Act of the year 1661 requires heritors to enclose and plant four acres yearly with trees for the next ten years, and is of additional interest in that it names specific trees—‘‘Oak, Elme, Ash, Plaine, Sauch, or other timber.” The Plane (Sycamore) is evidently classed as a naturalised tree then. Contemporaneously with these general Acts are others having particular application only. These show that the continual reiteration of injunctions to plant does not imply that the Acts were entirely without effect, as has been perhaps sometimes inferred. Thus, in 1703, Lord Ross is allowed to shut up a road through his park at Halk- head, because it interfered with his planting and policy; and a similar provision is made on behalf of Lord Melvill at Melvill House. In 1705, Sir David Cunninghame of Milncraig is allowed to alter the highway about his house, for the sake of an enclosure he had made; and, in 1706, Lockhart of Carnwath, to alter the highway in order to enclose a park (1). Other documents, dating from the period of the Stuarts to the Union (1707), show planting requirements laid upon individual places and persons. For example, in 1616, certain of the Western Island chiefs were bound over at Edinburgh (amongst other things) to have “policie and planting” about their houses (10). Donald Monro, who described these islands in 1 An Ayrshire rhyme still current says :— ‘Tf you destroy Ash, Oak or Elm tree, Thy right hand cut off shall be.” (fide Mr John Smith, Dykes, Dalry). EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 17 1549, notes woods and trees frequently, but makes no mention of any planting (20). Towards the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries the progress of planting is evident from historical records, such as will now be given. Inveraray, however, should be looked upon as preceding the period just named, for the late Duke of Argyll, in 1896, in giving evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons on a projected railway to Inveraray, stated that the narrow border of level land there, between the mountains and the sea, had been continually planted by his family for 400 years, with the view of making a park and pleasure grounds. At a later time than is thus indicated, a writer, who probably dates from about 1630, found at the Earl of Argyll’s “ Pallace” “zairds planted with sundrie fruit trees verie prettilie” (17). The same is said of Ardkinglas; and the writer quoted also states that Ardmore (Cardross) and the Ross, Rosneath, were well planted—that is previous to 1630 (17). In 1583, John Anstruther of that Ilk sues certain people of Crail for plucking up the “haill asches that he had laitlie plantit and uther young growth thairabout” (23). Cosmo Innes (13) describes the general style of planting at this period as avenues of double rows of Ash and Sycamore, and lines of these trees round the fields, with a small admixture of Walnut and Chestnut (Spanish Chestnut), and names the first Earl of Gowrie (executed 1584) as having done planting of this kind. In 1586, James, Lord Ogilvie, is found writing to Sir David Lindsay of Edzell ‘concerning my planting . your thowsand young birkis sall be richt welcom”—which shows a native tree being utilised. Fynes Moryson (1598; one of the earliest travellers in Scotland, whose narrative is known) found Seton Castle ‘beautified with faire orchards and gardens”; and in Fife the ‘“noblemen’s and gentlemen’s dwellings commonly compassed with little groves, though trees are so rare in those parts as I remember not to have seene one wood.” On the west side of Scotland, he says, are “ many woodes” (3). A later traveller, Sir William Brereton (1636), amplifies the information about Seton by naming “ Apple trees, Walnut trees, Sycamore, and other fruit trees, and other kinds of wood which prosper well”; and John Ray (1662) confirms the western observation by saying that the country about VOL. KXVI. PART I. B 18 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Hamilton is “in all respects for woods, pastures, corn, etc., the best we saw in Scotland” (3). An earlier writer, Bishop Leslie (1578), says—‘ Cludisdal amang fair forrests and schawis schene; with thiker wods some are decored” (14). In an Act of Parliament of 1641 parks and plantings are described as “decorementes,” so apparently the bishop knew or had heard of planting in the Clydesdale of his day. Timothy Pont! gives a detailed description of the district of Cuninghame in Ayrshire in 1604-8. The tract near the sea coast is described as well planted, especially about Stewarton and Irvine. Many other places are named with the same characterisation; for instance, Auchinhervie, Blair, Corsehill, Craufurdland, Cuning- hamehead, Fairlie, Hasilhead, Knock, Kelburne, Kilbirnie, Kilmarnock, Montgrenan, and other places (22). In no case, however, are the kinds of trees mentioned; so that while Pont’s survey is one of the first indications of general planting in Scotland, it stops short of giving specific information regarding the trees. It seems unlikely that any of the trees seen by Pont are in existence at the present day. The great Spanish Chestnut at Blair, of which some particulars are given by Dobbie in his edition of Pont’s work (22), is now gone. In more northern parts, some of the earliest systematic planting in Scotland was done by Sir Duncan Campbell, who . succeeded to the Breadalbane property in 1583, and died in 1631. Amongst the planting carried out by him was part of Drummond Hill (10). In the Baron Court books of Bread- albane in 1621, ordinances occur requiring tenants and cottars to plant young trees, “aik, asch, or plane.” In the same year, a Court was set at Finlarig to try numerous persons accused of cutting “aik, asch, birk, alrone, hassell, and sauch” (13). Other kinds of trees were seen in 1629 by an English traveller at Gallowshields (Galashiels), who praises Sir James Pringle for his planting there, and names ‘‘cherry trees, great store of sycamores, trees he calleth silk trees,” and fir trees” (16). In 1632-1634, the Earl of Mar, in reserving rights to the 1 For an account of this remarkable Scots worthy see Zhe First Topo- graphical Survey of Scotland, by C. G. Cash (Scottish Geographical Maga., vol. xvili., pp. 379-414, 1901), and Macfarlane’s Geograthical Collections, vol. ii., Introduction, 1907 (17). 2A name now used for Adbizzza Julibrissin, not known in this country before 1745, so some other tree must be meant ; perhaps the Mulberry. EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 19 Fir trees in Braemar, uses the words ‘woods, natural grown and other,” which seem to imply that some planting had been done there previous to the date named (19). That native trees were grown from seed in the course of the seventeenth century is shown from letters (dated 1637) of the Earl of Lauderdale and of the Marchioness of Hamilton (date probably 1630-1632), both of whom speak of using fir seed for planting. The Marchioness speaks of Lord Lindsay, ber godson, as a very great planter also (13). The above records all pre-date the appearance of John Evelyn’s Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees, which was read to the Royal Society on r5th October 1662, and published soon after as a separate work. One of its chief objects was to stimulate landowners to plant trees; and while more directly applying to England, it would no doubt have effect with the Scottish noblemen and gentlemen, who, following the accession of the Stuarts to the English throne, were becoming more accessible to Anglian influences. The first published writings on Scottish tree-planting appeared before the end of the seventeenth century, and it is somewhat curious to find that the earliest was (like Evelyn’s work) a communication to the Royal Society. The Philosophical Transactions for 1675 contain a letter from Dr J. Beal, partly devoted to Some hints for the Horticulture of Scotland (pp. 361, 362), in which the writer urges the advantages of developing gardens and nurseries of fruit trees, and suggests that the seeds of the Hemlock tree, Spruce and Cedars may do well in the north. Beal comments on the use and quick success which would attach to kitchen gardens, one advantage being, as he puts it, that they would ‘employ thousands of poor at good work.” This final commendation has a curious sound of our own day about it, and of our talk about ‘“‘back to the land” and afforestation as a means of alleviating unemployment, recommendations which find support not only from Royal Commissioners and the current sentiment of the day, but apparently possess the advantage of antiquity and, like all good old things, the capacity of repetition through the centuries. In 1683, the fist book on the subject appeared in the form of The Scots Gard ner, in two parts, the first of contriving gardens, orchards, avenues, groves... the second of the propagation and tmprovement of Horrest and Fruit-trees. . . . Published for the 20 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Climate of Scotland, by John Reid, Gard’ner. This work is addressed “to all the Ingenious Planters in Scotland,” and enforces ‘the inexpressible need of Inclosing and Planting,” the writer’s conclusion being that ‘there is no way under the sun so probable for improving our land as Inclosing and Planting the same; therefore, I wish it were effectually put in practice.” Reid gives many practical directions to assist in promoting this object, and the book is of importance historically, not only in respect of this, but also because of the large number of kinds of trees named in it, which are as follows (retaining Reid’s order and spelling) :—Vor thickets and orchards—Pears, Aples, Plum, Cherrie, Geens, Service, Lines, Poplars, Maple, Hornbeam, Hassell, Birch, Laburnum, Aspen, Alder, Willowes, Pin, Firr, Yew ; for forrest-trees—Oak, Elm (‘‘ good from Holland”), Ash, great Maple (“commonly but falsely called Plan”), Smaller Maple for Hedg., Beech, Walnut, Chestnut, Black Cherrie or geen, Wild Service (“‘commonly called Ronstree”), Line or Lidne tree (‘commonly called Lym”), Hornbeam, Hassell, Filboard, Birch, the Bean-tree soil! (“vulgarly called peascod- tree”), White Poplar (Abele), Aspen, Alder, Willowes, Sallows, and Oziers ; and for greens—Pinetree and Pinasters, Scots Firre, Silver Firre, Pitch Tree (as common Firre) (native Norroway), Yew, Holly, and Hawthorn (“tho not a green”), Reid also names many other smaller fruit trees and shrubs, amongst them Quince, Medlar, Fig, Mulberry, Almond; and, amongst evergreens, Box, Arbor-vite, Cherrie-bay, Cypress, Evergreen Oak, and Strawberrie tree. He was gardener at Rosehaugh, Avoch, Ross-shire, and his writings show the practical man giving his own experiences, many of which were, however, probably of a tentative character. ‘The Rosehaugh entries in my Appendix are on his authority, although he never mentions the place. Reid’s book has been re-published several times, and in the edition issued in 1766 there was included 4 Short Treatise on Forest Trees, &¢., by Thomas, sixth Earl of Haddington (1680- 1735). In 1761 his earlier work had been published—A T7eatise on the Manner of Ratsiny Forest Trees. In a letter to his grand- son, dated Tyninghame, 22nd December 1733, this writer speaks of himself as a diligent planter for upwards of thirty years, and believes that he had more trees of his own planting than any ! Bean-trefoil. EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 21 man ever planted in his lifetime. His work is of great value, as giving personal experience with the trees named. These are— Oak, Beech, Scots Elm, London Elm, Dutch Elm, Ash, Walnut, Chestnut, Plane (Sycamore), Hornbeam, Service-tree, Black Cherry (Geen), Quick-beam (Rowan or Rhoddan-tree), Laburnum or Pease-cod-tree, Maple, Lime, Hazel, Birch, Alder, Poplar, Abele, Aspin-tree or Quaking-asp, Willow ; Firs—Great Pine, Pinaster, Evergreen Oak* and Cork-tree,* Cedar,* Yew, Holly Bays. Lord Haddington had no knowledge of the trees marked *. His father, who lived at Leslie, Fife, planted a good deal there about the year 1700, and Lord Haddington also names as others who had preceded him with planting, the first Marquis of Tweed- dale (died 1697), Lord Rankeilour (died 1707), and Sir William Bruce, and also the Earl of Mar, who first “introduced the wilderness way of planting amongst us” at Alloa. When Lord Haddington came to live at Tyninghame, about 1705, he found not above fourteen acres set with trees, and with those as a start he made the great developments which are illustrious in the annals of tree-planting, and permanent to the present day—in succession at any rate. Lord Haddington’s book was preceded in publication by one not so well known or so important, but of considerable value as an indication of the spirit which was finding expression in Scotland at the period. Brigadier-General William Mackintosh of Borlum (1662-1743) was imprisoned in Edinburgh for the part he took in the Jacobite rising of 1715, and while in confinement wrote Az Lssay on Ways and Means of Enclosing, Fallowing, Planting, &c., Scotland, and that tn sixteen years at the Furthest, printed at Edinburgh in 1729. He says that there was very little stock of trees either barren, fruit, or hedging quicksets, but names some landowners in the north who were setting a good example in planting. Mackintosh himself, when living at Raits near Alvie in 1698, set down a row of Elms along the old military road at Kingussie, and these grew to be fine trees. Another indication of the growth of the spirit of planting and cultivation in Scotland in the seventeenth century is the foundation of the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, in 1680, where was grown the first Cedar of Lebanon known in Scotland, planted so early as 1683 (15). Other early dates for Cedars are Fordell, Inverkeithing, ia 1693, and Biel in 1707 (11). In the Edinburgh gardens were ‘every kind of tree and shrub as well 22 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. barren as fruit bearing, the whole disposed in fair order” (Sibbald’s Scotia L/lustrata, 1684). A further example of a far advanced place in respect of planting was Bargaly, Kirkcudbrightshire, where, under its laird, Andrew Heron, great progress had been made before the end of the seventeenth century. About 1722, it was described as being all covered with woods . . . the grounds next Heron’s house being all divided and adorned with large thickets of fir and other planting (17). Walker included in his book examples of different kinds of early planted and well-developed trees from Baryaly (28). Some of the trees in use for seventeenth century planting are made known by the plunder carried off from Inveraray to Blair Atholl in 1684-1685, when the Murrays paid a visit to the Campbells, in accordance with another custom of the times. The orchard enclosures and shrubberies at Inveraray were raided, and some thousands of young trees lifted and carried off as booty. The Duke of Atholl’s Chrontcles of the Atholl Family (vol. i., p. 265)! give a list (with values) of the trees, and we find the kinds named are Silver and Spanish Fir, Pinaster, Pine, Yew, Holland trees (Holly), Beech, Lime, Buckthorn, Black and White Poplar, Chestnut, Horse Chestnut, Walnut, Fir, Ash, Plane, Elm, Pear, Apple, Plum, and Cherry. The compensation claim made for the lot was settled for £13,000 Scots = £1083, 6s. 8d. sterling. Towards the end of the seventeenth century more detailed information regarding planting becomes available. About that time the Earl of Panmure planted what are called endless Beech avenues at Panmure (13), and some of the trees of the same kind in the town avenue at Inveraray may have been planted between 1674 and 1685. At Kinnaird the Beech is definitely dated as 1693, and an avenue of this tree was planted at Biodie Castle between 1650 and 1680. Oak, Elm, and Lime are also recorded for this period at the last-named place. At Kilcoy groups of Beeches, and also Ash trees and some Oaks and Elms are said to date from about 1685. Silver Firs were planted at Drumlanrig from 1650 to 1680, and at Drummond Castle about 1688 (11). The dates named by authorities are, not infrequently, of a conjectural character, but nothing that seems improbable has 1 Quoted in Elwes and Henry’s 7%ees of Great Britain and Ireland (p. 587). EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 23 been admitted here. Further details, similar to the above, need not now be repeated, and it may suffice to say that by the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century tree-planting was being extensively tried in Scotland. The movement extended from Lerwick (Shetland) in the north (but with very few records from Caithness, Sutherland and Ross) to Berwickshire and Galloway in the south, and from Buchan in the east to Armadale (Skye) and Colonsay in the west, thus covering the whole mainland and some of the islands. In almost all cases the account given of the work is a meagre and bare statement of the fact, e.g. “some planting,” “regular planting,” “well planted,” “fine planting,” ‘‘a deal of planting,” “ abundance of planting,” “‘ vast planting,” “ prodigious planting,” “thickly planted,” “little or no planting,” ‘considerable planting” (17), and so on. Occasionally observations are made which are of more interest. Thus at Lerwick (previous to 1683), in addition to Apple and Cherry trees, Ashes and “ Plains” were in several gardens; Aboyne (about 1724), “planted with firs fully grown, which is a great ornament and advantage to the place”; Ruthvene (1683 to 1722), a “‘prettie oakwood” ; Carraldstoune (same pericd), “extraordinary much planting : ane excellent avenue with ane rainge of great ash- trees”; Finhaven (same period), ‘‘has some bushes of wood up the water,” but the historical Spanish Chestnut is not mentioned ; Panmure (same period), “extraordinaire much planting, young and old,” showing that the beginning was some time back; Urie (about 1722), ‘“‘near a hundred thousand fir trees, thought to be the most considerable planting of firs near the East sea between the Murray Firth and Dover Castle,” also Elms, Birch and Willows are mentioned as planted at Urie, and “twenty-five different sorts of barren trees”; Eden’s Moor, Monimail (1723), “some million of firrs all thriving wonderfully”; Duncrub, Dunning (1723), “broad avenue planted on each side with severall rows of ash and firr trees”; Muthill (about 1723), ‘‘large firr parks, some whereof have trees grown to a considerable big- ness, and others are but lately planted,” also “‘ beautifull avenues going to severall airths”; the Kerses, Stirlingshire (1723), ““most of the gentlemen’s houses look like little woods for the number of planting”; the Tormuir (1723) is enclosed and planted; Castle of Cardross, Port (1724), ‘“‘great deal of old beautiful planting”; Inchcallioch or Buchanan (1724), ‘‘ very 24 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. handsome enclosures with very regular planting,” near the Endrick ; Rossdhu, Luss (1724), “regular planting”; Wishaw House (about 1723), “with a vast planting, most of them all come to perfection in the planter’s own time”; Raith, Bothwell (same writer), “a pritty large platt of firrs as a vistoe to the house, just opposite to the mouth of the great avenue”; Erskine (about 1725), ‘‘abundance of excellent stately barren planting with pleasant woods”; Walkinshaw (same writer), ‘‘ excellent regular avenues of barren timber”; Pollok (1696 to 1710), “excellently well planted, with a great deal of regular and beautiful planting” (Crawford’s Hzéstory of Renfrewshire, 1710) ; Shire of Edinburgh (about 1647), ‘moderately planted with trees, especially about the noblemen’s castles and gentlemen’s houses” ; Bowhill, Selkirkshire (1722), ‘‘ parks and planting very pleasant”; Carrick (1683 to 1722), “every gentleman has by his house both wood and water, orchards, and parks,” and many places in the district are named as planted; Adamtoun, Kyle (1723), ‘‘a great dale of planting”; Ochiltree (1723), ‘a vast dale of young barren timber ” ; Underwood, Barnweill (1723 to 1732), “abundance of very handsome young planting of all sorts”; Minigaff (about 1726), ‘‘ Palgown surrounded with pretty groves of Scots Pine, Black Cherries, and other kinds of planting, which make a fine umbello to the house”; and Lochurr (1684 to 1692), “planting of Sauch or Willow trees about it” (17). It should be remarked that the dates named are those of the writings quoted from, and consequently are later than the actual planting of the trees which they record. Perthshire, so rich in woodlands, has in many places planted trees dating from the earliest. In addition to those already mentioned, there are Lawers; Murthly Castle (where two old Spanish Chestnuts are ‘“‘supposed to have been amongst the original trees brought into this country by the monks”); Dunsinane; Scone (where are Sycamores planted by Queen Mary and James VI.); Moncrieffe (Horse Chestnut, supposed to have been planted about 1679); Kilgraston; Dupplin (Silver Firs, amongst the first planted in Scotland); Blair Drummond ; and Drummond Castle (10). Sir John Clerk of Penicuik (Midlothian) (1676-1755) found the estate in his earlier years little more than a bare upland waste. “In 1703,” he writes, “I . . . fell exceedingly EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 25 into the humure of planting and making nurseries,” with so effective a result that about thirty years later we find him saying he has planted more than 300,000 trees, which, he remarks, ‘in time may be of considerable value” (4). John Cockburn of Ormistoun (Haddingtonshire) was an enthusiastic planter and improver, and thanks to the fact that official duty called him to reside in London during part of the year, and that he carefully directed his estate operations from there by letter, we have a remarkably interesting and full account of what was done, all the more so because the laird was Critical and not easily pleased. In 1719 there was grown timber: at Ormistoun, but the letters date from 1727 to 1744. Their greatest value to us is that the kinds of trees used are named, and it is this information alone that will be given at present. Thelist, in alphabetical order, is—Alder (called Aller), Apple, Ash, Aspen (called Quack Esp), Beech, Birch, Black- thorn, Cedar (not definitely stated to be planted), Cherry, Chestnut, Elder, Elm (English and small leaved mentioned specifically), Fir, Green Oak, Hazel, Holly, Hornbeam, Horse Chestnut, ‘‘Mapple,” Mulberry (1740, the first known to be planted in Scotland), Oak, “Orientall Plain,” Pear, Pine, Plane (Sycamore), Privet (called Privy), Quince, Rowan (called Rawen), Saugh, Silver Fir, Swedish Pine (Spruce), Sweet Chestnut, Thorn, Whitebeam (not named, but apparently this from the description given), Walnut, and Yew (5). Another writer states that Cockburn first planted the Acacia as a forest tree in the park at Ormistoun (9). Larch, Lime, Poplar and Willow are not mentioned. A brief reference to the planting of the Dawyck Estate, Peeblesshire, brings us to the first introduction of the Larch, and probably also of the Horse Chestnut in Scotland. Sir James Naesmyth (died 1779), second baronet of Posso (and also of Dawyck), was a botanist and pupil of Linnzeus, and did much planting, which included the first Larches in Scotland. In 1725 a number were planted at Dawyck, some of which still stand (7). This predates the Dunkeld and Blair Atholl trees (planted 1738), although the Dunkeld trees are generally called the ‘parent Larches.” Two Horse Chestnuts near Dawyck House date probably from about 1730, a Lime tree avenue from the same year, and a row of Silver Firs from 1735 (7). Horse Chestnuts were known there one hundred years earlier 26 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. than the above-named (28). Two of these old Horse Chestnuts and a Larch planted in 1725 are illustrated in Plate I., from photographs by Mr W. Balfour Gourlay. The Dictionary of National Biography makes a lapse in stating that Naesmyth was among the first to plant Birch and Silver Firs in Scotland. APPENDIX. Trees known in Scotland by the Year 1770. Alphabetical Lists. I. NATIVE. (a) Glacial and Post-glactal Times. Alder. Juniper. Ash (in South only). Oak. Birch (Betula alba and nana). Scots Pine. Elder. Willows (various small-sized Hawthorn. species). Hazel. (b) Fre-chronologual Times. Apple. Holly. Aspen. Rowan (Mountain Ash). Bird Cherry. Sallow (Sauch), Elm (Wych or Scots). Willow (Salix fragilis). Gean (Wild Cherry). Yew. II. INTRODUCTIONS. Tree. Date. Locality. Abele (see Poplar, White), — _ Acacia, . , : 1727-44 Ormistoun, ,, Three-thorned Gledit- Before 1771 Armadale, Skye. schia triacanthus (sic), Arbor vite, , 53 1683 Rosehaugh. Arbutus (see Strawberry ‘Tree), — — Ash, American White and Blue, 1763 — , Flowering, /raxinus ornus, 1712 Bargaly. SECC... ; : 1540-60 Many places. SzZi ut pajuryd “MOAMV LY HOU] "ADJANOL) ANOLJIVE * 44.) [“g 0704 “PpUuBl}OIS ul pojueid }SAY 9} oq O7] ples “MOAMV( LY SLONLSHHD USUOT{ "ADIANOD) ANOfJVE “Af | [1 v4 OJOUT [To face page 26. fi EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 27 Tree. Date. Bird Cherry, Carolina, 1743 Birch, American Black, 1765 Betula nigra, Paper, . 1763 Buckthorn, 1677 Cedar of Lebanon, 1683 Chestnut, Horse, 1630 Spanish, Middle Ages Cypress, ’ Before 1683 », Deciduous, Cupres- 1733 sus aisticha, Elm, English, ; Early Times Fir, Balm of Gilead, Peas 1732 balsamea, = Patch, Before 1683 5, Silver, 1650-80 5 et Before 1683 Gleditschia (see Acacia) . © — Hemlock (see Spruce), .. — Hornbeam, : ; Before 1683 Judas Tree, Cercis stliquastrum, ,, 1771 Laburnum, : : : 5) LOS3 » Alpine, Cytesus alpinum, 1705 Larch, American Black, 1763 2) Common, 1725 Laurel, Portugal, 1695 Lime, Common, 1662 es a 1664 Maple, Common, Before 1683 », Great (see Sycamore), — » Norway,Acer platanoides, 1720-30 » snake-barked, 1763 », Sugar, A. saccharinum, 1754 Locality. Hopetoun. Elliock. Inveraray. Edinburgh. Dawyck; one time called New Posso. Various. . £300 (estimated) Finhaven. Rosehaugh. Loudoun. Arbigland. Inveraray and Rose- haugh. Drumlanrig. Inveraray and Rose- haugh. Rosehaugh. Armadale, Skye. Rosehaugh. Panmure. Dawyck; one time called New Posso. Inveraray. Glengairn. Taymouth. Inveraray and Rose- haugh. Tyninghame. Dawyck; one time called New Posso. 28 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Tree. Date. Locality. Mulberry, : : : 1740 Ormistoun (see also page 18, ane). Nut, Hungarian, : 1744 Carmichael. Oak, Evergreen, . Before 1683 Rosehaugh. 5,5 Spanish, Quercus Fgilops, 1734 Newhailes. Pear, Wild, : ; . Roman period —— Pine, Long-leaved, . : 1763 -- Pine, Weymouth, : ; 1725 Dunkeld. Plane, Oriental, : : I71I0 Holyroodhouse. Poplar, Balsam, . ; 1770 Leith. pi meolack, ;. : : 1682 Inveraray. Grey, . : : — Mauldslie.! ,, Lombardy, . : 1760 Dawyck; one time called New Posso. White (Abele), . Before 1683 Inveraray and Rose- haugh. Service (also Wild Service, see page 20, ante), “Silk trees” (see page 18, avfe), ,, 1629 Galashiels. > s Rosehaugh. Spruce, White Newfound- 1759 Dawyck; one time land, Pinus canadensts, called New Posso. “9 see Fir, . : —- — Strawberry Tree, . Before 1683 Rosehaugh. Sycamore (Scotice, Plane), 15th century SS Tulip Tree, Lzrzodendron 1710 Kilgraston. tultpifera, Gardener's Chronicle, 1890, p. 288. 7 es Laas Lochnell. ‘Two huge Poplar trees at Mauldslie, Lanarkshire, have recently been determined by Dr A. Henry, Cambridge, and Mr John Renwick, Glasgow, to be Populus canescens, the Grey Poplar. The date of planting is unknown and may not go back to the year 1770, but an entry here seems justified, if only in relation to the other kinds of Poplars named in above. The Mauldslie trees measure respectively— No. I. No. TE Girth at 2 ft. 9 ins. = 16 ft. 54 ins. Girth at 2 ft. =21 ft. 3 ins. Height, 119 ft. Height, 100 ft. Dr Henry says that these are the largest Grey Poplars known in the United Kingdom, and that none bigger is recorded on the Continent. For further particulars and an illustration, see Mr John Renwick on “‘ Large Grey Poplars (Populus canescens, Lin.) at Mauldslie Castle” (7he Glasgow Naturalist, Sept. 1911, vol. iii., pp. 119, 120).—H. B. W., 25th Nov. rgit. EARLY TREE-PLANTING IN SCOTLAND. 29 Tree. Date. Locality. Walnut, . : ‘ . Middle Ages — Whitebeam. : : . Roman period Melrose. Willow, Amerina, Salix 1746 Mellerstain. amerina, », Linebark, S. phloragna, 1739 Newhailes. » White, : 1678 Prestonfield. Notre.—List No. II. includes the trees named in Walker’s book (27), re-arranged in alphabetical order. The fuller information now available has, in some entries, led to his dates being superseded by earlier ones. His names, both English and scientific (when he gave such), are retained, and no other scientific names have been inserted in the list. The other trees are from the authorities named below. Many of the dates should be qualified by the word ‘‘about,’’ and this must be taken as understood. For authority for the Rosehaugh items, see page 20, azz/e. POSTSCRIPT. Further material is in hand for publication, and any informa- tion or particulars will be gladly received by the writer at 3 Willow Mansions, West Hampstead, London, N.W. AUTHORITIES. 1. ACTS OF THE PARLIAMENTS OF SCOTLAND (1124-1707). 12 Vols., London, 1844, &c. z. BEAL, J. See page 19, ante. 3. Brown, P. Hume (Editor), LZarly Travellers in Scotland. Edin., 1891. 4. CLERK, Sir JoHN. Alemoirs of the Life of Sir John Clerk of Fentcutk, 1676-1755. Edited by John M. Gray. Scottish History Society. Edin., 1892. 5. CocKBURN, JOHN. Letters of John Cockburn of Ormistoun, to his Gardener, 1727-1744. Edited by James Colville. Scottish History Society. Edin., 1904. 6. CoNWENTZ, H. Zhe Care of Natural Monuments, with special reference to Great britain and Germany. Cam- bridge, 1909. ~sI TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. . GourLay, W. BALFour. TZyvees on Dawyck Estate. Trans. Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Vol. XXITT, pp. 338-41, 1908. 8. Happincron, THomas, Earl of. See page 20, ante. g. Hamitron, G. F. £ssay on Woods and Plantations. Io, If. 22. 23. Trans. of Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Vol. V., pp. 187-494. 1820. Hunter, Tuomas. Woods, Forests, and Estates of Perthshire. Perth, 1883. HutTcHISON, RoBERT. Old and Remarkable Trees in Scotland. A series of papers in Trans. Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. 1873-92 passim. . InNES, Cosmo. Scotland in the Middle Ages. Edin., 1860. InNEs, Cosmo. Some Account of arly Planting in Scotland. Trans. Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Vol. XXIV. New series. Vol. X., pp. 40-53, 1863. . Lestiz, BisHop. De Origine, Moribus et Rebus Gestis Scotorum. Rome, 1578. (James Dalrymple’s Translaticn.) Loupon, J. C. Arboretum et Fruticelum Britannicum. (8 vols.). Vol. I. London, 1838. LowTHER, C., &c. Our Journall into Scotland, A.D. 1629, 5th November, from Lowther. Edin., 1894. . MACFARLANE, WALTER. Geographical Collections relating to Scotland, made by Walter Macfarlane. Edited by Sir Arthur Mitchell and J. T. Clark. 3 vols. Scottish History Society. Edin., 1906-7-8. MAcINTOSH, WILLIAM. See page 21, avte. Micuik, J. G. (Editor) Zhe Records of ILnvercauld. Aberdeen, 1gor. : . Monro, Donatp. A Description of the Westerne Isles of Scotland, by Mr Donald Monro, quho travelled through maney of them in anno 1549. Edin., 1774. . NatrNE, D. ffistorical Notes on Scottish Forestry, with some account of the woods of Inverness-shire, Ancient and Modern. ‘Trans. Gaelic Society of Inverness. Vol. XVII., 1890-1. Pont, Timoruy. Cuninghame Topographized, 1604-8, with continuations and illustrative notices by the late James Dobbie. Glasgow, 1876. REGISTER OF THE Privy CouNcIL oF ScoTLAND. Vol. IIL, 1578-1585. Edin, 1880. REPORT ON TREE-PRUNING. 31 24. REID, CLEMENT. Zhe Origin of the British Flora. London, 1899. 25. REID, JOHN. See p. 20, ante. 26. RoyaL ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY’S TRANSACTIONS. Vol. XXIII, pp. 31-4, 1910. Vegetable Remains from the Roman Military Station at Newstead. 27. WALKER, JOHN. Lconomical History of the Hebrides and fighlands of Scotland (2 vols.). Vol. II, 1812. 28. WALKER, JOHN. Zssays on Naturat History and Rural Economy. London and Edinburgh, 1812. 29. Watr, HucuH Boyp. Scottish Forests and Woodlands in Early Historic Times. Annals of Andersonian Naturalists’ Society. Vol. Ii., pp. 89-107. Glasgow, 1900. 4. Report on Tree-Pruning in St James’s Park and Piccadilly, London.! By Professor I. BAYLEY BALFouR, F.R.S., Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. (With a Plate.) Royal BOTANIC GARDEN, EDINBURGH, 28¢h Afgrz/ 1911. I have examined the young trees in the Mall. I wish to say at once that I find nothing to warrant adverse criticism of the pruning of them, or of the result that has been obtained by it. On the contrary, I have been impressed by the evidence of the application of sound practical knowledge, combined with scientific principle, in the pruning of the trees in relation to their environmental conditions. That four un- broken lines of shapely, symmetric, healthy trees of the size they have now attained have been established in the Mall, is a tribute to the skill with which they have been handled. I cannot subscribe to the criticism that the trees have been over-pruned. I see no immediate evidence of over-pruning in the present condition of the trees nor suggestion of it in their promise for the future. Every tree I examined was in robust health, bearing a profusion of young twigs covered with plump, bursting buds, and the leafage which will shortly clothe the trees will, I do not doubt, tell its tale in confirmation of the vigour of the trees. 1 Reproduced by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. 32 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. The plane tree in youth naturally develops an exuberance of primary lateral branches on its stem, and there is a contest for leadership amongst them at the top. No one of these branches continues its growth by a terminal bud—a feature of other trees also—lime, elm, for instance. Arrest and self- pruning of the tip takes place, and the elongation of the shoots proceeds from lateral buds nearer to, or farther from, the primary tip. The continuation bud may be the one immediately behind. the point of abscission of the shoot tip, but often the shoot dies back to some distance behind the normal abscission line of self- pruning, and thus the elongation of a shoot in any one season is no measure of the permanent addition in length that is to be made to the axis, whether terminal or lateral, of which it is a part, for only the base of the annual growth may survive. If the tree grows freely without natural or artificial curtailment and discipline a relatively heavy brushhead is formed of intricate zig-zag branches of which the terminations may—many of them —be dead. In consequence :— 1. The surface exposed to air currents is large, and by so much increases the risk of overturn and of damage by rending in open situations. 2. Many of the primary branches do not survive in whole or in part the struggle for air and light with their fellows, and become, therefore, an encumbrance through their interference with the development and leafage of the branches that are ultimately successful, and they may be even a danger to the tree as starting-points for disease. 3. The upward growth of the whole tree is retarded through the demand made by the surplusage of lower branches, and there is apt to be forking and division of the main trunk. In rich soil these features are naturally exaggerated, and along with this goes this further character, that the wood which is formed is less resistant to lateral strain, and is, therefore, more liable to damage by breaking. The art of pruning takes into account all these characters in each individual tree in relation to the conditions both below ground and above ground in which it grows, and I say without qualification that the trees in the Mall are a picture of the correct art of pruning in relation to environment. REPORT ON TREE-PRUNING. 33 The chief factors in the situation in the Mall which demand consideration in connection with the pruning are these :— (a) The trees are growing in rich soil. When planted they were well cared for. I saw the planting of several of them, and know, therefore, that the soil conditions are such as to promote vigorous growth with all its advantages and disadvantages. (6) Planted as isolated specimens in line to form an avenue the trees are individually exposed in this wide thoroughfare to the full force of gusty, dust-laden winds that sweep down it. In my opinion, the discipline to which the trees have been subjected in the circumstances of their growth has been admirably adjusted to this environment :— 1. The excess of lateral branches has been properly diminished, and the head of the tree has, therefore, been adequately lightened in relation to wind currents, so that risk of upset of the whole tree, and of breaking of branches, has been lessened. 2. There is practically no dead wood on the trees to interfere with the development of healthy branches, or to serve as a seat of infection of disease. 3. The branches which remain have been selected with judgment so as to form a right framework for the future extension of the crown of the tree, and their lateral extension has been checked judiciously so that they have been stimulated to produce quantities of well-placed, leafy shoots which, by their distribu- tion, more than make up for the struggling, feeble shoots lost by the removal of the surplus primary lateral branches and the trimming of weak branchlets. No feature of the pruning struck me so forcibly as this one. The checking of these laterals has been most skilfully performed through careful continuous tending of the trees; there has been no vicarious heroic lopping of the kind which frequently passes for pruning. ‘There is no mark of mutilation on the branches; the development of feathery twigs is wonderfully perfect, and an ample leaf surface for the work of the tree in water lifting, breathing, and assimilation has been maintained. VOL. XXVI. PART 1, C 34 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. I say this with deliberation because the old theory, con- tradicted by the operations of coppicing and pollarding, that there is an absolute co-relation between the root-system and the branch-system of a tree in consequence of which the removal of a branch implies the death of the co-related root, appears to have adherents still. The science of the matter is really this:—The roots depend for the elaborated food-material they require for growth upon the area of green assimilating surface exposed by the epigeous portions of the tree to the air; these, in their turn, depend for water and mineral salts upon the area of absorbing hairs upon the root tips. There is no necessary relation between any definite areas in the two regions above and below ground ; the colonial organisation of the plant secures the service of every active cell for the interest of all others. Shoot pruning does not kill roots. The disastrous results that follow over-pruning, and, no less, bad pruning of trees, arise not from death of roots, but from the deficiency of dranches @appel—in our less flexible language ‘‘water-lifters””—which are the agents for the efficient distribution of the supply of the water and salts from the intake in the root. Given adequacy in respect of these, all else in the nutritive processes will follow ; for the tree, extravagant though it may appear in its output of branches, which are crowded out and cumber it, is essentially thrifty in accumulating, during opportunity, vast stores of reserve food-material upon which indent is made for repair and the evolution of new shoots, provided the water supply be sufficient. It is the abundance, the healthiness, and the accurate placing of these branches d@appel upon the trees in the Mall that are so significant for the present and future life of the trees. 4. The pruning of the laterals has encouraged the steady upward growth of the main stem without forking or divarication of the top. The exuberance of apical growth has, however, been wisely kept in check, and a balance between the apical growth and develop- ment of laterals has been thus maintained. I say this with emphasis because this checking of the ‘‘leader” has been, I see, specially condemned, and I must endeavour to explain now the reasons which justify the method that has been pursued. I have stated on a previous page that no shoot in the plane tree continues growth by a terminal bud. Its elongation is REPORT ON TREE-PRUNING. 35 limited. A leading shoot, therefore, in the plane tree is not a terminal one in the sense in which it is so in a fir, for instance, but is always an extension of a lateral bud—and that not close to the top—of a parent shoot, the upper part of which dies back to, or near to, the point of origin of the lateral bud. In con- sequence of this method of development, there may be several shoots on different branches competing for the position of leader, and the one that is successful in any year is not necessarily the parent of that one which is the dominant leader in the succeeding year. And, indeed, in nature there is often no distinct leader. There follows from this that when a single main stem is formed, it does not come from the continued growth of a single axis elongating at its summit year after year, but is the product of the combination, in more or less vertical line, of the bases of branches arising in succession one from the other. What appears to bea simple axis tapering from base to summit is really constructed out of annually formed segments, each the base of a lateral branch, of which the upper part has commonly died in part or in whole. The forking of the stem results from the development of two such systems of segments. The significance of this is evident. The tree in nature is always checking its leader. It is adding to the length of its main stem, not by uniform summit growth of one shoot, but in a zigzag manner through the bases of successive shoots, the top parts of which are arrested and die. The length of segment added yearly varies with the position on the shoot of the bud which develops into the temporary leader. That is nature’s process. The procedure in the Mall follows it, but on systematic lines :— (2) Selection, not the chance outcome of a struggle betwixt competing shoots, determines the position of the shoot that is to be leader. (2) Selection determines also, in relation to the general growth in each successive year, the length of the base of the leader that is to be added as a segment to the summit increase of the main stem. (c) And then for the method of slow decay by which nature “rids the tree of the upper part of the quondam leader, is substituted the prompt definite operation of the pruning-knife. 36 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, It is obvious that there is opportunity in this for the exercise of skill and judgment. No rule can be formulated as a general instruction. Each tree must be studied for the ascertainment of its requirements, which will be governed by its intrinsic vigour, and by its relationship to surroundings. And here I wish to give prominence to one point in its bearing upon the trees in the Mall. Removal of competing leader shoots leaves the selected leader in a position of exposure to wind currents, comparable with that of the individual tree itself in isolated planting. It loses the protection of its fellows, and is in consequence subject to greater risk of breakage, or even of being blown out entirely, than it is where there is no interference with natural branching. In the case of trees like those in the Mall—of vigorous growth in rich soil, forming long leaders with less tenacious wood—the liability to injury in this way is very great, and some of them have suffered. ‘The damage can be repaired by the formation of a new leader, but the accident means retardation ot upward growth. The importance of this as a factor in the problem of pruning the trees in the Mall cannot be over-estimated, and it has been well considered, and practice correctly moulded in relation to it, by those who have had the direction of the pruning. If I have made my explanation clear, the Board will realise that the practice pursued in the parks is thoroughly sound, and based on scientific principles. The natural development of the growth-form of the tree has been disciplined to give the form that is required in the particular situation, and in an admirable manner. So well, indeed, that I should like, were it possible, to have a photograph of the trees without foliage and with foliage transmitted to every local body to which the care of trees in thoroughfares is entrusted, as an example of what should be aimed at. I examined also the young trees in the park surrounding the Mall, and found there the same excellence in the pruning. I may, in concluding, point out that in contrast with, and emphasising the excellence of, the method pursued in the Mall and the parks, the young plane trees in Piccadilly, opposite Hamilton Place, show mutilation by unscientific pruning—trees with besom tops and twisted truncated limbs bearing a few bristle shoots and an inadequate number of branches d@apfel. To anyone who wishes to see side by side illustration of correct and of incorrect treatment of young plane trees in thoroughfares, TREE IN THE MALL Pirate II without foliage). An Examrie of Corrrer PRUNING. REPORT ON TREE-PRUNING. Si) I commend a study of adjacent specimens within the park and in Piccadilly. Unfortunately the Piccadilly type is that which is too commonly found in thoroughfares, and is the cause of the frequent condemnation of the use of the pruning-knife on street trees. A photograph of a park tree and a Piccadilly tree side by side would be an interesting object lesson to circulate along with the photograph which I suggested above. The perfection of pruning seen in the park is rare, and it is matter for con- gratulation that there is being prepared in this way within the park a heritage of fine trees for the admiration and gratification of generations to come. After what I have said above, the Board will not be surprised that I make no suggestion of alteration in procedure in the treatment of the trees. The staff which has brought the trees so successfully through their first juvenile stages may be safely trusted to apply sound scientific principles in the treatment of the trees through their later years of adolescence, and to modify, practise, and adjust it to the immediate and prospective require- ments of the trees. The trees are in the making, and the Board may with confidence ask those who are disposed to criticise adversely the method of procedure pursued to recognise this, and to await with patience the gradual evolution of the avenue of stately trees for which the foundation has been securely laid. 5. On the best method of Planting at High Altitudes and in Exposed Situations, and the best Species of Trees to plant there with the object of procuring (a) Shelter for Stock, and (6) A profitable Timber Crop. (With a Plate.) By A. W. B. Epwarps, Forester, Thirlmere Estate. The Thirlmere estate, belonging to the Manchester Corpora- tion, is one of the sources of the water supply of Manchester, and is situated in the heart of the Lake District ; it comprises some 11,000 acres of a catchment area. ‘The surface of the lake when full is nearly 600 feet above sea-level, and the altitude of Helvellyn, the highest point of the hills surrounding it, is 3118 feet. The ground mostly rises very abruptly from 38 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the lake, and is consequently very rough and broken. Plant- ing at the rate of roo acres per annum is being carried on over the ground lying between the lake and the 1500 feet contour. I will now describe the method of planting adopted as that which has been found to be most suitable under our existing circumstances. Most of the planting area is covered with a thick growth of brackens, which, in order to check their growth, are repeatedly mown down while they are green and before they have made their full season’s growth, during the two summer seasons previous to planting. This treatment of them is generally found to be effective. During the first year after planting, if the brackens still persist in growing, they can easily be knocked down with a stick before their leaves begin to uncurl. By using a stick instead of a sickle the danger of cutting any of the young trees is obviated, and the work is much more quickly and more economically done. Where necessary, the land to be planted is also enclosed with a substantial wire fence during the summer previous to planting. Fencing in of high and exposed situations is best done during the summer months, as better weather conditions may then be expected, and the men employed can put in a full working day. If this work be left over till winter it may cost quite double the amount that it would have cost if done in the summer. It is good policy to make the enclosed area as large as possible, as the cost of fencing, per acre of ground enclosed, is thus reduced to a minimum. But on Thirlmere, owing to consideration of the grazing requirements of the tenant farmers, it has not so far been found advisable to plant more than about roo acres in one block. Planting is carried on by a combination of pitting and notching—by notching into prepared pits; this is done with what are locally termed ‘‘planting mattocks,” which are a combination of pick and mattock, one end being diamond pointed and the opposite end flattened out to about 2 inches in width. ‘The turf is first pared off with the flattened end ot the mattock, the pointed end being then used for loosening up the soil; and, should the ground be full of bracken roots, the flattened end is again brought into use to break them up. The turf and any stones turned out of the pits are left on the lower edge of the pit, to form a trap for snow and water. After PLATE III. THREE DIFFERENT POSITIONS IN MATTOCK PLANTING. From left to right :—(1) Paring off the turf; (2) Inserting the plant ; (3) Firming the plant. HORSE WITH PANNIERS CONVEYING PLANTS UP THE HILLSIDE. [To face page 38. ~~ ~ THE BEST METHOD OF PLANTING AT HIGH ALTITUDES. 39 a portion of the ground has been pitted at distances of 3 feet apart, a few of the hands are started with spades to notch plants into the prepared pits. I find it answers very well to have both pitting and planting proceeding at the same time, because, in the event of a spell of frost, or of frost during the night and early morning with a thaw later in the day, pitting can be carried on when planting has to be given up, as where there is a thick turf or other herbage on the ground, the frost takes longer to penetrate into the soil. Some people may consider the above method of notching into prepared pits very costly ; but I can assure them that on steep ground such as that which is being planted here, it will be found cheaper in the end than simply notching the plants into the turf. I have experimented with both systems on the same ground, and the difference in the rate of growth has been so marked that I am convinced that, for this reason alone, the method of planting into prepared pits well repays the extra initial expense incurred by it. But this is not its only advantage, as I have found that the combined cost of planting and of filling up death vacancies in “simple notch” planting exceeded the cost of “pit and notch” planting, under which method, provided that the work is properly done and only healthy plants are used, there should be no deaths, or the percentage of them should be so trifling as not to necessitate the filling up of the vacancies. Planting in prepared pits has many other advantages over notching into the turf; the paring off of the turf permits every shower of rain to penetrate into the soil, and also forms a trap for any rain that may run down the surface of the hillside, which, if covered with a thick turf, does not readily absorb the rain, but simply allows it to run off like water from a duck’s back, and it is not until after several days’ continuous rain that the turf becomes completely saturated. Again, in the case of a drought, the evaporation is greater from the turf than from the prepared pits; and further, there is less danger in the latter of the plants becoming smothered by rank herbage, and greater facilities for cleaning operations are afforded, as the pits are readily distinguishable for at least two seasons after planting. In many parts of our planting areas the ground is very craggy and stony, planting with the spade being entirely out of the question ; and here again the planting mattock, which we always 40 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. employ on such ground, scores, 2-year seedlings or 1-year 1-year transplants being used, 1-year 1-year larches, and 2-year 1-year pines and spruces are used for spade planting into the prepared pits. The old axiom, ‘“ Plant before Martinmas and ensure success, plant after Candlemas and entreate it,” is good. Personally, I prefer autumn planting for high altitudes, because there the weather conditions are generally more favourable in autumn than in spring, and the good weather allows of a better and longer day’s work being done; also, if the plants are put out during the autumn they get established, and the soil gets washed into the crevices, and becomes more solidified and less liable to crack and open up during dry weather in summer. If planting is left over until the spring, there is a probability of more unsettled weather, and the risk of a drought in early summer, which, coming on plants recently put out, may open up the notch and lay some of the roots bare to the drying effects of the atmosphere, and thus often cause. death. Again, plants taken from a nursery, where they have been more or less sheltered, are apt to come early into leaf and thus run more risk from the spring frosts. Of course, there are exceptions to this rule, and it would not be advisable to plant wet ground or peat in the autumn. Such ground can be planted in spring with better results. I have planted spruce on peat land in May with perfect success. I find that small plants have several advantages over large ones. 2-year seedling plants can be purchased at from ros. to 12s. per thousand, while 2-year 2-year plants, which I know are largely used throughout the length and breadth of the land, cost from 15s. to 30s. per thousand. A man can plant mcre seedlings in a day than he can 2-year 2-year plants; and the work is better done with the small plants, as on rough and stony ground it is often difficult to get sufficiently large holes made in which to insert the larger ones, and they, therefore, cannot be so firmly planted. Again, on high and exposed situations, the violence of the winter storms is often so severe as to practically blow the plants out by the roots. I have often seen large Scots fir plants blown down by the wind; the reason being that the Scots fir, which retains its leaves, or needles, for several years before shedding them, is heavy headed in pro- portion to its roots, which are more or less broken every time THE BEST METHOD OF PLANTING AT HIGH ALTITUDES. 4I the plant is transplanted. The wind which gets a good hold of the foliage causes the plant to rock about, and gradually forms a small circular hole, termed a “collar,” round the stem ; the rain then gets into this hole, and by the loosening of the surrounding soil it is soon enlarged, till finally the tree falls over on to the side farthest away from the prevailing wind. Again, the use of large plants is often a cause of making the trees club-rooted owing to improper planting. Especially is this the case in notch planting. On the other hand, the small 2-year seedling plants do not stand above the surrounding herbage, and therefore do not suffer so much from the wind. ‘The roots soon grow and spread in the prepared pits, and by the time the young plants get to be 12 or 15 inches in height, they are firmly anchored and able to withstand the force of the storm. The small plants also suffer less by removal from the nursery to the plantation, and recover more quickly from the change. I have noticed a height- growth of 6 inches during the first season after planting out in 2-year-old Scots fir plants, while 2-year 2-year plants more often make less than 3 inches. For the above reasons, small plants are more successful than larger ones, while the planting work is more cheaply done with them, and thus the financial prospects of the crop are more favourable than if larger plants had been used. In planting high altitudes and steep hillsides, it is advisable to commence operations at the top of the intended plantation and work towards the bottom, as by doing so the danger to the young plants of dislodged stones rolling down the hillside is avoided, and the workmen do not require to pass and repass amongst the newly planted trees; these bring frequent sources of injury to young larch plants. Again, by commencing operations at the top, advantage is taken of the favourable weather conditions which are often found to prevail toward the end of autumn; and when the days become shorter less time will be lost if the men have not to climb to the top. A matter of considerable importance is the getting of plants on to the planting area. At Thirlmere, there is a good roadway running all round the lake, but there are no roads passable to carts leading on to the fells. The plants are carted from the nurseries to the most convenient point for getting them taken up the fell, but from the place where the cart leaves them 42 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. they have to be carried to the planting area. To lighten this labour I had a set of horse-panniers made, similar to those used on the moors by shooting parties; only, instead of small semi-circular ones, I had large oblong baskets made, and with a horse and panniers we now convey the plants to where they are required, or to the nearest convenient point should the ground be too rough and broken for the horse to work. I have found the panniers to be a valuable acquisition. One thousand 1-year 2-year larch plants, averaging 20 inches in height, can be taken in the panniers at one load, whereas a man can carry only about 200 plants at one time, and, of course, the smaller the plants the more can be taken. It will therefore be seen at a glance that the horse and panniers are an economical investment. The following are details of the cost of planting by the method of pitting and notching, and I may here state that all able- bodied men over twenty-one years of age are paid at the rate of 25s. per week. The figures include the cost of supervision :— Area INO: 1. 97 Acres. Number of plants, 272,350—cost . . A216 rates Labour : : 217 “T2 ees Total . ; ~ g434ec0dno This works out at about £4, 16s. 64d. per acre. The plants used were mostly 1-year 2-year and 2-year 2-year. Area No. 2. 108 Acres. Number of plants, 278,250—cost . > 4255) fae Labour : : 272° Dies Total’; ; : » £527.25 ae Fencing. . - £80*'o"%e This works out at about £4, 17s. 8d. per acre, and if the cost of fencing be added the average cost reaches £5, 12S. 53d. per acre. In planting on a large scale, it is necessary to select a species of tree that is expected to return a profit; also, in planting on high and exposed situations, it is often necessary to plant THE BEST METHOD OF PLANTING AT HIGH ALTITUDES. 43 trees that will afford shelter to stock. In selecting a tree to meet both the above requirements, we naturally look, in the first instance, for some thin-foliaged species which will admit sufficient light to the ground to allow the herbage to grow, and will, at the same time, permit a sufficient number of trees to remain on the ground to furnish a profitable timber crop. For the above purposes the larch is admirably suited, and it is moreover the most valuable conifer grown in this country, as there is always a good demand for its wood in all sizes, from small thinnings large enough to make self-railing, poles for round fencing-posts, and pit props, to mature timber of large dimensions. Although the larch will grow almost as freely at high altitudes as any other species commonly grown in this country, it does not succeed so well in very exposed situations, and should never be planted on wet ground nor in localities subject to late spring frosts. In planting exposed ground, if larch be selected as the principal element of the timber crop to be grown, it should be sheltered by or mixed with some other species, and for this purpose we turn to the pines. The method adopted by the writer is to plant a belt of pines (generally a mixture of Scots, Corsican and Austrian pines) six or eight rows wide all round the plantation, and also on any outstanding ridges and crags; and at the higher levels of the plantation to mix the larch alternately with pines, working gradually into pure larch as he comes down to the 1ooo feet contour. Although Scots fir and other pines are light demanders, and permit of grass growing under them to a certain extent, still the grazing for stock is not so good under them as that under larch, which has a lighter crown. But the pines not being deciduous but retaining their needles for more than one year, afford a considerable amount of shelter, which is especially beneficial to the larch in the spring months when we are subject to sudden changes of temperature and to strong frosty winds. Any wet spot occurring within the area of a proposed larch plantation should be stocked with spruces, of which there are several varieties; indeed, a few good clumps of spruce are a great benefit to stock, especially in times of heavy snow-storms and rains, as the stock soon find out where the shelter is, and will gather there during bad weather. That a handsome profit can be made out of larch under the above conditions is shown by the accounts of a plantation in this 44 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. district (namely, Coombe Plantation, near Keswick). This was formed in 1848; it is now being felled, and a complete record and account of expenses and income having been kept, the result is very instructive. The plantation extends to 198 acres, and was planted by contract at a cost of £565, Ios., or 42, 17s. 2d. per acre. In r1gog, after allowing for 3 per cent. compound interest on rent and all expenses it shows a clear profit of £20,450, 19s. For full particulars of the above planta- tion, see the Journal of the Board of Agriculture, volume xvii., Nos. 4 and 5, from which the appended financial summary is extracted (see end). For the benefit of those who have not read the above article, I will quote one sentence: ‘‘ There has therefore been obtained from this land tr2s. 5d. per acre per year more than would have been obtained under sheep, or the rental from forestry is six times as great as from grazing.” We will now deal with the forming of a plantation at a high altitude for the sole object of obtaining a timber crop. Taking the larch again as the main element, it would be advisable to mix it with beech; and the method adopted here is to plant three larches to one beech in the row, then three rows of pure larch, the next row again having beech in the same proportion as before. This method allows for the removal of every alternate larch in the thinning ; and as small thinnings of larch are more valuable than those of small beech, while the young plants of the former cost only about half as much as those of the latter, it is an advantage to plant only a small percentage of beech. But as it is not everywhere that larch will succeed, it will be necessary to make plantations of various species. Pines will often do better than larches, especially if the situation is very much exposed to winds, but they can be treated in the same manner as larch. It may be that in some districts there would be a better demand for spruce or silver fir than for beech ; if this were so then one or other of those species could be substituted for it. To grow silver firs and spruces to perfection they should be grown pure, so as to ensure a density of canopy sufficient for branch suppression. In the case of Coombe Plantation, it was found that at the higher altitudes spruce made more timber than larch, and it is the belief of the writer that at the higher elevations spruce timber would be more profitable than larch. Admitting that the sale price of spruce timber is only from THE BEST METHOD OF PLANTING AT HIGH ALTITUDES. = 45 one-half to one-third of that of larch, still the volume of timber per acre under spruce should, at the lowest estimate, be equal to three times the volume of larch. Amongst the spruces, the best for high and exposed altitudes and for making rapid growth is the Menzies, or sé¢chensts. I have seen this tree in a mixed plantation, at an altitude of about 800 feet, outgrow the common spruce, the larch, and even the Douglas fir; and I have found it to thrive better than the common spruce on a soil that retained more moisture than would be suitable for the growth of larch. As a valuable article on the Sitka spruce, by Mr J. D. Crozier, has already appeared in the Zransactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Soctety (vol. xxiii., p. 7), it is only necessary for me to state here that I have always been much impressed by its suitability as a timber tree for high and exposed situations FINANCIAL SUMMARY. (From Journal of the Board of Agriculture.) Amount in 1909 at 3 per cent. compound interest. EXPENSES. RETURNS. | (a) Acquiring Freehold of Land. Reration (6) Renting throughout s. a. | AS all Timber and bark sales, 26,668 19 o Grazing, 1,456 13 0 Value of stand- . | ing crop, 10,000 O O Total, 38,125 12 0 Cost of land, Cost of planting, roads, drains and fencing, Cost of superintendence and expenses, Rates and taxes, Balance, Total, 1,013 13 O 10,087 2 oO 130 23,462 19 oO 38,125 12 0 Ss. Rent of land, 4,021 13 Planting, roads, drains, and Tencessa = a) #35431 23 Superintendence and expenses, 10,087 2 Rates and taxes, toy Balance, 20,454 19 Total, 38,125 12 ° Estimated return under sheep not greater than rent given above, tr, 4,021, 135. The shooting has been considered of no value. 46 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 6. Notes on Raising Exotic Conifers from Seed. By J. FERGUSON, Forester, Gregynog, Montgomeryshire. I have been employed for a number of years on estates in Wales, where there are good collections of exotic coniferous trees, many of which have reached timber size, and are periodically bearing crops of good seed ; and perhaps it may be of some interest to foresters and others to hear of the propagation, in a small way, of some of these species, and of the methods I have adopted for the collection, extraction and storing of the seed, and for the raising of young plants from it. I give here a list of the species referred to, with the approximate percentages of germination, and the time taken to germinate after sowing on the rst May :— Germinated | Approximate SPECIES. When Collected. after Percentage of Sowing in. | Germination. Chamecyparts Nutkaensts Ist week of Oct. 13 months 75 sis Lawsoniana x 24 days So Cupressus Macrocarpa a5 205: os 20 | Cryptomeria Japonica 3rd week of Sept. | 2 tos, fe) | Wellingtonia gigantea Ist week of Oct. LS +33 | 30 | Aduricaria imbricata 3rd week of Sept. | 60 ,, 75 | Abtes nobilis Ist week of Oct. Goins 70 ». grandis ¥9 40 ,, 85 5, Nordmanniana %5 ail Te 4o ,, LPinsapo 3rd week of Sept. | 30 ,, 60 Pinus excelsa Ist week of Oct. 1S 5, 50 Thuja gigantea End of Oct. 80) bs 50 Cedrus Libana =f 2A %.; 25 The cones were collected during dry weather, from trees ranging in height from 50 to 100 feet, and were mostly got by climbing, except those of 4. zmbricata and C. NMutkaensts, which were switched off and gathered from the ground. It is safer to collect cones a few days before they are fully ripe than to leave them until they have become over ripe; and especially so in the case of some of the species, such as A. nobilis and A. grandis, as a high wind may shed them all in a single night. I find a pair of field-glasses helpful to show the state of the cones on high trees. The cones were placed in trays put into a frame on shelves close to the glass, when a few warm sunny days opened them. ‘The NOTES ON RAISING EXOTIC CONIFERS FROM SEED. 47 seeds were then shaken out and cleaned, after which the seeds were replaced in the frames and thoroughly dried before being stored away. Cedrus Libana was the only species that would not give up its seeds ; and I find that the easiest way to get the seeds of this species is to gather them in May from under the parent tree, as they are then being shed naturally from the cones. The extracted seeds were then made up into packets, and stored in a dry, cool place until they were wanted for sowing. They were sown in the beginning of May in boxes of sandy loam with a layer of cinders in the bottom, and were placed in cold frames on shelves, the surface of the soil in the boxes being about g inches below the glass. The frames were kept closed, except on hot sunny days, when a little ventilation was given and they were watered. After germination, the seedlings were gradually hardened off, and by the end of July I removed the tops from the frames. The seedlings were left in the frames all winter, being protected by mats during severe frost. In the late spring they were pricked out into lines in the nursery. I may add that there were practically no losses, except a few of the Wellingtontas which damped off in the autumn. In most cases one box of each kind was sown. The box of Cupressus macrocarpa made a wonderful growth in the first season, the plants ranging from g inches to 1 foot in height, and when two years old they were over 2 feet in height. The box of C. MWutkaensts which was sown in the first week of October did not germinate until twelve months afterwards. Its slow germination must be kept in mind when propagating this species, as one is apt to think that the seed is bad when it does not germinate along with the other cypresses. Waiting for a young crop from this tree is a rather tedious business, as, in addition to the slow germination of the seeds, the cones do not come to maturity until the second year of their growth. ‘To prevent the box of seeds of this species from being neglected during the first season after sowing, I filled it up with seedlings taken from a box of western larch which were beginning to damp off through being too thickly sown ; and in the following spring this box had the appearance of a miniature well-stocked larch wood, with a close growing undercrop of C. Wutkaensis, these seeds having germinated well. Some foresters prefer to keep seeds that lie dormant until the second year in sand pits for eighteen months, and then to sow them 48 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. in March, April or May, according to the species. But although this is usually the mode of procedure with the larger seeds, such as hawthorn, holly, ash and others, I prefer to sow C. Nutkaensis in the spring after its collection, as I find that the seeds then give a larger percentage of plants than they do if stored and then sown inthe second spring. C. Wutkaensts is also easily raised from slips or cuttings, which root readily if placed in a well-drained sandy loam in early spring or in autumn. The amount of seed that can be collected from some of these trees in a good seed year is surprising. From a C. Wutkaensts, 51 feet high, I gathered 14 lb. of good clean seed; from an A. nobilts, go feet in height, I took 73 Ibs. of cleaned seed ; and from an Auricaria imbricata, 30 feet in height, I had 8 lbs. of well-filled seeds. Many of the trees here mentioned I have raised in the open, especially those produced from the larger seeds, but, of course, to be sure of success with the lighter seeds, it is advisable to raise them in frames, and to prick them out into the nursery when they are one year old. 7. Continental Notes—France. By A. G. HoBart-HAMPDEN. I. The following are a few notes based on matters discussed in recent French forest magazines. The French, more than any other nation, look to natural regeneration rather than artificial means for the replacement of forest crops, and we accordingly find this subject much more discussed by them than planting and sowing. After all przma facte why should we not let nature do what she can, without any expense, towards the formation of the future crop? This leads to argument on the various classic methods of treatment, or their modifications. Selection, for example, is much argued about. M. Berthon calls in question the official manner of marking under this mode of treatment, namely, the removal of ripe or perishing trees here and there as they are met with. He says that in a spruce wood this does not produce large enough gaps to allow of a natural growth of seedlings, and that if such a growth does result the development into the restricted CONTINENTAL NOTES—FRANCE. 49 gap of the side branches of the neighbouring trees will kill off most of the regeneration. A Selection-worked forest is a con- fused mixture of trees of all sizes, which means a great deal of breakage among the trees that are to remain when fellings take place. It generally also means that the tallest trees are removed, leaving the more or less dominated stems which, through partial suppression, have lost vigour. He argues, therefore, for making the felling gaps large on a north aspect, moderate on east and west aspects, but small on south aspects, which receive more light. M. Berthon is speaking of Alpine spruce forests, but if we do not often meet similar conditions in this country the argument still applies to other species, as for example to beech. It is usual in some neighbourhoods to mark beech for sale very much as is done in the case above quoted, and that without any reference to seed years. The result is not, indeed, a complete lack of regrowth, but one which is too thin, so that the stems branch too low and the amount of wood put on per acre is much too small. Large gaps made for regeneration in beech woods have, however, in certain conditions, one great drawback. If the soil is clay, and if the wood before felling has been insufficiently dense to kill out comp/etely the bramble, which is ordinarily found on clay, this latter develops with extreme intensity so soon as light is let in by a heavy felling. But all beech woods do not hold brambles, and I am persuaded that where the bramble is naturally absent, or can be kept in check, felling by large gaps is the true method, and will result in close-grown, tall and straight timber in fairly large groups of one age. I think the matter is well worth consideration, for my experience is that, as a rule, no careful thought for the future is taken when marking in beech woods. We might have double the amount of material per acre if we grew our beech woods closely from the start, and kept our thinnings within much more discreet limits than is usual with us. What is possible may be seen, for example, by anyone travelling from Brussels towards Luxemburg, as the train runs through the Forét de Soigne, near the former place. It is a lesson we badly need to learn. In connection with Selection as a method of treatment, we may note that there are those who say that the actual outturn is larger than under other methods of treatment. The VOL. XXVI. PART I. D 50 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. growth of the wood, however, is of course very irregular; also there is a vast amount of suppression. M. Schaeffer has made several thousand measurements with Presler’s borer in Savoy, and shows very clearly that in each of the three zones of altitude adcpted by him the younger trees invariably pass from diameter class to diameter class in a much greater number of years than did the larger trees, thus showing the effect of suppression or partial want of light. The writer of these notes has recently been remeasuring the diameters (at definitely marked lines on the trunks) of a number of beech stems, at the pole stage, in a fairly close-grown plot which was similarly measured in June rg08. Although one does not expect (in this particular locality) rapid diameter-growth before a stem reaches 18 inches girth at chest-height, it was surprising to find that the smaller stems, even though they were suppressed, had actually shrunk (though only slightly) below their size of practically four years before—and it gave one ‘furiously to think” in this same connection of the Selection method. More and more is one driven in the direction of growing one’s crops of even age, and in consequence making one’s regeneration gaps large, limited, den entendu, in the case of species (such as oak or beech) with seed of too heavy a nature to go far. But there is a difficulty in introducing this form of the Group method into a wood that has been hitherto worked on the Selection method, with its confused welter of age-classes, and this is, that whatever you do you are forced to lay bare suddenly to the sunlight a large proportion of small stems that have hitherto grown in partial shade, resulting, in the case of beech at least, in the death of a very large proportion of these small stems; their bark, so it is supposed, is unable to stand the sudden accession of light. It was mentioned above that a French forester’s idea of re- generating an area was, first and foremost, the natural method. This is far less the case in Germany. ‘The Scotch pine (easy as is its natural regeneration) is throughout Germany artificially regenerated. This is also generally the case with the oak. So, too, with the spruce. In Bavaria, natural regeneration is the rule when the beech and silver fir are the dominant species, even when spruce is mixed in. ‘There now has arisen a professor at Tiibingen, Herr Wagner, who strenuously argues for the natural method. He states that the prescriptions of CONTINENTAL NOTES—FRANCE, 51 working-plans have been so hard and fast, and the desire for precision has been so strong, that artificial regeneration has become the rule. The fact that natural regeneration cannot be hurried has also led to this result. It is an important reason, we think, but since artificial regeneration is so expensive, why should not a combination of natural and artificial be resorted to? Herr Wagner points to the danger run by planta- tions grown from seeds which are bought in the market and have probably come from other countries, and may not be suited to the locality, and which also may have been collected from defective trees, whereas in a natural regrowth we have plants deriving from the stems which have shown their superiority on the spot, the best stems of the forest. Since the struggle in height-growth leads to the elimination of all but the best, these latter it is which survive to reproduce their kind. Herr Wagner admits the difficulty of natural regeneration, but considers that his particular methods meet the case com- pletely. So far as we can see these methods are merely strip felling, or ordinary Selection ; but it is worth noting that these strips should, according to Herr Wagner, always proceed from the north-west or the north to the south-east or the south (more especially for the shallow-rooted spruce), so as to avoid the danger of drying-up by sun and wind (it being supposed that, as with us, the prevailing wind is from the south-west). II. M. Pardé describes a most interesting tour made by him in the forests of Portugal. The principal species are evergreen oaks and the Maritime pine, and of late years eucalyptus and Australian acacias have been introduced with signal success. The country, of course, has a mild climate, good rainfall and very little snow, and the number of exotics that have been planted, and flourish exceedingly, is quite extraordinary. Some of these‘exotics even reproduce themselves by seed. At Bussaco and at Coimbra M. Pardé saw some truly wonderful things. Among very many other species he mentions Araucarias, Himalayan and Mexican pines, cedars, Douglas, Sequoia, Diospyros, Eugenia, Melia, Podocarpus, Ginko, cypresses, Thujas, Cryptomeria, Grevillia, etc., etc.—not to mention many varieties of eucalyptus and acacia—all thriving. This is all very well, but the most interesting parts of M. Pardé’s article refer to the Government forest of Leiria, and to a Mr Tait’s extensive plantations of eucalyptus and acacia. 52 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. From the description it is evident that the Portuguese administra- tion may well be proud of Leiria. The forest of Leiria is 27,000 acres in extent. It lies south of Lisbon, facing the ocean, from the shore of which it rises to nearly 400 feet. The soil is lacustrine deposit or sand dunes— siliceous. The main species is the Maritime pine, but there are some other species, such as eucalyptus (chiefly 4. globulus). Of this there are plots of considerable size. Thus M. Pardé traversed an area of eucalyptus measuring 17 acres. Here the trees, in perfect condition, were 25 years old, up to nearly 18 inches diameter at chest-height, and ito feet high. A valuation made here on a sample area with trees from 4 inches to 18 inches diameter, and 36 feet to 110 feet in height, produced over 6500 cubic feet to the acre, and an annual growth of 600 cubic feet. The forest is worked on a working-plan very carefully drawn up. ‘There are a number of working-sections, of which some by the coast are treated by the Selection method, the remainder on the method called by us “ Successive Regeneration Fellings,” a name which with pines (where, in fact, there is very little in the way of successive fellings) is not very suitable, although probably no better name can be applied to the method as employed with most species. No doubt the sections treated under Selection are so treated for protective reasons, but unless the actual procedure approaches the Group method it seems likely that success in regeneration cannot be great; ordinary Selection is most unsuited to pines. The exploitable age is sometimes 80 and sometimes go years, and in the sections under successive fellings the regeneration periods are 20 or 30 years. Everything is in correct style ; regeneration fellings, cleanings and light thinnings. There are some specially good points. ‘Thus no more than twelve reserve trees per acre are left at the seed-felling, and though M. Pardé thinks it is too few he admits that a complete and immediate regeneration results. These reserves are removed very soon. In India the writer knows cases of Pinus longifolia forests where only ten reserves are left per acre, and with the greatest success. Another good point is that the Maritime pines are not gemmés & vie (that is, tapped for resin and the wounds allowed to heal over again), but all the trees that are to come out at the regeneration felling are gemmés a mort (that is, tapped thoroughly from a short time before the CONTINENTAL NOTES—FRANCE. ; 53 felling). Moreover, unlike the pines of the Landes, the tapping places are broad and not high, so as to avoid damage to the timber. Anyone who has seen sections of pines tapped at early periods and allowed to heal over and grow on will understand how pernicious the system of gemmage a vie (with deep and long tapping places running many feet up the stem) must be from the point of view of the timber. Still, in the case of gemmaye & mort, there can be no harm in broad and long tapping places with a depth no more than that of the sap-wood. At Leiria, they do not remove the stumps of the felled pines (except in the thinnings) for fear of damaging the young growth ; but this is most dangerous, and the /y/odius will show the authorities this some day. There would be no expense, for the glass manu- facturers of the neighbourhood eagerly take stumps when they can get them. The //y/odius, so far, has spared them, as also have other enemies, but they have suffered badly from fire. In this matter of Fire Conservancy Leiria is perhaps the best managed place in the world. At lofty points are established look-out towers. In each tower is a telescope, revolving above a graded horizontal disc, and the moment fire is seen the watcher telephones the direction to the central station, which warns all the forest guards in their lodges scattered over the forest. Probably headquarters asks another look-out station for the direction of the fire as seen from there, so that the junction of the lines of direction from the two reporting look-out stations exactly locates the fire. ‘Thereupon mounted orderlies, always kept in readiness, ride off from the headquarters’ station with picks and shovels, which appear to be always used in European forest fires, though never in India. There are various other arrangements, such as sounding a horn, but these would appear to be acts of supererogation. One is reminded of the drums used in some parts of Bombay, where they are certainly most useful. One more thing they might do with advantage— perhaps they do, but it is not reported—namely, bind by law all persons working in the forest, or enjoying any privileges in it, to give assistance, as is done in India. At Leiria they have fire-lines, running east and west and north and south, but they are somewhat narrow—none over 30 feet. All the rest of the arrangements in this forest are on the same thorough scale—so good, indeed, that at first sight one would 54 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. suspect exaggeration, but this is unlikely in view of the fact that it is a foreigner who describes it. I have dwelt at some length on these fire conservancy matters, because it seems to me that in many places where fire protection is extremely necessary it is not thoroughly understood, and although the system of one place may not be applicable to others, yet useful hints can often be exchanged. I may be wronging those concerned, but it does seem strange that fires should get so entirely out of hand as they do on the other side of the Atlantic. The foresters of different countries might well study the fire conservancy methods of others, and more especially see them in action. American foresters do indeed go to see Indian forests, but it is in the cold weather, and not when fires are actually being fought. M. Pardé’s description of Mr Tait’s plantations of eucalyptus and acacia (particularly A. pycnantha) is very interesting, as showing what can be done with exotics. The plantations are happily named ‘“ New Tasmania” and ‘“ New Australia.” They cover 1440 acres. One is ona steep slope at from 250 feet to 500 feet above sea-level, the other on a plateau at 500 feet. The soil is siliceous and pebbly, fairly deep in the first case, but on the plateau the impermeable undersoil is sometimes too near the surface, resulting in marshy ground. Mr Tait has tried Lucalyptus globulus, rostrata, viminalts, resinifera, bicolor, tereticornis, Risdont, obligua, diversicolor, and polyanthema,; and Acacia pycnantha, mollisima, decurrens, dealbata and melanoxylon. So far he prefers £. globulus and A. pycnantha. ‘The planting began in 1880, and the proprietor estimates that each plant has cost him about fourpence, but that this price should have been halved. It has been thoroughly successful from the first, and the eucalyptus trees are already 11 inches to 134 inches in diameter and 65 feet to 1oo feet high, forming dense and vigorous woods. Acacias, especially 4. pycnantha, are sometimes introduced with great success under the eucalyptus. This sounds an ideal mixture, considering the habit of the eucalyptus of hanging its leaves downwards, and so causing the minimum of shade. Whereas the eucalyptus has been planted, the acacia has generally been sown. It seems likely that the seed of the first acacias has been used, for they seed in a very few years, five or six only. Indeed both the eucalyptus and the acacia seed and CONTINENTAL NOTES—FRANCE. 55 shoot, both from the stool and from the root, in the most satisfactory way. It all seems so easy and successful that there can be no possible doubt that these species are thoroughly suited to the particular locality. There is no reason why this should not be: Australia is not geographically connected with Europe, so the fact that the eucalyptus and Australian acacias are not indigen- ous in Europe is no argument against their success here. The dahlia is not indigenous in India, yet it has escaped from the gardens of Indian hill stations, and grows in veritable masses on the rough hillsides. The very rapid growth of eucalyptus, and the value of its timber (at any rate in the case of some varieties) would naturally lead to its introduction, but its behaviour appears to vary a good deal from place to place. It grows well on the Nilgheries, at Lucknow, and also at Chaubattia (a military station facing north at 7000 feet in the Himalayas), but at the last-named place it is invariably broken by snow. In Algeria, unless I am mistaken, it has not been very successful, perhaps because of the dry desert winds. Its wood is very heavy, very hard, tenacious and durable, but difficult to work, and warps and splits. Mr Tait immerses it in water, which improves it. It is used in Portugal for many purposes, and is especially good for work under sea-water, being immune from attack by the Zevedo navalis. The bark contains a good proportion of tannin, and Mr Tait is also distilling essence from the leaves, an enterprise from which he hopes great things. Mr Tait’s estimate for his eucalyptus bark is 1250 kilogrammes per acre, but this should be much more if the statement is correct that over 8000 kilos is obtainable in Australia. The acacias employed have a higher proportion of tannin in their bark, which is sold. The stems are cut at 9 years old, so as to take them before the bark becomes rough. ‘The plantations are already a remarkable financial success. There is no working-plan, but data for making one are lacking with these little known species, or at least species of which the behaviour in this situation is not yet fully known. It is not known, for instance, for how long the increment will continue to increase. In the meanwhile the fellings appear to be irregular, and in the case of the acacia they consist of the removal of stems when they have reached the thickness of a man’s arm at about 9 years, with the result that a sort of coppice has been produced. 56 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. The Acacta pycnantha has succeeded best. The A. melanoxylon has very valuable timber, but does not grow well here, preferring granitic soil. The result of any felling is a quick regeneration. The seeds lie dormant for some time but germinate with the coming of the light, and especially well where a fire has occurred—the envelope of the seed being thick. We think that, in spite of the lack of data for a plan, the proprietor ought to work on some definite scheme of exploitation. It should be tentative of course, but there should always be some method ; otherwise things will always be in confusion, and no data will ever be arrived at. One would say this for all cases once the cuttings have begun, and even before them it is a wise method to plant with regularity and successively, so as to produce an annual sequence of crops for future years. It is the fact, however, that such things are not as a rule considered. One interesting observation is that the eucalyptus is drying up all the springs in the New Tasmania plantation—a some- what dangerous fact, save where moisture is in excess. III. The regeneration of Pinus Halepensis, a tree of great importance in Algeria, whether for the extraction of resin or otherwise, is receiving careful study at the moment. It appears that ordinarily there is some difficulty about its regeneration, but that after a fire an extraordinary crop of seedlings may result. The writer of the article under quotation says he has known an area of as much as 25,000 acres covered with a crop of saplings of one age (15 to 20 years), so thick as to be impenetrable. He explains the phenomenon thus :—The opening of the cones is extremely slow; they remain shut from ro to 15 years. Quite rotten closed cones, that can be easily pulverised in the fingers, but containing seeds, may often be found on the trees. The heat of the fire opens the cones, and for seven or eight days after the least wind will provoke a shower of seeds. But whereas the burnt area is covered with seedlings fifteen to twenty days after a fire, the neighbouring unburnt portions, where the seed also falls in abundance, produce no seedlings, for if the seeds germinate the seedlings disappear at once. The writer asks, ‘Is this success of the seedlings on the burnt area due to mechanical action (breaking up of the soil surface) or to chemical action (production of salts rendering basic the soil previously made acid by the humus)?” ‘There is certainly a very great deal to be yet discovered in this particular direction ; perhaps this is CONTINENTAL NOTES—FRANCE. 57 the field, in the domain of silviculture, which at present is the most obscure and the most worth investigation. As an example of mechanical action, I may mention a striking instance that came under my own notice in India. The forest of Bhinga, in Oudh, was one that had been very hardly used— heavily felled, excessively grazed and burnt, with the result that the soil was extremely hard. ‘There were, however, here and there some ancient stems of Sal (Shorea robusta). The Sal seeds in the hot weather, and the seed falls at the break of the rains. We hoed up an irregular patch under some Sal seed- bearers just previous to the rains, and this resulted in a thick crop of seedlings covering exactly the hoed-up area, but zof one occurred outside it. IV. “In the last century the robinia was extravagantly belauded. Since the results of its cultivation did not answer entirely to the hopes entertained of it, people have since neglected it too much.” So wrote the eminent savant, Mathieu, in 1876, and M., Seurre has a vigorous article in the Budletin trimestriel de Franche Comté et Belfort on this text. There exists against the species, he says, a prejudice which is entirely unjustifiable. Mathieu, in his Forest Flora, wrote—‘“ Its wood is, from the earliest years, heavy, hard, nervous, elastic, of a durability at least equal to oak, of a vertical resistance a third superior to oak, which places it in the first rank for wheelwrights’ work and carriage-building. It is preferable to all other timbers for props of various kinds. It takes a good polish, and can be used in cabinet making. It can be worked far better than oak, elm or ash.” Further, nothing stands immersion or exposure better than the robinia. It can also be used as a building timber. So long as it has plenty of room and is not pruned it will grow to large dimensions. Finally, it makes one of the best fuels. Such are its intrinsic qualities; its cultural properties are not less remarkable. It grows extraordinarily quickly, and this, joined to the fact that the wood is valuable from the first, renders it promptly remunerative. It fruits regularly and abundantly each year, but does not grow easily from seed. It shoots from the stool and yields suckers from its earliest years so extravagantly that no other species surpasses it in this respect. Its habitat is extensive. Being very hardy it succeeds almost anywhere. (The writer, it must be remembered, is talking of France, but he has seen it growing at Simla, at 55 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 7000 feet.) In the high mountains (of France), however, it feels the cold. M. Seurre says the species is very accommo- dating as to soil, free and somewhat fresh soil suiting it best. While not liking extremely limy soils it will succeed in clayey lime soils which are moist. M. Seurre seeks to ascertain what objections there are to this tree. The only one of any seriousness that he can discover is that it is invasive, but if it has such an intrinsic value this should not amount to a drawback. Moreover, it can always be cut back if necessary. The fact is that the robinia is almost always to be found in gardens only, not in woods. However, M. Seurre quotes one case of a robinia wood of 125 acres, grown as high-forest, to the age of 50 years, of which the outturn would amount to 10,600 cub. feet, worth £339 net, or per acre per annum 2ri’g cub, feet in matter and between £6 and £7 in money. A large robinia tree will sell standing at 40 francs the cubic metre (35°3 cub. feet). Robinia coppice can be cut very early—at 8, 10 or 12 years old—and will then give a money result equal to that of coppice of the usual indigenous species aged 20 years. Coppice is still of value in France. Broilliard is quoted as saying, “ The robinia makes valuable coppice which grows very quickly and gives much _ wood, excellent for props, stakes, wheel-spokes, parquetry, furniture and turning.” The species should be planted, not sown, and after being once transplanted in the nursery can go out at 2 years old. To face p. 59:\ ~ ACCOMPANYING MR WELLWOOD MAXWELL’s NOTES ON SOME DIFFERENT METHODS OF PLANTING. NOTES ON SOME DIFFERENT METHODS OF PLANTING. 59 8. Notes on some Different Methods of Planting. By WELLWooD MAXWELL, Kirkennan. (With Two Plates.) My attention was directed three years ago to the report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm on the methods of planting fruit trees, and particularly to the fact that it did not injure the tree but rather seemed to improve its growth, if as much as one- quarter to one-third of the root were cut off. For some years it has been our custom, when transplanting seedlings into the nursery lines, to cut back the roots by about one-third, to prevent the roots being bent when they are lined out, and no bad results followed. In view of this, and of the report of the Woburn experiments, it occurred to me that if one-third of the root were removed when the trees were being planted out in the wood, it might to a certain extent minimise the root bending which is universal in notch planting, as the root being so much shorter it would be possible to put it in more nearly vertically. In the spring of 1909, I experimented with a few plants of Japanese larch and beech, and found that both grew excellently, although nearly one-half of the root had been removed in some cases. In March 1909, I directed my forester to plant two rows of 1-year 1-year European larch, twelve in each row, in the follow- ing ways :— 1. Planted with ordinary spade in L notch, leaving the roots as lifted from the nursery. 2. Planted as in No. 1 but with one-third of roots cut off. 3. Planted with Schlich’s straight-planting spade, leaving roots as lifted from nursery. 4. Planted as in No. 3 but with one-third of roots cut off. 5. Planted with a German semi-circular spade, 4-inch diam., leaving the roots as lifted from nursery. 6. Planted as in No. 5 but with one-third of roots cut off. The ground chosen for the experiment was in an old copse wood from which the oak, ash, etc., had been removed earlier in the winter. The soil is a light loam, if anything rather deeper at No. 6 than at No. 1, The plants were all planted by the same man, who, being a believer in notch planting, no doubt put the notched ones in with rather more care than usual. The plants have all lived, although one in No. 4 has made no 60 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. apparent growth. In October ror1, I measured the growth every plant has made since they were planted, and found the average growth to be as follows :— IgIo. LOL. Total. No. 1. 3°60 inches. to'r8 inches. 13°78 inches. NO; 2. 4°50" 5, EL*50 4; 16°00 | NOs “4°20” 4; 1130) 35 155 O° ae No. 4. 4:00 ,; EtQO>_4,. 15°90 ;, No. 5. 4°50 ,, 13704 T7 54> 3: No. 6. 4°20 ,, 13°20 ly, 1749 At the same time I lifted an average plant in each plot and got them photographed. In Nos. 1 and 2 there is the typical bending of the root to one side, although not to such an extent as one sometimes sees. In Nos. 3 and 4 there was apparent the “‘pancaking ” which is typical of planting with a straight spade or flat dibble (but this does not show, as it is at right angles to the line on the photograph). In Nos. 5 and 6 the root develop- ment is certainly better than in the others, being free from their defects, although No. 5 is somewhat spoiled by having been against a stone on the left side. During the first season the plants established themselves and made much the same growth in each case, but it will be noticed that during the second season, in each case, the plants which had their roots cut grew more than the corresponding ones which had not been cut, and also that the root development is better, there being a thicker mass of fibrous roots. The conclusion I draw from this experiment is a confirmation of the opinion I had already formed; namely, that it does no harm to a young tree to cut off about one-third of the length of the root, that this shortening of the root undoubtedly makes it easier to plant, whatever tool is used, and further, that the German semi-circular spade is the best, being about as ex- peditious as notching with an ordinary spade, while it works well even on stony ground such as we have here. PLATE V. To face p. 60. METHODS OF PLANTING. DIFFEREN1 Mr WELLWOOD MAXWELL’S NOTES ON SOME ACCOMPANYING af THORN HEDGES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 61 9. Thorn Hedges and their Management. By W. H. WHELLENS, Comlongon Nursery. COLLECTION AND STORAGE OF SEED. The hawthorn or “quick” is a very common tree in all parts of the country, and there is generally very little trouble in securing enough seed for the nursery, even in a poor seed year. The haws should be collected as soon as they are ripe, which is generally in September or the beginning of October. They should then be mixed with sand and put into a heap ; this being to help the outer covering to rot off, while the sand prevents the haws from heating, and so impairing the germinative powers of the seed. They should be kept thus for fourteen or fifteen months, or until the second sowing season from the time the seed was collected; and during this period the heap must be turned about once a fortnight. When sowing time arrives, the heap should be put through a fine sieve, to separate the sand from the seed. The sand and seed are sometimes sown together, but it is better to separate them, as the sower can then see better how thickly he is sowing the seed. Sowing.—Seed such as hawthorn should be sown in drills, each drill being about 4 inches wide, with 6 inches between the drills. The seeds must not be sown too thickly, because many of them will not germinate till the second year, and if the seed is sown too thickly, the seedlings that come up in the first year will suppress the younger ones, or prevent them from appearing at all. The depth at which the seed should be sown is about half an inch. There should not be more then 6 drills in one bed, as it is difficult to hand-weed the bed if it is more than 3 feet wide, and a path between the beds, about 18 inches wide, must be left for this purpose. Hand-weeding must be done carefully, so as not to displace the young plants or the dormant seeds. Lining out.—At the end of the second year, the 2-year seedlings should be carefully lifted, and the soil firmed down round the younger seedlings, but the latter must stand for 62 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. another year in the seed-bed. An alternative plan to this is to leave the seedlings untouched until the end of the third year, when all the plants can be lifted, the older ones being lined out separately from the younger ones. In lining out, the plants should be placed at least 4 inches apart in the lines (the reason for this will become apparent later). The lines, too, should not be too close—r1z2 inches is about the minimum. There is no need to detail the work to be done in tending them, as they, with other plants in a nursery, should always be kept free from weeds. After standing for one year in the lines, the plants, if they are to be used for hedging purposes, should be cut down to within 6 inches of the ground. This encourages them to throw out new leaders, three or more generally, and they grow up more bushy and better suited for the purpose of hedging. They should then be left for at least another year in the lines ; but to leave them for two years is better, as by that time they will have become much stouter and stronger, and will need a protecting fence for a shorter period when planted in the hedge. It may be said that the larger the plants the longer time they take to establish themselves in a new position, but the writer thinks that if they are planted with due care, there will be a very small percentage of deaths amongst them. Many persons do not cut their plants over till they are put out in the hedge; not only is double work thus thrown on the plants by their having both to secure roothold and to throw out shoots, but a protective fence is necessary for a longer period with this method than with the one previously described. It is in order to allow each plant sufficient room to grow bushy that the seedlings must be placed at wide intervals in the lines. Method of making the Hedge.—There are many forms of hedges: For instance, a bank and either one or two open ditches, with the hedge on the bank; or a bank with the hedge at its foot, between it and the ditch. The writer not only considers the bank and ditch to be unnecessary, but looks upon them rather as hindrances, and for the following reasons. ‘Take the ditch first. If the hedge is for the purpose of shelter, as most farm hedges are, the ditch prevents the animals from getting close to the hedge and therefore they do not get the full benefit of the shelter THORN HEDGES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 63 provided. The ditch also prevents the farmer from ploughing so close to the hedge as he would do if the ditch were not there. If the soil is wet, a covered drain will take off the surplus water just as well as an open ditch, without the inconveniences of the latter. The bank is made with the soil and subsoil taken out in making the ditch. Thorns like good soil, and it is a great mistake to plant them in subsoil, but there is nearly sure to be more poor subsoil than good top soil taken from the ditch. And again, rabbits are more likely to burrow into a bank than into the level ground. Therefore plant the hedge on the natural level of the ground, and, as before said, if the soil is naturally wet, put in a covered drain 2} feet deep on either side and at 15 feet from it. PREPARING THE GROUND. The ground on the line of fence should be trenched to a width of 2 ft. 6 ins., not in the manner ordinarily understood by the term, viz., by turning the subsoil up and putting it over the top soil, but by removing the turf and top soil, and then merely loosening the subsoil instead of removing it; the turf is then laid on the subsoil, and the soil is dug in on top of it. During this last process the plants may be inserted. The reason for this is, that the young plants have thus the best soil in which to start growth. The turf when rotten will provide a certain amount of nutriment, and the subsoil will be more easily pierced by the descending roots of the plants. If the soil is poor, better soil or well-decayed leaf-mould can be added. Another reason for burying the turf is that the bottom of the hedge will be more easily kept clean in the future. The trenching can be done either at the time of planting, or some time beforehand; but the latter is best, as the soil will then become sweetened by the time the plants are put in. Planting the Hedge.—In forming the hedge, choice may be made of either the single or double row methods. The single row is slightly the cheaper, and is more easily kept clean, but the double row makes the best hedge. With the single row, the plants should be put in about 4 inches apart, but with the double row they need be only about 6 inches apart, with 6 inches between the rows. The plants in each line should be midway between those in the next one. Planted thus and where conditions 64 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. are favourable, a hedge, in about six or eight years’ time, makes a barrier impassable by sheep and cattle. In planting thorns, the rules applicable to other forest trees should be observed—thus the roots must be placed in a natural position, not being bent to one side, and they should not be planted more than, say, half an inch deeper than they stood in the nursery lines. This half-inch allows for the subsidence of the soil in which they stand. But where there is any excess of moisture, the soil at the roots of the plants should be slightly higher than the adjoining ground, so as not to leave, after subsidence, a depression where water can collect. PROTECTION OF THE YOUNG HEDGE. The best time to plant a hedge is when the field, on one side at least, has just been ploughed out of ‘ley,’ and one or more fallow crops are to follow. A protecting fence on that side need not then be erected until the field again comes into pasture or a green crop of turnips. Where heavy stock is grazing, an ordinary fence of stobs and wire will do, but, in the writer’s opinion, the best fence for the purpose is that known as the Woven Fence. This is made in rolls that can easily be handled, and it can be erected or taken down in a very short space of time. Sawing, Planing, and Moulding Mills at PARTICK and TEMPLE. TIMBER PRESERVING WORKS AT TEMPLE. CREOSOTING AND “B.M.” PROCESSES. s For Planting Season. We are offering Special Value in Seedling and Small Transplanted SITKA SPRUCE, DOUGLAS SPRUCE (Oregon variety), THUJA GIGANTEA, LARCH, Japanese, LARCH, Tyrolese & Scotch, SCOTS FIR, True Native, NORWAY SPRUCE, &c., &c. Millions in stock of hardy, healthy, well-grown plants. Inquiries Solicited. Samples and Special Prices on demand. Special List of Tree Seeds & Seedlings published in January. CATALOGUES POST FREE. BENJAMIN REID & COMPANY, rRurserymen, ABERDEEN, ADVERTISEMENTS. Established 1842. FOREST TREES Large Stocks of Seedling, and Transplanted True Native SCOTS FIR, MENZIES, DOUCLAS, NORWAY SPRUCE, Etc. Ail grown from carefully selected seed, in an open and exposed situation, thoroughly hardy, and well furnished with abundance of fibrous roots. Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Specimen Ornamental Trees for Lawns and Avenues. Trees and Shrubs for Seaside Planting. Plants for Game Coverts, Underwood and Hedges. Special quotations for large quantities, and estimates furnished for planting by contract in any part of the country. DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES AND SAMPLES ON APPLICATION. W. SMITH & SON, Purserymen, ABERDEEN, N.B. SAVE MONEY ”™ Gne or” BLAGK’S GREOSOTING PLANTS peeach: are specially adapted for Estates and Timber Trades. —23(3 THE PRESSURE SYSTEM. Most of the Creosoting Plants working on Estates in Great Britain have been Supplied by us, and References can be given. THE BOILING METHOD. A These Plants are also suitable for Burnettizing Timber. GEORGE BLACK — & SONS, Creosoting pareineers and Creosote Oil Merchants, TWEEDMOUTH BOILER WORKS, BERWICK - ON - TWEED. ADVERTISEMENTS NO TTC: WANTED TO PURCHASE. Any of the following Parts of the Transactions, Viz; Parts 1, 2, and 3 of Vol. I. Parts 2 and 3 of Vol. III. Parts 1 and 2 of Vol. IV. Part +2 of Vol. V. Part, 2 of Vol. IX. Part 1 of Vol. XII, Apply to —— THE SECRETARY, —— 19 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH. Ropal Scottish Arboricultural Society, INSTITUTED 1854. Patron—HIS MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY THE KING. Permission to assume the title ‘‘ Royal” was granted by Her Majesty Queen Victoria in 1887. 1854-56. JAMES Brown, Wood Comunissioner to the Ear] of Seafield. 1857. The Right Hon. Tue EArt or Duct. 1858. The Right Hon. Tue Eart or Sratr. 1859. Sir JoHN HAL, Bart. of Dunglass. 1860. His Grace THE DuKE oF ATHOLL. 1861. Joun I. CHatmers of Aldbar. 1862. The Right Hon. Tor Ear oF AIRLIE. 1863. The Right Hon. T. F. Kennepy. 1864-71. Ropert Hurcnuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S. E. 1872-73. Huca CiecHorN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie. 1874-75. JoHN Hurron Baurour, M.D., M.A., F.R.SS.L. & E., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 1876-78. The Right Hon. W. P. Apam of Blair- ‘ adam, M.P. 1879-81. The Most Hon. THe Marquis or Loraian, K.T. FORMER PRESIDENTS. 1882. ALEXANDER Dickson, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Hartree, Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 1883-85. Hugu CLecuorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie. 1886-87. The Right Hon. Sir Hersrrr Eusrace Maxwett, Bart. of Monreith. The Most Hon. Tor MArQuis OF | 1888-89. | LINLITHGOW. | 1890-93. IsAAc Bayney Baurour, M.D., Sc.D., | F.R.S., LL.D., Professor of Botany in | the University of Edinburgh. 1894-97. The Right Hon. R. C. Munro FErRGuson, M.P. 1898. Colonel F. Barty, R.E. 1899-02. The Right Hon. THe EArt or MANSFIELD. 1903-06. W. Srevarr ForurinGHAM of Murthly. 1907-09. Sir KennerH J. Mackenzig, Bart. of Gairloch. OFFICE=-BEARERS FOR i912. President. Stir JOHN STIRLING-MAXWELL, Bart. of Pollok, Pollokshaws. Vice=Presidents, W. STEUART FOTHRINGHAM of Murthly, Perthshire. ROBERT FORBES, Overseer, Kennet Estate Office, Alloa. SYDNEY J. GAMMELL of Countesswells House, Bieldside, Aberdeen. Drumtochty, Dr A. W. BORTHWICK, D.Sc., 46 George Square, Edin-| CHAS. BUCHANAN, Overseer, Penicuik Estate, Penicuik. burgh. The LORD LOVAT, D.S.O., Beaufort Castle, Beauly. Council. Hon. LirE MEMBER. é 3 ORDINARY G. U. MACDONALD, Overseer, Haystoun Estate, Woodbine _ Cottage, Peebles. OBERT ALLAN, Factor, Polkemmet, Whitburn. . BETERS, Timber Merchant, Warriston Saw-Mills, Edin- urgh. ES COOK, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. ALEXANDER MITCHELL, Forester, Rosebery, Gorebridge. PRANK SCO AGNEW, Bart., Lochnaw Castle, Stranraer. f NK SCOTT, Forester, Scone. GEO. LEVEN, Forester, Bowmont Forest, Roxburgh. HN BROOM, Wood Mervhant, Bathgate. JOHN F. ANNAND, Lecturerin Forestry, Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. JOHN W. M‘HATTIE, Superintendent of City Parks, City b 4 Chambers, Edinburgh. ~~ y _ ROBERT GALLOWAY, 5.8.C., ABERDEEN BRANCH. | President—aA. Forses IryInE of Drum. | Hon. Secy. —-Grorce D. Massix, Solicitor, 147 Union Street, Aberdeen. Sir KENNETH J. MACKENZIB, Bart. of Gairloch, 10 Moray Place, Edinburgh. MEMBERS. | BRODIE OF BRODIE, Brodie Castle, Forres. | WILLIAM DAWSON, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Forestry, | Marischal College, Aberdeen, JOHN METHVEN, Nurseryman, 15 Princes Street, Edin- burgh. GILBERT BROWN, Wood Manager, Grantown-on-Spey. WILLIAM DAVIDSON, Forester, Panmure, Carnoustie. A. T. GILLANDERS, F.E.S., Forester, Park Cottage, Aln- wick. W. H. MASSIE, Nurseryman, 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. A. D. RICHARDSON, 6 Dalkeith Street, Joppa. Captain ARCHIBALD STIRLING of Keir, Dunblane. JAMES WHITTON, Superintendent of City Parks, City Chambers, Glasgow. Hon. Editor. Ligur.-CotoneL F. BAILEY, LL.D., F.R.S.E., 7 Drummond Place, Edinburgh. Auditor. JOHN T. WATSON, 16 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. Hon. Secretary. The Ricur Hon. R. C. MUNRO FERGUSON, M.P., Raith House, Kirkcaldy. Secretary and Treasurer. 19 Castle Street, Edinburgh. NORTHERN BRANCH. President—Bropvlb OF BRODIE. Hon. Secy.—ALEX. FRASER, Inverness. Solicitor, 63 Church Street * » _ Membership. ) |] (HE Roll contains the names of over 1400 Members, comprising Landowners, Factors, Foresters, Nurserymen, Gardeners, Land Stewards, Wood Merchants, and others interested in Forestry, many of whom reside in England, Ireland, the British Colonies, and India. Members are elected by the Council. ‘The Terms of Subscription will be found on the back of the Form of Proposal for Membership which accompanies this Memorandum. The Principal Objects of the Society, and the nature of its work, will be gathered from the following paragraphs :— Meetings. The Society holds periodical Meetings for the transaction of business, the reading and discussion of Papers, the exhibition of new Inventions, specimens of Forest Products and other articles of special interest to the Members, and for the advancement of Forestry in all its branches. Meetings of the Council are held every alternate month, and at other times when business requires attention; and Committees of the Council meet frequently to arrange and carry out the work of the Society. Prizes and Medals. With the view of encouraging young Foresters to study, and to train themselves in habits of careful and accurate observation, the Society offers Annual Prizes and Medals for essays on practical subjects, and for inventions connected with appliances used in Forestry. Such awards have been granted continuously since 1855 up to the present time, and have yielded satisfactory results. Medals and Prizes are also awarded in connection with the Exhibitions aftermentioned. School of Forestry, Afforestation, Etc. Being convinced of the necessity for bringing within the reach of young Foresters, and others interested in the Profession, a regular systematic course of Instruction, such as is provided in Germany, France, and other European countries, the Society, in 1882, strongly urged the creation of a British School of Forestry ; and with a view of stimulating public interest in the matter, a Forestry Exhibition, chiefly organised by the Council, was held in Edinburgh in 1884. As a further step towards the end in view, the Society, in 1390, instituted a Fund for the purpose of establishing a Chair of Forestry at the University of Edinburgh, and a sum of 4,584, 3s. rod. has since been raised by the Society and handed over to the University. Aided by an annual subsidy from the Board of Agriculture, which the Society was mainly instrumental in obtaining, a Course of Lectures at the University has been delivered without interruption since 1889. It is recognised, how- ever, that a School of Forestry is incomplete without a practical training-ground attached to it, which would be available, not only 3 for purposes of instruction but also as a Station for Research and Experiment, and as a Model Forest, by which Landowners and Foresters throughout the country might benefit. The Society accordingly drew up a Scheme for the Establishment of a State Model or Demonstration Forest for Scotland which might serve the above-named objects. Copies of this Scheme were laid before the Departmental Committee on British Forestry, and in their Report the Committee recommended the establishment of a Demonstration Area and the provision of other educational facilities in Scotland. The Government has recently acquired the Estate of Inverliever in Argyllshire; and while this cannot be looked on as a Demonstra- tion Forest, it is hoped that it may prove to be the first step in a scheme of afforestation by the State of unwooded lands in Scotland. Meantime Mr Munro Ferguson, M.P., for a part of whose woods at Raith a Working-Plan has been prepared, and is now in operation, has very kindly agreed to allow Students to visit them. After the Development Act came into operation, the Council passed a Resolution urging that the Government should, as soon as possible, create a Board of Forestry, with an adequate representa- tion of Scottish Forestry upon it, and an Office in Scotland, where the largest areas of land suitable for Afforestation are situated, which would provide Demonstration Forests and Forest Gardens, and otherwise assist the development of University and other Educational enterprise, and would carry out, as an essential pre- liminary to any great scheme of National Afforestation, a Survey of all areas throughout the country suitable for commercial planting. The Society’s policy for the development of Forestry in Scotland has since been fully laid before the Development Commission. As a result of these representations, the Secretary for Scotland appointed a Committee to report regarding the acquisition and uses of a Demonstration Forest Area, and any further steps it is desirable to take in order to promote Silviculture in Scotland. The Committee reported in the beginning of this year, and the Society is now pressing the present Secretary for Scotland to give immediate effect to the Committee’s recommendations, including the appointment of a Department of Forestry for Scotland promised by his predecessor. The Society has also published a valuable Report on Afforestation —including a Survey of Glen Mor—prepared for it by Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling, which, it is hoped, may form the basis of the general Forest Survey advocated by the Society. Excursions. Since 1878 well-organised Excursions, numerously attended by Members of the Society, have been made annually to various parts of Scotland, England, Ireland, and the Continent. In 1895 a Tour extending over twelve days was made through the Forests of Northern Germany, in 1902 a Tour extending over seventeen days was made in Sweden, during the summer of 1904 the Forest School at Nancy and Forests in the north of France were visited, and in 1909 a visit was undertaken to the Bavarian Forests. These *Excursions enable Members whose occupations necessarily 4 confine them chiefly to a single locality to study the conditions and methods prevaiiing elsewhere; and the Council propose te extend the Tours during the next few years to other parts of the Continent. They venture to express the hope that Landowners may be induced to afford facilities to their Foresters for participation in these Tours, the instructive nature of which renders them well worth the moderate expenditure of time and money that they involve. Exhibitions, A Forestry Exhibition is annually organised in connection with the Highland and Agricultural Society’s Show, in which are exhibited specimens illustrating the rate of growth of trees, different kinds of wood, pit-wood and railway timber, insect pests and samples of. the damage done by them, tools and implements, manufactured articles peculiar to the district where the Exhibition is held, and other objects of interest relating to Forestry. Prizes and Medals are also offered for Special Exhibits. In addition to the Annual Exhibition before referred to, large and important Forestry Sections organised by this Society were included in the Scottish National Exhibition held in Edinburgh in 1908, and in the Scottish Exhibition of National History, Art, and Industry, held in Glasgow last summer. The Society’s Transactions. The Zyransactions of the Society, which extend to twenty-five volumes, are now published half-yearly in January and July, and are issued gratis to Members. A large number of the Prize Essays and other valuable Papers, and reports of the Annual Excursions, have appeared in them, and have thus become available to Students as well as to those actively engaged in the Profession of Forestry. Honorary Consulting Officials. Members have the privilege of obtaining information gratuitously upon subjects connected with Forestry from the following Honorary Officials appointed by the Society. Consulting Botanist.—IsAAC BAYLEY BALFouR, LL.D., M.D., Sc.D., Professor of Botany, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Consulting Chemtst.—ALEXANDER LAUDER, D.Sc., F.I.C., 13 George Square, Edinburgh. Consulting Cryptogamtist.—A. W. BORTHWICK, D.Sc., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Consulting Entomologist.—ROBERT STEWART MAcCDOouGALL, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Entomology, etc., 9 Dryden Place, Edinburgh. Consulting Geologist.—R. CAMPBELL, M.A., B.Sc., Geological Labora- tory, University of Edinburgh. Consulting Meteorologist. ANDREW WATT, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary Scottish Meteorological Society, 122 George Street, Edinburgh. Local Branches. Local Branches have been established in Aberdeen and Inverness for the convenience of Members who reside in the districts surrounding these centres. Local Secretaries. TheSociety is represented throughout Scotland, England, and Ireland by the Local Secretaries whose names are given below. They ~ oO are ready to afford any additional information that may be desired regarding the Conditions of Membership and the work of the Society. Register of Estate Men. A Register of men qualified in Forestry and in Forest and Estate Management is kept by the Society. Schedules of application and other particulars may be obtained from the Local Secretaries in the various districts, or direct from the Secretary. It is hoped that Proprietors and others requiring Estate men will avail themselves of the Society’s Register. Consulting Foresters. The Secretary keeps a list of Consulting Foresters whose services are available to Members of the Society and others. Correspondents. The following have agreed to act as Correspondents residing abroade:—— Canada, India, British East Africa, United States of America, Cape Colony, . M.D., LL.D., D.Se:.(Cantab:); Chief Geologist to Government of Ropert Bett, I1.8.0., F.R.S. of Ottawa. Canada, Ottawa. F. L. C. Cowiey Brown, Principal, South Indian Forest College, Coimbatore, South India. Epwarp Barrrscomsn, Assistant Conservator of Forests, Nigeri, via Naivasha, East Africa Protectorate. HucH P. Baxker, Dean, New York State College o1 Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y. W. Nimmo Brown, M‘Kenzie’s Farm, Mowbray, P.O Western Australia, Freep Moon. Counties. Aberdeen, Argyll, . Ay?, Berwick, - Bute, Clackmannan, . Dumfries, East Lothian, . Fife, Forfar, . Inverness, Kincardine, Kinross, LOCAL SECRETARIES. Scotland. JOHN CLARK, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeen, Joun Micuik, M.V.O., Factor, Balmoral, Ballater. H. L. Macponatp of Dunach, Oban. ANDREW D. Pacer, Overseer, Culzean Home Farm, Ayr. A. B. Ropertson, Forester, The Dean, Kilmarnock. Wm. Mitnez, Foulden Newton, Berwick-on-Tweed. Wm. Ines, Forester, Cladoch, Brodick. JAMES Kay, retired Forester, Barone, Rothesay. RoBerT Forses, Estate Office, Kennet, Alloa. D. Crasee, Forester, Byreburnfoot, Canonbie. W. S. Curr, Factor, Ninewar, Prestonkirk. Wo. Gitcurist, Forester, Nursery Cottage, Mount Melville, St Andrews. EpmuND SANG, Nurseryman, Kirkcaldy. JAMES CRABBE, retired Forester, Glamis. JAMES A. Gosstp, Nurseryman, Inverness. JOHN Hart, Estates Office, Cowie, Stonehaven. JAMES TERRIS, Factor, Dullomuir, Blairadam. Counties. Lanark, . Moray, Perth, Ross, Roxburgh, Sutherland, Wigtown, Beds, Berks, Cheshire, Derby, Devon. Durham, Hants, Herts, Kent, . Lancashire, Leicester, Lincoln, Middlesea, Notts, Suffolk, . ¥ ey, Surr ey, « Warwick, Wilts, York, Dublin, Galway, « King s County, Tipperary, 6 Scotland. JOHN Davipson, Forester, Dalzell, Motherwell. JAMES WHITTON, Superintendent of Parks, City Chambers, Glasgow, D. Scorr, Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. JoHN ScrimMGEour, Doune Lodge, Doune. JoHN J. R. MEIKLEJOHN, Factor, Novar, Evanton. Miss AMy Frances YULE, Tarradale House, Muir of Ord. JoHN LEISHMAN, Manager, Cavers Estate, Hawick. i. V. MATHER, Nurseryman, Kelso. DonaLp RoBertson, Forester, Dunrobin, Golspie. JAMES HoGarra, Forester, Culhorn, Stranraer. H. H. WALKER, Monreith Estate Office, Whauphill. England. FRANCIS MITCHELL, Forester, Woburn. W. Storie, Whitway House, Newbury. Wm. A. Forster, Belgrave Lodge, Pulford, Wrexham. S. MacBran, Estate Office, Needwood Forest, Sudbury. JAMES BARRIE, Forester, Stevenstone Estate, Torrington. JOHN F, ANNAND, Lecturer in Forestry, Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. W. R. Brown, Forester, Park Cottage, Heckfield, Winchfield. JAMES BARTON, Forester, Hatfield. THOMAS SMITH, Overseer, Tring Park, Wigginton, Tring. R. W. Cowper, Gortanore, Sittingbourne. D. C. HAMILTON, Forester, Knowsley, Prescot. JAMES MARTIN, The Reservoir, Knipton, Grantham. W. B. HAveEtock, The Nurseries, Brocklesby Park. Professor Bouncer, 11 Onslow Road, Richmond Hill, London, 8S. W. Wm. Exper, Thoresby, Ollerton, Newark. W. Micurk, Forester, Welbeck, Worksop. Winson Tomutnson, Forester, Clumber Park, Worksop. GrorGE HANNAH, The Folly, Ampton Park, Bury St Edmunds. JOHN ALEXANDER, 24 Lawn Crescent, Kew Gardens. A. D. Curistin, Hillside, Frederick Road, Selly Oak, Birmingham. ANDREW Boa, Trowbridge. D. Tarr, Estate Bailiff, Owston Park, Doncaster. Treland. A. ©. Forpes, Department of Forestry, Board of Agriculture. Jamrs Witson, B.Sc., Royal College of Science, Dublin. Arcu. E. Morran, Lissadell, Stillorgan Park. THOMAS Roserrson, Forester and Bailiff, Woodlawn. Won. Henperson, Forester, Clonad Cottage, Tullamore. Davip G. Cross, Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh. Auex. M‘Rag, Forester, Dundrum. Land Agent, Glenmore, The Avenue, Ropal Scottish Arboricultural Society FORM OF PROPOSAL FOR MEMBERSHIP. To be signed by the Candidate, his Proposer and Seconder, and returned to ROBERT GALLOWAY, S&.S.C., SECRETARY, Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 19 Castle Street, Edinburgh, ( Full Name, z Se aahcaacneiareeaeeenanen SL Cre SSeREEPE CoE ERP ercer one rereceent Pee o noe = Designation, | Degre CS CUGa . 5 t PP -c Candidate's } Address, } | | Life, or Ordinary Member, | d g : \ Stonature, . Signature, . Proposer 's | \ Address, . . Ss atlas Ree eg Signature, f ae Ss weneches Neepacaaaaee SERRE SEE ReSCECDCS SSA Sener oNSoa Sena Seconder s Address, [CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP, see Over CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP (excerpted from the Laws). III. Any person interested in Forestry, and desirous of pro- moting the objects of the Society, is eligible for election as an Ordinary Member in one of the following Classes :-— 1. Proprietors the valuation of whose land exceeds £500 per annum, and others, subscribing annually : . One Guinea. 2. Proprietors the valuation of whose land does not exceed £500 per annum, Factors, Nurserymen, Timber Merchants, and others, subscribing annually . . Half-a-Guinea. 3. Foresters, Gardeners, Land-Stewards, Tenant Farmers, and others, subscribing annually : 3 . Six Shillings. 4. Assistant-Foresters, Assistant-Gardeners, and others, sub- scribing annually : : : . . Four Shillings. IV. Subscriptions are due on the lst of January in each year, and shall be payable in advance. A new Member's Subscription is due on the day of election unless otherwise provided, and he shall not be enrolled until he has paid his first Subscription. V. Members in arrear shall not receive the Zvansactions, and shall not be entitled to vote at any of the meetings of the Society. Any Member whose Annual Subscription remains unpaid for two years shall cease to be a Member of the Society, and no such Member shall be eligible for re-election till his arrears have been paid up. VI. Any eligible person may become a Life Member of the Society, on payment, according to class, of the following sums :— 1. Large Proprietors of land, and others, ; c . £101 10) 0 2. Small Proprietors, Factors, Nurserymen, Timber Mer- chants, and others, ; : 5 : : 5S 3. Foresters, Gardeners, Land-Stewards, Tenant Farmers, and others, ; ; : : : : : 3) BI o VII. Any Ordinary Member of Classes 1, 2, and 3, who has paid Five Annual Subscriptions, may become a Zzfe Member on payment of Two-thirds of the sum payable by a ew Life Member. XII. Every Proposal for Membership shall be made in writing, and shall be signed by two Members of the Society as Proposer and Seconder, and delivered to the Secretary to be laid before the Council, which shall accept or otherwise deal with each Proposal as it may deem best in the interest of the Society. The Proposer and Seconder shall be responsible for payment of the new Member’s first Subscription. The Council shall have power to decide the Class under which any Candidate for Membership shall be placed. CONTENTS. The Society does not hold itself responsible for the statements or views expressed by the authors of papers. PAGE 13. Tne Report of the Departmental Committee on Forestry in Scotland ; : : P P : » 125 14. On the Relation of Light-Intensity to Advance Growth in Oak and Beech Forests (with Plate). By G. P. Gordon, B.Sc. : : ? : : tA 15. Official Notifications : : . : , . 56 16. Observations on the Annual Increment of Spruce and Scots Pine (Second Article). By J. H. Milne-Home : . 160 17. Th2 Raising and Management of Thorn Hedges. By William Hall . ; : ; : ; . 165 18. Visit to a French Private Forest. By F. Cowley-Brown, Indian Forest Service : ‘ ‘ : 2 LZ Ig. Light in Relation to Tree Growth : : ; 5 tan 20. Development of Forestry in Scotland . : : zo2 21. German Notes (with Plate). By Berthold Ribbentrop, C.1.E. 204 22. Sections of Larch Timber, showing the Effects of different Soils on the Growth. By Gilbert Brown . : » 218 23. The Larch Saw-Fly. By Alex. Raffan . : zZO 24. The Worx of Professor Louis Grandeau. By Alex. Lauder, D.Sc., Hon. Consulting Chemist to the Society . 5 EE 25. Forestry at the University of Oxford . ; : 225 Notes and Queries :—European Larch and Japanese Larch (with Plate)—Forest Terminology—Bibliography of Forestry—A Large Scots Pine—Investigation into the Current Annual Increment in Girth of the Douglas Fir— Appointment —Choice of Trees for Se Sam for Literary Contributions ; : 5 Be Reviews and Notices of Books:—Wayside and Woodland Trees: A Pocket Guide to the British Sylva. By Edward Step, F.L.S. 182 pp. of letterpress, with 175 plain and coloured plates and numerous text figures. London: Frederick Warne & Co. Price 6s. net = 236 CONTENTS. Tree Lore. By Francis George Heath. With a Table of Indigenous British Trees and Shrubs. 304 pp. Price 3s. 6d. net. London: Charles H. Kelly Gold Coast Land Tenure and the Forest Bill, 1911. A Review of the Situation by Casely Hayford, Barrister-at-Law. London: C. M. Phillips Farming and Forestry: The Cultivation of Trees for Shelter and for Timber. By J. F. Annand, Lecturer on Forestry, Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 23 pp. with Plate. Published in the Journal of the Newcastle Farmers’ Club, 1911-12 British Trees, including the finer Shrubs for Garden and Woodland. By the late Rev. C. A. Johns. Edited by E. T. Cook and W. Dallimore. Published by George Routledge & Sons, Ltd. ; : Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 1912, with Appendices. List of Members as at 2ist June 1912. PAGE 236 236 239 240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 13. The Report of the Departmental Committee on Forestry in Scotland. ! TERMS OF REFERENCE TO THE COMMITTEE. “To report as to the selection of a suitable location for a Demonstration Forest Area in Scotland; the uses, present and prospective, to which such area may be put (including the use that may be made of it by the various forestry teaching centres in Scotland); the staff and equipment required for successful working ; the probable cost; and the most suitable form of management. “To report as to any further steps, following upon the acquisition of the said area, which in the opinion of the Committee it is desirable should be taken with a view to promoting silviculture in Scotland, due regard being had to the interests of other rural industries.” REPORT. My Lorp, We have held seven sittings and have examined seven witnesses. Each of these, before being heard, prepared, at our request, a memorandum on the questions remitted to us, and the memoranda are printed along with the Minutes of Evidence. We have also visited the school for apprentices in the Forest of Dean; schools for the same class of pupils at Spangenberg and Hachenburg in Prussia, and at Kelheim in Bavaria; 1 [Reproduced (with minor abbreviations and omissions) by permission of H.M. Stationery Office from the original Resort, which, with Note on Forest Education in Germany, appendices, minutes of evidence and map, is obtainable from Messrs Oliver & Boyd at a cost of Is. 3d. The footnotes, except where specially indicated, are those of the original report.—Hon. Ep.] VOL. XXVI. PART J. I 122 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the Forest Academy of Tharandt in Saxony; and the Forestry Department of the University of Munich. The report which we now have the honour to present is divided into three parts. Part I. sums up our recommendations on the several matters mentioned in the first paragraph of the remit. In Part II. our conclusions as to the uses which the Demonstration Area may serve are extended with special reference to education. Part III. deals with the question of the further steps to be taken for the promotion of silviculture in Scotland after the said area has been acquired. Attached to the report is a Note on Forest Education in Germany by the three members of the Committee who visited that country, recording some general conclusions drawn from what they saw. We have also prepared a map illustrating the relative amount of existing woodland in the various districts of Scotland. Parr I.—DEMONSTRATION FOREST AREA. 1. Location, Stze and Character.—The area should contain at least gooo acres, including, if possible, 2000 acres already under wood. ‘The plantable land might with advantage, for the purpose of demonstration, amount to, say, 10,000 acres; but such an extent, combined with the necessary growing woods, may be difficult to secure. The area should be situated in a district suitable for afforestation and near existing woodlands. These woodlands would not only be valuable for comparison, but blocks of them might, by arrangement with their proprietors, be temporarily included in the working-plan of the forest to fill up gaps in the rotation. It should be near a station on a main line of railway and reasonably accessible from the teaching centres and from all parts of Scotland, especially the districts in which are found the bulk of the existing woodlands and the largest afforestable areas. Variety is desirable in elevation, aspect and soil. But the bulk of the area should lie below rooo feet ; a southern aspect should not predominate; and while as little as possible of the soil should be unsuitable for forestry, the area should include only so much land fit for agriculture as is required for the service of the forest. It is, however, desirable, in our REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 123 opinion, that there should be enough arable land to provide small holdings! for labourers employed in the forest. As the time required to arrive at a complete working rotation is a most important consideration, it is essential that the woods in existence at the outset should include trees in as many stages of growth as possible. The area should be acquired by purchase Its value for demonstration purposes will steadily increase with the length of its records. A lease, however long, presents an eventual risk which, in our judgment, ought not to be run. Our inquiries do not lead us to expect that it will be possible to find an area fulfilling all the above conditions. It will be especially difficult to find a suitably stocked area near the centre of Scotland. It may be necessary to choose between a forest ideally central, which it will take fifty years to get into order, and a forest less central but fit to be of service at once. If the Government finds itself in this dilemma, we advise, provided the less central forest is accessible by railway, that quality should be preferred to situation. It is true that fifty years is a short space in the life of a forest or a nation, but the fifty years just coming are precisely the years in which demonstration is most required and can effect most for the development of this branch of our national resources. A forest to be of immediate service must possess two qualifications— (1) The woods must be well stocked—real woods, not merely ground with trees on it. (2) They must be fairly evenly distributed among the various age-classes of the rotation which it is proposed to adopt. We consider that these are the two paramount considerations which should guide the Government in its choice of an area. 2. Uses.—(a) The Demonstration Forest is intended to show the growth and utilisation of timber, from the seed-bed to the sawmill, on lines strictly scientific and commercial. It should be possible to see every operation of silviculture conducted there in the best and most economical manner, and to study all that concerns the organisation and protection of a forest. 1 The size of the holdings would necessarily vary with the character of the district, but they should not in any case be so large as to become the tenant’s chief occupation and divert his periodical labour from the woods. I24 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. (4) Experiments in the treatment of growing crops are urgently needed, and these should be carefully planned, carried out and fully recorded; but neither time, space nor money should be wasted in unconsidered experiments. (c) The Demonstration Forest, besides providing in itself a field for fresh study and research, should be a centre where data from other parts of Scotland can be collected and compared, and from which such information and_ statistics may be published as will assist the application of scientific silviculture to Scots’ conditions. For the purpose of collecting information, local correspondents should be appointed in every county. (zd) The forest, with its maps, working-plans, records and accounts, should be made accessible to students and teachers from the teaching centres and to other students (see 15, 16, 18, 19). In the accounts, the cost of education and research should be kept strictly separate from the expenses properly chargeable against the forest crop. (ec) There should be attached to the forest a school of working apprentices (see 17). 3. Control.—lIf a Board of Agriculture for Scotland is created in accordance with the provisions of the Bill now before Parliament, and includes the promised Department of Forestry,! that Department should be responsible for the control of the Demonstration Forest. The recommendation is made on the assumption that the Department in question will be truly representative of silvicultural interests and _ silvicultural effort in Scotland. Failing that, the forest should be under the control of a small board of supervision, hereafter referred to as the Demonstration Forest Board; unpaid, with a paid secretary ; appointed by the Secretary for Scotland, who should also nominate the chairman. 4. Staff—We recommend the following staff :— Director, a forest-officer thoroughly acquainted with Scotland, who should be solely responsible, subject to a working-plan approved by the Department of Forestry or Demonstration Forest Board. He should have under his supervision the school of apprentices (see below and 17) and all forms. of instruction Society, dated 8th November 1911, cf. the present volume, p, 1.—HON. Ep. ] REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 125 and training provided in the forest, except the classes from the teaching centres, which should visit the forest with their own teachers (see 15). He should also supervise research work, the collection of statistics and the publication of results, and should be entrusted with the general management of the whole estate. Estimated initial salary, £4500. Two Assistants to the Director, forest-officers, one of whom should live in the hostel (see 6) and be responsible for its control. They should assist in research and teaching, and one should be selected with a special view to each of these objects. Estimated initial salaries, 4350 and £300. Some clerical assistance will be required by the director— probably two clerks—but this will depend upon the size of the forest and other circumstances. Estimated cost: head clerk, salary £150; book-keeper, £100; apprentice in office, £20. Flead Forester, an experienced working forester with a salary of £120a year and a house. He should have charge, under the director, of all silvicultural operations, and should also act under him as supervisor of the working apprentices in the woods. In an ordinary State forest there would be no one between the forest-officer in charge of 4000 acres and the working foreman in charge of tooo acres. The head forester is introduced here to relieve the director of the immediate details of responsibility in the two functions mentioned in the preceding paragraph, and so free him for the direction of research and other work. We use the term ‘head forester,” because men of this standing will always be required (a) in private forests, and (4) in areas of less than 4000 acres forming outlying portions of State forests. Working Foremen, each with £60 a year and a house. When the forest is fully stocked, one working foreman will be required for each 1000 acres of wood, though he will not necessarily be always employed within the particular area of which he has charge. Twenty Apprentice Students, employed in the general work of the forest and paid at the ordinary rate for forest labourers in the district (see 17). Sundry other Workmen, whose numbers cannot be specified beforehand, including forest labourers, carters, saw-millers, 126 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. drainers, fencers, mason, joiner, etc., unless such work is done by contract. Post-graduate Students (see 16), not more than six at first; unpaid, but provided with bursaries. They should be under the charge of the director and should assist in research and teaching. Estimated cost of scholarships, £300. 5. Other Residents in the Demonstration Forest.—In addition to the staff above mentioned, there should be accommodation for the following occasional residents, who will in every case pay for their board and lodging :— (a) Classes from the teaching centres, visiting the Demon- stration Forest in turn for the study of practical silviculture, accompanied by their own _ lecturers (see 15). (4) Working foresters above the apprentice age, already in private situations, attending summer classes for periods of from four to six weeks (see 18). These men should receive no pay except from their own employers, and should be required to do no work. They should pay class fees in addition to their board and lodging. 6. Eguipment.—The following buildings are likely to be required ! :— (i.) Director’s house, £1500; (iil.) House for two assistants, 4.2000; (ill.) Head forester’s house, £450; (iv.) Houses for working foremen, £600; (v.) Museum, library and laboratory ; (vi.) Director’s office and survey-room ; (vil.) Two class-rooms —(a) for visiting students and (4) for apprentices,—capable of being thrown into’one large lecture-room; (viii.) Janitor’s house ; (v., Vi., Vil., vill. together would form the school, estimated cost, #5000); (ix.) Hostel to accommodate (a) one assistant, (4) six post-graduate students (see 16), (c) visiting classes and lecturers (see 15, 18 and 19), £2000; (x.) Quarters for ap- prentices, £1400. (Some of the above might be in one or more blocks.) It is not likely that all these buildings will have to be erected afresh. Some buildings capable of being adapted to the require- ments are almost certain to be included in the area purchased. '{The figures after each indicate the estimated capital outlay for construc- tion.—Hon. Ep. ] REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 127 The necessity for the hostel and apprentices’ quarters depends on the situation of the forest. Ifa large village is handy, they might be wholly or partially dispensed with and their place taken by private lodgings. We are inclined, however, to think that both are desirable adjuncts to the Demonstration Forest, and that the work of teaching would be substantially helped if the students and teachers all lived on the spot. If there happen to be suitable buildings on the estate, the initial cost of provid- ing this accommodation would be small. The fees charged for board and lodging in the hostel and apprentices’ quarters should be so fixed as to cover the whole cost of maintenance, including service, heating, lighting and ordinary repairs. A bothy for workmen may also be required, but is less desirable and should certainly be dispensed with if there is a village within reach. The buildings which have to be erected will afford an oppor- tunity, which ought not to be lost, of showing the uses to which home timber can be put. 7. Small Holdings—We have already expressed the opinion (see r) that it is desirable to provide small holdings for workmen periodically employed in the forest. Small holdings should form an integral part of State afforestation in Scotland. Less occasional labour will be required in the Demonstration Forest than in an ordinary forest which does not include a school of apprentices. If the estate acquired contains only 2000 acres or less of standing wood, the permanent staff and apprentice students may at first be able to undertake all the work. If more labour is required, a bothy may be used as a temporary expedient. But unless men and holdings of the class needed are available in the immediate neighbourhood, suitable ground should, from the beginning, be earmarked for small holdings, and these should be equipped with buildings from time to time, as they are required. 4000 acres of wood, with a permanent staff of 5 foresters and 20 apprentices, would give employment to an equivalent number of additional hands for a great part of the year. All these should be small landholders. 8. Cost: (1) Capital Expenditure.—I\t is impossible to estimate the probable capital expenditure until an estate has been selected. The value of land varies very much in different parts of Scotland, and it changes hands at prices which vary from 128 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 23 to 35 years’ purchase of the annual rental. Nor is it possible to make an accurate estimate of the capital required for buildings and equipment until it is known what buildings are already available on the estate purchased, and, further, whether any part of the accommodation required can be conveniently found in a village near the Demonstration Area (see 6). The follow- ing estimate is based on the assumption that the whole of the accommodation must be provided in new buildings. Buildings, as above, £12,950; furnishings and equipment, £2550; total, 415,500. iVote.—The estimate includes the installation of hot-water heating in the school, the students’ hostel and the apprentices’ quarters. (2) Annual Expenditure.—In estimating the initial annual outlay of the schooland Demonstration Forest, we do not include the wages of labourers and apprentices and the general expenses of forest management, the amount of which will depend upon the extent and state of the property, the available crops of timber for disposal in the immediate future, and other circum- stances. The salaries given above, with an estimate of £360 for heating and lighting of the school block, books, stationery, plans, postal accounts and incidental outlays, give a total of £2400. 9g. Outlying Areas.—The soil and climate of Scotland vary so much that a single central forest cannot be typical of the whole country. It would be possible—and this is an arrangement which has often been suggested—to supplement the central forest by outlying areas under the same superintendence. But outlying woods a hundred, or even fifty, miles from the main block could not be included in the same working-plan as the central forest, unless they were large enough to justify the appointment of separate officers. The areas most’ needed to supplement a central inland Demonstration Forest would appear to be— (1) A lowland area, suitable for hardwoods. (2) A west coast area, with heavy rainfall and relatively high winter temperature, (3) An east coast area, with a small rainfall and a cold bright winter. The present teaching centres happen to lie in districts which exhibit precisely these conditions. REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 129 The Scotch Education Department and the Development Commissioners recognise the need of a forest-garden for each teaching centre.! For the ordinary purposes of a forest-garden an area of 50 acres is sufficient, but we suggest that, under the circumstances, the forest-gardens might be expanded so as to demonstrate, under forest conditions though not on a commercial scale, the best methods of growing the species suited to the districts in which they lie. We consider that 300 acres, within easy reach of each centre, would be sufficient. Each area would be under the direction of the local lecturer, but the director of the Demonstration Forest and his staff would have free access for instruction and research. Part II. EpucatTion. In attempting to define the functions of a Demonstration Forest, we have found it necessary to review the whole subject of forest education. It may be convenient if, in this portion of the report, we include the reasoning on which our recommenda- tions are based. 10. Zwo Grades of Foresters.—For the sake of clearness, we may begin by pointing out that two classes of foresters are required—forest-officers and working foresters. The distinction is analogous to that between officers and non-commissioned officers in the army. There should be no insuperable barrier between the two grades, but the training and duties are so different that a working forester can only in exceptional cases, by passing through the higher course of study, be expected to become a forest-officer. The working forester must be skilled in all the operations of planting, felling and nursery work; he must understand enough of the principles of silviculture to be able to carry out his instructions intelligently ; he must be trained to recognise insect and fungus enemies, and to observe anything amiss in patrolling his beat. This is work which any intelligent and hard-working man can be trained to do. The forest-officer must be a man of wide education, with an intimate knowlege of the country in which he operates. He will be at a great disadvantage if he does not know German, and a knowledge of French is desirable. He must be thoroughly 1See First Report of the Development Commissioners, pages 23 and 24. £30 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. versed in the principles of scientific silviculture and able to apply them, with the discretion born of experience, to each particular case with which he is called upon to deal. He cannot be a specialist in all the sciences allied to forestry, but he must be sufficiently at home in each of them to recognise when he requires its help and to know where and how such help is to be got; and he must keep sufficiently abreast of each to utilise its fresh discoveries. This is work for a man of first- class intellect and high scientific training. 11. Existing Supply of Foresters.—The working foresters of Scotland at the present time are, taken as a whole, a remarkably intelligent and competent body of men. They have had to work in the face of great difficulties, having seldom had the education necessary for the very responsible position thrust upon them, nor received, except in rare cases, much guidance from their employers or their employers’ agents. In the practical work of a woodman the best of the Scots foresters are hard to beat. They fail in work where a wider experience is required. They are not, for instance, usually competent to: devise the systematic working-plans which are essential to profitable forestry, to classify the soils in their woods, to form an opinion as to the amount of timber their woodlands ought to carry, or to estimate the probable annual increment. Nor, except in rare instances, are they able to advise on the thinning and pruning of young plantations, nor on questions of forest engineering or transport, on which the profit obtainable from the crop often largely depends. No one realises more clearly than the best of the working foresters themselves the need of scientific guidance in such matters. The expert of the forest-officer class is already not wholly unknown in Scots woods, and the demand for his services is increasing. ‘The forestry lecturers have, in the limited leisure at their disposal, been ungrudging in their assistance to private proprietors. ‘The ideal expert, however,—the man who combines the theory of silviculture with experience in the actual manage- ment of Scots woods—scarcely exists at present. 12. General Conditions and Needs of the Present Time.—There are no State forests in Scotland and no Crown forest except the estate recently purchased at Inverliever, of which only about 360 acres have yet been planted. There are about 850,000 acres of private woods (see 25). None of these private woods REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. I31 is under the charge, or even the personal superintendence, of a fully trained forest-officer. Nine-tenths of them are lamentably understocked, and what might be a great source of wealth and employment is going to waste for want of the application of scientific silviculture. Unless the State proposes to buy up private woodlands, it is clear that the remedy for the present defects must depend mainly upon their owners. There are, however, two means by which the State can promote this much-needed change. They are (r) By training working foresters to realise the need of expert advice ; (2) By appointing trained forest-officers to give such advice at a moderate fee (see 24). The object of the educational system which we contemplate will be to bring into existence a body of working foresters and a body of forest-officers each qualified by their training to fulfil their proper functions. 13. Wumber of Forest Officers required in Scotland.—At present there are no appointments of any kind for forest-officers in Scotland, except the four lectureships attached to the University of Edinburgh and the three agricultural colleges. Our scheme provides for three officers in the Demonstration Forest. The number of additional forest-officers that will be required in future, apart from the demands of other parts of the empire (Appendix V.), will entirely depend on the policy which the Government and the Development Commissioners decide to adopt. If the Government follows the suggestion made above and further explained in section 24—a suggestion which appears to be in agreement with the policy outlined by the Development Commissioners in their first report—and decides to create a staff to give advice and assistance to those who desire to under- take afforestation or to develop existing woodlands, one or more additional officers will be required. The survey recommended in section 23 may demand another. And when any move is made in the direction of afforestation, either by the State itself or with its assistance, one additional forest-officer will be, roughly speaking, required for each 4000 acres fully afforested. 132 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. The number of forest-officers likely to be required in Scotland may, then, be summarised as follows :— Four Lecturers (as at present). Three Officers in charge of the Demonstration Forest. One or more Advising Officers available for private woods, One Officer for every 4000 acres fully afforested by the State or, with its assistance, by private enterprise. 14. Training of Forest-officers—One School or Three ?—The above requirements certainly would not justify the development of more than one centre for the training of forest-officers in Scotland. In Bavaria, for example, which has an area of woods larger than Scotland could ever possess, even if afforesta- tion were pressed to its utmost limit, one school for higher instruction in forestry is found sufficient. And although that State has not, indeed, like Scotland, to provide officers for the Indian and Colonial services as well as for home employment, its school—the Forest Department of the University of Munich —is attended by students from other states of Germany, from other countries of Europe, the United States of America, Japan, and elsewhere. The number of forestry students at Munich last year was 121. At the Saxon Forest Academy of Tharandt, the number was 84. In Scotland, in the same year, the total number of forestry students at the three centres, exclusive of evening students, was less than 50, and of this number the majority were not specialising in forestry but merely attended classes in this subject as part of their training in agriculture. The actual number of students who in 1gio-11 attended day classes in the subject of forestry throughout the University winter session at each centre was :— Edinburgh ; ; ; 24 Aberdeen ; ; ' ‘ 16 Glasgow :, : ‘ ; 8 From the foregoing comparison it might appear that the existence of more than one centre for any kind of instruction in forestry was superfluous. But a clear distinction ought to be drawn between the elaborate provision required for the efficient training of those who intend to follow. the career of forest-officer at home or in other parts of the empire, and the comparatively modest needs of the ordinary agricultural or university student who desires some instruction in forestry REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 133 with a view to becoming a factor, or for other reasons. Of the Scots forestry students who are included in the numbers given above, the large majority belong to the latter class. And so long as three separate agricultural colleges are maintained in the country—an arrangement for which there are, no doubt, good reasons—we think it important that the students should be able to obtain at their own college, if they desire it, at least such instruction in forestry as has hitherto been provided for them there (Appendix III.). The evening classes and summer courses, also, which have been conducted for working foresters and others at the respective centres, supply a local demand which will probably continue to exist in some form even after the establishment of a school for apprentices at the Demonstration Forest, and which could not well be met by any single institution. ‘To this extent, therefore, we consider that there is justification for the continuance of forestry teaching at three centres. There is even room for the development of all three on a moderate scale. They are lamentably deficient in the space necessary for housing collections; and we have already stated our views as to the need of a forest garden for each of them. For the training of a forest-officer a two years’ course of study in forestry, following on a year’s study in pure science — such as is this vear being instituted for the first time in Scotland, at Edinburgh (Appendix III.)—is the very least that could be regarded as adequate; and even this falls short of the continental standard (Appendix VII.). An extension of the course at any of the three centres would involve fresh demands upon the teaching statt, and a school which is to. undertake the training of forest-officers must not be stinted either in this respect or in the accommodation needed for its museum and for conducting those branches of instruction and research which belong to the laboratory rather than to the forest. The examination which we have made of the schools of forestry at Munich and Tharandt has convinced us that such an institution cannot be made really efficient unless it is on a scale which it would be ridiculous to repeat three times in Scotland. We are, therefore, clearly of opinion that for the training of forest-officers there should be one fully developed school in Scotland, and only one. The committee has fully considered whether such a schook 134 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. might not most suitably be established at the Demonstration Forest itself, and away from the university centres, on the model of the German Forest Academy. It would be unreason- able, on financial grounds, to provide at a new centre the staff, laboratories and appliances which are already to be found at any of the universities for the teaching of the pure science subjects which lead up to the study of forestry (Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Geology). The teaching at a forest school, if it were decided to create one, would therefore be confined to forestry proper and the specialised sciences allied to it (Forest Botany, Forest Entomology, Forest Chemistry, Forest Engineering, etc.), and even these could not be transferred to a new centre without some duplication of staff and equipment. The advantage which would be gained by their transference to a forest school would be that the teaching could be given by the staff actually responsible for the manage- ment of the forest and with the woods at the door of the classroom. The latter advantage will be sufficiently secured by the arrangement proposed in section 15, combined with weekly excursions, while the former is, in our judgment, out- weighed not only by the complete disturbance that it would entail to arrangements which are familiar and in some ways working well, but by the fact that the responsibility for the students’ training, which ought to le on one principal instructor from beginning to end, would be divided at a critical moment. The change would be opposed to the generally accepted views of those concerned with the teaching of all kinds of applied sciences, and to what appears to be the present tendency in German forest education, as the result of long experience. While we have no hesitation in expressing our opinion that, for the reasons stated above, the training of forest-officers ought to take place at a university centre, and that it should be confined to one only of the existing centres, it is clearly beyond our province to suggest how the desired concentration should be brought about. If we were starting afresh, we should, without hesitation, advise the foundation of a single school of forestry at the university centre nearest to the bulk of the existing woodlands and largest afforestable areas; in which case, as a glance at the map appended to our report will show, the choice would almost necessarily fall upon Aberdeen. It would follow that the location of the Demonstration Forest REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 135 should be fixed mainly with reference to Aberdeen, though it would still be desirable that the forest should be, as far as possible, accessible from all parts of Scotland. It is, however, one thing to frame a scheme de ovo and quite another to remodel existing institutions. If it is thought that matters have now advanced too far for a settlement of the question on the principle suggested above to be any longer practicable, we feel bound to point out that this condition of things is the natural result of the delay of successive Governments to adopt any settled policy with regard to forestry.! 15. Utilisation of the Demonstration Forest by the Teaching Centres.—The lecturer from each teaching centre (whether they be one or more) should bring his own students to the forest for a month or six weeks every year and there instruct them himself in practical silviculture. ‘Ihe visiting lecturer should have no right to interfere in any way in the management of the forest, but he should be entitled, after consultation with the director, to show his class any part of it, to take measurements and observations, to watch all the forest operations, and receive any information which the director and his staff can supply from their records. The only objection which might be urged against this arrangement is the danger of friction between the forest staff and the visiting lecturers. We believe that this objection can be met by a little care and forethought. We suggest that the lecturers and classes should visit the forest in succession, and that a programme putting the forest hostel (see 6) at the disposal of each for so many weeks should be submitted by the director to the Department of Forestry or Demonstration Forest Board, and approved by it after consultation with the teaching centres. 16. Postgraduate Students.—A three years’ course of study in science and forestry, supplemented by demonstration and 1Cf. Report of the Scottish Universities Committee, 1909, Section 9 (referring to the technical instruction provided at ‘‘ Central Institutions ”)— “Tt must be borne in mind that commercial and industrial and even political considerations must often enter into the question of the best means for the effective development of this class of subject. For instance, we have some doubt whether the argument of Sir W. Turner for the establishment of a complete forestry school under the control of the University of Edinburgh, in spite of certain advantages powerfully stated by him, warrants at this moment a claim for support from public funds. It seems desirable that the manner in which the State will deal with the wider aspects of this important question should first be more definitely discussed and determined.” 136 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. practical instruction in the forest gardens and Demonstration Forest, will give a fairly complete education ; but the graduate will require more experience and study on his own account before he is fit to perform the responsible duties of a forest- officer. We therefore propose that a small number of post-graduate scholarships, perhaps six, should be attached to the Demonstra- tion Forest, lasting one to three years, and each worth £50 to #150 a year. No one should be eligible for one of these scholarships who has not completed a full course of higher study in forestry and taken a degree at the end of it. The post- graduate students, while at the Demonstration Forest, would be of great assistance to the director in the work of research and teaching. Some part of their time would presumably be spent abroad to complete their education, at any rate until the forest has reached its full development. Since these men are intended primarily for the service of the State, and since they will be actually contributing to the work of the Demonstration Forest during their stay there, the cost of some of the scholarships would logically fall to be borne by the State as part of the ordinary expenses of the institution; and provision has been made accordingly in our estimate of initial annual expenditure (see 8). Any private trust should, however, have the opportunity of assisting students who do not succeed in obtaining State scholarships to reside at the Demonstration Forest and take up research under such conditions as the trust may see fit to lay down. The scholarships would not only be of advantage to the students themselves, but they would enable the State to keep under observation some of the more brilliant young men without being obliged to take them into the permanent forest service until their worth was thoroughly proved. 17. Training of Working Foresters— School of Apprentices.— We have shown above (see 11) the peculiarly responsible position which this grade of forester occupies in existing woodlands in Scotland belonging to private owners who cannot be expected, except in rare cases, to keep a forest-officer perma- nently in their employment. It remains to be added that the average working forester of to-day fully realises his need of education and has eagerly grasped such opportunities as have been open to him, ‘The lecturers have done their level best to REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 137 give the foresters within reach of their classes a serviceable training, but they are the first to admit that, in the circumstances, it has been next to impossible to provide a course in which theory is suitably combined with practice. We propose, therefore, that there should be a school in the Demonstration Forest where apprentices should enter for a two years’ course. The curriculum and arrangements might follow those which experience has proved to work well in the Forest of Dean (Appendix IV.). We have given much consideration to the age at which apprentices should be admitted and the qualification to be demanded of them. We are convinced that these should at first be as elastic as possible, provided that no apprentice-student is accepted who has not been employed for two years on the forest staff of an approved estate, or in a State forest when such comes into existence. In selecting the apprentice-students regard should be paid to their ability, industry and school record, but we think it would be unwise to lay down any precise standard at present. We also suggest that they should be admitted at any age from eighteen to twenty-five. There is, no doubt, some advantage from an educational point of view in taking them young, but men of twenty are not easy to place when they leave, and for that reason the minimum age for those entering at the Forest of Dean was, after a few years’ experience, raised from eighteen to twenty. Those who through lack of proper facilities while at school, or of access to Continua- tion classes after leaving school, are found to be deficient in their general education should have the opportunity at the Demonstration Forest of getting instruction in the ordinary subjects of a Supplementary or Continuation course. Such instruction may be provided by the local School Board. At the end of the first year any apprentice whose record of work does not show good progress should be weeded out. The apprentice-students should pay a fixed sum per week for their board and lodging, if quarters are provided for them in the forest (see 6). At the Forest of Dean they pay 11s. per week for board, lodging and washing, and their wages are 15s.1 We also suggest that they should pay class fees, and that these should be met (where required) out of bursaries provided by their County 1 We are informed that in practice some of the apprentices manage to make both ends meet on this wage alone, but most of them receive a few shillings a week from some other source. VOL. XXVI. PART II. K 138 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Education Committees. It appears to be in accordance with the traditions of education in Scotland to link up forestry in this way with the County Bursary Scheme. We advise that the number of students should, to begin with, be limited to 20. The school would thus turn out ro trained men every year. Reckoning the working life of a forester at 30 years, it would after 30 years keep Scotland supplied with 300 trained foresters. This number would be easily absorbed. It may be found necessary to increase the number of apprentices later, especially in the event of afforestation by the State or by individuals, but it is doubtful whether in that case it might not be better to establish an additional school in one of the newly afforested areas. 18. Classes for Working Foresters already in Situations.—The special summer classes and excursions recently organised at the teaching centres will, we trust, continue. Classes on similar lines should be provided in the Demonstration Forest. 19. Lutroductory Classes in Primary Schools.—It appears to us desirable that in woodland districts, or in districts about to be afforested, the Supplementary courses provided in the Primary Schools, as well as the Continuation classes, should include instruction which would serve as an introduction to the study of silviculture. Suitable training for teachers is needed, and the Demonstration Forest might be utilised for this purpose. Part III. FURTHER STEPS FOR THE PROMOTION OF SILVICULTURE IN SCOTLAND. We place this subject last in our report, as it 1s so placed in our reference, but it is clearly desirable, and indeed necessary, that the Government should consider its forest policy as a whole along with its scheme of forest education. 20. Preliminaries to Afforestation.—Since we began our inquiry, the Development Commissioners have issued their first report. We find ourselves in close agreement with the policy for the development of forestry in Scotland sketched on pages 23 and 24 of that report. On one point we would respectfully offer a suggestion. The Commissioners express the opinion that “no scheme of State- afforestation on a large scale can be considered until investiga- tion has shown where State forests might economically and remuneratively be provided (regard being had to the interests REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 139 of other rural industries) and until a trained body of foresters becomes available.” We agree in that opinion, but we do not believe that investigation and education, however complete, will by themselves clear the way for afforestation. The Commissioners appear scarcely to have realised the peculiar difficulties which confront afforestation in Scotland, especially in those districts on which it would confer most benefit, and where, owing to the low value of land, it would be most likely to prove remunerative. The chief existing obstacles are :— (a) Economic difficulties concerned with rating, wintering, the occupation of the adjoining ground too high or too poor to plant, and the reconciliation of silviculture with existing interests generally.! (4) A popular and natural prejudice against afforestation, which focusses attention on the immediate disturbance to the few and disregards the benefits which silvi- culture would confer on a much larger population. (c) A widespread belief, based on the experience of ill- managed woods, that silviculture cannot be made to pay in Scotland. We are convinced that nothing short of ocular demonstration will overcome these obstacles. A central Demonstration Area will do something in this direction; but in this area, unless it is a very large one, the place of a resident population will be largely taken by the apprentice-students. Demonstration is, moreover, required in other and more remote parts of Scotland. A few cautious trials in actual afforestation appear to be an indispensable preliminary to State afforestation on a large scale. 21. Creativn of State Trial Forests.—We therefore strongly advise that the creation of a limited number of trial State forests should be included among the preliminary steps to be taken before any far-reaching scheme of State afforestation is considered. They should be placed partly in districts which are now almost devoid of inhabitants, and partly in districts where there is a population in the poor condition of crofters who are making a bare subsistence and would benefit from the oppor- tunity of employment. In the former case, provision should be made from the outset for settling a permanent population on the 1See Report on Afforestation 7 Scotland, published by the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 1911. £40 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. land, the houses being erected from time to time as more labour is required. We venture to express the hope that steps may be taken in this direction at Inverliever. If a Board of Agriculture for Scotland is created, as provided in the bill now before Parliament, and includes a Department of Forestry, the proposed trial-forests would presumably fall under the direction of that Department. Otherwise, we suggest that these forests might be under the general supervision of the Demonstration Forest Board, and might be at first under the special superintendence of the Advising forest-officer whose appointment we recommend (see 24). There will be no difficulty in carrying out the work of planting. However deficient the Scots working foresters may be in the knowledge required for the care of a forest in its later stages, there is an ample supply of men who would be quite competent to perform the initial part of the work and to tend it for the first eighteen or twenty years. We have dealt with this proposal first and at some length, because its omission from the programme of the Development Commissioners causes us some anxiety. ‘These trial-forests appear to us an essential part of the foundation of any practicable scheme of afforestation. If private enterprise could be relied upon to provide similar object-lessons, these ventures would not be necessary; but we believe that, even with the encouragement suggested below, private enterprise is certain to move very slowly until the State affords some practical demonstrations of profitable forestry and of the benefits which it confers on the districts afforested. 22. Three steps recommended.—TYhe steps following on the establishment of a Demonstration Area which we recommend for the promotion of silviculture in Scotland are as follows :— (1) A flying survey to ascertain the best forest sites and their approximate extent. (2) The appointment of an Advising forest-officer with at least one assistant. (3) The establishment of a limited number of State trial- forests. The last of these proposals has already been fully explained. A few words are required in explanation of the two others. 23. lying Survey.—The survey we contemplate would not aim at locating every acre of plantable ground in Scotland. It would aim at discovering the best forest sites and their REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 141 approximate size, taking into consideration the capabilities of the soil as exemplified in the existing woods, where there are any. A survey of this character would be neither difficult nor costly, and would not be apt to fall out of date.! It would merely indicate on a map the areas physically and economically best suited to afforestation. New areas would be added as they were discovered. The areas so marked would not, in any sense, be hypothecated to silviculture. They would be kept in view for that purpose, but forestry would have to give way, as it always must, to any practicable scheme of agricultural development. The object of the survey should be twofold :— (1) To gauge roughly the extent of the field for afforestation in Scotland. (2) To make sure that the beginnings were made in the most favourable districts. The Government is at present absolutely without information under either of these heads.? It seems scarcely businesslike to touch the subject at all without taking steps to obtain this elementary information. A flying survey might be organised in many different ways. We prefer to follow the suggestion of the Development Com- missioners that it should be linked with the work of the Demonstra- tion Forest. We therefore recommend that it should be placed under the direction of the Demonstration Forest Board, unless a Board of Agriculture for Scotland is created and includes a Department of Forestry, in which case we are of opinion that it should be under the immediate direction of that Department. We do not see how the staff of the Demonstration Forest could itself undertake the work, unless it were specially increased for the purpose ; nor would it be wise to relegate to students a task which particularly demands experience. We have considered the question of entrusting the survey to the Advising forest- officer (see 24), but we doubt if he would have time to undertake it. We therefore suggest the appointment, for a limited number ! An elaborate survey or forest project, such as that recently made under the auspices of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society for the Glen Mor District, would, as the Development Commissioners point out, be apt to fall out of date. The need for such a survey will not arise except in the case of areas which it is actually proposed to afforest. 2 Information on the first point is practically limited to the statistics given in Appendix ii. I42 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. of years, of a special officer for this purpose—not necessarily a fully trained forest-officer, but a man who has a thorough knowledge of Scots woods and Scots soils. We suggest that the County Council of each county which appears primi facie worth surveying, or expresses a desire to be surveyed, should be invited to appoint two or three persons to assist the officer in making the survey of that county, and that, failing their appointment by the County Council, suitable persons should be selected by the Demonstration Forest Board or by the Forestry Department of the Board of Agriculture for Scotland, if such is created. 24. Advising Forest-officers.—The remaining proposal—that for the appointment of an advising forest-officer—is favoured by the Development Commissioners in their report, and requires little explanation. Afforestation must, in the nature of things, be slow and gradual, but the application of wise management to existing woods may, in comparatively few years, make a sub- stantial addition to the wealth of the country and to the field of healthy employment. It has already been shown that private woods cannot be brought into order without expert advice (see 12), and that such advice is now only in rare instances obtainable (see rr). A considerable number of private owners in Scotland at the present time are desirous of obtaining working- plans—instances of actual demands for advice for this purpose have come to the notice of members of the Committee—and the lecturers at the teaching centres are unable to undertake more than a fraction of this work. We anticipate that if the best advice obtainable is offered by the Government, and if this offer is accompanied by some such inducements as those suggested in the following section of our report, the demand for it will become general. We suggest that the Government should begin by at once appointing a chief advising forest-officer. The task of laying down the lines on which working-plans are to be made for 800,000 acres of woods in Scotland, and of supervising their construction, will be one of extreme responsibility and can only be entrusted to a man of wide grasp and experience, and one with experience of administration on a large scale. As the preparation of working-plans is a most laborious business, we think that the chief advising officer will, from the first, require one assistant, and we anticipate that within a short time’three REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 143 or four assistants may be required. The assistants will probably be young men and, in any case, will not require high salaries, as their work will consist in ascertaining the facts upon which the advising officer has to give his judgment. When the bulk of the ground has been overtaken, the staff may of course be reduced, though it is impossible to devise working-plans which will not require revision from time to time on account of windfalls, pests, changes in the demand for timber, and other causes. The chief advising officer appointed for this purpose will, no doubt, be also the principal adviser of the Government in any schemes of afforestation it may decide to undertake or assist in Scotland. Unless a Board of Agriculture for Scotland is created, with a Forestry Department, it may be found convenient to place the advising officer under the supervision of the Demonstration Forest Board, but he should not be otherwise officially attached to the Demonstration Forest. 25. Other Measures.—We limit ourselves to the three definite proposals outlined above, because we believe that they can and ought to be carried out at once. But we are unable to expect any appreciable extension in the area of private woodlands— and we are even doubtful whether a contrary tendency can be checked—unless the State can offer direct encouragement to planters by some such means as— (a) The advance of capital at a reasonable rate of deferred interest (interest to accumulate until the crop is realised) ; and (6) An amendment of the law affecting the taxation of woodlands to Estate and Succession Duties, whereby a- private forest, approved for the purpose by the State, would be reckoned as a separate estate,! and possibly charged at a lower rate. Aid of this nature could only be given on condition that the 1 By the Finance (1909-10) Act, 1910, exceptional treatment is given to timber, trees or wood, as compared with that accorded to property in general, by exempting them from the payment of duty so long as they remain unconverted into cash. One need for further relief consists in the fact that at present the value of the timber and woods upon an estate is aggregated with the value of other properties upon it for the purpose of determining the value of the whole estate for death duty (Appendix vi). Hence, by planting on a large scale, a proprietor may render the remainder of his estate liable to a higher scale of death duties, although for a generation the income from the estate is actually reduced by the planting operations. I44 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. woods which received it were managed on lines approved by the State. It would, therefore, afford a powerful lever for good management. It would only involve a fraction of the capital required for the purchase of land and creation of State forests, while the cost of inspection would be very much less than that of direct management. The exemption of newly afforested land from local rates for varying periods is not unusual on the Continent.! In Scotland all plantations are liable to assessment from the date of forma- tion, and the rates are levied upon the actual annual arable or pastoral value of the land throughout the whole life of the crop. The fact that the rates have to be paid over an unproductive period of fifteen years and upwards does certainly, in some cases, deter people from making new plantations, but we believe that the burden is not an unreasonable one. Some evidence with regard to loans, death duties and rates has been taken by previous Commissions on Forestry, but none of these has arrived at any positive conclusion on the subject, with the exception of the Irish Committee of 1907, whose report advocates an extension of the system of loans previously in operation in Ireland. We ourselves have not considered it our duty to examine witnesses upon these matters, and we recognise that, without more inquiry than we have been abie to bestow upon the questions involved, we should not be justified in venturing upon specific recommendations. We are satisfied, however, that each of the measures which we have suggested for the encouragement of private forestry deserves to be made the subject of definite inquiry, and we strongly recommend that such inquiry should be instituted by the Government without delay. Another form of inquiry which is beyond our scope, but which ought, in our opinion, to be immediately undertaken, is to obtain accurate returns as to the present extent of private woodlands. According to returns collected by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1905,2 the area of woodlands in Scotland was then 868,409 acres. ‘There can be little doubt that changes since that date have been in the direction of deforestation. In central Perthshire, Strathdon, and some 1 See Vvansactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol. xxiv., part ii., article on ‘‘ The State and Private Woodlands,” by William Dawson, p- 125. * See note to map of woodlands, Appendix i. REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 145 estates in the neighbourhood of Inverness, including the Black Isle, many thousands of acres have recently been cut and not replanted, and we have no reason to suppose that sufficient new plantations have been made in other parts of Scotland to make good this shrinkage. Moreover, we believe that landowners in straightened circumstances have in so many cases depleted their woods by over-thinning, that the stock is probably less in proportion to area than it has been. Precise information on the last point would, unfortunately, be unobtainable; but accurate returns could be obtained as to the mere area covered by woodlands, and these fresh statistics, besides being required for general purposes, could be compared with previous returns and, in so far as the latter can be relied upon, would serve to verify our impression as to the continued decline of private forestry in Scotland, and the urgent need for some form of encouragement to private enterprise. We desire to direct attention to the advantages of co-operation in forestry, and to recommend that any movement in that direction should receive sympathetic treatment from the State. A good deal could be accomplished by well-directed com- bination among those prepared to invest capital in tree crops. Co-operation has materially helped to develop agriculture in Ireland. In Prussia, co-operative societies, subsidised by the State, have done much to promote private forestry, particularly by the distribution of seeds and plants to their members. We cannot refrain from here stating our opinion that questions relating to congested districts, crofters, small holdings, forestry and other rural industries all dovetail into each other and react upon each other, so that no really satisfactory solution of any one is possible unless sympathetic consideration is given to the whole. 26. Results of private effort— Throughout our inquiry we have been struck by the unanimity of expert opinion on the matters remitted to us for consideration. This is explained by the fact that the development of forestry has for many years been the subject of persistent study and effort by a considerable number of people in Scotland.! Hitherto their labours have received little or no encouragement from Government, unless the word can be applied to the appointment of Commissions and Com- mittees upon whose reports no action has been taken. But 1 The Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society has now over 1350 members, and publishes its 77azzsactéons twice a year ; the first volumes date from 1856. 146 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the work has not been barren. The whole subject now appears ripe for action. We are convinced that education and private effort have reached a point beyond which they cannot be expected to advance without the assistance of authoritative demonstration and research, which have indeed been for years urgently needed. 27. Importance of Immediate Action. — People in search of a remedy for unemployment and rural depopulation have been at times disposed to rush afforestation. This is not surprising, con- sidering that forests of the same size give ten times as much employment as sheep farms! and would enable hundreds ot small landholders to thrive in glens where a score could otherwise scarcely scrape a living.” We find no such impatience among those best acquainted with the subject and with Scots conditions, but they realise that the movement cannot proceed until the first cautious ventures have proved that afforestation can in practice be reconciled with other interests, and that it is beyond doubt for the public good. Education alone can never afford this proof. Caution in deciding upon the first steps to be taken does not imply delay in taking them. The length of time which these trial undertakings themselves require for development before they can supply a lesson for further action is, in our judgment, a reason for losing no time in getting them started. It would be bad policy to spend time and money in completing the machine of education only to find that twenty years more must be spent on practical experiments before a comprehensive scheme can be launched. A steady movement all along the line appears in this undertaking to be the only sure mode of advance. JOHN STIRLING-MaxwELL, Chairman. Lovat. R. Munro FERGUSON. Joun D. SUTHERLAND. Jno. FLEMING. MatrHew G. WALLACE. R:. HSN; SELLAR: H. WarrRE CornisH, Secretary. >t J December QI. ! Without reckoning the population absorbed in attendant industries which might in many cases treble that figure. 2 See Report of Departmental Committee on British Forestry, 1903, Section 9; also Report on Afforestation in Scotland, published by the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, 1911. RELATION OF LIGHT-INTENSITY TO ADVANCE GROWTH. 147 14. On the Relation of Light-Intensity to Advance Growth in Oak and Beech Forests. (With Plate.) By G. P. Gorpdon, B.Sc, “ Advance growth” is defined as including trees, from the seedling to the pole stage, which have sprung up in openings in the forest, or under the forest canopy, before regeneration fellings were commenced; it is perhaps most typical of forests worked under the Selection system and of primeval forests. Its presence in the forest is usually associated with the approaching maturity of the trees forming the canopy over that part in which it occurs. Observations made in the above types of forest in Britain and on the Continent indicate that light is an important factor in the formation of this advance growth. At the outset, the effects of an increase in the light-intensity would seem to be rather varied. Of primary importance perhaps is the effect on the forest soil, which is one tending towards increased evaporation, while it also allows of increased deposi- tion of moisture; the resultant action, however, is probably a desiccating one. Correlated with this there would come about ameliorating changes in the texture of the soil, as a result of increased capillary and percolating actions. Again the gaseous exchange in the humus-forming layer on the forest floor becomes intensified, and so organic metabolic agents at work in the soil are probably stimulated to increased activity. On the other hand, a diminution in the light-intensity may be considered to have, in general, effects opposite to those already described. Now it is fairly evident that these factors will largely influence the appearance and persistence of advance growth in a forest. Moreover, it will be admitted that the variation in the actual chemical intensity of light has also a considerable physiological effect on all plant forms. Illustrations of this are obtained in the general habit of growth, the structure of leaf and bud, as well as in other features of the seedlings forming the advance growth. Indeed the ¢yfe of the individual corresponds almost exactly to Engler’s Schattenbuchen (shade-beech).! In Plate I. 'See MWittetlungen der Schwetzerischen Centralanstalt fiir das forstliche Versuchswesen, Band x., 1911, p. 120, Tafel i. Qzarterly Journal of Forestiy, 1912, vol. vi. pp. 64-69. 148 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. of his paper examples of Schattenbuchen and Lichtbuchen (light- beech) are figured. A comparison of these shows that the habit of the Lzchtbuchen is not so upright, the side branches being stronger and disposed more horizontally than in the Schattenbuchen; and when seedlings of the same age are contrasted, the height-growth is seen to be considerably less in the latter. The leaves of the former are more vertical, while the buds are longer, larger, and more scaly than those of the latter. Another interesting contrast is shown by the fact that, of the beech trees in a forest, the Schattenbuchen comes into leaf first, being on the average seven days earlier than the overwood, and thirteen days earlier than seedlings in the open. In addition to this M. Nordhausen in “ Uber Sonnen und Schattenbliitter ” ! shows that the leaves of the Schatteniuchen have a single palisade layer, in contrast to the double palisade layer of leaves of the Lzchthuchen. He further states that the leaves of the former are larger than those of the latter. As opposed to this, however, observations made in the Spessart have shown that the leaves of the beech forming the advance growth (Schattenbuchen) are smaller than those of young growth stand- ing in the open (Lichtbuchen). Also it is probable that this. diminution in size may be more the result of an insufficiency of moisture, than of any variation in the light-intensity. Thus it would seem of some interest to show how far advance growth gives expression to the several influences resulting from a variation in the light-intensity. SELECTION OF EXPERIMENTAL AREAS. It will be seen that influences other than those expressed by light-intensity have a modifying effect on the development of advance growth. The more important of these may be taken to be the local climate, elevation, aspect, slope, density of stocking, frequency of seed years, mode of dispersal of the seed, and lastly the natural state of fertility of the soil. The necessity for ruling out as many of these factors as possible is at once evident, and, in an attempt to do so, observations were restricted to the advance growth on certain selected areas. These stations were chosen in the beech and oak woods of the State forest, Salmiinster, situated in the Hinterspessart of central Germany, 1 Berichte dcr deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft, Band xxi., 1903, p. 30. RELATION OF LIGHT-INTENSITY TO ADVANCE GROWTH. 149 and they were practically confined to compartments 25, 33, 34 and 38, constituting the remains of Selection forest (Plen/erwald) which at one time extended over the whole district. They lie approximately between the contour lines 1270 feet and 807 feet, on the southern slope of the Kling Bach Valley. The gradient is gentle and the aspect ranges from north to north north-east. The soil in all cases overlies and is derived from Bunter sandstone, and, judging from the height-development of oak, would appear to be of uniform first-class quality for that species. The density of stocking is on the whole fairly regular, the oak tending to form small pure groups surrounded by pure beech. In addition to this, the contour of the land is more or less regular, and the range in elevation is not sufficient to bring about any marked difference in the local climate. The growing stock at present on the area consists of oak and beech, the former varying in age from 120 to 350 years and forming about 60 % of the crop, while the remainder consists of beech, ranging from 100 to 200 years in age. As already stated, the two species form more or less pure groups, and since their seeds are comparatively heavy, and therefore have a dissemination which is almost vertical, the advance growth occurs in practically pure groups. It is of interest to note that in the majority of cases the beech groups of advance growth present a much better height-development than the oak groups of the same age. As regards the persistence of advance growth, groups of oak were observed which, although they had remained for about fifty years under a shelter wood without any appreciable increase in height, were still capable of almost normal development. Again, as in the case of oak full seed years generally occur once every decade, but in the case of beech at intervals of about five years only, it may be safely assumed that the seedlings comprising the advance growth have persisted for some time and are likely to persist. The formation of these groups of advance growth is doubtless largely due to the natural thinning of the canopy, as the trees reach maturity. The process, however, may have been assisted in some cases by windfalls, disease, and the hand of man. ‘Thus, as the various conditions appear fairly uniform over the experimental areas, it seems reasonable to assume that any variation in the advance growth will be due principally to a difference in the light-intensity with its accompanying effects. I50 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. SELECTION OF GROUPS. At the outset a careful survey of the four compartments in question was made. They cover some 200 acres, over which area suitable groups of advance growth were located. In the selection of these, attention was paid to such points as the following :—None were chosen covering an area smaller than *8 square pole, while the maximum tor any group was about I square pole; only pure groups were selected, and no group was taken in which some individuals were dominant to the extent of suppressing others and thus preventing by their shade a normal development of the group as a whole. ‘Ten such areas were selected for beech and eleven for oak. In order to get as many stages of variation as possible for each species, the groups were made representative of all possible conditions of light-intensity. The assignment of groups to different degrees of shade was done by ocular estimate, the intensity of light being gauged approximately by the density of the canopy. The terms “deep,” “medium,” and “light” shade, respectively, were employed to classify the areas. Later, as will be seen, the actual intensity of light on each area was accurately measured by photometric methods. METHOD OF COUNTING SEEDLINGS. After the selection of the groups, each was considered separately, and the number of seedlings was carefully counted on a definite area marked out in it. The method was as follows :— 3y means of a Gunter’s chain, five squares, each one-hundredth of a square chain, were pegged out with arrows in every group ; and the number of seedlings in each square and hence the total for the group were then ascertained. ‘To ensure the greatest possible accuracy in this, a diagonal was always put into the square, the seedlings in every group being thus counted on ten comparatively small areas. The sum of the five squares is exactly *8 square pole, and as the maximum size of a group is about one square pole, the area marked out formed in each case a fair sample of the group. In addition, it may be mentioned that the five squares were distributed in such a manner as to be truly representative of each group. PHOTOMETRIC METHOD. An attempt was made to measure the intensity of light obtaining in each group and to represent it in the form of a RELATION OF LIGHT-INTENSITY TO ADVANCE GROWTH. 15. specific number. In each group a Watkins Bee Meter was exposed until the sensitised paper had assumed the normal tint, when the time of exposure was recorded. Three such readings were made in different parts of each group and the average was ascertained. Ina similar manner, and immediately after taking the last reading, three readings were made in the open in full daylight, and the average was again obtained. The ratio of the reciprocals of the average readings was then calculated for each group, and this gave the specific photi: ration, which is here used as a measure of the light-intensity. The advantage of this method is at once evident, for, had the specific photic ration not been employed, it would have been necessary to take readings of the light-intensity over the twenty-one groups at the same instant. It should be mentioned here that these observations were Carried out while the trees were in fullleaf, also, owing to the exceptional amount of sunshine in the summer of r1gr1, the readings were taken in all cases with practically a cloudless sky. According to Schimper, the above method of Bunsen and Roscoe for measuring the intensity of light in some degree satisfies the demands of exact research, although it is applicable only to the so-called chemical portion of the spectrum, ze. to the blue, violet and ultra-violet rays. He states that “ Bunsen and Roscoe have clearly proved that in a normal paper changing colour in the presence of light, when a definite shade of colour is attained, the product of the light-intensity multiplied by the period of time exposure is always the same. As unit of measurement of the chemical intensity of light, a darkening of the normal paper is selected agreeing with normal black and produced in one second. If the shade of normal black is produced on the normal paper in 2, 3, 4, 5, m seconds, the intensity of the light is 1 divided by 2, 3, 4, 5,2 respectively.” “‘Wiesner’s brilliant investigations were in the first place concerned with the ratio between the intensity (i) of the light actually falling upon a plant or its parts, or its habitat, and the intensity (1) of full daylight at the same time. ‘The intensity (i) is the absolute photic ration.1 The ratio between Z as NES ° ° 5 ° 9 the two intensities i=) is the relative or specific photic ration L.”* 1 Photic ration is the equivalent of Wiesner’s term Lichtgenuss. 2 See Plant-Geography upon a Physiological Basis, pp. 55, 59. fe 152 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. An indication of the limits of error of the above method may be obtained from the following :—‘‘The inaccuracies of the photochemical method of measuring light-intensity are not great. Ordinarily the error does not amount to more than Io per cent., and by repeated measurements it can be reduced to 5, and even to 2°5 per cent.”! RESULTS. Oak— Observations tn Eleven Groups (Fic. 1). P] Specific Photic | Number of Seedlings ot. Rati 8 - l Xation. | per °8 square pole. A *250 305 3 "155 271 é “090 203 D ‘OSI | 245 E "054 | 87 F ‘O41 92 G "039 | 114 H "025 52 I "02 | 57 J 023 30 k O15 48 Beech— Observations in Ten Groups (FIG. 2). Plot Specific Photic Number of Seedlings ‘ Ration. per ‘S square pole. A "059 53 3 034 388 Cc “O31 74 D "030 335 EB 7028 98 F "025 7359 G ‘020 288 iH 018 423 I 018 go ) O14 100 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION. The number of seedlings per °8 square pole for the species beech and oak is plotted vertically, while the specific photic 1 See Light in Relation to Tree Growth, by Raphael Zon and Henry S. Graves, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service—Bulletin 92. ‘ajod aienbs v jo g. aod sSulppaas jo soqwunu ayj Sauo ]eoIqIVA 94) ‘UONeY ONOYg IyIIeds ay) a}voIpuUI aso Yow Ul saansy [eyUOZOY AY, = “"Yoseq puv xV_ Jo asvo dy} ur AjisuaqUl-jYySr] Susueyo yM sSuljpaag jo Jaquinu ay) ul uoTueA ° = if 00% oor ogo: Sg0- oso: S+0- O80: SE0- o£0- SZ0O- ozo- S/0+ 010+ goo. ‘Hoda PLATE To face page 153.) RELATION OF LIGHT-INTENSITY TO ADVANCE GROWTH. 153 ration (being the measure of the light-intensity) is plotted horizontally. Taken as a whole, the curve for oak (Fig. 1) indicates that as the light-intensity increases the number of seedlings per unit of area of the advance growth increases. The first part of the curve shows the two to be almost directly proportional. In the second part of the curve, it is observed that large variations in the light-intensity are associated with comparatively small changes in the number of seedlings. In this region of the curve, however, it is recognised that the disturbing influences of weed- growth and exposure enter in, and this may account to some extent for the flattening of the curve. Thus, as evidenced by the form of the graph, the number of seedlings seems to be tending towards a maximum at point A, where the light-intensity is one quarter the intensity of full daylight. The curve for beech (Fig. 2) is of a different nature. In the first place, there are indications that, in the neighbourhood of point F, the number of seedlings approaches a maximum; in other words, the light-intensity at this point (one-fortieth the intensity of full daylight) approximates to the optimum. The two parts of the curve appear fairly symmetrical about this optimum point. In addition, each part of the curve shows that for a small variation in the light-intensity, there is a comparatively large variation in the number of seedlings. Now any comparison between the two species based on their respective graphs must necessarily be of a very general nature, because of the comparatively wide error limits of the experiments. Such a comparison, however, indicates that in the case of beech, the light-intensity corresponding to the maximum number of seedlings is approximately one-tenth of the light-intensity at a similar point in the case of oak. Again, the maximum number of seedlings per *8 square pole in the case of oak is about half the maximum obtained for beech. Finally, it would seem that, under successful natural regeneration, in first youth as in mature age, the number of beech trees on a definite area considerably exceeds the number of oak trees. The question of the light-intensity at which different species thrive best appears to require further elucidation. It is stated that, for the majority of forest trees, the optimum light- intensity approximates more nearly to the maximum amount of light available for the use of the tree than to the minimum amount VOL. XXVI. PART II. L 154 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. of light necessary for its development. This optimum in some species is almost identical with the total daylight, while in other species it is less than the total daylight.! CONCLUSIONS. While the above experiments are admittedly of too specialised a nature to warrant any generalisations from them, yet it will be seen that, for the species oak and beech in the locality under observation, light-intensity influences to a considerable extent and in a very definite manner the distribution and development of the advance growth. The conditions under which advance growth occurs in a forest are very similar to those under which natural regeneration is brought about, the main difference being in the fact that groups of advance growth receive less side light than natural growth which has resulted from the carrying out of regeneration fellings. An attempt is made by means of the above experiments to determine, more or less accurately, the conditions most favourable to the development of advance growth ; in other words, to determine approximately the optimum conditions for natural regeneration. Long experience has shown that for the oak the lightest possible shade of seed-bearers is compatible with most successful natural regeneration. So, for successful natural regeneration of the beech, experience teaches that a considerable amount of shade is all-important. It is seen from this, that the results of the above experiments are in close agreement with the results of experience. This being so, the suggestion is offered that further experiment may with advantage be undertaken for the same species in different localities and also for other species in varying localities. In this respect, certain Scots pine forests in Scotland appear to offer good ground for experiment. For example, the district of Strathspey contains perhaps the largest naturally regenerated forests of Scots pine in Scotland, and parts of these are at present in different stages of the process of regeneration. In addition, there are on the outskirts of this district extensive areas of natural Scots pine woodland, which afford many examples of advance growth. Thus there are opportunities here for carrying out parallel investigations on the advance growth and on the natural 1See Light in Relation to Tree Growth, by Raphael Zon and Henry S. Graves, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service—Bulletin 92. [This pamphlet is noticed in this issue on pp. 181-202.—Hon. Eb, ] RELATION OF LIGHT-INTENSITY TO ADVANCE GROWTH. 155 growth under varying densities of canopy in the regenerated areas. The results of such investigations would show to what extent the optimum conditions, as evidenced by advance growth, are in accordance with those indicated on regenerated areas. Should the agreement be close, this method of experiment might have a practical value in determining the extent of regeneration fellings. Thus the special knowledge of the optimum conditions for the natural regeneration of any particular species, in any particular locality, might be more economically and definitely ascertained by this method than by the methods at present in use. These conditions, which would be obtained in terms of light-intensity, might ultimately be expressed as a percentage of the growing stock. In this connection the case of the Chir pine (/7zus longifolia) forests in Northern India may be of some interest. In these forests an accidental over-cutting in a regeneration felling gave much better results than had been previously obtained. Conse- quently the first regeneration fellings are now made heavier than formerly, and as a rough rule up to 60 per cent. of the growing stock may be removed. The Chir pine in its character as a light-demander is very similar to the Scots pine, and the value of obtaining an approximate figure, such as the above, for the latter will be readily appreciated. In concluding this note, I desire to thank Herr Forstmeister Hebel, who has given me many valuable suggestions, and every facility for carrying out observations in the forest. 156 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 15. Official Notifications. BoARD OF AGRICULTURE FOR SCOTLAND. The King has been pleased, on the recommendation of the Secretary for Scotland (Lord Pentland), to approve the following appointments to the Board of Agriculture for Scotland in pursu- ance of the Small Landholders (Scotland) Act, rg11, namely :— Sir Robert Patrick Wright, Agricultural Adviser to the Scotch Education Department, to be a member and Chairman of the Board; Mr R. B. Greig, Staff Inspector under the Board of Education, and Mr John D. Sutherland, Oban, to be members of the Board. Mr John D. Sutherland has been appointed to be Com- missioner for small holdings, and will for the present, under the direction of the Chairman, superintend the forestry work of the Board. FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT. Advisory Committee. The Right Hon. Walter Runciman, M.P., President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, has appointed a Committee to advise the Board on matters relating to the development of forestry in England and Wales. References will be made to the Committee from time to time as occasion arises, The Committee will be asked in the first instance :—- 1. To consider and advise upon proposals for a forestry survey. 2. To draw up plans for experiments in silviculture, and to report upon questions relating to the selection and laying out of forestal demonstration areas. 3. To advise as to the provision required for the instruction of woodmen. The Committee is constituted as follows :— Sir Stafford Howard, K.C.B. (chairman); Mr F. D. Williams- Drummond; Sir S. Eardley-Wilmot, K.C.I.E.; The Right Hon. R. C. Munro Ferguson, M.P.; Lieutenant-Colonel D. Prain, C.M.G., C.I.E., F.R.S.; Mr E. R. Pratt, President.of thegnoyal English Arboricultural Society; Professor Sir W. Schlich, K.C.1.E., F.R.S.; Professor Wm. Somerville, D.Sc.; the Hon. Arthur L. Stanley. Mr R. L. Robinson, of the Board of Agri- culture and Fisheries, will act as secretary. OFFICIAL NOTIFICATIONS, WENT, GRANT FROM THE DEVELOPMENT FUND IN RESPECT OF PROVISION OF TECHNICAL ADVICE IN FORESTRY. The Board cf Agriculture and Fisheries have been informed that the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty’s Treasury, on the recommendation of the Development Commissioners, have sanctioned the payment from the Development Fund of a sum of £2500 pér annum for three years, to be distributed by the Board as grants to certain institutions in England and Wales, to enable them to supply technical advice to landowners and others interested in forestry. Owing to inadequate resources, institutions possessing forestry departments have hitherto restricted their attention for the most part to imparting instruction to students. It is now proposed to attach an experienced forest expert to the forestry departments of two universities and three colleges, whose chief duty will be to supply to landowners and others advice as to the general and detailed working of their woods. Each institution will, therefore, become for a given district a centre for information, to which application may be made on all questions relating to the formation, treatment, utilisation and protection of woods. It is essential that the staff to be employed in advisory work should command the confidence of landowners. The men selected should, therefore, be well acquainted with the practice and theory of forestry both at home and abroad. They should be prepared to study in detail the local conditions in their districts, and they must endeavour to impress the advantages of systematic management on those owners of woodlands with whom they come in contact. In order to provide the data which are necessary for the foundation of efficient forest management the Board propose, with the co-operation of landowners, to establish a number of experimental plots dealing with the thinning, underplanting and regeneration of woods. It will be one of the duties of the forest experts to be appointed by means of the grant to aid the Board’s officers in the selection, treatment and supervision of these plots, and in the collection of such statistics as may, from time to time, be required. Conditions of Grant. 1. A grant of £500 per annum for three years from rst October 1912 will be made to each of five institutions to provide the salary and travelling expenses of an advisory expert. 158 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 2. The grant in each case will be a grant-in-aid only. It must be used for the purpose of developing advisory work, and must not be used for the purpose of reducing existing expenditure. 3. It will be open to an institution to employ a member of the present staff on advisory work, but in that case his place must be filled by a fresh appointment to the teaching staff. 4. The Board will require to be satisfied that the officers whom it is proposed to employ on advisory work possess the necessary qualifications. Where advice of minor importance is sought the case may be investigated by a junior officer, but in all cases the advisory officer must be responsible for the advice tendered. 5. Advisory officers may undertake a limited amount of teaching on condition that other members of the staff give an approximately equivalent time to advisory work. 6. The advisory staff will be expected to co-operate with the Board’s officers both in experimental work and in the making of inquiries. 7. Each institution in receipt of a grant from this fund will be expected to undertake the advisory work in a group of counties. 8. An institution may, where this course appears to be desir- able, charge a fee in respect of advice tendered under the scheme. ‘The charge may not exceed one guinea per day for each day’s work in the field. g. The advisory officer must supply to the Board a duplicate copy of the reports sent to persons seeking advice, or, where verbal advice only is given, a short statement of the case and of the advice given should be sent. T. HH. Etiore BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES, WHITEHALL PLACE, S.W., February 1912. FORESTRY INSTRUCTION IN IRELAND. The following circular has been issued by the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland :— A limited number of apprenticeships in forestry will be awarded on the result of an examination which will be held in Dublin on the 5th September 1912. Applicants for apprenticeships must be not less than eighteen years of age and not more than twenty-five years on the rst October 1912. They should be in good health, and of strong constitution, and have received a fair general education. OFFICIAL NOTIFICATIONS. 159 Preference will be given to those applicants who have had experience of work in woods. The subjects included in the examination will be: Avg/ish—to be tested by dictation and a short letter. Avithmetic—the first four rules, simpleand compound; a knowledge of weights and measures, proportion, percentages, and of the elements of the mensuration of lengths, areas and volumes. No expenses will be allowed to can- didates in connection with their attendance at this examination. The successful candidates will be required to work under the directions of a skilled foreman, for at least one year, in one of the woods belonging to the Department. During this period apprentices will be given facilities for improving their general education. Apprentices who acquit themselves in such a manner as to lead the Department to believe that they are likely to make suitable foresters may, at the end of this period, be selected to attend a further course of instruction at Avondale Forestry Station, Rathdrum. The duration of the course at Avondale may extend from one to two years, and in addition to class-room instruction apprentices will be required to take part in the work of the woods attached to the station, or in such other woods belonging to the Department as may be decided on from time to time. Apprentices will be required to enter on their duties on the Ist October 1912. Each apprentice will receive during the first year an allowance at the rate of 14s. per week, with furnished lodging. When in receipt of this allowance the apprentices will be required to find their own board. Such apprentices as are selected to attend at Avondale Station for a further period of training will be provided with free board, lodging and education, and receive allowances at the rate of 5s. per week, Apprentices must undertake to conform with the rules and regulations made from time to time in connection with their work in the Department’s woods and at the Forestry Station. The engagement between apprentices and the Department may be determined at any time by one week’s notice on either side. The Department do not undertake to employ or to procure employment for apprentices on completion of their training. Applications for apprenticeships must be made on the prescribed forms to be obtained from—The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. Last date for making application—zz2nd August 1912. 160 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 16. Observations on the Annual Increment of Spruce and Scots Pine (Second Article). By J. H. MILNE-HoME. A short account was given in last year’s Z7ransactions (vol. XXiv. p. 52) of observations made during the growing season of 1g1o, on the increase in girth of spruce and Scots pine in Dumfriesshire. The observations were made monthly during the growing season, and since the methods adopted as well as the detailed records were given, they need not now be further alluded to except for purposes of comparison. The results of the second season’s observations, conducted on similar lines in 1911, may, however, be of some interest. In calculating the results as a percentage increase of the growing stock, the same formula has been adopted, viz., Percentage = *— ; nx inch of radial growth, and @ the diameter of the stem under bark. x has been estimated by multiplying} the average annual increase in circumference (as ascertained from the mean of n being the number of rings in the last the two years’ observations) by = oe in order to obtain the increase in radius. @ has been calculated from the circumference after making a suitable allowance for bark. The following are the detailed results for 1911 :— PLANTATION K. Scots Pine.—Observations of five trees. Circumfer- epee Increase in circumference in inches during No ‘ : : : Total acl erie May June | July | Aug. | Sept. J | } | _ ea | | | : | I 16°31’ | 25. | OO2Z 4 sl25 Stoo os *500 | ae 2 PAGAN 125 ae Ss 063 as 188 | LP) 3 2250 Orn 062. || *063° | "062 |) =r254)/ “125 aaa? | pe Seo) 4 20°37” 188 | "125 | “125 | °062 | 7063 | °563 | 54 X 5% 5 18°81” | 188 | 062 | 063 | ‘250 "563 a ; Estimated number ot Average 20°05” 138 | ‘062 | ‘075 || “137 038 450 stems per acre 710. ° ae = eld ” ° Ve 1911 3° 14 | 18 3° 8 100 | Average total 7, 1910 26 75 100 height 37’. 1 Through an oversight in last year’s article, the word ‘‘ dividing” was used instead of the word ‘f multiplying.” ANNUAL INCREMENT OF SPRUCE AND SCOTS PINE. PLANTATION K. Spruce.— Observations of five trees. 1601 ne premier Increase in circumference in inches during Haus aa May June July Aug. | Sept. I 20°6” 062 | ‘188 | ‘062 | "125 | “12 "562 aon 39°5 062 . 062 =) 5 5 ma = 14°3 2 Bans. Lele || IAG, |) SAG 125 062 | °500 ” . . “498 __ 400 . a Ba5 “25 | 7e62 | “063 125 | 063 | -438 == 19°20)"), ur . 8 5 x 143 4 gps “125, | 7063) | -062) || -063' | 062 375 5 160" O62) |) -125) |) 5068) 062 312 : Ze ous Estimated number of Average 28'0” ‘OSSel Mrar horco eto) | "O62" | “As7 ale cee ta y 26 | 26 I 22 I 100 Average total /e | 7 % e height 44’. PLaNTatTion D. Spruce — Observations of five trees. | Circumfer- Tete cen er eda . | ence over ncrease in circumference in inches during No. bark ist viay Total | iain oe May June July | Aug. | Sept. I 27°06" SAS || Se ¥7/ | “188 125 | “125 | I°000 d= 67" 2 19°50 250 fe || Xe | Role sh tee 375 | Pe Eye . ad = . . | 3 27°00" 500 500 250 ws 17250 Ve 400 Ee Re sera ee 4 17 62 WSom ee l2 555 |e OO2|= OOo Imma 438 | 67 X 9°07 5 18°88” O62) | 0625-062 || <062—4 602 “312 | | 7 a =: len ketal | Estimated number of Average 22°01 22 "225 | “125 | ‘062 | 038 | ‘675 stems per acre 450. Poe. eee nate 2 Wee Toe rag aa 9 22 22 Ve IQIt 218) sey I UY) 9 | 6 100 Average total %, 1910 12 BO), | 26 20 I2 100 height 390’. | PLANTATION I. Spruce.— Observations of five trees. Circumfer- I ge f eS : ence over | ncrease In circumference 1n inches during No. bark rst May Total | See May | June July | Aug. | Sept. I ASE || SAIS) Spi!) ley. || eres 625 d= 10%" 2 30°56” | -250 | ‘250 | ‘OOS, sh) oe a "563 m = 10°56 3 33°75), "375 | "250 | ‘062 | ‘250 | °063 | 17000] __400 3°54 °/os 4 34°44 ee] 825.) “063 ee | O62 9\| 250) 167 Oso me 5 37°94" ee "125 063 | “188 ae es MAD iA Geis el Estimated number of Average 36°48 "150 | ‘150 | “113 | "075 | ‘038 | °525] stems per acre 280. ° | | a | ee ee = ol ae ae Me IgII 29 29 21 14 7 100 Average total 7, 1910 26 35 18 16 5 ICO height 46’. 162 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. PLANTATION I. Scots Pine.— Observations of five trees. VoL GLO Circumfer- Increase in circumference in inches during No. ; eee OFEr Total oa) May June July |; Aug. | Sept. 1gI1 | ss eaege a) Se | [c Seis ere | | | I Rg 68” 062, |e i25 | 063 | "250 d = 89" 2 29°50 #25 oan ee 063 “088 7G 3 38 12” ce SESS) ase 125 212 490. 4 Roa 125 | 125 | °063 | -062 375 | S19 Onis bee 5 23°50 | "125 | ‘062 187 .| err r * ~ Estimated number of Average 32°88 ‘062 113 037 | 050 262 stems per acre 220. | Zo AOUL ae =a 43 14 | 100 | Average total | 30 38 | 19 Tr | aco | height 36’. Reference was made last year to the considerable variation in the growth of individual trees. ‘he second season’s observa- tions are of considerable interest in this respect. The figures show that generally speaking there is a correspondence in the results, individual trees which made good growth in rgto having maintained their position in 1911, and zv7ce versa. A comparison of the average figures obtained for each plot in the two seascns shows a variation which is almost certainly attributable to the dry and warm summer. It may be remarked in passing that the district, while enjoying a full share of the fine summer and autumn, was also favoured with a fair rainfall, and that for only two comparatively short periods was there any actual drought. It will be noticed that in practically every instance the percentage of growth in May was higher than in rgro, while in every case except that of Plantation K (Scots pine) the total season’s growth was rather less than in 1gto. The results obtained in the latter plantation are somewhat remarkable. In 1910 the whole girth-increment, averaging *350 inches, was laid on in June and July—25 7% in the former and 75 { in the latter month, the percentage rate of growth being 4°24 7%. In 1911 the girth-increment averaged ‘450 inches, and was laid on over a period of no less than five months, from May to September, the proportion of the season’s growth in the month of May being as high as 30 %. The percentage rate of growth also rose to 4°75 “/. It was remarked last year that the short ANNUAL INCREMENT OF SPRUCE AND SCOTS PINE. 163 growing season of these trees was probably due to the deep, peaty soil in which they were growing—a soil which would take some time to dry and warm in the early summer. This surmise is certainly borne out by the second season’s observa- tions, as owing to the exceptionally warm and dry weather the soil was in a condition favourable for growth fully three weeks earlier than in roro, and it remained in an almost equally favourable condition right on until September. The spruce in Plantation K are under observation for the first time this season, and consequently no comparison can be made with a previous year. In Plantation D (spruce) there is a slight falling off in the average increase in girth—-675 inches as compared with ‘712 inches. No. 3 in this lot shows the largest individual increase in girth (1:25 inches) of any of the trees under observation. The current annual increment has remained practically stationary at 93 cub. feet per acre as compared with gt cub. feet. The percentage rate of growth was 6°58 { as compared with 6:98 “/. The Scots pine in Plantation I show a marked falling off in girth-increment as compared with rgro, averaging only “260 inches as against °587 inches. The current annual increment has fallen from 67 cub. feet to 46 cub. feet per acre, and the percentage rate of growth from 4:27 % to 2°59 7%. ‘The spruce in the same plantation show a decrease in girth-increment from -687 inches to +525 inches, the percentage being 3°54 7/ as against 4°16 7%. At first sight these results appear to be inconsistent with those obtained in Plantation K where the warm and dry summer produced increased growth. In the case of Plantation I, however, it will be noticed that the crop is a thin one of 280 stems per acre. They are situated on a considerable slope, and the soil is naturally of a rather dry nature. All these conditions, but more especially the thinness of the crop and the resulting want of canopy, have caused the ground to suffer from a lack of moisture to a much greater extent than would have otherwise been the case. The results are, as might be expected, much more marked in the case of the light-demanding Scots pine than in that of the heavier canopied spruce, although the latter crop is also too thin. There is quite a strong growth of surface vegetation below the Scots pine, while such growth is almost absent below the spruce. If these deductions are 164 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. correct, the figures show very plainly that the loss from a thin crop not only arises from the deficiency of growing stock, and the inferiority of the quality of the timber, serious as these may be, but that there is a further loss from the smaller percentage rate of increment, especially in abnormal seasons. In times of heavy rainfall the soil in such woods becomes quickly saturated, and the trees are thus much more exposed to windfall if a gale should happen to accompany or to follow heavyrain. Ina saturated soil of this kind, a heavy spring rainfall may also mean a delay of perhaps two or three weeks at the commencement of the growing season, before the soil is sufficiently warmed for growth to commence. The following table was given in last year’s article but is now repeated for reference, and below it is given a corresponding table giving the second season’s results. In 1910 the rainfall during the same period was 20'180 Inches, falling on 72 days. ‘The summer was exceptionally fine with two or three periods of very hot weather. As already mentioned, how- ever, there was no period of prolonged drought such as proved so disastrous in other parts of the country. ‘The longest periods without rain were from rst to 16th June and sth to 15th July. Estimated! Number Wane Present Current Planta~ | Species Age SIN: Ok Average | annual e annual tion | 2 growing stems diameter increment rate of One enit stock per acre growth cub, ft. cub. ft. cub. ft. 1910 K |Scots Pine} 37 1200 710 6:2” 324 4°24 ee D Spruce BZ 1320 450 6°8” 41 6°95 QI I Spruce 40 2800 280 TS, 70 4°16 116 I Scots Pine| 40 178 280 10:4" 43 4°27 67 1911 K |ScotsPine| 38 1251 710 6a! 34 4°75 59 K Spruce 38 2700 700 8:6" 71 3°29 89 D Spruce 33 1411 450 We 43 6°58 93 I | Spruce 41 2916 280 Tie 71 3°54 103 I | Scots Pine} 41 1797 280 10°5” 44 2°59 40 The rainfall during the growing season of 1911 was as under :— No. of days Heaviest fall Inches. on which rain fell. — in 24 hours. May set ee 3.210 07, 980 June sa at 2 780 iyi “680 July re fee 1800 15 ‘910 August oe Ef 4°290 16 1°460 September ... Mer 4°300 14 2°000 16. 380 73 | THE RAISING AND MANAGEMENT OF THORN HEDGES. 165 17. The Raising and Management of Thorn Hedges.! By WILLIAM HALL. The Ratsing of a Young Hedge.—From long experience I find the best way to start a young hedge is to insert two rows, about 3 inches apart, with plants back to back. ‘This gives the roots more room than they would have in a single row, and also allows the plants to be easily cleaned when young. Previous to planting the ground should be well trenched, as thorns are deep-rooted plants. Should the sub-soil be poor, keep the top soil above it, but if it is of good quality, it is advisable to dig the top soil in. Should there be turf on the surface, it should always be buried deep enough to be out of the way of subsequent planting operations. Should the soil be poor, a liberal supply of well-rotted dung should be dug in, and the soil should then be left to consolidate for a time before planting. The width of the trench should be 3 feet to 3 ft. 6 ins. It is essential that the land should be well drained before planting, as thorns will not thrive on wet soil. The drains should be 15 feet from the hedge, at the very least, so as to prevent the roots getting to the pipes. A very good time for planting is February. It should not be carried on later than the second week in March, as thorns begin to bud early if the weather is mild. When planting is started, the line should be set 14 feet from the centre of the trenched ground, which should be carefully cut’ with the spade, care being taken to make the trench perpendicular, so that the plants can be planted in an upright position. The soil should be thrown out so as to form a trench wide enough to get the roots spread out, the trench being level at the bottom, With four men the work of planting the hedge goes on smoothly, two men being engaged in digging out and preparing the trench, one man plant- ing, and the fourth treading in the plants and filling up the trench. Under these circumstances it is surprising what a length can be completed ina day. The thorns should be planted 9g inches apart in a single row; and, when planting the second row, the plants should be placed so as to come intermediately between the plants of the first row. This mode of planting takes nine plants to the 1 An abstract of an essay submitted for competition. 166 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. yard for the two rows, that is not more than a single-row hedge, and it gives more room both for roots and branches. In planting we have used Myrobella Plum, as a mixture, planted I yard apart in the two rows as an experiment; it is said to be almost impenetrable, and it grows well. Cost of trenching, and planting a young hedge, 320 yards, two rows of thorns :— Trenching . : : : « An Sao Planting . ; ; , : 2.) hogan Plants— horns, 2600 at 12s. 6d. per 1000 teem Myrobella, 320 at 20s. ‘i © 656 Total . . AS oes This works out about qd. per yard. {n planting a single-row hedge the cost would be about the same, except for the planting, which would be only half the amount as there would only be one trench to make. The hedge described was planted in the last week of 1909, and has made very good progress during the year: not one plant has died, but rabbits or hares have eaten a few. Another young hedge planted later, in the spring of 1910, round a young planta- tion has done very well also. This hedge was enclosed with the wire-netting used to protect the trees, which has prevented rabbits from doing it any damage. When once a young hedge has been damaged by rabbits it never does much good afterwards. After the young hedge has got firmly established, that is in about one year from planting, it should be cut off about 3 inches from the ground. A good tool to do this with is a Yorkshire bill knife, which has a hook on one side. The proper way to perform the operation is to stand with a foot on either side of the plant, so as to keep it firm, then to catch hold of the plant with the left hand, and with the bill knife in the right give a quick upward cut in a slanting direction, ‘The cutting helps to thicken the bottom of the hedge, causing it to send out more shoots. Of course it throws the hedge back for a bit, but by the next year this is never noticed, as the young shoots which grow from the stool come on very quickly, in fact faster than the original thorns. Planting on the level is, I think, a long way better than the method practised a century ago, which can be seen all over the THE RAISING AND MANAGEMENT OF THORN HEDGES. 167 country in old hedges,—that is the method of cutting a ditch, making a bank and planting the hedge on the top of the bank. Sometimes the thorns were laid flat on the ground, and the soil from the ditch thrown on their roots. This can be noticed yet in some old hedges where the stems have had to turn to grow upwards, so that all the thorns show a bend. As a rule hedges planted on a bank are much attacked by rabbits, the bank being a great attraction for them to burrow in. At the time when hedges were planted with a ditch and bank it was necessary to do this, because the land was wet, not being drained then as it is now, when nearly every estate is thoroughly drained where possible. ‘There is thus no further need of cutting a ditch alongside a hedge. The present system of planting on the level has several advantages, particularly on valuable arable land where a ditch would take up 4 or 5 feet of land which can now be ploughed close up to the hedge. Further, when a ditch runs alongside an arable field it, as a rule, grows many weeds which scatter their seeds across the field and cause a lot of extra work. In planting a hedge it is sometimes the custom to mix it with other plants, such as beech, hornbeam and common barberry. Beech makes a splendid mixture, forming when mixed with thorns, say about one beech to six thorns, a compact, strong hedge. Beech also retains its leaves all winter, providing good shelter for stock. Hornbeam has somewhat similar properties to the beech. Barberry is rather apt to grow straight, bare stems, all the growth going to the top and the plants making no side branches ; it is therefore not very suitable. Management of Young Hedges.—For the first five or six years young hedges require much attention. Most probably they will require weeding twice a year, when they must be dug over with the spade or grape, all weeds and rubbish being pulled up from amongst the plants and the soil drawn close up to the stems afterwards. In about three years after planting, if the hedge has made good progress, it is a good plan to prune the sides, cutting off any long top-shoots, and thus making the top level. This makes the hedge thicken as it grows up. When a hedge is first planted, it is a good plan to scatter well-rotted dung over the roots to protect them from drought and to retain moisture. This can be dug in in the following autumn. Older hedges should be trimmed early in the year, say 168 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. in September, when the twigs have not yet hardened into wood. A far tidier and cleaner job can be made at this time, also they are easier to slash. In slashing, some people like an inverted V-shaped hedge, but from experience I find that this shape is very bad for the hedge, as it prevents light from getting to its centre, and sometimes causes it to die off: also no young shoots grow, for want of light. A shape something like a spruce cone is, I think, the more practical shape. ‘This shape prevents the hedge from growing too many branches, and therefore allows more light into the main stems and encourages young shoots to grow. When in course of time a hedge begins to get open at the bottom, the best plan is to split it up, or half cut it over. This can be done in two ways, either by cutting one side before the other and allowing that side to grow up before the other is cut, or by cutting both sides at once. The latter can be accom- plished very well on arable land, and the hedge should be cut down to about 18 inches high. In splitting or cutting over, a strong slasher should be used, and all branches should be cut off at the bottom, the main stems being reduced to the required height, and care being taken to always cut upwards, making clean cuts. This prevents the cut ends from rotting. Cutting down- wards splits the ends and causes rot. Where weak places are found, a good side branch, or a main stem that can be spared, should be chosen, half cut through at the bottom and layered into the gap, being pegged down if necessary. A very neat and tidy job can be made by an experienced man, and in a few years a hedge treated in this manner will throw up young shoots and make a strong fence, probably thicker than the old one. Sometimes it is a good plan in old hedges on arable land to cut the hedge clean off, level with the ground, filling up all gaps with young plants. ‘The only objection to this is that the young shoots are very easily broken off the old stools at the start, and in all probability the shoots from the old stools will outgrow the young plants. Still a very good hedge can be got in this way by careful management and attention. Should too many shoots grow on any of the old stools, it is a good plan to cut or break off a few to thin them out, leaving either the strongest or weakest at discretion. Another plan mostly practised in old, tall hedges, on grass land, is that of layering or plashing them, which is much THE RAISING AND MANAGEMENT OF THORN HEDGES. 169 practised in Yorkshire. The advantage obtained by this system is that a good fence is got sooner. The greatest objection is expense, for the cost of layering runs from as. 6d. to 3s. 6d. or 4s. per chain, according to the age and nature of the hedge; then there are the stakes to hold the layers fast till they set,—2zs. a chain; to which add topping or laths to nail along the top of stakes to hold them fast,—also 2s. a chain; then there is con- siderable expense in cleaning up afterwards, especially if the hedge has been very rough and old. A recently layered hedge should be protected from stock for two or three years, till it gets a good start, either with barbed wire, which is cheapest, or with rails, or by a dead fence, which can be got out of the waste material from the old fence. The only objection to a dead fence is that it encourages weeds and grass to grow up and smother the layered hedge, thereby preventing young shoots from growing. It is of great importance that there should be no or very few trees in a hedge row, as they nearly always kill it either with the drip of their branches or by their roots sucking all the nourish- ment out of the ground. Of course the landscape would look very bleak without trees, but where trees do occur they should be well lopped, so as to allow plenty of light to get to the hedge. Agricultural Fences.—Nothing beats a hedge for agricultural land. If it is properly grown and managed it is almost im- penetrable to stock, and it also provides good shelter in cold winds and snow storms. Post and rail fences are good enough in their way, as a fence of these can be erected in a short time, but it is easily damaged by stock, and such fences are in constant need of repairs, and besides they provide no shelter. In some parts of the country, principally on the hills, where material for their construction is easy to get, dry stone walls are mostly used as fences. Stone makes a good substantial fence, lasting a life-time, but the expense of construction is a very heavy item, as besides building there is a heavy bill for carting. These fences provide excellent shelter for stock. In some parts stone and lime are used and form a very lasting and substantial fence, but also a very expensive one. Another kind of fence used extensively on the hills is wire fencing, which lasts a long time if proper material is used in its construction. This makes a capital fence for sheep but is greatly objected to by farmers for horses, as they are in the VOL. XXVI. PART II. M 170 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. habit of rubbing themselves on the wires, and frequently get their legs cut by getting entangled in them. Plantation Fences.—In this case again I advocate thorn hedges as being the best kind of fence; but plantation hedges have several very deadly enemies, such as rabbits and hares and overshadowing by trees. All these help to spoil a hedge, and frequently kill it outright; other plants sometimes take the place of the thorn, such as elm and ash saplings, bourtree, hazel and briers. These are sometimes allowed to grow as a makeshift, but they never make a good fence. Rabbits do a great deal of harm to plantation hedges by nibbling the young shoots, and in frost by barking the stems, which frequently die off afterwards. Where rabbits are abundant the hedge is generally very open at the bottom, often allowing sheep to get inside it. The overshadowing of trees frequently does damage to hedges. This can be remedied if, when forming young plantations, no young trees are planted nearer to a hedge than 8 feet for conifers, and farther off for hardwoods. Should this plan be adopted, very little lopping of trees would be required alongside a wood. Holly makes a good hedge for plantations ; it does well in the shade. Rabbits hardly ever touch it, at any rate not so much as they do thorns. The only objections are its slow growth, and that the plants are more expensive than thorns. In planting a young hedge round a plantation, it is a very good plan to mix thorn with holly where the land is suitable for its growth, so that the two together might form a better fence, the hollies taking the place of the thorns should they be damaged in any way. Where no hedge exists, a post and rail fence with upright pales is best for a plantation fence. In this part of the country they are usually erected with oak posts, squared with an axe and morticed for two rails ro feet long, with hardwood pales 33 feet high and about 33 inches broad. A fence of this material will last a very long time. Where plenty of larch thinnings can be got, a very nice rustic fence can be made with them in the following manner :—A line of posts is driven into the ground just as for a wire fence, with straining posts where required ; two good strong wires are fixed to these to take the place of rails, one near the top of the posts and the other about 12 inches from the ground ; these should be drawn very tight. ‘Then take good larch thinnings, split up the THE RAISING AND MANAGEMENT OF THORN HEDGES. ne 7 ee middle with a circular saw, first fix with staples the strongest of these to the wires, bark side out, at an angle of 45° and about 9 or 10 inches apart, then fix the smallest of the thinnings on top of the first lot with nails, sloping them in the opposite direction. This makes a very neat rustic fence, and looks very well in pleasure-grounds or by a roadside. The tops can be cut level when finished by stringing a line at the required level. Another good plantation fence can be made with the new split-chestnut fencing, woven with wire, which is manufactured by several firms. It is sent out in bundles of about 5 yards in length, and is very suitable for mending gaps in hedges, being easy to fix. A machine for making the above fencing should be on every large estate, and might effect a great saving by utilising large quantities of small wood which would otherwise simply go to waste; besides, it would find employment for estate workmen in wet weather. As a proof that thorn hedges can be made successful under proper management, the writer knows of a small estate in the south of Scotland where most of the hedges were re-planted about thirty years ago. Several small woods were also planted, with young hedges around them. ‘These hedges have been carefully attended to, and at thirty years after planting make a splendid fence which looks like lasting as long again if not longer without any special treatment. They are close together without a hole in them, are kept well slashed and are really beautiful to look at. Inthese thirty years, I should say, three fences of posts and rails of the kind mostly used in that district would have been required. In conclusion, I am of the firm belief that when it is once established and properly looked after, other conditions such as soil being suitable, nothing can beat a thorn hedge as a fence either for arable land or plantations. I72 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, 18. Visit to a French Private Forest. By F. CowLey-Brown, Indian Forest Service. The difficulties encountered in the management of the private forests of France are in their nature not dissimilar to those with which the Scottish owner is usually confronted. Some account therefore of the methods adopted for the solution of the local problems in France, and the degree of success attained, may perhaps be of interest to British foresters. The smail village of Paulmy lies about 25 miles to the south of ‘Tours in the Department of Indre et Loire. The well- watered and somewhat flat landscape is occasionally broken by rounded hills—for the most part clothed with forest. The soil is very stiff and inclined to clay with occasional intrusions of lime. Much of it is doubtless of alluvial origin. It is considered very fertile, but owing to the high level of the sub- soil water, it is heavy and expensive to work. For this reason oxen, and, it is said, even cows, are employed at the plough during early spring; but these are replaced by horses in the summer when the ground is drier and lighter. Le Grand Bois de Paulmy—some 1500 acres in extent—is the property of the daughter of the late Comte de Stacpoole, and formed part of the domain of the late Marquise d’Oyron,. who maintained the forest mainly for sporting purposes. It contains very little game now owing to the depredations of foxes, badgers, polecats and other vermin. The village lies in a hollow, completely sheltered from wind by the surrounding low hills, which are well covered with forest. The valley, running east and west and traversed by a narrow-gauge railway, naturally divides the forest into two blocks, north and south. The latter, about 1000 acres in extent, is approximately double the area of the former. The whole property—forest, farms, offices, etc.—is in charge of the Régisseur Lucien Lalanne, who is practically without assistance. Grazing is forbidden. There are no rights, and practically no offences. The stock consists of Maritime pine, oak and hornbeam. Spanish chestnut is also of occasional occurrence. Wherever the overhead cover permits, the ground shows a dense growth of broom and heather. The forest is divided into 17 felling areas or compartments of somewhat unequal size. VISIT TO A FRENCH PRIVATE FOREST. 173 These are separated by well cleared paths, while rides and alleys abound within the area, which is crossed in all directions by excellent departmental roads (chemins de grande communtca- tion) ; but the minor roads are serviceable only in fine weather, and the authorities might well be approached with a view to their improvement. Every portion of the forest is consequently thoroughly accessible, and the highest ruling local prices should therefore be realisable for the produce of the fellings. The pine P. pinaster, locally and erroneously known as safin, is treated under a rotation of from 60 to 65 years. The oak and hornbeam are coppiced at 16 or 17 years, standards of the same species, not exceeding 20 per acre, being reserved. Rather more than two-thirds of the forest is under pine, and the remainder consists of coppice. The clayey soil is distinctly damp and cold; it cannot be regarded as at all desirable for the oak, but it suits the hornbeam well, and is by no means unfavourable to the pine and chestnut. At the end of the rotation the oak-coppice averages 18 feet in height ; hornbeam of the same age runs to about 3 feet more, and appears, as might be expected from the physical conditions obtaining, to be in every way more flourishing. In low situations, the difference between the development of the two species is even more marked. The majority of the coppice felling areas are of mixed stocking, but there are also a few areas of either species pure. The coppice is sold “standing” to a contractor, who has also a right to all undergrowth. He is in fact bound to fell and remove it, although it barely pays him to do so. The stools are cut absolutely flush with the ground, and the whole felling area is exceedingly well cleaned. The produce is utilised for charcoal as well as fuel, and the oak faggots are barked for tannin. ‘The coppice fetches rather under £5 per acre. Under a rotation of 16 years the return works out to about 6s. per acre per annum. As compared with the hornbeam the oak has a very much better reputation as fire-wood, and fetches a far higher price, but it is reported by the Régisseur to be annually deteriorating in quality and outturn. In other words, the quality of the locality is not improving. At first sight the substitution of hornbeam, which suits the locality admirably, would seem to be indicated. Unfortunately this timber is often almost unsaleable, and at the best it fetches such a low price as to be scarcely worth the trouble and cost of production. 174 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. In practice, therefore, the actual treatment of the coppice areas is a somewhat difficult question, and must be modified by the fact that in the higher and lighter localities, in spite of the Régisseur’s condemnation, the oak is not deteriorating and is perhaps more than holding its own. A strip of oak high-forest forms the northern border of the southern block. The trees, now about 28 years old, are some 22 feet high, and, notwithstanding the northern aspect and damp situation, are prospering, and have shown a decided increment during the last 3 years. This strip should certainly be left as it is. It will probably ultimately produce fine trees, such as are now found in a similar small block bordering the railway about a mile to the west of the village. The development here is most satisfactory, but the block is in need of an immediate thinning—light but sufficient to free the crowns of the dominating stems. Unless the necessary steps are taken here without delay, this compartment will lose its capacity to produce fine boles during the present revolution, and will deteriorate into a collection of mediocre and suppressed trees. The pine throughout the forest is thoroughly healthy and of strong growth, and shows every evidence of being suited to the environment. The stocking, however, is forthe most part too dense, and throughout the felling areas generally thinnings are indicated —in some cases they should be made without further delay. For instance, the Compartment de Chauvelliere in the northern block is so densely stocked that, although the height is very fairly satisfactory, the stems are no thicker than bean-poles, and if relief is not at once afforded by a comparatively heavy cleaning, the whole crop will probably be destroyed by the very intensity of its present struggle for existence. At 65 years the pine has an average height of 40 feet of workable bole, with a circumference of 3 feet, and there is no reason to suppose that this is the local limit of its maturity. On the contrary, whatever may be ultimately decided upon as to the object of management and requisite method of treatment, the extension of the rotation for at least another 15 years seems advisable. Apart from any theorising on the point, practical evidence ot the result of such a measure is forthcoming in the Compartment des Bruyéres des Gats (south block). For some reason the final crop has been left to the age of 84 years. The girth here averages over 5 feet and the height of the workable bole 60 feet: VISIT TO A FRENCH PRIVATE FOREST, 175 doubtless no great dimensions, but satisfactory enough when considered as the product of the natural environment unassisted by skilled supervision. The finest tree in the forest is found here, and is known as Le Roi de Paulmy. It will be interesting to see what its final development will be in another 50 or 60 years: its present girth is considerably over 8 feet. Nearly everywhere, as has already been stated, thinnings are required. The Compartment de Laveau in the northern block is an instance in point. The stock here, 35 years of age, is already too dense, and consequently although the height is satisfactory and the stems are well cleaned, the girth is inferior. A moderate thinning, it applied at once, would greatly enhance the future value of the crop. ‘The same observation applies to the Compartment de la Croix Rouge in the southern block. The above are merely a few instances selected at haphazard from different portions of the forest; they are intended only as individual examples of the necessity for applying the principle of scientific thinnings to the whole pine crop. Each tree after a certain age is numbered and entered in the Régisseur’s Control Book. Such trees as are considered ripe for felling are sold standing to the contractor. The method adopted for both broad-leaved trees and conifers is thus that of Selection by felling areas, modified by financial requirements. The forest is expected to yield annually £240, and to all intents and purposes this budget estimate is regarded as the basis, if not the object, of management. The average annual revenue from the pine amounts to about £25 per acre : or under a 60 years’ rotation the financial yield works out to about 8s. 4d. per acre per annum. In glades, blanks, and where sufficient light has been afforded, the young growth is thoroughly satisfactory, the annual incre- ment, or length of the internodes, being often a foot or more. The reproduction is to a great extent artificial—by transplants. Usually, what is equivalent to a preparatory felling is effected, and the seeds or seedlings are then introduced. Considering the magnificent crop of self-sown seedlings that results from a sufficient opening of the canopy, it seems rather a waste of energy and money to have recourse to fhe expensive methods of artificial regeneration. It is probable that less unsatisfactory results, with a far more favourable balance sheet, would be obtained by subjecting the pine to light thinnings every 5 years onwards from the age of 25 years, and by devoting the last 20 years or so of the rotation to the orthodox Preparatory, Secondary, and 176 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Final fellings—the natural reproduction being “ provoked,” if need be, by weedings during this period. Where the canopy is at all complete the humus is magnificent, but the Régisseur should be cautioned against too sudden or too heavy thinnings, as the undergrowth is naturally so thick that the welfare of young seedlings is always lable to be seriously imperilled by any access of light that is not carefully graduated and controlled. The cost of exploitation both in the coppice and the high- forest is greatly enhanced by the dense thickets of broom and heather that spring up unbidden wherever sufficiency of light permits. Under the pine it is naturally less thick than in the coppice; and where the canopy of the former is complete, as is usually the case, the ground is covered with a deep layer of humus and needles, affording excellent promise for natural reproduction when the cover is lightened. In places the pine shows symptoms of the disease known locally in the Landes as *séché” ; and the remedy in vogue in that district should be at once adopted here—viz., the area should be segregated by a rectangular trench deep enough to cut even the lowest roots of the stock affected. The risk of fire is considerable, but the forest is fully insured against this danger—£9 being paid annually for a policy of the value of £62106. The question of future treatment must now be considered. Three years ago the writer advised the proprietress to obtain the services of a resin-tapper from the Landes country for the purpose of tapping the pine for resin, and to replace the oak by hornbeam in the coppice areas. A subsequent visit and the light of further experience has shown the necessity of modifying these views. A tapper was obtained, and the experiment was tried for a year. ‘The quality and quantity of resin produced was very satisfactory—a point of considerable importance, as it was maintained by several French forest-officers, whom the writer consulted, that the pine removed from the conditions obtaining on the south-west coast of France would not yield resin of a commercial quality, or in any considerable quantity. Owing to the prevalence of this theory tapping has scarcely been attempted in the vast pine forests of the Riviera, although it is effected on a large scale in the forests situated in the arid plains between Vittoria and Madrid. But it was found at Paulmy that the damage to the young growth, which was trampled down in all directions by the tappers at work, assumed serious pro- VISIT TO A FRENCH PRIVATE FOREST. jig fia portions, and that the esthetic aspect of the forest was anything but improved by the scarred and blazed stems; it was con- sequently decided to abandon the operation. There can be no doubt that under suitable modifications the tapping would have been a commercial success, and that the annual financial yield would have appreciated largely. But the proprietress probably decided wisely in not persisting with the scheme. Paulmy is worked under the Selection system, a method that is not well adapted to resin-tapping, although the combination succeeds in the communal forest of Anglet near Biarritz. But it would be necessary under this system to define rigorously the paths to be used by the tappers, and to supervise their work very thoroughly. The alternative would be to replace Selection by the Compartment system in vogue in the Landes forests, under which resin-tapping can be effected with the minimum of difficulty and harm. In a French State forest this expedient would almost certainly have been resorted to; but in a private forest many points of view, besides that of the highest “silvicultural possibility” have to be considered. There is a limit to the capital which a proprietor is prepared to spend on his property, and also to the amount of labour available. The change of system or the safeguards outlined would have involved a very considerable outlay, and a large permanent staff of workmen. Now at Paulmy there is only just enough labour to run the farms with a small margin for minor forest operations during the off season. The surrounding district is not thickly populated, and the introduction of foreign labour would have necessitated a considerable capital outlay (for housing, etc.), with an annually recurring charge. It is possible, moreover, that from other points of view such a step might not have been a success. Paulmy is in the heart of the Tourraine country—the stronghold of such conservative traditions as still persist in France. Anything contrary to the ‘‘custom of the country” would be regarded with marked disfavour and meet with veiled opposition. ‘The proprietress, doubtless, also hopes to re-establish the former reputation of the forest as a game preserve, and it is only natural that she should wish to retain, as far as possible, the natural beauties of the land- scape. ‘Tapping would certainly militate against both projects, and it is therefore necessary to devise a scheme of future treat- ment that will be, as far as possible, in accordance with her aims. d 178 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. There is no doubt that the pine is a more profitable invest- ment here than the broad-leaf coppice. Under the present system of management, allowing for the difference of rotation, the former yields annually 8s. 4d. per acre and the latter 6s. ; and if the area were regularly subjected to scientific thinnings, as already indicated, the yield of the pine would be markedly increased. As regards the coppice, the present system of treatment could scarcely be improved upon with reference to exploitation purely. In other words, the yield from the coppice is as high as can be reasonably expected. The conversion of the whole of the coppice into pine high-forest would therefore seem indicated. But there are, as we have seen, private and esthetic reasons against such a drastic change. We have also noted that the depreciated value of hornbeam renders impossible its substitution for oak-coppice in low-lying, heavy, cold areas unsuitable for the latter species. But the area under coppice should be greatly reduced by keeping the coppiced felling areas adjoining the pine compartments clean and bare (cleaning every year if necessary), until the pine young growth has established itself naturally. It must not be lost sight of that the price of fuel is falling, and, with the improvement in communications and consequent greater accessibility of coal- fields, this depreciation is not likely to be lessened. On the other hand, the value of the Maritime pine is annually rising. In the south of France the demand for telegraph poles, mine props and planks of this species is increasing by leaps and bounds. In the Landes country there is scarcely a timber purpose which this tree is not now made to serve. The Chemin de fer du Midi use it largely for sleepers (impregnated) and the construction of railway carriages; while it also supplies material for nearly all the household furniture in the district. There is therefore good reason’ for recommending an increase in the length of the rotation at Paulmy. Much of the coppice area, if not to be treated as high-forest of pine, requires draining at once. There are, it is true, a certain number of drains already, but these are not enough to render the ground fit for oak. The alternative proposed (z.e. the conversion) would certainly be more satisfactory and less costly- The most immediate and imperative need is, however, for thinnings of varied degrees in almost all age-classes of the forest. The difficulty is to decide how best to utilise the VISIT TO A FRENCH PRIVATE FOREST. 179 scanty labour and supervision necessary for this delicate and varied operation. As is always the case, the crop on each felling area or portion of one must be carefully studied before the order to touch a single one of its members can be given. There is no rule of thumb, or even rule of book, to guide the operator. The eye, trained by experience and controlled by the principles of the object of management, alone can decide in each case. The ideals to be kept in mind are a complete canopy above and a carpet of humus below,—the connecting link being the clean boles,—the dominated stems being left in just sufficient number to clean the dominant, and not in such profusion as to choke them. It must be remembered that in an hour an_ injudicious thinning can do incalculable harm, while an expert can in the same brief period greatly improve the stock. Unfortunately, there are already too many instances of the former class of thinnings at Paulmy. A year or two ago, a contractor was let loose in the forest, the result being an excess of light, many branched stems, absence of humus and a plethora of weeds and undergrowth. This can hardly be a matter for wonder, for it is, not unnaturally, the aim of a contractor to get as much as possible out of the area to be thinned—an ambition diametrically opposed to the object of management on which the thinnings should be based. Supervision and labour being so greatly limited, only the most urgent cases can at present be treated, and these undoubtedly lie in a// the young pine felling areas, and next in the coppice areas. The pine crops of over 25 years can well wait. But in the next 5-8 years every young pine crop should be lightly thinned, and the operation should be repeated every 5 years. The thinnings can hardly be too frequent or too light, but heavy and rare thinnings might be productive of as much harm as good. Also the crop of mature trees near the railway (already referred to) should be lightened at once. These prescriptions will probably involve a reduction in revenue for the next 8 or 10 years—but, eventually, the apprecia- tion of the property should be of a rapid and substantial nature. Should it be considered necessary during this period to realise capital for any definite purpose, a few of the older trees in the mature blocks might be sold, but not any considerable number of them, as in ten years at the outside (and as much sooner as possible) the regular thinnings in the older blocks should 180 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. commence. Experiments in introducing new species into the open spaces and enclosures should be encouraged—the ash, so success- ful at Loches, and the silver fir might well be tried. The Spanish chestnut is succeeding so well that on all areas that have been subjected to the final cutting its increase might well be encouraged by artificial sowing, or planting in mixture with self-sown pine. Another possible outlet for the expansion of revenue is the treatment of the heather (bruyere, Zrica arborea). As has been stated in the reports on the forests of the Toulon inspection, the word bruyére is well known to be the parent of the English corruption “briar,” from which the famous briar-wood pipes are made. In fact the great proportion of London pipes are manu- factured from the roots of heather obtained in the forests between Toulon and S. Raphael. Experiments in this industry might with advantage be undertaken here, where two kinds of heather grow in such profusion. One of them certainly bears a close external resemblance to the species that has acquired on the Cote d’Azur such a high market price (4d. per |b.) as pipe material. If the industry should prove successful, the heather, which at Paulmy is now regarded as an obnoxious weed, would prove a valuable’ and important source of additional income. One block of the root was prepared, but it was obviously of inferior quality. A superior block should be specially prepared and submitted to Loéwe in the Haymarket for an opinion. Without doubt the forest of Paulmy presents many points of interest to the Scottish owner and forester. Even in its present condition and stocking, and with its network of roads and immediate accessibility to the railway, it is a valuable little property, of which the potentiality under scientific management can scarcely be foreseen. ‘The assumption that it is capable ot improvement is supported by the hard fact that the Forét domaniale de Loches, situated 20 miles away, in a similar and not more favourable natural environment, returns to the State an annual net revenue 34 times greater than that yielded by these private woods. But if the conclusions now arrived at are justified by experience, it is anticipated that this difference may be materially bridged in the near future by the conversion of a greater area to pine, combined with repeated but /zg/¢ thinnings. To Scottish owners the lesson indicated would seem to be the necessity for expert advice, and a careful criticism of the custom of the country, which is so often a bar to progress and improvement. LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 181 19. Light in Relation to Tree Growth. Bulletin No. 92 of the U.S. Forest Service, by Raphael Zon and Henry Graves, entitled Zzght in Relation to Tree Growth, is one of those interesting and valuable publications which show in unmistakable fashion how properly organised investigations may be of the highest importance in both pure and applied science. The Bulletin may be roughly divided into two parts. The first part treats of the general phenomenon of light in relation to plant growth. Special attention is drawn to the light requirements of different trees, that is how the growth of different kinds of trees is affected by light of different intensity. The second part deals with the several methods, at present at our disposal, of determining the light tolerance of various species. The first part is of such importance and general interest that it is here reproduced entire, since it would be quite impossible to do it justice by means of extracts. The author says :— Light is indispensable for the life and growth of trees. In common with other green plants a tree, in order to live, must produce organic substance for the building of new tissues. Certain low forms of vegetable life, such as bacteria and fungi, do not require light. They exist by absorbing organic substance from other living bodies; but the higher forms of plants manu- facture their own organic material by extracting carbon from the air. The leaves, through the agency of their chlorophyll, or green colouring matter, absorb from the air carbon dioxide, and give off a nearly equal volume of oxygen. The carbon dioxide is then broken up into its elements and converted into organic substances which are used in building up new tissues. Light is not only indispensable for photosynthesis, but it is essential for the formation of chlorophyll itself. Only in excep- tional cases, as in the embryo of fir, pine and cedar seeds, does chlorophyll form in the dark, and, with the exception of some microbes, the green cell is the only place where organic material is built up from inorganic substances. Light also influences transpiration, and consequently the metabolism of green plants. It influences largely the structure, the form and the colour of the leaf, and the form of the stem and the crown of the tree. In the forest it largely determines 182 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. the height-growth of trees, the rate at which stands thin out with age, the progress of natural pruning, the character of the living ground cover, the vigour of young tree growth, the existence of several-storied forests, and many other phenomena upon which the management of forests depends. A thorough understanding, therefore, of the effect of light upon the life of individual trees, and especially on trees in the forest, and a knowledge of the methods by which the extent of this effect can be determined are essential for successful cultural operations in the forest. The aim of this Bulletin is to bring together the principal facts with regard to the part which light plays in the life of the forest, and the different methods of measuring it. It should prove of material assistance to students of the subject, and it is hoped that it may also stimulate an interest to further research in determining more accurately the light requirements of our forest trees, especially by actual measurements of light in the forest. Kinps oF Licur. Direct and Diffused Light.—In discussing light with reference to tree growth a distinction must be made between direct sunlight and diffused light. If the earth were not enveloped by an atmosphere, all light would be direct sunlight, and its intensity at every point on the earth could be calculated mathematically from the position of the sun. The presence of the atmosphere, however, modifies essentially the distribution of light and heat on the earth’s surface. Only a part of the light which emanates from the sun reaches the earth as direct sunlight. Another part is reflected from the small particles contained in the air, such as dust and minute drops of water, and forms diffused light. Still another part is absorbed and entirely disappears. ‘The diffused light illumines the atmosphere and forms the skylight. When the sky is cloudless the total daylight consists of both direct and diffused light. On cloudy days all the light is diffused light. Trees in the forest make use chiefly of the diffused skylight, and for this reason it plays the most important part in their life. Indeed, many plants have developed special contrivances for protecting themselves from the direct rays of the sun. There are, however, trees and other plants which, in addition to diffused light, need direct light either during their entire life LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 183 or during a definite period of their life, as, for instance, during the period of flowering and leafing. Thus, the opening of the buds in many trees proceeds much faster when the tree is exposed not only to diffused light, but also to the direct rays of the sun. ‘Therefore, in determining the effect of light on vegetative processes it may be essential to know what portion of the entire light affecting the tree is diffused and what is direct. Both direct sunlight and diffused light decrease with increase in latitude, but not in the same proportion. The intensity of direct sunlight decreases much more rapidly with increase in latitude than does the intensity of diffused or skylight. This is well brought out in Table I., computed on the basis of measurements taken by Bunsen and Roscoe, which gives the relative chemical intensities of the radiation received directly from the sun and from the sky upon a horizontal surface during a whole day at the spring equinox. It is of considerable interest as showing what kind of light is mostly available for tree growth at various latitudes. Tas_e 1.—Light intensity of direct sunlight and of diffused light at vartous latitudes. Chemical intensity— | | PLACES Latitude | = TOTAL \Of sunlight |Of skylight | Pole : : : : : 90 fe) 20 20 | Melville Island : ; : 75 12 106 118 Reykjavik, Iceland . : sil ton (Jo) || Go) 210 | St Petersburg, Russia. : (ey &9 164 253 | Manchester, England : : 53 145 182 B27 Heidelberg, Germany E ; 49 182 IQI |) are | Naples, Italy . ; ‘ : 41 266 206 472 Cairo, Egypt . : : : Bom sod. 21 eS Ol Bombay, India : : ; Ig | 438 2260) ale GOI San Jose, Costa Rica : : TO 47 Sy 22 On oT Quito, Ecuador 5 : en OR 480 227s eeeo Diffused light decreases with increase in altitude; direct sunlight, on the contrary, increases. Overhead, Side and Refiected Light.—Besides direct and diffused light, light may be distinguished in accordance with the direction from which it comes and the effect it has upon the 1 From Handbook of Climatology, by Dr Julius Hann, p. 116. 184 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. different parts of the crown. The light which reaches the crowns of trees from above is called overhead light. ‘This determines the arrangement of leaves on the shoots, their position in relation to the sun, and the arrangement of the branches. It is the strongest light, whether it consists of either direct or diffused light alone or both together. In the case of dominant trees it equals the total daylight. The light which reaches the crowns of trees from the side is called side light. It stimulates the development of buds on the lateral branches, and is responsible for the development of the branches facing an opening in the forest. In the case of trees growing near a wall or steep slope, the tree may receive light which is reflected back upon the tree and is called reflected side light. In some cases, especially where trees are growing near bodies of water, their crowns are illumined by light which is reflected from the ground or from the water’s surface. This is called reflected ground light, and is not so insignificant as it may appear at first thought. Thus, actual measurements have shown that, at a height of 1 metre (3} feet) the intensity of light reflected from a road illumined by the sun may be 1/12 of the overhead light intensity; the intensity of light reflected from the water’s surface may amount to 1/6 of the overhead light intensity, measured at a height of about 5 feet from the surface. The intensity of light varies with the direction from which it comes. Thus, the following results were obtained from measurements made at the end of April, at noon, in Vienna. If the light intensity coming from the north is taken as 1, then the intensity of light from the west is 1°19; from the east, 1°25 ; from the south, 3:12; while the intensity of the overhead light is 4°50. Light Intensities and Tree Growth.—Only in exceptional cases do forest trees make use of the total daylight. Isolated individual trees may do so, but, as a rule, the total daylight is considerably weakened by the configuration of the land and by the shade cast by the foliage of the individual tree itself or of neighbouring trees. The bulk of forest trees and the interior parts or crowns of even isolated trees depend, therefore, only on a part of the total daylight. Actual measure- ments of light intensity have shown that on a clear, sunny day the light intensity on the edge of a forest is only about halt LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 185 that of the total daylight, while in the shade of the trees, even when they were still without any foliage, the light intensity was one-fourth that of the total daylight. The minimum intensity of light in which photosynthesis can take place is not sufficiently determined for all species ; it differs in different species with the sensitiveness of the chloroplasts. Trees not only accumulate energy by building up new organic substance, but they also expend energy from the organic substance which they produce. This expenditure of energy is accompanied by oxidation of carbon and exhalation of carbon dioxide, or respiration. As long as the light intensity is above the necessary minimum for the given species, the process of assimilating carbon from the air, and thus building up new organic substance, goes on with greater energy than the opposite process of breaking up organic substance and giving off carbon into the air in the form of carbon dioxide. As the light intensity decreases, the assimilation decreases correspondingly, and the amount of carbon assimilated from the air approaches the amount given off by respiration. As soon as the energy of assimilation falls so low that the amount of carbon assimilated is less than that needed for the maintenance of respiration, the leaf dies. It is possible to gain an idea of the relation between light intensity and the activity of the green cell from the experiments made by Kreusler. He found that a square centimetre of a leaf of European hornbeam (Carfinus betulus) on a cloudy day decomposed in one hour 13°7 cubic millimetres of carbon dioxide,! or seven times as much as was given off by the leaf in breathing ; with a 1ooo-candlepower electric light (which has an effect upon assimilation similar to that of sunlight), at a distance of 31 centimetres (12°2 inches), a square centimetre of leaf-surface decomposed 28'5 cubic millimetres of carbon dioxide,? an amount 15 times greater (by weight) than that which was given off; by removing the source of light to a distance of from 1 to 1°5 metres (39 to 59 inches), thus making it from one-ninth to one twenty-fifth as intense as before, the amount of carbon dioxide which was absorbed was _ barely enough to cover the amount given off by respiration. 1 Equivalent to I square inch of leaf-surface decomposing 0°0054 cubic inch of carbon dioxide. ? Equivalent to r square inch of leaf-surface decomposing 0*0112 cubic inch of carbon dioxide. VOL. XXVI. PART. II N 186 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. According to Wiesner (1907), for Norway maple (Acer plata- zoides) the minimum light intensity under which photosynthesis can still take place is 1/55 of the total daylight, for birch 1/50, and for beech somewhat less than for birch. The fact that in light intensity of 1/70 of the total daylight, such as prevails in dense spruce forests, no green vegetation occurs under the shade of the trees indicates that the minimum light intensity at which a green leaf can still function must lie between 1/60 and 1/70 of the total daylight intensity. As far as woody species are concerned, Wiesner (1907) found in the shade of European hornbeam (Carpinws betulus), with a light intensity of 1/58, an undergrowth of the following species still in a fairly good condition: Beech (Fagus sylvatica), horn- beam (Carpinus betulus), field maple (Acer campestre), common elm (U/mus campestris) and dogwood (Cornus sanguinea). In the same light intensity, however, the undergrowth of elder (Sam- bucus nigra), Euonymus europeus and £. verrucosus was dying. The minimum light intensity at which green vegetation disappears from under the shade of trees in the forest varies considerably with the climate. Thus, in the Temperate Zone no green vegetation occurs in the shade where the light is only 1/70 of the total daylight. In the Tropics the last vestige of green vegetation disappears from under the tree cover when the minimum light intensity falls to 1/120 of the total daylight. The minimum intensity of light which is needed for the formation of chlorophyll is much smaller than the minimum required for photosynthesis. Thus, while the green leaves of Acer platanoides cease to break up the carbon dioxide of the air and form organic substance in a light whose intensity is 1/55 of the total daylight, the formation of chlorophyll still takes place in a light which is 1/400 of the total daylight ; in some herbace- ous plants, such as peppergrass or cress (Lepidium sativum), the formation of chlorophyll still goes on at a light intensity of 1/2000, while in light whose intensity is 1/50 of the total day- light the leaves are just as green as in higher light intensities. The decomposition of carbon dioxide is produced chiefly by the rays of the red portion of the spectrum, and the leaves in the interior of the crown are able to assimilate, because the largest part of the light which they receive penetrates not through the green leaves, which absorb the red rays, but through the spaces between the foliage. Chlorophyll may form in light which lacks LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 187 the rays of the red portion of the spectrum. For this reason light which goes through the green foliage may still be effective in producing the green colour of the leaves inside the crown, but is no longer effective in bringing about the process of assimilation of carbon. In general the intensity of light varies directly with the height of the sun. The maximum light intensity, however, does not coincide with the intensity at noon, which is always less than the maximum. ‘Thus, from measurements made at Vienna, the ratio of the average noon light intensity to the average maximum light intensity for the year was found to be as 1: 1°08. This is analogous to the well-known fact that the highest temperature during the day occurs not at noon, but later, and is probably due to the same causes. The maximum light available for tree growth is, of course, the total daylight. This varies, as has already been pointed out, with latitude, altitude and the configuration of the earth. The highest light intensities found by Wiesner (1905) in the United States were in Yellowstone Park. Thus, at Norris, on Ist September 1904, at r P.M., with the sun at an altitude of 52 56’, the chemical intensity of the light was found to be 1°7 in Bunsen-Roscoe units! At Old Faithful, on 4th September 1904, at noon, angle of sun 52° 22’, the light intensity was 1°9, and an hour later, with the sun forming an angle of 51° 47’, 2°083. These measurements were taken on cloudless days. In Europe the highest light intensities measured were 1°5 near Vienna, at an elevation of 550 feet above sea-level (Wiesner, 1896), between 1r°5 and 1°6 at Kremsmunster at an elevation of 1268 feet (F. Schwab, 1904), and 1°8 in Steiermark, at an elevation of 4550 feet (Thomas V. Weinzierl, 1902). The optimum light intensity at which different species thrive best has not been fully determined, especially since this optimum varies during the life of the tree, and is subject to variations even in different parts of the same vegetative season. In a general way it may be stated that with the majority of forest trees the optimum light intensity at which the leaves function best, and at which the production of flowers and fruits is most abundant, lies nearer to the maximum amount of light available * Bunsen-Roscoe unit of chemical light intensity is the amount of light required to produce a standard colour in one second on standardised sensitive paper. 188 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. for the use of the tree than to the minimum light under which it can still exist. In some species this optimum coincides with the total daylight or with the conditions that surround a tree grown in the open; in other species both the vegetative and reproductive functions of the tree are most vigorous when the amount of light is less than the total daylight; that is, when the trees are grown in a stand. Tolerance and Intolerance of Trees.—The ability of trees to endure shade is called tolerance of shade, or often merely tolerance. Trees that are capable of enduring shade are tolerant; those requiring full light intolerant. Some species are able to absorb enough light for assimilation even in the shade of a forest canopy. Thus, hemlock and spruce spring up and live for many years under other trees. Other species, such as tamarack, aspen, grey birch, and most of the yellow pines, require full light and cannot endure shade from above. All trees, however, thrive in full light, especially if they have it from the very start, and none requires shade except as a protection from drying or from frost. This does not mean, however, that all trees grown in the open absorb equally all the available light. Even in full light they need and use differing amounts of light for their best growth. This is accomplished by a definite orientation of the foliage in relation to the source of light, by the development of denser crowns which lessen the amount of light that can penetrate into the interior, or by a change in the structure of the leaves so as to decrease the assimilative energy. In the open they are able to make these modifications for their best growth to better advantage than in the shade of a dense forest, and to adapt themselves to their needs; therefore, open- grown trees usually appear the more thrifty. The primary cause of this difference in tolerance must be sought in the anatomical structure and inherent qualities of the leaves and the chlorophyll. Since, however, the anatomical structure of the leaves and even the character of the chlorophyll may be influenced by environment, the tolerance of trees is not a fixed quality, but is subject to variation. Each species, however, inherently requires a certain amount of light, which cannot be changed by any environment. The latest experiments by Prof. Lubimenko! established with 1 Carried on in 1904 at the Laboratoire de Biologie Végétale, in Fontaine- bleau, France. LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 189 sufficient accuracy the difference in the sensitiveness of the chloroplasts of different tree species. The species with which he experimented were Scots pine (fixus sylvestris), noble fir (Abies nobilis), white birch (Betula alba), and linden (Zida cordata). Of these, pine and birch are light-needing species and stand close to each other in this respect. The fir and basswood (or linden) are classed as tolerant, and are also fairly similar in their demands upon light. Moreover, the anatomical structures of the leaves of pine and fir are very similar, and of birch and basswood practically identical. These experiments brought out clearly the following points : 1. The initial light intensity at which assimilation begins varies with the species, since the fir and basswood began assimilation at 1/5 of the light intensity at which pine and birch began to assimilate. 2. If it be accepted that the light intensity at which assimila- tion equals respiration is the minimum for the existence of the leaf, then birch appears to be the most light-demanding species, followed by pine, basswood, and finally fir. 3. With increase in light, the assimilation at first increases in all four species, but in direct sunlight, when the rays strike the surface of the leaves perpendicularly, the pine and birch still continue to show an increase in assimilation, while the fir and basswood show a decrease. ‘This may be’seen in Table II. Tas_e I].—Relatize amounts of carbon dioxide absorbed by 1 gram of leaf during one hour of work. Pine Fir Birch | Basswood | | | | | Direct rays of the sun striking the surface | | of the leaf at an acute angle . 2 A974) | 532108 | OSsOS) i Ooe7t | Direct rays of the sun striking the surface | | | | of the leaf perpendicularly . . | 56°83 | 38350 | 75°69 | 43°21 Since the anatomical structures of the leaves of pine and fir are very similar, and of birch and basswood almost identical, this difference in assimilation must be explained ex¢lusively by the difference in the sensitiveness of their chloroplasts. These figures show also, in a general way, that a unit (by weight) of leaf substance of broad-leaf species assimilates considerably more than the same unit of leaf substance of coniferous species. Igo TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. This is probably due to the difference in the anatomical structure of the leaves of the broad-leaf and coniferous species. The extremely small size of the cells of the leaf parenchyma in broad- leaf species means the presence of a large amount of living protoplasm and chloroplasts, and consequently a larger amount of living, acting substance within the same space. On the basis of these experiments, Lubimenko claims to have established the following facts in regard to the photochemical work of different forest trees : (1) The photochemical work of the green leaf is determined by its anatomical structure and the inherent qualities of its chloroplasts. (2) The influence of the anatomical structure of the leaf is felt mainly in light of medium intensity; the influence of the inherent qualities of the chloroplasts, on the other hand, is strongly apparent in light of low and high intensities. (3) Chloroplasts of different species are sensitive to light in different degrees; chloroplasts of shade-enduring species are more sensitive than chloroplasts of light-needing species. (4) Species with more sensitive chloroplasts begin to decompose carbon dioxide and reach a maximum of assimilative photochemical energy in light of much lower intensity than species with less sensitive chloroplasts. (5) The curve of the photochemical work of a green leaf has a distinct optimum, which is reached in different species under different intensities of light and is determined by the inherent qualities of the chloroplasts. (6) It is very probable that the difference in sensitiveness of chloroplasts of different species is due to a difference in the absorptive capacity of the chlorophyll. (7) The conception of “light-loving” and “ shade-enduring ” trees has a real foundation as far as the process of assimilation of carbon is concerned. Leaves of shade-enduring species are able to replace the carbon dioxide expended in the mere process of respiration in much weaker light than are leaves of light- loving species. ‘The optimum of assimilation in tolerant species lies within the limits of normal sunlight, while the optimum of assimilation in light-needing species lies beyond those limits. These conclusions are also corroborated by Grafe’s experi- ments carried on at the Institute of Plant Physiology, at Vienna (Wiesner, 1907), though for another purpose. Green leaves LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 1g! of birch (a light-demanding species) and of beech (shade- enduring) were exposed to light of various intensities and tested for the presence of starch. At a light intensity of 1/6 of total daylight the leaves of beech showed distinctly the presence of starch, while birch gave a less distinct reaction. At a light intensity of 1/10 beech still gave a pronounced reaction for starch, while in birch only traces of starch could be detected. At a light intensity of 1/50 birch leaves showed no presence of starch, while the leaves of beech still continued to form it vigorously. ‘These facts tend to show the same point brought out by Lubimenko, that there is a distinct difference in the sensitiveness of the chloroplasts of beech and birch. Factors influencing Tolerance.—Tolerance varies not only with species, but even within the same species, according to the conditions under which the tree is growing. These variations are due largely to changes in the structure of the leaves brought about by changes in transpiration. Among the important factors influencing transpiration, and therefore tolerance, are climate, altitude, moisture and nourishment in the soil, age of tree, and vigour and origin of the individual. 1. Climate.—Plants need less light the higher the temperature, and more light the lower the temperature. Consequently the higher the temperature of a given locality, the more shade a tree can stand. This explains, in part, the frequent differences of opinion regarding the tolerance of the same species when the observations are taken in different regions. For example, White pine in Maine is less tolerant than in the Southern Appalachians. In Vienna the minimum light intensity in which the leaves of Norway maple (Acer platanoides) can exist is 1/55 of the total daylight. In Hamar, Norway, it is 1/37; in Drottningholm, 1/28; and in Tromso, 1/5. This substitution of light for heat in plant growth, and wie versa, was well demonstrated by Wiesner (1907) with regard to annual meadow grass (Poa annua). The minimum light necessary for annual meadow grass at the beginning of March, at Cairo, is equivalent to about 53 calories, while at Vienna it is equivalent to tog. The mean temperatures are 59'9° and 35°6 F., respectively. 2. Altitude.—The light requirement of a species increases also with increase in altitude, but only to a certain limit, beyond which it remains constant or even decreases. For example, 192 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, observations by Wiesner showed that lodgepole pine, at an elevation of 6400 feet, required a minimum light intensity of 1/6 of the total daylight; at an elevation of 8500 feet the intensity required sinks to 1/6°4 and even to 1/6'9°. Thus the behaviour of trees in their extension toward higher latitudes and higher altitudes is not the same. This is due to the fact that the intensity of both direct and diffused light decreases with the increase in latitude, and the light limit of a species is reached when the intensity of the total daylight becomes equal to the tree’s minimum light requirement. With. increase in altitude, however, diffused light decreases, but direct sunlight increases. With an increase in the intensity of direct sunlight, even though there be a decrease in the diffused light and a lower temperature, the light requirements of a species remain constant or even become less at higher altitudes. 3. Soil moisture.—Tolerance of trees is emphatically in- fluenced by moisture conditions in the soil, as well as by its quality. Fricke (1904) clearly demonstrated by a series of convincing experiments that deficient moisture in the soil, brought about by competition of the roots of older trees, may cause the death of young growth under the shelter of mother trees. His experiments were made in a Scots pine stand on poor, dry, sandy soil, on which, according to all authorities, the light requirements are greatest. In a stand from 70 to Ioo years old, with a crown density of o°7, there were isolated groups of suppressed young pines, among which were no old trees. The young pines were to years old and but little over a foot and a half in height. Ditches 10 inches deep were cut around these groups, and in this way all the roots extending from neighbouring old trees were cut through to the depth of the ditches. The relative amount of light received by these groups of undergrowth was not affected by the experiment, since not a single tree was cut down or trimmed. The ditches were made in the spring. In the first summer the needles that appeared on the little pines within the isolated groups had doubled the length of the preceding summer, the terminal shoots became longer, and this thrifty growth continued up to the time the results of the experiments were described (1904), while the same undergrowth outside the areas surrounded by the ditches preserved the same suppressed character. The old trees, whose superficial roots were cut through, apparently LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 193 did not suffer, and none of them were uprooted by the wind. On the areas inside the ditches a rich flora sprang up during the first summer. Entirely unexpected, there appeared bellflower { Campanula), wild strawberry (/ragaria), hawkweed ( Hieracium), sorrel (Rumex), ironweed or speedwell ( Veronica), willow herb (Epilobium), star thistle (Centaurea), geranium (Geranium), violet ( Viola), five finger (Potenti//a), and other herbaceous plants, and in addition there sprang up a number of seedlings of birch and mountain ash. Most interesting and significant of all, however, is the fact that none of these species appeared in the neighbour- ing stand. The herbaceous vegetation which was present on the ground before the experiment, such as sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum), hair grass (Azra), bentgrass (Agrosts), and woodrush (Zwzu/a), and which had led a very precarious existence, developed luxuriantly, so that the areas surrounded by the ditches bore green, succulent vegetation, in striking contrast !o the greyish-brown ground cover of the rest of the stand. In another pine stand, 100 years old, growing on poor soil, several natural openings on which there were no old trees or young growth of any kind were surrounded by ditches and sown with seeds of Scots pine, spruce, beech, and red oak without any preparation of the ground. Similar sowings were made on similar natural openings not surrounded by ditches. On the area inside the ditches there are now remarkably well-developed seedlings of pine and oak, although with characteristics peculiar to shaded plants, and also seedlings of beech and spruce. Ata distance of some 7 to ro feet outside of the ditches, although a part of the seeds did come up, the seedlings of pine, beech and spruce were poorly developed from the start and soon died; the seedlings of oak which still persist have scarcely reached 1/5 the height attained by those inside the ditches and will hardly live very long.. In this stand also there appeared in the openings surrounded by the ditches a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation strikingly different from that in the surrounding forest. In order to prove also that deficient soil moisture brought about by the competition of the roots was the sole cause of the death of pine reproduction under the shelter of mother trees, Fricke determined the soil moisture in sample plots of which some were penetrated by living roots, while in others the competition of the living roots was eliminated. In all these experiments the proportion of moisture in the soil was invariably 194 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, greater in the plots free from living roots—usually two or three times greater, and occasionally four and even six times. The results of these experiments clearly show that the unsatisfactory condition of an undergrowth shaded laterally or from above is not due altogether to insufficient light, but to competition of the roots of the neighbouring old trees ; likewise that the presence and condition of shrubs, grasses and mosses. in the forest depend very little upon the amount of light, but are chiefly influenced by the degree of desiccation of the soil caused by the roots of the old trees. Thus the poor development of young growth directly under or near seed trees may be explained, not by shading alone, nor by the mechanical action of water dripping from the leaves and branches of the old trees, nor by excessive light reflected from the trunks, but by the moisture-sapping competition of the roots of the older trees. In these experiments, however, Fricke, by eliminating com- petition of the neighbouring roots, created artificial conditions which do not exist in nature. Moreover, no photometric measurements of any kind were made during these experiments, and without such measurements the question of light require- ments of species cannot be settled. While the experiments. bring out the importance of considering other factors besides light in the life of the forest, they do not prove that the light requirements of all species are the same. On fresh soils, with an abundant supply of moisture, root competition affects the growth of the seedlings only a little or not at all, and for this reason it is assumed that trees are more tolerant on fresh or moist soils than on dry soils. But even on. the same kind of soil the effect of trees of different species upon the growth of seedlings is not the same. ‘Trees with a strongly developed superficial-root system naturally desiccate the upper layers of the soil much more than trees with a compact, deep- root system. In filling blank places in plantations, the competition of the roots determines the success or failure of the operation. It happens only too often that the planting of blank places on dry or only moderately fresh soils meets with entire failure, because growth of the new seedlings is impossible in the dry soil produced by the roots of the older seedlings, which in the porous soils of the planting holes attain extra good development. In dry situations, therefore, blank places must be filled not later than LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 195 three years after the first planting ; otherwise it will be necessary to give up entirely the filling of the blank places, or the older competitors must be removed from small areas and these then replanted. These facts show that the so-called “light increment,” or in- crease of growth after logging or thinning, is not due alone to the greater access of light to the remaining trees. By thinning a stand, not only are the light conditions changed, but the competition of the roots is diminished, which leads to an increase of moisture in the soil. The leaf litter is also more readily decomposed, and the soil in this way becomes enriched with nutritive substances, all of which result, of course, in an acceleration of growth after thinning. 4 Soil fertility.—Plenty of chemical. nourishment in and favourable physical conditions of the soil increases tolerance. At the same light intensity the assimilative energy of the green leaf increases with increase of nourishment in the soil. Thus, the assimilative energy of trees grown in a deficient light but on good soil may be the same as that of trees grown in full light but on poor soil; or, in short, trees on good soils can stand more shade than trees on poor soils. This has been clearly demonstrated by Hartig (1897), who thought that the weight of the young leaf-bearing shoots may, to some degree, serve as an indication of the amount of foliage in a tree. At the same time, the amount of wood produced in a tree for each pound, of small leaf-bearing twigs serves as a criterion of the work of the leaves. Thus, measurements made by him on oaks in the Bavarian Spessart gave the average results shown in Table III. Tas_e II1.—Amount of wood produced annually for each pound of small twigs. Aige (years) cubieanelies ot 33 45°9 | go 16°8 | 246 16°0 | 400 140 | These figures show that the leaves of young trees function with greater energy than the leaves of older trees. ‘The same 196 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. method may be applied to determine the effect of nourishment upon the work of the leaves. It was found that on different soils the annual production of wood in trees of the five different classes (dominant, codominant, intermediate, oppressed, and suppressed) for each pound of small twigs was as given in Table IV. TaBLE 1V.—Amount of wood produced annually by different classes of trees for each pound of small twigs. CLASSES | Good Soils Poor Soils | | = | | Cub. ins. Cub. ins. | | Dominant : : ; ; ‘ | 85°7 15°8 | Codominant ‘ : P : 3 | 73°2 20°4 Intermediate. : ‘ : >| 49°6 16°5 Oppressed : . : ps 32'8 W738 | Suppressed 18°5 as | fl These figures show clearly the influence of soil conditions upon the assimilative activity of the leaves, and consequently upon the variation in tolerance of trees according to soil fertility. 5. Age, vigour and origin of tree.—TYrees are more tolerant in early youth than later in life. In fact, it may be said that during the first year or two all trees are tolerant. As they grow, their demands for light increase, and the distinctive light requirements of different species become more and more ‘emphasised. This increase in light requirements becomes especially apparent at the time of the most rapid height-growth, after which the light requirement remains stationary for a long time and increases again only late in life. White pine is a very good example of a tree which in early youth is tolerant, but in later life is distinctly intolerant. White pine seedlings will start in dense shade ; but they cannot often live under such conditions for more than ten to fifteen years, and they may perish from lack of light in the first two to five years, even if abundant moisture and nourishment are present. The amount of light needed for flowering and fruiting is greater than for mere growth, so that demands for light vary not only with age, but with season. ‘Thus, early in spring at the time of bursting of buds, the minimum light intensity for larch is 1/2 of the total daylight, later it falls to 1/5; for beech the minimum light intensity at the time of unfolding of buds is 1/4 ; LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 197 and later it sinks to 1/60 of the total daylight. These differences in light demands are well known from common experience. Thus, in a coppice forest it is often necessary, in order to awaken the dormant buds of the stumps, to clear away the brush around them and expose them to higher light intensities. It is a well-known fact that trees in the open begin to bear seed earlier than trees in a close stand. Foresters estimate the average retardation due to close stand at 20 years. The preparatory cuttings for natural reproduction under the shelter- wood system are based on this principle of allowing more light to the remaining trees in order to stimulate seed production. In general, the more vigorous the individual, the greater is its tolerance. Any factor which reduces its vitality reduces its tolerance. Trees from seed, all other conditions being equal, stand shade much better than sprouts, and in artificial planta- tions nursery stock is more tolerant than trees which have been started by direct seeding. MEASURE OF TOLERANCE. Since tolerance is affected by so many different factors, it is evident that the tolerance of any particular species is necessarily variable and exceedingly difficult to measure. Until recently, therefore, it has been customary not to attempt to measure tolerance of shade in positive, but only in relative, terms. The tolerance of different species is usually compared in lists or scales, the most tolerant being usually placed first and the least tolerant last. The position which a species occupies in relation to these extremes is the expression of its tolerance. Broad and rather indefinite terms have been used such as “very tolerant,” “tolerant,” “intermediate,” “intolerant,” “ very intolerant.” The following are examples of scales of tolerance prepared by European authorities, beginning with the most tolerant :— GAYER (1898). BUHLER (Morozov, vol. 2 : 1286-1295). Taxus baccata (English yew). Taxus baccata (English yew). Abies pectinata (silver fir). Abies pectinata (silver fir). Fagus (beech). Fagus (beech). Picea (Norway spruce). Picea (Norway spruce). Carpinus betwlus (European horn- L2zus strobus (white pine). beam ). Clmus montana (wych elm) Pinus strobus (white pine). Tilia (linden). 198 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. GAYER (continzed). Tilia parvifolia=T. cordata (small- leaf linden). Alnus incana (hoary alder). Acer (maple). Ulmus montana (wych elm). Fraxinus excelstor (European ash). Quercus pedunculata (oak). Populus tremulotdes (aspen). Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine). Betula verrucosa (birch). Betula pubescens (birch). Larix europea (European larch). TURSKY (1904 : 32). Abtes pectinata (silver fir). Fagus (beech). Picea (Norway spruce). Carpinus betulus (European horn- beam). Ulmus montana (wych elm). Pinus laricio, var. austriaca (Austrian pine). Alnus glutinosa (black alder). Fraxinus excelstor (European ash). Quercus (oak). Populus (poplar). Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine). Betula (birch). Larix europea (larch). BUHLER (contznued). Alnus incana (hoary alder). Quercus (oak). Acer platanot/es (Norway maple). Pinus montana (Swiss pine). Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine). Populus (poplar). Betula (birch). Larix europea (larch). WARMING (1999 : 18). Abies pectinata (silver fir). Fagus (beech). Carpinus betu’us (European horn- beam). Z72lia (basswood or linden). Picea (Norway spruce). Pinus montana (Swiss pine). Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore maple). Ulmus effusa (spreading elm). Quercus (oak). Fraxinus excelsior (European ash). Pinus strobus (white pine). Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine). Alnus incana (hoary alder). Populus tremula (aspen-poplar). Betula (birch), Larix europea (European larch). The following are scales of tolerance prepared for some of our American trees : WESTERN SPECIES. VERY TOLERANT. Tuxus brevifolia (western yew). Piceaengelmanni( Engelmann spruce). Abies lastocarps (alpine fir). Abies concolor (white fir). Thuja plicata (western red cedar). Tsuga heterophylla (western hem- lock). Tsuga mertenstana (mountain hem- lock). Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce). INTOLERANT. Abies magnifica (red fir). Pinus ponderosa {western yellow pine). Pinus jeffreyt (Jeffrey pine). Pinus lambertiana (sugar pine). Pinus aristata (\ristle-cone pine). —————o LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. TOLERANT. Chamecyparis lawsoniana (Port Or- ford cedar). Libocedrus decurrens (incense cedar). Picea parryana (blue spruce). Sequota sempervirens (redwood). m9 VERY INTOLERANT. Lartx lyaliii (alpine larch). Larix occtdentalis (western larch). Pinus albicaulis (white-bark pine). Pinus attenuata (knobcone pine). Pinus balfourtana (foxtail pine). Pinus coultert (Coulter pine). Pinus flextlés (limber pine). Pinus monophylla (single-leaf pine). Pinus edulis (pifion). Pinus sabiniana (digger pine). Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine). INTERMEDIATE. Pseudotsuga taxtfolia (Douglas fir). Pseudotsuga macrocarpa spruce). Abzes amabilis (amabilis fir). Abzes grandis (grand fir). (big-cone EASTERN VERY TOLERANT. Chamecyparis thvoides (southern white cedar’. Abies balsamea (balsam fir). Abies fraseri (Fraser fir). Tsuga canadensis (hemlock). TOLERANT. Picea canadensis (white spruce). Picea rubens (red spruce). Thuja occidentalis (northern white cedar). frugus atropunicea (beech). dcer saccharum (sugar maple). Acer saccharinum (silver maple). Acer rubrum (xed maple). Nyssa sylvatica (black gum). Ulmus americana (white elm). Ulmus racemosa (cork elm). Tilia americana (basswood). Platanus occidentalis (sycamore). Abies nobilis (noble fir). Chamecyparts cypress). nootkatensis (yellow Sequoia washingtoniana (bigtree). Pinus monticola (western white pine). SPECIES. INTOLERANT. Pinus divaricata (jack pine). Pinus resinosa (red pine). Oxvdendrum arboreum (sourwood). Liriodenaron tulipifera (tulip poplar). Q. rubra (red oak). Q. velutena (yellow oak and others). Betula papyrifera (paper birch). Liguidambar styraciflua (red gum). Fficorta alba (mockernut). fiicorta ovata (shagbark hickory). Flicorta pecan (pecan). VERY INTOLERANT. Pinus palustris (long-leaf pine). Pinus echinata (short-leaf pine). Taxodium distichum (bald cypress). Larix laricina (tamarack). Robinia pseudacacia (black locust or false acacia). Salix (willows). Populus deltotdes (cottonwood), Populus grandidentata (large-tooth aspen). 200 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. INTERMEDIATE. Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). Betula lenta (river birch). Pinus virginiana (scrub pine). Betula lutea (yellow birch). Pinus rigida (pitch pine). JSugtlans nigra (black walnut). Pinus strobus (white pine). Magnolia tripetala (umbrella-tree). Castanea dentata (chestnut). Magnolia acuminata (cucumber-tree). Quercus alba (white oak). Mosr IMPORTANT SPECIES IN CENTRAL New York. [ Beginning with the most tolerant. ] Olmus americana (white elm). Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak). Acer rubrum (red maple). Quercus velutina (yellow oak). Pinus strobus (white pine). Castanea dentata (chestnut). Quercus alba (white oak). fficorva (hickories). Quercus platanoidtes (swamp white Quercus prinis (chestnut oak). oak). Fraxinus americana (white ash). Quercus rubra (red oak). Juniperus virginiana (red cedar). In actual practice there is seldom any doubt as to the light requirements of the extreme members of the tolerance scale. The doubt comes with species which, under certain conditions of climate and soil, may be classed either as tolerant or intolerant. Instead of dividing species into ‘very tolerant,” ‘ tolerant,” “intermediate,” ‘intolerant,’ and ‘very intolerant,” it would therefore be more simple and practical to divide them into only three groups— “tolerant,” “ partially tolerant,” and “intolerant.” This classification does not, however, preclude the possibility of species with extreme requirements becoming, under certain conditions of climate and_ soil, partially tolerant. Thus, beech and fir, which are ordinarily very tolerant, on very poor soil and in a very cold climate may become only partially tolerant; and, on the other hand, pine and larch, which are ordinarily very intolerant, in very favourable soils and climates may become partially tolerant. To the group of tolerant trees belong the following genera :— Tuxus, Fagus, Abies, Picea, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga, Thuja, Atsculus, evergreen oaks and other evergreen broad-leaf trees, and others. To the group of partially tolerant trees belong Carfinus, Tilia, Acer, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Alnus, the five-needled pines, Chamacyparis, Libocedrus, Sequoia, white oaks, and others. To the group of intolerant trees belong the black oaks; the two and three needle pines, such as Pinus contorta, P. jeffreyt, LIGHT IN RELATION TO TREE GROWTH. 201 and others; Zavix, Salix, Populus, Betula, Taxodium, Magnolia, Robinia, Lirtodendron, and others. Of the secondary trees and arborescent shrubs, the evergreen broad-leaf shrubs, such as Swxus, are classed as tolerant; Corylus, Cornus, Ligustrum, Euonymus, Lonicera, and others are classed as partially tolerant; Prunus, Spartium, Calluna, Crategus, Viburnum, and others as intolerant. Of forest weeds, Polytrichum, Hypnum, Aspidium, Vaccinium, Hedera, and others are tolerant; Anemone and Freris, partially tolerant ; Czrcium, Silene, Fragaria, and most of the grass and clover species, intolerant. PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE SCALES. These scales have their practical use in silviculture, particularly in giving a broad comparison of the different species. If one is seeking a species for underplanting, he naturally concerns himself with the most tolerant. If he is developing a plan for reproduction cuttings, he knows that the least tolerant will require a clear-cutting method, and that he can not re-establish new growth under the old cover. Thus, empirical knowledge of light requirements establishes the fact that young growth of a tolerant species under the shade of a fully stocked stand of a tolerant species begins to die off, as a rule, after from 10 to 20 years of suppression; intolerant trees under a tolerant species perish after about 5 years; a tolerant species under an intolerant species may continue to live indefinitely, because the amount of light that penetrates through the thin crowns of the light- demanding species is sufficient for the growth and development of the tolerant species. Reproduction of an intolerant species under the shade of an intolerant species is capable of enduring for from 10 to 20 years, or almost as long as reproduction of tolerant trees under the shade of tolerant species. Since the least amount of light is admitted to the ground in a fully stocked stand in its pole stage, only a tolerant species under the shade of an intolerant species can live through this period without injury. Tolerance scales based on experience are of distinct value to the practitioner and to the student of forestry first learning the characteristics of the different species. For accurate and scientific investigation, however, they are defective, for they show only that one species is more or less tolerant than another. VOL. XXVI. PART II. O 202 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. They do not show how much. What is needed is a mathe- matical expression for each species based on some definite scale. Thus, for example, that the tolerance of hemlock is 89, of yellow birch 61, of white oak 32, or whatever the actual values might be proved to be. In the second part of the Bulletin the author describes and criticises the various metheds of determining tolerance by empirical, anatomical or physiological and physical means, and he ends up with a summary of the relative values of the different methods. It is quite apparent that the light requirements of trees growing in our insular climate, with its greater moisture and more equable temperature, must differ from those of the same species growing on the Continent or in America, hence it is very desirable that investigations concerning the light requirements of trees should be carried out under the climatic and other conditions which prevail in this country. An Web: 20. Development of Forestry in Scotland. DEPUTATION TO THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE! The Chairman of the Board of Agriculture for Scotland, who was accompanied by Mr Sutherland, received the Council of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, on 1oth June, at 29 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh, to hear their views regarding the development of forestry in Scotland. Mr R. Galloway, S.S.C., secretary to the Society, accompanied the deputation. Sir Kenneth Mackenzie, Bart., in the unavoidable absence through illness of Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, Bart., president of the Society, introduced the Council, and referred to the corre- spondence that had taken place between the Society and the present Secretary for Scotland and his predecessor regarding the appointment of a Department of Forestry under the Board. Mr Munro Ferguson, M.P., gave a short history of the work of the Society, and urged the immediate need of taking steps to carry out the recommendations of the report of the [! A full report of this Deputation will be given in our next issue.k—HOon. ED.] DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY IN SCOTLAND. 203 Departmental Committee recently published, laying special stress upon the necessity for the appointment of the promised Department or Committee to take charge of the matter. Captain Stirling of Keir represented that a general forest survey was essential. Mr Gammell of Drumtochty referred to the relation between forestry and small holdings, pointing out that there was no antagonism between the two, but, on the contrary, that forestry would be the means of providing additional employment for small holders. Dr Borthwick, Edinburgh, and Mr Dawson, Aberdeen, spoke on the subject of forestry education, and Mr Gillanders, forester to the Duke of Northumberland, and Mr Leven, forester to the Duke of Roxburghe, both dealt with the various subjects embraced in the report from the practical forester’s point of view. Sir Robert Wright expressed, on behalf of Mr Sutherland and the Board, his pleasure at receiving such a large deputation from the Society, and indicated that he and Mr Sutherland were both in sympathy with the objects which the Council were there that day to further. He said that the subject was under the Secretary for Scotland’s consideration, and that in the meantime it would be rather premature for him to discuss details. He warned the Council that the resources of the Board would be very severely taxed to meet the demands necessary in connection with the establishment of small holdings in Scotland, and that therefore they need not expect much financial support from the Board’s annual grant. Mr Munro Ferguson explained that what the Society expected was that the Board would find the necessary money to provide the staff and expert advice for the proposed Department, but that for demonstration forests and various other claims they would merely expect the assistance of the Board in obtaining the necessary funds either from the Development Commission or from Parliament. Sir Robert expressed his agreement with this view, but said that while the Board did not seek in any way to shirk the responsibilities laid upon them, they would like to know that they would have the support of the Society in representing to the Development Commission the necessity for funds to adequately develop that part of their work. Mr Charles Buchanan, Penicuik, moved a vote of thanks to the Board, and the Council thereupon withdrew.— Scotsman. 204 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 21. German Notes. By BERTHOLD RIBBENTROP, C.I.E. In the Transactions for July 1911 (vol. xxiv., p. 203) we described the experiments made by Oberférster Haak, of the Mycological Laboratory in Eberswalde, in regard to the artificial culture of the pine-leaf scab, and his observations on the formation of the apothecia (or fruits) of this fell disease. The laboratory results explained to a great extent the course of the disease in pine forests, and permitted a critical examination of the generally accepted views regarding pine scab, and of the question how far the measures adopted for its prevention and extermination are prima facie correct. With this aim in view, Haak placed pattern areas under constant observation and kept a separate ledger for each case. These areas embraced strongly diseased cultures with plants from 1 to to years old, thickets of 20 to 25 years old, 30 to 40-year-old pole forests, and mature forests. He also observed the progress of the disease on plants artificially nfected each year. These plants he raised for the purpose in a garden unquestionably free from all suspicion of nfection, or obtained from the disease-free nursery at Chorin. He laid down that, in order to arrive at a_ satisfactory explanation regarding the nature and progress of the destructive scab disease in pine nurseries and cultures, a satisfactory reply must be forthcoming to the two questions: Whence, and at what time, do the germs of the disease enter the plants ? It is evident that the correct answer to these two questions forms the very foundation of the biology of Lophodermium pinastri, and of all the measures adopted to counteract its ravages, but our most eminent researchers and authors have hitherto contradicted each other in regard to them. The late Prof. Mayr, of Munich, made some experimental cultures at Geisenfeld by Ingolstadt. He collected a quantity of dead pine leaves in mature and pole forests, and an equal amount from an infected young cultivation, and spread them on separate pattern areas, in June 1902. Those covered with litter out of the mature forests developed no sign of the disease, whereas the plants in the area in which the leaves of infected young growth had been used became thoroughly diseased. GERMAN NOTES. 205 On the strength of this Prof. Mayr laid it down as an axiom that though the apothecia of the fungi produced on diseased younger growth were highly infectious, those formed on the dead and dying leaves of older forest trees were innocuous. He further supported his position by saying that no natural reproduction of pines could take place if the disease could be produced through the shed leaves of mature forests; and, whilst he recommended the destruction of all young growth killed or even attacked by the scab, he declared that the cover- ing of young seedlings by pine branches was quite harmless. Prof. Mayr, however, failed to make certain that the litter collected in the forest actually contained leaves affected by Lophodermium germs of any sort whatsoever. Haak made experiments on Prof. Mayr’s lines, but took care to make certain that the leaves collected in a 20-to-30-year- old thicket, a 40-year-old pole forest, and in a mature forest, contained apothecia of Lophodermium, In examining the leaves obtained from the various sources, he found that those of the infected cultures bore the largest number of apothecia, those of the thickets somewhat less, and those taken from the old forests but few. All plants remained green on the areas where no litter had been placed; on those covered with leaves obtained from diseased cultures the plants were all red; on those treated with leaves from thickets a very large percentage were red; and on those where the litter from the older forests was used nearly half the plants were scab-diseased. ‘These results prove that Prof. Mayr’s experiments were not sufficiently exact, and that the disease on old trees is identical with that which destroys the young growth; a fact which had already been proved in the laboratory. The answer to the first question then is, evidently, that every old pine forest bearing apothecia on its leaves may cause the infection of young growth—and once this takes place the disease will rapidly increase in virulence and form new hotbeds of infection, The second question is, When and how does the infection take place? Opinions on this point again vary considerably, and are not always on all fours with the facts of the case. Open apothecia have been found by careful searching at nearly all periods of the year. Von Tubeuf found in the leaves 206 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. of an old forest, on the 26th February rgoo, and again in the middle of March 1900 in the leaves of a thicket, both closed and open apothecia, whereas those observed in young cultures were almost all still closed and remained so till April. Von Tubeuf’s obervations are valuable, but the conclusion he draws that the apothecia found open in April can expel germs after every rain throughout the summer requires modification. The expelling of germs is not dependent on rain. The apothecia empty themselves of all germs in a short time, under the influence of sufficient moisture, and cannot go on all summer with the process of fructification. That by careful searching open apothecia containing fertile germs can be found here and there in every month of the year must be admitted, but it is contrary to the facts of the case to say that they are as a rule fully developed as early as April. Such cases are exceptions. This can be fully ascertained by careful prolonged study of the disease on selected areas during all periods of the year, especially in young cultures. The leaves infected during the summer begin to redden about the end of September. During the winter months the progress of the disease is slow, but in spring it advances rapidly and soon causes shedding of the leaves (hence the German name Schwe(te.) It is these leaves shed in spring which cause the spread of the infection in the summer. When they fall in April and May, no apothecia (with rare exceptions) can be observed. The latter form only in June and July, ripening from about the 15th of July onward. By the beginning of October they have exhausted their supply of germs, which they expel very rapidly under suitable conditions. When the conditions are adverse the ripening may be delayed in some instances, but these late comers are of no practical importance. It happens even more rarely that special conditions cause a premature ripening of apothecia, causing them to open in winter and early spring. It was these that von Tubeuf found in April on newly cultivated areas. They are of no practical importance, for the ripe apothecia must open as soon as there is sufficient moisture, and the germs, once expelled, have a short life. They either grow at once or not at all. The formation and ripening of apothecia on the leaves of older trees is more complicated than on the young growth, GERMAN NOTES. 207 and the time during which germs can be expelled is much prolonged. Experiments made by Oberforster Haak, in a_ garden absolutely free from infection, showed that infection could be produced even later than the r5th October, but only in a mild form. This does away with the theory that infection could only take place from July to September. However, cases of infection outside this limit are rare and of relatively a mild character, and for practical purposes in the open it will suffice to combat the pest by syringing the young growth with copper solution from July to September. The actual process of infection has been observed to take place in the following manner :—The apothecia on the leaves are disposed in such a manner that the germs can be liberated into the open air. Thus leaves lying flat on the ground develop apothecia only on the upper surface; those which hang free have them all round. The ripe apothecia open as soon as they have absorbed sufficient moisture from rain or dew, and expel the germs straight into the air to a height of some 3 mm. Air streams convey them farther, but the main infection takes place in close proximity to the centre. Slides placed quite close to leaves bearing open apothecia showed 10,000 to 20,000 germs; but on slides at a vertical height of 20 cm. only 12 germs could be found; and on those placed at a slant at 20 cm. distance less than 1000. The spores carried away by the wind adhere to the first obstacle they meet so firmly that rain does not wash them away. The germination of the spores begins at once under the influence of sufficient moisture, at any temperature above freezing-point, and the infection of pine leaves with which the spores may have come in contact may take place in a very few days. Sulphate of copper in a solution of 1 to rooo kills the spores at once, and even one of r to To,000 prevents their development. Unfortunately the treatment is ineffective as regards 1-year- old plants, the leaves of which are coated with a waterproof covering to which the liquid does not adhere. Experiments made by adding soap to the mixture successfully protected the seedlings from the scab infection, but robbed the leaves of their wax covering so that they all died of drought with the first appearance of the spring sun. 208 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Numerous observations have been made by Haak and Dr Dugler as to how the mycelial hairs enter the leaves and how they spread. These observations are most delicate and difficult, and certain phases are still to some extent conjectural, but it is evident that the leaves in full growth can resist the full development of the mycelia. Though the disease cannot be shaken off, it is retarded till the growing period of the leaves is over. During the late autumn and winter months the mycelium penetrates in all directions, and with the appearance of spring the leaves have lost all power of resistance, turn quite red, fade away and are shed. The infection and course of the disease in young plants is comparatively simple, and the question naturally arises why older trees of the same species are not attacked in a similar manner. ‘The reason is not that they are beyond the region of infection, for in places where no leaves in new cultures had escaped, older plants, the branches of which swept the soil of the very same area, showed not a single red leaf. Moreover, it has been found impossible to cause the infection of even the newest shoots of older pines by tying leaves with ripe apothecia to them. The young pine gradually outgrows danger from the disease, and becomes immune somewhere between the seventh and tenth year. Why this should be is still dark. The reason is certainly not to be found in differences in the anatomical structure of the leaves, but is evidently a biological effect, due to a power of resistance against the entry or growth of the mycelium in the leaves of older trees, for as soon as this resistance is lowered the fungus attacks them as well as any young growth. This fact is borne out by numerous observations and experi- ments. ‘The sap supply need only be interrupted, causing a gradual cessation of growth, and the leaves of the branches thus treated become as liable to infection as those of any young growth. Even the leaves of branches of felled trees, owing to the fact that they dried up slowly in the shade of dense beech undergrowth, were found covered with ripe apothecia. Numerous apothecia were found on the leaves of trees broken by snow. It may also be accepted that, though the growing leaves of older trees resist any attack of the scab spores, these may establish themselves on leaves in which the sap circulation has Piate II. ‘BuLIAOdoI av JN ‘pajooye A]peq ore F puy “€ ‘Z aj “youyyze padvosa Aypvonowid sey 1 “Sy TLXQ ONIAUWVA V OL GAMOVLLY SONITGAAS ANIG A1TO-YVAA-YNOY ‘AVOS-GUNIQ Ad LN “fp Ae Z “y re 209.1 To face p. GERMAN NOTES. 209 ceased or been reduced to a minimum, such leaves developing apothecia after they have dropped. This is the reason why apothecia-infected leaves are found in the litter of thickets and older forests, for if the leaves had once dropped to the ground uninfected, the Lophodermium germs would have had no chance against other more rapidly growing saprophytes. The growth of the fungus is, as a rule, confined to the /eaves of young plants, and every new attack is due to re-infection, but in some cases the mycelium enters the very marrow of the plant itself. In these latter cases the young pine is doomed, whereas, even in extreme cases when all the leaves have been lost, the plant will, as a rule, throw out new ones in the second year; and a repetition of the infection can be averted by syringing with a copper solution, in spite of the fact that the apothecia of a single diseased plant may eject as many €S 60,000,000 spores. The danger of infection is considerably lessened with the diminution of the number of plants on a given area, and hence is less in the case of plantings than of sowings; and in these again it varies in accordance with the density of the young growth. It takes usually several years before the young pines are killed out- Tight, even in cases of annually repeated and unchecked infection, and even then a certain, though small, percentage escape. The accompanying photos of four young seedlings (Plate II.), grown on the same experimental scab bed, taken during the fourth year of their existence, show the advantages to be derived from the copper sulphate treatment. It has been suggested that the mycelium of the fungus, after it had once entered the shoots of a sick plant, might, as in the case of other well-known fungi, thence re-enter the new leaves and maintain the disease from within, independent of a renewed external infection. To prove or disprove the correctness of this assertion Haak selected twenty-five plants, such as depicted in Figs. 2, 3 and 4, and planted them, after the careful removal of all red leaves, in an entirely scab-free area. They remained green and are recovering, whereas all similar plants remaining in the original place were, as early as December 1910, entirely red. It is thus proved that a new infection is essential to the continuation of the disease, and this can be prevented by proper treatment. More or less incomplete experiments led to the opinion that 210 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. trees grown from seed imported from northern zones were more or less immune from scab infection. Haak’s experiments in his scab beds, however, showed that though, for some as yet unexplained reason, plants grown from seeds obtained from the Ural, the north Baltic provinces and Scotland are somewhat less susceptible to infection, none are immune. The choice of seed should therefore be governed by other reasons. Haak divides the infections into those brought in from afar, and those caused by diseased leaves in close vicinity of the attacked plants. The spores of Lophodermium are extremely light, form- ing so-called floating spores, and are, in more or less closed forests, carried upwards by ascending air currents and spread to great distances, unless they meet some obstacle to which they adhere at once, thereby causing infection of leaves in the crowns of the trees whenever they find them in a dying condition. Downward air Currents carry the few remaining spores to the ground, where they may sometimes settle on young pine growth susceptible to infection. This is the course of infection from afar. That occurring in the vicinity of diseased plants is of practical interest only in nurseries and new cultures, where row upon row of young seedlings or plants occur more or less close together, every leaf being susceptible to infection. Local infection, in destructive intensity, does not extend farther than from 3 to 6 feet from the focus, but large quantities of the spores expelled from the cultures may be spread afar, and cause the formation of new centres of the disease. It is evident that the first infection of plants in nurseries, unless these are established in the close vicinity of scabic cultures, must be brought from afar. Such infection is rarely intensive during the first year, and can in most cases be checked, so that local centres of the disease are not established. The selection of areas for seed nurseries in scab-free localities, either in the open or in forests of deciduous trees, is of the greatest importance. Only places with the richest soil should be chosen, for the strongest plant has the best chance of escaping the disease or of outgrowing the consequences if attacked. The nursery to which the seedlings are to be transplanted should never be close to the sowing nursery or in the vicinity of pine thickets. When, in pure pine forests, the selection of places is circumscribed, it is advisable to select localities in mature forests at some distance from newly cultivated areas or thickets, and GERMAN NOTES. 202 to use, with proper manuring, the same nurseries year after year. In Chorin, already mentioned in the former notes in connection with Kienitz’s experiments, the same nurseries have produced healthy planting material year after year for upwards of forty years, and are perfectly scab-free. It is essential that no residue should be left in such nurseries, and that every plant not used should be burned or buried. As regards the transplanting of 1-year seedlings into the open every attempt to economise, as regards preparation of soil, hoeing, grass-cutting, etc., is to be condemned. As regards older plants, syringing with copper solution is a preventive against infection. The safest plan, of course, would be to syringe all new cultures so long as they are susceptible to infection, but here the question of money and time arises. Careful observation is, however, essential, and whenever the first signs of scab appear and red leaves are found in the spring, the syringe must come into play at once in the 2-and 3-year-old cultures. This will in most cases do away with the necessity of continuing the operation later on ; but if the forester goes on the principle of ‘‘wait and see,” the consequences will probably become infinitely more serious and certainly more costly. When is the right time for syringing, and whether is it necessary to repeat it year after year, are questions which next arise. Of course nurseries, if they show the slightest sign of scab, should at once be syringed, and this year after year, so as to keep them entirely scab-free. The Zophodermium disease is not of periodical occurrence, but is always with us, and constant attention is necessary to prevent it becoming master of the situation. Syringing must begin as soon as the first apothecia ripen. This may be a fortnight earlier or later, according to the climatic conditions of each locality. A constant examination of the dead leaves is necessary from the beginning of July. They will show the apothecia as small black spots. If placed on a white plate filled with water, ripe apothecia open in a few minutes and show a white inside surrounded by a black rim. An ordinary magnifying glass is sufficient for this observa- tion. If the ripe apothecia are well soaked in water and placed between two bits of glass, they will at once begin to expel spores in sufficient quantities to form little accumulations which are visible to the naked eye in a few hours. 212 ‘LRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Haak has done good work in at last placing the biology of the Lophodermium fungus on a sound basis, and as a practical result of his researches lays down the following :— 1. As regards the selection of seed: this selection should be based entirely on silvicultural requirements, a high percentage of germination being essential. 2. Infection caused by the spores ejected from the apothecia takes place in a dangerous degree only from about the middle of July till the end of September. 3. The spores are formed on the leaves of old pine trees as well as on those of young growth The strongest development of spores takes place on cultivated areas, the least in mixed forests with a rapid decomposition of the litter. ‘The danger of infection is therefore largest in the former case and negligible in the latter. 4. The infection is either effected at a distance over large areas by spores floating for some time here and there with air currents, or it is a local one in the immediate vicinity of the leaves bearing apothecia, being, so to say, reciprocal. 5. Nurseries must be established as far as possible from scab- attacked cultivations and thickets, in localities not liable to infection. For forests in which these conditions cannot be found plants must be obtained from outside. Where such localities are rare, permanent nurseries must be formed, in which, by means of suitable manuring, healthy plants can be raised year by year, and which can be kept scab-free. 6. In order to avoid or diminish the danger of local infection— (a) Sowing and planting in nurseries should not take place in the same place or near each other ; (4) Only the best and soundest seedlings should be planted; (c) The seedlings not considered fit for transplanting should be effectively destroyed ; (2) Thick sowing in the open should be avoided ; planting is preferable. 7. All means must be adopted to bring the cultures as rapidly as possible through the susceptible age. A thorough working up of the soil, selection of the best seed, and the use of the strongest plants, grown on good soil only, are essential, as well as a subsequent careful treatment of the young cultivations by hoeing, grass cutting and syringing. Every case of filling up blanks in the cultures prolongs the period of danger. GERMAN NOTES. 213 8. Syringing may or may not be necessary year after year, and not always to the same extent. The extent required can be ascertained by studying the progress of the disease in spring. The beginning should be made as soon as the first apothecia ripen. Observations to this effect should be started early in July. If scab shows itself at all, the youngest cultivations should be syringed without fail, as the most dangerous disease centres are formed within them almost inperceptibly. I offer no excuse for having absorbed the greater part of the space granted for my German notes with Haak’s Brological Studies of the Pine Scab. The importance of the question and the convincing experiments and conclusions, many of which are new, suffice to justify this, and it would be almost impertinent to dismiss them with a few words. The late Nun moth pest still occupies the “tar ring” and the “no tar ring” factions. Whatever may be the result of the paper war, it seems quite evident that no administration will have sufficient moral courage to drop the precaution as soon as indica- tions of a recurrence of a Nun calamity are observed, though at present many of them talk big and maintain that the late successes in Saxony were due to special conditions and luck, especially in regard to the abrupt ending of the pest, which came quite unexpectedly and at least two years before its course would have been run under normal conditions. ‘They maintain that the ring battle against the Nun larve is quite inapplicable to the extensive pine forests of the plain forests in Eastern Prussia. As regards this the forest world must wait and see, it is to be hoped for many years, but the measure will certainly be tried again even there, and this time at the beginning of the attack, and ultimate conclusions may then be drawn from the result. The formation of an annual conference at Eberswalde of leading forest-officers, with a view to amalgamating theory and practice, has been one of the most important occurrences of late years in German forest history. The staff of the Eberswalde Forest Academy greeted the proposal enthusiastically at once, though fully aware that it would entail much additional labour, but it seemed doubtful whether the outside interest in the scheme would suffice to ensure success, or whether those most successful in practice would not resent it as an attempt to bring them back to school. However, the applications after the publication of a programme were so numerous that it was found necessary, 214 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. though regretfully, to limit the number of members to forty. To some extent this was necessitated by the difficulty of housing and moving a larger number, but the main reason for this limitation was that for general discussions, especially during excursions, a greater crowd would become unwieldy, and that thereby many valuable opinions and expressions of practical men might be lost. On Monday, the roth July 1911, Dr Moller, the present Director of the Academy, had the privilege of greeting the assembly with a rousing speech. He told the members, most of whom were old students of Eberswalde, that the aim of the conference was not to overwhelm them during the week with lectures and experimental scientific shows, but to lay the foundations of a bridge between science and practice, between research and proofs obtained in actual forest work, in fact to realise the ideal longings of Du Hamel du Monceaux, the original founder of forestry as a science. ‘“Tt is undeniable,” he continued, ‘‘that a forester with a minimum of exact scientific knowledge, may be an excellent administrator of his division if he has energy, common sense, a love for his work, and critically sifted experience. The scientific attainments of a forester cannot, therefore, be measured with safety by the cultural conditions of his forest, their silvicultural treatment or their final net yield. Nevertheless there is room for improvement which, it is hoped, will gradually take place and grow by means of a free exchange of opinions, in the course of these progressive conferences. A scientific solution of the various questions which are raised year after year, definite in the sense of a solution of a mathematical problem, cannot be expected in measurable time ; but one has only to remember the progress that has been made in the knowledge of forest soils, a science which in its present sense was non-existent twenty years ago, to feel the necessity of unremitting united attempts in that direction. “A great point has been gained in inducing men of experience and practice to enter the abode of our scientific work, our laboratories, our experimental gardens and forests, to examine and criticise our work and to carry away with them all that may seem to them to be useful in practice. ‘Unlimited criticism by the members of the conference of all we have done and are doing is cordially invited, for it is only by GERMAN NOTES. 215 this means that the foundations of scientific research can be made firm. Our greatest and best laboratory is the forest, and the greater part of the time during the week the conference lasts will be spent in our school divisions. The success and usefulness of these conferences rests equally on the shoulders of all members. It is difficult to foretell the actual results of these conferences, but I hope for the best.” In this sense the Director concluded his welcome. The following lectures formed the basis of the discussions :— 1. The precipitation of moisture in North Germany, and its causes. 2. The importation of wood into Germany in connection with the general economic conditions of the country, illustrated by diagrams. ‘These diagrams, amongst others similarly instructive and interesting, show at a glance the, of course, well-known fact that the course of Government securities moves in a negative way to the general prosperity of the country. They sink with an increase of prosperity and rise with any check or fall in the general welfare. 3. During a visit to the Botanical Gardens explanations were given of its most interesting treasures, especially in regard to recently obtained results in graft bastardisation. 4. A walk through the selection fellings of the Eberswalde division brought the members to the area given up to zoological research, including experiments with fish culture and fish feeding. The rith July was given up to a visit to the Chorin forests. An address was delivered by Forstmeister Kienitz on the old and modern manner of creating mixed forests. The old way, he explained, was comparatively easy, as it depended on the large herds of pigs driven into the forests, but since the disappearance of the old herds and the utter uselessness as forest workers of the fashionably-bred pigs, other measures had to be adopted. These had been successful, but, owing to an excessive stock of red deer, they proved more costly than need otherwise have been the case. However, the forests form part of the Emperor’s favourite shooting grounds The discussions rose to great animation during this excursion. The most modern ploughs and harrows of German and Danish origin are represented in Chorin, but the consensus of opinion was in favour of the Geist-Kaehler Wuehlgrubber, already 216 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. treated of in the Zvransactions, and the condemnation of the old forest plough. The morning of the r2th July was given up to a critical examination of the forest school of Biesenthal, the discussion being opened by an address by Forstmeister Leising, who described the history and present treatment of the forest. In the afternoon the town forest of Eberswalde was visited, and a most instructive lecture was given on the silvicultural treatment of a pine forest. This led to a most animated discussion, and the labours of Oberférster Haak were highly appreciated. The 13th July was entirely occupied by a lecture by Dr Albert regarding the newest researches on soils. This lecture, accompanied by numerous experiments, started with the famous discovery by Graham of colloids. But though Graham was undoubtedly the founder of the chemistry of colloids, his original division between crystalloids and colloids is at present only of historic interest. It has since been ascertained that colloidal or non-colloidal conditions are different phases of matter, and that every substance can exist in either form and change from the one to the other. To follow in detail Albert’s lecture, in which he gives the general foundations of the chemistry of colloids, would necessitate the taking up of all the pages of the Zransactions, which would not be reasonable. He explained how intimately the colloid theory was connected with our knowledge of forest soils, especially in regard to humus, and showed how simple and clear the knowledge of colloid chemistry made many formerly more or less unexplainable occurrences in the soil and the growth of plants. There was a time, not so long ago, when all such unexplainable occurrences were considered to be due to bacteria, and he warns against overhaste in the acceptance of the new theory, which, though to all appearance crystal-clear, requires still deeper research before its foundation and scope can be considered established on a sufficiently firm basis. After an interesting morning lecture by Dr Franz Schwarz on the influence of lime on the growth of plant life, demonstrations took place in the experimental garden of the mycological section of the Academy, and explanations were offered by the Director of the Academy, Dr Moller. The garden, several acres in extent, was established in 1902, GERMAN NOTES. 207 as a connecting link between laboratory experiments and the application of the results in the open, and has more than justified its existence. ‘Ten years’ continuous experiment has proved that dry peat is the very best manure for pine cultivation, and that the established treatment for clean felled areas by the old forest plough, which threw this aside, was radically wrong. It may be accepted that those foresters—sceptical though they may have been in regard to the theoretical proof of the value of this manure as explained by colloidal chemistry—who had the privilege of seeing the results of the practical experiments with the right and wrong method side by side will never use the forest plough again. ‘The best practical solution of the right method lies in the Geist-Kaehler Wuehlgrubber. The experiments with the scab fungus were also shown and explained. ‘The last day was occupied by an excursion to a beech forest division, and suitable discussions. The first conference has been a success, but the strain of six days’ continuous close application has been considerable, and it has been suggested that the future meetings should be so arranged that a Sunday falls in the midst, and also that the gist of the addresses should be printed for early distribution, and not as in the present instance at the opening of the conference. VOL. XXVI. PART II. ; P 218 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, 22. Sections of Larch Timber, showing the Effects of different Soils on the Growth.! By GILBERYT BROWN, Grantown-on-Spey. The specimens consisted of six blocks taken from different larch trees, three of which showed decayed heartwood and three sound timber. The first group were taken from trees grown on ground with an upper layer of medium forest soil, and an inferior under layer consisting either of “pan” or poor gravel. It should not be assumed that all larches grown on such soil suffer from rot, but it may be said that on certain areas containing soil of this nature heart-rot is common. It is a significant fact that on a more or less uneven plain, with slight hollows where soil has collected and is therefore fairly deep, the larches yield sound timber, while on the adjoining heather ground they are more or less severely attacked by rot. The second set of specimens included trees which have been grown on soil of sufficient depth, and with a certain amount of natural drainage. The composition of the soil varied; in some places it was pure loam, in others this was mixed with broken rock, insufficient in quantity to check the growth of the tree. Such soils admit of a free circulation of air about the roots. The specimens were taken from trees of various ages, and may be described as follows :— No. 1. (Unsound). ‘Taken from a tree about thirty-five years of age, grown in a mixed crop of Scots fir and larch on a south- west aspect, about 700 feet above sea-level. The upper layer of soil is a black friable loam, the under layer is hard, rubbly and pan-like, being composed of rough gravel with a slight covering of clay, and is of extremely poor quality. The larch had flourished in the thin upper layer of good soil, but suffered much when the roots suddenly came in contact with the pan. The tap-root had quite decayed, and the rot had spread from the root up into the stem. No. 2. (Unsound). ‘This section was taken from a tree about fifty-five years of age. South exposure, 800 feet altitude, grown on a soil of damp, sterile nature, except a few inches on the 1 Extracted from an essay submitted for competition. SECTIONS OF LARCH TIMBER. 219 surface. The soil to all appearance lacks porosity, and as there is no natural drainage it is of a cold, unfavourable nature with little or no aeration. No. 3. (Unsound). ‘This section was taken from a tree about eighty years of age. South exposure, 700 feet altitude. It had been grown on a soil of fair depth but of a very light nature. Fungi have undoubtedly played a part in the process of destruction here, and have caused the decay of some of the roots, whence the decay has spread to the heartwood. No. 4. (Sound). This section was taken from a tree about thirty-five years of age, grown on soil that had been drained in order to tap the spring water on slightly rising ground. South- west exposure, 700 feet above sea-level. The soil has plenty of depth and friability, so that the roots have enjoyed unrestricted growth. No. 5. (Sound). ‘This section was taken from a tree about fifty-five years of age, grown ona slope with plenty of natural drainage. South-west exposure, 800 feet altitude. The soil is of a deep, loamy nature, on a porous subsoil of gravel with a slight mixture of grit or exceptionally rough sand inter- sected with layers of very fine particles of rock. During snow the soil is inclined to be wet owing to the melting snow coming down from the slope, but the subsoil being porous it is dry throughout the summer. No. 6. (Sound). This section was taken from a tree about eighty years of age, grown on deep soil of rather light quality. The soil is naturally more or less dry, but it is generally well saturated by the melting of the heavy winter snow, so that the trees get a good start in the spring, and a few showers during the growing season is all that they require. 220 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 23. The Larch Saw-Fly. By ALEX. RArFAN, Bonskeid Estate Office, Pitlochry. This very injurious insect has increased greatly in central Perthshire this season. It was first observed on Bonskeid estate about the end of July 1910, though to all appearance it had been established there for at least one (or more) years. In 1910 the writer tried experimenting on the larve by means of hellebore dusted on with a common gardener’s puffer. This proved quite effectual but was slow in action and rather expensive, while owing to this experiment being tried, hand- picking was not resorted to. By the middle of August the larvee came to maturity and dropped off, the last colony being seen on the 2oth of August. This was in a plantation of mixed European and Japanese larch about 15 acres in extent, and eight and nine years old. The soil was a poor dry gravel with herbage of rough grass and heather. Previous to planting, the area had produced a crop of birch. At the end of autumn a search was made for cocoons, but without success, the herbage being too rough. However, a strict watch was kept on the plantation last summer, and the fly was seen in June, the first of the larve appearing on the 4th July. By the 15th July the larve had become quite numerous, and were found on larch trees, old and young alike, on every part of the estate, even at an altitude of 1000 feet. On the 22nd July hand-picking was started, and thousands of larvee were gathered every day until the young plantation had been completely gone over. The larvee were found to be much more numerous where the plantation had a southern aspect, in which situation the trees were thin on the ground and not of luxuriant growth. On some of these trees as many as seven colonies, in different stages of development, with from twenty to thirty larve in each colony, were found. In rg1o it was hoped that the Japanese larch would be immune, but when thin on the ground they were found to be as badly affected as the European larch. A 2-year old plantation on a different part of the estate, part pure Tyrolese larch and part larch and Scots fir mixed, was also found to be badly affected and had to be hand-picked. THE LARCH SAW-FLY. 221 The last of the larvae were found on the 15th of August, that is after the plantation referred to had been gone over twice and in some parts three times. While watching the infected plantations last summer, one fact that came under the writer’s notice was the large number of grey spiders that were to be found on the higher branches of some of the trees. At first it was thought that the dry summer was accountable for this, and perhaps to a certain extent it was; but careful observation showed that on every young tree where the spider had its nest large collections of larve had been attacked, and no living larve could be seen on any of the trees where the spider was found. The egg beds and the first appearance of the larvz’s work could be seen on the twigs, but the larvee had been attacked by the spider before they were old enough to do much damage. The writer is convinced that if spiders and other forms which attack the parasites could be increased in the affected plantations, this would greatly aid in combating the saw-fly. In the saw-fly, proprietors are faced with one of the most injurious insects that have infected woodlands, and unless some remedy can be applied to stay the spread of this insect, entire destruction of larch plantations is likely to ensue. It is hoped that the experiments being carried on by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries will result in a sure remedy being found for this pest. 222 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY 24. The Work of Professor Louis Grandeau. By ALex. Lauper, D.Sc., Hon. Consulting Chemist to the Society. Professor Louis Grandeau, the distinguished French agri- cultural chemist, died at Interlaken, on 22nd November 1911, at the age of seventy-seven. A disciple of the great Boussingalt, he played an important part in the development of scientific agriculture in France. He was well known both as an experi- menter and writer in agricultural chemistry, and his Zrazté @analyse des matieres agricoles” was perhaps the best known work of its time on agricultural analysis. He held various important official positions, such as the Directorship of the Station Agronomique de l Est, a Professorship at the Conservatotre Nationale des Arts et Mcétiers, and was Luspecteur-général des Stations Agronomiques. In his experimental work he dealt largely with practical problems, such as the manuring of field crops and the feeding of draught horses, which appeal directly to the agriculturist. His best known scientific work was his investigation of the black humic material that he extracted from soils, to which he attributed an important part in the nutrition of plants. The views put forward by Grandeau as to the part taken by these complex substances in plant nutrition have, however, undergone considerable modification in recent years. The following notice of Grandeau’s work is from the pen of M. Henry, and deals largely with his investigation of the ‘‘black matter” of soils referred to above :— In the early days of agricultural science there were two rival theories as to the sources from which plants derived their food supply. The older theory, associated with the name of Thaér, attributed the richness of a soil almost exclusively to the amount of humus which it contained. About 1840 Liebig brought forward his famous mineral theory, and expressed the opinion that it was the mineral constituents of the soil which alone were important as sources of } lant food. The upholders of the earlier theory declined to recognise the importance of the mineral constituents of plants, in spite of the new and important work of Th. de Saussure on the ash of plants; while the upholders of the mineral theory were equally THE WORK OF PROFESSOR LOUIS GRANDEAU. 223 unwilling to admit that soil humus could play any part in such a complex phenomenon as plant nutrition. As is generally the case, the truth lay between the extreme views of the opposing schools, and to Grandeau belongs the merit cf having clearly demonstrated that the fertility of a soil depends largely on the proportion of “black matter” which it contains, ze. both on the organic and mineral constituents. Grandeau commenced his work by examining three types of soil, the fertility of which was well known and widely different. rt. The black soils of Russia (¢chernozen), the fertility of which is proverbial, and which, even without manur- ing, yield crops far superior to those of many soils which are regularly manured. 2. The soil of Lorraine, a clay soil of fairly good fertility but requiring regular manuring. 3. A sterile unmanured peaty soil (Nancy). If only the chemical composition of the soils was considered, it was found that soils of medium fertility contained a higher percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and _ lime, respectively, than the rich black soil of Russia. This led Grandeau to investigate more thoroughly the composition of the organic matter of the soil. Part of the organic matter is soluble in water and acids, but insoluble in alkalies, and is of little use to the plant. A second portion of the organic matter, on the other hand, is insoluble in water and acids but dissolves in alkalies. This mixture of substances, which make up the greater part of the soil humus, is the “black matter” of Grandeau. Before this time, chemists had chiefly been concerned with the ultimate composition of the ‘ black matter,” Ze. with the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, etc., which it contained. Grandeau, on the other hand, devoted himself to the investigation of its mineral constituents in the hope of finding the key to the problem. On evaporating to dryness the dark-coloured solution of humic matter obtained by successive extractions of the soil with dilute ammonia, a black, shining, brittle residue is obtained, which is insoluble in water, alcohol and acids, and soluble only in alkalies. ‘This he terms the “black matter.” On incineration this leaves a reddish ash, the darkness of the colour depending on the amount of iron present. The mineral residue so obtained contains phosphate of iron, lime, magnesia, silica and potash, 224 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. indeed all the mineral elements essential to the life of plants. He also concluded that these various inorganic salts were soluble, and in a condition to be directly assimilated by plants. Grandeau next proved that the amount of mineral matter present in the “black matter” may be taken as an index of the fertility of a soil. The following figures from one of his papers may be taken as an illustration. 300 grammes soil contain :— Soil from Soil from Peaty Soil from Russia. Lorraine. Nancy. Organic Matter - “To T1‘0O 35°99 grams. “Black Matter” .- 4220 o'94 1206: 3; Amount of ash in the “Black Matter” from + 2'16 O'12 0'02 roo grammes of soil The proportion of “black matter” cannot be used as an index of the fertility, for the peaty soil from Nancy, which is quite barren, contains as much as the fertile soil from Lorraine. Grandeau therefore concluded that the higher the percentage of ash in the “black matter” the more fertile the soil, and he gives the following figures showing the percentages of ash in the “black matter” from various classes of soil. Very Fertile Soil of Fair Barren Soil. Fertility. Soil. Percentage of ash in )__. “2 ‘ “ Black Matter” forse Eee Ba He further states, with regard to the phosphoric acid, that fertility depends not so much on the total amount of phosphoric acid present as on that part of it which is in combination with the ‘black matter.” These new ideas as to the fertility of soils were first published by Grandeau in 1878, in the Annales de la station Agronomique del Est. Many agricultural scientists in all countries have since that time paid their tribute to the importance of Grandeau’s researches. [M. Grandeau was a professor at the I'rench National Forest School, Nancy. ITlis monumental book on ‘‘Chemistry and Physiology applied to Silviculture ” (Berger-Levrault, Paris, 1878), was for long the standard work on this important subject, and the analyses recorded in it must maintain for all time its great value to students of forestry. —Hon. Ep. | FORESTRY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. 225 25. Forestry at the University of Oxford. We extract the following from the Report of the Delegates for Instruction in Forestry for the year 1911 :— The number of students on the books of the Delegacy for Instruction in Forestry during the year rg11 was as follows :— Hilary Term. Easter and Michaelmas Trinity Terms. Term. First-year Students 18 16 10 Second ,, a 30 28 14 sehird. ,, - 19 19 19 Total 67 63 43 The students during Michaelmas term may be classified as follows :— In 1git. In 19I0, Probationers for the Indian Forest Service 15 35 Other Students. : : 5, 28 25 Total cee. 70 \ The decrease in the total number of students is chiefly due to the reduction in the number of probationers for India, from 35 to 15, and partly to the effect which the reduction had on the number of other students. Of the ten students who joined in October 1911, there are :— Probationers for the Indian Forest Service Other Students — (e) [anetere Total The Secretary of State for India appointed five probationers, but only three came to Oxford, the other two having been permitted to study at Cambridge. After another year or two, the number of probationers for India is likely to be raised again to the normal number of ten a year. The Indian School of Forestry was transferred from Coopers Hill to Oxford in October 1905, and it has educated up to date the probationers for the Indian Forest Service. The Secretary of State for India, however, had intimated to the University, on the 17th March 1905, that the training of the probationers 226 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. at Oxford was subject to reconsideration within three years. A Committee was appointed by the Secretary of State in 1908, and on its recommendations he arrived at certain decisions, which were communicated to the University on the 2nd February rort. These decisions were embodied in letters of the same date addressed to the Universities of Cambridge and Edinburgh (SEG NOL. ZxIV., D.\2r2), Sir W. Schlich’s service should have terminated on the 28th February 1o1o, under the age limit fixed by the English Civil Service rules, but at the request of the Secretary of State he continued in office, until a decision as to the future training of the probationers had been arrived at. Accordingly, he retired from the Government service on the rst August rgrtt, and from the same date Mr A. M. Caccia, M.V.O., an officer of the India Forest Service, was appointed director of Indian Forest Studies. In the meantime a change had taken place at Oxford. While the School of Forestry commenced with the training of Indian probationers, there were, in the spring of 1911, thirty- five forest students who were not probationers for India. The delegates for Instruction in Forestry, after due consideration, resolved that every effort should be made to continue the School of Forestry at Oxford for the training of students of forestry including probationers for India; that it would be desirable to appoint a university professor of forestry, and necessary to make arrangements for the teaching and_ super- vision of students after 1st August 1911, and that Council be informed of these resolutions. In consequence of this com- munication, and as no foundation for a professorship of forestry existed, Sir W. Schlich was appointed reader in forestry for a period of three years from the 1st August 1911, and by decree of Convocation he was given the status of professor of forestry as long as he holds the readership. He thus remains secretary to the Delegates for Instruction in Forestry. After discussion with Mr Caccia, it was arranged that he and the professor of forestry should divide the instruction in forestry between themselves until midsummer, 1913. After that date the University will have to make provision for carrying on the School of Forestry without any assistance from the Secretarv of State for India. It is hoped that by FORESTRY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. 227 midsummer, 1913, means will be found for some foundation for a permanent professorship in forestry. The regulations for the diploma have been revised, so as to bring them into harmony with the changed conditions, and they will be published during the present Hilary term. Practical Course.—Thirty students completed the practical course during the year, and sixteen commenced it. E-xaminations.—The usual departmental tests were held, and an examination for the diploma took place in the beginning of October. Thirty students came up for the final examination in Part II., and all passed. Twenty-nine students received the diploma in forestry. Of these :— 22 joined the Indian Forest Service, 1 joined the Ceylon Forest Service, 2 joined the Forest Service in Indian Native States, 1 joined the South African Forest Service, 1 has returned to Newfoundland, I is going to Australia, and I proposes working in this country. The results of the examination in the subjects auxiliary to forestry were as follows :— General Botany : . 14 Students passed. General Geology 4 ie 2 Forestry Botany. ee * Zoology é 5 By 53 Forest Nursery and Experimental Plantations in Bagley Wood.—The progress has been satisfactory. An additional area of about 8 acres has been prepared, and partially planted ; the rest is being planted at the present time. The total area of experimental plantations amounts now to 23 acres. The effect of a recent fall of snow has been very instructive. The young trees of Douglas fir, both Oregon and Colorado varieties, as well as those of Zhuja plicata, the giant cypress, were bent to the ground and had to be lifted up again. All European species, as well as Picea sitkaensis, were not affected by the fall of snow. In last year’s report, it was stated that the Douglas fir had suffered from strong winds. All these matters should not be lost sight of when selecting exotic species for planting on a large scale. It is also interesting to note the effect of the z28 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. exceptionally dry summer of 1911. In the older experimental plots hardly a single plant died. In three experimental plots of quarter-acre each, on a very poor piece of ground, planted in the early spring of tg11, to see which of three species would do best on such inferior land, of the Banksian pines, recom- mended for localities where nothing else will grow, hardly a single plant died; of spruce, about 30 per cent. died ; and of Scots pine, 60 per cent. The nursery is fully stocked, in fact, overflowing into an adjoining area. The following plants were sold during the year :— Douglas fir ‘ . 17,000 Silver fir. : 4 7,000 Larch . 12,500 Scots pine ; ; 2,060 Banksian pine ; 350 Corsican pine : . 12,000 Sitka spruce . 24,000 Norway spruce F - 7,000 Total . 81,850 Of these, 26,000 were 3- and 4-year-old plants, and 55,850 were 2-year-old seedlings. In addition, a considerable number of plants were handed over to St John’s College. In view of the fact that the payments hitherto made by the Secretary of State will cease after 1913, an effort will be made to cover the cost of maintaining the forest garden and experimental plantation by the sale of plants. ‘ 1 a . 1 { ’ — ¢ i ~ ~— 9 5 : - "a , i y — é i , 7 a ~ q 1 es . ; —y - a a WW a ey = op 7 : 7 - 7 i i - » ae t : = ; : r - 7 ap - > 7 m \ — i ~ 2 - P x = 0, 4 uw : hs! %: \ rd : - ¥ : A S = ! m) = f ri — ; For (i ‘planation see tex NOTES AND QUERIES. 229 NOTES, ANDROUE RIES. EUROPEAN LARCH AND JAPANESE LARCH. (With Plate.) The accompanying photographs are intended to show the difference in rate of growth between Japanese and European larch. Nine years ago a small area of about two acres was fenced and planted up experimentally with these two specieg,— commencing with two rows of Japanese and one of European, gradually shading off to row and row, and ending with single rows of Japanese to two of European. The plants were grown from seed sown at Gairloch, and were of the same size and age when planted out. The seed was obtained from Japan and the Tyrol. So far there is no question as to rate of growth, and if it continues the Japanese larch will soon suppress the other. The photos had to be taken looking down hill at a point where the rows alternate, and so they do not show the difference very well; but No. r shows nothing but Japanese—the ordinary larch between them being invisible—while No. 2 shows the Japanese with the light on them, the rows standing clearly above the others, which make no show at all. The small patch in the right hand far off corner of this photograph is pure European larch, and shows how much less they have grown than the Japanese. KENNETH MACKENZIE. Forest TERMINOLOGY. With reference to the note on this subject on p. 97, it is intimated that a new edition of Professor Gerschel’s book, prepared by the late Mr W. R. Fisher, has recently been published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford. 230 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FORESTRY. The last issued annual report of the Concilium Bibliograph- zcum (Zurich, Dec. rg1o) intimates that a sufficient number of subscribers have been secured for the Bibliography planned by the International Forestry Congress, whose decisions have, however, to receive the formal assent of the various.governments interested. The circular issued by the International Committee for the publication of a bibliography of forestry explains that their purpose is to provide a prompt and complete digest, absolutely trustworthy and easy to consult, comprising the forestry literature of all countries. ‘This will be in the form of a card catalogue, arranged in accordance with the system long and successfully in use for zoology, anatomy and other subjects. The arrangement of the catalogue, which is intended to include all publications subsequent to t1g11, would be as follows :— For every memoir, whether published in a journal or as a separate work, a card would be prepared. On this card would stand the title of the memoir and, where necessary, a brief résumé of the contents, the name of the journal, with full bibliographical references, and, in the case of separate works, the name of the publisher. ‘The science of forestry will be split up into a number of convenient headings, which will be numbered so as to permit of the easy intercalation of cards. ‘Thus, if a student wishes to know what has been published in regard to, say, ‘‘Thinnings,” he has only to ascertain the appropriate heading from the scheme of classification and then turn to the corresponding division of the subject catalogue, where he will find references to all papers collected at this one point, even though the individual papers may have been pub- lished at very different dates. It is also the intention of the International Committee to issue a separate catalogue, in book form, for all publications prior to 1911, running back probably to 1750. For further information see Annotationes Concilit Biblio- eraphict (vol. vi., 1910, pp. 1-3, Zurich, 1910); or apply to Dr Herbert H. Field, Director of the Concilium Bibliographicum, Zurich, Switzerland. Hucu Boyp Warr. NOTES AND QUERIES. A LARGE Scots PINE. ty ios) ~ The big Scots pine at Novar was blown down by the gale on Monday, 8th April 1912, Its age was 130 years, and the stem was undivided for a length of 72 feet. The girth at a little below the swellings caused by the main branches, 7.e., the smallest girth of stem, was 5 ft. 10 ins. For other dimensions see figures below. Formula used: —- x L. i.e. g? x ‘0796 x L. Timber in stem. Section 1: length 10’; mid-girth (¢¢., at 5’ from Cub. ft. ground) 10’ 1”; volume including bark . 80°93 Section 2: length 10’; mid-girth 9’; volume 64°48 Section 3: length to’; mid-girth 8’ 3”; volume 54°18 Section 4: length 10’; mid-girth 7’ 8”; volume 46°79 Section 5: length 10’; mid-girth 7’; volume 3900 Section 6: length 10’; mid-girth 6’ 5”; volume 32°77 ; 12 ate Section 7: length —; mid-girth 5’ 11”; volume 33°44 72 Total volume of unbranched stem includ- --——— ing bark : : : 13550 Deduct—say 16 per cent. for bark on Stem: (v7de Sehlich, vol. wit p. 32) : 56:25 Net volume of timber, free of bark, in stem Timber in branches Main branches from fork at top of stem—i.e., 72' Jrom ground. Cub. ft Branch 1: length ro’; mid-girth 3’ 3”; volume = 8-41 (Cracked by fall.) Branch 2: length 13’; mid-girth 3’ 3”; volume 10°93 (Broken to pieces after 13’.) Branch 3: length ro’; mid-girth 2’ 2"; volume 3°74 Branch 4: length 9’; mid-girth 2’ 10”; volume 5°75 (Very crooked after 9’.) Branch 5: length 5’; mid-girth 2’ 10” (Very crooked after 5’.) ; volume 3°19 Carry forward 32°02 Cub. ft. 295°34 ANS) OK 232 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Cub: ft” (@ub:sft: Brought forward 32°02 295°34 Subsidiary branches—(only tivo measurable as timber; both well shaped). 1: length ro’; mid-girth 1’ 1”; volume . - O08 2: length 9g’; mid-girth 1°1”; volume. - 10°64! Total volume of timber in_ branches including bark : ; Re) Deduct—say to per cent. for Barts (se Schlich, vol. iil. p. 34). : 3.38 Net volume of timber in branches, free at bark (so far as measurable) . .———_ One Total net volume of timber, free of bark, —standard cub. feet : ; : , 2 tgome7s which represents about 244 cub. feet by the Quarter-Girth system of measurement. J-: J]. Raa INVESTIGATION INTO THE CURRENT ANNUAL INCREMENT IN GIRTH OF THE DOUGLAS FIR. The West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow, has issued, as Bulletin No. 59 of 1912, a report by Professor J. Nisbet, D.CE.c., on his investigation into the current annual increment in girth, at 5 feet above ground, of a Douglas fir plantation, 32 years of age, in the Quarries Wood on the Benmore Estate, Kilmun, Cowal district of Argyllshire, during the year rgrt. The original girth measurements were made on 1st May 1g1t1, and the trees were re-measured on 17th February 1912. It is hoped that this important investigation may be prolonged over a series of years, as the interval of 9} months appears to be too short a period to permit of trustworthy deductions as to annual increment being made from the rate of development of the trees. APPOINTMENT. Mr J. D. Crozier, forester on the Durris estate, Aberdeen- shire, has been appointed Forest Inspector under the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland. NOTES AND QUERIES. 233 CHOICE OF TREES FOR PLANTING. M. Jolyet, of the Research Bureau of Nancy, publishes an interesting article on the choice of trees for planting. Of course it depends on the soil, the altitude, the aspect, and the intentions of the owner, etc. With definite soils the right species can be easily indicated, but, unfortunately, one often meets half-and- half soils—a soil, for example, that is clayey-lime, which, without being absolutely superficial, is yet not very deep, and which is neither clearly sandy nor compact. M. Jolyet lays down certain conditions, and on them makes certain proposals. Thus— 1. Assuming that the proprietor wishes for the highest returns in the shortest time—plant conifers. 2. Since conifers are out of their habitat at low altitudes, and therefore specially liable to suffer from fungi and insects—plant a mixture, 3. For the same reason add a few deciduous species, but since it is the conifers that give the quick returns the number of these should not be excessive, and, therefore, the conifers employed should themselves differ as much as possible in temperament. 4. Since exotics are expensive the number introduced should be limited. It is necessary to form a closecrop quickly, and accordingly he would have one or more ordinary and indigenous species to form a matrix, occupying three-quarters of the whole area, with the special species distributed throughout. The first must be such that their timber will, while still young, be of value, for upon them will fall the first thinnings for the benefit of the special species. For this matrix he chooses spruce and Scots pine. Both are cheap; both stand frost; both yield useful products early. The spruce certainly needs moisture, yet can do with a relatively shallow soil. The Scots pine, for its part, lives quite well at low altitudes. As special species M. Jolyet proposes Douglas fir, larch, Adzes concolor, and deciduous trees (especially beech and sycamore). He happens to be a great advocate for Colorado Douglas in dry and continental countries, in spite of its slow growth relatively to the Vancouver. As to the larch, he suggests Japanese, because he thinks it stands VOL. XXVI. PART II. | Q 234 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. drought better than the European variety, but in this he is shown to be wrong by the results of the past year. It is an important point. He prefers Adtes concolor to A. pectinata, since the latter requires much rain, but there do not seem to be sufficient data yet about the concolor to justify him in adopting it. Indeed the introduction of silver fir at all in such conditions as M. Jolyet is considering seems very doubtful. M. Jolyet’s proportions at the start are as follows :—Out of 4350 plants to the hectare (or 1740 to the acre), planted about 5 feet by 5 feet, the spruce to number 1go5, the Scots pine 1360, the larch 270, the Douglas 545, A. concolor 135, and beech and sycamore (half-and-half) 135. Beginning the thinnings with the spruce and Scots pine the progress of the plantation is to lead at 60 years to a standing crop on each hectare of 865 spruce, 320 pines, 135 larch, 270 Douglas, 135 firs, and 135 deciduous trees. A. G. Hopart-HAMPDEN. APPEAL FOR LITERARY CONTRIBUTIONS. By the Honorary Epiror. Six years ago the Honorary Editor appealed to the members of the Society for their support of the then newly inaugurated half-yearly issues of the Zyansactions. But as the response has not come up to his expectations, he ventures now to renew his request for literary contributions. If proprietors, factors and foresters would contribute to our pages from the vast store of practical knowledge they have acquired, our publication would at once assume a highly increased value and interest. We have given our readers, from time to time, articles by the highest authorities on general questions of policy and practice; and of such articles a sufficiency will, without doubt, continue to become available. But of communications regarding the application of acknowledged principles under the conditions here prevailing we have hitherto seen far too little. Owners and their professional assistants come and go, without leaving behind them, for the guidance of their successors, any trace of the invaluable experience they have accumulated. If they would, from time to time, give us the benefit of this experience, pointing out by what means, and with what measure NOTES AND QUERIES. 235 of success, difficulties were combated, our Zyavsactions would soon form the basis of a Manual of Scottish Forestry of unique value. The subjects on which communications would be welcome are numberless, but a few of them may be mentioned by way of suggestion :— Nature of localities here found to be most suitable for forest crops of various species, including exotics. Species, including exotics, here found to be most suitable as forest crops in localities which are unfavourable from various causes, such as high elevation, exposure to cold or strong wind, frost, bog, etc. Cheap and successful methods of planting. Successful “ direct” sowings. Successful natural regeneration. Successful treatment of crops up to middle age, especially with regard to mixed crops. Successful under-planting of crops of light-crowned species. Successful protection of nurseries and forest crops from injury by animals, birds, insects, fungi, weeds, smoke or meteoric phenomena (such as frost, wind, snow, etc.). Successful use of mechanical appliances for the moving of timber. Cheap and successful methods of increasing the durability of timber. Cheap and successful methods of converting and seasoning timber. Utilisation of waste wood (slabs, tops and branches, etc.). But of course there are many other subjects. As a rule, successful operations are more instructive than failures, but where the cause of non-success can be indicated with certainty, an account of such failure may be of much interest and value. The communications asked for need not take the form of lengthy articles, such, indeed, not being required. The Honorary Editor will welcome brief statements of well-authenticated facts, with sufficient particulars to render them intelligible and in- structive; and he trusts that lack of literary experience and skill will not deter any one possessed of valuable knowledge of the kind indicated from writing to the Zvansactions in regard thereto. 236 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BO@@KsS: Wayside and Woodland Trees: A Pocket Guide to the British Sylva. By Epwarp Srep, F.L.S. 182 pp. of letterpress, with 175 plain and coloured plates and numerous text figures. London: Frederick Warne & Co. Price 6s. net. The value of the new edition of this handsome little book has been increased by the addition of forty-eight new plates, of which twenty-four are coloured. The new plates show in greater detail than the figures in the text the flowers or fruit, and in several cases the characteristic leaf-buds in spring. Tree Lore. By Francis Grorce Heratu. With a Table of Indigenous British Trees and Shrubs. 304 pp. Price 3S. 6d. net. London: Charles H. Kelly. The title of this volume indicates the nature of its contents, which are varied and interesting. The subjects are arranged in alphabetical order, which makes the book easy of reference, and in addition it has an extensive index and glossary. Gold Coast Land Tenure and the Forest Bill, :1g1t. A Review of the Situation by CasrLty Hayrorp, Barrister-at-law. London: C. M. Phillips. The interesting pamphlet before us has been written with the view of enlisting the sympathy of the Colonial Office, Members of Parliament, and the people of this country, in the case against this bill which has been ably stated by counsel, on behalf of the kings and chiefs and natives of the Gold Coast, at the Bar of the Legislative Council. The speeches of the various counsel engaged in the case, and the Governor’s reply, are given in full. It appears that previous attempts at legislation on the same lines had been defeated owing to the opposition of the REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. 23% kings and chiefs—their main objection to the bills being that each sought to infringe upon the inherent rights of the natives of the country in the ownership of their land. An attempt had apparently been made to show on behalf of the Government that there were waste and unoccupied—z.e. ownerless—lands in the country, but such a contention could not be upheld and the various bills never became law. The present bill, it is asserted, introduces the same encroachments under the name of manage- ment. The bill, if passed, would give the Governor in council power to declare certain land subject to forest reservation ; to prohibit the taking of timber, rubber, etc., during certain periods; to constitute forest reserves and to manage native forest reserves. On behalf of the natives it was maintained that they could not understand the difference between manage- ment and confiscation. The bill, they believe, would give the Government the whole power of management, and would sweep away the owners’ rights to impose their own terms and conditions. It would seriously affect their inherent proprietary rights in the soil of their native land, and would tend to annihilate their social and political organisations and institutions. The Governor, in replying to the criticisms of the bill, said that he thought the objections raised were based upon misapprehension of its terms, and he pointed out that the sole ebject of the bill was to prevent the wasteful working and destruction of the forests of the Colony —the Government having not the slightest intention of taking away the lands of the people. The writer of the pamphlet goes on to draw conclusions from the facts that had been brought out in the discussion, insisting first of all that the land question on the Gold Coast and the principles appertaining to the tenure of the land had been finally settled by the Home Government long ago, and that it would be almost impossible to convince the natives that Management such as is proposed under the bill would not be a practical alienation of their rights in the land. It would be, he says, a disastrous error in policy to seek to alter in any material way the system of land tenure on the Gold Coast after the failure of various attempts which had been made in the past, because it is inconceivable to the native mind that any jurisdiction can exist without land and without the right and power of active management of such land. Take away the control of the land by the kings and chiefs and you have 238 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. practically destroyed the whole fabric of native institutions. If the bill becomes law, lands might be reserved and the real owner would have no right even to enter upon them without incurring a penalty, neither could he grant any concession without the Governor’s consent, nor take any of the forest produce without a Government licence. As to the alleged destruction of the forests, he quotes the Conservator of Forests as saying that the timber areas had scarcely been touched. The same authority is also quoted to show that only the natives can successfully develop rubber planting. This, the writer says, puts the whole case in a nut-shell. It is the native of the soil who must develop the possibilities of the soil, and apart from him European enterprise can do nothing; therefore to take over the management of the land from the native, and convert his condition into one little better than that which at one time prevailed in the Congo would be a very bad blunder. The writer concludes with the following eloquent appeal :— ‘*Please recognise the rights of indigenes, please admit that they have a right to an opinion in a matter in which they are vitally interested. Let the principle of ‘Live and let live’ be the guiding star in a constructive statesmanship, and all will be well. For, as His Excellency the Governor has wisely pointed out, even measure well pressed down, as between European capital and native labour, thus and only thus, will the land yield its increase for the betterment of all.” The whole controversy shows, on the one hand, that the natives are very jealous of their rights in their native land, and very suspicious of any action taken by the Government which might tend to alter or infringe upon those rights, which are so well defined and defended by the counsel engaged on their behalf—and, on the other hand, it illustrates the difficulties which the Government have to deal with in trying to introduce amongst natives a system of forest management, which these natives cannot understand, far less appreciate. ‘The opinion expressed by one of the counsel engaged in the case is worth recording. What is required, he said in effect, are not forest-officers to manage the forests but well-trained instructors to instruct the kings and chiefs in the cultivation of their land. Such forestry instructors might be appointed to educate the people in scientific agriculture and arboriculture. ‘These native kings and chiefs, having power under the Native Jurisdiction Ordinance to make NOTICES AND REVIEWS OF BOOKS: 239 bye-laws for the conservation of the forests, could work hand in hand with such instructors and be guided by their advice to the lasting benefit of the economic development of the country. Re Ge Farming and forestry: The Cultivation of Trees for Shelter and for Timber. By J. F. ANNaAND, Lecturer on Forestry, Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 23 pp. with Plate. Published in the Journal of the Newcastle Farmers’ Club, 1911-12. This pamphlet, as the title indicates, deals with the cultiva- tion of trees for shelter and for timber. In introducing his subject Mr Annand speaks of the objects of afforestation, and chiefly of the beneficial effects of shelter to adjoining lands. The subject is thereafter dealt with under the following heads :— (1) The selection and saving of tree seeds; (2) the sowing of seeds and the treatment of seedlings in the nursery; (3) hints on the purchase of plants from public nurseries; (4) the selection of species for certain localities and for certain purposes—planting for shelter and for timber; (5) methods of planting and best season for planting; (6) treatment of young woods (a) for shelter, (4) for timber production; (7) the cultivation of osier beds, for basket willow and for tree willow. Useful hints on the collecting and treatment of tree seeds are given, and the operations of sowing seeds and transplant- ing seedlings are described in every detail. The purchase of transplanted trees is also dealt with. Under the heading of Selection of Species, Mr Annand speaks highly of the sycamore as a farmer’s tree, as it provides good shelter and shade, but does not rob the surface soil so much as other species. Beech is recommended as a marginal tree, but owing to its dense canopy it is unsuitable for hedgerow planting. Ash and elm are not to be encouraged for planting near arable land as they impoverish a wide area round them. Mr Annand somewhat underrates the poplar as a timber tree. Than the Black Italian poplar no more profitable tree could be found for odd corners where land is too moist for cultivation. 240 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. The deciduous species are recommended for planting near the sea and in towns generally. Among the conifers, Austrian and Corsican pines also do well near the coast, and in smoky districts where none of the other firs thrive. As good timber producers Scots pine, the Norway and Sitka spruces, larch, silver fir and Douglas fir are recommended. Other matters dealt with more or less briefly are—‘‘ The laying out of woods,” “ Pure and mixed woods,” and ‘ Planting.” The booklet contains much that is of the highest importance to the tree grower, and should be widely read. British Trees, tncluding the finer Shrubs for Garden and Woodland. By the late Rev. C. A. Jouns. Edited by E. T. Cook and W. Daturmore. Published by George Routledge and Sons, Ltd. This is a revised and enlarged edition of Forest Trees of Britain, by the late Rev. C. A. Johns; and the intention of the editors has been to bring the subject more up to date by adding an account of the shrubs unknown in his day, or since raised by hybridization. ‘The work is very well got up, and illustrated by coloured plates, photographs and drawings. To the practical forester of long-standing experience the book is not of very much assistance, as it conveys nothing of a practical nature or of a reliable character in regard to the silvicultural characteristics. of our forest trees. ‘To the general reader or nature student the work is certainly a very desirable one, as it is the best popular book on the subject we have seen; and to alk lovers of trees and shrubs we have no hesitation in strongly recommending it. . . Roval Scottish Avboricultural Society. Instituted 16th February 1854, PATRON His MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY THE KING. PROCEEDINGS IN 1911—Continued. THE GENERAL MEETING. A General Meeting of the Society was held in the Showyard, Inverness, on Thursday, 27th July ro11, at 2.30 P.M. Sir JoHN STIRLING- MAXxwELL, Bart., President of the Society, occupied the Chair, and there was a large attendance of members. APOLOGIES. Apologies for absence were intimated from the Right Hon. R. C. Munro Ferguson, Hon. Secretary; Colonel Bailey, Hon. Editor; Sir Kenneth Mackenzie and Messrs Methven, Annand, Leven, Davidson, Buchanan, Scott and Gammell, Members of Council; and from Lochiel, Sir Hugh Shaw-Stewart, Sir Francis Webster, Dr Nisbet and Messrs John D. Sutherland, Charles W. Ralston and W. S. Curr. MINUTES. The Minutes of the Annual Meeting held in February last, which had been recently circulated along with the Zransactions, were held as read. CHAIRMAN’S REMARKS. _ The Cuarrman said he had to report as to progress made in the steps towards silviculture in Scotland, which the a 36 Society had been pressing on the Government for years. He was glad to say that although only a few months had elapsed since their Annual Meeting in Edinburgh, some progress had to be recorded. There had been published within the last few days a report on behalf of the Development Commissioners, in which they laid down an outline of the policy of forestry development for Scotland which, he thought, the Society should be able to accept as being intelligent and comprehensive in its character. That Development Grant, they should never forget, was voted by Parliament, and one of the primary objects was the development of forestry. Therefore, the movement in which they were interested had a very early claim upon assistance from that grant. The Development Commissioners had now happily laid down a general outline of the kind of development they consider possible which, he thought, the Society would be able without much reserve to accept. Since their meeting in Edinburgh, the Secretary for Scotland, in his capacity as Minister for Scotland, had shown he was interested in the movement. He had appointed a small Committee to formulate a scheme which his Department might lay before the Develop- ment Commissioners. ‘That Committee was composed of seven members, five of them being members of this Society, and three of the five were members of Council, so that the Society might claim to be adequately represented. The other two members of Committee were men of eminence in other walks of life and men of public spirit, who took a great interest in development in the widest sense of the word. He thought the Society had reason to be contented with the Committee which was at work. He hoped before long that they would formulate a scheme for the development of forestry, which the Secretary for Scotland could lay before the Development Commissioners with some hope of realising it. Of course, the Society had been working too long at that movement to mistake words for deeds, but he thought they had never had a Government so friendly to their movement as the present one. Although, at their last meeting, it fell to him as their President to state the wishes of the Society, perhaps with rather brutal bluntness, at the same time he should like to say that both the Secretary for Scotland and the Develop- ment Commissioners wished the scheme well, and were sincerely anxious to see forestry developed upon real lines. The Society would watch very carefully everything that was done in that direction. He might add, for the benefit of the younger members who were there, that such a change as they saw now in the attitude of the Government towards the forestry movement was not the result of this year and last year, or the year before, but the result of the work which the Society had been steadily doing for more than a generation. It must be a great satisfaction to some of the older members of the Society to feel that the work, which has been going on through their energy so long, was at last 37 showing some hope of bearing fruit. Since the last meeting, the Survey made by Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling for part of Inverness-shire had been published. From what he had heard, he thought that the Society had no reason to regret having embarked on that enterprise. It had shown for itself that it was a piece of work which ought to have been done by some authority many yearsago. He thought it was very well done, and that it probably would be the basis and the book of reference for any Survey in this country by the Government. JupcEs’ REPORT ON THE Essays. The SEcrETARY gave in the Report of the Judges on the Essays as follows :— GEASS “I. 1. Suitability of any Exotic Conifer for Cultivation as a Forest Crop, and nature of the Locality found, in the experience of the Writer, to be most suitable for it— “The Douglas Fir”; with two illustrations. By *““PsEuDoTSUGA Mucranata.” No Award. 2. The Raising and Management of Thorn Hedges, and the Comparative Merits of various Local Methods. By W. H. WuHELLENS, Comlongon Nursery, Ruthwell. Award—No. 1 Silver Medal. Do. do. By Wixu1amM Hatt, Church Cottages, Bilton, York. Award—Bronze Medal. 3. Successful Raising, by the Writer, or on the Estate with which he is connected, of a young Forest Crop in a Frosty Locality, with details as to Soil Covering, Species and Measures of Protection adopted. By }. Fercuson, Gregynog Lodge, Tregynon, Newtown. Award—Bronze Medal. 4. Soils. By ‘Scots Pine.” No Award. 5. The best Method of Planting at High Altitudes and in Exposed Situations, together with the best Species of Trees to plant there with the object of procuring (a) Shelter for Stock, and (4) a Profitable Timber Crop; with three illustrations. By A. W. B. Epwarps, Hollie Bank, Thirlemere, Grasmere. Award— No. 2. Silver Medal. 38 6. The Propagation in Wales of Exotic Conifers from Seeds collected from Trees grown in- Wales. By J. Frercuson, Gregynog Lodge, Tregynon, Newtown. Award—Bronze Medal. 7. The Valuation of Standing Timber. By W. H. WHELLENS, Comlongon Nursery, Ruthwell. Award —Bronze Medal. Cuass II. 1. A Collection of Notes of Silvicultural Interest based on personal observation. By J. BRowN CARMICHAEL, Thoresby Park, Ollerton, Notts. Award—Bronze Medal. The Meeting approved of the Judges’ Report, and thanked them for their services. FORESTRY EXHIBITION AT INVERNESS. The recommendations of the Judges were submitted by BRoDIE oF BRopIE as follows :— Competition No. L. Specimens of Timber of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Larch (Larix europea), and Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). OPEN SECTION. 1st Prize, £2, 10s., The Marquess of Graham, /. W. Inglis. and , 1, tos., Captain Stirling of Keir. 3rd) 55 9,4; J. A. Stirling of Kippendavie. LocaL SECTION. ist Prize, £1, C. W. Dyson Perrins of Ardross. 2nd _,, 15s. The Countess Dowager of Seafield, p. W. M‘Bain. Competition No. LL. Specimens of Timber of any other three Coniferous Trees. OPEN SECTION, 1st Prize, £2, 10s., The Countess Dowager of Seafield p. W. M‘Bain, ao C ompetition No. LLT. Specimens of Timber of Ash (Fraxinus excelstor), Oak (Quercus robur), and Elm (U/mus montana). OPEN SECTION. 1st Prize, £ 2, tos., The Earl of Moray. and ,, £1, 10s., Captain Stirling of Keir. ont ie ae C. W. Dyson Perrins of Ardross LocaL SECTION. ist Prize, £1, The Countess Dowager of Seafield, p. W. M‘Bain. ade, 15s., The Earl of Moray. Competition No. LV. OPEN SECTION. Specimens of Timber of three Broad-Leaved Timber Trees. 1st Prize, £2, 1os., The Earl of Moray. 2nd ,, £1, 10s., The Countess Dowager of Seafield, p. W. M‘Bain. Competition No. VT. For an approved Report of Damage done by Insect Pests injurious to Forest Trees, and the Measures that have been successfully adopted for their Extermination ; with Specimens. William Watt, Assistant Forester, Darnaway, ‘+ No. 2 Silver Medal. Competition No. VII. Gate for Farm Use, made from Home-grown Timber by the Exhibitor, who must be a Forester or Working Forester ; with Specification, etc. Donald Ross, Assistant Forester, Alness, £1. Competition No. VITLI. Gate made from Home-grown Timber (which must be designed and exhibited by a Member) ; with Specification. Thomas Wilkinson Cuthbert, Factor for Ardross, £1. Competition No. XT. Full-sized Section of Rustic Fence. Thomas Wilkinson Cuthbert, . No. 2 Silver Medal. 40 Competition No. XII. Specimens showing the Comparative Quality of any Timber grown on different Soils and Situations, and the respective Ages at which it reaches Marketable Size and Maturity; to be accompanied by a Report. The Countess Dowager of Seafield, No. 2 Silver Medal, p. Gilbert Brown. Competition No. XIT1. Specimens demonstrating the Beneficial Effects of Pruning when well done, and the Injurious Effects when badly done. ‘The Earl of Moray, . : + WeLOS: Competition No. XTV. Specimens of Stems illustrating the Effects of Dense and Thin Crops in Branch Suppression, and Quality of Timber. The Earl of Moray, . : . No. 2 Silver Medal. Competition No. XV. A Collection of Fungi injurious to Forest Trees and Shrubs. The Earl of Moray, . : . No. 2 Silver Medal. John Munro, Foreman Forester, | ,; : Kingswood, Murthly, . | No. 2 Silveut ida Competition No. X VT. Examples of Photographs of the damage caused by Squirrels, Voles, etc., to various kinds of Trees, or of any abnormal growth. The Earl of Moray, . ; . No. 2 Silver Medal. Thomas Wilkinson Cuthbert, .. ros. Competition No. X VIII. For any approved Article either wholly or mainly made of Wood. The Earl of Moray, . ; «iOS: Thomas Wilkinson Cuthbert, . 5s. Competition No. XIX. A Collection of Injurious Insects (shown as larva, pupa, and imago), with a short life-history of each Insect. H. S. Hanson, Crown Cottage, | ,, . Parkend, Glos., =) Eh No. 1 Silver Medal. 4I ARTICLES FOR EXHIBITION ONLY. For Articles brought forward for Exhibition only the Judges recommended the following Awards, viz. :— A Collection of different kinds of Wood. ‘The Earl of Moray, a No. 1 Silver Medal. Hand specimens of Timbers. John Crozier, Durris, a No. 2 Silver Medal. Examples of Turf or Soil illustrating the advantages of pasturing Woodland by Stock previous to Planting. Countess Dowager of Seafield, 4. Gilbert Brown, a No. 1 Silver Medal. Forestry Tools and Implements. Messrs Howden & Co., Inverness, an Award of Merit. A Collection of Cones and Foliage. George Fraser, Kingswood, Murthly, a No. 2 Silver Medal. Brodie of Brodie remarked that the Judges had considerable difficulty in judging the timber exhibits, owing to the fact that there was timber of three species in each lot, and that they were not all of equal quality. He threw out the suggestion that it might be advisable in future to judge the timber of each species separately. Mr Donald Robertson, another of the Judges, concurred, and pointed out that it might save time if the Com- mittee, first of all, went over the timber exhibits to see that they were in accordance with the conditions. He was not sure whether it would not be an advantage to do away with the condition that one of the boards should contain pith. The Chairman. said that the suggestions would be carefully con- sidered by the Council, and that the Society was much indebted to the Judges for the great care and trouble they had taken in connection with their awards, of which he moved the adoption. He thanked the Northern Branch for taking charge of the arrangements on the spot, and congratulated the Society upon the excellence of the exhibits. A vote of thanks was also accorded to the Highland and Agricultural Society for voting the prize-money for the timber exhibits in the Open Section, and for giving the usual facilities for the Exhibition and the Meeting. 42 ScotrisH NATIONAL EXHIBITION IN GLASGOW. The CHAIRMAN drew attention to this Exhibition, and said that the Forestry Section organised by the Society was a most instructive one, and appeared to be drawing large crowds ot interested visitors. EXCURSION. In the absence of the Convener of the Excursion Committee, the SECRETARY mentioned that the Excursion made to the Border district, in the end of last month, had been very successful. The various proprietors who had been kind enough to open their estates to the Society, and who had entertained them when they were there, had all been formally thanked since the return of the party. The President asked for suggestions as to a locality for next year’s Excursion, and mentioned that the Council recommended a visit to Balmoral and Deeside about the end of June, in the event of the necessary permission being obtained. This recommendation appeared to be agreeable to the majority of members present, and the matter was remitted back to the Council with powers. CORRESPONDING MEMBER. The Meeting unanimously confirmed the appointment of Mr Fred Moon as Correspondent for Western Australia. THE SURVEY REPORT. The SECRETARY intimated that a copy of this Report, bound in vellum and inscribed as follows :—‘‘ Presented to His Majesty the King with the humble duty of the Royal Scottish Arbori- cultural Society, 19 Castle Street, Edinburgh, July 1911,” had been delivered at Holyrood during the recent visit of the King. The following is a copy of the note which accompanied the volume, and of the reply received :-— Ig CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH, 5th July 191l. Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, as President of this Society, has the honour to transmit to Lord Knollys for His Majesty’s gracious acceptance, a copy of a Report on Highland Afforesta- tion lately made for the Society by two of its members, Lord 43 Lovat and Captain Stirling of Keir. As the Highlands of Scotland are peculiarly suited for silviculture, and it might be a valuable aid to their development, the Society hopes that His Majesty may be graciously pleased to accept the Report (which is the most complete study of the subject yet attempted), together with the humble duty of all the members of the Society. HoLyroop PaLacr, 18th July 1911. DEAR Sir, The Report on Highland Afforestation, addressed to Lord Knollys, has been laid before the King, and I am commanded to convey to you the expression of His Majesty’s best thanks for the same. Yours very faithfully, CLivE WIGRaAM. ROBERT GALLOWAY, lOhy SESKGS Secretary, ROYAL ScoTTisH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Colonel Martin Martin said that Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling had devoted a great amount of work and time to the preparation of this Report, and he moved that the thanks of the Society be conveyed to them. The motion was unanimously agreed to. THE DEVELOPMENT CoMMISSIONERS’ REPORT. The PREsIpENT said that since last meeting the Commissioners had issued their first Report, and he thought it would be in- teresting that the part of it dealing with Forestry should be read to the Meeting and be reproduced in the Transactions, This was accordingly done. (For these paragraphs see page 3 of the Transactions.) NoricE oF Morion. Notice was given by Mr Ricuarpson that he would move at next Annual Meeting the same Motion as he made at the Meeting in February last. A vote of thanks to the Chairman concluded the business. b Ropal Scottish Arboricultural Society. SYLLABUS OF COMPETITIONS—1912. [Lhe Judges are empowered to fix the value of the Prizes to be awarded according to the respective merits of the Essays. All Essays, Reports, Models, or other Articles intended for Competition must be lodged with the Secretary not later than 11th May 1912. Each such Essay, Report, Model, or Article must bear a Morro, and be accompanied by a sealed envelope bearing outside the same Morro, with the Class in which the Writer competes, und containing a Card with the NAME and ADDRESS of the Competitor. Essays should be written on one side of the paper only; the left-hand quarter of each page should be left as a blank margin. The lines should not be crowded together. Manuscripts for which prizes have been awarded, or which have been wholly or partly reproduced in the Transactions, become the property of the Society and are not returned to their authors. Judges cannot compete during their term of office. Successful Competitors may have either the medals or their con- verted values, which are as follows: —Gold, £5; No. 1 Silver, £3; No. 2 Silver, £2; No. 3 Silver, £1; Bronze, 10s.] The following subjects are named for competition in 1912 :— Cxiass I.—For Open CoMPETITION. I. Suitability of any exotic Conifer for cultivation as a Forest Crop, and nature of the locality found, in the experience of the writer, to be most suitable for it. (ive Guineas offered by Davip W. THomson, Esq., Nurseryman, Edinburgh.) 2 II. The relative powers to bear shade of one, two, or all of the following species :—Douglas Fir, Menzies Spruce (Pzcea sitchensis), White American Spruce, Sequoia Sempervirens, Lawson’s Cypress, Abies grandis, Giant Hemlock (7'suga Mertensiana), Thuya gigantea; and the order in which the above Species should be placed in a list of shade-bearing trees comprising also Silver Fir, Beech, Spruce, Hornbeam. The Report to be based on personal experience only. If the writer has experience of other exotic Conifers he is permitted to add their names to the above list. (Five Guineas offered by Jonn Meruven, Esq., of Messrs Thomas Methven & Sons, Nurserymen, Edinburgh.) IIT. Successful raising, by the writer, or on the Estate with which he is connected, of a Young Forest Crop by the method of “Direct ” Sowing. The conditions of Soil and Soil Covering to be fully stated. (A Medal.) IV. Comparative results obtained up to the time at which the Young Crops have become thoroughly established, by various methods of Planting, with various Species and Sizes of Plants. (A Medal.) The Report to be based on personal experience ; soil and other local conditions to be fully described. V. Successful raising, by the writer, or on the Estate with which he is connected, of a young Forest Crop in a frosty locality, with details as to Soil Covering, Species, and Measures ot Protection adopted. (A Medal.) VI. An approved Report on the Woods of which the competitor is Forester. Reporter to state the extent of the woods, the species of trees grown, soil, situation, age, manage- ment, etc. (A Medal.) VII. Successful Underplanting of Larch or other Light- crowned Species, on an Estate with which the writer is, or has been, connected. (A Medal.) The Report to be based on experience, the cases referred to being cited. oY o VIII. Details of Measures successfully practised by the writer to exterminate any important Parasitic Fungus or Insect Pest, or to mitigate the Damage done by it. (A Medal.) IX. Details of Mechanical means employed by the writer, or on the Estate with which he is connected, for moving Timber from the interior of Woods to their margins, or to roads. (dA Medal.) X. The erection and maintenance of a Saw-mill (either temporarily or permanently placed), or of any other Machinery for the Manufacture of Timber, used by the writer, or on the Estate with which he is connected — with details of outturn and cost. (A Medal.) ' XI. Details of Measures successfully adopted for the natural regeneration of a timber-crop of Scots Pine, Larch, or other species. (A Jedal.) ~ XII. An approved Essay on the Botanical characteristics of some typical forest tree. The Essay to be accompanied by Illustrations. (A Medal.) XIII. An approved Essay on Soils: — (a) preparation prior to planting ; (6) the advantages of soil-protection accruing from density of crop; (c) the improvement to the soil arising from mixing the main crop with various species of shade-bearing trees. (A Medal.) XIV. An approved Essay on the best method of Planting at high altitudes and in exposed situations, together with the best Species of Trees to plant there with the object of procuring (q@) shelter for stock, and (b) a profitable timber-crop. (A Medal.) XV. Report on the comparative Durability and Suitability for Fencing of various kinds of Timber after it has been creosoted in open tank or otherwise. (A Medal.) XVI. An approved collection of short Notes of silvicultural interest, based on personal observation. (A Medal.) XVII. An approved Essay or Report on any other subject connected with Forestry. (4 Medal.) 4 Crass Il.—For Assistant FORESTERS ONLY. I. Details of the Measures successfully practised by the writer to exterminate any important Insect Pest or Parasitic Fungus, or to mitigate the Damage done by it. (A Medal.) II. An approved collection of Notes of silvicultural interest based on personal observation. (4d Medal.) IIT. An approved Essay~ or Report, based on personal experience, on any practical work connected with Forestry. (dA Medal.) ROBERT GALLOWAY, Secretary. 19 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH, November 1911. Ropal Scottish Arboricultural Societp. Instituted 16th February 1854, PATRON HIS MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY THE KING. PROCEEDINGS IN 1912. THE ANNUAL MEETING. The Fifty-ninth Annual General Meeting of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society was held in the Goold Hall, 5 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh, on Friday, oth February 1912, at 2.30 P.M. Sir Joun STIRLING- MaxweLt, President, was Chairman, and there was a large number of members present. APOLOGIES. Apologies for absence were intimated from Lord Dunglass ; Sir Robert Usher; Colonel Bailey ; Mr C., Buchanan, Penicuik ; Mr A. Mitchell, Rosebery ; Mr Donald Maclean, Golspie; Mr John Mackenzie, Dunvegan; Dr Nisbet, Glasgow ; and Captain Sprot of Riddell, Minutes, The SECRETARY submitted the Minutes of the General Meeting held at Inverness on 27th July last, which had already been printed ‘and ‘circulated along with the January Transactions. The Minutes were approved. REPORT BY THE CoUNCIL. The Srcrerary read the Report by the Council to the Annual Meeting, which was as follows — Membership. It was reported at last Annual Meeting that the Membership then stood at 1369. There have been elected in the course of the a 2 year 115 new members, but 73 names have had to be removed from the roll owing to death and other causes, leaving a net increase of 42, and a total membership, as at this date, of 14t1. Amongst those whose deaths have been recorded during the year are :—Sir Joseph Hooker, an Hon. Member of the Society ; Lord Ardwall; Sheriff Gillespie; Sheriff MacKay; and Messrs H. A. Harbin, G. S. Bazley, T. R. Bruce, Peter Henderson, Robert Laird, and William Dick. Syllabus of Prizes. The usual Syllabus of Competitions for 1911 was issued along with the January Zyansactions of that year. Nine Essays were received and considered by the Judges, and seven of them received awards, as follows :—one, a No. 1 Silver Medal; one, a No. 2 Silver Medal; and five, Bronze Medals. The Syllabus of Competitions of 1912 was issued along with the Zransactions last month, Donors. The thanks of the Society are due to the Directors of the Highland and Agricultural Society for renewing their grant of #,20 for prizes to be awarded for home-grown timber exhibited in their Showyard ; and to Mr Davip W. TuHomson and Mr JOHN METHVEN for renewing their offers of prizes for Essays. The Council is also indebted to Lady Menzies for presenting a portrait of the late Sir Robert Menzies to the Society’s collection. Transacttons. Two volumes of the 7yansactions were issued in the course of the year, the Survey Report having been issued in June as vol. xxv. It is much to be regretted that a number of members have not obtained the use of this literature owing to their failure to respond to requests for their subscription for the past year, Local Branches. The Annual Reports from the Local Branches will be submitted in the course of the meeting. Scottish National Lixhibition, Glasgow, 1911. ‘The Society’s Forestry Section in this Exhibition contained a very interesting collection of exhibits contributed to by a large number of members and others. The exhibits were well arranged and attended to by Mr Samuel Houston who was a 2 ro) very capable attendant. The Pavilion put up by Messrs Cowieson and Company, and leased by them to the Society, proved to be very suitable for the purpose. A formal visit was paid to the Exhibition by the Council, and the members expressed them- selves as highly satisfied with the exhibits and the arrangements. The thanks of the Society are due to the Committee and particularly to Mr Whitton, who exercised careful supervision over the whole section during the time the Exhibition was open, and did much to make the Society’s grounds attractive to visitors. It is gratifying to be able to report that the expense of the Section was well within the amount authorised by the Council. A detailed Report, written by Mr Matthew Feaks, Forester, Benmore, will be found at page 85 of the January Transactions. In connection with the Exhibition, an appeal for new members was issued to Proprietors and Factors and resulted in a substantial addition to the membership. Forestry Exhibition at Inverness. The usual Exhibition of Forestry was held in the Highland and Agricultural Society’s Showyard at Inverness, and embraced a large collection of interesting exhibits. The Local arrange- ments were under the charge of the Northern Branch. ‘The Judges were Bropire oF Bropiz, Mr Donatp RosertTson, Dunrobin, and Mr FRANK Scott, Scone. BRopIE oF BRODIE intimated the awards at the General Meeting held at Inverness, from which it appeared that 18 money prizes and 12 Medals had been awarded. The prize list was included in the proceedings of that meeting. A short report of the Exhibition will be found on page 84 of the January Zvansacttons. The Exhibition will be held this year at Cupar. In revising the schedules, the conditions affecting timber exhibits have been altered so as to make separate classes for specimens of each of Scots pine, spruce, larch, ash, oak and elm. It is believed that this alteration will enable more owners of woods to take part in the competitions. General Meeting. The General Meeting was held in the Showyard at Inverness, on 27th July, when there was a large attendance, particularly of members from the Northern district. A report of the pro- ceedings was as usual appended to the Zvansactions issued in January. Annual Excursion. The Annual Excursion was held in the Border District from 27th to 30th June, the places visited being Bowmont Forest, Marlefield, Sunlaws, Messrs Laing & Mather’s Nurseries, 4 Springwood Park, Floors, Newton Don, Hendersyde Park, Springhill, The Hirsel, Ford Castle, Fairnington, Ancrum, Mounteviot, Hartrigge, Ferniehirst, Minto and Langholm. The headquarters was Kelso, but one night was also spent at Hawick. Sixty-seven members were present. A feature of the Excursion was the use for the first time of motors, which enabled the members to overtake a much larger programme than they could otherwise have done. A ful! report of the Excursion, prepared by Mr George Leven, Bowmont Forest, with a note by Mr Alex. Finlayson, will be found in the January Zransactions. On the return of the party the thanks of the Council were conveyed to the various proprietors who had been kind enough to open their grounds and woods for inspection, and to entertain the members. It has been decided that Deeside will be visited this year, and permission to visit Balmoral has already been obtained from His Majesty the King. Permission to visit the Mar Plantations had also been obtained from his Grace the Duke of Fife, whose lamented death has, however, cancelled this arrangement meantime. Excursion Fund. The amount at the credit of the Excursion Fund is now £60, 19s. tod., which has been gradually accumulated from small surplus balances on the Annual Excursions. _UW 13 6 New Members, é . £126 0 6 £1782 18 4 Ordinary Members by commutation, é 2410 0 Furniture, ete., in Soviety’s Room, soy. 40 0 0 — 1822 18 4 21900 0 0 SGT = ee IL—REVENUE. CHARGE. DISCHARGE, 1. Balance in hand at 31st December 1910, #427 6 3 | 1, Printing, Stationery, etc, —_, 2 £211 0 1 Vol. XXIV, Part I. Transactions, £76 14 6 Authors’ Reprints, 215 9 2, Ordinary Members’ Subscriptions, 411613 0 ee ——— 47910 3 . XXIV. Part IT. of ny LIU 1S Arrearsat 81st December1910, £17 3. 0 2 SFE ot Zee ar ters atthe Add Arrears written off sen Taviaves measyecsa 018 0 Cost of Electros for Part I. of Vol XXVI. _iso ——-— 41810 £191 6 6 Subscriptions for 1911, £432 17 0 General Printing and Stationery, £48 15 3 Less Received in 1910, 900 Forestry Periodicals, Binding, etc., 6 11 0 fe : ———— 063 ——_ 42317 0 eect Subscriptions for 1912 received in 1911, 856 £2112 9 = Less Receipts for Advts. in Trans., 3012 8 £450 3 6 201 ge : 2 Prizes (Money, 438, 5s.; Medals, £5, 18s, 91; ——— Cancelled or written off Books, £2, 12s,), s . £4615 9 asirrecoverableat30th ess Donation from the Highland and December 1911, £12 8 0 Agricultural Society, for Prizes awarded for Home-Grown ‘inber exhibited at Arrears at 90th Decem- THVereas, : 2 = AB MONG sOeae ber191, 21°2 6 F = —— 33106 8. Forestry Exhibition at the Highland and Agricultural ee Society's Show at Inverness— £416 13 0 Printing, é ; » £916 6 = Advertising, | A MGs I Extra Tabling, Racks, etc,, 34 8 Incidental Expenses, |. 350 | — 11818 3 4 Forestry Section in Scottish National Exhibition, Glasgow, 8. Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions transferred from Pe 91, cee : Sector ee UO ee Capital, . : : 135.16 § Shed, Tabling and Flagpole, Wages of Attendant aud 1 Typist, 4. Dividends and Interest, 71 41 Tusirance and Sundry Ontiays, 5. Transactions, wto., sold, 214 4 | ‘ 5, Forest Survey of Glen Mor, 5 s ; - 31916 1 6, Income Tax Recovered, 319 4 Outlays by Lord Lovat aud Captain Stirling, 185 2 3 Printing Report (ax Vol. XXV.. of” Transactions), - £714 9 Maps for Report as printed, 340 0 —— 1831 9 Postages of Report to Members, : 13-e—— ——— Presentation Copy for the King, . 220 Incidental Ontlaye, c 3 - 218 0 | £3449 6 | Leas Received for Advertisements in Report, 8 0 | Sales, A 665 —— uM s £919 15 1 — 8. Contribution to Aberdeen aud Northern Branches, £5each, 10 0 0 7. Expenses of Management, A c 3 + 7 90 Rent of Room and Taxes for 1911, and Hall for Annual Meeting, . + £28 8 7 Auditor, c . r, - 5 830 Hon, Editor's Assistant, £30.; and Authors of German and ‘French Notes for Transactions, £10, 5 - 4000 Secretary and Treasurer, —. : » 12% 00 Advertising, Insurance, and Premium on Becca Boni of Caution, . 218 10 Councillors’ Ruilway Fares, 3 212 8 Postages and Miscellaneous Outlays, viz.: Postagesof Parts I, andII. of Vol.) of tions, =. B83. General Postayes, Commis- sions on Cheques, and Petty Outlays, . - 4619 4 —— 8 64 £277 9 0 —— 8. Balance of Revenue carried to next year, subject to pay- ment of cost, etc., of January Transactions. being sui at credit of Account Current with National Bank of | Scotland, Lul., ; é 5 3 Aer tat aa 7 | 21007 138 21007 18-8 eee Kpixnuron, 24th Jan: 1812. —1 hereb; the above is an Abstract, and z ve found them correct. The Securities, certify that J have examined the Accounts of the Treasurer for the Fear to 30th December 1911, of which me. - Tepresenting the Funds as above, have also been exhibited to JOHN T. WATSON, Auditor. on 17 APPENDIX C. EXCURSION ACCOUNT. Abstract of Accounts—Year IgII. Balance brought from last Account, : i : : ; £54 12 © Payments therefrom :— Auditor’s Fee for 1910, . : ; : 2 ao Printing Index to Bavarian Album, etc., . : 1p 1NO)) 33 a 4 Tt s3 er 2) Excursion to Bowmont Forest, etc. Amount collected, /ess repaid . : : = 41825 ae Hotel Bills at Kelso :— Cross Keys 755) 10) 9 Spread Eagle . : : » 4 fo) Border Temperance . 4 4 0 Queen’s Head . Te eo Tweed Bank . : 3 uplOge7 13 Lunch at Jedburgh . : ; oT LOmeO Hotel Bills at Hawick :— Tower and other Hotels : 22). 10) 16 Hire of Motors and Brakes. 2 44ers Special Train—Hawick to Langholm 10 10 o Preliminary Expenses,- Printing, Gratuities and _ Incidental Outlays : : : 2) UD Se 85 4172 3 5 LON LO oat Balance (subject to Auditor’s Fee) carried forward to §=—— next year, being sum in National Bank of Scot- land on Account Current, . : , : = A607 19 10 | EDINBURGH, 24¢h January 1912.—Examined with Vouchers and Memor- andum Book and found correct. Bank Certificate of above balance of £60, 19s. 10d. also exhibited. Joun T. Watson, Auditor. 18 APPENDIX D. Roya ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY (ABERDEEN BRANCH), REPORT 1911. The Committee beg to submit the Sixth Annual Report of the Branch. The affairs of the Branch have been conducted on similar lines as in the preceding years. The Membership of the Branch has been slightly increased during the year, six new members having joined. On the other hand, the names of several have been removed by death, departure from the district, and other causes. Amongst others, the Branch is about to lose the services and assistance of Mr John D. Crozier, Forester, Durris, one of the originators of the Branch, a member of the Committee, and one of the most active, enthusiastic and helpful members of the Branch, who has received an important Government appointment in Ireland. During the year four meetings of the Branch have been held, on r4th January, 20th May, 15th July, and 14th October. At the Annual General Meeting in January, a paper was read by Mr Donald Munro, Silverbank Sawmills, Banchory, on “The Home Timber Outlook and the Urgent Need for Afforestation,” the paper being followed by the Dazy Mail cinematograph film “From Forest to Breakfast Table,” and other local views. Both the paper and the views were most interesting, and the meeting was very largely attended both by members of the Branch and of the public. The May meeting took the form of a visitation to the wood-yard of Messrs John Fleming & Co., Ltd., and the box factory of Messrs W. Fiddes & Son, Ltd., Torry, the party being conducted over the premises by Sir John Fleming and Councillor Fiddes, the heads of the respective works, and there was much to interest members at both places, the machinery and mechanical appli- ances being particularly deserving of notice. Afterwards the members had lunch in the Imperial Hotel. An Excursion to the woods of Ballogie, owned by W. E. Nicol, Esq., was made on 15th July, when a most enjoyable and profitable day was spent, the Excursion being attended by thirty-eight members 19 and friends. At the October meeting, Mr J. A. Duthie, Pinewood Park, read a paper entitled “‘ The Trade Nursery, and its Functions in the Extension of Afforestation.” The members present, recognising that Mr Duthie was one who was, from his long practical experience of the development of the Nursery trade, entitled to speak with authority on his subject, listened to it with great appreciation, and an interesting discussion afterwards took place. At the last Annual General Meeting of the Branch, a proposal was made to form a Library of books and periodicals dealing with forestry and kindred subjects, for use among the members. This was referred to a Committee. After considerable delibera- tion, and after securing the adhesion of most of the members to the proposal, the scheme has now been fairly launched, and some fifty volumes of useful books acquired, the greater pro- portion of which are the newest publications on the subject, while it is intended to arrange, by communication with other kindred societies, to secure annually copies of their publications for circulation among the members. The Branch authorised the expenditure of #10 from its funds as a commencement, which has been expended. It may be necessary to set apart annually a small sum for the further development of the Library, but it is hoped that members who may possess duplicates or a superfluity of works on forestry, may kindly contribute to enlarging the number of works on the subject. We have to thank our Honorary Secretary for kindly supplying accommodation for the Library, and in undertaking the duties of librarian. A catalogue of the Library, along with the rules, are now being prepared, and will in a few days be in the hands of the members, so that by the New Year it is expected the Library will be open. for circulation. The Committee have again to record their thanks to Professor Trail, and the University Authorities, for being allowed to use the Botanical class-room for the meetings of the Branch. SYDNEY J. GAMMELL, President. GEORGE D. MassiE, Flonorary Secretary. ABERDEEN, 9fh December 1911. b 20 ‘NOSNINAOH ‘OD ‘f ‘uaas osye aavy J YIy “L6E *D ‘ON “Yoo ULE sSuravg tad ———_—_—— OI OI ely = ssug yureE sSuraeg aad youvsg jo Wprwd Je aourleg yuvg ssuravg uaepraqy ayy WIM payisodap st tuns (ora ‘souad or o1 £1% -a} pue sdurjiys wa} spunod woot y, Suraq youvtg ay jo wpato ay $ ye aouyyeq ay) ‘payonoa pur pares Apradoid aq 0} atues ay) puyy pur z | SAIINOA JY) YILAL a's paivduios aavy pur ‘syunovy JO JUAWAIBAS Suosasoy Jy} pauttuvxo aavy [—'l 161 Laguag YS ‘NATAVALY : Peo OU Fs bg OL @)y fo), 0) 3 : : . + — sjUaprour pu sasvyso ee Gs 3 , ; udapraqy ‘1a[[as3oo *Jesste “f) sow | @, YE Le) 2 E * usapleqy ‘1apUulq rood ‘uosyov, WeTIT Qe Ord - niafimog fo ponunpy 8427224 WJ WOS Y WIA soe [ 729; 0 : Oly Oreos : : : : ‘ * goqunrd Syoqn yy Wee O40 Ol fe TNOOOOV AUVaiart z 61 37 z O61 gf 8 re) . C JOUAISGY OF pallavo Gipado Ye 9Uv| LET — Oo OL oO : : : sjuaplouy pure sasvyso( Om ce : : : : » Atoyourg Ww OULU] Oo erg ove g VY : : : : » soya SuBANEysay UOTE.) G 1 © : On ci OF : : : : ; : : + Sunultd oO 9 17 : ‘LNOQOOOV NOISHUNOXH oO It ofF 0) [11 Oc 7 og, el : : JOVISYY O} Paavo Ylpat ) W oULz|eey ; opecin o! : : . 7 +“ sjuaplour puv sasvysog On cae : : : : » Cavjasioas OF LUNLIRIOUO LT 0 6 Oo : 0 oO OI : : : + 5 mp Frrcuson, John, Forester, Bronbechan, Tregynon, Newtown, Montgomeryshire. p Fercuson, The Right Hon. R. C. Munro, M.P., P.C., LL.D., of Raith and Novar, Raith, Fife, Hon. Secretary and Past President. Frreusson, Sir James Ranken, Bart., Spitalhaugh, West Linton. Frrnik, Alexander, Head Forester, Hopetoun, South Queens- ferry. . *Fernib, William Duncan, Forester, Balcarres, Fife. . “Ferrie, Thomas Young, Timber Merchant, 69 Buchanan St., Glasgow. . *Frypuay, John Ritchie, of Aberlour, Aberlour House, Aberlour. FINLAYsoN, Malcolm, Solicitor, Crieff, Perthshire. Fisu, Andrew, Forester, Boghead, Kirkmuirhill, Lanarkshire. Fisaer, Malcolm, Forester, Cors-y-Gedd, Dyfiryn, Merioneth. FisHer, William, Estate Agent, Wentworth Castle, Barnsley, Yorkshire, . *Frrzwi.uiaM, The Earl of, Wentworth, Rotherham. FLeAk, Edwin, Assistant Forester, Boughton, Newark, Notts. FiLeMinG, Archibald, Overseer, Culcreuch, Fintry, Stirlingshire. 14 Date of Election. 1899 pFiemine, Sir John, Timber Merchant, Albert Saw-mills, Aberdeen. 1906 ... *FLercHER, J. Douglas, of Rosehaugh, Avoch, Ross-shire. 1911 FiLercHer, John A., Factor, Landale, Ardgour, Argyllshire. 1909 FiLetcuer, John Sydney, 13 Braidburn Terrace, Edinburgh. 1910 Forses, Alistair Hugh, Factor, The Foley, Rothesay. 1890 Jp Forses, Arthur C., Department of Agriculture, Dublin. 1898 Fores, James, Factor, Eallabus, Bridgend, Islay. 1896 ... *ForsBes, James, The Gardens, Overtoun, Dumbartonshire. 1912 Forses, John, Overseer, Cowden Home Farm, Dollar. 1878 C*Forses, Robert, Estate Office, Kennet, Alloa. 1873 m*Forpes, William, Estate Office, West Bilney Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk. 1869 M*Forcan, James, Forester, 5 Belhelvie Terrace, Perth. 1892 ForGan, James, Sunnybraes, Largo, Fife. 1889 Forster, William . 7 33 *PrentrLAND, The Lord, Governor of Bengal, India. 2 *Perrins, C. W. Dyson, of Ardross, Ardross Castle, Alness. Perers, William, Assistant Forester, Gateside, Markinch, Fifeshire. . *Puiurp, Alexander, Solicitor, Brechin, Forfarshire. . *PHILip, William Watt, Factor, Kstate Office, Gigha, Argyll- shire. Puittps, Charles, Assistant Forester, Balvaird, Kirkoswald. Puitures, Johu, Nurseryman, Granton Road, Edinburgh. . *PuHitp, Henry, jun., Timber Merchant, Campbell Street, Dunfermline. *Puitp, Jobn, Timber Merchant, Campbell Street, Dunfermline. .. “PitMAN, Archibald Robert Craufurd, W.S., 48 Castle Street,. Edinburgh. PLENDERLEITH, Mungo Sinclair, Fire Insurance Superintendent, 102 St Vincent Street, Glasgow. PiumMeER, C. H. Scott, of Sunderland Hall, Selkirk. m Pouuock, Alexander, Rustic Builder, Tarbolton, Ayrshire. Poo.Le, Wm., Corn Exchange Buildings, Edinburgh. PorEr?r, E. P., Assistant Surveyor, Forest of Dean, Coleford, Gloucestershire. Porteous, James, Solicitor and Factor, Coldstream. Porreous, Colonel James, of Turfhills, Kinross, PorTEous, George, Overseer, Sundrum, Ayr. Porter, Donald Fraser, Bankell, Milngavie. PRENTICE, Andrew, Forester, Bank House, Worsley, near Manchester. PRENTICE, George, Strathore, Kirkcaldy, Fife. ... “Prick, W. M., Factor, Minto, Hawick. PrineLe, James Lewis, of Torwoodlee, J.P., D.L., B.A.,. Torwoodlee, Galashiels. PrircHarD, Henry A., Professor of Estate Management and Forestry, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Procror, John, Forester, Torrance, East Kilbride. ... “Purvis, Colonel Alexander, St Andrews. Purvis, George, Forester, Cowden Estate, Dollar. Raz, Frederick S., Foreman, Inverliever Estate, Cruachan,. Kilehrenan, Taynuilt, Argyll. Rak, Louis, Assistant Forester, Heckfield, Winchfield, Hants. C*Rar, William A., Factor, Murthly Castle, Perthshire, p *RaFran, Alexander, Forester, Bonskeid, Pitlochry. on RaFFAN, James, Estate Steward, Fota Farm, Carrigtwohill,. Co. Cork. p Karn, Johannes, Tree-Seed Merchant, Skovfrékontoret, Copen- hagen, F. Raupu, William, I.S.O., Forrester Road, Corstorphine. Ratston, A. Agnew, Factor, Philipstoun House, West Lothian. if Date of Election. 1907 1908 1908 1910 1907 1855 ROM 1910 3d Raxsron, Charles W., Chamberlain on Dukedom of Queensberry, Dabton, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. ... “RAutsron, Claude, Factor, Estates Office, Glamis. *Ratsron, Gavin, Factor, Glamis. . *Ramsay, Professor George Gilbert, LL.D., Drunire, Blairgowrie. Ramsay, William, J.P., Longmorn House, Longmorn R.S.0O. . *RAMSDEN, Sir John, Bart., Byram Hall, Ferrybridge, Normanton, RANKINE, Professor John, of Bassendean, 23 Ainslie Place, Edin» burgh. Rarrray, Thos., Forester, Westonbirt House, ‘Tetbury, Gloucestershire. Rarrray, William, Wood Merchant, Tullylumb Terrace, Perth. ReEppAtvH, John, Forester, Paxton, Berwick-on-Tweed. ‘erp, Alexander T., Assistant, Foret de Bouredine, Medjez-Spa, Bone, Algeria. Reip, Andrew, The Gardens, Durris, Drumoak, Aberdeenshire. Reip, Hugh, Fores*er, Ashton Court, Long Ashton, near Bristol. Reip, James, jun., Assistant Forester, Balbirnie, Milldeans, Markinch. tEID, James 8., Forester, Balbirnie, Markinch, Fife. Reip, John, Assistant Forester, Seymour House, Brownsea Island, Poole, Dorset. Reip, Peter, Assistant Forester, Cruachan, Kilchrenan, Argyll. Rerp, Robert, Overseer, Kincairney, Dunkeld. Reip, Robert Matelé, Thomanean, Milnathort. Reis, Gordon Stanley, B.Se., The Laurels, Bright’s Crescent, Edinburgh. RENNIE, Joseph, Overseer, Hillend, Possil, Maryhill. . *RensHaw, Charles Stephen Bine, B.A., Barochan, Houston. Renron, James, F.S.1., Factor, Sunbank, Perth. RicHarp, James, Forester, Balnamoon, Brechin. 1873 Cp *Ricnanpson, Adam D., 6 Dalkeith Street, Joppa. 1910 1907 1892 1908 1876 1898 1906 1911 1912 1900 1909 hice, Patrick Home, of Tarvit, Cupar. Rivuig, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Craighead Lodge, by Girvan, Ayrshire. tircHiIb, Alexander, Overseer, bBrucehill, Cardross Estate, Port of Menteith. . *Rirenre, Charles Ronald, W.S., 37 Royal Terrace, Edinburgh. . “Kircnie, William, Hope Lodge, Moffat. Rircute, Win., Assistant Forester, Moss-side Cottage, Lynedoch, Perth. Rircaig, Wm. H., of Dunnottar House, Stonehaven. t1rcHi#£, Willian, Timber Merchant, 1 Commerce Street, Fraser- burgh. Rove, Henry Grant, Assistant Forester, The Nursery, Knowsley, Proscot, Lanes, Rovg, John, Road Surveyor, County Buildings, Edinburgh, . “Roperrs, Alex. Fowler, of Fairnilee, Clovenfords, Galashiels. Date of Election. 1909 1897 1897 OE Us lal 1899 1911 1879 1907 1896 1908 1910 1900 1904 1905 1905 1907 1905 1896 1909 1895 1910 1912 1909 1912 1910 1890 1899 1901 1897 1900 1893 1908 1883 35 LOBERTSON, Alexander, Factor, Polmaise, Stirling. “Ropertson, A. Barnett, Forester, The Dean, Kilmarnock, Ayr- shire. Rosertson, Andrew N., Forester, Glenferness, Dunphail. Rosertson, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Dean Road, Kilmarnock. Robertson, Andrew Clark, Assistant Factor, 18 Manse Crescent, Stirling. Ropertson, Charles, Forester, Colstoun Old Mill, Gifford. Rosertson, Colin Halkett, 22 Dalrymple Crescent, Edinburgh. mp ~RoBERTSON, Donald, Forester, Dunrobin, Golspie. . *Ropertson, Edward Hercules, B.A., Advocate, Barnside, Forfar. ROBERTSON, George, Forester, Monreith Estate Office, Port William. Rogerson, George, Assistant Forester, The Cottage, Stormont- field, Perth. *RoBertTsON, Henry Tod, Coalmaster, Meadowbank, Airdrie. ROBERTSON, James, Assistant Forester, Lime Walk Cottage, Rose- haugh, Avoch, Ross-shire. ROBERTSON, James, Forester, Cavens, Kirkbean, Dumfries. *ROBERTSON, James Morton, of Portmore, Portmore House, Eddle- ston. Rospertson, James W., Head Gardener, Letham Grange and Fern, Arbroath. RospErtson, J. P., Forester, Edensor, Bakewell. *Roperrson, John, Factor, Panmure Estates Office, Carnoustie. RosBerRTsON, John, Forester, Rynagoup, Dallas, Forres. Rosertson, John Alexander, c/o Donald Robertson, Dunrobin, Golspie. Ropertson, Thomas, Forester and Bailiff, Woodlawn, Co. Galway. RoOBERTSONWHITE, John Peregine, M.A., LL.B., Advocate in Aberdeen, 80 Union Street, Aberdeen. . *RopErtson, William Hope, W.S., 8 Eton Terrace, Edinburgh. Rogrnson, Alfred Whitmore, Forester, Bamford, near Sheffield. RoBinson, George, Forestry Inspector, Department of Agriculture, Dublin. Roprnson, R, G., Department of Lands, State Forests Branch, Tapanui, Otago, N.Z. . ~Roprnson, William, Gravetye Manor, East Grinstead, Sussex. Rosson, Alex., of Smith & Son, 18 Market Street, Aberdeen. Roxrson, Alexander, Head Gamekeeper, The Kennels, Culzean, Maybole. . *Rogson, Charles Durie, 66 Queen Street, Edinburgh. Ropgson, John, Forester, Sawmill Cottage, Baronscourt, Newtown Stewart, Ireland. mp Khoperr, James, Forester, Leinster Street, Athy, Co. Kildare. Rocers, E. Percy, Estate Office, Stanage Park, Brampton Byran, - Herefordshire. *Rouio, The Master of, Duncrub Park, Dunning, Perthshire. if2 36 Date of Election. 1872... *RoseBEny, The Earl of, K.G., K.T., Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. 1898 Ross, Charles D. M., Factor, Abercairney, Crieff. 1905 Ross, John 8., Factor’s Clerk, Monreith Estate Office, Wigtown- shire. 1906 m*RoxpurGuE, The Duke of, K.T., Floors Castle, Kelso. 1903 RuLE, John, Forester, Huntly. 1908 ... *RussELL, David, Silverburn, Leven. 1893 RurHERFORD, James A., Land Agent, Highclere Park, Newbury, Berks. 1910 RUTHERFORD, James, Assistant Forester, Heckfield, Winchfield, Hants. 1909 RuTHERForD, J. D., W.S., 198 Grange Loan, Edinburgh. 1870 RuTHERFORD, John, Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh, Roxburgh- shire. 1904 {UTHERFURD, Henry, Barrister-at-Law, Fairnington, Roxburgh. 1894... *Samson, David 'T., Factor, Seatield Estates Office, Elgin. 1875 Sane, Edmund, of E. Sang & Sons, Nurserymen, Kirkcaldy. 1906... *Sane, J. H., LL.B., W.S., Westbrook, Balerno. 1903 Scuorr, Dr Peter Carl, Nursery and Seed Establishments, Knittelsheim, Palatinate, Germany. 1911 Scorr, Alexander, Head Forester, Corsock, Dalbeattie. 1911 Scorr, Crawford Allen, Factor, Killermont and Garseadden Estates Office, Bearsden. 1867 U*Scorr, Daniel, Wood Manager, Darnaway, lorres. 1892 Scorr, David, Overseer, Dumfries House, Cumnock, Ayrshire. 1901 CScort, Frank, Forester, Jeaniebank, Old Scone, Perth. 1911 Scorr, George Ritchie, Farmer, Oxgang, Colinton. 1911 Scorr, Hugh, Foreman Forester, Birr Castle, The Gardens, King’s County. 1881 Scorr, James, Forester, Wollaton Hall, Nottingham. 1907... *Scorr, James Cospatrick, P.A.S.I., Yarrow Cottage, Poynder Place, Kelso. 1908 Scorr, James Henry, of Eredine, Port Sonachan, Argyllshire. 1903 Scorr, John, Forester, Anntield, Hartrigge, Jedburgh. 1908 Scorr, John A., Forester, The Gardens, Knockbrex, Kirkcudbright. 1906... *Scorr, John Henry Francis Kinnaird, of Gala, Gala House, Galashiels. 1902 ... *Scorimerour, James, Gardener, Manor House, Donaghadee. 1890 C*Scrimcrour, John, Overseer, Doune Lodge, Doune. 1909 Srep, Frederick Hutton, Plant Import Inspector, Mombasa, East Africa Protectorate. 1912 SHAND, Ebenezer, Apprentice Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeen. 1897 m SHARPE, Thomas, Head Forester, Gordon Castle, Fochabers, 1904 Suaw, John, Factor, Kilmahew Estate Office, Cardross. 1896 =p *SHaw-Srewart, Sir Hugh, Bart., of Ardgowan, Greenock. 1904... *Sueniey, Sir John Courtown Edward, Bart., Avington, Alres- ford, Hants. Date of Election. 1898 1907 1903 1911 1911 1905 1903 1910 1912 1909 1906 1908 1909 1900 1908 1907 37 . *SHepparn, Rev. H. A. Graham-, of Rednock, Port of Menteith, Stirling. . *Suracu, Gordon Reid, L.D.S., ete., Ardgilzean, Elgin. . “SHIEL, James, Overseer, Abbey St Bathans, Grant’s House. Sm, Ernest James, Factor, Airthrey Estate Office, Bridge of Allan. Sim, James, District Forest Officer, King Williamstown, Cape Colony. Sim, John, Forester, Fernybrae, Cornhill, Banffshire. Simon, Thomas, jun., Assistant Forester, c/o Mrs Luckins Wardley Marsh, Liphook, Hants. Stmpson, Robert, Under Forester, Garth Estate, Balnald, Fortingal. Sinciatir, John, Forester, Bluehouse, Bridgend, Islay. Srinciair, Magnus H., Seedsman, 1564 Union Street, Aberdeen. p Sincuair, Robert, Factor’s Office, Uig, Skye. Srnciatr, The Lord, 55 Onslow Square, London, S.W. Sincer, George, Forester, Braidoun, Belmaduthy, Munlochy. SinceEr, John G., Forester, Whitestone Cottage, Maybole. SKIMMING, Robert, Timber Merchant, Kirkinner. SKIRVING, Robert, D.L, J.P., of Cobairdy, Huntly. 1868 CMp SLATER, Andrew, War Department Estates Office, Durrington, 1902 1893 1906 1908 1912 1911 1911 1911 1901 1908 1908 1906 1907 1895 1907 1901 1908 1901 1909 1895 1896 Salisbury, Wilts. Smart, John, Merchant, 18 Leith Street, Edinburgh. . *Smiru, Charles G., Factor, Haddo House, Aberdeen. Smiru, Douglas, P.A.S.I., Land Agent, Estate Office, Thwaite, Erpingham, Norwich. SmirH, Edwin Hedley, B.L., Factor, Whittinghame, Prestonkirk. Smirg, F., Forester, Craigmyle Estate, Torphins, Aberdeenshire. . *SmiTH, George, Factor, Mount Hamilton, by Ayr. Smiru, Herbert, Assistant Forester, Kirkmuirhill, Lanarkshire. SMIrH, James, Assistant Forester, Thoresby Park, Ollerton, Notts. Samira, James, Forester, 1 Oxmantown Mall, Birr, King’s County. SmirH, James, Nurseryman, Darley Dale Nurseries, near Matlock. Smiru, James, Assistant, Town Clerk’s Office, Arbroath. Smiru, James Fraser, F.R.H.S., late Gardener, Barons Hotel, Auchnagatt. SmitH, Right Hon. James Parker, P.C., 20 Draycott Place, London, S.W. m SMITH, John, Cabinetmaker, 1 Eastgate, Peebles. . *Smiru, J. Grant, Factor, Seatield Estates Office, Grantown-on- Spey. SmiruH, Matthew, Manager for Dyer & Co., Peebles. SmitH, Robert, Factor, Cranstoun Riddell, Dalkeith. SmitH, Sydney, Factor, Drummuir Estates Office, Keith. Smira, Thomas, Nurseryman, Stranraer. . *SmirH, Thomas, Overseer, The Nursery, Tring Park, Wigging- ton, Tring, Herts. SmirH, William, Forester, Camperdown, Dundee. Date of Election. 1899 1896 1906 38 SmiruH, William, Overseer, Rothes Estate Office, Leslie, Fife. » *SMITH, William G., B.Se., Ph.D., Lecturer on Biology, Edin- burgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture, George Square, Edinburgh. . *Smiruson, Harry 8. C., of Inverernie, Daviot, Highland R.8.O. SmyLy, John George, B.A., Consulting Forester and Land Agent, 22 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin. . *SmyruHe, David M., of Methven Castle, Perth. Somerset, The Duke of, Maiden Bradley, Bath; 35 Grosvenor Square, W. SoMERVILLE, Hugh Christopher, 2 Fairhaven, Dalkeith. SoMERVILLE, Robert Anderson, Eastwoodbrae, Dalkeith. 1889 Cmp*SoMERVILLE, Dr William, M.A., D.Se., D.(@c., F.R.S.E., 1904 1910 1898 Professor of Rural Economy, Oxford. Sourar, William, Forester, The Farm, Titsey Place, Limpsfield, Surrey. Spence, James George, Forester, West Lodge, Vogrie, Gorebridge. SeENcE, William, Forester, Strathenery, Leslie. 1899 Cmp*Spiers, Adam, Timber Merchant, Warriston Saw-mills, Edin- 1883 1911 1909 1899 1910 1908 1911 1907 1901 1897 1908 1907 1909 1910 1899 1901 1903 1909 1892 burgh. . *Spror, Major Alexander, of Garnkirk, Chryston, Glasgow. . *Spror, Captain Mark, of Riddell, Lilliesleaf, Roxburghshire. . *Srarr, The Earl of, Lochinch, Castle Kennedy. SraLkerR, Wm. J., Nurseryman, Nairn pSvresBixc, Edward Perey, Indian Forest Service, Lecturer in Forestry, Edinburgh University. Sr QuiInTIN, Geoffrey Apsley, Estate Commissioner, Kincurdy Fortrose. STEPHEN, George, Forester, Castle Grant, Grantown. STEPHEN, John, Forester, Dell Nursery, Nethy Bridge. Srewarr, Alistair D., Kinfauns Estates Office, Rockdale, Perth. Stewart, Charles, Forester, Nursery Cottage, Durris, Drumoak Aberdeenshire. . *Srewart, Charles, Achara, Duror of Appin, Argyll. m STEWART, David, Forester, Baunreigh Forestry Station, Mount- rath, Queen’s Co. Stewart, Sir David, of Banchory-Devenick, Banchory House, sanchory, Devenick. Srewart, Donald, Forester, The Lodge, Inverlochy Castle, Fort William. . *Srewarr, Duncan D., Factor, Ardenlea, Pitlochry. STewant, James, Forester, Letham and Fern Estates, Fern, near 3rechin. Srewanxr, John, Forester, Coltness Estate, Wishaw. Srewarr, John M‘Gregor, Assistant Forester, Saw-mill Cottage, Strathord, by Stanley. . *Srewarr, Sir Mark J. M“Taggart, Bart. of Southwick, Kirkeud- brightshire. Date of 39 Election. 1908 1876 1906 1910 Stewarr, Colonel R. K., of Murdostoun, Murdostoun Castle, Lanarkshire. Srewart, Robert, Forester, Stonefield, Tarbert, Lochfyne. psStewarr, William Maitland, Factor, 5 Inverleith Terrace, Edinburgh. Srewart, William, of Shambellie, Kirkeudbrightshire. 1904 Cmp*Sririine, Archibald, of Keir, Dunblane. 1907 aight 1908 1909 1909 1897 1906 1893 1908 1908 1908 1910 1911 1908 1902 1880 1907 1883 1892 1912 1869 1892 1900 1902 1904 1905 1897 1905 1911 1877 1911 m Stiriine, Jolin Alexander, of Kippendavie, 4 Connaught Square, London, W. ... *Strruine, Thomas Willing, of Muiravonside, Linlithgow. . “Srirtine, William, D.L., J.P., of Fairburn, Muir of Ord. Srosart, Lionel Forrester, 3 Reynolds Close, Hampstead Garden Suburb, N.W. . *Sropart, Charles, Farmer, Wintonhill, Pencaitland. Sroppartr, James, Builder, Bounyrigg, Midlothian. Sropparr, James, jun., Joiner, Norwood, Bonnyrigg. Srorir, W., Whitway House, Newbury, Berks. STRATHEDEN and CAMPBELL, The Lord, Hartrigge, Jedburgh. . “STRATHMORE AND KINGHORNE, The Earl of, Glamis Castle, Glamis. Sruarr, Alexander, Estates Office, Blair Drummond, Perthshire. Sruart, George Morrison, Gardener, The Gardens, Forglen, Turriff. Sruarvr, Henry Campbell, Factor, Glen Caladh, Tighnabruaich. Sruart, Lord Ninian Edward Crichton, M.P., House of Falkland, Fife. .... Stunt, Walter Charles, Lorenden, Ospringe, Kent. ... “SUTHERLAND, Evan C., Highland Club, Inverness. SUTHERLAND, George, Assistant Forester and Saww-miller, Bowmont Forest, Roxburgh. ... “SUTHERLAND, The Duke of, K.G., Dunrobin Castle, Golspie. m*SUTHERLAND, John D., Board of Agriculture, 29 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. Tair, Adam, of Wooplaw, Darnick, Braid Avenue, Edinburgh. _ mp Vatr, David, Overseer, Owston Park, Doncaster, Yorkshire. ... “Tair, James, Builder, Penicuik, Midlothian. . *Tarr, James, jun., Westshiel, Pevicuik. Taytor, John, Forester, Orchill Estate, by Braco, Perthshire. Taytor, Robert, Assistant Forester, Chapelhill, Logiealmond, Methven. Taytor, Robert, Forester, West Saline, Saline, Oakley. TayLor, William, Forester, Sandside, Kirkcudbright. ... TELFER, John, Forester, Basildon Park, Reading, Berks. ... “TENNANT, H. J., M.P., 33 Bruton Street, London, W. ... “Terris, James, Factor, Dullomuir, Blairadam, Kinross-shire THomas, David Gwilym, Forestry Student, 44 Lauriston Edinburgh. 40 Date of Election. 1908 ... THompson, Archibald, Overseer, Auchindarroch, Lochgilphead. 1909 ... *THompson, David Peat, Tea Planter and Engineer (Retired), 6 Queen Street, Inverkeithing. 1904 ... THompson, Dugald, Forester, Downton, Castle Estate, nr. Ludlow, Salop. 1911 ... *THomson, Alexander, of Burgie, Forres. 1893 C Tuomson, David W., Nurseryman, 113 George Street, Edinburgh. 1903... Thomson, John Burnside, Estate Manager, Calderwood Castle, High Blantyre. 1911 ... THomson, John, Forester, Kailzie, Peebles. 1855 Cmp*THomson, Jolin Grant, Retired Wood Manager, Mount Barker, Grantown-on-Spey. 1902... *THomson, Peter Murray, S.S8.C., Cockbridge, Mealsgate, Cumberland. 1903... THomson, Robert, Foreman Forester, Park Hill, Ampthill, Bedfordshire. 1901... *THomson, Spencer Campbell, of Eilean Shona, 10 Eglinton Crescent, Edinburgh. 1908 ... *THorBURN, Michael Grieve, D.L., etc., of Glenormiston, Inner- leithen,. 1911 .... Tuow, William Keir, Assistant Forester, Pitcairngreen, Almond- bank, Perth. 1904... THREIPLAND, Captain W. Murray, Dryburgh Abbey, St Boswells. 1906... TrypAL, Robert, Forester, Bellspool Cottages, Stobo. 1901... TivenpALE, William D., Head Forester to Duke of Portland, Burnhouse, Galston. 1871 ... *Tomuitnson, Wilson, Forester, Clumber Park, Worksop, Notts. 1912 ... *Torrance, James Watt, Timber Merchant, 11 Dundonald Road, Glasvow. 1906 ... *Train, James William Helenus, A.M., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in University of Aberdeen, 71 High Street, Old Aberdeen. 1902 ... *Trorrer, A. E. C., of Bush, Milton Bridge, Midlothian. 1903... *TULLIBARDINE, The Marquis of, D.S8.O., Blair Castle, Blair Atholl. 1903 «.. Turnpunt, John, Forester, Fourester’s Lodge, Arbigland, Dumfries. 1910 .... Tweerpie, Alexander, Forester, ete., Garth, Fortingal, Aberfeldy. 1883... Unprerwoon, Henry E., Fornham, St Martin, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk. 1903... *Unwiyn, Arthur Harold, D.dic., Olokemeji, W. Province, S. Nigeria. 1908 ... *Urquuarr, Angus, Assistant Nursery and Seedsman, Inverness. 1907... Unquuarr, Colonel Robert, Town Clerk, Forres. 1908 ... *Usner, Sir Robert, Bart. of Norton and Wells, Norton, Ratho Station, Midlothian. 1903. .... Usner, Thomas, Factor, Courthill, Hawick. Date of Election, 1908 1911 1912 1911 1908 1911 1903 1894 1878 1907 1906 1906 1903 1912 1893 1897 1905 1909 1899 1909 1900 1901 1901 1893 1893 1912 1872 1893 1911 1911 1908 1906 1911 1908 1911 ae 41 Veircu, Andrew, Seedsman and Nurseryman, Melrose. VeitcH, Robert, B.Sc., Edinburgh University. . *Vescr, The Viscount de, D.L., Abbeyleix, Ireland. WADDINGHAM, James Hart, Elsham, Grimsby. Wa.pron, Major Patrick John, East Haugh, Pitlochry. WALKER, Austine Harrington, Chemical Manufacturer, Richmond House, Dullatur, Dumbartoushire. WALKER, Captain George Lawrie, of Crawfordton, Thornhill. Waker, Henry H., Factor, Monreith, Port William, Wigtown- shire. . ~WaALker, Colonel I, Campbell, Newlands, Camberley, Surrey. . “WALKER, James, Wood Merchant, Inverness. . *Warker, John Steven, Yard Foreman, Saw-mills, Hurlford, Ayrshire. . “Waker, Robert Williamson, C.E., Factor and Land Surveyor, 3 Golden Square, Aberdeen. WALLACE, Andrew, Saw-miller, 5 North Street, Freuchie. Wattace, Andrew, Foreman Forester, Foresters’ Cottages, Altyre, Forres. m WALLACE, David P., Forester, The Saw-mills, Filleigh, South Molton, N. Devon. . *Watack, John A. A., of Lochryan, Cairnryan, Stranraer. . *WauLacr, Thomas Douglas, F.8.1., Callendar Estate Office, Callendar Park, Falkirk. WALLACE, William, Foreman Forester, Hollows, Canonbie. Wanpbes¥rorve, K. H., Prior of Castlecomer, Co. Kilkenny. WakinG, Captain Walter, M.P., of Lennel, Coldstream. . *Warwick, Charles, Smiley Estate Office, Ailsa, Larne. Wason, Right Hon. Eugene, M.P., P.C., of Blair, Dailly, Ayr- shire; 8 Sussex Gardens, Hyde Park, London. Warson, James, Manager, Moy Hall, Inverness-shire. Watson, John, Timber Merchant, Annandale Street, Edinburgh. . *Warson, John T., 6 Bruntsfield Gardens, Edinburgh. p Watt, Hugh Boyd, Secretary and Insurance Broker, 3 Willow Mansions, West Hampstead, London, N.W. Wart, James, J.P., of Little & Ballantyne, Nurserymen, Carlisle. Wart, James W., Knowefield Nurseries, Carlisle. Wart, Sidney, Assistant Forester, Wellingtonia Cottage, Houston. Warr, William, Assistant Forester, Redstone, Darnaway. Waueu, J., Assistant Forester, c/o Mrs Mercer, Harts Lane, Burghclere, Newbury, Berks. Wessrer, Charles, Gardener and Forester, The Gardens, Gordon Castle, Fochabers. . *Wessrek, Sir Francis, Ashbrook, Arbroath. . *WeDDERBURN, Ernest Maclagan, LL.B., W.S., F.R.S.E., Factor, wee 2 Glenfinlas Street, Edinburgh. Weir, Andrew, Forestry Student, Doonhome, Colinton, Date of Election. 1908... *Werr, William, of Kindonan, Adamton, Monkton, Ayrshire. 1891 ... *Wetsu, James, of Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. 1904 WentwortH-FrrzWILitaM, George Charles, of Milton, Peter- borough. 1902 inp WHELLENS, W. Henry, Forester, Comlongon Nurseries, Ruthwell. 1905 Wuite, Andrew, Forester, Portmore, Eddleston. 1898 . *Wuire, J. Martin, Balruddery, near Dundee. 1895 Wuire, William, Farmer, Gortonlee, Lasswade. 1884. C@*Wutrron, James, Superintendent of Parks, 249 George Street, Glasgow. 1899 ... *Wuyte, John D. B., Factor, Estate Office, Elveden, Suffolk. 1895 Wicurt, Alexander, Overseer, Thurston, Temple Mains, Innerwick. 1869 p*Wixp, Albert Edward (Conservator of Forests, Darjeeling, India), c/o Henry S. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, E.C. 1883 Wikre, Charles, Forester, Lennoxlove, Haddington. 1891 WILKI£, G., Architect, Hayfield, Peebles, 1902 WILKINSON, John, Factor, The Grange, Kirkcudbright. 1903 Witt, George, Manager, Crichton Royal Institution Farm, Dumfries. 1908 WILLIAMSON, James A., A.R.I.B.A., Public Works Office, City Chambers, Edinburgh. 1895 WILLIAMSON, John, Bank Agent, Loanhead, Midlothian. 1907... *Winiiamson, John, Joiner and Builder, Grangemouth. 1907 p Wuson, Adam Frank, C.D.A.(Edin.), 164 Braid Road, Edin- burgh. 1907 Witson, Andrew Robertson, M.A., M.D., Hopewell, Tarland, Aboyne ; and Trafford House, Liscard, Cheshire. 1898 ... *Wuitson, David, Timber Merchant, Troon, Ayrshire. 1889 . *Witson, David, jun., of Carbeth, Killearn, Glasgow. 1908 Witson, Edward Arthur, Rockingham, Edgbaston Park Road, Birmingham. 1907 Witson, Ian Hall, Saw-mill Manager, Brodie Cottage, Brodie. 1900 WILson, James, jun., Nurseryman, St Andrews. 1907 Wiuison, James G., Assistant, 24 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. 1910 WILson, John, Estate Steward, Brand’s Mill, Dunbar. 1902 Wixson, Sir John, Bart. of Airdrie. 1901 Witson, John Currie, Factor, Tulliallan Estate Office, Kineardine- on-Forth. 1912 WILSON, John, Estate Agent, Egton Bridge, Yorks. 1912 Witson, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Matlock House, Baslow, Derbyshire. 1903 Wiison, Thomas, Head Gardener, Glamis Castle, Glamis. 1899 Wixson, William, Timber Merchant, Auchenleck, Ayrshire. 1912 Winvon, Thomas, jun., Timber Merchant, 52 Seafield Road, Dundee. 1893 WisiMan, Edward, Nurseryman, [lgin. 1895 WiseMAN, William, Nurseryman, Forres. 1911 Wisuart, John, Ellangowan, Peebles. Date of Election. 1906 1909 1907 1904 ss) WoLFE, George, sen., J.P., Shovel Manufacturer, Millburn, Bathgate. Woon, James, of Wallhouse, Torphichen. Woop, Thomas, Forester, West Lodge, Durie, Leven, Fife. WorsFoLp, Elward Mowll, Land Agent, Christ Church Villas, Priory Road, Dover. WorHErspPoon, George, Factor, Cromartie Estate Office, Kildary, Ross-shire. Wricut, John Moncrieff, of Kinmonth, Bridge of Earn. Wricut, Sir Robert Patrick, F.H.A.S., F.R.S.E., Board of Agriculture, 29 St Andrew Square. Wricat, William Girvan, M.R.A.C., The Manor Estate Office, Sidmouth. WYLLIE, George, Ballogie, Aboyne, Aberdeenshire. Wyturz, William, Seedisman, 18 Market Street, Aberdeen. . *YEAMAN, Alexander, W.S., 32 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh. Yoou, Thomas, Factor, Menzies Estates Office, Aberfeldy. Youne, John, Hedger, West Lodge, Corehouse, Lanark. Youne, John, Hedger and Assistant Forester, Muirhouse, Falkirk. YounG, John U., Cart Craigs, Pollokshaws. Youne, Peter, Assistant Forester, Loch Cottage, Taymount, Stanley. Youne, R. M., Nursery Manager, Cathcart Nurseries, Newlands, Glasgow. Youne, William George, Estate Clerk, Craigielaw, Longniddry. Youncer, Harry George, 21 Grosvenor Crescent, Edinburgh. m *YounGer, Henry J., of Benmore and Kilmun, Greenock. . “Youur, Miss Amy Frances, L.A., Tarradale House, Muir of Ord. Youne, James Weir, P.A.S.I., Land Surveyor, 198 West George Street, Glascow. Toko Bartholamew & Cc B GLEN URQUHART INVERGARRY A DORES E GAIRLOCHY ailem, Map N° 1. ORE VEY OF GLENM SCALE | 253440-4 MILES TO AN INCH j= 2 \ Na | Be ak phieal Institute FOREST SURVEY OF GLENMORE MAP No. 8 THE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK Showing the Order of Planting in the Three Sections into which the Block is divided. The numbers signify the years of Planting. GLEN MORISTON SECTION To be Planted from Ist to 15th year (N° 1to 15) 16th ,, 80th ,, (N%16-30) Sist ,, 40th, (N%31-40) ” ” | FORT AUGUSTUS, NORTH SECTION To be Planted from Ist to 15th year : vi » 6th 80th » ” » S8ist , 40th » jhe —_—_i] FORT AUGUSTUS, SOUTH SECTION To be Planted from Ist to 15th year ” » 16th ,, 80th ,, » 81st ,, 40th Bere rem Oona = a ar ak es Oe Y oy Dy wa a Y/ furlongs @_7 6 3 4 3 2 1 Oo zies Spruce and Norway Spruce Scots Pine THE FORT AUGUSTUS BLOCK Showing the Area of Plantable Ground, and the Portions thereof which are suitable for Larch, Menzies Spruce and Common Spruce, and Scots Pine respectively. Larch Men FOREST SURVEY OF GLENMORE nee unt a 25 8%