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ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


mey Vb SOCIETY 


OF 


EDINBURGH. 


VOL, XXXIX. 


EDINBURGH: 


PUBLISHED BY ROBERT GRANT & SON, 107 PRINCES STREET, 
AND WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON. 


MDCCCC. 


Published 


September 16, 1897. 
September 16, 1897. 
September 17, 1897. 
September 17, 1897. 
September 17, 1897. 


October 20, 1897. 


November 19, 1897, 
November 18, 1897. 


March 25, 1898. 
October 5, 1898. 
October 15, 1898. 
October 22, 1898. 
November 3, 1898. 
December 6, 1898. 
November 21, 1898. 
December 1, 1898. 
December 10, 1898. 


XVIII. 
XIX. 
XX. 
XXI. 


XXII. 


XXIII. 


XXIV. 
XXV. 


XXVI. 
XXVII. 


XXVIII. 


XXIX. 
XXX. 
XXXI. 
XXXII. 
XXXII. 
XXXIV. 


Published 


December 31, 1898. 
February 1, 1899. 
February 6, 1899. 
February 7, 1899. 
February 7, 1899. 
May 3, 1899. 
August 21, 1899. 
August 4, 1899. 
November 25, 1899. 
November 28, 1899. 
December 14, 1899. 
November 28, 1899. 
December 15, 1899. 
December 15, 1899. 
December 15, 1899. 
January 11, 1900. 
July 6, 1900. 


Gis Oh fal ie gh ie he 


PART I. (1896-97.) 


NUMBER 
I. On some Type Specimens of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera in the Edinburgh 
Museum of Science and Art. By Percy Hatt Grimsuaw, F.ES., 
Natural History Department, Edinburgh Museum of Science and 
Art. Communicated by Dr R. H. Traquatr, F.R.S. (With a Plate), 


II. On a Melanic Specimen of Hestina nama, Doubleday. By Percy Hay 
GrimsHAw, F.E.S. Communicated by Dr R. H. Traquarr, F.R.S. 
(With figure on Plate of previous Paper), ; 


III. On some Nuclei of Cloudy Condensation. By Joun ArrKen, F.R.S. 
(With a Plate), : 


IV. The C Discriminant as an Envelope. By James A. Macponatp, M.A., 
B.Sc., 


V. On the Fossil Flora of the Yorkshire Coal Field. (Second Paper.) 
Rosert Kinston, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (With Three Plates), 


VI. The Meteorology of Edinburgh. (Part II.) By Roperr C. Mossman, 
F.R.S.E., F.R. Met. Soc. (With Four Plates), 


VIL. The Automor ee Linear Tr He mation of a Quadric. By Tuomas 
Murr, LL.D., : : : 


VIII. A Contribution to the Comparative Anatomy of the Mammalian Organ 
of Jacobson. By R. Broom, M.D., B.Sc. Communicated by Sir Wo. 
TuRNER. (With Two Plates), 


PAGE 


18 


15 


27 


33 


63 


209 


231 


vi CONTENTS. 


PART II. (1897-98.) 


NUMBER 


IX. On the Definite Integral edt, with Extended Tables of Values. 


ae 

By Jas. Burcess, C.L.E., LLD., F.R.S.E., 
X. The Relations between the Coaxial Minors of a Determinant of the Fourth 
Order. By THomas Muir, LL.D., ; : 
XI. Chapters on the Mineralogy of Scotland. Chapter VIII.—Silicates. By 

M. Foster Heppie, M.D., Past President of the Mineralogical 
Society of Great Britain, Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the 
University of St Andrews, : ; : : 

XII. The Absolute Thermal Conductivity of Nickel. By T. C. Batiutg, M.A., 
B.Sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics, University 
College of North Wales, Bangor. (With a Plate), : ; 

XIII. The Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys. By Joun S. Fuert, M.B., B.Se. 
(With a Map), : : : 

XIV. On Torsional Oscillations of Wires. = Dr W. PEppDIE. ges Two 
Plates), ; 

XV. The Strains produced in Iron, Steel, Nickel and Cobalt Tubes in the 
Magnetic Field. Part II. By Professor C. G. Knort, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
(With Two Plates), : 

XVI. On the Path of a Rotating Spherical Pi Projectile II. By Professor 
Tair. (With a Plate), ; 


PART III. (1898-99.) 


XVII. On the Further Anatomy and the Budding Processes of Cephalodiscus 
dodecalophus (M‘Jntosh). By Artuur T. Mastermay, B.A., D.Sc., 
F.R.S.E., Lecturer and Research Fellow in the University of St 
Andrews, (With Five Plates), : 
XVIII. On Steam and Brines. By J. Y. Bucnanay, F.RS.,. 
XIX. On a Silurian Scorpion and some additional Eurypterid Remains from 
the Pentland Hills. By Matcoum Lavrir, B.A..D.Se. (With Five 
Plates), 


PAGE 


257 


323 


341 


361 


383 


425 


457 


491 


507 
529 


NUMBER 


», OS 


XXI. 


XXII. 


XXIII. 


XXIV. 


XXV. 


XXVI. 


XXVILI. 


XXVIII. 


XXTX. 


XXX. 


XXXI. 


CONTENTS. 


On a New Species of Cephalaspis, discovered by the Geological Survey 
of Scotland, in the Old Red Sandstone of Oban. By Ramsay H. 
Traquair, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Natural History 
Collections in the Museum of Science and Art, eye 
(With a Plate), ; 

On Thelodus Pagei, Powrie, Sp. ” om the Old Red Sandstone of 
Forfarshire. By Ramsay H. Traquair, M.D., LL.D., F.BS., 


Keeper of the Natural History Collections in the Museum of 
Science and Art, Edinburgh. (With a Plate), . 


The Emblem of the Crab in Relation to the sign Cancer. By D’Arcy 
WENTWorRTH THompsoy, C.B., : 
The Development of the Miillerian Ducts of Rephies By GREGG 


Witson, D.Sc. Communicated by Professor J. C. Ewart, F.R.S. 
(With Two Plates), 


On a Development of a Determinant of the mn” Order. 
Morr, LL.D., 


On the Rimes in the Authentic Poems of William Dunbar. 


By Tuomas 


By HENRY 
BELLYSE Baripon, M.A. Cantab., F.R.S.E., 
On the Eliminant of a Set of General Ternary Quadrics. By THoMaAs 


Muir, LL.D., 


On the Restoration of Co-ordinated Movements after Nerve Section. 
By Ropert Kennepy, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., Glasgow. [From the 
University of Glasgow and the Glasgow Veterinary College.] 
Communicated by Professor M‘Kernpricx. (With Three Plates), 


Contributions to the Craniology of the People of the Empire of India. 


Part I. The Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier and the 
People of Burma. By Professor Sir Wo. Turner, M.B., D.C.L., 
F.R.S. (With Three Plates), 


On the Development and Morphology of the Mai poe y Shoulder 
Girdle. By R. Broom, M.D., B.Se. Communicated by Professor 
Sir Wn. Turner. (With Two Plates), 


Non- Alternate + Knots. By Professor C. N. Lirrie, Ph.D. Com- 
municated by Professor Tart. (With Three Plates), 


The Meteorology of Ben Nevis in Clear and in Foggy Weather. 
J. Y. Bucwanan, F.R.S. (With Eight Plates), 


By 


vil 


PAGE 


685 


703 


749 


(rg! 


779 


Viil 


NUMBER 


XXXII. Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland 


CONTENTS, 


in the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland. By Ramsay H. 


Traquair, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Natural History 


Collections in the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


(With Five Plates), 


PART TV. 
XXXII. The Trap Dykes of the Orkneys. 


(With Three Plates), 


(1898-99.) 
By Joun S. Fuett, M.A., B.Sc. 


XXXIV. On the Structure and Affinities of a iohtadeen owd Stem os the 
Calciferous Sandstone of Dalmeny, Scotland, possibly identical with 


Lepidophloios Harcourtii (Witham). 


By A. C. Sewarp, M.A., 


F.R.S., University Lecturer in Botany, and A. W. Hit, B.A., 
University Demonstrator in Botany, Cambridge. (With Four 


Plates), 


APPENDIX— 
The Council of the Society, 


Alphabetical List of Ordinary Fellows, 


List of Honorary Fellows at November 1899, 


List of Ordinary Fellows Elected during Session 1896- 97, 

List of Honorary Fellows Elected during Session 1896-97, 
Fellows Deceased, Resigned, or Cancelled, 1896-97, 

List of Ordinary Fellows Elected during Session 1897-98, 


Fellows Deceased, 1897-98, 


List of Ordinary Fellows Elected during Seton. 1898- 99, 


Fellows Deceased or Resigned, 1898-99, . 


Laws of the Society, 


The Keith, Makdougall-Bi abe Neill, ha Chins Vietori 1a Tinie 


Prizes, 


Awards of the Keith, Matdotaan. Br aie Neill, and Cuming Vietort va 
Jubilee Prizes, from 1827 to 1898, 
Proceedings of the Statutory General Meetings, 


List of Public Institutions and Individuals entitled to receive Cue of 


the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society, 


Index, 


PRESENT 


nN 
Th 


PAGE 


827 


865 


907 


937 

939 
955 
957 
957 
958 
959 
960 
961 
962 
963 


970 


973 
979 


987 
995 


TRANSACTIONS. 


1—On some Type Specimens of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera in the Edinburgh 
Museum of Science and Art. By Percy Hatt Grimsuaw, F.E.S., Natural 
History Department, Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. Communicated 
by Dr R. H. Traqoarr, F.R.S. (With Plate.) 


(Read 17th May, 1897.) 


In the year 1819 the University of Edinburgh acquired by purchase a large 
zoological collection from M. Durresne, of Paris, including a cabinet containing 
upwards of 12,000 specimens of insects. Some years later (in 1855), when the whole 
of the University collections were formally transferred to the Science and Art Depart- 
ment, the Dufresne cabinet became public property. 

While consulting lately the volume by Goparv devoted to the article ‘‘ Papilio” in 
the famous Encyclopédie Méthodique, | was surprised to see a reference to the 
“Dufresne cabinet” in one of the descriptions of new species, and it immediately 
occurred to me that the specimen in our possession must be the actual “type” of the 
species, which discovery led me to search carefully through the whole of the volumes 
devoted to insects in this well-known work, with a view to finding as many types as 
possible. At the same time, I thought it possible that OLrvieR, who wrote his great 
Mstoire Naturelle des Insectes—Coléoptéres about the same time, might also mention 
some of DUFRESNE’s specimens, and this I found to be as I had anticipated. Altogether, 
in the two works mentioned, I find no less than twelve references to butterflies and forty 
to beetles in the Dufresne cabinet. I have been successful in finding all the types of 
butterflies, but in the case of the beetles about half of them are missing. These are not 
mentioned in the MS, catalogue which accompanied the collection, and hence must either 
have been removed from the cabinet before it came to Edinburgh, or, as is much more 
probable, must be among the wnnamed specimens, in which case the types must remain 
unidentified until such time as all the specimens have been carefully examined and 
referred to their proper species. 
$ VOL, XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 1). A 


2 MR PERCY HALL GRIMSHAW ON 


In addition to the twelve species of butterflies already referred to, there are a number 
of others in the Dufresne collection belonging to species described by GoparRt as new, and 
labelled in the same handwriting. From Latreiuur’s “ Avertissement” to the ninth 
volume of the Encyclopédie, we learn that Gopart worked through the whole of 
Dufresne’s cabinet, and therefore, although there is no special allusion to these speci- 
mens, it seems to me quite fair to regard them as true types. 

By the comparison of these original and interesting specimens with others in the 
Natural History Collections at the British Museum, I have been enabled to clear up 
many doubtful points in synonymy, ete., and the following paper is the result of my 
investigations. In submitting it to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, I must express my 
best thanks to Dr Traquair, Keeper of the Natural History Department of the Museum, 
for his kindly encouragement and advice, and also my great indebtedness to Dr A. G. 
Burier, Mr F. A. Heron, Mr C. O. Wareruousz, and Mr C. J. Gawan, who, by their 
generous assistance, materially contributed to the success of my work in London. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


NECTARIA IDEA. 


Papilio idea, Clerck, Icones, t. 38, f. 1 (1764). 
Idea agelia, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 195, n. 1 (1819). 


Godart’s types (2 specimens) in Dufresne collection. 


RADENA MEGANIRA. 
Danais meganira, Godart, Bne. Méth., ix. p. 192, u. 51 (1819). 
Types (2 specimens) in Dufresne collection, 


TASITIA CLEOTHERA. 
Danais cleothera, Godart, Ene. Méth., ix. p. 185, n. 31 (1819). 


Type agrees with British Museum specimens from St Domingo, Locality given by Godart (Timor) 
probably an error. 


EuUPL@A PHENARETA. 


Papilio phenareta, Schaller, Naturforscher, xxi. p. 177, pl. 5, f. 1, 2 (1785), o. 
Danais prothoe, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 177, n. 1 (1819). 


Godart’s type (a ¢ , labelled “‘ Amboine”’) in Dufresne collection, 


IsAMIA ALOPIA. 
Danais alopia, Godart, Ene. Méth., ix. p. 177, nu. 4 (1819). 


Type (7) in Dufresne collection, a ¢, distinct from midamus, Linn, 


PENOA ALOATHOE. 
Danais aleathoe, Godart, Bue. Méth., ix. p. 178, n. 5 (1819), 


A @ in the Dufresne collection, labelled “ Amboine,” is probably the variety mentioned by Godart ; it 
comes very near tu Standinger’s butra. 


SOME TYPE SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA AND COLEOPTERA. 3 


PENOA DOUBLEDAYI. 


Euplea doubledayi, Felder, Reise Novara, Lep. ii. p. 337 (1867). 
,,  dleathoe, auct. 


The specimens in the British Museum collection referred to alcathoe do not correspond at all to Godart’s 
description, nor does the figure given by Marshall and de Nicéville (Butt. of India, vol. i. pl. ix. fig. 17). 
Moreover, alcathoe, as generally understood, comes from Sikkim, Sylhet, and Further India, while 
Godart’s species was stated to come from Amboyna. Under these circumstances, it seems advisable to 
revive Felder’s name for this species, and to regard Godart’s species as distinct and not yet identified. 


VoNONA EUPHON. 
Papilio euphon, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 423 (1798). 
Danais baudiniana, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 181, n. 17 (1819). 
»  euphone, Godart, t.c., p. 181, n. 18 (1819). 


Godart’s baudiniana is nothing but the well-known Fabrician species, and the locality “Timor” is an 
error, Godart was evidently unacquainted with exphon, as he merely gives a translated description. 
His types of baudiniana (2 specimens) are in the Dufresne collection. 
LYCOREA CLEOBA. 
Heliconia cleobxa, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 222, n. 58 (1819). 


One male and one female (types?) in the Dufresne collection, 


CERATINIA EUCLEA. 


Heliconia euclea, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 220, n. 53 (1819). 
Ithomia fenestella, Hew., Hx. Butt. I., Ith., t. 5, £..25 (1854). 


By an examination of the type in the Dufresne collection the identity of this species, which has long 
been obscure, with that of Hewitson’s feneste/la is established. 


CaLISTO HYSIUS. 
Satyrus hysius, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 525, n. 131 (1823 4). 


It is somewhat curious that, although the second part of the ninth volume of the Hncyclopédie 
Méthodique is generally supposed to have been issued in 1823, the MS. Catalogue of the Dufresne 
collection, which bears the date 1818, contains the name of this species, in the original handwriting. 
There are two specimens in the collection, one of each sex, but only the female bears the original 
label. This label must have been written prior to 1819, as in that year the collection came to 
Edinburgh ; and as Godart only describes the female, this specimen is evidently the type. The 
question whether Godart wrote his description some years previous to publication, or whether the 
generally accepted date of publication is erroneous, is a point difficult to settle. The specimens at 
the British Museum referred to hysius differ slightly from the type. They have the ring at the anal 
angle of the hind wings much smaller, and that at the apex of the fore wings less sharply defined. 


ACREA ZETES. 


Papilio zetes, Linn., Syst. Nat., i. 2, p. 766, n. 110 (1767). 
Acreza zethea, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 236, n. 21 (1819). 


Godart’s types (2 ¢ and 1 9) in Dufresne collection. 


ACRHA SERENA. 


Papilio serena, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 461, n. 76 (1775). 
@ Acrea janisca, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 233, n. 10 (1819). 


As pointed out by Kirby (Syn, Cat., p. 718), Godart’s species is the 9 of serena. His type is in the 
Dufresne collection. 


4 MR PERCY HALL GRIMSHAW ON 


ACRZA SERVONA. 
Acrexa servona, Godart, Enc. Méth,, ix. p. 239, n. 28 (1819). 
é@ Acrexa dejana, Godm. & Saly., Jameson’s Story of the Rear Column, p. 431 (1890). 
Of this species Godart describes only the female, which is in the Dufresne collection. Dejana is merely 
the male of the same species. 
AORZA CEPHEUS. 


Papilio cepheus, Linn., Mus, Ulr., p. 252 (1764). 
Acrea zosteria, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 232, n. 6 (1819). 


Godart’s type in Dufresne collection. 


ACTINOTE OZOMENE. 
Acrxa ozomene, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 241, n. 36 (1819). 
Two specimens in the Dufresne collection, of which one bears the original label, and is therefore the 
type. The specimens in the British Museum are from Quito. 
HELICONIUS OYRBIA, 
Heliconia cyrbia, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 203, n. 3 (1819). 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


HELICONIUS ETHILLA. 

Heliconia ethilla, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 219, n. 49 (1819). 

Of this distinct and handsome species, which has long remained in obscurity, the type is represented in 
the Plate, fig. 2. ‘Two unnamed specimens in the British Museum were found to agree exactly with 
the type in the Dufresne collection. 

EVEIDES ALIPHERA. 
Cethosia aliphera, Godart, Enc. Méth,, ix. p. 246, n. 7 (1819). 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


CLOTHILDA BRIAREA, 


Argynnis briarea, Godart, Ene. Méth., ix. p. 261, n. 16 (1819). 
Anelia numida, Hiib., Samml. Ex, Schmett, (1816-1824). 
By comparison of the two Dufresne specimens (the types), Godart’s species has been proved to be 


identical with numida, Hiib., and not with pantherata, Mart., as generally supposed, in spite of the 
different locality. 


PSEUDARGYNNIS HEGEMONE. 


Argynnis hegemone, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p, 258, n. 7 (1819). 

Messaras | hegemone, Kirby, Syn. Cat, D.L., p. 153 (1871). 

Tera duodecimpunctata, Snell, Tijdschr. Ent, (2), vii. p. 15, t. 1, £. 1-3 (1872). 

Aterica clorana, Druce, 7'rans. Ent. Soc., 1874, p. 157. 

The type is in the Dufresne collection, and is represented in the Plate, fig. 5. I have compared it with 
specimens in the British Museum collection from Angola, Zomba, and Nyasa-land. 


PHYCIODES THAROS. 


Papilio tharos, Cram., Pap. Ez., ii. t. 169, E.F. (1779). 
Argynnis tharossa, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 289, n. 61 (1819). 


Godart’s type in Dufresne collection, 


SOME TYPE SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA AND COLEOPTERA. 9) 


PHYCIODES ZGON. 
Papilio zgon, Fab., Spec. Ins., ii. p. 130, n. 594 (1781). 
Argynnis pygmexa (part), Godart, Ene. Méth., ix. p. 290, n. 63 (1819). 


There are two specimens (Godart’s types?) in the Dufresne collection with the original label attached, 
one of which is the Fabrician species, the other pelops, Drury. 


PHYCIODES PELOPS. 
Papilio pelops, Drury, Ill. Hv. Ent., i. t. 19, f. 3, 4 (1773). 
Argynnis pygmea (part), Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 290, n. 63 (1819). 


See remarks under previous species. 


HYPANARTIA BELLA. 
Papilio bella, Fab., Ent. Syst., iii. 1, p. 328, n. 713 (1793), 
Vanessa zabulina, Godart, Ene. Méth., ix. p. 301, n. 13 (1819). 


One specimen (Godart’s type?) in Dufresne collection. 


PYRAMEIS CALLIRO#. 
Hamadryas decora calliroé, Hiib., Samml. Ex. Schmett. (1806-1816). 
Vanessa vulcania, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 320, n. 55 (1819). 


Specimen (one of Godart’s types?) in Dufresne collection labelled ‘ Ténériffe.” 


PRECIS PELARGA. 
Papilio pelarga, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 513, n. 296 (1775). 
Vanessa laodora, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 314, n. 38 (1819). 


There are two specimens in the Dufresne collection labelled Jaodora, one of which is the present 
species, the other being galami, Boisd. The latter bears the original label, but as Godart’s descrip- 
tion agrees better with true pelarga, and as he makes no special mention of Dufresne’s specimens, it 
will perhaps be safer to let Boisduval’s name stand, and treat Godart’s name as a synonym of the 
Fabrician species. After all, pelarga and galami may be only local forms of the same species. 


ANARTIA LYTREA. 


Vanessa lytrea, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 299, n. 7 (1819). 
Anartia dominica, Skinner, Tr, Am. Ent. Soc., xvi. p. 86 (1889). 


By comparison of Dufresne’s type specimen with those in the British Museum, it is proved that 
Skinner’s species is identical with lytrea, while chrysopelea, Hiib., is distinct ; the latter name must 
therefore be restored. 

DIponIs BIBLIS. 


Papilio biblis, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 505, n. 261 (1775). 
Biblis thadana, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 326, n. 1 (1819). 


The Dufresne specimen (one of Godart’s types?) is a female. 
LIBYTHEA MYRRHA. 
Libythea myrrha, Godart, Ene. Méth., ix. p. 171, n. 4, (1819). 
Types (2 specimens) in the Dufresne collection. 
LIBYTHEA TERENA. 


Libythea terena, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 170, n. 27(1819). 
Type in Dufresne collection, from the Antilles, 


6 MR PERCY HALL GRIMSHAW ON 


EUTERPE TEREAS. 
Papilio tereas, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p, 38, n. 39 (1819). 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


DISMORPHIA SPIO. 
Pieris spio, Godart, ne. Méth., ix. p. 167, n. 163 (1819). 


Types (2 specimens) in Dufresne collection. 


XANTHIDIA PYRO. 
Pieris pyro, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 137, n. 60 (1819). 
The type of this rare and remarkable species is in the Dufresne collection, and is represented in the 


Plate, fig. 7. It is not represented in the collections at the British Museum, and unfortunately we 
have no indication of its habitat. 


PIERIS JOSEPHINA. 
Pieris josephina, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 158, n. 136 (1819). 
Types (1g and 1?) in Dufresne collection, 


This species, which comes from St Domingo and Mexico, is quite distinct from P. amaryllis, Fab., which 
is a native of Jamaica. 


HERPENIA ERIPHIA. 
Pieris eriphia, Godart, Hnc. Méth., ix. p. 157, n. 134 (1819). 


Type in Dufresne collection. //. /ritogenia, Klug, is possibly the dry-season form of this species. 


BELENOIS GIDICA. 
Pieris gidica, Godart, Ene. Méth,, ix. p. 131, n. 37 (1819). 


The type of this rare and little-known species is figured in the Plate (fig. 4). It is a dry-season form, of 
which the wet-season form is as yet unknown. 


PINACOPTERYX DOXO. 


Pieris doxo, Godart, Ene. Méth,, ix. p. 123, n. 15 (1819). 
charina, Boisd., Sp. Gén., i. p. 525, n. 128 (1836). 

,  simana, Hopff., Ber. Verh. Ak. Berl., 1855, p. 640, n. 13. 
Pinacopteryx alba, Wallengy., Lep. Rhop. Caffr., p. 10 (1857). 
Callosune doxo, Kirby, Syn. Cat. D.L., p. 500 (1871). 


” 


The type is in the Dufresne collection, and is figured in the Plate (fig. 6), Pieris charina, Boisd., is the 
dry-season form of this species, 


DAPTONURA LIMNORIA. 
Pieris limnoria, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 144, n. 93 (1819). 
This is quite distinct from flippantha, Fab., which has no orange hind margin in the posterior wings of 


the male. Godart describes both sexes, but in the Dufresne collection there is only a single (male) 
specimen labelled /imnoria, which is figured in the Plate (fig. 3). 


DAPTONURA SALACIA, 
Pieris salacia, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 144, n. 91 (1819). 


Godart describes both sexes, The single specimen (a type?) in the Dufresne collection is a female, 


SOME TYPE SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA AND COLEOPTERA. 


a 


GLUTOPHRISSA ILAIRE, 
Pieris ilaire, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 142, n. 83 (1819). 
Mylothris margarita, Hiib., Samml. Ex. Schmett (1816-1841). 


Godart’s name probably is the earlier one. There is only one specimen in the Dufresne collection, but it 
is no doubt one of the types. 


IxIAS VENILIA. 
Pieris venilia, Godart, Enc, Méth., ix. p. 121, n. 7 (1819). 
One specimen, a male, in the Dufresne collection, evidently one of the types. J. venatrix, Wallace, is 
venilia, Godart, in part, as the latter author apparently described both species as one, 
TERACOLUS PHISADIA. 
Pieris phisadia, Godart, Hne. Meth., ix. p. 132, n. 40 (1819). 
Pontia arne, Klug, Symb. Phys., t. 7, £. 1-4 (1829). 
Idmais phisadia et arne, Boisd., Sp. Gén., i. p. 587, n. 3, t. 19, f. 2 (1836). 
»  philamene, Mabille, Compt. Rend. Soc. Ent. Belg., xxxiii, p. evi. (1880). 
Type in Dufresne collection. 


PAPILIO ZIDORA. 
Acrea zidora, 9 Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 237, n. 22 (1819). 
_ Papilio ridleyanus, White, Ann, Nat. Hist., xii. p. 262 (1843). 


It is somewhat startling to find that the single specimen in the Dufresne collection labelled “ zidora, fem.,”’ 
and described by Godart as the female of his Acrza zidora, is nothing else but Papilio ridleyanus, White! 
That he certainly confused the two specie’ is further shown on examining his description of the female. 
He says :—“ Cette bande” [7.e., the ‘bande fauve ou d’un rouge-cerise ”| “s’ étend un peu sur les pre- 
miéres ailes du male; dans la femelle, au contraire, elle monte beaucoup plus haut, et elle est divisée 
en cing taches ovales, dont la supérieure plus petite.’ Now this description exactly fits Papilio 


ridleyanus, which name must therefore stand as a synonym, and the name z¢dora be restored under the 
present genus, 


Type in Dufresne collection, 


PAPILIO TRIOPAS. 
Papilio triopas, Godart, Enc. Meéth., ix. p. 33, n. 23 (1819). 
Type in Dufresne collection. 


PAPILIO ZACYNTHUS. 


Papilio zacynthus, Fab., Ent. Syst., iii. 1, p. 15, n. 46 (1793). 
$ 5 polymetus, Godart, Hnc. Méth., ix. p. 35, n. 28 (1819). 


Godart’s species is represented in the Dufresne collection by a single specimen, which is the male of the 
Fabrician species. It bears the original label, and is probably one of Godart’s types. 
PaPILIO CRESPHONTINUS. 


Papilio cresphontinus, Mart., Psyche, t. 3, f. 8; t. 4, f. 10 (1797). 
»,  temenes, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 63, n. 104 (1819). 


One specimen in the Dufresne collection, presumably one of Godart’s types. 


PAPILIO MACHAONIDES, 


Papilio machaonides, Esp., Ausl. Schmett., t. 45, f. 2 (1785-1798). 
»  lycorxus, Godart, Ene. Méth., ix. p. 63, n. 105 (1819). 


Type of Godart’s species in the Dufresne collection. 


8 MR PERCY HALL GRIMSHAW ON 


PAPILIO IMERIUS. 


Papilio imerius, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 69, n. 121 (1819). 
»  2etes, Westw., Trans. Ent. Soc., v. p. 36, t. 3, f. 1, 1* (1847). 


Godart’s species is not identical, as Kirby supposed (Syn. Cat. D.L., p. 542), with pelaus, Fab., but 
corresponds exactly with zetes, Westw. The type in the Dufresne collection has been compared with 
British Museum specimens of zefes from St Domingo. 

PAPILIO LEUCASPIS. : 
Papilio leucaspis, Godart, Enc. Méth., ix. p. 55, n. 85 (1819). 


The type of this fine species is in the Dufresne collection. 


COLEOPTERA. 


CLADOGNATHA SUTURALIS. 
Lucanus suturalis, Olivier, Ent., i. 1, p. 16, n. 9, t. 4, f. 12 (1789). 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


ODONTOLABIS CAMELUS. 


Lucanus camelus, Olivier, Ent., i. 1, p. 22, n. 18, t. 5, f. 19 (1789). 
Odontolabis camelus, Leuthner, Trans. Zool. Soc., xi. p. 446, pl. xevi. f. 7,8 ¢, 9 2 (1885). 
gouberti, C. O. Waterhouse, Ent. Mo, Mag., xii. p. 172 (1876). 


The type (a male) is in the Dufresne collection. The species is well described and figured by Leuthner 
(1.c.) ; it comes from the Philippines. 
ORYOTES AUGIAS. 


Scarabxus augias, Olivier, Ent., i. 3, p. 36, n. 39, t. 24, f. 212 (1789), 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


HeExODON RETICULATUM. 
Hexodon reticulatum, Olivier, Ent., 1.7, p. 4, n. 1, f. 1, a-e (1789). 


One of the types of this rare species is in the Dufresne collection. 


PHOTINUS VITTATUS. 
Lampyris vittata, Olivier, Ent., ii, 28, p. 23, n, 21, t. 3, f. 20 (1790). 


Type in Dufresne collection, 


PHOTINUS FULGIDUS. 


Lampyris fulgida, Olivier, Ent., ii. 28, p. 16, n. 9, t. 2, f. 9, a, b (1790). 
- rufa, Olivier, Ent., ii. 28, p. 28, n. 30, t. 3, f. 30 (1790). 


From an examination of the type of rufus, which is in the Dufresne collection, it appears certainly 
identical with fulgidus, described by Olivier a few pages earlier on. Fulgidus is probably an imma- 
ture form of rufus, the original description of which is incorrect. Olivier says, ‘Corpus subtus 
pedesque rufa immaculata”; but the type has the fo /ast segments of the abdomen blackish. 


SOME TYPE SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA AND COLEOPTERA. 9 


STENOCARA ARANIPES, 
$ Pimelia aranipes, Olivier, Ent., iii. 59, p. 17, n. 22, t. 4, f. 6 (1795). 
Q * longipes, Olivier, Hnt., iii. 59, p. 16, n. 20, t. 1, f. 3 (1795), nev. Fad. 
Stenocara herbsti, Gemminger, Col. Heft. vi., 1870. 


Type of aranipes in Dufresne collection, The ? of this species is the same as Olivier’s longipes, 
described on the previous page of the Hntomologie. The latter name, however, was preoccupied 
by Fabricius, whose species of that name is an Adesmia. On this account the species was re-named 
by Gemminger, but aranipes is now the correct name. 


EvUSscELUS CRIBRARIUS. 
Attelabus cribrarius, Olivier, Hnt., v. 81, p. 8, n. 5, t. 1, f. 5 (1807). 


Types (2 specimens) in the Dufresne collection. This species appears to be rare, and is unrepre- 
sented in the British Museum collections. It is represented in the Plate at fig. 9. 


SPHENOPHORUS SERICEUS. 


Calandra sericea, Olivier, Ent., v. 83, p. 84, n. 14, t. 28, f. 409 (1807). 
* sericea, Latr., Humb, et Bonpl. Voy., i. p. 206 (1811). 


The types (2 specimens) are in the Dufresne collection. Latreille is usually quoted as the authority for 
this species, but Olivier’s description is earlier by four years. 


HoMALONOTUS VALIDUS. 


Curculio validus, Olivier, Enc. Méth., v. p. 499, n. 131 (1790). 
Rhynchenus validus, Olivier, Ent., v. 83, p. 157, n. 124, t. 15, f. 186 (1807). 


Types (2 specimens) in Dufresne collection. 


HILIPUS APIATUS. 
Rhynchenus apiatus, Olivier, Ent., v. 83, p. 171, n. 144, t. 28, f. 424 (1807). 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


— PH#DROPUS CANDIDUS. 


Curculio candidus, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 146 (1775). 
tomentosus, Olivier, Enc. Méth., v. p. 536, n. 288 (1790). 
Olivier, Ent., v. 83, p. 343, n. 394, t. 13, f. 155, a,-b (1807). 


Type of Olivier’s species in the Dufresne collection. 


” 


” ) 


CyYPHICERUS NOVEMLINEATUS. 
Curculio 9-lineatus, Olivier, Hnt., v. 83, p. 417, n. 513, t. 26, f. 377 (1807). 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


CERAMBYX INTERRUPTUS, Olivier. 
The type of this interesting species, which is represented in the Plate at fig. 8, is in the Dufresne collec- 
tion, and is probably unique. It has been carefully examined by Mr C. J. Gahan, who considers it 
the type of a new genus, which he characterises as follows :— 


“ ZONOTYLUS, gen. nov. (Fam. Cerambycidae). 


“Head rather narrow and slightly concave between the antennary condyles, the latter having each a 
small angular process at the upper margin just in front of the upper lobe of the eye. Eyes finely 
facetted, deeply emarginate. Last joint of labial palpi with a distinct pit on the outer surface 
(maxillary palpi wanting), Antenne of the female scarcely longer than half the body; third joint a 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 1). B 


10 MR PERCY HALL GRIMSHAW ON 


little longer than first, thickened at the apex; fourth to tenth gradually diminishing in length, 
fourth towards the apex, and the remaining joints in their whole length dilated and compressed 
towards the anterior edge, each having a sharp angle at the distal extremity ; eleventh joint scarcely 
longer than tenth, oblique and slightly emarginate at the apex. Prothorax with a stout conical 
tubercle at the middle of each side; disk raised and somewhat irregularly convex, deeply and very 
closely punctured with a smooth callosity in the middle; basal margin slightly rounded in the middle, 
sinuate on each side. Scutellum rather long, and acutely triangular ; surface of mesonotum between 
the scutellum and the stridulating area marked with a transversely elliptical pit. Elytra with sides 
sub-parallel, apex rounded. Hind legs much longer than either of the two anterior pairs, and with 
their tibie flattened and somewhat dilated ; femora of all the legs strongly clavate below the middle, 
and narrowed again towards the apex. Prosternum furnished with a small narrow tubercle near the 
posterior end, which is almost vertical; anterior coxal cavities rounded, closed in externally, open 
behind. Mesosternum emarginate and somewhat bilobed behind, furnished, just in front of the 
emargination, with a narrow and distinct, but not very strongly raised tubercle ; coxal cavities of the 
middle pair opening outwards to the epimera. 

“This genus offers the characters of the group Stenaspides of Lacordaire, and in this group seems to 
come nearest iu general structure to Huryclea, Thoms., though owing to its narrower form, and the 
peculiar ivory-like markings of the type species, this relationship would at first sight scarcely be 
suspected, 

“Type: Zonotylus interruptus, Oliv. 
“ Cerambyx interruptus, Oliv., Enc. Méth., v. p. 307 (1790) ; Ent., iv., n. 67, p. 35, pl. 17, f. 133. 

“The halitat of this interesting species is unfortunately still unknown. Both Pascoe and Lacordaire, 
to whom the species was known only from Olivier’s description and figure, surmised that it came 
from Australia, and was referable to the genus Bixoresthes, Pasc., which was founded upon what was. 
supposed to be an Australian, but is now known to be a South African species. Olivier’s figure 
gives a fairly good idea of the general appearance of his species; but neither from his figure nor 
his description could it be inferred that the markings on the elytra—consisting of a basal spot and 
two transverse and slightly sinuate bands on each elytron—are raised aud present an ivory-like 
appearance. The rest of the surface of the elytra, except at the shoulders, which are nearly impunctate 
and somewhat glossy, is finely and very closely punctured and of a dull black colour. The legs are 
glossy and black with a faint bluish tint.” [C. J. Gamay. ] 


SAGRA SPLENDIDA. 
Sagra splendida, Olivier, Ent., v. 90, p. 497, n. 2, t. 1, f. 2, a, b (1807). 


Type in Dufresne collection. 


CEDIONYCHIS FASCIATA. 


Galeruca fasciata, Fab., Suppl. Ent. Syst., p. 96 (1798). 
Altica fasciata, Olivier, Ent., vi. 93 bis. p. 675, n. 9, t. 1, f. 9 (1808). 


The specimen described and figured by Olivier is in the Dufresne collection, 


CEPHALODONTA MACULATA. 


Hispa maculata, Olivier, Enc. Méth., vii. p. 96, n. 3 (1792). 
»  spinipes, Fab., Ent. Syst., iv. App., p. 448 (1794) ; Olivier, Hnt., vi. 95, p. 761, n. 4, t. 1, f. 4 (1808). 


Olivier’s type in the Dufresne collection. 


In 1885 Baly, in working through the Hispidae for the Biologia Centrali-Americana, described a new 
species as Cephalodonta maculata. As this name is pre-occupied by the species just referred to, I 
propose to re-name that described by Baly as follows :— 


CEPHALODONTA BALYI, 0. 0. 
Cephalodonta maculata, Baly, Biol. Centr. Am. Col., vi. (2), p. 35, t. ii, f. 18 (1885). 


SOME TYPE SPECIMENS OF LEPIDOPTERA AND COLEOPTERA. 


EUMOLPUS IGNITUS. 


Chrysomela ignita, Fab., Mant., 1. p. 68 (1787). 
Eumolpus ignitus, Olivier, Hnt., vi. p. 897, n. 1, t. 1, f. 1 (1808). 


The specimen described and figured by Olivier is in the Dufresne collection. 


D1aBROTICA QUADRIGUTTATA. 
Chrysomela quadriguttata, Olivier, Enc. Méth., v. p. 703, n. 62 (1790). 
Galeruca albicornis, Fab., Suppl. Ent. Syst., p. 96 (1798) 


Crioceris thoracicu, Fab., Syst. Hl., i. p. 457 (1801). 
Galeruca thoracica, Olivier, Hnt., vi. 93, p. 650, n. 61, t. 4, f. 62, and Chrys., t. 4, f. 53 (1808). 


Type of quadriguttata in Dufresne collection. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 
Fig. 1. Hestina nama, Dbl. ab. 
2. Heliconius ethilla, Godart. 
3. Daptonura limnoria, Godart. 
4, Belenois gidica, Godatt. 
» 9. Pseudargynnis hegemone, Godart. 
6. Pinacopteryx doxo, Godart. 
7. Xanthidia pyro, Godart. 
8. Zonotylus interruptus, Olivier. 
9. Huscelus cribrarius, Olivier. 


7% 


Uh 


gab 


ry 


* 


=a — 
7 fe al eZ 
a 


: ++ 


> © _ 


Te > 


As yh rn 
a i ie Tey 
1 ih < a 


- 


| op 


P.H. Grimshaw, del. 


TYPE SPECIMENS 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin®, Vol. AAXAIX 
OF LEPIDOPTERA & COLEOPTERA IN THE 


EDINBURGH MUSEUM OF SCIENCE & ART. 


Fes Fs: 7.) 


Il.—On a Melanie Specumen of Hestina nama, Doubleday. By Percy Hatt 
GrimsHaw, F.E.8. Communicated by Dr R. H. Traquair, F.R.S. (With 
figure on Plate of previous Paper.) 


(Read 17th May 1897.) 


In a collection of Indian butterflies purchased by the Edinburgh Museum in the 
year 1890, I found a specimen of Hestina which is of some interest. After carefully 
examining it, and comparing it with a figure by OBERTHUR of a form which he regards 
as a melanic aberration of the well-known Hestina nama, Doubleday, I have come to 
the conclusion that our example is another and more melanic form of the same species. 
From OBERTHUR’s figure, which he calls ab. melanina (Etudes @’ Entomologre, xx., 1896, 
p. 30, pl. 10, no. 177), the present specimen differs in the fore wing, in the absence of 
the inner row of whitish spots; in the size and position of the upper spots in the outer 
series, and in the spot at the anal angle being nearer to the base of the wing. At the 
base of the cell there is a rich cream-coloured sub-triangular spot, instead of the slender 
greenish streak. There is no ferruginous border to the hind wing, and the whitish 
streaks are more elongated, and in the anal half of the wing only very faintly in- 
dicated. 

For the reference to the figure of melanina, I am indebted to the kindness of Mr F. 
A. Heron, of the British Museum. As the under side is neither described by OBERTHUR 
nor represented in his plate, | have thought it advisable to figure the Edinburgh speci- 
men, and to write the following more detailed description :— 

Upper side: Fore wing entirely purplish-black, with the exception of a marginal 
series of whitish spots, the uppermost of which is elongated into the form of a streak, 
the four next lower becoming shorter and more crescentic towards the anal angle, the 
lowermost (between the sub-median and the first median nervures) more quadrate, and 
followed by a short streak at the anal angle, which is, however, further removed from 
the margin. At the apex of the wing are two much smaller and less distinct whitish 
streaks. Inner margin dusted for about two-thirds of its length with bluish-grey. A 
pale streak at base of costal area and a cream-coloured spot at base of cell. Hind wing 
more reddish in colour, but much darker in the discal area. Light markings confined 
to a gradually disappearing marginal series of streaks beginning at the costa and extend- 
ing to the anal angle, only the first three, however, being distinct. Inner margin 
broadly whitish. Under side : Fore wing lighter than upper side, with a greater extension 
of the whitish markings, those near the apex being especially more distinct. Inner 
margin paler than on upper side, with an additional bluish-white streak at the anal 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I, (NO, 2). Cc 


14 MR GRIMSHAW ON A MELANIC SPECIMEN OF HESTINA NAMA. 


angle. Nervures in apical portion of wing strongly margined with chestnut-red ; spots 
at base of wing more distinct than on upper side. Hind wing lighter than on upper 
side, with all the nervures strongly margined with bright chestnut-red. Marginal series 
of light markings much larger and more distinct, of a more yellowish colour than those 
on the fore wing, and practically forming a broad band, interrupted by the red-margined 
nervures, and dentated externally by the extension inwards of a triangle of chestnut-red 
between each nervure. Precostal area with four white spots; inner margin creamy- 
white, dusted with chestnut-red. Cilia of both wings alternately edged with white on 
both upper and under surfaces. Body, head, and legs marked as in typical 7. nama. 


Vol. XXXIX. 


Soc. Edin 


Trans. Roy 


MR. JOHN AITKEN ON SOME NUCLEI OF CLOUDY CONDENSATION. 


I[1.—On some Nuclei of Cloudy Condensation. By Jown ArrKen, F-.R.S. 
(With a Plate.) 


(Read 3rd May, 1897.) 


I have to apologise for placing this communication before you in a somewhat 
incomplete form. My work has been much interrupted in the past, and it will again 
shortly be stopped for a considerable time. I have therefore decided to place before 
you the results so far as they are worked out. 


PARTE <1; 
Ions aND CLouDY CONDENSATION. 


Rosert von Hetmuorrz published in 1887 the results of ‘‘ Experiments with a 
Steam Jet.”* This investigation was continued, and he and Professor RicHarz joined 
forces, and the result of their investigation will be found in the same journal for 1890, 
under the title—‘‘On the Influence of Chemical and Electrical Action on the Steam 
Jet, and on the Dissociation of Gases, particularly of Oxygen.” t 

He~MuHo.tz seems to have begun his work under a wrong impression as to the 
conclusions of other investigators. In the first of these papers, after describing some 
results, he says they cannot be explained on the dust theory; and after stating that 
some observers had rejected the dust theory, he adds that ‘ AITKEN, on the other hand, 
has attempted to explain everything by it.” In the second of the papers referred to, 
the authors say : ‘“‘We hold that the earlier assertions that cloud is never formed without 
dust is incorrect.” I have great difficulty in understanding how these authors could 
have made this mistake, because in my first paper it is distinctly stated that cloudy 
condensation can take place without dust; and a number of experiments are described 
in which condensation takes place in the presence of the vapours of different substances, 
such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and a number of others,—the very substances 
one of the authors uses to prove that condensation can take place without dust. I had 
also shown, that if the supersaturation be great enough, that condensation can take place 
without nuclei of any kind. 

In my first communication on the subject in 1881 I even went further, and said 
that it was probable that sunshine might cause the formation of nuclei, and allow 
cloudy condensation to take place where there was no dust. On this point I shall 
have something further to say in this paper. 

* Weid, Ann. xxxii, pp. 1-19, 1887. + Weid. Ann, x1. pp. 161-202, 1890. 
VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 8). 2 


16 MR JOHN AITKEN ON 


The principal object of the two papers by HetmHorrz and RicHarz is to prove that 
cloudy condensation may take place without dust, and the authors describe a great number 
of very beautiful experiments made with the steam jet, showing the change which takes 
place in its appearance when mixed with air charged with the products of combustion 
either from flames or from slow combustion, such as damp phosphorus slowly oxidising in 
the air, or when the jet is mixed with air which had been exposed to the electric discharge. 
In all these cases the authors show that something is produced which, when it meets 
the steam jet, causes an increase in the density of the condensation, evidently due to 
an increase in the number of small water drops. ‘That there is something produced 
which causes an increase in the density of the steam is evident ; but whilst one may 
go thus far with these authors, yet it is difficult to accept their explanation of the 
phenomenon. They attribute the condensation not to nuclei, but to the molecular 
shock produced by the chemical processes going on in the neighbourhood of the jet, 
or, to use a translation of the authors’ words, ‘The collapse of the unstable condition 
of the supersaturated water vapour from the jet is determined less by the particular 
nature of the chemical action than to a far greater extent by the molecular shocks set 
up in the jet, molecular dissociations and associations, and on the presence of unsatu- 
rated compounds, molecular groups with free valencies or ‘ions.’ ” 

Whilst accepting the facts of the experiments, namely, that something is produced 
in these chemical processes which determines dense condensation in the steam jet, yet 
one has great difficulty in accepting the above explanation. Supposing we even admit 
that a molecular shock of the kind described could determine condensation in a super- 
saturated vapour, it must be remembered that the degree of supersaturation in a 
steam jet in the open air where there is dust is extremely slight,—the particles of 
water are so close that any strain easily relieves itself. Further, it must be remem- 
bered that the vapour in the jet is nearly in equilibrium with the drops of the size 
present in the jet, and it is very doubtful if it will be at all supersaturated to extremely 
minute particles of water, as the vapour tension at the surface of extremely small 
particles is higher than at the surface of larger particles. For these reasons it seems 
more probable that whatever it is that is produced in these chemical processes, 
it acts somehow in forming nuclei, and is itself engaged directly in the formation 
of the centres of condensation.* 

Near the end of the second paper already referred to, the authors ‘put im a claim 
for the importance of these “ions” in producing ordinary cloudy condensation, ‘They 


* There is another way of considering the whole question, from which it would appear that there is no such 
thing as supersaturation in a vapour ; that is, no strain in the vapour which either dust or “ molecular shocks” 
can relieve, What is generally called a saturated vapour is one whose tension is equal to the tension of the vapour 
at a flat surface. Now this tension is not so high as the tension at a surface of extremely small convex curvature ; 
and vapour that is in equilibrium with the vapour at a convex surface is supersaturated to the flat surface ; so that 
saturation is a relative and not an absolute quantity, relative to the curvature of the condensing surface, and a 
vapour that is supersaturated to a flat surface is not necessarily saturated to a surface of very small curvature. 1t 
would thus appear that there is no strain in a vapour till a surface makes its appearance ; but after it is formed 
the lower tension at its surface determines a movement of the vapour molecules towards it. 


SOME NUCLEI OF CLOUDY CONDENSATION, Ly 


say : “ Apart from the explanation, the fact remains that by rapid and slow combustion 
an agent is called forth which sets up condensation, and which does not disappear 
immediately on the cessation of the originating process. Now so much oxidation 
takes place in so many different ways, that the idea is at once suggested that this 
agent which is formed by oxidation will be always present in small quantities in the 
air, We consider it quite possible that the faint condensation which the steam jet 
suffers in the open air may quite as well be due to the presence of this agent as to that 
of dust.” 

This conclusion seemed to be of sufficient importance to demand further investi- 
gation. Admitting the existence of these “ions” in the products of combustion, the 
question resolves itself into this: Do these “ions” persist for any length of time, and 
so come to play some part in the condensation of a steam jet or of a cloud, or is their 
action very short-lived? The difficulty of arranging an experiment for testing this point 
is, that during combustion so many different products are thrown into the air as well 
as an enormous number of fine dust particles. It is, therefore, difficult to find, by 
testing this complex mixture, many of the constituents which cause cloudy condensa- 
tion, whether any particular one is more affected by time than the others. Because, 
if we keep the gases, new chemical combinations are formed, and the number of dust 
particles also decreases, and it would be difficult to determine how much of the decrease 
was due to loss of activity of the ‘‘ions.” If, therefore, we are going to test the length 
of time the “ions” of combustion retain their activity, we must use some form of 
combustion in which no dust is formed, and the products are free from any substance 
that can form on cooling solid or liquid nuclei. Hydrogen burned in oxygen seemed 
particularly suitable for the purpose, but as this would involve considerable difficulties, 
it was determined to try the effect of burning it in filtered air. It was, however, kept 
in view that the presence of the nitrogen might give rise to complications, but fortu- 
nately there was no trouble due to its presence ; nor did hydrogen peroxide, ozone, or 
ammonium nitrate, which are said to be produced when hydrogen is burned, produce 
any effect. Further, the products from hydrogen burning in air are stated by 
HetMHo.tz to be very powerful in increasing the density of the steam jet, and they, 
therefore, seemed the most suitable substance for an experiment of this kind. 

In carrying out this experiment the following arrangement was adopted (see Plate). 
The hydrogen was prepared from zine and sulphuric acid placed in the flask, A. After 
being purified, it was burned at the platinum jet, B, having a diameter of 1 mm, The 
air for combustion was drawn through the large cotton-wool filter, C, and brought in at 
the lower end of the tall cylindrical glass combustion chamber, D, and taken off at the 
top, The combustion chamber used for these experiments was a Fresenius Chloride of 
Calcium Cylinder placed in an inverted position. For the present the flask, U, is 
supposed to be removed, and the combustion chamber, D, connected directly by its 
branch pipe, V, with the long glass tube, #, through which the products of combustion 
are carried to the gasometer, F’, by means of which the air and products of combustion 


18 MR JOHN AITKEN ON 


are drawn through the apparatus. On the pipe, 2, at a point about 1m. from the 
combustion chamber, there is a branch pipe, G, which leads through the stop-cock, H, into 
the test-flask, 7. This flask is provided with an air-pump, X, and a filter, Z. By means 
of this part of the apparatus a sample of the air passing from the combustion chamber 
can be tested when desired. ‘'l’o make this test, the flask, J, is first cleared of all dust 
particles by means of the pump, A, and filter, Z. After the air is free from nuclei, the 
stop-cock, H, leading to the pipe from the combustion chamber is opened, and a sample 
of the products passing in the pipe are drawn into the flask, I. The stop-cock, H, is then 
closed, and the air in the flask expanded by means of the pump, when the density of the 
condensation observed indicates the number of nuclei in the air from the burning 
hydrogen. For observing the amount of condensation in the flask, /, the dark lantern, R, 
was used, the light being focussed on the contents of the flask by means of the 
condensing lens, S, whilst the cloudy particles were observed through the lens, 7. 
When making these experiments the room should be darkened, as the phenomena are 
then most easily observed. 

At first the results were unsatisfactory : there was always considerable clouding, but 
the density was far from being constant. Efforts were, therefore, made to get everything 
as perfect as possible. Pure redistilled zinc and the purest sulphuric acid were used 
for generating the hydrogen, and, to prevent sulphur compounds from coming over with 
the gas, cupric sulphate* was added to the sulphuric acid, which was used very weak, 
and mixed with water and cooled before being put in the flask, d. The flask, A, in 
which the hydrogen was generated was kept cool by a bath of water, M. The hydrogen 
after leaving the generating flask was passed through the wash-bottle, N, filled with 
solution of Jead nitrate. The gas then passed through a plug of cotton-wool, O, 
saturated with a strong solution of lead nitrate, then through a dry cotton-wool filter, P. 
It then passed through a small but very tight cotton-wool filter, Q, to regulate the 
pressure of the gas, as without this obstruction the light was apt to go out, owing to 
irregular pressure due to the bubbling of the gas. The gas was burned at the platinum 
jet, B, which was made red-hot with a blow-pipe before each experiment to thoroughly 
cleanse it, and prevent nuclei being driven off by the heat. The combustion chamber 
was kept cool by surrounding it with a wet cloth. 

We shall now turn to the question of filtermg the air. ‘This looks a simple matter, 
but it was found to be one of the most troublesome parts of the experiment. In the 
apparatus a large cylindrical metal box, C; filled with cotton-wool, was used, with a pipe 
leading off it at the end. This pipe was at first connected with the combustion chamber 
by means of a short length of india-rubber tube. When the pure hydrogen was burned 
in this apparatus the flame was scarcely visible, and quite invisible if there was any 
daylight in the room, even if the combustion cylinder was surrounded with a black sur- 
face. Watching the burning hydrogen on one occasion, suddenly a little bright spark 


* It was necessary to be constantly adding cupric sulphate to the acid in A. If this was not done, con- 
siderable condensation took place in the products. 


SOME NUCLEI OF CLOUDY CONDENSATION. 19 


made its appearance in the flame ; on now testing the products they were found to have 
greatly increased in impurity. This at once suggested that some piece of solid matter 
had got into the flame. I now gently tapped the india-rubber tube by which the filtered 
air was brought to the combustion chamber, when the flame at once responded, showing 
a few bright sparks in succession, and the test-flask showed the air to be very full of 
nuclei. The india-rubber tube was therefore removed, and the filter connected direct to 
the combustion chamber. On now testing the apparatus, | gently tapped the filter 
itself, with the result that matters were as bad as before—dense clouding made its 
appearance in the test-flask. The arrangement of the apparatus was now slightly 
altered. The combustion chamber, filter, and gas-generating apparatus were put on one 
table, while the test-flask, with its pump, were put on another, to prevent the vibrations 
produced by working the pump from shaking the other parts of the apparatus. 
Further, the cotton in the filter was damped by passing damp air through it the reverse 
way, and when in use a wet cloth was hung over the entrance end of the filter. This 
was done to prevent dust rising from the dry wool or metal case. 

It may be asked why all these precautions are necessary, when a cotton-wool filter 
is found to act quite satisfactorily without them when used in the ordinary dust experi- 
ments. ‘The reason is very simple. If a little bit of any kind of matter happens to be 
carried with the air out of the filter in making the ordinary experiments, this means 
only one centre of condensation, and that drop may not meet the eye of the observer ; 
but when the same bit of matter, particularly if it be organic, passes through the 
hydrogen flame, at once there are created thousands of centres of condensation, and what 
in the one case may escape detection gives rise in the other to a very manifest effect. 

After many failures, and many alterations and improvements in the apparatus, the 
result is that, when everything is working right, the test-flask shows the products of 
combustion of pure hydrogen in dust-free air to be free from nuclei of all kinds. The 
air remains clear on expansion, and only a few drops are seen falling rapidly ; the air is 
in fact far freer from condensation than the purest air met with in the country. The 
air was never absolutely free from a single nucleus on expansion, but frequently only a 
very few drops appeared, and all in view could be easily counted. 

From this experiment it may be concluded, Ist, that pure hydrogen burning in 
dustless air gives rise to no solid or liquid form of dust; and 2nd, that any activity 
the “ions” may have is extremely short-lived, as they are inactive by the time they 
are cooled. 

Whilst the apparatus, as described, shows that pure hydrogen when burning in 
dustless air gives rise to no permanent nuclei of condensation, we can, by making a 
slight alteration in the conditions, show the great importance of dust in the cloudy 
condensation produced by the products of combustion. If we remove the filter, C, and 
allow the air of the room to go unfiltered to the hydrogen flame, we get very different 
results, according to the condition of the air. If the day be calm, and the air of the 
room be but little disturbed, we get a great increase in the density of the condensation 


20 MR JOHN AITKEN ON 


when tested in the flask, Z, but the density is not very much greater than what the air 
of the room would give if it had not passed through the hydrogen flame. The concen- 
trated light from the lantern produces a luminous cone shining in the flask. If now, 
however, we move about things in the room, so as to stir up some dust, the result is 
remarkable. On now testing the products from the hydrogen flame in the flask the 
cone of light is no longer visible. So dense is the condensation that the whole flask 
is filled with a dense white fog, the flask looking like a white ball, the intense heat of 
the hydrogen flame having produced an enormous number of nuclei out of some of 
the dust floating in the air. 

The conditions of the experiment, in which it is shown that hydrogen burning in 
filtered air gives rise to no nuclei of condensation, is not, however, quite the same as that 
in which Hetmuottrz found these products to be very active, as he mixed them much 
more quickly with the re-acting agent. The products in his experiment were carried 
direct to the steam jet. To test the condensing power of the products immediately after 
combustion, the following alterations were made in the arrangement already described in 
the apparatus shown in the Plate :—The test flask, 7, was introduced into the circulating 
system at a point close to the combustion chamber, so that the products might be tested 
immediately after combustion. For testing them in this case the steam jet method was 
employed as in HrLmHoLtz’ experiments, only no unfiltered air was allowed to mix with 
the products, Steam was generated in the flask, W, and conveyed by means of a glass 
tube to the interior of the test-flask, U. This tube terminated in a fine jet. With the 
hydrogen burning and unfiltered air, there was a dense condensation, but when filtered 
air was used the condensation was extremely slight, and if the flame was low on some 
trials, it was difficult to say whether there was any condensation or not. In each test 
the steam was allowed to enter only for a very short time, as the test-flask got heated, 
and had, therefore, to be cooled before each test. It is evident from these experi- 
ments that the products of combustion from pure hydrogen and dustless air are far 
from being very active in the condensation of the steam jet, even when they are 
newly formed. 

There are other reasons for leading us to conclude that the action of these ‘‘ions” is 
extremely short-lived. It is generally admitted that these “ions” are the cause of 
electrical conduction in gases, that it is to their presence in the products of combustion 
that these gases owe their power of discharging electrified bodies. Now we know that 
the products of combustion soon lose this power; if we bring the products from the 
flame to the electrified body by means of a short tube, the discharge is rapid, but as 
we lengthen the tube, the power very rapidly decreases. Again, the air of a room 
where gas is burning has very little, if any, power of discharging electrified bodies, 
yet it has enormous numbers of nuclei of condensation, due to the products of 
combustion. Lord Ketvry and Dr Macnus Macrean, in a recent communication to 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, show that the products of combustion lose their 
power of discharging bodies in less than fifteen seconds, Further, we know that air 


SOME NUCLEI OF CLOUDY CONDENSATION. 21 


is nearly freed of all nuclei of condensation by the electric discharge, which, while it 
deposits the dust, rather increases the “ions.” It may also be remembered that air 
passed through the Thermic filter is freed of all nuclei. 

But whilst all experimental tests indicate that these “ions,” or whatever it is that 
is produced during combustion, and which gives rise to condensation, are extremely 
short-lived, and do not play any important part in cloudy condensation in the 
atmosphere, it would be rash to say that they never do play any part. The conditions 
of combustion of a laboratory experiment are different from those under which com- 
bustion usually takes place ; and further, whilst hydrogen may not give any long-lived 
“‘jons,” some other forms of combustion may, and though they lose their power of 
discharging electrified bodies, they may yet be capable of causing cloudy condensa- 
tion. 

From many hundreds of observations on the dust and the transparency of the 
atmosphere, it has been shown that, for the same relative humidity, the transparency is 
proportional to the number of dust particles in the air, except at one place of observa- 
tion, and under exceptional conditions.* Now this is not likely to be the case if “ ions” 
played any important part in the condensation, as we can hardly expect their action 
to bear a constant proportion to that of the dust. For the reasons above given, it 


therefore does not appear at all likely that “ions” play any important part in the 
ordinary cloudy condensation in the atmosphere. 


PART IL. 
SUNSHINE AND CLoupDY CONDENSATION. 


In 1894 there was communicated to this Society Part HI. of a paper ‘On the 
Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere.” It is there shown that under certain 
conditions the sun gives rise to a great increase in the number of nuclei. The observa- 
tions made at Kingairloch show, that when the wind is from the N.W. the number 
of particles is always very low, being generally under 500 per «c., and often very 
much lower when the sky is clouded, but that when the sun came out the numbers 
rapidly increased as the day advanced, and if the sun kept shining all day, the numbers 
rose to many thousands in the afternoon, after which the numbers decreased, and 
again were very low next morning if the wind continued to blow from the N.W. 
These observations entirely justify the prediction which was made in 1881 on the 
probable action of sunshine in producing nuclei of condensation. 

This action of sunshine on our atmosphere evidently deserves further investigation. 
A few of the ordinary constituents and impurities of our atmosphere have therefore 


* Proc, Roy, Soc., Edin., vol. xx. pp. 66, 93 ; Trans, Roy. Soc., Edin., vol. xxxvi., Part IIL, pp. 621, 693. 


22 MR JOHN AITKEN ON 


been tested to see if sunshine acted on them in such a way as to make them active as 
producers of nuclei of cloudy condensation. 

The gases tested were ammonia, nitric acid, nitrous acid, peroxide of hydrogen, 
sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrochloric acid, and chlorine. The result of 
these tests is that the gases or vapours of all these substances give rise to nuclei of 
condensation after being acted on by sunshine. 

The apparatus used for these experiments consisted of a glass flask, in which the 
gases were sunned and tested. This flask was provided with an air-pump and a cotton- 
wool filter, the arrangement being the same as that shown on the right-hand side of 
the Plate, with the centre tube removed. Different methods were used for getting the 
gases into the flask ; in some cases a little of their solutions in water was introduced 
into the flask, in others the gases were drawn into the flask through the cotton-wool 
filter. 

In making a test, the first thing to be done was to wash the flask and connecting 
tubes, and put new cotton-wool into the filter. Filtered air was then pumped in till 
no drops appeared on expanding the air. If a solution of any of the gases was in the 
flask, the apparatus was then removed to an open window and exposed to sunshine, 
generally for one minute, after which it was brought back, the air expanded by means 
of the pump, and the density of the condensation noted. If the gas was introduced 
into the flask through the filter, it was sometimes necessary to pass a considerable 
quantity of vapour when making the first test, as it was found that the vapour that 
first entered the filter did not pass through, but seemed to combine with the cotton- 
wool, or perhaps only condensed on it, as after a filter was saturated it acted for some 
time, supplying nuclei without a fresh quantity of vapour being passed into it. 

I regret that the experiments on the action of sunlight on the vapours mentioned are 
far from being as complete as I could wish; but for the reasons already given, and on 
account of the difficulty of getting plenty of sunlight, it has not been found possible to 
get the work done. The following notes are, therefore, very incomplete. 

It should be noted at the outset that ordinary air, after being filtered and exposed 
to sunshine, does not show any cloudy condensation on expansion, only occasionally a 
drop or two may appear; but when any of the above-named gases are in the air a very 
different result is obtained. Ammonia has been experimented with both by placing a 
weak solution in the test-flask, and by drawing the vapour into the flask through the 
filter. If one drop of ammonia be added to 100 c.c. of water, and put in the flask 
and sunned for one minute, a great deal of condensation takes place on expansion with 
even this very weak solution, and if we expose it for five minutes the condensation 
is much more dense. If we put a weak solution of nitric acid in the flask, say two 
drops to 100 ¢.c. of water, we get cloudy condensation on expansion after being sunned ; 
hut the action of nitric acid is not so powerful as ammonia; that is to say, that though 
the solution of nitric acid was double the strength, it did not give so dense a con 
densation as the vapour from solution of ammonia. 


SOME NUCLEI OF CLOUDY CONDENSATION. 23 


The experiments made with nitrous acid must be looked on with considerable doubt, 
owing to the uncertainty which hangs round the existence of this gas when produced by 
the ordinary methods. I shall, therefore, only describe the experiments made, and 
leave the reader to draw his own conclusions. In experimenting with this gas it was 
always made outside the test-flask, and drawn in through the cotton-wool filter. The 
gas was prepared by means of nitric acid and arsenious anhydride. With gas prepared 
in this way, it is probable some of the effect might be due to nitric acid passing over 
with the nitrous acid. Another sample of nitrous acid was prepared from weak 
sulphuric acid and sodium nitrate. Both these samples of nitrous acid gave dense 
condensation after being exposed to sunshine. 

The hydrogen peroxide was tested by placing a little of the ordinary 10 per cent. 
solution in the test-flask and sunning the contents. It proved to be a powerful 
generator of nuclei. 

Sulphurous acid is one of the most puzzling of all the gases tested, its action is so 
uncertain. Unlike the others, it almost always gives rise to condensation in the dark. 
On some days, with even a weak solution in the test-flask, it was impossible to get the 
condensation to cease entirely. When attempting to clear the air in the flask, even in 
the dark, a few drops fell at each expansion, and on most days, though the drops nearly 
ceased to appear, yet on standing a few minutes a considerable number made their 
appearance when the air was expanded ; but in all cases the cloudy condensation was 
very greatly increased after sunning. The products of combustion from household gas 
in some cases gave rise to slight condensation after sunning, whilst the products of 
combustion from anthracite coal, which probably contained a good deal of sulphur, 
gave dense condensation after bemmg exposed to sunshine. This test might possibly be 
used for the detection of sulphur compounds in household gas. 

The sulphuretted hydrogen tested was prepared from sulphide of iron and weak 
sulphuric acid. The gas was generated in a glass bottle, and drawn into the test-flask 
through the cotton-wool filter. This gas gave dense condensation after being exposed 
to sunshine. In order to see that the effect was not due to vapour of sulphuric acid, 
the acid used was tested alone before adding the sulphide of iron, and was found 
to be inactive. 

Vapour from hot hydrochloric acid was drawn into the test-flask through the filter 
and sunned, after which it gave dense condensation on expansion, whilst the same 
vapour was inactive whilst kept in the dark. 

Chlorine is one of the most interesting of the gases tested, as it caused condensa- 
tion to take place without supersaturation. The gas was prepared from potassium 
bichromate and hydrochloric acid; it was drawn into the test-flask through the filter. 
Whilst this gas gave no condensation on being expanded, if kept in the dark, it became 
fogged on exposure to sunlight without being expanded, and the density of the con- 
densation was but little increased by expanding it. 

A point of some importance connected with these nuclei due to the action of light 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 3). E 


24 MR JOHN AITKEN ON 


on gases in the atmosphere is: after they are formed, do they remain active for any 
length of time, or are they short-lived? Unfortunately, for reasons already given, 
this point has not been thoroughly worked out; but this much has been ascer- 
tained: some of them, such as the hydrogen peroxide nuclei, are very short-lived— 
fifteen minutes to half-an-hour being sufficient for the air in the flask to lose its 
power of cloudy condensation ; whilst the nuclei from sulphurous acid remain active 
for a long time, half an hour having no appreciable effect on the density of the 
condensation when that substance forms the nuclei. In this case the nuclei are 
probably particles of fine sulphur dust, and their action seems to be as permanent as 
that of ordinary atmospheric dust. 

As might be expected, all the gases do not respond to light rays of the same rate 
of vibration ; but no extensive experiments have been made in this direction. It may, 
however, be mentioned that whilst sulphurous acid is easily made active by means of 
the light of burning magnesium, on many of the other gases that light has little if any 
action. The action of burning magnesium on sulphurous acid makes a convenient 
lecture experiment, the flask being shown free from cloudy condensation when the moist 
air and sulphurous acid vapour are expanded, if the room be lit with gas. On now 
burning two or three inches of magnesium ribbon, and expanding, the air in the flask 
becomes densely white with cloudy condensation. 

Whilst these experiments show that many gases which are frequently found in the 
atmosphere form nuclei of condensation after being acted on by sunlight, yet it must | 
be admitted that they throw but little light on the abnormally high dust readings got 
at Kingairloch, when the wind blew from a pure direction and the sun shone. On 
looking for a source of impurities in the atmosphere at Kingairloch, I found there 
was a “ mineral well” to the north-west of the place of observation, at a distance of 
about three miles; and on inquiry I found that there are a number of these wells in the 
district. The water in these wells contains sulphuretted hydrogen, and it seemed 
possible that this gas under the action of sunlight might be the cause of the abnormal 
number of nuclei; but as yet I have not been able to get evidence sufficient to bring 
in a verdict against it. Since I discovered that the sunlight was in some way 
connected with the production of these nuclei of condensation in N.W. winds, I have 
only been once at Kingairloch to test if the mineral springs supplied the gas out of 
which the nuclei were produced, but unfortunately the weather was never favourable 
for a test. If the sun shone, the wind was in the wrong direction, and when the wind 
was N.W., there was no sunshine. Only on one day did I get a minute or two of weak 
sunshine while the wind was N.W., but on that occasion I got no evidence against the 
well. ‘The numbers were the same in the air coming to the well as in the air leaving 
it. The test, however, was too imperfect to put any reliance on, as by the time I got 
to a small distance to the lee side of the well, to get the air after the sun had time to 
act on it, the sun was under a cloud. I have also had some of the water bottled and 
brought here, where it was tested by placing some of it in the test-flask, and sunning 


SOME NUCLEI OF CLOUDY CONDENSATION. 295 


the air and gases over it, but obtained little indication of nuclei being formed. It 
should, however, be kept in view that it is quite possible the sun may produce the 
nuclei found at Kingairloch in some other way than from gaseous impurities in the 
atmosphere, and the phenomenon will require to be further investigated at that place. 

These experiments on the effect of sunshine on the gases in the atmosphere show 
that it is possible for cloudy condensation to take place in the absence of dust. That 
is, supposing there is any part of the upper air free from dust, it is possible, if any of the 
gases referred to be present, for the sun to convert them into nuclei of condensation, and 
permit of clouds forming in dustless air. In the lower atmosphere there always seems 
to be plenty of nuclei to form cloudy condensation whether the sun shines or not. The 
only case where almost no nuclei were detected in the air was at the Ben Nevis 
Observatory, where on one occasion, at least, Mr Rankin found the air nearly free from 
dust, whilst the top of the mountain was in cloud. All the nuclei there at the time 
seemed to have been used up to form fog particles, and the air was then in a peculiarly 
supersaturated condition. 

Though it is here shown that the impurities in the atmosphere when acted on by 
sunshine may permit of cloudy condensation taking place in the absence of what is 
commonly known as dust, we are not yet in a position to say that they do act in this 
way, because the impurities may not be in sufficient quantity to give a large enough 
number of nuclei to produce the cloudy form of condensation ; there may be only nuclei 
sufficient to produce the rainy form of condensation, 


IV.—The C Discrimmant as an Envelope. By James A. Macponatp, M.A., B.Sc. 


(Read 5th July 1897.) 


The purpose of this paper is to discuss the conditions under which the C dis- 
eriminant of a system of curves furnishes a curve which at every point of its length is 
touched by a curve of the system. 


Subsidiary Proposition. 


The following proposition will be used :— 
If A be the discriminant of 


U=Ac*"=-- Be’ Dew .... +-Ne’+Pe+-Q=0 (1) 


where A, B, etc., are finite, continuous, single valued, differentiable functions of « and y, 
the doubled root of U=0 is 
CN, Aa An A; = Ne (2) 

Now, if we give such values to A, B, etc., that one of the functions 4,.... A, 
vanishes in virtue of A=0, then it follows from (2) that all the functions except A, 
must vanish. If A, does not vanish, the doubled root is c=0. Hence P and Q must 
contain a factor in common with A, and this factor is the particular case of the system 
(1) obtained by putting c=0. 

If all the functions A, .... A, vanish, then since A,=2A,A, and A,=2A,A,, 
A,=0 and A,=0 all along this part of A=0, that is A=0 has a repeated factor. 

Similarly, if A,+0, A,=0, the rest of the functions must vanish ; the doubled root 
is ¢ = oo, and A and B have a factor in common with A, this factor being a particular 
case of system (1).* 


* The discriminant may always be written in either of the forms :— 


A=Ax+By (a) 
A=Py +Qx’ (0) 
where x, x’ are determinants whose first columns contain respectively only the coefficients A, B, D, and N, P, Q; and 
y, Y are determinants whose first columns contain respectively only A, B and P, Q. 
Differentiating (a) we obtain :— 
As=x+Axat Bia 
Ap=W+Axn+ Biz (c) 
Ap=Axp + By 
ete. 
It is evident from (a) that A=O always passes through the points common to A=0, B=O, and that if these co- 
efficients have a common factor a contains this factor. In this case (c) shows that Az, Ap, etc., vanish. 
If A, B, and D have a common factor, x also contains this factor, and the same factor is by (a) repeated in 4 ; 
(c) shows that in this case all the derived functions vanish. If one of the functions B, D vanish identically, it may 
be considered as divisible by the factors contained in A. 
ae propositions hold with respect to N, P, Q, and in fact all the results obtained above may also be obtained 
in this way. 


VOL, XXXIX. PART I, (NO. 4). F 


28 MR JAMES A. MACDONALD ON 


The system of curves 
Cu? — 2e(y — a) + (y — 2) 3? + 4xy + 2x7) =0 (3) 
has for discriminant A= (y’ — 2’) 


A. = —4D = — Aly — 2) (3y? + dary +202) 
A,=2B =—4(#—2*) 
A, = —4A = —42?. 


Along y=a A,=0 A,=0 A,+0, the corresponding value of c is zero, and the part 
y—«=0 of the discriminant is a part of D=0 and of B=0. 

Again, the system cy+c(2y+x)+3cx+2x=0 (4) has for its discriminant 
A = 3x(« — 4y)’, 

A,=0 

A,= —18a(« — 4y)? 

Ay = +18a(2—4y)? 

A,= — 6(2a+y)(@—4y). 

Along the branch («—4y)’=0 of the discriminant all the functions vanish, and as 
already indicated (w—4y)’ is a repeated factor. 

Since 4, =0 for every point of the plane of x y, it is suggested that, regarded as a 
function of « and y, the expression on the left-hand side of (4) contains a factor inde- 
pendent of « and y. In fact, the expression is identically equal to (e+ 2) (?y+cu+«). 

Along the branch «=0 of the discriminant all the functions except A, vanish ; 
the corresponding value of ¢ is zero, and this part of the discriminant is contained in 
D and in E. 

It should be noted that the ordinary rule for calculating the value of c¢ does not 
hold in the last mentioned case; it holds, however, when the new and correct dis- 
eriminant «(a = 4y) is calculated as well as the new values of A,, 4,, and A,. 


Nature of the Value of C for an Envelope. 


With regard to the value of c obtained, we have to remark that if it be indepen- 
dent of x and y in virtue of the relation between the variables along any branch of the 
discriminant, then that branch must be merely a particular case of the curves given by 
the c equation, and not an envelope. An envelope may be a particular case of the C 
equation; but the corresponding value of ¢ in this case must be a function of the 
variables, so that it changes its numerical value as we proceed from point to point of 
the discriminant. 

For example, the curves 


ey+ce+u=0 (5) 
and 
ce sin w#— 2ey+sinz=0 (6) 


have their discriminants respectively «(a —4y) and y’—sin*e. 


THE C DISCRIMINANT AS AN ENVELOPE. 29 


Both these when equated to zero give constant values for c, and therefore do not 
supply envelopes. 


Envelope and Particular Case of the ‘C’ Curves simultaneously. 
y 


The system (5) consists of straight lines passing through the origin, and two 
constant values of ¢ correspond to any one of these straight lines; but along «—4y=0 
these two values become equal, hence this locus is included in the discriminant. The 
curves given by the C equation might all touch each other at a fixed point, and in this 
case the discriminant if it corresponded to a constant value of ¢ would also touch each 
curve of the group; but it is plain that it is no more an envelope than the line 
x —4y=0 is an envelope of the group (5). 

On the other hand, the system y = c(#—c)’ (7) whose discriminant is 3y(4a* — 27y) 
gives for y=0, c=a. Now, y=0 is a particular case of the curves indicated by 
y=c(«%—c)’, viz., that given by c=0; but c=0 is not the corresponding value of c, 
and the curve y=0 is a true envelope. In fact we may regard the curve y=0 as made 
up of mfinitesrmally small pieces of each of the curves y=c(a—c) at their maximum 
or minimum points. 


Main Proposition. 


Let us now take the irreducible equation 


U=Ac’+Be'14+ De"? + .... +Pe+Q=0 (8) 
A, B, D, ete., being subject to the restrictions already stated 
Wie Ate Bete... +e2,+Q,. 


But 
o> NALA. JAS = ete, 
. (Ag =A,Ap , (As)?=(A, PA; ete, 


all the functions being assumed finite both ways. 
Hence 
De es AY 
ce es aera 


[Nr 
(Aa ) 
— a Pe A prs Oy 
(A.y _ + A,B,+ + AQ. § 


Similarly 


ON ) 
U,=—*x_— 4 Mee ont, so nO), 
4 CAS): p At A B + Q sf 


1.e. along A=0 


A)”. ( ie 


30 MR JAMES A. MACDONALD ON 


Therefore, assuming for the present that 4, and A, are both finite both ways, and 
that the corresponding value of ¢ is variable, we have the following conclusions :— 
U, and U, vanish or do not vanish according as A, and A, respectively vanish or 
do not vanish; and when A, and A, are not both zero, the curve 4=0 touches at every 
point of its length one of the curves U=0. If, however, A, and A, are zero in 
consequence of the relation A=0, both U, and U, vanish all along 4=0 (or part of it 
if it be a degenerate curve), that is A=0 is (provided c¢ be variable) a locus of multiple 
points on the system U=0. Now if 4,=0 A,=0 along a finite part of A=0, A 
must have a repeated factor. Hence, the occurrence of a repeated factor in the 
discriminant indicates, under the conditions already stated with respect to A,, A, and 
c, a locus of multiple points. 


Locus of Multiple Points not im general an Envelope. 


It is easy to show that in general the discriminant curve does not touch the U 
curves at their multiple points; for if (#, y) be a double point on U=0, we have 
(m, and m, being the values of the tangents of the angles which the tangent at this 
point makes with the « axis) 

M,+mM, = —2U,,/U,, 
mm= U,,/U, 
; m= —2f Chater Bayt +++ +) 
7. Mm, +M, 4 ( @A,,+o"B,, + eee 
A, A,, 
iz ee i 
DA, Ag 
SA bys eo 


The values for the discriminant are :— 


Mmm, = 


TAA +E(A Ae 


is 2 2 
LA,A,» a D(Aa)yAy c ) 


(2m=)m,/+m,'= —2 


and 
jel eae , Ree at ZA,A,. +2(A,).A, 13) 
(7? =)mn,/m, = SA Ar os ie (13) 
The condition that the discriminant may touch one or both branches of the C curve 
at the double point is easily found. In fact, if d*=0 be a repeated factor of the 
discriminant, the condition that d=0 touch one branch of U=0 at the double point is 


POE Opes Te = ao) 
Say oe Lye, 14 
U,. mg a 6, : 
and the condition that it touch both branches is 
Un\*_(é\*_U 
zy) _( Oz \ _ Va 15 
(u2) =<) =u as) 


the value of c in terms of # and y having been substituted in U,,, U,, and U,, after 
differentiation. The conditions (14) and (15) may of course be expressed in terms of 
the discriminant and its derived functions only. 


THE C DISCRIMINANT AS AN ENVELOPE. 31 


Practical Examination of the Curves U=0 and A=0. 


Given therefore a system of curves U =0 and the discriminant curve A= 0, we may 
draw the following conclusions :— 


(1) If the terms P and Q contain a common factor, (or if P=0) this factor is 
contained in the discriminant and is not an envelope but merely the particular case of 
the C system obtained by putting c=0. Similarly, if A and B contain a common factor, 
(or if B=0), the corresponding discriminant factor is not an envelope. ‘This factor 
may be either single or repeated. 


(2) The remaining factors of the discriminant are either (a) single or (b) repeated. 

(a) Taking the single factors, we must test whether the corresponding values of c 
are constant or functions of « and y. Whether this is more easily done by 
finding the value of 4,/A, (as in the case where the ¢ equation is of the 
second degree in c) or by direct substitution, depends on special circum- 
stances. If c be found to be constant the corresponding factor is not 
envelope; but if ¢ be variable, the curve is a true envelope and is touched 
at every point of its length by the C curves. 

(b) Taking the repeated factors we have to test whether they represent doubled (or 
in general n-pled) curves, at every point of which U,=0 U,=0 in virtue 
of U=0 or loci of multiple points.* 

The value of c¢ discriminates between these two cases. If it be constant, the 
locus is a particular case of the C curves. An example of this is supplied 
by the system 


c(a* + y?— 1)? + Cey(a? + y? — 1) — 3(a — 27? —1)=0 
which is discussed below. . 
If c be variable, the locus is a locus of multiple points, and in general is nothing 
more. 
The following systems of curves illustrate some interesting points. 
(1) (a? + y? + 2x) + 2cy + 2a =0 (a) 
A=y? — 2x(x? + y" +22) (0) 
A=0 has a node at the origin and an asymptote x = 4d. 
Every circle of the system (a) touches A=0 and passes through the origin, and 
two circles of the system (given by c= +1) touch A=0 at (0, 0) 
(2) Cv+edaty)+y=0 (4) 
eye 6) 


* Note also here that the vanishing of the first three or the last three coefficients, in virtue of their containing 
a common factor, leads to a repeated factor in the discriminant. This case has already been disposed of under (1). 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 4) G 


a2 THE C DISCRIMINANT AS AN ENVELOPE. 


(b) represents two equal hyperbole passing through the origin, with asymptotes 
x=+}=y. The curves (a) are a series of ellipses passing through the origin and 
touching both parts of A=0 there, as well as at one other point on each. 

(3) 0x" + 2e(y> — a) + (y —x)?(3y? + 4ay + 2x7) = 0 (a) 

A=(y’—2") (0) 
y+x=0 is a locus of multiple pomts (c=2x), y—x=0 is a particular case of the 
primitive given by ¢=0. 

(4) (a? +? — 1)? + 6ey(a? +4? — 1) — 3(a? — 2y°- 1) =0 () 

A=3(+y?—-1=0 (6) 

The points (y= 0, «= +1) are on all the curves (a) as well as on (0). 


All the curves touch at these points the discriminant which is a particular case of 
U=0(c=+0);y= z is a tangent to all the curves at two points. The curve given 


by c= —a is the image in the w-axis of the curve given by c= +a, and as ¢ increases 
to +o and decreases to — o the curves and their images gradually close together, 


and finally give the discriminant. 


V.—On the Fossil Flora of the Yorkshire Coal Field. (Second Paper.*) 
By Roperr Kinston, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (With Three Plates.) 


(Read 20th July 1896.) 


Among the specimens from the Yorkshire Coal Field which have been collected by 
Mr W. Hemineway, Barnsley, and submitted to me for examination at various times, are 
the remains of several cones which are referable to the genus Sigillariostrobus, Schimper. 

Notwithstanding the great frequency of the genus Sigillaria in the Coal Measures, 
and especially in the Middle Coal Measures, examples of their fructification are very rare. 
This is the more remarkable, as specimens of Sigillaria, showing cone scars, though not 
common, are occasionally met with. Possibly, however, the apparent rarity of Sigil- 
larian cones is due, in part, to our inability at present to distinguish them in all cases 
from cones generally placed under the name of Lepidostrobus, which latter genus there is 
every reason to believe comprises cones that belong to several genera of Lycopods. 

A Sigillarva occurs in the Upper Coal Measures of Somersetshire, which I have 
recorded under the name of Svg. tessellata (but which differs slightly from the typical 
form), that frequently shows verticils of cone-scars ; but I could never refer any of the 
many forms of Lepidostrobi, occurring in the same beds, to that or any other Sigillaria, 

It is quite possible that the cones | described as Lepidostrobus (?) spinosust and 
Lepidostrobus squarrosus{ may belong to Sigillaria, but on this point we cannot 
speak with any certainty. In the case of the two cones to be described in this paper, 
no doubt can remain as to their Sigillarian nature. 

Although the genus Sigillaria was founded by BRoncNtarr in 1822,§ nothing was 
known of the internal organisation of Sigidlaria till 1839, when the same distinguished 
author published his “ Observations sur la structure intérieure du Sigillaria elegans 
comparée a celle de Lepidodendron et des Stigmaria et a celle des véyétaux vivants.” || 

Previous to the publication of BRoNGNrART’s paper no data existed from which the 
affinities of the genus could be suggested, and owing to imperfect knowledge of the 
internal structure of fossil and at present living allied plants, some of the structure . 
displayed by the now classic specimen was misinterpreted, and from then till the 
present time, notwithstanding the description of undoubted Lycopodiaceous Sigillarian 
cones by ZEILLER,| some botanists are still very reluctant to give up their old ideas of 
the Cycadaceous affinities of Stgilaria, as originally suggested by BRoncntart, and still 
seem to hesitate to place Szgdlarva amongst the Lycopodiacez. 

* “On the Fossil Flora of the Yorkshire Coal Field” (first paper), Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxviii. part ii. No. 5, 
pp. 203-223, with three plates, 1896. 

+ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 342, pl. iv. figs. 13-14, 1893. 

} Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 341, pl. ii. fig. 7; pl. iii. figs. 11-12, 1893. 

§ “Sur la classification des végétaux foss.,” p. 9, Mem. Muséum @hist. nat., vol. viii. Paris. 

|| Archives du Museum, vol i. pp. 405-461, pls. xxv.—xxxv. (i.-xi.). 


I Zeer, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 6°. sér., “ Bot.,” vol. xix. p. 256, plates xi., xii, 1884; also in Flore foss. du Bassin 
Aouil. d. Valenciennes, p. 591, 1888. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 5). 4 


34 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


It may not be without service to review as shortly as possible the evidence on which 
these two opinions as to the affinities of Sigillaria have been founded. Other views 
which referred Segillaria to the Cactacee and Huphorbaceew need not be discussed, as 
they are utterly untenable. 

The small specimen of Sigillaria, whose internal organisation was described by 
BRONGNIART in 1839, under the name of Sigillaria elegans,* consisted of a small part of a 
young stem about 2 em. long and 4 cm. in diameter. 

The most of the delicate tissue lying between the central vascular bundle and the 
bark had disappeared, but the denser cortical portion and the vascular system were 
excellently preserved. The specimen therefore presented an outer cylinder of bark and 
an inner cylinder of vascular tissue, between which originally lay a delicate cellular 
tissue, of which only a few fragments were preserved. 

The outer cortical cylinder, constituting the bark, and on whose outer surface were 
the rhomboidal leaf-cushions, was composed of very fine and very dense fibro-cellular 
tissue. ‘The more important portion of the stem—the vascular system—formed a 
perfectly regular hollow cylinder, 13 to 14 mm. in diameter, but the cylinder itself is 
only about 1 mm. in thickness, and composed of a definite number of bundles, always 
perfectly equal and similar, and placed beside each other without almost any appreciable 
interval, but distinctly individualised by their round interior margins, which gave a 
“festoon” appearance to the inner boundary limit of the vascular system. Each of these 
bundles is formed of two distinct zones—the inner and primary bundles forming the 
“festoon” structure, the outer and much larger portion the exogenously developed zone. 

In transverse section the primary bundles have the form of a segment of a circle 
whose convexity points towards the centre of the stem, and are composed of vessels 
irregularly placed without any order, whose walls are transversely or obliquely barred 
or even reticulated. The larger vessels occupy the inner portion of the bundle, while 
the smaller elements are placed externally. 

The exogenous zone is composed of vessels disposed in radiating series, sometimes 
separated by a narrow interval, which was occupied by the medullary rays, though these 
were generally destroyed in the specimen. The vessels on the inner portion of the 
exogenous zone are smaller than those on its outer surface ; the smallest vessels of the 
secondary zone being in contact with the smaller vessels of the primary bundles, and 
these vessels of smaller size form by their contact, but without any confusion, a line of 
demarcation between the primary and the exogenously developed bundles. 

Outside of the exogenous zone, and situated close to it, are small isolated lenticular or 
circular bundles composed of uniform tissue, but smaller and disposed without any order. 
These are the foliar bundles. 


e 
* This specimen was named S. elegans by Bronantarr in error. The fossil is his Sig. Menard, Hist. d. végtt. foss., 
pl. elviii. fig. 6 (7 not fig. 5), which again is only a young condition of Sigillaria Brardiz, Bet., the type of the 
Ulathraria section of Sigillaria. See ZemiErR, Ann. d. Scienc. Nat., 6°. sér., “ Bot.,” vol. xix. p. 259, 1884; Wuiss, 
Nitz-Bericht d. Gesell. natur, Freunde. Berlin, No. 5, 1886, p. 70. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 3D 


Examining the structure of these various parts more in detail, the primary bundle is 
composed of very long tubular utricules, irregular in size, of which the smaller are 
external. These utricules or vessels,* disposed without order, differ among themselves, 
not only by their size but by their length. Their walls are marked by transverse bars 
or spiral strize, numerous and fine, but very variable, some vessels having one kind of 
marking, some the other, and occasionally the two forms of marking occur on the same 
vessel. In the vessels of smaller size the bars are generally more oblique, and form 
spirals. Rarely the thickenings form hexagonal areolations, but all these various forms 
of cell-thickening appear to occur on the same vessel. The smallest vessels are situated 
on the exterior surface, and contain spiral fibres. 

In the exogenous zone the bundles are composed of a uniform tissue, consisting of 
tubular radiating vessels disposed in regular parallel radiating series, which are some- 
times contiguous or separated by narrow medullary rays. ‘The vessels next the primary 
bundles are smallest, and increase in size as one proceeds outwards, and become almost as 
large as the large vessels of the primary bundles. ‘They are hexagonal in form, but 
irregular in section. Their walls are marked by transverse bars (scalariform), perfectly 
regular, and form a series on each face of the vessel on all sides. In tangential section 
the medullary rays are seen to be composed of plates of cellular tissue of little vertical 
height, generally of one series of cells, but occasionally the medullary rays are of more 
than one layer in thickness. 

The foliar bundles which spring from the outer surface of the primary zone are 
entirely composed of scalariform vessels, smaller than the external vessels of the 
secondary bundles, and do not show any regular arrangement. 

The cortical envelope is composed of two different layers, which are intimately 
connected, and pass almost insensibly into each other. The inner layer is 
formed of elongated prosenchymatous cells, very dense, terminated by oblique ex- 
tremities, and of which many contiguous cells have the same height, so that their 
terminations form zigzag lines. They are placed in regular uniform radiating series, the 
walls being without punctations. The outer layer is formed of parenchymatous 
tissue, more or less regular, the smooth cells being closely placed without lacune, and 
are not arranged in radiating series, nor are they parallel to the surface. In the most 
external zone the walls appear to be thickened, and form the surface of the leaf- 
cushion, 

After describing Sigillaria elegans, Anabathera pulcherrima, and Stigmarva ficoides, 
BRONGNIART says :—“‘ These fossil stems ally themselves then, on the one part to the 
Comferzx and Cycadacex, by the disposition and uniformity of their ligneous or vascular 
tissue, and on the other part to the vascular cryptogams by the constancy of the 
structure of the walls of the vessels.” + 


* These, like those in ferns and lycopods, are not true vessels. They communicate with each other by lateral 
openings, and are not continuous as in true vessels, but the septe: forming the individual cells or utricules remain 
intact. 

+ Bronentart, Observations sur la Structure inter du S. elegans, p. 426. 


3b MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


BRoNGNIART then proceeds to consider the structure of Leprdodendron Harcourti,* 
the only Lepidodendron whose internal organisation was then known. 

In Lepidodendron Harcourt the primary vascular bundle consists of a closed ring: 
of scalariform tissue, sharply defined on its inner side, where the larger-sized vessels are 
placed. On its outer surface the vessels become much smaller, and form a curious 
crenulate line caused by bay-like hollows with dividing projections. The elements 
composing the bundle are disposed without any definite order, and there are no 
medullary rays. The foliar bundles spring from the outer smaller vessels. 

From the structure exhibited by this species, BRoNGNIART came to the conclusion that 
Lepidodendron belonged to the vascular cryptogams, as the arrangement of the vessels 
was such as one constantly observes in Lycopods. In contra-distinction to this, he 
helieved that the disposition of the ligneous tissue (secondary xylem) of Srgilaria 
elegans, composed of radiating series of vessels, was a character foreign to all crypto- 
gams and characteristic of Dicotyledons, and for these and other reasons, which 
BronentarT fully gives, he believed the affinities of Sigillaria elegans were with the 
eymnosperms. To show, however, that his opinions were not free from doubt, he 
says :— But in the meantime it may be difficult to establish this in a positive manner, 
because there are numerous differences between this plant and the gymnosperms which 
we know,” and of these differences he gives a summary which need not be repeated 
here, but concludes with the following suggestive sentence :—‘“‘ All these circumstances 
lead to the conclusion that the Srgillaria and Stigmaria constitute a special and 
extinct family probably belonging to the great division of the Dicotyledonous gymno- 
sperms, but of whose fruit and leaves we are still ignorant,” and he further asks whether 
Stigmaria may not be the root of Sigillaria. 

The great point on which Bronenrart founded his conclusions that Lepidodendron 
was Lycopodiaceous, and Sigillaria gymnospermous, was the absence of a secondary 
xylem in the former and its presence in the latter, accompanied with medullary rays 
and a radial arrangement of the vascular elements. 

It is a curious circumstance that Lepidodendron Harcourti, the species examined 
by Bronentart while he was instituting his comparison between the internal structure of 
Sigillaria and Lepidodendron, is one of the very few Lepidodendra which has not yet 
yielded any specimens showing the development of the secondary xylem. In regard to 
the absence of secondary xylem in Lepidodendron Harcourtiu,t Professor WILLIAMSON 
remarks :—‘‘ No specimen of it has yet been found showing a trace of secondary xylem. 


* Wirnam, “On the Lepidodendron Harcourtii,” Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumb., Durham, and Newcastle, vol. 
ii., read March 1832. JIbid., “Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables found in the Carboniferous and Oolitic De- 
posits of Great Britain,” pp. 51 and 75, pl. xii. figs. 1-7, and pl. xiii., Edin., 1838. LinpLey and Hurron, Lepidoden- 
dron Harcourtii, Fossil Flora, vol. ii. p, 45, pls. xeviii. and xcix., 1833. 

+ Witiiamson, “On the Light Thrown upon the Question of the Growth and Development of the Carboniferous 
Arborescent Lycopods by a Study of the Details of their Organisation,” Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 
ith ser. vol. ix., session 1894-5, p. 47, 1895. See also Bronat., Hist. d. végét. foss., vol. ii. p. 37, pls. xx. and xxi,, 1837 ; 
Bertrand, “ Remarques sur le Lepidodendron Harcourtit de Witham,” Travaua et Mémoires des Facultés de Lille, vol. ii. 
Mémoir No. 6, pls. i-x. Lille, 1891. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 37 


It appears probable that in this respect the type resembles Z. Wunschianum, viz., that 
the exogenous zone, or secondary xylem, only made its appearance at an advanced age of 
growth, and that we have as yet obtained no specimen sufficiently advanced to have 
entered upon that stage.” | 

Since Bronentart wrote his memoir, little has been added to our knowledge of the 
internal organisation of Sigillaria, the only contribution being by MM. Renavrr and 
GranD ’Eury, “ Recherches sur les végétaux Silicifies d’Autun : Etude du Sigillaria 
spmulosa.”* This memoir contains some important anatomical discoveries. The 
primary vascular bundles form an inner circle, but do not touch each other laterally ; 
they are, however, in contact with the secondary xylem or “igneous cylinder,” which 
is slightly swollen at the point where they come in contact with it. The form of the 
primary bundles is exactly similar to the corresponding portion in Sigillara elegans. 
In transverse section the bundle is in the form of a crescent, of which the convexity 
formed by the larger vessels faces inwards, while the slightly concave part composed of 
smaller vessels faces the slight prominences of the secondary xylem. The large vessels 
are scalariform or reticulated, but as they approach the secondary xylem they become 
smaller, and assume the form of spiral vessels or false tracheids. These smaller vessels 
give rise to the foliar bundles. 

The secondary xylem consists of a cylinder of many regular radiating series of 
medium-sized vessels separated by medullary rays, but without any division into com- 
ponent bundles as in Sigillaria elegans. The vessels which compose this secondary 
xylem are elongate and barred on all surfaces (scalariform), as in Sigillaria elegans. 
These vessels are disposed in long radiating lines and separated by the slender medullary 
rays or by the foliar bundles. 

The Medullary rays, which are composed of one, or at most of two, rows of laterally 
placed smooth-walled muriform cells, have a considerable vertical height. 

The Bark, according to RENAULT, is composed of three layers: an inner and delicate 
cellular tissue which is usually destroyed; a middle, of coarse Dictyoxyloid structure, 
which he names the suberous layer. This suberous layer is formed of bands of elongated 
cells with smooth resistant walls, which anastomise longitudinally and transversely, 
and thus form a strong mesh-like structure, whose meshes are filled with more delicate 
prismatic cellular tissue. The suberous layer appears to be formed of several zones of 
this Dictyoxyloid tissue, which, under certain conditions of preservation, separate from 
each other. In comparison to the size of the vascular system, this middle zone of the 
bark bulks largely in the size of the stem. 

The third or outermost layer of the bark—the Hpiderm—is formed of polyhedric 
cells, which become elongate as they approach the cellular rays which fill the meshes of 
the suberous layer, and especially so where they join the mesh-bands. The epiderm 
forms a continuous layer extending over all the outer surface of the plant, and obscures 


* Mém. Presentes par divers savants a Vacad. d. Sciences, vol. xxii. Paris, 1875. Plates. See also note on p. 62 
of this communication, 


38 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


more or less the prominent projections of the suberous meshes. To these projections, 
not wholly obscured by the epiderm, are due the str7# on the cortical surface of the 
stem. It also extends over the leaf-scars, and blends with the cells which form the 
cushions. 

The foliar bundles, which spring from the outer surface of the primary bundles, at 
first rise up vertically in the parenchymatous inner layer of the bark, but at a certain 
height they bend outwards and penetrate the suberous layer, following the course of 
the cellular tissue which fills the meshes of the Dictyoxyloid tissue. 

The foliar bundles, at first circular, become enlarged and lunate in form as they 
approach the surface of the stem. The foliar bundle is always accompanied by two 
lunate lacunz parallel to its direction, of which their vertical section is an ellipse, 
limited by a cellular envelope. These two organs, of which it is difficult to ascertain 
their function, were each penetrated longitudinally by a tolerably large canal, of which 
it has been impossible to study the structure. Perhaps they originally contained some 
gummy substance. It is these lacunze which give rise to the lateral arcs that are seen, 
one on each side of the foliar bundles of the leaf-scar.* 

The authors of this memoir arrive at a conclusion very similar to that propounded 
by Bronentart, that “by the most essential characters the Sigillaria have the 
organisation of Dicotyledonous stems, and particularly of gymnosperms, and, above all, to 
the Cycadacex,’ an opinion they have since seen grounds to modify, though apparently 
not entirely to resign ; fur in a communication, “ Sur les fructification des sigillaires,” + 
after giving the description of a cone which ReNnAuLr refers to the Clathrarian section 
of Sigillaria, and in which he describes the occurrence of pollen sacs on the under 
surface of the basal portion of the bracts on each side of the medial nerve, he arrives at 
the conclusion that the Clathrarian and Leiodermarian Sigillaria are Phanerogamous 
gymnosperms allied to the Cyeads, and that the Sigillaria with ribbed stems are 
cryptogams. I am not aware that this interesting specimen has yet been figured, nor 

* Note.—In the earlier part of this paper (p. 34) I have remarked that the Sigillaria elegans, whose internal 
structure was described by BroNGNIART in 1839, was now recognised as his Sig. Menardi (in part), Hist. d. 
végét. foss., pl. clviii. fig. 6. This again is considered to be only a young condition of Sig. Brardi, Brongt., and 
to this last mentioned species the Sigillaria spinulosa, Germar, must be united as only representing a different, 
state or condition of growth. See Wxiss and Sterzex, Die Sigillarien der preussischen Steinkohlen-und Rothliegenden- 
Gebiete, II. “Die Gruppe der Sub-sigillarien,” Abhand der Konig Preuss, geol. Landesanstalt, Neue Folge, Heft. 
2, Berlin, 1893, p. 84 e seg. Kipston “On Sigillaria Brardii, Brongt., and its Variations,” Proc. Roy. Phys. 
Soc. Ldin., vol. xiii. p. 233, pl. vii., 1896. But there are great structural differences in the bark of the specimen 
described by Broneniarr and that described by Renautr and Granp ’Eury, differences which preclude the 
possibility of these two forms of cortez belonging to the same species. 

Two questions therefore arise :—(First) Are the specimens figured by Renautt and Granp ’Eury in their 
memoir on the internal structure of Sigillaria spinulosa, pl. i. figs. 2-8, really referable to that plant or one 
of the forms of Sig. Brardii? and (secondly) gvanted they do belong to this species, is it proved beyond doubt 
that the vascular axis described under the name of Sigillaria spinulosa really belongs to the bark found associated 
with it? From the crushed and broken condition of the axis and bark shown in their fig. 1, pl. i, the 
absolute proof that all these parts belong to the same stem appears to be wanting, and their relative position 
might be only accidental. These remarks are made from an examination of the figures and descriptions which 


accompany them only, as I have not had an opportunity of studying the original specimens. 
+ Comptes rendus, 7th Dec. 1885. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 39 


have I had the pleasure of examining it, but as there is absolutely no evidence adduced 
to show that the fructification under discussion belongs to Srgillaria, I cannot accept 
the deductions drawn from it as throwing any light upon the affinities of that genus,* 
especially when cones undoubtedly belonging to Sigillaria, which have been described 
by ZEILLER, and other specimens possessed by myself presently to be described, have an 
entirely different structure. 

Mons. Granp ’Evury, in the introduction to his Géologie et Paléontologie du Bassin 
Howller du Gard,+t after reviewing the evidence for and against the cryptogamic 
position of Srgalaria, places them among the vascular cryptogams ; but this opinion is 
scarcely upheld in the body of the work, for we find under Sigillariostrobus fastigiatus { 
the following remark :—“‘ For me, in any case, there is not a doubt that the celebrated 
silicified Sigillaria elegans from Autun, which is the Sigellaria Brardu with the 
structure of a Dicotyledonous gymnosperm, has not been reproduced by spores.” 

To sum up, it is seen then that those authors who regard Sigillaria, in whole or in 
part, as Cycadaceous, and Lepidodendron as Lycopodiaceous, base their opinions largely, 
if not entirely, on the presence of an exogenous zone in Sigillaria, and the absence of 
such a zone in Lepidodendron. 

Within the last few years much has been done to elucidate the structure of Lepidoden- 
dron, especially by the late Professor W1LL1AMson, who, from the rich material from the 
beds containing plant structure in Yorkshire and Lancashire, in England, from Pettyeur 
and the Island of Arran, in Scotland, has described in detail the internal structure of 
many species of Lepidodendron, in which he has proved beyond all doubt the presence 
in this genus also of a secondary exogenously developed zone of vascular tissue. This 
exogenous zone does not appear in all species at the same relative age ; in some it occurs 
in comparatively small branches, as in Lepidodendron selaginoides, Carr. (? Sternb.), 
while in others, like Lepidodendron Wunschianum, from Laggan Bay, Arran, it only 
appears in advanced age. Lepidodendron Wunschianum may therefore be taken as 
serving to point out the general structure of Lepidodendron when compared with that 
of Srgillaria, especially as its anatomy, from very young twigs to old stems, is known. 

In the earliest condition the vascular cylinder of Lepidodendron Wunschianum 
consists of a solid circular bundle devoid of any medulla. As growth proceeds a small 
medulla appears in the centre of the vascular bundle, and as the medulla increases in 
size, the vascular bundle is carried outwards, and eventually, when all increase of the 
medulla has ceased, the primary vascular bundle appears as a zone of considerable size, 
composed of scalariform tissue of tolerably equal diameter, the transverse bars of which 
are again connected with fine transverse lines. 


* See also in regard to the affinities of Sigillaria :—Runavut, Cours d. botan. foss. Premitre Année, 1881, pp. 125, 
151. Renautr, “Structure comparée de quelques tiges de la flore carbonifére,” Nouvelles Archives du Muséum de 
Paris, 2°. sér., vol. ii. p. 213, 1879. Dawson, “On New Plants from the Erian and Carboniferous, and on the 
Characters and Affinities of Paleozoic Gymnosperms,” Peter Redpath Museum, M‘Gill University, Montreal— 
Notes on Specimens, 1890, Canadian Record of Science, January 1890, p. 19 et seq. 

t St Etienne, 1890, pp. 196-197. + Granp ‘Evry, loc. cit., p. 258. 


40 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


Professor WILLIAMSON concludes that the addition to the primary vascular bundle 
(which is not separated into distinct lateral bundles) must have arisen through a 
conversion into vessels of the cells of the central or medullary parenchyma by a centri- 
petal process of development.* 

Outside of this primary bundle we have the exogenously developed centrifugal 
xylem, composed of small scalariform tissue, radially disposed, between which run the 
medullary rays. In the specimen figured by WiLL1amson,* of which the above is a short 
description, the primary xylem forms a circular band, 4°5 mm. thick, while the secondary 
xylem is 20 mm. thick. 

The cortex consists of several layers; the innermost is composed of small-celled 
parenchyma. Outside of this is a broad zone of very uniform parenchyma, composed of 
small cells passing externally into another zone of uniform tissue, but composed of cells 
with thicker walls and of larger size. This is enclosed in the usual zone of prosen- 
chyma, which in the arborescent stems attained to a considerable thickness from 
increase by age.t 

The leaf bundles in Lepidodendron Wunschianum offer no peculiarity. They 
spring from the outer surface of the primary bundle, and pass out in an upward course 
to the leaves. 

It is therefore clearly proved. that Lepidodendron possessed an exogenous growth 
quite similar to Szgzllaria, and especially like that described in Stgillaria spinulosa, 
where the secondary xylem is not separable into component bundles, as in the Sigillarva 
elegans described by BRonGNraART. 

A further difference has been presumed to exist between the primary bundles of 
Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, as illustrated by Broneniart, RENAULT, and GRAND 
‘Evry, in that the primary bundle in Lepidodendron forms a continuous closed ring, 
while in Sigillavva it is formed of a number of separate bundles arranged in a circle; but 
in the figure of Sigillaria spinulosa, given by Souns-Lavusacn,§ taken from a specimen 
presented to the late Professor W1LLIamson by M. Renav_t, at one part of the primary 
bundle circle, these bundles are shown to be united, and form part of a ring quite 
similar to that seen in Lepidodendron Harcourtu or Lepidodendron Wunschianum. 
As illustrating this point more fully, I figure here the central portion of a transverse 
section of another specimen of Sigillarva spinulosa,—for which I am also much indebted 
to Mons. Rrnavuir,—that shows still more clearly that the isolated primary bundles have 
evidently been separated from what appears to have been originally a closed vascular ring. 


* “On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures,” part x. p. 497, Phil. Trans., part ii., 1880. 

+ Loc. cit., Mem. x., pl. xiv. fig. 6. 

t Wixitamson, “General Morphological and Histological Index to the Author’s Collective Memoirs on the Fossil 
Plants of the Coal Measures,” part ii. p. 16, Mem. and Proc. M’ter. Liter. and Phil. Soc., session 1892-93, 1893. Note. 
—If the Halonial branch referred here to Lepidodendron Wunschianwm belongs to this species, then the plant is a 
Lepidophloios. This does not, however, in the slightest alter the position of the question under discussion as to the 
oceurrence of an exogenous zone in Lepidodendron, as it is present in Lepidodendron selaginoides and other species. 

$ Fossil Botany, English edit., p. 253, fig. 29, 1891. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 41 


One is led, therefore, to believe that the primary vascular bundle in Sigillaria was 
a closed vascular ring quite similar to that found in Lepidodendron; but that in 
Sigillaria, by the increase in the size of the pith core (which we know in Lepidodendron 
increased in size up to a certain period), the original closed bundle became broken up 
and carried outwards by the increasing volume of the pith, instead of persisting as a 
closed ring, as in Lepidodendron. 

That the presence or absence of a secondary xylem is no proof of a Cycadaceous 
affinity is abundantly shown in the case of Lepidodendron, which possesses a secondary 


Sigillaria spinulosa. 


A, Primary vascular zone x 8; B, part marked a@ in fig. A, showing isolated bundles x 17; C, part marked 
b in fig. A, showing union of primary bundles x 17 and formation of the Lepidodendron type of primary 
xylem. This is further seen at @ in fig, A. 


xylem, and whose fruit is in the form of cones, bearing macro- and microspores. But 
this phenomenon of exogenously developed xylem is not entirely unknown amongst recent 
Cryptogams, for ‘a secondary thickening, starting from a cambial layer, which pro- 
duces secondary wood and secondary cortex, is found (only) in the Jsoetes.* 


* A. DE Bary, Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of the Phanerogams and Ferns, English edit., 
p. 628, 1884. 

Note.—On the structure of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron the following additional works may be consulted :— 
GRAF zU Soums-LavuBacu, Fossil Botany, being an Introduction to Paleophylology from the Standpoint of the aa 
English translation, Oxford, 1891. Sir Wa. Dawson, “On the Conditions of the Deposition of Coal, more especially 
Illustrated by the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick,” Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., May 1866, vol. xxii. 
p- 95. Ibid., Geological History of Plants, New York, 1888. Ibid., Acadian Geology, 2nd edit., London, 1868. Sir W. 
Hooker, “On the Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period, as Compared with that of the Present Day,’ Mem. Geol, 
Survey of Great Britain, vol. ii. part ii. p. 387, 1848. Brnney, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1862, vol. xviii. p. 106. brd., 
Pll. Trans., vol. cly. pp. 579 and 591, 1865. Thid., Paleont. Soc., vol. xxix. pp. 97 and 147, 1875. P. van TrecHEM, “Sur 
quelques points de ’anatomie des cryptogames vasculaires,” Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, vol. xxx. p. 169, 1883. Ibid, 
Tronté de Botanique, 1884, Wuitttamson, Memoirs, ‘On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures,” 
in Phil. Transactions, No. ii. 1872 ; No. iii., 1872 ; No. ix., 1878 ; No. x., 1880; No. xi., 1881 ; No. xii., 1881; No. 
xvi., 1889. Ibid., ‘General, Morphological, and Histological Index to the Author’s Collective Memoirs on the Fossil 
Plants of the Coal Measures,” part ii., Mem. and Proc. M’ter. Liter. and Phil. Soc., vol. vii., series 4, session 1892-93, 
1893. Ibid., “On the Light thrown upon the Question of Growth and Development of the Carboniferous Arbores- 
cent Lepidodendra by a Study of the Details of their Organisation,” Mem. and Proc, M’ter. Liter. and Phil. Soc., 
session 1894-95, series 4, vol. ix., 1895. 


VOL, XXXIxX, PAB TE (No 5). I 


42 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


FRUCTIFICATION. 


GOLDENBERG was the first to refer to Sigillaria, as its fructifications contain cones 
which he found associated with their stems. These he described in his “ Flora 
Sareepontana Fossilis” in Heft. i. (1855) and Heft. ii. (1857). The cone he figures on 
pl. x. fig. 1 he thought might belong to Sigillaria tessellata, and that on pl. x. fig. 2 
to Sigillaria intermedia; and for these fructifications ScHimPER founded the genus 
Sigillariostrobus.* Some other portions of Sigillarian cones are shown by GOLDENBERG 
on his pl. B figs. 18-25, and pl. iv. fig. 3 (p. 1, Heft. i1.). 

The specimens figured by GOLDENBERG consisted of fragments: that given on pl. B 
fiz. 18 exhibits a portion of a cone, some of the bracts of which have been removed, 
causing the thick axis to be seen. Figs. 19-25 show the more minute details of the 
structure of the bracts, but one cannot learn from them any accurate knowledge as to 
the structure or position of the sporangia. 

The figure on pl. iv. fig. 3 shows the basal part of a cone with a portion of its sup- 
porting pedicel. Remains of two grass-like leaves lie on each side of the specimen, and 
are probably the remains of the foliage of the parent plant. 

The specimens given on pl. x. figs. 1-2 show the upper portions of the cones. 
Enlarged drawings of the lanceolate bracts, with their rhomboidal expanded base, on 
which the spores are seen, are added. When these cones were referred to the Sigillarix 
the only ground for the assumption was their association with Sigillarian stems—quite 
insufficient data for such important conclusions; and for thirty years their systematic 
position remained uncertain, till, in 1884, Mons. ZEILLER announced the discovery of 
specimens agreeing with the cones referred to Srgillamia by GOLDENBERG, on the 
pedicel. of one of which the Sigillarian leaf-scars were seen. 

This discovery confirmed the conclusions arrived at by GOLDENBERG as to his cones 
being the fructification of Sigillaria.t 

In 1884 ZEILLER gave a preliminary description of these interesting specimens, in 
which he says :—‘‘ It is impossible to discover any trace of a sporangium in which the 
macrospores were contained; the position which they occupy, grouped most frequently 
at the base of each bract, only permit it to be supposed, with considerable probability, 
that they had been inclosed in the fold which is present in the wedge-shaped basal 
portion of the bract, and covered by a tissue, from whose destruction they had been set 
free, similar to what occurs to-day in Jsoetes. The affinity indicated by GoLpENBERG 
(that the Sigillaria were an arborescent form of Jsoetes{) appears to me, then, well 
founded.” § 

* Traité d. paléont. véyét., vol. ii, p. 105, pl. Ixvii. figs. 12-24, 1870. 

+ FrisrMaNTEL, in 1876, under the name of Szgillariostrobus Goldenberyi, appears to include all the Sigillarian 
cones described by GoLpENBERG, but the accuracy of this course is open to serious doubt. Vers. d. bohmischen 
Kohlen-Ablager, iii. Abth. p. 31, Cassel, 1876. 


GoLDENBERG, Flora Sarwpont. foss., Heft. i, p. 25. 
Comptes rendus, 30th June 1884. 


CO ++ 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 45 


All the spores which M. ZeILLER observed were macrospores ; but, as he points out, 
even had microspores been present in the specimens he examined, their mode of preserva- 
tion was such that, from the minute size of microspores, it would have been impossible 
to observe them. 

In a subsequent communication ZEILLER describes and figures in detail his Sigillarian 
cones from the coal field of Nord and Pas-de-Calais.* 

Of the various cones he describes and figures, the most interesting is Sigillariostrobus 
Treghemi, Zeiller,t for the pedicel of this specimen shows the true Srgillaria leaf-scar. 
The determination of the Sigillarian affinity of this specimen carries with it all the 
other examples he describes, as well as those formerly described by GOLDENBERG. 

Two figures of Sigillariostrobus Tieghema are given, both, of which show the basal 
portion of the cone borne on a stout leafy peduncle, which increases in width as it 
approaches the base of the cone. On the lower part of the peduncle of fig. 1 pl. 
xi. the acicular leaves have been removed, showing the stem to be flexuously ribbed 
and transversely barred beneath the characteristic Sigillarian leaf-scar. Hach leaf is 
provided with a medial nerve, contained between two very close and parallel longi- 
tudinal folds, whose origin is marked by a prominent point, corresponding to the two 
lateral cicatricules which lie one on each side of the vascular cicatricule. This cone may 
possibly be referable to Sigillaria polyploca, Boulay, but certainly in this identifica- 
tion is wanting. 

At the summit of the peduncle the leaves assume the form of bracts. They are 
inserted obliquely on the axis, single nerved, oval lanceolate, acute at the point, and 
suddenly contracted at the base. Between the bracts, and still in position, one can see 
the macrospores sometimes in great numbers, about 2 mm. in diameter, perfectly 
smooth, but marked by a triradiate ridge, the arms of which are connected by a semi- 
circular line. The macrospores are disseminated without order. ‘‘ One cannot see any 
trace of an envelope on the bracts, but on some of them can be discovered above the line 
which separates the limb from the claw a slight arched line, which might well correspond 
to the attachment of a membrane which originally covered the bodies in question.” + 
M. ZEILLER also points out that these “bodies” much resemble the macrospores of 
Isoetes. That these “bodies” are macrospores seems to be clear beyond all doubt. 
Structurally they are identical with the macrospores of the cones of Lepidodendron. 

In all the cones ZEILLER examined, he only found these large spores. ScHIMPER thought 
he saw sufficient difference in the size of the spores figured by GoLDENBERG to treat 
them as macrospores and microspores,§ though he was not certain of this interpretation. 
He gives as the size of his macrospores 1°5 to 2 mm., and the microspores as 1 mm., in 


* “Cones de Fructification de Sigillaires,” Ann. d. Science. Nat., 6°. sér., “Bot.,” vol. xix. pp. 256-280, pls. xi-xii,, 
1884. See also Zm1uLER, Flore foss. Bassin howil. d. Valenciennes, pp. 591-608, pls. Ixxxix.—xc., 1886 and 1888, 

t Ann. d. Sc., loc. cit., pl. xi. figs. 1, 1a, 4, 4a, 4b. 

+ Loc. ctt., pp. 264-265. 

§ ScHImPER, Traité d. paléont. veget., p. 105. 


44 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


diameter; but, as far as I am aware, these measurements are not derived from 
GOLDENBERG’S original specimens, but from his figures, which one can scarcely regard 
as a reliable source for such minute measurements. 

Although microspores have not yet been observed in the cones of Sigillaria, it does 
not follow that they are zsosporous ; for the minute size of microspores, either in recent 
or fossil Lycopods, would make their detection with certainty very difficult in the only 
state of preservation in which the Sigillarian cones are known to us. 

ZEILLER further suggests that perhaps certain cones bore macrospores, others micro- 
spores, which may account for the absence of spores between the bracts of his Sigillaria 
nobilis.* This condition in the case of Sigillariostrobus nobilis may be equally 
explained, and I think more probably, by the state of maturity at which the cone had 
arrived before mineralisation took place: the spores might have been shed at maturity 
or been imperfectly developed. Several of my specimens show no indications of macro- 
spores. This, of course, is only a suggestion, but it is equally valid to supposing the 
cone contained only microspores. From certain appearances presented by a small 
fragment of a Sigillarian cone from the Kilmarnock Coal Field, I am inclined to think 
that the cones of Sigillaria were heterosporous, though I cannot speak definitely on 
this point, but on a subsequent page I give the evidence on which I have formed this 
opinion. 

Mons. ZeILLER refigures and describes the specimens to which reference has already 
been made in his complete work on the Carboniferous Flora of the Valenciennes Coal 
Field,t and adds there the figure and description of another species, the Sigillamostro- 
bus Crépina.t 

In this the bracts are arranged on the axis in a gentle spiral, or are verticillate. This 
character does not yet appear to be clearly determined. In form the bracts are elongate 
rhomboidal, and divided into a limb and claw. The claw portion of the bract bends 
downwards, but the limb is directed upwards ; thus a knee-like angle is formed where 
the limb and the claw of the bract merge together. The margins of the bract are bent 
up on each side of the medial nerve, and form a sort of sack or spoon-like structure ; 
this is sometimes empty, but is occasionally occupied by an ovoid body. Mons. ZErLLEr 
suggests that these ovoid bodies may be microspore sporangia. They are too large to be 
macrospores, and had they been sporangia containing such, the probability is that some 
of the remains of the macrospores would have been preserved. These “ovoid bodies” 
are further said to be more or less enveloped by the bract which bears them ; frequently 
only their edge can be seen, and their margins are often imperfect on account of portions 


of the structure, which appears to have been very delicate, having adhered to or been 
unbedded in the matrix. 


* Loc, cit., p. 267, pl. xii. figs, 1, 2, 2a. 

+ Etudes des Gites Mineraux de la France, Bassin howiller de Valenciennes. Flore fossile du Bassin houiller de Valen- 
ciennes, Paris, plates i.—xciv., 1886, text, 1888. 

} Lbid., p. 605, pl. Ixxvii. figs. 2-3. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 45 


From the structures here described, the spoon-like form of the bract, and the mode of 
attachment of the “ovoid body,’ which appears from the enlarged figures to be 
attached to the “knee” of the bract, I am afraid this cone cannot be placed in the 
genus Sigillariostrobus ; and especially, in the light of the specimen given on my 
pl. ii. fig. 3, ZETLLER’s cone, if my interpretation of it is correct, would require a new 
genus to be created for its reception. 

One frequently finds on stems of certain Sigillarie curious scars, occasionally placed 
in the hollow between the ribs, sometimes on the ribs and in the clathrate forms, inserted 
between the leaf-cushions. These scars form a girdle round the stem, often of little 
width, but occasionally of greater vertical extent. These are the scars left by the fallen 
cones. In the majority of cases the cones appear to have been pedicellate ;* but in some 
members of the Clathrarian section, as on Sigillaria (Ulodendron) discophora, and 
Sigillaria (Ulodendron) Taylori, the cones were sessile, and from the pressure of the 
base of the cone on the bark, a cup-like depression was formed, which, after the cone 
had fallen, increased in size with the increase of girth of the stem, in the same way that 
we see our initials cut in the bark of a tree enlarge with the growth of the trunk. 

The mode of arrangement and disposition of these cone-scars on the stems of 
Sigillane afford important specific distinctions. Some have supposed these scars were 
due to adventitious roots, but RenAuLT has shown that small branchlets, bearing leaf 
cicatrices, were attached to such scars on a specimen he describes from the Comentry 
Coal Field,t so therefore the aerial-root hypothesis must be entirely abandoned. 
When we add to this the discovery of pedicellate Sigillarian cones, the dimensions of 
whose stems agree with that of the scars in question, the chain of evidence in favour of 
these curious scars frequently found on the stems of Sigillaria, being the scars left by 
the fall of deciduous pedicellate cones, seems complete. 

Some other writers than those already referred to have figured cones which they 
believed to be those of Sigillaria. Of some of these, with only the figures and descrip- 
tions to guide one in forming an opinion of their systematic position, there must rest 
considerable doubt as to the accuracy of placing them in Sigillariostrobus. 

-- Mr Binney gives a woodcut of a fossil which he regards as the fructification of 
Sigillaria,t but neither his description nor figure show any evidence that his fossil had 
any connection with Sigillaria, much less that it was a cone. 

In the Verstenerungen der bohmischen Kohlen-Ablagerungen, part iil. pp. 32-33, 
1876, FeistMaNTEL describes two species of Sigillariostrobus—S. Cordai, pl. xi. fig. 4, 
and S. Feistmanteli, pl. xi. figs. 1-3. These cones, from the fragments figured, must 
have been of very large size, much larger than any we can definitely refer to this genus. 
In no case is the complete bract shown, only the basal expanded portion. One has 
considerable difficulty in accepting ng, without great reservation, the systematic position 

* See also Coens Gs On Sataren Brardu, Brongt., and its Variations,” Proc. Roy. Bae Soc., vol. xiii. p, 233. 


+ Flore foss. Bassin houtl. d. Comentry, pp. 540-541. 
+ Phil. Trans., 1865, p. 595, fig. 6. 


46 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


assigned by FEISrMANTEL to these fossils. 1 cannot think that the specimens figured 
as Sigillariostrobus Feistmanteli (loc. cit., pl. xi. figs. 1-2) are specifically identical with 
that given by GoLDENBERG (Lora Surep. foss.) on his pl. B figs. 18-25. 

Granpb ’Eury gives the restoration of a cone that he names Srgellariostrobus rugosus,* 
and which he believes is referable to Sigillaria lepidodendrifolia, Brongt. One would 
like, however, to be in possession of the original data from which-the figure is produced. 
According to Mons. ZEILLER, the specimen from which the restoration was made is very 
incomplete, and badly preserved in the upper portion.t The Sigillariostrobus mirandus, 
Grand ’Eury,{ of which the figure also appears to be a restoration, seems to be of even 
more doubtful Sigillarian affinity. 

The stem of Sigillaria seems to have very rarely branched, and never to have pro- 
duced the much dichotomised ramification so characteristic of the Lepidodendra. In 
some cases the Sigzllarvan stem appears to have been a narrow conical trunk, as shown 
in GOLDENBERG’S§ and other figures.|| GOLDENBERG’s stem was over 18 feet in height, 
and must, therefore, have attained considerable age. We can easily imagine on such a 
specimen the foliage would be confined to the upper portion, it having fallen from the 
lower and older part of the tree. That the leaves were articulated, and shed after a 
shorter or longer interval, is, I think, indicated by the clearly defined leaf-scar they 
leave behind them. If the leaves were articulated, as I believe they were, this may 
account for the rarity of specimens being found with their foliage attached. 

All Sigillame had not, however, these thick, short, cactus-like stems, for GOLDENBERG 
figures portions of two other stems which show little or no diminution in their girth in 
the parts which have been preserved.) In the Museum, Newcastle-on-Tyne, there are 
two very good decorticated stems of this type, and another in a similar condition in the 
Sunderland Museum. 

The Sunderland Museum specimen is specially interesting, as it shows most beautifully 
how the ribs increase in number as the stem advances in age. The portion of the trunk 
which is preserved is about 6 feet 6 inches high. It is slightly “ bottle-shaped ” at the 
base, where it measures about 5 feet in circumference. In this part of the stem 
there are 29 broad ribs. About one-third up the stem many of these wide ribs bifur-. 
cate, and when about two-thirds from the top, there are 40 ribs, with a circumference of 
stem of about 3 feet. All these additional ribs have not, however, arisen by a division 
of the primary basal ribs, for about two-thirds from the base new ribs with narrow, 
pointed extremities** are inserted between the older ones ; thus about 6 inches below the 
broken-over extremity there are 45 ribs, though the stem is considerably smaller in 


* Flore Carb. du Depart. de la Loire et du centre de la France, p. 160, pl. xiv. fig. 4, 1877. 

+ Ann. d. Sc. Nat., 6°. sér., “ Bot.,” vol. xix. p. 257. 

+ Loc. cit., p. 160, pl. xiv. fig. 5. 

§ Loc, cit., pl. B fig. 13. 

|| Granp ’Eury, Geol. and Paléont. du Bassin howil. du Gard, 1890, pl. xiii. figs. 7, 8, 9, 10. 

Loc, cit., pl. x. fig. 6. 

** See ZuiLtEr, Flore foss. Bassin houwil. d. Valenciennes, pl. \xxviii, fig. 3 (Sig. levigata). Ibid., pl. 1xxxv. fig. 1 
(S, tessellata). 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 47 
It is seen, then, that the number of leaves borne is not 


circumference than at the base. 
A transverse section of such a specimen 


proportional to the size of the stem in girth. 
(presuming the internal organisation was preserved) would show at the base a much 
less number of leaf traces than a section made immediately below the broken-over 


summit, and a few feet above its base. 
In the upper portion of the trunk, five curious furrow-like grooves appear, and, deepen- 
ing, give to the broken-over extremity of the tree the appearance as if it were about to 


divide into five branches. These grooves may be due to shrinkage, but they seem to be 


— 


= 
= 


— &S ri Ue, 
About J fl. 


M4 

HE 

aw 

He clreumference 
H 

“| 

yy 

W 

Ee 

4 

ig 40° ribs. 
HY] 

ta 

Wa 


w\ 


SU IUNT 


SS 


ee 
SS 


SSRSs 
Ss 


SSN 


SSN 


ees 


SUESEN 
OM IS - 


z 


= 5o== 


a 
SS 


SS 


29 ribs. 
About § fe. 
ce Mumfercnee. 


Sow 
SSS 
SN 


it 


‘= 
CAs 


aL =aSek 


— 


Ribbed Stem of Stgillaria Hevgh¥ about bf & iz 
Sunderland Huseum 


too regular for that. I am not aware, however, that a dichotomising specimen of the 
ribbed Sigillarie (Rhytidolepis section) has ever been discovered, though we know that 
the Favularia section occasionally, though apparently very rarely, produced dichotomised 
branches. Srur figures such an example.* Mr Grorcr WILD, Bardsley, has also shown 
me a very fine example of a dichotomously branched stem of Sigillarza tessellata from 
the Diamond Shaft, Bardsley Colliery, Lancashire. It was found in a bed of shale, about 
50 feet below the New Mine (Middle Coal Measures).t 


* Die Culm Flora, Heft. ii. pl. xxv. figs. 2-3 (Sigillaria Eugenit, Stur). 
+ Wip, “On Section of Shaft sunk through the Middle Coal Measures at Bardsley Colliery, and an interesting 
Discovery of Calamites,” Manchester Geol. Soc., Feb. 2, 1886. 


48 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


As already mentioned, it is very rarely that one finds specimens of Sigillarix# with 
the leaves still attached. I only possess two with the foliage connecting with the 
stem. One, the Sigillaria (Ulodendron) discophora, Konig, sp., where the leaves are 
lanceolate, single nerved, about 1} inch long and 4} inch wide; the other, Sigillarva 
camptotenia, Wood, sp., where the foliage is of the long grass-like type, about $ inch wide ; 
but they are so broken on my example that their full length cannot be determined, but 
they must have been of considerable length. From the descriptions and figures of 
several writers, this appears to have been the prevailing type of leaf among the Sigqillarie, 
and is, in fact, the Cyperites bicarinata, L. and H.,* though the description by these 
authors seems to be erroneous, in so far as they ascribe to the leaf two sub-lateral 
veins. 

Though Sigillaria occurs in the Permian Formation, it is essentially a Carboniferous 
genus, and even here it is rare, except in the Upper Carboniferous. From the Lower 
Carboniferous of Britain | only know of two species,—the Szgillaria (Ulodendron) 
Taylori, Carr, and the Sigillaria Youngiana, Kidston.t ‘The former belongs to the 
Clathrarian section, and occurs in both the divisions of the Lower Carboniferous ; and 
the latter, belonging to the Rhytidolepis section, is only known by a single specimen, 
which was discovered in the Carboniferous Limestone Series of Scotland by Dr Joun 
Youne of the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, and is the only example of a ribbed Sigillaria 
I have seen from Lower Carboniferous rocks. In the Middle Coal Measures the 
Sigillamz, especially the ribbed forms, appear to attain their maximum period of 
development in Britain. 

A prevalent idea seems to have taken possession of many geologists that every trunk 
found in Carboniferous rocks belongs to Sigillaria, and several trunks occurring in the 
Lower Carboniferous have been publicly announced as such ; but in no case have any of 
these stems, so far as I have been able to trace, ever shown any characters, either on 
their outer surface or impressed upon the surrounding matrix, in support of this popular 
but erroneous belief. On the other hand I have in two cases been able to prove 
conclusively that certain large stems which occurred in the Calciferous Sandstone Series 
belonged to Lepidodendron Veltheimianum, Sternb. I possess a specimen which was 
sent to me as one of these so-called Sigillaria, but in receiving portion of the enveloping 
rock the leaf-scars of Lepidodendron Velthevmianum were clearly impressed upon it.* 
Between this impression and the ribbed core a layer of coaly matter was inserted. In 
certain Lepidodendra the bark of old stems splits into longitudinal clefts by the increase 
of the stem in girth, and it is the casts of such fossils which give rise to these so-called 
Sigilaria. Sir Witu1aM Dawson called attention to these old irregularly ribbed stems 
of Lepidodendron in his “ Report on the Fossil Land Plants of the Lower Car- 
boniferous and Millstone Grit Formations of Canada,” in 1873, when he pointed out 

* Fossil Flora, vol, i. pl. xliii, figs. 1-2. 

+ Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. xii. p. 261, pl. vi. figs. 2, 2a, 1894. 


{ From the left bank of the Water of Leith, a little above Spylaw House, Colinton, Midlothian, Reg. Nos. 67 
and 68. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 49 


how these longitudinally furrowed stems simulate the ribbed character of Sigillaria.* A 
similar warning has been given by the late Professor WiLLIAMsont+ in regard to the 
Arran stems, of which some published accounts refer them to the Sigillarie, although 
all the evidence in the case is diametrically opposed to such a supposition. 


DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS. 
Sigillariostrobus, Schimper. 


1870. Sigillariostrobus, Schimper. Traité d. paléont végét., vol. ii. p. 105. 
1888. Sigillariostrobus, Zeiller. Flore foss. Bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 391. 


Description.—Cones borne on deciduous peduncles, with few leaves or the leaves 
reduced to bract-like structures, cylindrical, composed of a ligneous axis bearing spirally 
arranged sporiferous bracts. Bracts rhomboidal, acute, or long-lanceolate, acute with 
an expanded rhomboidal base, caducous. Macrospores contained in the hollow inflated 
base of the bract, 0°75 mm. to 2°00 mm. in diameter, smooth, or the surface apiculate ; 
under surface marked by three ridges radiating from a central point (microspores 
probably present, but their existence not yet definitely proved). 

Whether the cones of Szgillarza bore microspores as well as macrospores is at 
present not conclusively settled, and in an earlier part of this paper reference has been 
made to the opinions expressed on this point by Mons. ZerLter.[ I am, however, 
strongly of opinion that the Szgillariz were heterosporous, and this view is very much 
founded on the specimen figured on pl. ii. fig. 1. 

This fragment shows a small portion of a Sigillarian cone which has apparently been 
split longitudinally ; the upper part of the bracts being embedded in the matrix, they 
only show their basal extremities exposed on the surface of the rock. The part which 
came off this fossil must have contained the axis and other half of the cone, but this 
unfortunately has not been found. ; 

In examining this specimen the first point that arrests one’s attention is the great 
difference in the size of the bases of the lower and upper bracts. The bases of the lower 
bracts marked a, pl. i. fig. 1, are about 3 mm. wide, while the upper ones marked 
b, c, e, on the figure are about 5 mm. wide. The bases of the smaller -and lower 
bracts are covered with small, smooth macrospores (fig. lax 4) about 0°75 mm. in 
diameter (fig. laa x 8). These lower bracts bear the macrosporangia. 

The most interesting part of this fossil is, however, the upper bracts. These, as 
already stated, have larger bases, and are in an equally fine state of preservation. 
When their upper surface is examined under the microscope it is found to be distinctly 

* Geological Survey of Canada. Montreal, 1873, p. 41. 

+ Wiuiamson, “On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures,” part x., Phil. Trans., 1880, 
part ii. p. 494, 

{ Ante, p. 43. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 5). K 


0 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


granulated (fig. 1c). These granular roughnesses measure about 0°20 mm.,* and are 
covered by a thin cellular envelope, the size of the cells forming this layer being such 
that from three to four cells equal the size of the individual granular roughnesses. The 
cells are therefore about 0°05 mm. in their longest diameter (pl. ii. fig. 1d). 

Some of these larger sporangia are seen in side view on pl. i. fig. 1d d’. 

On the exposed surface of some of the bases of these larger upper bracts is a sub- 
rhomboidal mark with a central point, and below it the indication of a semicircular 
area (fig. 1b). This may represent the point of attachment of the bract to the axis of 
the cone, but of this I am not certain, as it might perhaps represent the part where 
dehiscence took place. This structure is well seen on fig. 1 at e and b. 

It is from the examination of this specimen that I have come to the conclusion that 
most probably the cones of Sigillaria were heterosporous, for | do not see what other 
explanation can be given than that the granular structure is caused by contained 
microspores covered by a delicate cellular envelope. I do not claim for this interpreta- 
tion of the fossil an absolute certainty, but dealing with bodies so minute as microsporest 
preserved in the manner of the specimen under discussion, I scarcely see how we can 
expect more conclusive evidence. This interesting specimen, which occurs on a small 
slab with a piece of the bark of Srgillaria camptotenia, Wood, sp. (but whose association 
may be merely accidental), was collected by Mr Joun Rorrison from the ‘“ Major Coal,” 
at No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse, Ayrshire (Lower Coal Measures), and communicated 


to me by the Rey. D. Lanpsgorovucu, Kilmarnock, to both of whom I am much 
indebted. 


Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, Kidston, n. sp. 


Pl. I. figs. 1-8; Pl. Il..figs. 10-11. 


Cone cylindrical, elongated, stalked, caducous, apex blunt; bracts caducous, rhom- 
boidal, single-nerved, with an acuminate point, finely ciliate on margin, placed spirally 
on axis. Pedicel without ribs, bearing distant lanceolate bract-like leaves, which 
become more numerous at the base of the cone, round which they are closely placed ; 
pedicel thickly covered with small acicular points. Macrospores large, rough, with small 
apiculi, and having a triradiate ridge on lower surface, 1°5 mm. to 2 mm. in diameter. 

Remarks.—This species is represented by over a dozen specimens from Monckton 
Main Colliery, all of which have been collected by Mr Hemrneway. Of these the more 
interesting examples are here figured and described. 


* If I am correct in regarding the cause of these “roughnesses” to be contained microspores—pre- 
sumably they were still united in groups of four, as is frequently seen in the cones of Lepidostrobus—then the 
size of the individual microspores would be less than 0°10, for the thickness of the containing envelope adds to 
their apparent size. 

+ The size of the m/crospores in a cone of Lepidostrobus showing structure is 0°02 mm, 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. al 


Description of Specimens.—The largest specimen | have is not so well preserved as 
those figured, but measures in complete length rather over 9 inches. This example, 
except in giving the complete length of the cone, is not of any special interest, the 
structural details being much better shown on other specimens. (Reg. No. 2242.) 


PE Leet, 


This fossil shows the lower portion of the cone, from the upper remaining part of 
which the bracts have been shed. The shedding of the bracts at maturity seems to be 
a characteristic of Sigillarian cones, and one of the distinguishing points between them 
and Lepidostrobus. 

In some cases the slabs are thickly covered with bracts and portions of denuded axes. 
On fig. 1 pl. i. the bracts are spread out, and evidently the cone has attained to maturity, 
as macrospores occur on the surface of, and others are shadowed through, the substance 
‘of the bracts. At the base of the cone are the spirally arranged narrow setaceous 
bracts, quite dissimilar to the fruiting bracts. As far as can be observed, there is little 
transition between the narrow linear leaf-like bracts and the wide rhomboidal sporangi- 
ferous bracts; but the former seem to cease suddenly when the sporangiferous bracts 
take their place. The pedicel is without ribs, but is covered with closely placed smail 
thorn-like points. 


PL. I. fig. 2. 


This example shows more distinctly the rhomboidal acuminate form of the bracts 
still in position. The stem is faintly striated, but cannot be said to be ribbed, and like 
that in all the other specimens shows also the small apiculi. The bracts show well their 
ciliate margin, but the cilia are too small to show clearly on figures given in natural size 
—in which the matrix is represented—but they are very distinctly observable on the 
originals when examined with a hand lens. A few fragments of the grass-like leaves, 
which are probably the foliage of the plant which bore these cones, are seen on the slab. 
These generally accompany the cones. 
| On the pedicel, and especially at the base of the cone, are seen the lanceolate, leaf- 
like bracts, which do not seem to leave, as far as I have been yet able to observe, any 
distinct scar, but their base appears to be carried down the stem in a decurrent manner. 


Pile fie: 3. 


This specimen does not show the individual bracts so well as the other figured 
ex amples, but I believe it is referable to the same species. The pedicel, which is long, 
is not’ 80 thick as on the other specimens. One cannot help thinking that such pedicel- 
late cones must have been pendant—such slender pedicels could searcely have supported 
the cone in an upright position. 


bo 


MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


Pl. I. fig. 4. 


The bracts have almost entirely been shed from this example, only a few at the base 
of the cone remaining attached to the axis, which in this naked condition shows well by 
the scars of the fallen bracts their spiral arrangement. At @ on fig. 4 is one of the 
lanceolate bract-like structures (shown enlarged at fig. 4a), which congregate round the 
base of the cone. The pedicel is covered with the small apiculi, which are also indicated 
on fig. 4a. 

The slab on which this cone occurs has many isolated bracts scattered over its 
surface, some of which, as well as a fragment of another cone and pedicel, are shown in 
the figure. 


PL. I. fig. 5. 


Here two cones are seen to spring from the top of the same pedicel. This is 
probably an abnormal condition. The cone to the right is complete, and shows well its 
narrow cylindrical form. Its size, however, is probably less than it would have been 
under more normal circumstances. The cone to the left seems to have its upper part 
broken over. 


Pl I figs. 6, Gaand 7,774. 


These figures show two isolated bracts, with portions enlarged to illustrate the 
delicate cilia which occur on the margins. These cilia are generally simple and more 
numerous and longer on the expanded portion of the bract than on its upper region. 
The bracts occasionally exhibit a slight keel, and are single nerved. 


Pl. I. fig. 8. 


This exhibits very beautifully the small thorn-like apiculi on the pedicel, not only 
when seen from above, but also in profile at the margin of the pedicel. Aun enlarged 
drawing is given at fig. 8a. These minute thorn-like structures are extremely numerous, 
and occur on all the specimens which show the pedicel. In form and structure they 
have the appearance of very minute thorns. On fig. 8 at b a fragment of one of the 
bract-like leaves occurs. 


Pl. II. fig. 10. 


Here there is a tolerably complete cone, with portion of its pedicel. This has a faint 
indication of ribs, but this may be due to a slight collapsing of the pedicel during 
mineralisation, as it is absent from the other specimens. One of the bract-like leaves is 
seen on the pedicel a short distance below the base of the cone. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 53 


PL Il. fig. 11. 


Two of the macrospores magnified 10 times.* These vary in size from 1°5 mm. to 
2mm. Their upper surface is covered with short, blunt apiculi, and their lower sur- 
face bears a triradiate ridge, around which the spore is generally smooth. ‘This 
triradiate ridge is formed by the mutual pressure of the other three spores, which were 
developed within the same mother cell, and the smooth parts between the arms of the 
triradiate ridges represent the points where the macrospores were in contact with each 
other. I have specimens of somewhat similar macrospores from another source, still 
united in groups of four.t 


Affinities of Species. 


Sigilariostrobus rhombibractiatus, in the form of bracts, shows a slight approach to 
Sigillariostrobus Tieghemi, Zeiller,{ but is easily separated from the latter species by its 
much more truly rhomboidal bracts, with ciliate margin and the apiculate macrospores. 

The pedicel of Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus is also destitute of ribs, but is 
finely apiculate, with minute thorn-like points. In addition to these differences, 
ZEILLER’S cone is larger and more robust than our species. 


Middle Coal Measures. 


Locality.—Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
Horizon.—Barnsley Thick Coal. (W. Hemingway.) 


Sigillariostrobus ciliatus, Kidston, n. sp. 


Pl. II. figs. 2-9. 


Description.—Cone cylindrical, pedicellate. Bracts spirally placed on the ligneous 
axis, linear-lanceolate acute with expanded rhomboidal base, single nerved, margins 
thickly beset with short, stout cilia. Sporangia walls formed by the hollow basal portion 
of the bract. Macrospores large, about 1°5 mm. in diameter, apiculate, with triradiate 
ridge on under surface. Peduncle indistinctly ribbed, and roughened with very small 
thorn-like apiculi. 

Remarks.—Of this cone I have seen a less number of specimens from Yorkshire than 
of Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, but a single bract from the Forest of Wyre has 


* These macrospores have a great similarity to those figured in the Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. ix. p. 109, pl. iii. 
fig. 7 (Triletes vii.), but it is improbable that they belong to the same species, as macrospores of different species have 
evidently a great similarity in form and structure, as seen in the case of those belonging to the two cones described in 
this paper. 

iP ees and Kipston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. ix. p. 113, pl. v. figs. 16d and 16¢, 1887. 

t ZEILUER, Ann. d. Scienc. Nat., 6°. sér., “ Bot.,” vol. xix. pp. 263 and 266, pl. xi. figs. 1 and 4, 1884 ; also Flore 
foss. Bassin howl. d. Valenciennes, p- 593, pl. Ixxxix. figs. 2-3, 1886 and 1888. 


54 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


been sent me by Mr T. Crospee CantrIiLu (pl. ii. fig. 7). All the Yorkshire examples 
come from Wooley Colliery, Darton, and for which I am entirely indebted to Mr W. 
Hemineway. The form of the bracts and the ciliate margins easily distinguish this 
from all other described species. 


DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS. 


Pl. IL fig. 2. 


This example shows the base and the apex of the cone. Unfortunately the central 
part connecting these two portions was lost. It shows the peduncle with distinct 
ribbing on its upper region, but this is not so clearly seen as the peduncle is followed 
downwards. 


Pl. IL fig. 3. 


This small fragment is the most interesting of all the specimens, as it shows the 
form and structure of the macrosporangia. There is also another example which shows 
the sporangia (No. 2268), but it does not exhibit them so distinctly. 

Two of the sporangia, marked a on fig. 3, are enlarged four times at fig. 3a. The 
sporangia are evidently formed by a hollowing of the basal portion of the bract, and its 
walls seem to be only the modified upper and lower surface of the bract, which again 
unite at the point indicated by the letter a (fig. 3a) to form the upper lanceolate 
extension of the limb. This structure is quite analogous to that found in Jsoetes. 


Pl. Il. fig. 4. 


‘This shows the basal portion of a cone. The bracts are removed from the upper 
part of the specimen which exhibits the axis. One of the bracts, by displacement, is 
seen to extend past the others at b, and thus shows distinctly its form. Numerous 
macrospores occur scattered among the bracts, two of which, magnified ten times, are 
drawn at fig. 9 pl. i. 


Pl. Hie igs. <5; 6, 7,uaneal 38: 


These give figures of isolated bracts and portions of the margins enlarged to show 
the cilia, which vary a little in their size and regularity. 


Middle Coal Measures. 


Locality.—WN ooley Colliery, Darton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
Horizon.—Barnsley Thick Coal. (W. Hemingway.) 

Locality.—‘‘ Road Section,” Cooper’s Mill, Dowles Valley, Forest of Wyre. 
Horizon.—(*). (T. Crosbee Cantrill.) 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 5) 


Sporangium. 


Pl. IL. fig. 12. 


I give here, natural size, a sporangium containing numerous small smooth macro- 
spores. This sporangium is larger than those of Sigillariostrobus ciliatus, while the 
macrospores are smaller and smooth, their size being about 0°75 mm. On another small 
piece of shale from the same locality (No. 1273) there are more or less perfect 
remains of about a dozen and a half of similar sporangia. 

They may possibly be Sigillarvan, but no remains occur along with them to throw 
any light on their affinities. Two of the macrospores are enlarged ten times at fig. 12a 
and 0. 

These sporangia are evidently similar in nature to those described by LesqurReux 
under the name of Sporocystis.* 


Affinities of Sigillaria. 


GOLDENBERG believed that Sigillaria represented an arborescent form of Isoetes,t 
and though at the time he expressed that opinion, satisfactory evidence in its sup- 
port was wanting. Subsequent discoveries have, however, proved the accuracy of his 
suggestion. Two years after he stated these views on the affinities of Sigillaria, he 
said :—“‘ The great agreement which the Sigillaria bespeak with our quillworts, as 
well in their internal structure as in their fructification, points to the decision that the 
Sigillariz were nearly related to the [soetes, and in the highest probability represented 
an arborescent form of these plants in bygone times.” { 

The Sigillariz, though they differ from Jsoetes in their arborescent dimensions and 
in their fruit being in the form of pedicellate cones, show so great an agreement with 
them in the structure of their sporangia that their affinities with /soetes is very close. 
Of course the presence of microspores in the cones of Sigillaria is not absolutely 
certain, but the evidence already accumulated points to their cones having been 
heterosporous. 

ZEILLER, in his interesting communication to which reference has been already 
made,§ says, when discussing the affinities of Stgillaria:—‘In conclusion, the 
Sigillariz appear to me to deserve to be considered as constituting in the Lycopodiacee, 
in some respects, an intermediate group between the Lepidodendron proper and the 
Tsoetes, on account of the affinities which they present towards the Jsoetes in the 
arrangement of their sporangia and probable mode of dissemination of the spores, and, 


* Coal Flora, pl. xix. figs. 11-14. 

t Flora Sarep. foss., Heft. i. p. 25, 1855. 

{t Ibid., Heft ii. p. 1, 1857. 

§ Ann. d. Scienc. Nat., 6°. sér., “ Bot.,” vol. xix. p. 278, 1884. 


D6 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


on the other hand, with the Lepzdodendron in the structure of the leaf-scars and the 
anatomical details of the stem. 

M. ZeILuer further points out what he believes to be another point of difference 
between Sigillaria and Lepidodendron, viz., the stalked deciduous cones of Sigillarza, 
and it must be admitted that, as far as we know, no Lepidodendron had stalked deciduous 
cones; but neither were all Sigillarian cones stalked, for in Sigillaria (Ulodendron) 
discophora, Konig, sp., and Sigillaria (Ulodendron) Taylori, Carr, sp., the cones have 
evidently been sessile, and it was from the pressure of the bases of these deciduous 
sessile cones on the bark that the cup-like depressions were made. But further, in these 
the cones were borne in two vertical opposite rows, not in verticils, as in the 
majority of Sigillarie. 

Also in Lepidodendron Velthermianum, Sternb., and Lepidodendron Landsburgia, 
Kidston,* the fructification consisted of sessile deciduous cones, disposed likewise in two 
opposite vertical rows, which produced the same cup-like depressions on the stem. The 
case of deciduous cones is, however, very exceptional in Lepidodendron, whereas in 
Sigillaria it seems to be the normal condition. In Lepidophloios, and probably in all 
the species, we find the fructification in the form of deciduous stalked cones. The 
most important distinction, however, between all these genera is the structure of the 
sporangia, and in this Sigillarva and Lepidodendron are essentially distinct; but the 
other structural points in which they differ cannot, of course, be ignored in any system 
of classification. 

On the other hand, it must be pointed out that there do not appear to be any 
differences in regard to the internal organisation of the stems of Lepidodendron and 
Sigillarva which would enable us to separate the stems of these two genera from each 
other without the aid of additional characters. We may also place Lepidophloios in the 
same category, for we now know as a fact that the stem the late Professor WILLIAMSON 
described under the name of Lepidodendron fuliginosum is the stem of Lepidophloios 
acerosus, L. and H., sp.t 

All these fossil Lycopods form a closely-connected group of genera,—Lepidodendron 
and Lepidophloios pointing their affinities in the direction of Lycopodium and Selagin- 
ella, and Sigillaria in the direction of Jsoetes, but each one differing in some important 
respect from any recent genus. 


Sigillaria Sol., Kidston, n. sp. 


Pl. III. fig. 6. 
Description.—Stem ribbed, furrows straight. Leaf-scars occupying about half the 
width of the ribs, sub-orbicular, lateral angles not prominent, upper margin slightly 
notched, lower margin rounded. Vascular cicatrice punctiform, slightly above centre of 


* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii, p. 338, pl. iii. figs. 9-10, 1893, 
+ LiypLey and Hurron, Fossil Flora, vol, i., pl. vii. fig. 1, pl. viii. (= Lepidodendron acerosum). 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 57 


sear, and flanked by two very slightly outward-directed oval cicatricules. Immediately 
above the leaf-scar is a small transversely elongated little cicatricule, above which is a 
short transverse lunate depression, which is again surmounted by a larger straight or 
slightly lunate hollow, from each extremity of which arises a bent band of slightly curved 
oblong depressions, decreasing in size as they reach the centre of the rib, where the two 
halves of the semicircle meet. Outer surface of ribs otherwise smooth. 

Remarks,—P1. iii. fig. 6 shows the fossil natural size ; and at fig. 6a one of the leaf- 
sears and the surmounting ornamentation is shown in outline, also natural size. 

This specimen I received in 1888 from Mr C. Brapsuaw, Sheffield, to whom my thanks 
are due. The species is evidently very rare, as I have not again met with the plant. 


Middle Coal Measures. 


Locality.—Kilnhurst Pit, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 
Horizon.—Barnsley Thick Coal. 


Sigillaria semipulvinata, Kidston, un. sp. 


Pl. III. figs. 1-5. 


Description.—Leaf-cushions almost contiguous, transversely rhomboidal, hexagonal 
or longer than broad ; in transversely rhomboidal forms, lateral angles prominent, acute ; 
in others, generally rounded. Lower margin rounded or truncate; extreme upper 
portion occupied by the leaf-scar. Leaf-scar occupying the entire apex of the cushion, 
rhomboidal, or transversely rhomboidal, lateral angles prominent ; upper margin flatly 
arched or slightly notched; lower margin rounded, or rounded with slightly concave 
sides ; cicatricules placed slightly above the centre, central punctiform, the two lateral 
oblong and slightly directed outwards. On the leaf-cushion are occasionally seen two 
faint rows of transverse lines, which descend obliquely from the base of the leaf-scar. 
Subcortical layer striated longitudinally. 

Remarks.—Though this species varies in the proportional size of the leaf-cushion to 
the size of the leaf-scar, and in the cushion and leaf-scar being sometimes transversely 
expanded, or in‘the cushion being longer than broad, a definite character runs through 
all these variations which at once connect them as different conditions of the same 
species,—forms whose existence depends entirely on circumstances of growth, as shown 
by these variations sometimes occurring on the same individual. 


DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS. 


Pl. IIL fig. 1. 


This illustrates what I regard as the typical form of the species. A few of the leaf- 
scars and cushions are given in outline, natural size, at fig. la. This example shows a 
VOL. XXXIX. PART I, (yo, 5). L 


58 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


younger state of the plant than any of the other specimens. The leaf-cushions are 
transversely rhomboidal, and the leaf-scar of a similar form occupies its upper portion. 
There is no part of the cushion above the leaf-scar, and in this Sigillaria semipulvinata 
differs from almost all the other species of the Sigillaria Brardw type. The lateral 
angle of the leaf-scar meets the margin of the leaf-cushion about half-way between its 
lateral angle and the apex of the cushion. The leaf-cushions are not strictly contiguous, 
but are separated by a slight interval; therefore, though the arrangement of the leaf- 
cushions is clathrate, still, as they do not rest on each other as in the typical Clath- 
raria,* the species shows some relationship to the Lezodermaria section, where the leaf- 
scars are more or less distant. 


Pl. IIL fig. 2. 


This shows an older form of the plant. The leaf-cushions are more distantly placed 
here than in fig. 1. There is also seen in fig. 2 a somewhat irregular longitudinal split- 
ting of the bark in lines following the direction of the upward rows of leaf-cushions. 
This is evidently brought about by a fissuring of the bark caused by increase of the stem 
in girth, and it gives a Favularia-like appearance to the specimen which is directly 
derived from what was originally a Clathrate or Leiodermarian form. 


Pl. IIL. fig. 3. 


This shows still more clearly the Favularia arrangement of the leaf-cushions, and 
also illustrates the variations in their size. Two of the upper leaf-cushions and accom- 
panying leaf-scars are given at fig. 3a x 2, and at 3b and 3c, natural size. Here the leaf- 
cushion is not much larger than seen on figs. 1 and 2, but at the lower part of this fossil 
(fig. 3) a considerable increase in the size of the leaf-cushion is observable (fig. 3c), in 
which increase the leaf-scar also participates. Two rows of faint transverse lines are 
present on the larger cushions (fig. 3a). 


Pl. LL. fig. 4. 


This is apparently from a somewhataged specimen. The leaf-cushions are practically 
contiguous, and show below the scar two rows of faint transverse lines (fig. 4a). The leaf- 
cushion here is fully longer than broad. 


Pl. LIL fig. 5. 


This represents a similar condition to that shown at fig. 4. On the lower portion of 
the fossil the leaf-cushions are contiguous ; on the upper part, more or less separated. 

The study of this species shows the caution that is necessary in bestowing names on 
fragments of Srgillaria. If figs. 1 and 4 are compared, they look at first sight very 


* As the leaf-cushions appear to become more. distant with age, probably the younger conditions would 
represent true Clathraria. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 59 


distinct, but as seen from the specimens described above, beyond all doubt they only 
represent different ages of the same plant, and these differences are quite unworthy of 
any name to distinguish them as varveties or forms. 

Sigillaria semipulvinata shows some similarity to Sigillaria decorata, Weiss,* and 
Sigillaria subornata, Weiss,¢ in both of which the leaf-scar is situated towards the top 
of the cushion. 

In both of these species the leaf-cushion is much smaller and the leaf-scar of a different 
form, but the character which at once distinguishes Srgillaria semipulvinata from these 
two species is the position of the leaf-scar in regard to the cushion. 

In Sigillaria decorata, Weiss, and Sigillaria subornata, Weiss, the lateral angle of the 
leaf-scar is on the same line with the lateral angle of the leaf-cushion which it joins, whereas 
in Sigillaria semipulvinata the lateral angle of the leaf-scar meets the upper receding 
boundary line of the cushion some distance above its lateral angle ; or to put it otherwise, 
the lateral angles of the leaf-scar of Sigillaria decorata and Sigillaria subornata meet in 
the lateral angles of the leaf-cushion, whereas in Sigidlaria semipulvinata they do 
not. 

Distribution —Though Sigilaria senupulvinata is rare, I have seen it from several 
localities, and my thanks are due to those whose names are mentioned in the 
appended list of distribution for specimens of this interesting Sigillaria. 


Middle Coal Measures. 


Locality.—Cinderford, Yorkshire. 
Horizon.—(?). (Late Mr E. Tindal, Leeds.) 
Locality—tLow Moor, Yorkshire. 
Horizon.—Black Bed Coal. (Late Mr J. W. Davis, Halifax.) 
Locality.— Wharncliffe, Woodmoor Colliery, Carlton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
Horizon.—Kent’s Thick Coal. (Mr W. Hemingway.) 
Locality.—Venture Pit, Burmantofts, Leeds. 
Horizon.—Better Bed Coal. (Mr8. W. Bond.) 
Locality.—Great Bridge, Worcestershire. 
Horizon.— (?). (Mr C. Beale.) 
* WEISS and STERZEL, Die Sigillarien d. preuss. Steink. wu. Rothl., Gebiete, ii. Die Gruppe der Sub-sigillarien,” 


p. 207, pl. xxvii. fig. 105, 1898, Abhandl. d. Kénig. Preuss. geol. Landesanstalt, neue folge, Heft. ii. Berlin. 
+ Ibid., p. 209, pl. xxvii. fig. 106, 1893. 


60 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


Prats I, 


Fig. 1. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. | Lower portion of cone and pedicel, showing axis 
denuded of bracts on upper part. Natural size. Zoc. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
Hor, Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W, Hemineaway, Collector. Reg. No. 2263, 
Pook, 

Fig. 2. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. Lower portion of cone, showing the setaceous-like 
bracts at its base and on the upper part of the pedicel. Natural size. Loc. Monckton Main Colliery, near 
Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemrneway, Collector. 
Reg. No. 2260. P. 51. 

Fig. 3. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. Portion of cone attached to its pedicel. Natural size. 
Loc. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. 
Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 2272. P, 51. 

Fig. 4, Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. Cone mostly denuded of bracts, and exhibiting their 
spiral arrangement on the naked axis. Natural size. Loc. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, York- 
shire. Hor, Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W, Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 2259. 
P, 52. 

4a. Portion of pedicel of fig. 4, immediately below cone, showing leaf-like bract and small tubercles 
on pedicel ; slightly enlarged. 

Fig. 5. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. Two cones attached to the same pedicel. Natural size. 
Loe. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire, Ho. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. 
Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 2271. P. 52. 

Fig. 6. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n. sp. « Isolated bract, Natural size. Loc. Monckton Main 
Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor, Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures, Mr W, Hemineway, 
Collector. Reg. No. 2262. P. 52. 

6a. Portion enlarged to show ciliated margin of bract. 

Fig. 7. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. A bract. Natural size. Loc. Monckton Main 
Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemine- 
way, Collector. Reg. No. 2260. P. 52. 

7a. Portion enlarged to show ciliated margin of bract. 

Fig. 8. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. Portions of two cones attached to their pedicels. 
Natural size. Loc. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. 
Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 1272. P. 52. 

; 8a. Portion of pedicel enlarged to show small thorn-like hairs with which it is beset. 


Puate II, 


Fig. 1. Sigillariostrobus, sp. Portion of cone—a, a’, a’, a”, sporangia, showing macrospores ; 0, ¢, 
sporangia ; d, sporangia seen laterally. Natural-size. Loc. No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse, Ayrshire. Hor. 
Major Coal. Lower Coal Measures. Mr Joun Rorrison, Collector. Reg. No. 1573, P. 49. 

la. Macrosporangia, a on fig. 1, showing smooth macrospores, x 4. 

laa. Macrospore, x 8. 

1b. Microsporangia (1), b in fig. 1, x 4. 

lc. Surface of 16 more highly magnified to show granular appearance of surface. 

1. Surface of 1b still more highly magnified to show the cellular structure of the sporangium 
wall, smaller than, and extending over, the granular surface of the sporangium. 


THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 61 


Fig. 2. Sigillariostrobus ciliatus, n.sp. Cone attached to its ribbed axis. Natural size. Loc. Woolley 
Colliery, Darton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. 
Hemineway, Collector, Reg. No. 1192. P. 54. 

Fig. 3. Sigillariostrobus ciliatus, n.sp. Small fragment of cone split longitudinally, showing the 
sporangia containing macrospores. Natural size. Loc. Woolley Colliery, Darton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures) Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 2144. 


P. 54. 
3a. Two of the sporangia of figs. 3, x 4, showing the sporangia and contained macrospores. 


Fig. 4. Stgillariostrobus ciliatus, n.sp. Portion of cone with numerous macrospores scattered amongst 
the bracts. Natural size. Loc. Woolley Colliery, Darton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick 
Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 2143. P. 54. 

Fig. 5. Sigillariostrobus ciliatus, n.sp. Bract from cone. Natural size. Loc. Woolley Colliery, Dar- 
ton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, 
Collector. Reg. No. 2267. P. 54. 

Fig, 6. Sigilariostrobus ciliatus, n.sp. Bract. Natural size. Loc. Woolley Colliery, Darton, near 
Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. 
Reg. No. 1177. P. 54. 

Fig. 7. Sigillariostrobus ciliatus, n.sp. Bract. Natural size. Loc. “Road Section,” Cooper’s Mill, 
Dowles Valley, Forest of Wyre, Worcestershire. Hor. Middle Coal Measures. Mr T. CrosBez CanTRILL, 
Collector. Reg. No. 2117. P. 54. 

7a. Portion of base enlarged to show the cilia. 

Fig. 8. Sigdllariostrobus ciliatus, n.sp. Bract. Natural size. Loc. Woolley Colliery, Darton, near 
Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. 
Reg. No. 1178. P. 54. 

8a. Portion of margin enlarged to show cilia, 

Fig. 9. Sigillariostrobus ciliatus,n.sp. Macrospores from cone, fig. 4x10. Loc. Woolley Colliery, 
Darton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, 
Collector. Reg. No. 2143. P. 53. 

Fig. 10. Stgillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, n.sp. Cone showing setaceous bract on axis below cone. 
Natural size. Loc. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle 
Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, Collector, Reg. No, 2273. P. 52. 

Fig. 11. Sigillariostrobus rhombibractiatus, u.sp. Macrospores, x10. Loc. Monckton Main Colliery, 
near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures, Mr W. Hemineway, Col- 
lector. P. 53. 

Fig. 12. Sporangium. Natural size. Loc. Woolley Colliery, Darton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. 
Barnsley Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 1669. P. 55. 

12ab. Two of the smooth macrospores, x 10. 


Pruate III. 


Fig. 1. Sigillaria semipulvinata, n.sp. Showing the leaf-cushions separated by only a very slight 
interval, and assuming a “Clathrate” disposition. Natural size. Loc. Cinderfield, Yorkshire. Hor. Coal 
Measures. Mr E. Tinpat, Collector. Reg. No. 1408. P. 57. 

la. Outline figure of leaf-scars and cushions. Natural size. 

Fig, 2. Sigillaria semipulvinata, n.sp. Showing the leaf-cushions separated by a very slight space, and 
assuming an arrangement characteristic of the Fuvularia. Natural size. Loc. Low Moor, Yorkshire. Hor. 
Black Bed Coal, Middle Coal Measures. The late Mr J. W. Davis, F.G.S., Collector. Reg. No. 1410. 
P. 58. 

2a. Leaf-sear and cushion, x 1}. 

Fig. 3. Sigillaria semipulvinata, n. sp. Showing the same characters as the last, but the cushions on 
the lower part of the specimen are much enlarged. Natural size. Loc. Low Moor, Yorkshire. Hor. Black 
Bed Coal. Middle Coal Measures. The late Mr J. W. Davis, F.G.S., Collector. Reg. No. 1409. P. 58. 

3a and 30, Leaf-scars and cushions. Natural size. 
3c. Leaf-scar and cushion, x 2. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART. I. (NO. 5). M 


62 MR R. KIDSTON ON FOSSIL FLORA OF YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. 


Fig. 4. Sigillaria semipulvinata, n.sp. With large cushions arranged as in “Clathraria.” Natural 
size. Loc. Great Bridge, near Dudley. Hor. Middle Coal Measures. Mr C. Braue, Collector. Reg. No. 
832. P. 58. 

4a, Leaf-cushion and scar, x 1}. 

Fig. 5. Stgillaria semipulvinata, n.sp. Showing large cushions separated by a slight interval on the 
upper part of specimen, but touching each other on lower portion of the fossil. Natural size. Loc. Wharn- 
cliffe, Woodmoor Colliery, Carlton, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor. Kent’s Thick Coal. Middle Coal 
Measures. Mr W. Hemineway, Collector. Reg. No. 2258. P. 58. 

5a. Leaf-scar and cushion. Natural size. 

Fig 6. Sigillaria sol., n.sp. Natural size. Joc. Kilnhurst, near Rotherham, Yorkshire. Hor. Barnsley 
Thick Coal. Middle Coal Measures. Mr C. BrapsHaw, Collector. Reg. No. 1407. P. 56. 

6a. Leaf-scar and ornamentation on rib above it. Natural size. 


Note.—PI. i. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8; pl. i. figs. 1, 2, 4, 10; pl. iii. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are from photo- 
graphs ; all the other figures and enlargements are from drawings. All the original specimens are in the 
author’s collection. 


Note.—Since this paper was written, a further contribution on the affinities of Sigillaria has appeared 
from the pen of Mons. R. Renavtr in “ Bassin houil. et perm. d’Autun et d’Epinac.” Fasc. iv. Flore foss., 
deux partie, 1896, pp. 239-245 (Aug, 1897). 


Prats I. 


M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith’? Edin? 


Trans. Roy. soc. Edin® Vol. AXXKIX. 


CR oe eS LF ae = 
aces _ 


SS 


DIGILLARIOSTROBUS RHOMBIBRACTIATUS. Ktdston, n. sp. 


KIDSTON ON THE FossiL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. (Ssconp Paper) 
Figs. 1— 8. 


R. Kidston. 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin’, Vol. XXXIX. 


KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD. (Secon Paper) Prate IL 


R. Kidston 


M‘Parlane & Erskine, Litht® Edin® 


Fig. 1. SIGILLARIOSTROBUS, sp. Figs. 2-9. SIGILLARIOSTROBUS CILIATUS. Kidston, n. sp 
Pigs. 10,11. SIGILLARIOSTROBUS RHOMBIBRACTIATUS. Kidston,nsp. Fig. 12. SPORANGIUM 


4 
» = 


Prare III, 


(Ssconp Paper). 


IELD. 


im 


E COAL 


2 
X\ 


KIDSTON ON THE Fossiu FLORA OF THE YORKSHII 


MSParlane & Erskine, Lith"? Edin 


R. Kidston, 


Fig.6. SIGILLARIA SOL, Kidston, n. sp. 


Piss. 1-5. SIGILLARIA SEMIPULVINATA, Kidston, n. sp. 


‘ 


. a 


a ee | 


(es63") 


V1.—The Meteorology of Edinburgh. By Rosert C. Mossman, F.R.S.E, 
F.R. Met. Soc. (With Four Plates.) 


(Read 1st March 1897.) 


PART IL. 
PRELIMINARY. 


The first part of this paper was communicated to the Society on June 1, 1896, 
and published in the Transactions (vol. xxxvill. part 11., No. 20, pp. 681-755), the 
data there discussed being mean values of the climatic elements for each day in the 
year. 

In the present paper an attempt will be made to focus the results deduced from 
an examination and reduction of the various meteorological registers kept in Edinburgh 
from 1731 to 1736 and from 1764 to the present time, with special reference to secular 
and other weather changes. 

The condensed results of a number of minor papers dealing with subjects which 
have, in many cases, formed part’ of the daily routine of observation during the last 
ten years have also been included. Attention may also be called to the list of 
remarkable atmospheric occurrences, such as phenomenal gales, snow-storms, auroras, etc., 
which is contained in the appendix. In presenting this paper my warm thanks must 
be expressed to Dr Bucuan, from whom I received invaluable advice when points of 
difficulty arose in the reduction of the observations. 


Barometric Pressure. 


The preparation of Table I., showing the mean monthly and annual air pressure 
since 1769, has been a work of considerable labour. This was more especially the 
ease with the observations taken prior to the establishment of the Scottish 
Meteorological Society in 1856. During the last forty years these observations have 
been examined and checked by the Secretary, who further tested the instruments 
at the Society’s stations. The errors of the barometers were thus known and 
allowed for in the calculation of the monthly means, while any accidental dis- 
placement of the mercury or other injury was at once apparent on comparing the 
returns with those made at stations in the vicinity of Edinburgh. The values for 
the period 1856 to 1896 were accordingly extracted from the Journals of the Scottish 
Meteorological Society, and entered in the table, any blanks in the observations being 
made good from the records of contiguous stations by interpolation and differentia- 
tion. No such easy method of dealing with the older observations presented itself, 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). N 


64 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


as the values from 1769 to 1853 were, with the exception of those taken by PLayrarr* 
from 1794 to 1799, entirely unreduced and uncorrected. There were thus the accumu- 
lated data of eighty years awaiting discussion. As the work of reduction proceeded, 
it became evident from the numerous anomalies and discrepancies disclosed by an 
inspection of the monthly means, that the preparation of monthly isobaric charts for 
Scotland must be attempted for the greater part of the first fifty years covered by 
the investigation, with a view to the elimination of discordances. In this connection 
the numerous manuscript observations kept at various places in Scotland, and kindly 
lent by the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Scottish Meteorological Society, proved 
of the highest value. 1 have specially to thank Dr Bucuan for placing a large mass of 
material at my disposal. 

The following are the additional stations whose data were utilised in the prepara- 
tion of the monthly isobaric charts, the values for Edinburgh being calculated from 


Registers 11L, 1V., VI; VIL, X., XL, XIV, 2Vig XV aa 


| Kept at. Years, Hours of Observation. Remarks, 
Selkirk, . 1769-1780 1 The means were collected by Hoy and 
are contained in his MS. registers. 
Kirkealdy, 1775-1778 8 a.M. and noon. Means calculated from MS. 
Branxholm, 1774-1783 Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. i. p. 204. 
Glendoich, : eer \ 9 a.m. Means calculated from MS. 
Gordon Castle, 1781-1827 8 A.M. Jour. Scot, Met. Soc., vol. v. p. 73. 
Dunfermline, . 1799-1826 9 A.M. Means calculated from MS. 
Carlisle, . 1801-1824 |8am.,1P.mM.and9p.m.| Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xi. p. 429, 
Kinfauns Castle, 1811-1834 8 a.m. and 10 P.M. Means calculated from MS. 
Lasswade, 1828-1843 8 a.m. and 10 P.M. Means calculated from MS. 
Dollar, . 1836-1842 | 9.15 a.m.and 8.30 p.m. | Means calculated from MS. 
| Aberdeen, 1829-1841 8 a.m. and 9 P.M. From Abstracts given in Aberdeen 
| Journal. 


Much labour was expended in ascertaining approximately the instrumental error 


of the above instruments, and in their reduction to 32° and sea-level, the height above 
the sea being known in each case. The values from the above stations were then 
entered month by month, on small maps of Scotland. The entries include the following:— 


1. The mean barometric pressure corrected and reduced to sea-level, and corrected 
for instrumental errors. 

2. The rise or fall of pressure from the previous month. 

3. The rise or fall of pressure from the corresponding month of the previous year. 

4, The prevailing wind at Edinburgh and such places as observed the wind 
direction. 

The monthly means had also corrections applied to them so as to bring them to the 


* Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vols. iv. p, 213, and vy. p. 193. + Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin., vol. xxxviii, pp. 682-683. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 65 


_ mean of Edinburgh, on the assumption that the distribution of pressure over the country 
was normal. These corrections were obtained from Dr Bucwan’s paper on “The 
Mean Atmospheric Pressure of the British Isles.’* Although but little weight was 
attached to the values thus corrected, they were of much interest when viewed in 
connection with anomalies in the barometric gradients over the country. Maps were 
prepared for a period of thirty-seven years, viz., from 1781 to 1817. It was not 
necessary to adopt this tedious process after 1817, as from that date the instruments 
were on the Forrin principle, and carefully observed. From an examination of the 
results thus graphically shown by the data delineated on the maps, the elimination 
of errors was rendered comparatively easy. I believe that the means thus obtained 
give a close approximation to the average pressure for the period under discussion. 
The observations utilised from 1817 to 1856 were the following :—From 1817 to 1826 
the means were computed from the Calton Hill Observatory, where daily readings were 
taken at 8 aM. and 10 p.m. These were printed monthly wm extenso in the Scots 
Magazine for the years to which they refer. Apiz’s observations given in the Hdun- 
burgh Journal of Science were adopted for the period 1827 to 1832, while the Royal 
Society’s observations were employed from January 1833 to October 1834, and again 
from 1839 to 1852, the hiatus being filled in from a register kept at Lasswade, six 
miles §.E. of Edinburgh. The Lasswade means were calculated from 1828 to 1843, 
so as to allow of the determination of the instrumental correction by comparison 
with Edinburgh. Means were also computed for part of this period from the Dollar 
register, which furnished an additional check. The hours of observation were, at 
Lasswade, 8 A.M. and 10 p.m., and at Dollar, 9.15 a.m. and 8.30 p.m. The observations 
at the rooms of the Royal Society from 1839 to 1852 were taken at 10 a.M., and were 
deficient on Sundays and holidays. It was, therefore, necessary to interpolate values 
for the missing days. The height of the barometer for these days was found from the 
contemporaneous registers kept by ALEx. Apzx till 1850 and continued for some years 
thereafter at his place of business. As the Royal Society observations were made only 
once a day, it was necessary to reduce Apiz’s 10 a.m. and 10 P.M. readings, in order to 
obtain corrections to be applied so as to bring the former series to the mean of 10 a.m. 
and 10 p.m. This was accordingly done. The reason Apin’s observations were not 
utilised for the actual means is that there was no attached thermometer. The readings 
could not, therefore, be reduced to 32°. The means for 1858 to 1856 were obtained 
from Sir Henry James’t abstracts taken in Edinburgh by the Royal Engineers. From 
1856 down to the present time the 9 a.m. and 9 P.M. observations made at the Hdin- 
burgh stations of the Scottish Meteorological Society have, as already stated, been 
employed. Every effort has been made to make the results comparable by reducing or 
otherwise correcting the means to those of 9a.M. and 9 p.m. For many years the hours 
were 8 A.M. and 10 p.m., or 10 a.m. and 10 P.M. ; observations taken at these hours differ 


* Jour. Met. Soc., vol. vi, pp. 14-18. 
+ Abstracts from Meteorological Observations taken at the stations of the Royal Engineers. 


66 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


but little from readings taken at 9 a.m. and 9 P.M. so that no corrections were made. 
With reference to the monthly means from 1769 to 1816, it was not considered desirable 
to attempt any reduction to 9 a.m. and 9 p.M., as the hours of observation could not be 
ascertained for some periods. The limit of error arising from this disturbing factor 
must be small, as the Edinburgh observations were checked against the isobars drawn 
month by month for the E. of Scotland. In any case, the departure from the true 
mean due to this deficiency would not exceed 0°012 inch. 

Table I. shows the means of each month and year reduced to 32° and mean sea-level, 
as well as decadal and monthly means for the whole period, viz., 1770 to 1896. The 
annual mean was 29°858 inches, being highest (29°962 inches) in 1864 and lowest (29°706 
inches) in 1789, showing a difference of 0°256 inch in the annual means. The highest 
monthly mean was that of May, which is 29-940 inches, and the lowest that of December, 
which is 29°800 inches, there being thus a difference of 0°140 inch between the highest 
and lowest monthly means. It is to be observed that the average pressure of November 
is practically the same as that of December, the difference being only 0°001 inch. 

The highest mean pressure of any month was 30°361 inches in March 1840, and the 
lowest was 29°186 inches in January 1791, the difference being 1:175 inch. The month 
showing the greatest range among the means is February, the highest mean being 
30°337 inches, in 1891, and the lowest 29°202 inches, in 1776, a difference of 1°135 inches. 
The least variation is in July, the highest mean being 30°158, in 1825, and the lowest, 
29°633 inches, in 1798, a difference of 0°520 inch. 

The absolutely highest barometric pressure during the 127 years under review was 
31°071 inches, at 9 a.M. on January 9, 1896, and the lowest 27°451 inches, at 10 P.M. 
on January 26, 1884, giving a difference of 3°620 inches. The highest and lowest pres- 
sures are given for each month since 1840 in Tables II. and III. Table IV. gives the 
extreme range of pressure during the last fifty-seven years, for each month. The greatest 
monthly range was 3°035 inches in January 1884, and the lowest 0°515 in July 1852. 
The mean monthly range is greatest (1°611 inch) in January and least (0°935 inch) in June 
and July. It is to be observed that the differences between the values given in Tables 
II. and III. do not always agree with the values in Table IV. This is due to the entry 
in the former tables of extra readings taken during periods of high and low pressure, 
whereas the table of monthly range has been compiled from the bi-diurnal observations 
taken at 9 A.M. and 9 p.m. The results given in Tables I. to IV. are further summarised 
in Table V., while Table VI. shows all the sea-level pressures above 30°90 inches or 
below 28°20 inches experienced in Edinburgh from 1770 to 1896. 


Mean Temperature of the Avr. 


Table VII. shows the mean temperature of the air in shade, 4 feet above grass, and 
at a height of 250 feet above mean sea-level, from 1764 to 1896. From 1764 to June 
1781 the values given are those taken by Hoy at Hawkhill House, St Andrew Square, 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 67 


the Pleasance, and, for a short time, at Mertown. They have been reduced and other- 
wise corrected to the mean of the maximum and minimum by Dr Bucuay, so that it was 
only necessary to correct them to a height of 250 feet by applying a reduction equal to 
1° for each 270 feet. After having the small correction of 0°6° applied they were 
entered in the table. 

Considerable labour was involved in the reduction of the observations taken from 
June 1781 to December 1821. It will, therefore, be necessary to go into the processes 
involved in the reduction of the earlier registers with some degree of elaboration. The 
best observations throughout this period are undoubtedly those made by ApIE in 
Merchant Court from 1795 to June 1805, the hours being 8 a.m. and 8 P.M. 

The uncorrected values for the months and the years are given by Forses. They 
have been brought to the mean of the maximum and minimum by applying the correc- 
tions given in the first part of this inquiry.* The corrections there given were tested 
by a number of methods, but the values were so accordant that it was decided not to 
make any alteration. A comparison of the Edinburgh Advertiser 8 a.m. and 8 P.M. 
readings from 1795 to 1804 with Aptn’s corrected mean values gave the following plus 
corrections, which were applied to the Edinburgh Advertiser record from 1787 to 1806. 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 
0°-9 1°-4 1°°8 2°°1 2°°2 2°°2 2°-0 1°°5 1°-0 0°°5 0°°4 0°°6 

Some change was made in the exposure of the instruments in 1806, the corrections 
applied from that time till 1821 being those already given.t The means for the period 
1787 to 1831 have been computed, and are given in Table VIII. Another change took 
place in the instruments or their exposure in 1824, but a fresh table of corrections was 
not made, as the observations were not utilised after 1821. 

Another register is available for the period 1785 to 1816, the temperatures taken 
“before sunrise” and ‘“‘at noon” being given in extenso, in the Edinburgh Magazne 
and afterwards in the Scots Magazine. The station was at Duddingston, near the foot 
of Arthur’s Seat, from 1785 to January 1793, “within one mile of the Castle of Edin- 
burgh” from 1793 to May 1798, and then at Barnton, three and a half miles west of 
Edinburgh, till 1816. The means have been computed and are given in Tables IX. 
and X. ‘The averages utilised for the calculation of mean temperatures are those taken 
before sunrise, some little doubt attaching to the noon observations, especially in hot, 
sunny weather. The corrections were obtained by a comparison with Apix’s and the 
Edinburgh Advertiser records, the latter being the values for the five years 1788 to 
1792. The corrections thus obtained were applied to the observations at Duddingston 
from 1785 to January 1793. The observations taken within one mile of the Castle 
from February 1793 to May 1798 were corrected by means of a comparison with ApIr 
for the three years 1795 to 1797, and those taken at Barnton till 1816 from a com- 
parison with AptE for the five years 1800 to 1804. 


* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxviii. p. 686. + Trams., vol. xxxviil. p. 687. 


68 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


The following are the plus corrections for each series :— 


Years, Jan. Feb. | Mar. Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. 


1785-1793 1°6 3°3 4°6 6°6 6°6 6'8 6°3 61 5'1 3°9 2°0 1°6 
February 
1793-1798 20 3°3 4°6 3°9 3°8 4°] 4°9 51 4°3 2°9 16 1'8 
May 
1798-1816 1-2 2°0 3°2 4°5 5°5 6'0 6°8 6°8 5'7 3°7 ee} 1:3 


A register was kept in Edinburgh by Mr Grorce Warterston from 1799 to 1850 
(see Table XI.). The hours of observation were 8 a.M., 2 P.M., and 10 p.m. They have 
been utilised from 1806 to 1820, and were corrected by comparing them with Apix’s 


mean temperatures for the ten years 1821-30. The following are the monthly correc- 
tions obtained after smoothing the curve :— 


Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 
-2°2 -1°8 -1°5 -1°6 -2°0 -2°2 -2°5 -2°3 -2°2. -2°0 -2°2 —2°4 
From June 1781 to December 1784 no observations are known to have been made 
in Edinburgh. It was therefore necessary to interpolate from the records of contiguous 
stations. A register was kept at Branxholm from 1775 to 1783, the results being given 
in vol. I. of the Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. A comparison of the means there given with 
Hoy’s corrected values from 1775 to June 1781 gave the following smoothed corrections 


which were applied to the observations made from June 1781 to December 1783, 
as follows :— 


Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July, Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 
+3°9 +3°O0 42°7 42°12 41°38 41°5 42°2 42°4 41°6 42°2 43°4 +43°6 


A register was kept at Glendoich from May 1783 to 1817, from which means (see 
Table XII.) have been calculated from May 1783 to 1794, the corrections to Edinburgh 
mean temperature being obtained by a comparison with the Edinburgh Advertiser 
means from 1788 to 1793, thus :— 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. 
-0°7 -0°6 -O0°6 -0°6 -0°6 -0°9 -1°O0 -1°5 -1°4 -1°3 -0°9 -0°6 

The corrected means from all these sources having been obtained, final means were 
calculated from them. For example, from 1799 to 1804 the means given in Table VII. are 
the average of the corrected means deduced from Avin’s and the Edinburgh Advertiser 
8 a.M. and 8 P.M. observations, along with the Barnton observations, all being brought 
to the mean of the maximum and minimum by the corrections already given. The 
results are remarkably accordant in the majority of cases. Fores’ adopted temperatures 
were utilised as a check from 1805 to 1820. The Kinfauns Castle record was further 
brought to the mean of the Edinburgh record for the period 18138 to 1821 by a comparison 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 69 


with Apiz’s for the five years 1822 to 1826. These two last-mentioned registers not being 
deduced from observations taken in the city, were only employed as a check on the other 
registers. 

The means from 1822 to 1896 given in Table VII. were derived from the following 
sources. From 1822 to 1850 Apin’s mean temperature values, as reduced by Forsgs, 
were employed, but the means were recomputed from 1824 to 1831 and from 1840 to 1850. 
During the latter period some blanks were made good by interpolating from WaTERSTON’S 
register. The means for these years will accordingly be found to differ in some months 
from those given in Forses’ paper. From October 1849 to January 1853 the means were 
obtained from a record kept by Atex. Apiz & Sons. From February 1853 to 1855 the 
observations taken by the Royal Engineers were utilised, while from 1856 the returns 
from the Edinburgh stations of the Scottish Meteorological Society were employed. 

The station was in Melbourne Place from May 1858 to December 1861.* The 
returns from this station are too high, owing to radiation from the surrounding buildings. 
They have accordingly been corrected by the smoothed values calculated from the data 
given in the under-mentioned report.t The corrections which are all minus, have been 
severally ascertained for the maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures, as follows :— 


Jan, Feb, Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. Nov. | Dec. 


° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° tS) ° 


Maximum, .| 2°9 3:0 2°3 2°5 2°5 3°2 3°3 3°5 3'1 2°7 2°95 30 
Minimum, .| 2°5 2°4 2°3 2°5 2°5 2°5 2°5 2'5 2°7 2°76 ; 2°6 2°5 
Mean, . mipeent Th 2d 2°3 2°5 2°5 2°8 29 | 3:0 2°9 2°6 2°5 2°8 


With regard to the observations of the past thirty-five years, for a few months inter- 
polations had to be made from Leith or Inveresk. When this was found necessary the 
values were corrected for height. 

The mean temperature for the period is 46°°8, or reduced to sea-level, 47°°7, the 
correction being 1° for every 276 feet. The highest mean annual temperature was 49°°6 
in the years 1779 and 1846, and the lowest 43°8 in 1879, giving a range in the annual 
means of 5°°8. The warmest month was July 1779, with a mean temperature of 65°°2 
or 6°°6 above the average, and the coldest month January 1814, the mean being 26°°5 
or 10°°3 below the average, the extreme range in the monthly means being 38°°7. 


The following table shows the highest and lowest mean monthly temperatures 
during the last 133 years :— 


* In part 1 of the paper it was erroneously stated that the observations were made at this station from 1853 to 1856. 
T (See Quarterly Report of the Meteorological Society of Scotland, for the quarter ending 31st March 1862, p. 7.) 


70 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Month, Highest. Year. Lowest. Year. Range. 
| 
ea = ye ° ° 
Janay, «+ «aay Sees 43°8 1796 26°5 1814 17°3 
February, . 3 5 ; 47°2 1779 29°38 1838 17°4 
1779 
|Merch,. 8. 2. 46°5 { as \ 34-9 1785 123 
| ips? uli Sie 49:8 { | 38-9 1837 10°9 
| AG lla So el ae ea 558 1833 45°1 1810 10:7 
aie, ees eee Pinte oe eae 61:9 1846 B1°5 1860 10°4 
Poly eehoe ey Cas Py eee: 65°2 1779 54:4 1879 10°8 
August, ree a er 63:7 1779 52°6 1830 111 
September, . : ; ; 59°5 1846 482 1807 11°3 
October, : : : : 52°7 1831 42°0 1817 10°7 
November, . : : : 46°7 1818 34:0 1807 12°7 
December, 6" 8. 47°8 1843 31:0 1878 16°8 
1779 
Siw Oe eee 49°6 { ae \ 43°8 1879 58 


The mean warmest month is July, 58°'6, and the coldest January, 36°'8, the range 
being 21°°8. 

In the years 1854 and 1857 the mean temperature was above the average in each 
month, while it was below the average in each month in the years 1816 and 1879, both 
of these years being most disastrous from an agricultural point of view. The longest 
spell of cold was from April 1859 to January 1861, only one month in this period, viz., 
May 1860 having a mean temperature in excess of the average. The coldest five year 
period was from 1812 to 1816, and the warmest from 1777 to 1781, the excess or defect 
of temperature being the same in each case, viz., 1°°2. 

Table XIII. shows the extremes in the mean and absolute daily temperature. The 
table is incomplete from 1770 to 1821. For this period the values given are (1) the 
extreme maximum and minimum temperatures observed by Hoy at Hawkhill from 1770 
to 1776, the observations being made several times a day from 8 a.m. to midnight; (2) 
the observations taken from 1785 to 1798 were “ near the foot of Arthur’s Seat” or 
“near the Castle,” the hours of observation being “‘ before sunrise” and “at noon” ; 
(3) the lowest and highest mean daily temperature from 1795 to 1804 taken by ApIE 
at 8 A.M. and 8 P.M, and corrected to mean temperatures; (4) the absolute minimum 
temperatures from 1803 to 1821 given in the Hdinburgh Advertiser register. From 
1822 to 1896 the observations were taken first by Avie till 1850, and under the 
auspices of the Scottish Meteorological Society from 1856 to 1896. The hiatus from 
1851 to 1855 was made good from records kept by AprrE & Son and the Royal 
Engineers. During the last seventy-five years the highest mean temperature of any day 
was 75°'5 on August 5, 1868, and the lowest 12°°4 on December 24, 1860, showing 
an extreme range of 63°'1 between the mean temperatures deduced from the average of 
the daily maximum and minimum readings. The earliest date of highest mean tempera- 
ture was May 19 in the year 1888, and the latest date September 2 in the year 1824. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 71 


The corresponding dates for the lowest mean daily temperature were November 22, 
1880, and March 26, 1872. The range between the extreme daily temperatures was 
greatest 56°°0 in 1826 and least 34°°5 in 1883. The absolute maximum temperature 
in the seventy-five years under review was 87°°7 on August 5, 1868, and the lowest 5°°0, 
this value being recorded on January 31, 1845, January 29, 1848, and December 24, 
1860, the latter observation being taken at Marchhall, which is within 200 yards of the 
place where observations are now made. The extreme range in the shade temperature 
was 82°'7. The earliest date at which the maximum temperature occurred was April 30 
in the year 1862, and the latest, September 25 in 1895, the next latest being on Sep- 
tember 8, 1890. The extreme dates on which the absolute minimum took place were 
November 7, 1868, and March 24, 1834. The annual range was greatest, 77°, in 1826 
and 1848, and least, 48°, in 1862. The lowest absolute maximum was 70°'0 on April 30, 
1862, and the highest minimum, 24°'5, on December 28, 1863. 

Tables XIV. to XXIV. give the reduction of nearly all the temperature observations 
taken in Edinburgh. 

. Table XIV. shows the highest mean daily temperature in each month from 1857 to 
1896, Table XV. gives the lowest mean temperature, and Table XVI. the range. Table 
XVII. shows the greatest daily range of temperature during this period. 

Table XVIII. gives a general synopsis of the thermometric observations from 1840 to 
1896. Table XIX. summarises some of the data contained in the above tables. 

Table XX. gives all the instances of a maximum temperature below 25°'1 and of a 
minimum temperature above 60°'9. 

Tables XXI. to XXIV. give the results of the reduction of Apix’s observations 
taken at Canaan Cottage. The original observations are given in extenso in the 
Edinburgh Journal of Science. Table XXI. shows the average maximum, minimum, 
and mean, temperatures, and the mean daily range of temperature. 

Table XXII. gives the extreme shade temperatures and the extreme range of 
temperature. 

Table XXIII. gives the highest night minimum and lowest day maximum, and 
Table XXIV. the extremes in the mean daily temperatures. The date of the occur- 
rence is given in each instance. 


Temperature Variability 1840 to 1896. 


The mean daily variability of temperature is given in Table XXV._ In the calcula- 
tion of the values, the mean temperature was assumed to be the arithmetical mean of 
the daily maxima and minima. The calculation of the variability of temperature 
consists in extracting the difference between the day to day values. Thus, if the mean 
temperatures of two successive days were respectively 60° and 55°, the difference, viz., 
5°, would represent the variability. Table XXVI. summarises the data given in Table 
XXV., along with some additional particulars. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (No. 6). 


72 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


The mean annual variability of temperature is 2°°85, being highest, 3°'24, in January 
and lowest, 2°°52, in July, thus showing a difference of 0°°72. The greatest variability 
was 3°°38 in 18438, and the least 2°50 in 1860, the range in the annual means being less 
than 1 degree. The greatest variability of any month was 4°°9 for November 1847, 
while the low value of 1°°6 was recorded in the Julys of 1853 and 1854, the Augusts 
of 1858 and 1860, and in September 1861. The greatest daily rise of temperature 
occurred on March 17, 1892, whose mean temperature was 15°'1 higher than that of the 
16. August 29, 1869, on the other hand, was 15°°5 colder than the previous day. The 
daily observations for fifty-seven years were gone over, each rise or fall of 10° or more 
in the mean temperatures being extracted. The number of such cases was 280, viz., 
129 rises and 101 falls (see Table XXVI.). The greatest number was 14 in 18438, and 
the least 1 in 1857, 1859, 1861, 1862, 1888, and 1891. Im six of the years there was 
no fall of 10°, and in four of the years no rise of 10°. The greatest number of 10° rises 
was in 1843 and 1845, when nine cases were recorded, while the maximum number 
of 10° falls, viz., six, occurred in 1880. As the variability of temperature at stations 
on the Continent isas arule calculated from observations taken at stated hours, and not 
from the mean of the maximum and minimum, Table X XVII. has been prepared. This 
Table gives the mean daily temperature variability for the hours of 9 a.m. and 9 P.M. 
which are then compared with the values deduced by taking the daily means of the 
maximum and minimum. Table XXVIII. shows the means deduced from the 8 a.m. 
observations taken by Hoy at Hawkhill House, and Kirkcaldy, while corresponding values 
for the period 1731 to 1736 are discussed in another section. It has been shown that the 
variability of temperature is subject to a diurnal range,* but unfortunately the Edinburgh 
records are sadly defective in data from which hourly values could be calculated for 
this or any other climatic element, with the single exception of sunshine. 


Rainfall. 

Table XXIX. shows the monthly and annual rainfall in Edinburgh for 120 years 
and six months. The values from 1770-76 were taken by Hoy at Hawkhill) Mr Hoy 
was also the observer during 1780 and the first half of 1781 when he removed to Gordon 
Castle. From 1785 to 1794 the observations were deduced from the Edinburgh 
Magazne record, the gauge being at Duddingston till January 1793, and thereafter 
‘ within one mile of the Castle.” The values from 1795 to 1805 and from 1822 to 1850 
are those taken by Mr Aptg, and given by Forbzs in his Climate of Edinburgh. The 
late Mr Lesiiz commenced his long series of rainfall observations in 1850, the station 
being Charlotte Square, where the record is still continued. The returns from this 
station have been utilised for the period 1851-96. 

From 1805 to 1821 rainfall was not systematically observed at any one station 
during the whole period; but values have been obtained from measurements made 
at the Royal Observatory, and at other places in Edinburgh. I am _ indebted 

* Jour. Scot. Met. Soc., vol. x. p. 150. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 73 


to Mr G. J. Symons, F.R.S., for copies of some of the earlier rainfall observations. 
When no observations were available for the City, the Barnton register was utilised. 
It is to be particularly observed that the process adopted of dovetailing one rainfall 
record into the other introduces a slight element of error, the precipitation, as a 
whole, increasing the nearer the station is to the high grounds surrounding Arthur's 
Seat, the Blackford Hill, and the Pentlands (see Jour. Scot. Met. Soc., vol. x. p. 16).* 
The records, however, approximate closely to the mean rainfall of Charlotte Square, as 
shown by the observations taken there during the last forty-five years. 

The mean annual rainfall is 25°86 inches, the wettest year being 1872, with a rain- 
fall of 38°96 inches, and the driest, 1826 (the year of the short crop), with a downfall 
of only 15°27 inches. These amounts are respectively 51 per cent. above, and 41 per 
cent. below the mean. ‘The wettest month is July ; the mean daily fall being ‘091 
inch, and the driest month March, the average being ‘049 inch. 

The wettest month was September 1785 with a rainfall of 10°69 inches, and the 
driest March 1781 with a rainfall of 0°03 inch. The mean annual number of days with 
0:01 inch or more of rain, taking the observations of the last twenty years (1877-96), is 
190, distributed throughout the year as follows :— 

Jan. Feb. Mar, Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. 

16 14 15 14 14 14 18 19 16 Ly 17 16 

The greatest number of days with rain in the period 1856-96 was twenty-nine in 

July 1882, and the least, two for March 1856. 


Droughts and Heavy Rains. 


Since the year 1770, as already stated in last section, rainfall observations have been 
taken in Edinburgh or its immediate vicinity without a break, there being always one 
or more rain-gauges at work in different parts of the city. During thirty-four years, 
however, viz., from 1777-79, 1781--83, 1817-23, and from 1833--55, the rainfall 
measurements were only made weekly or monthly. Waterston for a year or two gave 
the amounts recorded during great falls, but they have not been utilised. The 
material available for examination in connection with this inquiry was thus restricted 
to the ninety-two years during each of which the gauge was examined daily, and the 
amount, if any, measured. The period under discussion ends with 1895. 

Before stating the more prominent results of an investigation into droughts it seems 
desirable to give an answer to the question, ‘“‘ What is a drought?” Mr Symons, our 
greatest authority on rainfall matters, has solved the problem by dividing droughts 
into two classes, viz.. absolute and partial. He defines the former as periods of more 
than fourteen consecutive days absolutely without rain, and the latter as periods of more 
than twenty-eight consecutive days, the aggregate rainfall of which does not exceed one- 
hundredth of an inch per day. The examination has been confined in the present 


* The mean annual rainfall for the twenty-five years, 1866-90, at various places in Edinburgh was as follows :— 
Charlotte Square, 26°71 inches ; Cumin Place, 30'13 inches; Blacket Place, 29°86 inches; and Napier Road, 28-97 inches. 


74 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


instance to the former class, viz., absolute droughts. The total number of these during 
the ninety-two years under review was 65. Their distribution throughout the year (as 
will be seen on looking at Table) is somewhat irregular, June having the greatest number 
with 10, closely followed by February and March with 9 each. The minimum is 
reached in Autumn, November having only 2,and October 3. The secondary minimum 
in April and May is of interest as is the sharp drop after July. We may state that the 
droughts have been entered to those months in which they commenced. 


Jan, Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug.) Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 


Number of Droughts, 3 9 9 5 4 10 a 3 5 3 2 5 65 


Mean duration, days, | 20 | 18 20 19 an 18 19 18 | 19 17 16 18 | 186 


As regards individual years, the greatest number of droughts observed was three in 
1786, 1825, 1829 and 1867, while none occurred from February 1787 to July 1795, a 
period of eight years and three months. A recent instance of a long spell without one was 
from August 1876 to May 1884, or seven years and nine months. The longest period 
without rain occurred in 1786, when none fell for thirty-three days, viz., between May 24 
and June 25. The water supply in Edinburgh fell short during this year, the community 
being put to much inconvenience thereby. Other long spells without rain were from 
March 13 to April 11, 1825, and from June 24 to July 22, 1869, periods of thirty and 
twenty-nine days respectively. Of the sixty-five droughts recorded, sixteen exceeded 
twenty days while four lasted a month. Nearly all the dry periods occurred in early spring. 
Only on one occasion during the three months October to December did a drought last for 
a longer time than seventeen days. As to the atmospheric causes concurring in such long 
dry periods, little can be said. We know that droughts are due to the unwonted 
prevalence and persistence of anti-cyclonic systems over Western Europe, but to say 
more than this would be to enter on the ground of pure speculation. 

With regard to heavy rains, all falls of an inch or more in the twenty-four hours 
were extracted for the ninety-two years under consideration (see Table XXXI.). An 
inch a day in this part of the country is looked on as a heavy rainfall, being equivalent 
to 101 tons or 22,623 gallons of water peracre. The total number of cases as will be 
seen from the following Table was 165, giving an average of very nearly two per 


Month. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 

Falls of 1:00 inch or more, 7 6 5 6 1D: 12") 21). Boe e220, Sasha 7 165 
annum. The heavy falls were distributed among the years in a most capricious manner. 
For instance, there were eight such rains in the year 1808, while 1809 and 1877 had 
seven each. On the other hand not a single case was observed from September 1884 to 
August 1889. The number of heavy falls during thunderstorms was one in May, two in 
June, ten in July, and four in August. It would thus appear that in Edinburgh, at any 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 75 


rate, thunderstorm rains usually fall short of an inch. August stands out prominently 
for its rainstorms with thirty-three falls exceeding an inch. The period known as the 
Lammas Floods shows to what an extent these heavy downpours have obtruded them- 
selves upon public notice, and that long before the days of rain-gauges. July comes 
second to August with twenty-one cases, while February and April have only six each 
and March but five. It is of interest to note that two of the six heavy rains in Febru- 
ary occurred within a week. The seasonal distribution was spring, twenty-seven cases ; 
summer, sixty-six ; autumn, fifty-three ; and winter, twenty. From an examination of the 
daily weather reports it was seen that the majority of notable downpours took place 
during the passage of small shallow depressions moving slowly eastwards. Sometimes 
the depression remained almost stationary for days. Enormous quantities of rain 
were then precipitated, 7 inches, for example, falling in five days during August 1877. 
In a few cases, principally in winter, the rain was general over the country, but as a 
rule the western parts of the country were not affected by the cyclonic storms which 
gave the heavy rains on the east coast. The general direction of the wind during the 
rainstorm was noted, the percentage frequency being as follows, viz. :— 


N. N.E. KE. S.E. s. S.W. W. N.W. 
i) 15 32 9 3 9 21 6 


The maximum number of cases took place with winds from the east, a well marked 
secondary maximum being observed with winds from the west. If we weigh the observa- 
tions so as to allow for the relative frequency of the winds during the ninety-two years, 
we obtain quite a different windrose, as it is called. The overwhelming preponderance 
of sea-winds during the occurrence of heavy rains now becomes apparent, while the 
secondary maximum with west winds—a maximum due to the frequency with which 
these winds blow—vanishes. Thus, approximately, in 1,000 days of wind there will be ten 
rains exceeding an inch with a north-east wind, and nine with an east wind, while only 
two cases may be expected with a south wind. The values for the other winds are N. 6, 
S.E. 6,S.W. 3, W. 3, N.W. 4. The comparative infrequency of heavy rains with south- 
east winds is doubtless due to the fact that they have been deprived of much of their 
moisture by the Lammermoors over which they had previously passed. In Aberdeen- 
shire, as shown by Dr Bucuay, the south winds blow against the cold slopes of the 
Grampians with the result that there they are by far the wettest. Mr Symons has 
stated that there is no part of the British Isles, however dry, where 4 inches of rain may 
not fall in twenty-four hours. The Edinburgh record bears this statement out, for 
although there are only three rains exceeding 3 inches in the ninety-two years, yet one 
was above 4 inches, no less a quantity than 4°20 inches having fallen on December 9th, 
1787. On that occasion there was a great flood in Leith Harbour, greater than ever 
remembered, The flood was as high at low water as at ordinary full tide. Much 
damage was done to the shipping, while several casualties involving loss of life were 
reported from Leith and other parts of the country. It cannot be too strongly urged 


76 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


on observers to have rain-gauges capable of holding at least 4 inches of rain, otherwise 
important facts of interest to meteorologists and engineers alike will be irretrievably 
lost. The following are the maximum daily rainfalls noted in each month during the 
period under review. 


Month, Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. Oct. | Nov. | Dec. 
| [a et = Ss eo ee eee a — | a4) 
| | 
| Rainfall, 1°59 1°80 1°55 1°71 1°50 1°54 | 2°95 2°56 3°80 2°50 2°89 4°20 
| 
| Date, . - | 10/1809 | 3/1809 | 16/1891 | 5/1808 | 14/1795 i ae a 18/1797 | 24/1785 | 5/1775 | 18/1795 | 9/1787 


Direction of the Wind. 


Table XXXII. shows the number of days on which each wind prevailed, from June 
1731 to May 1736, and from 1764 to 1896 ; for the months and the year. From 1764 
- to 1769 the only values available are the summaries of east and west wind prepared by 
Hoy. The former includes observations from N., N.E., E., and S8.E., the latter those 
from 8., 8.W., W., and N.W. As 50 per cent. of the winds in Edinburgh are from the 
S.W. and W., and 25 per cent. from N.E. and E., it follows that the above method of 
reducing the wind observations to the two principal directions gives a close approxima- 
tion to the truth. The registers employed are those utilised in the preparation of 
daily values.* From 1781 till the commencement of Warersron’s observations 
in their complete form in 1805, the direction of the wind was not systematically 
observed. It was therefore necessary to interpolate from the Glendoich and Dunfermline 
registers, which in some measure help to supply the deficiency. Table XXXIII. shows 
the mean percentage frequency of the winds for the months and the year for the 133 
years 1764-1896. The mean values for 100 years are given in Part I., and are herewith 
compared with the longer record. 


Percentage Frequency. 


Prats |) SaER, E, S.E. s. S.W. Ww. | N.W. [Calm or W. 
dl LS eM jac 2 ae eae ler es poe eae 
133 Years, .| 4 | 7 18 5 5 15 35 7 4 
Ox, .. 4 7 16 7 6 17 32 7 4 


The means for the two periods are thus essentially the same. The observations were 
made twice a day during nearly the whole of the 133 years. 

In their reduction the values were resolved to eight points by counting N.N.E., for 
example, along with N.; 8.S.E. along with 8.; E.N.E. along with E., and so on. ‘This 
was done in order to make the observations taken prior to 1856 comparable with those 
given in the Scottish Meteorological Society's Journal during the last forty years. 


* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxviil. p. 691. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. ey 


A disturbing element is introduced owing to some observers entering calms and 
variable winds, whilst others always give a direction, which in still weather was probably 
the point from which the wind last blew. Tables XXXIV. and XXXV. were accordingly 
prepared so as to make the results as uniform as possible. In these tables the percentage 
frequency was resolved to two directions as described above, calms being eliminated. 

Looking at Table XXXV., it will be seen that the years with the greatest percentage 
of west wind were 1854, 1887 and 1798, with values of 79:1 per cent., 77°8 per cent., 
and 76°2 per cent. respectively. 

The effect of wind upon the temperature of the air is very apparent. Thus, in 
1854 the mean temperature was above the average in every month, and in 1798 in ten 
months. In 1887 the excess was not so noticeable. The years with the greatest per- 
centage of east wind were 1768, 47°5 per cent.; 1829, 47°3 per cent.; and 1816, 46:0 
per cent.; the prevalence of polar winds, as was to be expected, resulting in a marked 
fall of temperature during these years. 


Mean Relative Humidity. 


The mean relative humidity has been determined from the bi-daily observations 
made with the dry and wet bulb thermometer, the hours of observation being 9 a.M. 
and 9 p.m. The period under discussion is the thirty-five years 1862-1896. The mean 


Mean Relative Humidity, 1862-1896. 


Month. Mean. Highest. Year. Lowest. Year, | Range. 
a yA 7 % 
faery, . < .| 868 96 1879 81 { oN 15 
February, . . .| 864 97 1879 78 1895 19 
eS 96 { eo 77 1868 19 
Pe SCt«<(Fti‘“;t;t;tét;*~CSC*dSC*‘é 93 1872 73 \ cae 20 
ee. )hCCté«(CSSC SCT 92 1872 72 | 1881 20 
moo. CC .CiCSCdLSCitiéSTTT' 94 1875 67 1884 27 
ee oT 85 1870 74 He 11 
August, . ‘ 6 81°5 90 1877 74 1869 16 
September,, . .| 82° 92 1875 TA 1869 18 
October, . . .| 85:8 92 1882 80 Gao 12 
November, . ‘ : 86°8 94 { Aaa 78 1869 16 
December, . ; , 86°4 92 1876 83 1867 9 
eer SH! gsi 97 { ee 67 | 30 


annual humidity is 83 (Saturation=100). The air is driest in June, which has a mean 
humidity of 77°4 per cent., and dampest in January and November with 86°8 per cent., 
the range being thus 9:4 per cent. As regards individual months, the dampest was 


78 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


February 1879 with a mean humidity of 97, the driest being June 1884 with a humidity 
of 67. In June 1878 the mean humidity was 69, but in no other month did the mean 
fall below 70. The month showing the greatest difference between the means is June, 
the highest being 94 per cent. in 1875, and the lowest 67 per cent. in 1884, the 
difference being 27, and the month of least difference, December, the highest being 92 
per cent. in 1876 and the lowest 83 per cent. in 1867, the difference being only 9 per 
cent. A completely saturated atmosphere is of rare occurrence, not more than two or 
three cases occurring on an average in the year, while in some years no such high value 
was attained. During the past six years a RicHarp hair hygrometer has furnished a 
continuous record, the lowest value thus registered being 18 per cent. on February 8th, 
1895. An examination of the hygrograms shows that a humidity below 35 per cent. 
is of very rare occurrence, even with the shade temperature over 80°. 


Thunderstorms. (See Table XXXVI.) 


During the period 1770-1896, 811 thunderstorms were observed in Edinburgh, 
or at the rate of six per annum. Of these, 34 took place in winter, 145 in spring, 549 
in summer, and 83 in autumn. The months of greatest frequency were June with 169, 
July with 229, and August with 151; on the other hand, November and December had 
only 7 each, while February had 10, and March 11. During the six months, April to Sep- 
tember, 741 thunderstorms were observed, being 91 per cent. of the whole. Thunderstorms 
begin to diminish after the Lammas floods, few being observed after the 13th of August. 
The absolute minimum covered the nineteen days ending with December 5th without a 
single thunderstorm during the 127 years. Lightning without thunder is comparatively 
rare; the average annual number of days being only one. Sheet lightning rises to a 
maximum in September, there being 18 cases in that month during the period under 
review. A secondary maximum occurs in December. The winter thunderstorms and 
other electrical phenomena are no doubt associated with deep cyclonic systems ;—the 
warm, moist, ascending, and cold, dry 
descending currents are most frequently brought into close proximity during the great 
Atlantic storms of the season.’* The diurnal distribution of thunderstorms is well marked 
(see Table XXXVII.), 64 per cent. being observed during the six hours ending with 
5 p.M.; the maximum taking place in the two hours ending 3 p.m.; and the minimum in 
the early morning hours. Lightning without thunder, on the other hand, is essentially a 
nocturnal phenomenon, nearly all the cases taking place in the five hours ending with 
11 p.m. Thunderstorms appear to diminish at 1 P.m.; this being doubtless due to the 
loose way in which certain observers use the word noon. Entries of thunderstorms at noon 


¢ 


explanation being that in the winter months, 


have all been put down as having occurred in the hour ending noon, whereas half of such 
entries should have been entered to one o'clock. It was not until the investigation 
was completed that this anomalous result presented itself. 
The mean annual number of thunderstorms, as already remarked, is six, the year with 
* Ency. Brit., Art. ‘Meteorology,’ Buchan. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 79 


the greatest number being 1872, when twenty were experienced. During that year 
pressure was lower and the rainfall greater than in any other year, with perhaps the 
exception of 1789. Only one thunderstorm was recorded in the years 1773, 1780, 1784, 
1796, and 1801. During comparatively recent years, 1844, 1851, 1859, and 1865 
had two, but there is no record of a year without any. The months with the 
greatest number of thunderstorms were August 1831, and July 1893, which had 
eight each. 

Thunderstorms appear to be on the increase, the mean number from 1770 to 1809 
being 4°5 per annum. In the forty years ending with 1849, the number rose to 6°3 per 
annum, while during the period 1850 to 1889 a further increase to 9 per annum was 
recorded. During the six years ending with 1895, the mean annual number was ten. 
The increase can hardly be accounted for by the assumption that the early observers 
systematically neglected to record this meteor. Only for about twenty years are we 
dependent on one weather register for our information. 

The annual totals have been smoothed by Bioxam’s method, taking continuous sets 
of five. The results were projected on a chart which was originally prepared in connec- 
tion with a paper on “‘ Sunspots and Auroras.” On comparing the two curves, little of a 
definite nature can be made out, it being very doubtful whether thunderstorms are 
phenomena of a fortuitous nature or are in some way connected with sunspots. There 
is some reason to think thunderstorms are subject to a long cycle, a wave crest of which 
we have lately passed. The wave shows distinct minima in 1802 and 1864, and maxima 
in 1829 and 1882. 

With the view of ascertaining the damage done by thunderstorms to life and 
property, every instance of a severe storm was examined, the newspaper reports for the 
days characterised by disturbances of an exceptional nature being extracted. The result 
of the inquiry is, that damage to property took place in thirteen thunderstorms, twenty- 
six people in all being injured, and only two killed. Of the very severe thunderstorms, 
seven occurred in June, three in July, two in August, and one in January, the latter 
occurring on January 26, 1792, when George Watson’s Hospital was struck. 

The worst storm on record appears to have been that of July 22, 1873, when an 
observer of the Scottish Meteorological Society counted in one hour 680 flashes of light- 
ning with their accompanying thunder-claps. This gives a rate of fully eleven per minute, 

During recent years, the severest storm experienced was that of August 12, 1884, 
when the Harl of Lauderdale was killed. For notices of these storms see Appendix. 


Snow. 


Table XXXVIII. gives the number of days on which snow fell for each month, 
and the year from 1770 to 1896. Values are also given showing the results grouped 
by winters, with date of first and last snowfall, The total number of days on which 
snow fell was 2664, giving an average of 21 per annum, The snowiest year was 1782 

VOL, XXXIX. PART I. (NO, 6). P 


80 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


(the black auchty-twa), with forty-seven entries, closely followed by 1838 with forty-six 
days, and 1814 with forty-five days. On the other hand, snow fell on only three days 
in 1856, the number being below ten in eleven years. Grouping the results by winters, 
a slightly different arrangement obtains, the snowiest being the winter of 1836-37 with 
forty-nine days, while the winter of 1850-51 had but two snowfalls. With the exception 
of a little sleet on September 23, 1893, no snow fell in the months of June, July, 
August and September. | 
The greatest number of cases in each month is as follows :— 


Jan Feb Mar Apr. May Oct Nov Dee 
Number, - : ; 15 14 16 10 5 4 7 13 
1772 
| 
1795 | | 
Year, . : : : 1823 1855 1812 1837 1802 1895 1807 1874 


The snowiest month was thus March, 1812, with sixteen days on which snow 


fell. 
The earliest date of first snow was October 1 (see Table XXXIX.) in the year 


1817, and the latest January 31, in the winters of 1850-51 and 1857-58. The latest 
date of last snowfall was May 30, 1808, and the earliest January 17, 1853. The mean 
date of first snowfall is November 22, and the mean date of latest fall, April 10. 


Hail. 


Table XL. shows the number of times hail fell during the 127 years 1770-1896, 
for each month and the year. The mean annual number of days with hail is ten, the 
maximum being thirty-two days in 1824, and the minimum one day in 1848. The 
greatest number of days in each month is shown in the following Table :— 


“| 
Jan. Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. Oct. | Nov. Dec. 


BS , : ee wma ees | ar sac ne th 1809 SOE Se 1795 
| 1820 1801 
| 1805 | ... Sector SBOP ease: sa eZ 

1808 | 1843 | 1824 | 1803 | 1894 | 1895 | 1891 | 1891 | 1889 | 1819 | 1824 | 1784 

Number, . 7 5 9 9 7 4 3 2 3 4 4 (a 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 81 


Hail does not seem to be associated with thunderstorms, few cases being observed in 
summer. 


Gales. 


Table XLI., showing the number of gales, must be looked on as a tolerable 
approximation to the truth. As the entries depend on personal and not instrumental 
observation, the results are not strictly comparable. The greatest number of gales was 
seventy-two in 1818, and the least number, five in 1856. The mean annual number is 
twenty-nine. 


Fog or Mist. 


This is also an unsatisfactory Table (No. XLIL), although every effort has been 
made to eliminate entries of “haze” by comparing the Edinburgh records with those 
from contiguous stations. The foggiest year was 1808, with thirty-eight entries, while 
in 1784 no fog was reported. 


Auroras. 


Table XLIII. shows the number of auroras observed in Edinburgh from 1773 to 
1781, and from 1800 to 1896. 

I have to thank PRorgssor CopELAND for permission to examine the records of the 
Edinburgh Royal Observatory from 1862 to 1894. Many notices have also been 
obtained from the published records of that institution. 

The year of maximum auroral frequency was 1871, with twenty-one auroras, closely 
followed by 1870 with nineteen notices. The maximum observed in one month was six 
in March 1871. 


Lnghining. 


Table XLIV. shows the number of cases of lightning without thunder recorded 
from 1807 to 1835, and from 1868 to 1896. During the other years this phenomenon 
was not systematically recorded, as there are only about a dozen entries. The greatest 
number of cases was six in 1818 and 1884. The maximum in any month was three in 
February 1818, and again in September 1884. Sheet lightning is a comparatively 
common occurrence in winter, being frequently seen during severe gales, especially when 
accompanied by a low barometer. 


Hourly Sunshine Values. 


Table XLV. shows the distribution of bright sunshine throughout the day for the 
months, seasons, and the year. The results are derived from the records of a Campbell- 


82 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Stokes sunshine recorder, which occupies a good exposure at my meteorological station 
in the south side of Edinburgh. The hourly values have been tabulated for the six 
years ending with July 1896, the means given in the Table being for this period. 
Looking at the seasonal values, it will be seen that about four per cent. more sunshine 
is recorded after noon than before it, except in winter, when the afternoon hours are 
sunnier than the forenoon by nearly ten per cent. There is little doubt that the 
relatively greater clearness of the afternoons in winter is due to the prevalence of fog 
and haze during the morning hours. It will be observed that there is a well-marked 
seasonal swing in the hour characterised by the greatest amount of sunshine, which 
approximates closely to the time of highest mean temperature. Attention may also be 
drawn to the slow rate at which the sky clears in summer, compared with other seasons 
of the year. Thus in April, the mean amount of sunshine for the hours ending 7 a.M. 
and 11 A.M. is 3°7 hours and 13°1 hours, respectively, while in June the corresponding 
values are 9°2 hours and 10°4 hours. This is probably due to the condensation 
accompanying the strong ascending currents so prevalent during summer. 

In Table XLVI. the number of days with different percentages of sunshine is 
shown for the six years ending with July 1896. It will be seen from the maximum 
values that on practically cloudless days in summer at least ten per cent. of the possible 
sunshine is lost, owing to haze at the horizon; while in winter the amount so lost is 
about 25 per cent. Days with from 1 to 10 per cent. of the possible sunshine are the 
most frequent at all seasons of the year, sunless days excepted. The latter are at a 
maximum in winter when no sunshine is recorded in 42 per cent. of the cases. 


Rainband Observations. 


Observations of the thickness of the rainband in the spectrum of sunlight have been 
made three or four times a day since August 1887. The hours of observation were 
9 aA.M., noon, 3 P.M., and 6 P.M., the latter observation being dispensed with in the 
winter owing to lack of sunlight. The instrument employed was a direct vision 
spectroscope, which was pointed to the N.W. at an angle of from 40° to 50°. The scale 
was an arbitrary one, ranging from 0 to 6. The rainband was compared with the lines 
B, b, and F, to which values corresponding to 1, 2, and 3 were given. The following 
are the means for the ten years ending July 1896 :— 


Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June, July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Year, 
P14 O92 It4- O98 ~ 1-t5 Pe 28) 127 lO. l4 9 tae eee 


There is little doubt that the rainband spectroscope is a valuable auxiliary to the 
ordinary instruments for forecasting weather. The following Table gives certain 
particulars for the days on which rainband observations were made during the three 
years 1888-90 :— 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 83 


Per cent, of Cases 
Rainband. Days. Rain fell Days. followed by Rain within 
24 Hours, 
0:0 44 9 20 
0°5 146 44 27 
1:0 347 146 42 
15 256 143 56 
2:0 123 93 76 
2°5 and upwards 66 60 91 


It will be seen that there is a regular rise in the frequency of rainfall with an 
increasing raimband. The principal drawback to the forecasting value of these 
spectroscopic indications lies in the fact that nearly two-thirds of the readings are 
normal. It will be seen on reference to the Table that the chances of rain or no rain, 
with values corresponding to 1°0 and 1°5 on our mental scale, are pretty evenly 
balanced. Under such circumstances the observer must turn to his other instruments 
for guidance in framing his prognostications. Many cases occurred during the ten years 
under review when a thick rainband was observed with a clear sky, and a thin one with 
a cloudy sky, the accompanying weather being wet in the one case and dry in the 
other. One point specially noticed is that days on which hail fell are characterised by 
low rainband values, while the same may be said regarding days with snow. An 
elaborate investigation into the whole subject was commenced some time ago, but it has 
not been found possible to include the results in this paper. 


Solar and Terrestrial Radiation. 


The following tabular statement shows the more prominent results deduced from the 
reduction of the daily observations taken in the south side of Edinburgh during the 
nine years 1888-96. The solar radiation thermometer is at a height of four feet above 
the ground, and the terrestrial radiation at a height of a quarter of an inch over short 
grass. 

Tt will be seen that solar radiation is at a maximum in May, and at a minimum in 
December ; while terrestrial radiation is at a maximum in November, and at a minimum 
in June. The greatest excess of sun over shade temperature occurred on March 27, 1892, 
viz., 76°'8 ; while on May 22, 1890, the grass minimum fell 12°°6 below the minimum 
in shade. A few cases have been observed when slight inversions of the normal 
condition of affairs took place, the air at the time being nearly saturated and the sky 
densely overcast. The maximum excesses of sun over shade were observed in spring or 
early summer on days when showers and bright sunshine alternated. 


S+ MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Black Bulb in Vacuo. Bright Bulb on Grass. 
Excess over Shade Minus difference 
Max. from Shade. 
Maximum,| Mean. Mean. Greatest. | Minimum.| Mean, Mean. Greatest, 

January, : ; . | 845 56'1 13°8 45:2 75 29°4 4°3 | 10°7 
February, . A . | 103°3 70°3 26°7 61°4 7°0 29°3 3°8 10°6 
March, . c : , | 1160 84°6 38°5 76°8 17:3 30°6 4°] 12°2 
April, . i ‘ . | 129°0 96°6 44°3 65°7 20°0 33°9 4:2 12:0 
May, . : : : 133°0 107°5 48°5 67°7 Die 39°5 3°8 12°6 
June, . ; = ; 139°3 1111 47°7 71:0 31°3 45:2 2°8 111 
July, . 5 : ; 137°9 111°2 46°6 69°5 34°3 47°8 2°6 85 
August, : P ; 134:0 111°0 46°6 67°2 33°3 ATT 3°3 8°9 
September, . 2 ; 126°5 99°5 39°1 60°4 28'1 43°4 4°2 8'8 
October, ; ; , 22D 82°3 30°1 52°9 DAlie2 36°0 4°6 10°2 
November, . : ; 103°5 64:9 17°4 48°9 19:3 33°4 4°8 9°7 
December, . : ‘ 82:0 51°8 8'6 32°0 87 30°2 4°5 12°4 
Year, A 139°3 87°2 34°2 76°38 | 7:0 37°2 3°9 12°6 


Reduction of the Observations taken in Edinburgh, from June 1731 to May 1736.— 
(The observations are given in extenso in Medical Essays and Observations, vol. i. to 


v. Edin., 1748, 8rd ed.) 


This register seems to have been kept with much care and regularity. The observa- 
tions were made twice a day, the first nearly always at 9 a.M., the second between 2 
and 7 p.M., but as a rule either at 4 or 5 p.M. The observations made include readings 
of pressure, humidity, temperature, wind direction and force, and a condensed state of 
the weather at the time. The daily rainfall was also measured from June 1731 to May 
1735. The observations, it may be remarked, are adapted to the Julian or old style. 


Pressure. 


The barometer is described as a simple portable one, with a tube about a fourth of 
an inch in diameter. The scale was probably of wood. The instrument was kept in a 
chamber at a height of 270 feet above the level of the sea, the height being determined 
experimentally by carrying the instrument to the sea-shore during an anti-cyclonic 
period. ‘Ihe values given in the Table below have been corrected and reduced to 32° 
and sea-level. There was no attached thermometer, but a mean value of 60° was 
assumed, and the corrections for reducing observations made with instruments having 
wooden scales applied.* The values may be looked upon as tolerable approximations. 
The mean annual pressure was 29°877 inches. The highest mean pressure was 30°204 
inches in May 1733, and the lowest 29°530 inches in January 1736, showing a range of 
0°674 inches between the mean monthly pressures. 


* Simmond’s Meteorological Tables, p. 23. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 85 


Mean Pressure, 5 Years. 
b) 


Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June, July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. Year, 
Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. 
29°813 29°748 29°778  29°944 29°967- 30°021 29°923 29°913 29°840 29°876  29°961 29°749  29°877 


Temperature. 


The thermometer was placed along with the hygrometer in a perforated case freely 
exposed to the air on the outside of a window facing north. As the observer says, 
“neither the sun, or rain, nor the fire and company in the chamber can have any bad 
effect on the instruments within it, and the air has open free access to them.”* The 
instrument was filled with alcohol, and graduated into inches and tenths. “The freez- 
Ing point is at 8 inches and 2 tenths, and the heat of a man in health raises the spirit 
to 22 inches 2 tenths.” The conversion of the values to Fahrenheit’s scale is thus 
rendered an easy matter, as a change of 14:0 inches in the reading of the thermometer 
is equivalent to an alteration in temperature of 66°°6, the normal blood heat being 98°°6. 
The highest temperature recorded during the five years under consideration was 78° at 
6 P.M. on June 30, 1734 (New Style), and the lowest, 19°°5 at 9 a.m. on January 8, 1732 
(New Style), thus giving an extreme range of 58°°5 at the hours of observation. The 
following are the highest and lowest temperatures recorded during the five years. 


Jan. Feb. Mar. | Apr. May. | June, | July. | Aug. | Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. 


Highest, -| 515 | 50°5 | 645 | 64:5 | 70° | 78:0 | 73°5 | 76°0 | 64:5 | 62°5 | 49°5 | 54:0 
Lowest, . | 22°0 | 22°5 | 28:0 | 33°5 | 36°5 | 41°55 | 49°5 | 48:5 | 40°0 | 31°5 | 27:0 | 19°5 
Range, sie | 280 | S65 |) 31:0 | 34:0 | 36° | 24:0) 27:5 | 24:5 | 31:0 | 22°5 | 34:5 


In the reduction of the observations, for the purpose of obtaining mean monthly 
values, the morning reading was alone employed. The 9 a.m. values were accordingly 
extracted and averaged, Table XLVII. containing the corrected means for the five 
years. 

Table XLVIII. contains the observations brought to the mean of the maximum 
and minimum, the corrections being found from a comparison of the 9 a.m. readings 
with the mean temperature deduced from the average of the maxima and minima, for 
the years 1888-1896. The following are the monthly corrections thus obtained after 
smoothing the curve :— 


J oe Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 
oe ecm oCcme 0-00 —0'4 079 —9-0) 40-2 +0°3 403 +0°4 +075 .. +072 


* Medical Essays, vol. i. p. 8. 


86 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


The mean annual temperature for the period was 47°'0, being highest, 59°'9, in July 
and lowest, 36°'8, in January, a difference of 23°'1 between the mean monthly averages. 
The warmest month during the five years was July 1734, 61°'8, and the coldest, February 
1736, 33°°6, showing a range in the mean monthly temperatures of 28°°2. 


Rainfall. (Table XLIX.) 


The rainfall was measured from June 1731 to May 1735. The gauge was 28 
inches in diameter, and was placed on the top of a garden wall. Precautions were 
taken to prevent loss through evaporation, and the measurements were made, as a 
rule, every day. 

The wettest month was March 1735, with 5°38 inches, and the driest, May 1733, 
with only 0°08 inch of rain. 


Variability of Temperature. (Table L.) 


The mean daily temperature variability has been determined from the observations 
made at 9 A.M. The average for the period was 3°°4, being greatest, 5°:3, in October 
1731, and least, 2°°3, in September 1733. The mean varied from 4°:0 in December to 
3°°1 in May. 


Humuadity. 


The hygrometer, or rather hygroscope, consisted of a piece of whip-cord with a 
plummet appended. ‘The cord was alternately baked in an oven and saturated with 
moisture, before the scale was graduated. The operation was repeated four times until 
the difference in the length of the cord when fully dried to its length when saturated 
with moisture was constant at 4°5 inches. The point of greatest dryness on the scale 
was fixed at five-tenths of an inch, the scale extending to five inches, which was the 
point indicated in a completely saturated atmosphere. The instrument was inclosed in 
the perforated case containing the thermometer. Although this method of observation 
is crude, it may be of interest to give the results, as affording a tolerable approximation 
to the seasonal distribution of this element of climate. The mean annual humidity on 
this scale was 2°11, being at a maximum in December, viz., 2°47 inches, and at a 
minimum in May, viz., 1°70 inches. The seasonal variation in humidity was, therefore, 
virtually the same as during the last thirty-five years, 


Wind Direction. 


The number of days the wind blew from the eight principal points of the compass is 
shown in Table XXXII. which summarise the results of all the wind observations taken 
in Edinburgh. During the five years under review, the mean percentage frequency was 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 87 


N. 5, N.E. 8, E. 12, S.E. 9, 8. 9, S.W. 20, W. 28, N.W. 9. The wind vane on the steeple 
of St Giles’ Cathedral was the instrument employed in the determination of the 
direction. 


Gales. 


In addition to the direction the force of the wind is also given. The scale ranged 
from 0 to 4. The days on which the force was entered as 3 or above were picked out 
for the five years. The total was 154, equal to an annual average of 31. Their distri- 
bution throughout the year is shown in the following table :— 


Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. 
13 Jay, 19 9 12 1 6 4 14 12 15 16 


Fog or Mist. 


The total number of fogs recorded was 57, an average of 11 per annum. They were 
distributed throughout the year as follows :— 


Jan, Feb, Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. 
6 0 7 il 0 3 1 2 5 3 11 8 


The cold weather fogs of winter and those associated with the easterly winds of 
spring manifest themselves very clearly during the period under review. 


Thermal Windrose. 


The mean temperature of the winds is given in Table LIL., the observations utilised 
being those taken at 9 a.m. The 8 a.m. observations taken by Hoy at Hawkhill for 
seven years, 1770-1776, have also been analysed with reference to the temperature of 
the various winds (see Table LIIL.). The values given in the Tables refer to the months 
and the seasons, and it may be pointed out that the latter means are not the averages of 
the months comprised in the season but have been derived by taking the gross totals 
and dividing by the number of days, which gives the true average temperature of the wind. 
A comparison of the seasonal values derived from these old registers with similar means 


calculated from the 9 a.m. and 9 p.m. observations from July 1887 to June 1894 * gives 
the following results :— 


Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. 
Coldest. Warmest. Coldest. Warmest. Coldest. Warmest, Coldest. Warmest. 
1731-36 N.W. 48°0 | S.W. 48:8 N.E. 55:0 S. 61:0 N.W. 40°3 E. 46°8 N. 32°0 S.W. 40°8 
1770-76 N.W. 38:9 | S.W. 46:4 N. 55:7 S. 59°4 N.W. 42°6 N.E. 49°8 N. 33°4 S.W. 39°2 
1887-94 N. 40°9 | S.W. 47:2 KE, 52:7 | S.W. 58°6 N. 42:3 S.W. 50°5 N. 33°7 S.W. 43°3 
| ne Mareen er er? il emi erate ee de 


* Trans., vol. xxxviil. p. 750. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). Q 


88 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Hence the relative temperature of the winds has not appreciably changed during the 
last 160 years. The results are very accordant except the direction of the warmest 
point in Autumn, which was respectively E. from 1731-86, and N.E. from 1770-1776, 
while it was S.W. from 1887 to 1894. I incline to the belief that the unusual warmth 
of the sea winds during the earlier years is to be accounted for by the undue prevalence 
of anti-cyclonic weather in these months. It is evident that when we are calculating 
the mean temperature of a wind from a few values that the result will largely depend on 
the type of weather which predominated during the time the wind in question prevailed. 

The number of observations tabulated in’ the calculation of the windrose from 1731 
to 1736 was 1,826, from 1770 to 1776, 2,557 were employed, while during the seven 
years ending June 1894, 5,114 were utilised, so that it is evident that the latter average 
gives the closest approximation. 

An inspection of the thermal windroses for the three periods will reveal many points 
of similarity (see Plate IV.). 


Hygrometric Windrose (Table LIV.). 


The mean relative humidity of the winds has been already determined from the 
9 A.M. and 9 P.M. readings of the dry and wet bulb thermometer for the seven years 
ending June 1894. Values have been calculated for the five years 1731-36 with 
a view of ascertaining whether any change has taken place in the humidity recorded 
with the various winds. We cannot compare the actual means, but the following Table 
showing the dampest and driest directions for the four seasons may be of interest :— 


Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. 
Dampest. Driest. Dampest. Driest. Dampest. Driest. Dampest. Driest. 
1731-36 E. N.W. N.E. Ss. S.E. N.W. N.E. N.W. 
EWE [ee N.E. S.W. E, 
1887-94 E. N.W. E. S.W. 
N (z. S.E. N.W. S.E. 


There has, therefore, been no change of any importance in the wind with which our 
greatest and least humidities are experienced. ‘Taking the mean annual values, the 
dampest wind from 1731-36 was N.E., and the driest N.W., while during recent years 
the points were EK. and N.W. respectively. Sea winds were thus damp, and land winds 
dry, a result entirely in accordance with recent observations (see Plate IV.). 


General Results. 


An examination of the facts apparent from a comparison of the reduced values for 
the five years 1731-1736 with observations taken during recent years, shows conclusively 
that no appreciable alteration has taken place in the climate of the east of Scotland 

* Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvili. p. 751. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 89 


during at least the last 165 years. The seasonal distribution of pressure, temperature, 
wind and rain is the same now as at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and so far as 
we can ascertain there has been no change in the annual means of the more prominent 
elements of climate, while the prevalent weather of special months does not appear to 
have altered in the slightest. These conclusions are entirely in accordance with what 
we should expect. As is well known, the climate of a place is largely determined by the 
prevailing winds ; these in turn are simply the result of the distribution of the weight of 
the earth’s atmosphere over the globe. The latter is determined by the position and 
extent of the Jand and water surfaces, and as these have not materially altered within 
the last 200 years it may fairly be assumed that the circulation of the air and the 
climatic results springing therefrom are practically unchanged. Local influences, more 
especially drainage and deforesting, produce slight changes in climate; but so far as 
Edinburgh is concerned no alteration appears to have taken place during the last 
century and a half. 


Does the Weather Move in Cycles ? 


Tables of continuous five year averages of the more important climatic elements have 
been calculated with the primary object of giving an answer to this question. The 
method adopted was as follows :—The mean temperature of the five Januarys 1764-68 
was calculated and found to be 1°:7 below the normal temperature of the 
month; the difference, 1°°7 was accordingly entered in Table LV. opposite the 
year 1766 which is the middle year of the series. Then the mean of the five 
Januarys 1765-69 was similarly ascertained, and entered in the Table opposite 1767, and 
so on for each of the 129 groups of five year periods embraced in the 133 Januarys, 
means above the normal being entered in heavy and those below it in italic type. The 
eleven months and the year were similarly dealt with. The data discussed comprise 
temperature, pressure, wind direction, and rain (see Tables LV. to LVIII.). With 
regard to rainfall, the inquiry has been extended back to the year 1766 by differentiating 
during the missing years from registers kept at Peebles, Dumfries, and Branxholm. For 
copies of these registers I am indebted to Mr G. J. Symons, F.R.S. The hiatus thus 
completed comprises the years 1766-1769, 1777-79, July 1781 to Dec. 1784. The 
Peebles register was employed during most of this period, the rainfall of that spot 
approximating closely to the mean rainfall of Edinburgh during years which are common 
to both series. The mean monthly rainfalls for the period 1766-1896 were then 
ascertained, and the percentage of excess or defect calculated for each of the five year 
groups. Similar values were computed showing the percentage excess or defect of east 
and west winds. The winds were resolved to these two points by including S., S.W., W., 
and N.W. winds under west, and N., N.E., E., and S.E. winds under east. During some 
years calms were entered ; these were, however, eliminated from the discussion. It is not 
necessary to give the table showing the percentage excess or defect of east winds as they 
are simply the converse of west winds. 


90 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


The annual values of the non-instrumental phenomena during the last 127 years, 
1770-1896, have also been discussed (Table LIX.). The results are graphically shown 
along with other data on Plate III., the monthly departures of pressure, temperature, 
wind, and rain being shown on Plates I. to III. 

It may be here mentioned that we do not at present intend to discuss at any length 
or with any degree of elaboration the peculiarities, resemblances, and contrasts shown 
by an inspection of the diagrams, but merely to point out some of the more prominent 
features. 

Dr Bucuan, in the results of an investigation into the mean temperature of the N.E. 
of Scotland,* says :—‘‘The tendency of types of high and low temperature to be pro- 
longed through terms of years, very unequal as regards duration, is shown, both as 
regards the months and the year, in a manner so decidedly as to suggest no appearance 
of a temperature cycle.” I have only to add in this connection that the above remark 
is equally applicable to pressure, wind, and rain, as well as to the non-instrumental 
phenomena. The most casual glance at the diagrams will establish the truth of this 
assertion. There is, apparently, no periodicity in the recurrence of weather. If such a 
period could be found weather-forecasting would be a very simple matter, as it would 
only be necessary to have observations over one of the periods. Our weather, as is well 
known, is the result of the distribution of cyclonic and anti-cyclonic areas over western 
Europe and the adjacent parts of the Atlantic. The average path pursued by, and rate 
of motion of these areas, are known, but they are subject to many irregularities. In 
winter, for example, the normal condition of pressure in our immediate vicinity is low 
to the N. and W., and high to the 8S. and HE. The result of this pressure distribution is a 
predominance of warm equatorial winds, the atmospheric flow being from the Atlantic 
Ocean towards the interior of the Eurasian continent. In some winters, however, as in 
that of 1895, the normal distribution of pressure is reversed, with the result that the 
whole wind system of Europe passes from N.E. to 8. W., the prevailing winds being there- 
fore from the N. and E. Little or nothing is at present known regarding the causes 
concurring in the production of these weather anomalies. All that can be done in the 
meantime is to steadily accumulate and reduce observations. 

The following is a condensed abstract of the prominent weather conditions prevailing 
during the past 133 years, the time under discussion being divided when possible into 
periods of twenty years. 

1766 to 1780.—This period was characterised by low pressure, there being also a 
great depression of temperature till 1776. The cold was pretty evenly partitioned 
throughout the months and the seasons, a noticeable feature, however, being the mild- 
ness of the Decembers. From 1777 to the end of this period very warm weather 
prevailed which culminated in 1779. Rainfall was above the average during the time, 
the excess being largely brought about by the wetness of the autumns and winters. 
After 1770, equatorial winds predominated. Snowfall was about normal, but hail, 


* Jour, Scot. Met. Soc., vol. ix. p. 227, 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 91 


thunderstorms, and fog, were distinctly below the average. Gales were slightly in 
excess during the years of low pressure. 

1781 to 1800.—Pressure was above the mean till 1787, and then below the normal 
as a whole. Temperature was low during the period of high barometer, but thereafter 
much above the average. Speaking broadly, the temperature was below the normal from 
October to March, and above it during the other half of the year, the exceptional warmth 
of the summers being a striking feature. The unusual depression of temperature during 
some of the Marches and the Decembers is also of interest, the cold being brought about 
by the unusual excess of polar winds during these months. During most of the period 
rainfall was in excess. There was a marked deficit of westerly winds till about 1794. 
Snowstorms were frequent. Hail was just the average, and thunderstorms, gales, and 
fog, very much below their normal frequency. 

1801 to 1820.—The weather of this period was characterised by a low barometer, a 
low mean temperature, a deficiency of rainfall, and a marked deficiency of westerly 
winds. Warm summers continued to prevail till about 1808, but thereafter the 
depression of temperature manifested itself in a prominent degree throughout the 
months and the seasons. In the heart of this great cold occurred some of the worst 
harvests of the century. The outstanding feature of the meteorology of the period 
under review was, however, the frequency of hyperborean storms of the first order, 
these snowstorms being of a severity, extent, and duration which have not been 
equalled since. Hail was above, but thunderstorms on the whole below, the average. 
Gales were greatly above the normal, while fogs were rare, except from 1805 to 
e811. 

1821 to 1840.—The characteristic features of this period were a rather high pressure, 
normal rainfall, and excess of temperature. West winds were above the normal from 
1820 to 1826 and from 1831 to 1836. Snowstorms show a decided excess from 1836 to 
1840, during which time polar winds prevailed with a low temperature. Pressure was 
also low, and rainfall above the average during the time. With regard to the non- 
instrumental phenomena, hail, thunderstorms, gales, and fog, were all above their average 
frequency. 

1840 to 1860.—Low pressure prevailed with a very high temperature and small 
rainfall. The wet Junes and dry Aprils, Septembers, and Decembers, are striking 
features of the meteorology of this period. West winds show a marked excess after 
1848. Snow and hail storms were infrequent; thunderstorms about the average ; and 
fog much in excess of the normal. Gales were of common occurrence till 1850. 

1861 to 1880.—Pressure was above the average with but few and unimportant 
interruptions. Temperature was below the average from 1861 to 1866, and after 1876. 
During most of the time cold summers prevailed, the winters on the whole being mild. 
Rainfall was much above the average. West winds were greatly in excess during the 
first cold period, but in defect during the second spell of low temperature. Snowstorms 
were on the whole infrequent. Thunderstorms show an enormous excess after 1868 


92 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


with a slight dip during the time of maximum cold. Gales were below, but for much 
above the normal. 

1881 to 1894.—Pressure was much above the normal ; the mean temperature, how- 
ever, being just about the average during the ten years ending 1890, when the warm 
winters were balanced by the cold summers. A drought prevailed during most of the 
time. West winds were in excess, thunderstorms much above average, and gales 
above the normal till 1888, During most of the time fog was uncommon. 


Frost Days. 


Table LX. shows the number of times the minimum temperature in shade fell to or 
below 32° in each month during eighty-one years; the data from 1802 to 1823 were 
obtained from the Edinburgh Advertiser record, while AprE’s observations were utilised 
from 1824 to 1831 and from 1840 to 1851. The values from 1857 to 1896 are from the 
observations taken by the Edinburgh observers of the Scottish Meteorological Society. 
The total number of frosts recorded was 5294, equal to an average of 65 per annum. 
The annual number varied from 108 in 1879 to 33 in 1822. The maximum in one 
month was 29 in January 1814. 

Table LXJ. shows the values grouped according to winters, with date of first and last 
frost. The maximum number of frosts was in the winter of 1878-79 with 116 cases, 
and the minimum in the winter of 1821-22 with 28 cases. The mean date of first 
frost is October 23, and the mean date of last frost, April 26. The earliest date of first 
frost was September 22 in 1844, and the latest December 4 in 1811. The latest date of 
last frost was June 8, 1814, and the earliest March 12, 1874. 

Table LXII. shows the values for each day in the year. 

Table LXIII. shows the number of times the minimum temperature fell to 20° or 
below. The total number of cases was 239, equal to an average of 3 per annum. The 
greatest number in any year was 19 in 1881, while there were twenty-two years without 
any. The maximum in one month was 14 in January 1814, closely followed by January 
1881 with 13 instances. The earliest date was October 15, 1824 with a minimum of 
20°:0, and the latest April 2, 1831, when the temperature fell to 17°°0. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 93 


APPENDIX OF REMARKABLE ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA. 


The appended catalogue of phenomenal atmospheric occurrences in Edinburgh has 
been compiled from a variety of sources. Some of the notices prior to 1740 have been 
obtained from such works as CoamMBeRsS’ Domestic Annals, Low’s Natural Phenomena 
and Chronology of the Seasons, and Suort’s General Chronological History of the Air. 
The method generally adopted, subsequent to 1764, was to examine the manuscript 
notes of the various Edinburgh observers, extract anything of interest, and go to the 
newspapers for further particulars. Copious extracts were made from such papers as 
the Caledonian Mercury, Scots Magazine, Edinburgh Magazne, Edinburgh Advertiser, 
and Scotsman. Condensed abstracts were then prepared and entered in the catalogue. 
The primary object in compiling this list is to place on record the more noteworthy 
and remarkable atmospheric occurrences. In this way, should any apparently un- 
wonted phenomenon occur, we shall at once be able to form an opinion as to whether it 
is unprecedented or otherwise. In dealing with such a long period it would be sanguine 
to imagine that every occurrence of a phenomenal nature has been brought to light. 
If any omissions come to the reader’s notice, I should be much obliged for a 
reference. Care has been taken to avoid giving facts that are readily apparent from an 
inspection of the various tables scattered throughout the paper. 


Year. Phenomenon, REMARKS, 

1575 and | Drought MairTianD informs us that in these years there was such scarcity of 

1582 water that the Magistrates strictly prohibited all the brewers from drawing 
any out of the town wells, “but to fetch what they had occasion for from 
the South Loch or Meadows.” 

1595 Snow March 10. Commenced ‘‘ ane horrible tempest of snaw, whilk lay upon 
the ground till the 14[th] of April thereafter.” 

1595 Dearth Dearth owing to failure of the harvest. 

1596 Storms July 1 to August 6. Severe gales; no less than sixty-six ships lost at Leith. 

1598 Eclipse February 17. Total eclipse of sun between 9 and 10 a.m. 

1609 Storm January 5. Severe storm; people lifted off the ground by the violence 
of the wind. 

1614-15 | Frost Very intense frost. ‘‘In February the Tay was frozen over so strongly 
as to admit of passage for both man and horse.” 

1615 Snow March 2. A great snowstorm; all communication stopped throughout 
the country. 

1624-25 | Frost Hard frost from Martinmas 1624, which lasted till February 23, 1625. 

1625 Storm March 28-30. Severe storm ; many vessels lost at Leith. 

1625 | Rains Heavy rains prevailed from the middle of May till the end of June, 
doing serious injury to the crops. 

1627 Rains July. Great falls of rain. 

1633 Snow February 7. ‘There began a great storm of snow, with horrible high 
winds.” The ordinary ebb and flow of the tide interrupted for twenty- 
four hours at Leith and other places on the East Coast. 

1634-35 | Frost and Storms The winter is described as “‘ the most tempestuous and stormy that has 
been seen in Scotland these sixty years past.” Snow lay from the 9th of 
December to the 9th of March, the fall being particularly heavy from 


January 26 to February 16. 


94 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Year. Phenomenon. REMARKS. 


1652 | Total Solar Eclipse) March 29. Eclipse observed between 8 and 11 a.m., the sky being 
perfectly clear. This day was long known as “ Mirk Monday.” 


Liberton church was struck by lightning, and in the east end of the church 
/ a smooth round hole was made in one of the windows re a hailstone, some 
| of which were nearly 2 inches in diameter. 


1652 Hot summer September, Very hot summer and plentiful harvest. 

1655 Storms February. Severe and protracted storms, followed by a frost which 
continued till April. 

1655 Rains August very wet, threatening the crops with destruction. 

1655 Storm December 10. Great gale from N.E.; many ships lost and much 
damage on land. 

1659 Thunderstorm September 1. Great thunderstorm with very heavy rain. Sixteen 
mills on the Water of Leith were destroyed. 

1664 Comet December. Remarkable comet, “in the head the breadth of ane reason- 
able man’s hand, and sprang out in the tail the length of five or six ells.” 

1667 Drought Severe in summer; grass burned up. 

1668 Storm October. Violent storm ; many ships lost. 

1673 | Rains Very wet summer. 

1674 Snowstorm February 20 to March 4. Great fall of snow, long remembered as the 
“Thirteen Drifty Days.” 

1675 Frost December 18. Great cold ; “ the most aged never remembered the like.” 
Ale froze. 

1681 Drought From March to June 24. Severe drought, with continuance of searching 
easterly winds. 

1683-84 | Frost Severe frost from November to March. 

1684 | Snow Gale at end of October with snow and thunder. 

1698 | Cold Spring An “unkindly cold and winter-like spring ;” great want of food and seed ; 
sheep and cattle died in great numbers. 

1709 | Dearth May. ‘There was at this time a dearth of victual in Scotland. 

1715 | Eclipse April 22. Total eclipse of the sun at 9 a.m. The darkness lasted over 
three minutes. 

1717 | Thunderstorm June 10. Severe thunderstorm. A man and woman were killed 
instantaneously, and a gentleman so severely scorched that he died in a 
few hours. 

1722 | Gale September 1. A high wind shook the crops in the Lothians, doing 
particular damage to the pease. 

1723 | Drought Summer remarkably dry and sultry, with little wind. 

1732 | Snow May 1. A great fall of snow. 

1732 | Frost May 2. Ice so strong as to bear man and horse. Lambs succumbed 
to the excessive cold. 

1732 | Gale and Light- September 10, Violent hurricane of wind and rain between 5 and 6 p.m. 

ning. Very vivid lightuing, “so that it appeared as if the whole horizon had 
been in a flame (which continued for about four minutes); the like has not 
‘| been seen here in the memory of the oldest man _ living.”—Caledonian 

Mercury. 

1736 | Gale November 12. Great gale from N.W. 

1736 | Frost November 12-18. ‘Frost so severe that in 24 hours after it began 
persons were walking on the lake.” 

| 1736 | Aurora November 13. Brilliant aurora. 

1738 | Frost In December 1738 and January and February 1739, very severe frost. 
Snow lay deep on the ground for six weeks, 

1740 | Hurricane January 14. Hurricane from W.S.W. commenced at 1 a.M. accompanied 
with lightning. Sheet lead torn from roof of St Giles’ Cathedral, and blown 
like paper through the air. Great damage to property ; many chimneys 
blown down, and streets strewn with tiles and slates. Trees which had 
stood at Penicuik for 200 years blown to the ground. 

1740 | Snowstorm May 4. Great quantity of snow. 

1744 | Thunderstorm August 13. Severe thunderstorm ; several people and cattle stunned ; 
very heavy rain and hail fell, flooding streets and cellars. The steeple of 


1773 
1773 
1774 
1774 
1774 
1774 
1775 
1776 


1776 
1776 
1778 
1778 
1778 
1778 
1779 
1779 
1779 
1779 
1780 
1780 
1780 
1781 
1783 
1784-85 


1786 
1786 


1787 
1789 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 95 


Phenomenon. 


Snowstorm 
Thunderstorm 


Snowstorm 


Sudden Thaw 
Thunderstorm 


Aurora 
Comet 
Hurricane 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Frost 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Thunderstorms 
Protracted cold 


Thunderstorm 
Earthquake 


Rainstorm 


Earthquake 


REMARKS. 


January 24. Severe snowstorm ; many lives lost in the Border counties. 

January 3. Thunderstorm from 9 P.M. continued till early morning 
of 4th. 

January 2. Great fall of snow, with thunder and lightning late on 
evening of 2nd and morning of 3rd. 

January 14, ‘‘ Owing to a sudden thawing of the ice on the Water of 
Leith, it came down in great quantities into the harbour and did much 
damage to vessels there.” 

July 30. Severe thunderstorm at 11 a.m. lasting one and a half hours. 
Royal Infirmary struck, the glass in four windows being broken. Three 
men injured. 

October 24. Red aurora seen in south at 8 P.M. 

Well observed in August. 

January 20. Severe W.S.W. gale, blowing a perfect hurricane between 
3and 5 a.m. A stack of chimneys on the west gable of a house situated in 
Gosford’s Close, Lawnmarket, fell and killed three persons, A whole range 
of the heavy stone balustrade of the (then) New Bridge was fairly shifted 
from its position, carried down to the foot pavement in a regular order, and 
most of the stones broken. 

July 26. 

September 11. 

March 3, 14. 

August 10, 

November 13 and 14. 

December 25. 

February 21. 

Very severe frost all January. Ice on lochs 12 to 16 inches thick at 
beginning of February. On January 31 it is recorded that on this morning, 
at Hawkhill House, the milk froze in milking the cow. 

March 28. 

April 16, 20. 

February 25. 

March 31. 

April 15. 

October 13, 14, 19. 

February 10, 13, 14, 15. 

March 24, 25. 

April 8, 9, 22. 

July 15. 

February 29. 

November 19, 22, 23. 

December 19. 

April 25. 

July 2and 10. Very severe. 

‘A meteorological correspondent assures us from observation, that from 
the 18th of October 1784 till the present time, which is a period of 143 days, 
there have been only 26 in which the thermometer has not been from 1 to 
18 degrees and a half below the freezing point, which is a more constant 
succession of cold weather than has been known in this climate. Last year 
there were 89 days of frost, and in the year 1779 there were 84 ; in 1763 
there were 94 days of frost, and in the celebrated winter of 1739 there 
were only 103, which are 12 fewer than in the present winter.” Edinburgh 
Magazine. 

July 26. Great storm from 3 to 7 P.m., with heavy rain and hail. 

August 11. Slight shock in Edinburgh and Leith; severe in other 
places. 

December 9. Great rainstorm, 4°20 inches falling within 24 hours. 
Much damage done in Leith harbour. 

September 30. Slight shock. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I, (NO. 6). R 


96 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


| Year | Phenomenon 
1791 Gale 
1792 | Lightning 
1795 Great frost 


1795 


1796 


1796 


1797 


1799 
1799 


1800 


1800 


1801 


1801 


Gale and rainstorm 


Storm 


Lunar rainbow 


Thunderstorm 


Snowstorm 


Cold summer 


Snowstorm 


Frost 


Rainstorm 


Earthquake 


REMARKS. 


January 13. Heavy gale of wind from 4 to 5.30 a.M., attended with 
rain and flashes of very vivid lightning from the S.W. 

January 20. A flash of lightning came down the chimney into the 
porter’s room in Watson’s Hospital, doing slight damage. 

January 20-27. Continued snowstorm. Mail coaches delayed. 

February 9. In the High Street a woman was dangerously wounded on 
the head owing to a huge mass of snow falling off the roof of one of the 
houses. 

February 11. Very heavy snowfall; so deep was the snow that the 
hackney coaches were frequently obliged to draw with four horses. Mail 
coaches snowed up. 

February 12. The snow lies excessively deep in the streets of 
Edinburgh and in the neighbourhood. Three hundred soldiers and 
labourers employed by the Magistrates to clear the roads to the 
coal-hills. 

February 14. A gentle thaw commences, with the thermometer from 34 
to 40 degrees ; this, however, is soon again succeeded by frost. Frost broke 
up on 3rd of March, having lasted 53 days. 

November 18. Severe N.E. gale with great rainstorm, supposed to have 
been the worst for 30 years. About 10 a.m. the Water of Leith rose to such 
a height that the low grounds adjacent to it were submerged ; bridge at 
Bonnington Mills swept away; ground floors of houses in back of Canongate, 
Cowgate, etc., submerged ; roadsimpassable. Meadow near Hope Place like 
large lake. P.M., snow. 

January 23, Severe storm from §.S.W. that blew down trees and un- 
roofed houses. 

December 27. This evening, about five minutes before ten o’clock, there 
was observed in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh a most beautiful prismatic 
rainbow of considerable extent, in the north-west quarter of the horizon, 
directly opposite to the moon, then two days past full, and shining very 
dazzlingly from the south-east through cold, stormy, flying clouds or showers. 
This phenomenon, which is believed to be a very unusual one, continued with 
little alteration for more than five minutes, differing nothing in appearance 
from a faint solar rainbow, the red, yellow, and green colours, and even a 
shade of the blue or purple being distinctly marked, without any resem- 
blance whatever to an Aurora Borealis. 

July 14. Sharp thunderstorm ; ‘“‘a flash of lightning darted down the 
chimney and entered a room on the ground floor of a house in the Water of 
Leith village near this city.” A girl eleven years of age was burnt in a 
severe manner. A number of copper and iron articles which were near the 
chimney changed colour, 

February 9. This day “was remarkable for the most violent storm of 
wind and snow that is remembered in this country.” —PuayrFaIr. 

The period from the 20th of March to the 20th October was characterised 
by a great depression of temperature, so much so that the harvest was not 
generally got in till the end of November, and in high grounds till nearly 
the end of December. j 

January 2, Heavy fall of snow accompanied by a strong gale from the 
S.E. Snow lying from 2 to 3 feet in depth. Great damage on east coast ; 
many vessels lost. It was computed that 80 seamen belonging to the port 
of Aberdeen alone perished on this occasion, 

February 7 to 14. Severe frost; the new basin at Leith was nearly 
covered with ice. Severe snowstorms in England, the London mail due 
on the 14th not arriving till Wednesday the 17th. 

September 4, Exceedingly heavy shower of rain at 7 p.m. ‘The 
heaviest shower in my remembrance,” ——WATERSTON. 

September 7. Slight shock of earthquake felt in Edinburgh at 6 a.m. 
Beds, tables, chairs, etc., shook violently in some houses, The motion was 
from N. to S. 


- 1808 


Year. 


1801 


1801 


1803 
1806 


1807 
1807 
1807 


1808 
1808 
1808 


1808 
1808 


1808 
1809 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


Phenomenon. 


Meteor 


Aurora 


Gales 


Thunderstorm 


Gale 
Comet 


Frost 


Snow 

Thunderstorm 
and hail 

Great heat 

Snow and meteor 


Gale 
High tides 


Snow 


Great cold 


REMARKS. 


December 5, A little before midnight, a large meteor, with a globular 
head and a long tail, was seen, the whole atmosphere being surrounded 
with a blaze of light, so that the smallest object could have been picked up 
on the streets. It was seen for about two seconds. 

December 5. Very fine red and violet aurora, ‘During the evening a 
whizzing kind of noise was heard in the air, exactly similar to the sound 
which always accompanies the electric spark from the glass cylinder to the 
conductor. During the time when the coruscations were most vivid, the top 
of St Giles’ steeple seemed to emit rays of light in all directions (St Elmo’s 
Fire?), in every respect similar to a glass jar when surcharged with the 
electric fluid.” 

From January 8 to 10 a severe gale blew, doing much damage to the 
shipping along the east coast. 

August 9, A storm, exceeding in violence perhaps anything in remem- 
brance, was experienced at Edinburgh and the neighbourhood. The thunder 
and lightning continued, without intermission, from 2 o’clock in the after- 
noon till past 8 o’clock in the evening. The lightning was forked and ex- 
tremely vivid, and the peals of thunder tremendously loud. The rain fell 
in torrents, and continued to fall till 5 o’clock on Sunday morning. The 
storm was preceded by a heavy gust of wind, which seemed to darken the 
atmosphere by the quantity of dust it hurled into the air. The morning 
was very sultry, and the thermometer stood at 73° in the shade. 

During the storm a most violent squall of wind arose from the south- 
west, which overset and sunk a pleasure boat, belonging to a gentleman in 
South Queensferry, then near the island of Incheolm, The owner of the 
boat, his servant, a skipper, and two tradesmen, all residing in Queensferry, 
were on board, and al] unfortunately perished. On Sunday different boats 
and expresses were despatched from Queensferry in quest of them. The 
Ferry Custom-house boat found one of the oars, the water ballast-box, 
and two deals, used as tables. A vessel off St Abb’s Head had her mast 
shivered. WatTERSTON describes this as “one of the worst storms in my 
remembrance,” 

September 6. Strong northerly gale with very heavy rain. Mnch corn 
swept away in viciuity of Edinburgh, 

October 4. Comet observed, It continued visible till the beginning of 
November. 

November. An exceptionally cold month, mean temperature 34°:0. 
“The quantity of snow fallen and the number of frosty days this month, 
as also the circumstance of the Clyde being frozen at Glasgow, and the 
Tweed at Kelso, are said to be unprecedented in the memory of the oldest 
inhabitant so early as November.” — WAtTERSTON. 

April 8 and 22. Heavy snowfall, the depth in Edinburgh being over 
half-a-foot. 

May 7. The hailstones to-day were of uncommon size, some being half- 
an-inch in circumference. 

July 13-15. Very hot, the thermometer varying from 76° to 86° in 
the shade. In London the temperature rose to 100°. 

October 14. Heavy snow fell in morning to the depth of 6 inches. At 
7.30 P.M, a meteor passed over the city. 

October 21. Heavy 8.W. gale. Building at foot of the Mound con- 
taining model panorama of the Battle of Trafalgar blown down. 

November 17-20. The tides at Leith were of uncommon height. Tides 
equally great are on record, but four successive tides of such height and im- 
petus no one recollects to have observed. 

Dec, 23, 24. Heavy snowfall; depth on the average being 9 
inches. 

January . By the end of December, the large quantity of snow 
which had fallen in that month had disappeared from off the ground. The 
wind, however, remained chiefly at E.and N.E. On 2nd January, the cold 


98 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Year. Phenomenon. REMARKS. 


ees 


1809 | Great cold—contd.| became pretty severe, and it continued so for several succeeding days, ac- 
companied with much drifting snow, and some hail. On the 7th, the wind 
veering for some time towards the south, a gentle thaw commenced, This 
continued till the 12th, when frost again set in. The quantity of snow near 
Edinburgh, was, at this time, nothing to what occurred to the north of the 
Forth. Between Queensferry and Kinross, it lay from 6 to 10 feet deep 
for many days. On Wednesday the 18th, in the evening, the frost became 
exceedingly intense, the mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer falling as low 
as 11° or 21° below the freezing point in the neighbourhood of this city. 
At Foxhall, about eight miles west from Edinburgh, in a window exposed 
to the current of air from the N.E., it was observed as low as 6°, or 26° be- 
low the freezing point. During the three following days, the thermometer 
indicated from 22° to 28°. Sunday the 22nd was one of the coldest days 
in the remembrance of the present generation. At8 o’clock in the morning, 
in this city, the mercury stood at 11°. A little way from town it was 
observed at 8°. In Queen Street, exposed to the north, it was as low 
as 6°, In the evening it was perhaps still colder ; for, at Foxhall, it was 
noticed as low as 5°, or 27° below the freezing point. The large basin of 
the new harbour at Leith, though filied with salt water, was so completely 
frozen over, that the sailors could pass from ship to ship upon the ice. 
From the 22nd to the 25th, the thermometer varied from 15° to 
25°. 

January 26. The intensity of the cold began this day to abate, Snow 
fell copiously, drifting in some places to the depth of many feet. The ice 
on the lakes in this neighbourhood has been observed to be from 18 to 22 
inches thick. 

January 27. In the morning the mercury rose 15° above the freezing 
point ; and a breeze springing up from the S.W., the snow began to dis- 
appear rapidly. 

January 29. “Squalls from S.W., accompanied with heavy showers of 

rain, have produced so rapid a solution of the immense quantity of snow 
which covered the high grounds, that all the meadows are flooded, and the 
level parts of the country around Edinburgh appear as if spotted with small 
lakes,” — NEILL. 
1809 | Snow May 29. <A heavy fall of snow and hail has rendered the whole country 
around Edinburgh quite white. The snow and hail continuing at intervals 
on the 30th and 31st, in some places, to the south of this, lay on the 
ground a foot and a half deep. 


1809 | Thunderstorm August 3. At half past 7 p.m. a thunderstorm passed over Leith and 
Edinburgh. The lightning killed a boy at the former place. 

1809 | Meteor August 11. At half past 9 p.m. a meteor was seen in the north-west. It 
appeared about the saine time at Glasgow. 

1809 | Thunderstorm August 13. Violent thunderstorm with torrents of rain at 1 P.M. 


Streets inundated, and part of a garden wall at the west end of Queen 
Street washed away. 

1810 | Snowstorm January 15. On this day a heavy fall of snow came on. On the follow- 
ing morning the depth around Edinburgh was 18 inches. So much has not 
fallen in such a short space of time for fourteen years past, since the re- 
markable winter of 1795. The fall was but local, extending little beyond 
Dunbar to the 8. and Glasgow to the W. Thick fog on the 20th, which 
covered trees and shrubs with beautiful frost crystals. 


1810 | Snow May 4-7. A good deal of snow and hail has fallen, with the wind from 
E. and N.E. 


1810 | Meteor August 28. A few minutes past 12 p.m. a very brilliant meteor ap- 
peared here, in the §.W., and rapidly proceeded in a north-easterly direc- 
tion. Its apparent size and shape were those of a large tun or hogshead. 


It had stripes or bands of bright light along its sides, which continued a 
short way beyond the ball, and formed a sort of fringed tail. No noise 
was heard. 


1811 


1811 


1811 


1811 


1811 
1811 


1812 


1812 
1812 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 99 


Phenomenon. 


Gale and lightning 


Snow and frost 


Thunderstorm 


Thunderstorm 


Comet 


Tides 
High tides 


Protracted Snow- 
storm 


High Tide 
Snow and Frost 


REMARKS. 


December 20. After a rapid thaw and change of wind, at half past 10 
P.M., with a strong south-westerly gale, and heavy showers of rain, there 
occurred a great deal of lightning. It continued with little intermission for 
several hours. No thunder was heard. 

April 7 and 8. Intense frost, with showers of hail and snow, and a 
strong gale from N.W., continued for these two days. The mercury in the 
thermometer was several times at 24°, and once as low as 20°, or 12° below 
the freezing point. Vegetation had been proceeding rapidly, and has thus 
met with a very severe check. 

On the afternoon of the 8th June, a thunder-cloud passed over the south 
side of the city of Edinburgh, making.frequent discharges of electric matter 
into the earth. A house situated in Fountainbridge Street, at the head of 
the Lothian Road, unfortunately became the conductor of one of these 
discharges, The fluid penetrated one of the chimneys shattering many 
large stones, and projecting some of them violently to a distance. The 
fluid passed through several apartments in the house, conducted chiefly by 
the bell wires, which it twisted, melted, and oxidated in its progress. The 
gilding on a picture-frame was partly converted into a purple oxide ; and 
a large oil-painting was completely disfigured, the oil and colours having 
undergone chemical changes. A maid-servant was slightly struck by the 
fluid, as appeared from arborescent marks on one of her shoulders, and at 
the same time she was severely scorched by her clothes catching fire. 

June 25. This morning, another thunder cloud passed in the vicinity 
of this city, making very frequent discharges. A labouring man, going to 
his work at Craigleith quarry, a little before 6 o’clock, was suddenly and 
forcibly thrown to the ground, where he lay stunned for some time. 

August 30. A faint, nebulous comet was seen this evening, which con- 
tinued to grow in brightness till about November 8, when it was of great 
magnitude and brilliancy. 

October 31. Exceptionally high tide at Leith ; much damage done. 

On the night between Friday the lst and Saturday the 2nd of November 
the waters of the North Sea rose to a very unusual height. The rise 
exceeded 20 feet in the Firth of Forth. 

March 19. Early on the morning of the 19th a sudden and heavy fall 
of snow took place. In about three hours it lay near a feot thick all 
around Edinburgh. Ali kinds of country labour were therefore com- 
pletely stopped. 

March 21. A strong gale from N.E., with continued snow, has rendered 
most of the roads in this neighbourhood impassable. In many places the 
snow, where drifted, lies 8 feet deep on the roads, hiding hedges and walls 
from the view. ‘The mail-coaches could no longer make their way, even 
with six horses. In the valleys about Arthur’s Seat hills, the snow, in 
some hollows, is from 15 to 20 feet deep. 

March 22. The London mail came into and left town this day on horse- 
back, the roads being so blocked up by snow as to be totally impassable to 
coaches. 

March 23. The snow ceased; but this evening an intense frost set in, 
the mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer falling to 23°, or 9° below freezing 
point. 

March 26. The severe frost still continues, the mercury at 8 this morn- 
ing standing at 24°, and having been observed, more early, as low as 21”, 
or 11° below freezing. 

“Even now (27th March) all the lakes and pools are thickly frozen over, 
and to see boys skating on the North Loch ditches, on Good Friday, is 
perhaps rather a novelty.”’— NEILL. 

October 21. Very high tide at Leith. Streets inundated. 

December 10. Heavy fall of snow, followed by intense cold. On the 
12th, in the evening, the mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer stood at 
134°, or 184° below the freezing point. 


100 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Year. Phenomenon. : REMARKS, 


1813 | Drought September. This month and the last have seldom been surpassed for 
dryness, sunshine, and warmth. During a period of ten weeks only two 
rainy days occurred. 

1814 | Great Frost On Sunday, 2d January, there was a good deal of rain, but towards even- 

ing the atmosphere became clear, accompanied by such intense cold during 

the night that next morning boys were venturing on the ice which covered 
the mill-pond at Canonmills. The snow soon after began to fall, and it lay 
on the open fields about Edinburgh nearly 16 inches deep on an average ; 
where drifted, it was from 3 to 6 feet in depth. The cold was very 
great, the temperature ranging from 17° to 22°, but at 8 a.m. of the 
15th January it was, at Canonmills, as low as 10°'5, while during the early 
morning it had, in the New Town, fallen as low as 9°. On the 18th, at 

8 a.M., a reading of 11° was recorded, and it had at the same time been 

observed 3° lower in the neighbourhood. At Glasgow it is stated to have 

fallen to — 5°, 

The Firth of Forth was nearly covered with floating ice from Queensferry 
upwards. From the interstices which remained free the vapour ascending 
from the water became suddenly condensed, producing the appearance of 
smoke rising from the surface, exactly as is described to happen in Hudson’s 
Bay and West Greenland, at the edges of the ice. Many birds were 
benumbed with the cold, and easily surprised and caught. The frost con- 
tinued unabated till the 24th of January, when a gentle thaw commenced. 
The ice in the vicinity of Edinburgh varied from 7 inches in the large lochs 
to over a foot on the rivers. During February, alternate frosts and thaws 
succeeded each other, but the ice which covered the lakes on the 3rd of 
January did not wholly disappear till the 24th of February, having thus 
lasted 52 days. ‘The effect of the severe weather was to delay the London 
| mails considerably,—the one on the 13th, due at 7 a.m., not arriving till 
past 5 p.m. On the 14th and 15th it was also much behind time. From 
the 17th to the 21st it was one day later, and all the other mails, except 
from Glasgow, were also one or two days behind. The London mails due 
on the 22nd, 23rd, 24th, and 25th did not reach Edinburgh till the evening 
of the 26th, a circumstance unprecedented, there never before having been 
more than three London mails due at one time. Two still remained due 
on the 27th, and there was always one behind till after the 3lst. Much 
damage was done to bridges, etc., on the breaking-up of the ice on the Esk 
and other places, 


1814 | Heat August 25. The shade temperature at the Calton Hill observatory rose 
to 84° at 2 P.M. 

1814 | Aurora September 11. Very bright aurora. So bright was the light that it 
was possible to read a book of a large type. 

1814 | Lunar Rainbow September 15, Fine lunar rainbow. 

1814 | Aurora September 11. At 7.30 p.m. a column of light was observed stretching 


along the northern hemisphere from §.W. to N.E., in appearance not unlike 
the Milky Way. 

1814 | Frost November 20. Sharp frost. During the following night the tempera- 
ture fell to 21°. Next morning the margins of the lochs around Edinburgh 
were covered with skaters. 


1815 | Snow and Frost A severe storm of snow and frost continued from the 20th of January to 
the end of month. 

1815 | Gale January 27 and 28. Severe E.N.E. gale with very high tide at Leith. 
Solid masonry on the pier broken down by the huge waves. 

1815 | Aurora September 26. Aurora. 

1815 | Thunderstorm November 24. Thunderstorm with hail. 
| 1816 | Snow April 18. Heavy snowstorm, 
| 1816 | Earthquake August 13. Slight shock at 11 p.m. 

1816 | Aurora September 24. Brilliant aurora, assuming the form of a vast luminous 


arch of purple or red colours. Slight tremulous motions of the light were 
_ seen at intervals. The arch extended from N.E. to S.W. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 101 


Year. Phenomenon, REMARKS. 

1817. | Aurora February 8. Brilliant aurora, 

1817 | Thunderstorm February 16. 

1817 | Thunderstorm June 10, Severe thunderstorm, with torrents of rain and hail from 11 


to 12 o’clock, The lightning struck several buildings, including Messrs 
Ballantine & Co.’s printing office, and a hat factory adjoining. Several 
people injured. 

1817 | Thunderstorm August 26. Severe thunderstorm with heavy rain, The water flowing 
down the Cowgate for some time presented the appearance of a rapid river. 
The parapet of the Earl of Moray’s pleasure ground was undermined, nearly 
30 yards of it giving way. 


1817 | Lunar rainbow August 31. 

1818 | Gale January 12. Severe gale. Lead stripped off the dome of St George’s 
church, and several other buildings injured. 

1818 | Gale January 14 and 15. Another heavy gale from S.W. to N.W. Turret 


and other ornaments upon the tower of Bishop Sandford’s chapel at West 
end of Princes Street blown down. 


1819 | Comet July 1, A very large comet seen, described as ‘not much inferior in 
magnitude and brilliancy to the celebrated comet of 1811.” 

1819 | Snow December 9 and 10. Snow 6 inches deep. 

1819 | Snow December 28 and 29, Heavy snowstorm ; a foot in depth where not 
drifted. 

1820 | Solar eclipse January 7. ‘‘ Great eclipse of the sun; weather so thick, hardly visible 


here. I had some distinct glimpses of it, however, after two o’clock, half- 
an-hour past the middle of the eclipse.” —WaTERSTON. 


1820 | Snow January 16, Snow 9 inches deep. 

1820 | Snowstorm January 19. Snow 18 inches deep, but 2 to 3 feet in drifts. 

1820 | Gale January 22, Heavy gale. A caravan weighing about six tons and 
containing several wild animals blown over at Wombell’s menagerie on the 
Mound. 

1821 | Gale November 4. ‘On the morning of the 4th we had a most severe gale 


from the N.E., which did great damage to the shipping on the east coast of 
Scotland.” —W aTERSTON, 

1822 | Thunderstorm July 21. Severe thunderstorm, accompanied by heavy showers of pieces 
of clear ice. House in Gibb’s Entry, Nicolson Street, struck. Lower 
parts of town flooded. 


1822 | Gale September 11, Severe S.W. gale; much damage at sea. 

1822 | Aurora November 7. Beautiful auroral arch to north. 

1822 | Aurora November 8. Brilliant aurora, 

1823 | Snow January 12-27, Heavy snow showers almost every day. Depth on 


23rd nearly a foot. ‘‘ We have had a longer continuance of snow on the 


ground this month than at any time since January 1814.”—Warerston. 
1823 | Snowstorm February 1-4, Great snowstorm from E.N.E., the heaviest since 1795. 
During the first week hardly any mails arrived in Edinburgh, On the 9th 
no less than twenty-two mails were due at the Post Office, six of these 
London. Hundreds of men had to be employed clearing the roads, the 
snow where not drifted averaging two feet in depth. 
1823 | Lunar eclipse July 23. Total eclipse of the moon. 
1824 | Gale October 9-13. Severe gale from N.E. About 150 vessels stranded or 
lost on the eastern coasts of Scotland and England. 
1824 | Gale December 29, Heavy S,W. gale in Edinburgh ; blew down house walls, 
trees, etc. 
1825 | Thunder January 2. Some thunder in the morning. 
1825 cee barometric January 18. Barometer fell an inch in about 10 hours. 
a 
1825 | Rapid barometric February 6. In twelve hours the barometer rose something more than 
rise an inch. 
1825 | Aurora March 19. Very fine aurora. (See Edin, Phil. Jour., vol. xiii. pp. 
178-179. 
1825 | Snow May 7 Snow and sleet. Pentland hills white on the 28th, 


Drought 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 


Aurora 
Meteor 


Gale 
Aurora 
Heat 


Early harvest 


Thunderstorm 
Dearth 


Double crop 


Snowstorm 


Aurora 
Snowstorm 


Snowstorm 


Aurora 
Gale 


Eclipse 
Thunderstorm 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Lightning © 
Snow 

Aurora 
Aurora 
Rainfall 


Thunderstorm 
Rainfall 


Aurora 
Lunar eclipse 
Aurora 

Gale 


Gale 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


REMARKS, 


See — Ss eS eee escoee CeO” OO oem _) cca“ 


July. Very warm and dry ; slight showers on the Ist and 15th, “The 
river Tay hardly ever remembered lower than it has been this month,” 
—WaATERSTON. 

August 17, Aurora seen at 10 P.M. 

September 11. Aurora at 10 p.m., just after a thunderstorm, 

October 7, Aurora in the evening, observed synchronously in the north 
of Scotland, 

November 3 and 4, that of the 4th being of great beauty. 

November 14. At 8 p.m. a large meteor was seen to pass from E, to 
W. through a space equal to 25°. It left a luminous trail behind. 

February 13. Severe 8.8. W. gale. 

March 29, Brilliant aurora, 

June 24-30. ‘“ Hotter than any seven successive days in my remem- 
brance.” —WAaTERSTON, 

July. Cutting began in the Edinburgh district about the 10th, and by 
the 29th many fields were cleared. ‘ Harvest mostly finished by middle 
of August, about the time it usually commences in a tolerably early season.” 
—WATERSTON. 

August 27, Thunderstorm with very heavy rain. 

September. ‘Owing to the sudden rise and acknowledged deficiency of 
the oats, barley, and peas crops, Government, by an extraordinary Order of 
Council, have allowed the importation of these articles, the quarterly 
average struck immediately before not allowing the ports to open. Even 
hay from Holland has been imported into different parts.’ —W ATERSTON, 

October, ‘It is rather remarkable this season that in more than one 
place two distinct crops of barley have come to maturity over the same 
ground in succession, one after the other.” —WatTERSTON. 

November 25 and 26. Dreadful storm of wind and snow from the 
N.N.W. Several vessels lost. From thirty to forty people perished in 
different parts of the country, and many thousand sheep. 

January 9. Aurora. 

March 3-4. . Great snowstorm. Snow fell to the depth of nearly 4 feet 
in 24 hours, with strong east wind ; many lives lost both on land and sea. 

April 23 and 24. Snow fell to the depth of nearly 2 feet, with stormy 
east wind. 

September 25. 

October 22-23. 
to the harbour. 

November 3. Lunar eclipse. 

December 15. Thunderstorm. 

September 15. Aurora, 

September 29. Bright aurora. 

December 31. A great deal of lightning. 

January 24. Snow fell to the depth of a foot. 

February 18. Brilliant aurora. 

April 19. Bright aurora. 

July. A very wet month, rainfall 64 inches, half of which fell on the 
4th and 5th, when the precipitation amounted to 3°80 inches. 

July 30, Severe thunderstorm with very heavy rain. 

August. Wettest month for many years. WaTERSTON gives the rainfall 
as 8°75 inches. The rain exceeded an inch on the following days :—3rd, 1:90 
inch; 4th, 1°40 inch; 19th, 1:11 inch ; 22nd, 1°11 inch; and 27th, 1°12 inch. 

August 19, 20 and 26. Bright aurora. 

September 2. Eclipse of the moon, nearly total. 

September 25. Bright aurora. 

October 13 and 14, Severe gale from the N.E. Several vessels stranded 
or lost on the east coast, and a very high tide at Leith. 2°50 inches of rain 
fell. 

November 25, 


Remarkable aurora, 
Severe gale with very high sea at Leith, doing damage 


E.N.E. gale, many ships lost. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 103 


Year. Phenomenon, REMARKS. 

1829 | Aurora October 6. Luminous auroral arch. 

1829 | Aurora October 22. Bright aurora, 

1829 | Thunder November 4, Thunder, 

1829 | Aurora November 11. Bright aurora, 

1829 | Aurora December 12. Bright aurora. 

1831 | Aurora January 7. Bright aurora at 7 P.M. 

1831 | Aurora January 11. ‘“ Bright aurora at 11 p.m. when I observed it northward 
and to enlighten St Giles’ spire most beautifully, This aurora was seen in 
Paris.” —GaIRDNER. 

1831 | Aurora March 4, Aurora to northward, 

1831 | Aurora March 7. Serpentine Aurora, 

1831 | Aurora March 11-12. At 10 p.m. a tint of light as if the rising moon waning 


N.W. Zenith in one mass from the horizon, and at 4 a.m. on the 12th 
streamers were seen to dart up beyond the height of St Giles’ in same 


direction, 

1831 | Rainstorm July 15. ‘ Between 3 and 5 o'clock one of the heaviest rains ever 
experienced in this country.”—GaIRDNER. 

1832 | Thunderstorm June 13, Alarming thunderstorm, several houses struck and people 
injured, 

1832 | Rain October 8. Heavy rain, 2°2 inches, with strong N.E. wind. 

1832 | Rain October 12. Two inches of rain, wind N.E. 

1833 | Gale February 20. Severe N.E. gale, many vessels lost. Four or five fishing 
boats with several men lost in the Firth of Forth. 

1833 | Aurora March 17, ‘ At 8 P.M, it was said there was a glowing aurora in the 
zenith which lasted only 10 or 15 minutes.”—GaiIRDNER. 

1833 | Rain June 11, Two inches of rain, 

1833 | Aurora August 18, Bright aurora, 

1833 | Gale August 30, Violent N.E. gale; much damage done to the ripe grain by 
shaking. 

1833 | Aurora September 18. Bright aurora. 

1833 | Aurora October 12, Splendid aurora. 

1833 | Lightning December 2, Lightning to N.W. at midnight. 

1833 | Thunderstorm December 6, ‘At 4 a.m, I was awoke with thunder and lightning with 
wind,” —GaIRDNER. 

1833 | Lunar Eclipse December 26. Total eclipse of the moon. 

1834 | Thunderstorm January 18, Thunderstorm. 

1834 | Lightning January 23, Very squally, with lightning. 

1834 | High Tide October 4, The water in Leith dock rose to within a foot of the edge of 
the quay, and presented the novel spectacle of vessels lying to appearance 
almost out of the water, Some houses in Baltic Street flooded. 

1834 | Aurora October 6. Bright aurora. 

1834 | Aurora December 22, Bright aurora. 

1835 | Storm January 19. Storm from N.E, did much damage along coast. 

1835 | Aurora February 7. At 7 p.m, splendid aurora to N. and W. consisting of two 
oval amphitheatres, At 8 p.m, it began to blow and rain. 

1835 | Comet October 10, Hawuey’s comet distinctly visible in the Great Bear, 

1835 | Aurora November 18. Bright aurora N.W. to S.E. at 9.30 p.m. 

1836 | Gale January 21 to 23. Severe gale ; several persons injured through falling 
masonry, 

1836 | Gale and Light- January 27 to 29. Severe gale with lightning. Some damage done to 

ning the Presbytery Hall, North St David Street, and other buildings, 

1836 | Thunderstorm January 30, Thunderstorm. 

1836 | Storm March 17. Violent storm, with hail and sleet. 

1836 | Thunderstorm July 5, Violent thunderstorm, attended with damage to crops and loss 
of life in many places, Continued from 10 a.m. to 8 P.M. 

1836 | Snowstorm October 28. Snow fell this evening to the depth of 4 or 5 inches. Hard 
frost continued till the 3lst. ‘Such an early appearance of winter has not 
been observed for many years, probably since 1782. Harvest has been much 
protracted, and in some places oats are hardly ripe yet.” —-WATERSTON. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). s 


1860 


Phenomenon. 


Aurora 

Gale 
Snowstorm 
Rainstorm 
Aurora 
Aurora 

Lunar Eclipse 
Frost 


Rainstorm 
Ice Accidents 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Earthquake 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Gale 


Thunderstorm 
Storm 

Storm 

Gale 
Rainstorm 
Thunderstorm 
Thunderstorm 
Gale 

Aurora 
Meteor 

Snow 

Aurora 
Aurora 


Thunderstorm 
Comet 


Thunderstorm 
Thunderstorm 


Aurora 
Storm 


Great Frost 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


REMARKS. 


October 18, Remarkable aurora; bright red and white. 

February 19. Violent S.W. gale. Thunder in the evening. 

Mar, 11. Six inches of snow fell. 

August 2 to 4.‘ More than 3 inches of rain fell.” —WarTersTon, 

October 6. Bright aurora. 

October 18. Reddish aurora. 

October 13, Total eclipse of moon. 

In January and February the frost was very hard, WATERSTON says 
with reference to January, ‘‘ We have had a longer continuance of frost and 
snow than any month since February 1823.” 

September 6. Two inches of rain. 

January 18. Skating at Duddingston ; three people drowned by the ice 
giving way. 

January 14, 16,19. Bright aurora. 

September 3 and 4. Bright aurora. 

October 13. Bright aurora. 

October 23. At 10.15 p.m. a sharp shock of earthquake was felt, It 
was accompanied with no noise and lasted about four seconds. 

December 14. Bright aurora. 

February 11. Bright anrora, 

July 3. Severe gale from W.; fruit trees and bushes stripped, and the 
wall fruit which was fast ripening destroyed. ‘‘So wild a tempest has not 
been experienced at this season for at least twenty years.” 

July 5. Violent thunderstorm ; house struck in Lothian Road. 

October 11. Violent storm from the E. did much damage. 

October 28. Severe storm from E. ; very injurious to shipping. 

January 25. Severe S.W. gale. 

October 3. Severe rainstorm, 

June 22. Severe thunderstorm, 

July 5. Severe thunderstorm. 

_ November 20, Stormy §.E. gale. 

September 27. Brilliant aurora. 

December 18. Bright meteor. 

June 1. Pentland Hills covered with fresh snow. 

February 18. Fine aurora at 10 p.m. 

February 19, At 10.30 p.m. aurora over the whole sky, all shooting up 
to a point very nearly to the true pole, and of red and green colours. 

December 24, Gale of wind with lightning and thunder, from 4 to 5 
A.M, (25th). 

March 29. Brilliant comet in the west this evening, 

May 9. Thunderstorm with very large hail. 

June 17. Severe thunderstorm with torrents of rain. A portion of the 
new road from St Leonards to Duddingston gave way at a point about 200 
yards to the east of Samson’s Ribs. ‘The lightning struck a house in the 
Pleasance. 

August 29. Most brilliant purple aurora australis at 1 a.m. 

October 3. Severe storm; windows of the Church of Scotland Normal 
School blown in. Scaffolding at a church under repair blown away. Gable 
end of an old house blown in. Three large trees were blown down in the 
Meadows and had their trunks broken across, twisted and shattered re- 
markably. Wind veered from W.S.W. to W.N.W. 

December 22 to 28. Great cold prevailed during this period, mean 
temperature being only 20°'3. 

The following are the maximum, minimum and mean temperatures for 
the week ;— 


1860 


1861 
1862 
1862 
1862 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1864 


1864 
1866 


1867 
1867 
1867 


1867 
1867 
1868 
1868 


1868 
1868 
1868 
1868 
1869 
1869 


1869 


1870 
1870 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 105 


Great Frost—con- 
tinued 


Rainstorm 
Gale 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Storm 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Gale 


Gale 
Meteor 


Anrora 
Aurora 
Darkness 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Lightning 
Hurricane 


Thunderstorm 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Thunderstorm 
Lightning 
Aurora 


Storm 


Snow 


Snowstorm 


REMARKS. 
Max Min Mean 
Dec : % ; 

Dy 30°1 Zilles 25:8 
23 30°0 21°6 25°8 
24 19:8 5:0 12°4 
25 19:0 13:0 16:0 
26 23:0 8:8 15°9 
27 26:7 19°8 23°4 
28 29°2 17:0 23°1 

25°4 15:2 20°3 


Dense fog prevailed with few interruptions. See Jour. Scot. Met. Soc. 
for quarter ending 30th December 1860, pp. 6-14. 

September 23. Great rainstorm ; 2°40 inches of rain fell in two hours, 

October 14. Very severe gale in morning. 

November 17. Aurora in N.W. 

December 24, Aurora in W. 

February 4. Great storm all day with thunder, lightning, and hail. 

April 15, Aurora in N, 

May 8. Aurora in N.W. 

November 5. Aurora near horizon. 

December 9, Aurora in S, extending from horizon to zenith. 

October 22, Strong gale with heavy rain. Several buildings damaged, 
including St Mary’s Roman Catholic Chapel, Broughton Street. The 
Water of Leith higher than it had been for seven or eight years, 

February 13. Severe storm of wind and rain. Much damage to property. 

November 13. At 2 h. 53 m. (Sidereal time) a very bright meteor 
descended from near the zenith in a N.W. direction, at an angle of 75° to 
the horizon, 

January 11. Aurora in N.W. 

February 8. Aurora in N.W. 

September 10. A very dark cloud passed between 11 and 12 noon, so 
dark that gas had to be lighted. 

October 2. Aurora in N.W. 

October 29. Aurora in N.W. near horizon. 

January 15. Lightning from 7 to 8 p.m. 

January 24 (Windy Friday). Great storm of wind reaching the force of 
a tropical hurricane from 1 to 4 p.m. Gable in Duke Street blown down, 
cabs overturned, etc. ‘‘ Many buildings much damaged, 21 instances of 
injured masonry being reported, the first at 12.15 and the last at 4.30 P.M. 
In the hour ending 2.20 p.m. nine of the 21 buildings were damaged,”— 
(See Scot. Met. Soc. Jour., vol. ii. pp. 169-180.) 

February 1. Thunderstorm at 8 a.m. 

April 27, Aurora between 10 and 11 p.m. 

October 19. Bright aurora in N.W. 

November 4. Thunderstorm with hail. 

March 1. Lightning from 7 to 10 p.m. with small snow. 

May 13. Very beautiful aurora; radiating from the zenith towards the 
horizon in all directions. 

June 15, Severe gale from N.E. At 11 a.m. the wind, which was 
S.S.E., of a sudden chopped round to the N.E., and without warning blew 
a violent gale. A tremendous sea was raised on the east coast, many 
shipwrecks occurring with serious loss of life. 

February 25. Very heavy snowfall; depth 134 inches where not 
drifted. 

February 27. Severe snowstorm, drifts forming in the streets to the 
depth of 3 to 4 feet, while the average depth where not drifted was 
20 inches. 


1874 


1874 


1874 
1876 
1877 


1878 
1878-79 


1879 
1879 


1879 
1879-80 


1880 |¢Lunar Rainbow 


Phenomenon, 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 


Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 
Aurora 


Aurora 
Aurora 

Gale 
Thunderstorm 


Thunderstorm 
Thunderstorm 


Thunderstorm 


Gale 


Thunderstorm 
Mock Suns 
Great Rainfall 


Thunderstorm 
Frost 


Gale 
Gale and Rain 


Gale 
Frost 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


REMARKS, 


ee a — 


August 28, Low circular are to N.N.W 

August 29. Low circular are to N.W. 

September 3. Low are to N.N.W. 

September 24. Auroral light, sky clouded 

- September 25, Auroral light, sky clouded. 

October 14. Low are to N.N.W. with transverse streamers shooting 
from N, to S, over all the sky, 

October 20, Red and green aurora chiefly to N.E. 

October 25, Grand aurora, red, green and blue over all the sky. 

February 12 ‘Transverse band, S. and 8.E. of zenith, occasionally red 
and radiating, 

March 9, Low auroral arch N., 10° W. 

March 14, Auroral gleam to N.W,. 

March 16, Auroral arch to N.W. 

March 17, Auroral arch to N.N.W. 

March 27, Auroral arch, low to N.W. 

March 28, Auroral arch, low to N.W. 

April 9. General auroral light through sky heavily clouded ; said to 
have been a red aurora elsewhere. 

April 12. Upward shooting beams of aurora N. to N.W. 

April 20. Long low are of auroral glow to N.W. 

April 28, Elliptical arches, low to N.W. and N. 

May 8. Long low auroral are N, and N.W. 

August 6. Midnight auroral are to the N.W.; mean rising to N.E. 

August 21. Auroral are, bright and large from W., round by N.W., to 
N. and N.N.E. ; a few dark clouds in front. 

September 7, Auroral lights N, and N.W., in upward shooting beams. 

October 14. Auroral light to the N.W. amongst clouds. 

January 1, Severe gale. Property damaged and many people injured. 

October 30. A thunderstorm of unusual violence from 5 to 6 P.m., with 
heavy rain and hail causing much flooding. 

March 14, Thunder and lightning at 8 p.m. 

July 22. Very severe thunderstorm. An observer of the Scottish 
Meteorologicial Society counted in one hour 680 flashes of lightning with 
their accompanying thunderclaps, This gives a rate of fully 11 per 
minute, 

June 25, Thunderstorm from 11.35 a.m, to 12.35 p.m. No less than | 
81 flashes of lightning were observed, of which 43 were seen in the first 
26 minutes. 

October 21. Worst gale since the hurricane of January 1868. Much | 
damage done to property all over the city, Several people injured. 
December 30. Snow showers, with thunder and lightning at 10,45 p.m. 

May 10. Solar halo and mock suns seen. 

August 18 to 22, Very heavy and continuous rain with east (N.E. to | 
S.E.) winds, 7°07 inches fell in the five days, the amounts for each of the 
days being as follows, 18th, 1°54 inch ; 19th, 0°89 inch; 20th, 1-88 inch ; 
21st, 1°96 inch ; 22nd, 0°80 inch. The Water of Leith overflowed its banks, | 


houses in Warriston Crescent being flooded to the depth of 7 feet. All | 
over the town extensive inundations took place in low-lying situations. 

June 27. Severe thunderstorm ; the lightning struck several buildings. 

Very cold winter ; skating and curling carried on at Duddingston un- 
interruptedly for 12 weeks, 

March 4. Severe gale; several buildings damaged, and people injured. 

July 13. N.E. gale and heavy rain, no less a quantity than 2°95 inches 
falling within the 24 hours, Flooding throughout the town. 

December 28. Heavy gale; Tay Bridge blown down, 

Skating for eight weeks on Duddingston Loch, 

January 1, Fine lunar rainbow between 11 o’clock and midnight, the 
colours being well defined, 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


Year. 


1880-81 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1882 


1882 
1882 


1883 
1884 


1884 
1884 


1885 
1885 


1886 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1887 


1888 
1888 
1888 


1888 


1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1890 


1891 
1891 
1892 


1892 
1892 


Phenomenon, 


Frost 
Fog 


Snow 
Rain 
Storm 


Gale 
Meteor 
Gale 


Thunderstorm 
Gale and Snow- 
storm 


Gale 


Low Pressure 


Thunderstorm 
Gale 


Meteor 
Meteors 


Thunderstorm 
Snowstorm 
Low Pressure 


Heat and Drought 
Thunderstorm 


Snowstorm 

Snowstorm 

Fall of Temper- 
ature 

Gale 


Earthquake 

Rise in Pressure 
Lightning 

Mock Sun 
Sunless Weather 


Aurora 


Aurora 
Squall 


Thunderstorm 


Aurora 


REMARKS, 


i a a NS NS 


During this winter there was skating and curling at Duddingston for 
thirteen weeks, 

January 4. Very dense fog. At night objects could hardly be dis- 
tinguished at a few yards distance. Vehicular traffic much impeded. 

January 17 and 21. Heavy snowstorms. Traffic seriously deranged, 

August 10. A quarter of an inch of rain fell in 15 minutes. 

October 14. Severe N.E, gale; occasioned much damage of property as 
well as lamentable loss of life, 

November 15 to 22. Continued gale; numerous casualties. 

November 15. Brilliant meteor at 5.52 P.M. 

January 5. Severe gale. An unusually large amount of damage done 
to property throughout the city. Several people injured, 

March 9. Thunderstorm at 4 P.M. 


December 5, Tramway service suspended. 


Heavy east gale with snow. 

January 24, Strong east gale ; average velocity of wind 56°6 miles per 
hour, rising to 70 miles an hour in gusts, Several buildings damaged, 

January 26. Barometer fell to 27-451 inches at 10 pP.m., being the 
lowest recorded since the commencement of pressure observations in 1769. 
The fluctuations previous to this great depression were remarkable, the 
following being the corrected readings, 9 a.m. of the 21st, 30°243; 5 p.m. 
of the 23rd, 28°466 ; 4 p.m. of the 24th, 29°583; 10 p.m. of the 26th, 
27-451; and 11 p.m, of the 28th, 29°598 inches, 

August 12. Thunderstorm of tropical severity for several hours. 
storm was general over the country. Very heavy rain fell. 

February 10. Severe gale “from 5 to 5.20 p.m. the gusts exceeded in 
force any previous storm here,”—BLackwoop. 

April 15. Intensely blue meteor in east at 10.20 p.m, 

November 27, Grand meteoric shower. A modest computation 
would be 50 per minute from 5 to 8 p.m. when it reached its maximum, 

January 16 and 17, Thunderstorm both days, a very unusual circum- 
stance at this season. 

March 2. Severe snowstorm from FE. Trains blocked on east coast. 
On March 4th there were taken out of Edinburgh 1434 cart-loads of snow. 

December 8. Barometer at 32° and sea-level fell to 27°651 inches at 7.30 
P.M., having fallen 1°52 inch since 10 P.M. of the previous day. 

June. A very dry and hot month. No rain after 14th, 

September 2. At 10 a.m. during a thunderstorm 0°29 inch of rain fell 
in fourteen minutes, while on the 4th 0°33 inch of rain fell in ten minutes. 

February 19. Fierce N.E. gale with snow and hail squalls. 

March 15. Snowstorm from E. 

March 22. Temperature fell 7° in fifteen minutes at 9 a.m. 


The 


November 16. 
velocity of wind from 9 a.m. to noon over 50 miles per hour. 
till the 25th. 

January 18. Slight shock of earthquake at 6.50 a.m. 


Heaviest gale experienced for many years. Average 
Very stormy 


February 4. Barometer rose 1:26 inch in 24 hours. 

January 5. Lightning at 9.10 p.m. 

September 4. Mock sun at 6,30 p.m. 

December. The sun only shone for seven hours ; four and a half hours 
being recorded on Ist. 

March 31. Aurora, single arch, no streamers. 

November 6, Faint aurora. 


February 1. Severe squall at 7 a.m. Wind veered from S.W. to W. 
Temperature fell 9° and barometer rose 0°06 inch in three minutes (see 
Journ. Scot. Met, Soc., vol. ix. p. 237). 

February 16. Thunderstorm at 8.33 a.m. with hail. 

March 1, 2, 3. Aurora. 


108 


Year. 


1892 
1892 
1893 
1893 


1893 


1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1895 
1895 
1895 


1895 
1895 


1895 
1895 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Phenomenon. 


Aurora 
Lightning 
Meteor 


Snow and Sleet 


Gale 


Low Temperature 


Increase in 
Pressure 
Rainfall 


Thunderstorm 

Rise in Tempera- 
ture 

Aurora 

Snow 

Rain from a 
Cloudless Sky 

Frost 


Lightning 
Cold 


Aurora 


Rain 


Rain 
Snow 


REMARKS. 


May 1, Aurora, 

December 6, Lightning at 10.4 p.m. 

September 5, Very fine meteor at 11.38 p.m., travelled from 8.E. to 
E.N.E, 

September 23, Observer at Blacket Place reports “slight showers of 
rain and sleet.” The report from Leith is “slight snow and hail at 11.5 a.m.” 

December 8. Heavy gale from 8,W. Average wind velocity from 10 
A.M, to 6 p.m, was 44 miles per hour, and that in a somewhat sheltered 
situation. 

January 6. In the twelve hours ending 9 p.m. the highest temperature 
recorded was 17°'8. 

February 12, The barometer rose 0°31 inch between 4 and 5 a.m. 


February. An exceptionally wet, stormy month ; rainfall, 6°81 inches. 
Thunderstorms occurred on the 24th at 8 a.m., and on the 25that 3.30 p.m. 
Lightning was seen on the latter date at 8.5 p.m. 


March 11. Thunder at times, 2.25 to 3 p.m. 
March 29. Temperature rose 30° in six hours ending with noon. 
May 7, Aurora after 7 p.m. Pale white streamers. 


May 20. Snow and hail. Pentland Hills white to base at 8 p.m. 
November 16, A shower of rain fell from a cloudless sky at 10.45 p.m. 


January and February. Very severe weather prevailed throughout, 
with hard frost, but little snow, in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh 
(see Jour, Scot. Met, Soc., vol, x. pp. 163-173). 


January 24, Lightning at 8.40 p.m, 

February 8. Minimum in shade 11°:9, lowest in February since Feb- 
ruary 5, 1823, 

March 13. Aurora in south at 9 P.M, stretching from W, to E. 


June 19, Thunderstorm with heavy rain; 0°53 inch of rain fell in 39 
minutes, of which 0°40 inch fell in 21 minutes. 

August 22, Between 4.15 and 5.7 a.m. 0°86 inch of rain fell, 

October. Snow fell on the 24th, 25th, 26th, and 28th, covering the 
ground to a depth of 2 inches. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH, 


TABLE I. 


109 


Showing the Mean Barometric Pressure of the Aw in Edinburgh from 1769 to 1896. 
Corrected to 32° and Reduced to Mean Sea-Level. 


Nore.— During six months the Observations were incomplete. 


Year, 


1769 
1770 


1771 
1772 
1773 
1774 
1775 
1776 
1777 
1778 
1779 
1780 


1781 
1782 
1783 
1784 
1785 
1786 
1787 
1788 
1789 
1790 


1791 
1792 
1793 
1794 
1795 
1796 
a7 
1798 
1799 
1800 


1801 
1802 
1803 
1804 
1805 
1806 
1807 
1808 
1809 
1810 


1811 
1812 
1813 
1814 
1815 
1816 
1817 
1818 
1819 
1820 


Jan. 


Feb. 


—=2=$ | —— ——— 


ins. 
2 
29°977 


29°691 
29°71 
29°679 
29°642 
29°758 
29°909 
29859 
29°710 
30°111 
29°999 


29°977 
29628 
29°410 
29°941 
29°812 
29°589 
30°123 
29°977 
29°636 
29°949 


29°186 
29°742 
29°916 
29°909 
30°163 
29°434 
30°020 
29°798 
29°904 
29°505 


29°713 
29°378 
29°889 


29°568 
29°654 
29°434 
29°972 
29°684 
29°612 
30°102 


29901 
29°835 
30°031 
29°736 
29°920 
29°613 
29°629 
29°605 
29°679 
29°955 


ins. 
29°602* 
29°851 


29°938 
29°551 
29°842 
29°640 
29°552 
29°202 
29°719 
29°720 
29°889 
29°702 


29°622 
29973 
29°659 
29°835 
30°014 
29°878 
29°697 
29°714 
29°420 
29°959 


29°789 
29°920 
29°666 
29°614 
29°756 
29 °802 
30°189 
29°938 
29°657 
29-970 


29°718 
29665 
29°709 
30°088 
29°721 
29°751 
29°621 
30-067 
29624 
29°796 


29°461 
29°514 
29°556 
30°026 
29°664 
29°840 
29°708 
29°615 
29°627 
30°071 


Mar. 


April. 


ins. 
*29°928 
29°778 


29°945 
29°637 
30°144 
29°925 
29°716 
29°854 
29°766 
29°797 
30°021 
29°714 


30°155 
29°627 
29°768 
29°874 
380°252 
30°023 
29°676 
29°734 
29°788 
30°217 


29990 
29°582 
29°869 
29°871 
29°827 
30°133 
29°881 
29°995 
29°901 
29°926 


29°726 
29°957 
30°042 
29°697 
29°869 
29°845 
30°093 
30°209 
30°098 
29°703 


30°125 
29°817 
30°017 
29°850 
29 °576 
29-798 
29°670 
29°471 
29-900 
29920 


ins. 
29°806 
29°734 


30°021 
29°900 
29°792 
29°773 
30:040 
30°060 
30°065 
29°779 
29°716 
29°660 


29°861 
29°858 
30°201 
29°695 
30°167 
30°050 
30°007 
80°055 
29°644 
29°934 


29°810 
29°849 
29°967 
29°818 
29°739 
30°092 
29836 
29°895 
29-716 
29°578 


29°986 
29°865 
29°829 
25°75 
29°910 
30°149 
29°912 
29°847 
29°896 
29°878 


29°764 
29°972 
29°970 
29°840 
29°971 
29°814 
30°298 
29°910 
29830 
29°947 


May. 


ins, 
29°959 
29°900 


29°842 
30°129 
29°911 
30°022 
30°109 
30°070 
29°784 
29°799 
29°698 
29°827 


30086 
29°702 
30°009 
29°991 
29°971 
29°862 
29°946 
30°094 
29°839 
29°941 


29°903 
29°893 
30°150 
29°973 
30°135 
29°803 
29°795 
30°074 
29°851 
29°834 


29°891 
30°077 
29°814 
29°808 
29°949 
30°018 
29888 
29°886 
29°920 
80°017 


29°815 
29°912 
29°789 
30°086 
29°879 
29°870 
29°774 
30°002 
29°978 
29°779 


June. 


ins, 
29°837 
29°697 


30°055 
30°006 
29°905 
29°817 
29°974 
29°798 
29°824 
29°925 
380°076 
29°907 


29°893 
29°942 
29°844 
29°796 


30°087 
30°053 
29°828 
380°058 
29°770 
29°980 


29°877 
29°911 
29°884 
30°075 
29°953 
29°871 
29°909 
30°046 
30°027 
29°974 


30°047 
29°762 
29°970 
380°005 
29°978 
50°08] 
30°001 
29°998 
29°915 
30°065 


29°916 
29°951 
30-046 
30°059 
29°889 
29°889 


29°806 
29°967 
29°833 
29°966 


July. Aug. Sept. 
ins, ins, ins. 
29°976*| 29:598* 2 
29°943 |. 29°994 | 29°708 
29°881 | 29°758 | 29°952 
29°894 | 29°795 | 29°784* 
30°013 | 29°944 | 29°565 
29°842 | 29°845 | 29°766 
29°794 | 29°737 | 29°733 
29°815 | 29°796 | 29°855 
29°868 | 29°886 | 30°009 
29°837 | 30°026 | 30°014 
29°959 | 30°124 | 29°859 
29°791 | 30°107 | 29°704 
29°950 | 29°777 | 29°864 
29°923 | 29°988 | 29°878 
29°949 | 29°888 | 29°696 
29°841 | 29°894 | 29°899 
29°780 | 29°784 | 29°747 
30°023 | 29°826 | 29°641 
29°771 | 29°900 | 29°863 
29°926 | 29°901 | 29°830 
29°794 | 29°918 | 29°764 
29°660 | 29°717 | 29°849 
29°716 | 29°978 | 30°063 
29°766 | 29°898 | 29°652 
29°970 | 29°878 | 29°960 
29°950 | 29°909 | 29°874 
30°003 | 29°866 | 30°054 
29°645 | 80°015 | 29°942 
29°839 | 29°716 | 29°702 
29°633 | 29°985 | 29°666 
29°745 | 29°62 | 29°741 
30°047 | 80°011 | 29°720 
29°840 | 80°115 | 29°930 
29°754 | 29:923 | 29°991 
30°075 | 29°962 | 30°082 
29°832 | 29°854 | 30°053 
29°901 | 29°883 | 29°934 
29°806 | 29°772 | 29°972 
29°883 | 29°863 | 29°764 
29°990 | 29°874 | 29°859 
29°942 | 29°708 | 29°729 
29°767 | 29°830 | 30°027 
30°056 | 29°873 | 30°098 
29:986 | 307042 | 29:960 
29°832 | 30°036 | 29°996 
29°941 | 29°862 | 30°054 
30°037 | 29°816 | 29°886 
29°692 | 29°912 | 29°841 
29°737 | 29°676 | 29°962 
30°030 | 30°083 | 29°757 
29°967 | 30°025 | 29°941 
29'972 | 29°776 | 29°947 


These months are marked with an asterisk. 


Oct. 


ins. 
2 
29°616 


29°632 
29-364” 
29 644 
30°060 
29°757 
29°988 
29°754 
29°704 
29°980 
29°990 


30°121 
30°059 
29°827 
30°202 
29°877 
30°065 
29°696 
30°128 
29°644 
29°516 


29-692 
29°794 
29°811 
29°740 
29°500 
29°769 
29°809 
29°761 
29°695 
29°700 


29°741 
29°684 
30°048 
29°643 
29°994 
29°884 
29°809 
29°654 
30°064 
29°929 


29°613 
29°436 
29°766 
29-760 
29°802 
29°850 
30°058 
29°844 
29 °883 
29°648 


Nov. 


ins, 
29°838* 
29°577 


30°003 
29°492 
29°706 
29°944 
29°915 
29°807 
29°836 
29°616 
29°726 
29°936 


29°758 
29°950 
29°932 
29°768 
29°662 
30°039 
29°770 
25°938 
29°673 
29°74 


29°626 
29°865 
29°923 
29°662 
29°818 
29°867 
29°920 
29°550 
29°693 
29°551 


29°673 
29°821 
29°528 
29°961 
80°234 
29°601 
29°533 
29°839 
29°949 
29°541 


29°904 
29°873 
29°668 
29°688 
29977 
29°754 
29°837 
29 °829 
29°808 
29°921 


Dec. 


ins, 
29°625 
29°602 


29°513 
29°880 
29°734 
30°141 
29°952 
29°865 
29°869 
29°759 
29°746 
30°266 


29°736 
29 985 
29°999 
29°963 
29°977 
29°521 
29°794 
29°994 
29°583 
29°667 


29°542 
29°642 
29°710 
29°937 
29°803 
29°937 
29 603 
29°968 
30°094 
29°586 


29°490 
29°701 
29°601 
29°958 
29°633 
29°364 
29°819 
29°817 
29°399 
29664 


29°662 
30°071 
29°861 
29.641 
29°747 
29°634 
29°582 
30°070 
29°772 
30°018 


Year. 


ins, 
29°797* 
29°781 


29°853 
29°767 
29°823 
29°868 
29°836 
29°835 
29°853 
29°807 
29°909 
29°883 


29°900 
29°876 
29°848 
29°892 
29°928 
29°889 
29 °839 
29°946 
29°706 
29°872 


29°764 
29°793 
29°892 
29°861 
29°885 
29°859 
29°852 
29°859 
29°804 
29°775 


29°822 
29°840 
29°879 
29°854 
29°888 
29°806 
29°846 
29°893 
29°821 
29°860 


29°849 
29°864 
29°881 
29°879 
29°847 
29°767 
29°814 
29°849 


29°854 
29°910 


110 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE |I.—continued. 


Year. | Jan, Feb. Mar. | April. | May. | June. |. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. | Year. 


ins, ins, ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins, ins. ins, ins, 
1821 | 29°966 | 30°278 | 29°487 | 29°635 | 29°926 | 30°219 | 29°918 | 29°931 | 29°796 | 29°817 | 29°631 | 29°318 | 29°827 
1822 | 30°102 | 29°867 | 29°788 | 29:984 | 30-092 | 30°103 | 29°790 | 29°825 | 29°980 | 29°627 | 29°518 | 30°078 | 29°896 
1823 | 29°874 | 29°386 | 29°768 | 29°903 | 20°853 | 29°888 | 29°762 | 29°795 | 29°881 | 29°699 | 30°058 | 29°567 | 29°786 
1824 | 29°962 | 29°854 | 29°861 | 29°:922 | 30°052 | 29°994 | 29°951 | 29°889 | 29°880 | 29°654 | 29°498 | 29°600 | 29°843 
1825 | 30°124 | 30°055 | 30°134 | 29°997 | 30°014 | 29°921 | 30°153 | 29°857 | 29°836 | 29°853 | 29°637 | 29°556 | 29:920 
1826 | 30°081 | 29°688 | 30°052 | 29°899 | 30°166 | 30°257 | 29°903 | 29°874 | 29°920 | 29°782 | 29°898 | 29°846 | 29°947 
1827 | 29°795 | 30:078 | 29°543 | 29°967 | 29°733 | 29°831 | 29°974 | 30°054 | 29.938 | 29°775 | 29:971 | 29°628 | 29°857 
1828 | 29:906 | 29°703 | 29°853 | 29°755 | 29:902 | 29:°921 | 29°667 | 29°784 | 29:904 | 29°982 | 29°800 | 29°788 | 29:830 
1829 | 29:926 | 29°980 | 30°112 | 29°529 | 30°057 | 30°003 | 29°701 | 29°813 | 29°664 | 29°928 | 30°056 | 30°190 | 29-913 
1830 | 30°076 | 29°689 | 29°992 | 29°650 | 29°865 | 29°772 | 29°811 | 29°:774 | 29°630 | 30°1385 | 29°741 | 29°706 | 29°820 


1831 | 29°838 | 29°652 | 29°854 | 29°787 | 30°019 | 29°885 | 29°951 | 29:909 | 29°841 | 29°616 | 29°735 | 29°628 | 29°810 
1832 | 29°929 | 29°984 | 29°795 | 30:048 | 29°952 | 29°849 | 30°068 | 29°812 | 80:010 | 29°891 | 29°782 | 29°777 | 29°908 
1833 | 30°270 | 29°382 | 29:978 | 29°719 | 30°047 | 29°725 | 29°987 | 29°911 | 29°876 | 29°730 | 29°786 | 29°437 | 29°816 
1834 | 29°514 | 29°950 | 30°051 | 30°219 | 29°991 | 29°873 | 29°989 | 29°824 | 30:012 | 26°880 | 29°911 | 30°185 | 29°950 
1835 | 30°028 | 29°616 | 29°896 | 30°127 | 29°879 | 30:044 | 29:942 | 29:948 | 29°585 | 29°736 | 29°903 | 30°164 | 29-906 
1836 | 29°795 | 29°842 | 29°401 | 29:863 | 30°312 | 29°764 | 29°831 | 29°976 | 29°839 | 29°730 | 29°534 | 29°762 | 29°804 
1837 | 30°004 | 29°816 | 30°046 | 29°876 | 29°948 | 29°916 | 29°889 | 29°932 | 29°856 | 29°889 | 29°644 | 29°834 | 29°888 
1838 | 30°104 | 29°789 | 29°692 | 29°698 | 29:968 | 29°822 | 29°910 | 29°768 | 29°977 | 29°911 | 29°612 | 29°950 | 29-850 
1839 | 29°759 | 29°746 | 29°762 | 30:034 | 30°016 | 29:923 | 29°830 | 29°904 | 29°525 | 30°070 | 29°694 | 29°637 | 29°825 
1840 | 29°529 | 29°914 | 30°361 | 30°043 | 29°896 | 29°8385 | 29°752 | 29°843 | 29°664 | 29°985 | 29°543 | 30°192 | 29°880 


1841 | 29°785 | 29°866 | 29°741 | 29°817 | 29°804 | 29°916 | 29°773 | 29°778 | 29°722 | 29°570 | 29°701 | 29°570 | 29°754 
1842 | 29°987 | 29°835 | 29°706 | 30°187 | 29°854 | 29°989 | 29°896 | 29°968 | 29°888 | 29°943 | 29°709 | 29°871 | 29°903 
1843 | 29°564 | 29°765 | 29°922 | 29°734 | 29°843 | 29°881 | 29°879 | 29°885 | 30°173 | 29°627 | 29°721 | 30°172 | 29°847 
1844 | 29°927 | 29°578 | 29°754 | 30°030 | 30°287 | 29°869 | 29°859 | 29°723 | 30°042 | 29°620 | 29°795 | 30°113 | 29-878 
1845 | 29°728 | 29°927 | 29°996 | 29:867 | 29°925 | 29:820 | 29°859 | 29°795 | 29:868 | 29°840 | 29°589 | 29°626 | 29-820 
1846 | 29°625 | 29°833 ; 29°650 | 29°752 , 29°873 ; 29°952 | 29°778 ; 29912 | 29:°953 ; 29°541 | 29°905 | 29°847 | 29°802 
1847 | 29°828 | 29°882 | 29-999 | 29°683 | 29°819 | 29°902 | 30°032 | 29°935 | 29°794 | 29°875 | 29°843 | 29°707 | 29°858 
1848 | 29°939 | 29°412 | 29°579 | 29°766 | 29°989 | 29°708 | 29°837 | 29:740 | 29°930 | 29°763 | 29°829 | 29°771 | 29°772 
1849 | 29°718 | 30°042 | 30°038 | 29°693 | 29-932 | 29°963 | 29°833 | 29°873 | 30:004 | 29°827 | 29°741 | 29°993 | 29°888 
1850 | 29°966 | 29°675 | 30°171 | 29°646 | 29°837 | -29:912 | 29°900 | 29°810 | 30°053 | 29°763 | 29°689 | 29°866 | 29°857 


6 EE 


1851 | 29°561 | 29°931 | 29°701 | 29°877 | 30°018 | 29°894 | 29°787 | 29°969 | 30°179 | 29°832 | 29°940 | 30°169 | 29°905 
1852 | 29°427 | 29°899 | 30°206 | 30°140 | 29°875 |. 29°628 | 29°969 | 29°725 | 29-930 | 29°813 | 29°505 | 29°434 | 29°796 
1853 | 29°527 | 29°758 | 29°919 | 29°751 | 30:008 | 29°825 | 29°707 | 29°877 | 29°884 | 29°587 | 29°956 | 30°012 | 29°818 
1854 | 29°592 | 30°018 | 30°068 | 30°035 | 29°702 | 29°822 | 29°887 | 29°917 | 30°022 | 29°736 | 29°782 | 29°624 | 29°850 
1855 | 30°150 | 29°840 | 29°615 | 29:951 | 29°873 | 29°935 | 29°852 | 29°850 | 30°018 | 29°5388 | 30°058 | 29°790 | 29-872 
1856 | 29-437 | 39°803 | 30:094 | 29°764 | 29°857 | 29°918 | 29°866 | 29°869 | 29°770 | 30°111 | 380°037 | 29°629 | 29°846 
1857 | 29°734 | 29°910 | 29°806 | 29°938 | 29:962 | 30°016 | 29°862 | 30°041 | 29-871 | 29°813 | 30°134 | 30°028 | 29:996 
1858 | 30°149 | 30°022 | 29°865 | 29°800 | 29°810 | 30°032 | 29°891 | 29°946 | 29°908 | 29°901 | 29°954 | 29°733 | 29:918 
1859 | 29°930 | 29°750 | 29°784 | 29°742 | 30°018 | 29°950 | 30°064 | 29°850 | 29°725 | 29°662 | 29°854 | 29°642 | 29°827 
1860 | 29°513 | 29°924 | 29°640 | 29°960 | 29°837 | 29°643 | 29°986 | 29°571 | 29°884 | 29°801 | 29°985 | 29°700 | 29°788 


1861 | 30°058 | 29°702 | 29°551 | 30°191 | 30°076 | 29:960 | 29°611 | 29°785 | 29°720 | 29°953 | 29°531 | 30°034 | 29848 
1862 | 29°69] | 30°058 | 29°7388 | 29°893 | 29°805 | 29°765 | 29°709 | 29°862 | 30°020 | 29°689 | 29°919 | 29°816 | 29-830 
1863 | 29°568 | 30°078 | 29°786 | 29°874 | 29:990 | 29°810 | 30°123 | 29°792 | 29°689 | 29°688 | 29°884 | 29-898 | 29°844 
1864 | 30°080 | 29°930 | 29°669 | 30°066 | 30°032 | 29°910 | 30°012 | 30°188 | 29°868 | 30°022 | 29°816 | 29°996 | 29-962 
1865 | 29°566 | 29°894 | 29°942 | 30°168 | 29°918 | 30°213 | 29°896 | 29°814 | 30°122 , 29°644 | 29°826 | 30°042 | 29°928 
1866 | 29°64)  29°596 | 29°768 | 29°976 | 30°032 | 29°915 | 29°9414 | 29°752 | 29.619 | 30°122 | 29°851 | 29°753 | 29°830 
1867 | 29°692 | 29°906 | 29°932 | 29°658 | 29°989 | 30°027 | 29°815 | 29°823 | 29:902 | 29°746 | 30°196 | 29:908 | 29-883 
1868 | 29°736 | 29°816 | 29°756 | 29°834 | 29°S68 | 30°004 | 30°024 | 29°782 | 29°868 | 29°772 | 29:949 | 29°318 | 29°811 
1869 | 29°785 | 29°697 | 29°885 | 29°916 | 29°881 | 30°020 | 29°950 | 30°058 | 29°578 | 29°989 | 29°818 | 29°772 | 29°862 
1870 | 29°892 | 29°886 | 30°085 30°046 | 29°952 | 30°072 | 29°982 | 30°044 | 29°979 | 29°662 | 29°679 | 29-980 | 29°988 


1871 | 29°764 | 29°868 | 29°944 | 29°318 | 30°105 | 30°000 | 29°738 | 29°945 | 29°955 | 29°912 | 30°022 | 29°958 | 29°919 
1872 | 29°432 | 29°727 | 29°768 | 29°920 | 29°856 | 29°804 | 29°962 | 29°986 | 29°722 | 29°628 | 29°554 | 29°482 | 29°737 
| 1873 | 29°500 | 307118 | 29°831 | 30°078 | 29°934 | 29°918 | 29°817 | 29°825 | 29°868 | 29°780 | 29°876 | 30°088 | 29°882 
| 1874 | 29°808 | 29°903 | 30°036 | 29°766 | 30:003 | 30°100 | 29°908 | 29°687 | 29°756 | 29°678 | 27°876 | 29°817 | 29861 
1875 | 29°718 | 30°112 | 30°177 | 30°049 | 29°916 | 29°831 | 30°002 | 29°993 | 29°987 | 29-787 | 29°846 | 29°978 | 29'950 
1876 | 30°168 | 29°685 | 29°420 | 29°841 | 30°184 | 29°949 | 29°994 | 29°884 | 29°749 | 29°887 | 29°874 | 29°420 |/29°883 


———— : 
SS = 


1877 | 29°669 | 29°737 | 29°696 | 29°846 | 29°884 | 29 934 | 29°792 | 29°795 | 30°066 | 29°817 | 29°422 | 29°864 | 29-794 
| 1878 | 30°032 | 30°142 | 30°006 | 29°876 | 29°784 | 29°929 | 30°027 | 29°780 | 29°870 | 29°602 | 29°823 | 29°692 | 29876 
| 1879 | 30°079 | 29°530 | 29°984 | 29°766 | 30°018 | 29°727 | 29°716 | 29°727 | 29°851 | 30°094 | 30°244 | 30°170 | 29°905 
| 1880 | 30°252 | 29°590 | 30°063 | 29°834 | 30°110 | 29°929 | 29°838 | 30°058 | 29°916 | 29°978 | 29°804 | 29-767 | 29°928 


1771-80 
1781-90 
1791-1800 
1801-10 
1811-20 
1821-30 
1831-40 
1841-50 
1851-60 
1861-70 
1871-80 
1881-90 
1891-96 
Means 
1770-1896 


127 Yrs. 


Jan. 


ins. 
29°920 
80°145 


29°758 | 
29°794 | 


29°796 
29°554 
29°809 
30°115 
30°049 
29°602 


29991 
29°744 
30°007 
29°650 
29°766 
30°222 


29°813 
29 °804 
29°758 
29°751 
29°790 
29°981 
29°877 
29°807 
29°702 
29°71 
29°842 
29°854 
29°897 


29°818 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TABLE I.—continued. 


111 


| | 
Feb. Mar. April. | May. June. | July. Aug Sept. Oct. | Nov. Dee Year. 
ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. 
29°823 | 29°792 | 30°02 | 30°052 | 29°899 29'868 | 29°750 | 30°008 | 30°046 | 29°666 | 29°802 | 29°887 
80°029 | 29°794 | 29°785 | 30°030 | 29°820 29°714 29°819 | 29°857 | 29°834 | 29°558 | 29°628 | 29°835 
29°866 | 29°974 | 30°014 | 29°927 29:964  29°785 | 29°857 | 29°764 | 29°852 | 29°632 | 30°028 | 29°868 
29°768 | 29°810 | 29°872 | 29°878 30°017 29°943 | 29°943 | 29:928 | 29°950 | 30:077.| 29°676 | 29°888 
29°468 | 30°010 | 29°788 | 29°712 30°000 29°982 | 29°982 | 29°723 | 29°724 | 29°876 | 30:037 | 29°842 
30°090 | 29°895 | 29°877 | 29:898 29°934  29°887 | 29°887 | 29:949 | 29°796 | 29:792 | 29°492 | 29-829 
30°177 | 30°032 | 29:984 | 30°046 30°182 29°921 , 29°921 | 29°870 | 30°089 | 29°665 | 29°702 | 29-946 
30°043 | 29°631 | 29°875 | 29°940 29981 29°902 | 29:902 | 30°141 | 29°936 | 29°671 | 29°807 | 29°912 
29°830 | 29°910 | 29:738 | 29°823 30°067 29°743 | 29°743 | 30°000 | 29°668 | 30°082 | 30°013 | 29°889 
30°242 | 29°684 | 29°816 | 29°847 29°874 29°800 29°800 |, 30°007 | 29°950 29°736 | 30°104 | 29°872 
| | 
380°337 | 29°758 | 30°040 | 29'790 30°084 29°672 29°672 | 29°822 | 29°635 | 29°785 | 29°738 | 29-860 
29776 | 30°047 | 30°012 | 29:°926 29:940 29°808 29°808 | 29:800 | 29-700 | 29°921 29°891 | 29°864 
29°540 | 30°008 | 30°192 | 30°058 29°988  29°928 29°928 | 29°739 | 29°730 | 29°966 , 29°739 | 29°902 
29°755 | 29:813 | 29°877 | 29:°940 29:971 29°832  29°826 | 30°229 | 29°926 | 29°786 29°854 | 29-872 
30°162 | 29°631 | 29°850 | 30°116 30°045 929°784 = 29°765 | 30°053 | 29°800 | 29°784 | 29°691 | 29°870 
30°202 | 29°633 30°054 | 30°266 29°908 29°868 29°985 | 29°660 | 29°702 | 30°121 | 29°682 , 29°942 
Decennial Means. 
29'675 | 29°852 | 29°881 29°919 | 29°929| 29°870 | 29:901 | 29°824 | 29°787 | 29:798 | 29°872 | 29-843 
29°777 | 29:910 | 29°947, 29°945 | 29:°925 | 29°862 | 29°859 | 29°808 | 29°944 | 29°827  29°822 | 29-869 
29°820 | 29°898 | 29°830 | 29°941 | 29:953) 29°831 | 29°888 | 29°837 | 29°727 | 29:748  29°782 | 29:834 
29°776 | 29°924 | 29:905  29:927 | 29:982| 29°879 | 29°878 | 29:934 | 29°845 | 29°767 | 29-645 | 29-851 
29°708 | 29°814 | 29°932 | 29°888 | 29°922 | 29°925 | 29°910 | 29:944,) 29°766 | 29-826 | 29°806 | 29°851 
29°838 | 29°859 | 29°824 | 29°966 | 29°991)| 29°863 | 29°878 | 29°843 | 29°825 | 29°781 | 29°728 |29-864 
29°769 | 29°884 | 29°941 30°003)| 29°864 | 29°915 | 29°883 | 29°818 | 29°848 | 29°709 | 29°857 | 29°864 
29°781 | 29°856 | 29°817 | 29°911 | 29°891 | 29°865 | 29°842 | 29°94.3) 29°737 | 29:752 29-853 | 29°838 
29°886 | 29°865 | 29°895 | 29°896 | 29°866 | 29°887 | 29:861 | 29°919| 29°780 | 29°916 | 29-776 | 29°854 
29°856 | 29°810 | 29:963 | 29:953 |29°970)| 29°907 | 29°888 | 29°831 | 29°829 | 29:847 29°852 | 29-873 
29°838 | 29°888 | 29°880 | 29:974) 29:912 | 29°880 | 29°868 | 29°874 | 29°919 | 29°833 | 29:819 | 29-°869 
29°983 | 29°853 | 29°877 | 29°915 | 29:974| 29°854 | 29°860 | 29:925 | 29°879 | 29°775 | 29°829 | 29:877 
29°962 | 29°815 | 30°004 | 30°016 29°989 | 29°815 | 29°831 | 29°884 | 29°749 | 29°894 | 29°766 | 29°885 
29°813 | 29°864 | 29°895 _29'940) 29°932 | 29°876 | 29°875 | 29°874 | 29°810 | 29°801 | 29°800 | 29-858 
| | 
if 
£ 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). 


112 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE I]. 


Showing the Highest Barometric Pressure in each Month from 1840 to 1896. 
At 32° and Mean Sea-Level. 


Year. Jan, 


ins. 

1840 80°415 
1841 30°318 
1842 30°567 
1843 =| 330°408 
1844 30°515 
1845 | 30'284 
1846 39°504 
1847 30°560 
1848 30°599 
1849 30°166 
1850 30°499 


1851 30°190 
1852 30°190 
1853 30°301 


1854 30°179 | 


1855 =, -30°653 
| 30°595 
1857 30°430 
1858 | 30°693 
1859 30°740 
1860 | 30°255 


_ 
ies) 
or 
a 


_ 
oo 
a 
— 


| 30°374 
1862 | 30°448 
1863 | 30-546 
1864 | 30-726 
1865 | 30°176 
1866 | 30-486 


1867 30°216 | 


1868 30°356 
1869 30°326 


1870 30°656 | 


1871 | 30-394 
29°926 
1873 | 30°282 
1874 | 30°507 
1875 | 30°570 
1876 | 30°677 
1877 | 30-496 
1878 | 30°624 


1879 30°504 | 


1880 30°650 


1881 30°778 
1882 30°866 
1883 30°538 
1884 30°547 
1885 30°433 
1886 30°146 
1887 |} 80°451 
30°691 
1889 30°580 


1890 | 30°250. | 


1891 | 380°795 
1892 30°411 
1893 30°485 
1894 30°759 
1895 30°675 
1896 | 31°071 


Feb. 


ins. 
30°717 
30°662 
30°419 
30°353 


30°135 | 


30°252 
30°381 
30°456 


30°218 | 


30°649 
30°265 


30°520 
30°732 
30°195 


30°530 | 
39°291 | 


30.581 


30°470 | 


30°538 
30°521 
30°782 


30°508 
30°693 
30°756 
30°616 
30°616 
80°356 
30°556 
30°396 
30°131 
30°608 


30°406 
39°213 
30°623 
30°607 
30°506 
30°240 
30°348 
30°045 
30°295 
80°365 


30°498 
30°664 
30°632 
30°290 
30°189 
30°499 
30°700 
30°574 
30°456 
80°735 


30°662 
30°619 
30°295 
30°466 
30°711 


30°689 


Mar. 
ins. 
30°725 
30°479 
30°375 
30°406 


30°482 | 


30°441 
30°521 
30°712 
30°208 
30°361 
30°621 


30°469 
30°797 
30°256 
30°902 
30°524 
30°750 
30.660 
30°545 
30°305 
30°564 


30°212 
30°377 
30°486 
30°186 
30°276 
30°486 
30°846 
30°526 
30°370 
30°560 


30°616 
30°260 
30°276 
30°879 
30°732 
80°224 
30°254 
30°685 
80°543 
30°516 


30°346 
30°486 
30°734 
80°321 
30°638 
30589 
30°506 
30°509 


30°507 | 


30°543 


30°146 
30°621 


| 


April. | 


ins. 
30°407 
30°297 


30°427 | 


30°397 
30°376 


30°582 | 


80°277 
30°188 
30°128 
30°377 
30°490 
30°237 
80°377 
30°287 


30°514 | 


30°513 
30°453 
30°262 
30°395 
30°303 
80°524 


30°536 
30°467 
30°287 


30°536 | 


30°536 
30°616 
30°216 
30°386 
30°540 
30°440 


30°221 
30°432 
30°508 
30°427 
30°576 
30°426 
30°410 
380°280 
30°339 
30°546 


30°305 
30°596 
30°690 
80°272 
80°242 
30°402 
30°598 
30°332 
30°038 
30°278 


30°429 
80°457 
80°653 
30°424 
80°408 
30°450 


May. 


ins. 
30°390 
30°524 
30°516 
3)°453 
30°601 
30°326 
80°271 
80°582 
30°363 
30°326 
30°271 


30°479 
30°3829 
30°362 
30°236 
30°355 
80°402 
30°352 
30°434 
30°347 
39.505 


30°349 
30°304 
30°496 
30°416 
30°456 
30°586 
30°326 
30°326 
30°320 
30°412 


80°416 
30°340 
30°426 
30°440 
80°480 
30°584 
30°450 
30°136 
30°520 
30°402 


30°769 
30°467 
30°446 
30°404 
30°183 
30°360 
30°459 
30°566 
30°074 
80°304 


30°327 
30°499 
30°582 
80°519 
30°616 
30°537 


June, 


ins. 
30°126 
30°236 
30°434 


30°255 | 


30°176 
30°230 
30°356 
30°515 
30°198 
30°184 
30°381 


30°331 
29°939 
30°282 
30°248 
80°420 
30°280 
30°414 
30°386 
80°252 
30°186 


30°242 
30°259 
30°316 
30°286 
80 °636 
30°326 
30°636 
30°436 
30°304 
30°570 


30°351 
30°268 
30°345 
30°691 
30°406 
30°263 
30°293 
30°180 
30°155 
30°480 


30°268 
30°383 
30°362 
30°318 
30°387 
30°312 
30°484 
30°377 
30°488 
30°366 


30°392 
30°383 
30°434 
30°477 
30°486 
30°170 


July. 


ins, 
80°315 
30°206 


30°357 | 


80°274 
30°190 
30°364 
30°187 
30°426 
30°471 
30°426 
30°222 


30'267 
30°232 


30°116 | 


30.271 
30°188 
30°250 
30°264 
30°262 
30°286 
30°319 


30°005 
30°203 
30°616 
30°416 
30°436 
30°376 
30356 
30°486 
30°216 
30°305 


30'021 
30°188 
80°122 
30°256 
80°406 
30°456 
30°150 
30°436 
80°044 
30°246 


30°138 
30°375 
30°304 
30°189 
30°44] 
80°282 
30°356 
30°055 
30°447 
30°220 


30°407 
30°384 
30°221 
30°342 
30°230 
30°325 


Aug. 


ins. 
30°305 
30°250 
20°336 
30°280 
30°318 
30°403 
30°350 
30°451 
30°041 
30°198 
30°277 


30°380 
30°372 
30°394 
30°389 
30°261 
80°319 
30°393 
30°385 
80°277 
29°947 


30°184 
30°341 
30°246 
30°686 
30°316 
30°186 
30°096 
80°216 
30°336 
80°408 


30°368 
30°328 
30 °092 
30°564 
30°244 
30°290 
80°240 
30°382 
30°162 
30°376 


30°170 
30°363 
30°270 
30°216 
80°285 
30°254 
80°337 
30°286 
30°228 
30°218 


30°016 
30°255 
30°331 
80°323 
30°185 
30°327 


Sept. 


ins. 
80'161 
30°315 
80°524 
30°602 
30°337 
80°352 
30°546 
30°448 
30°366 
380°595 
80°557 


30°637 
30°324 
30°500 
30°510 
30°624 
30°305 
30°495 
30°393 
30°218 
30°411 


30208 
30°363 
80°236 
30°416 
30°556 
30°256 
30°516 
30°486 
80°433 
30°515 


30°458 | 


30°184 
30°480 
30°297 
80°432 
80°375 
30°550 
30°190 
30°297 
30°392 


30°461 
30°390 
30°570 
30°520 
30°160 
30°634 
30°558 
80°519 
30°499 
30°454 


30°164 
30°377 
30°330 
39°568 
30°389 
30°362 


Oct. 


ins. 
30°618 
30°262 


30°551 | 


30°383 
30°332 
30°417 
30°300 
30°349 
30°372 
30°440 
30°416 


30°404 
30°417 
30°972 
30°511 
30°131 
30°585 
30°406 
30°586 
30°106 
30°295 


30°373 
80°521 
80°356 
30°556 
30°386 
30°616 
30°316 
30°166 
30°334 
30°620 


30°448 
80°354 
30°434 
30°513 
30°208 
30°390 
30°627 
30°269 
80°570 
30°454 


30°496 
80°670 
30°468 
30°736 
30°455 
30°549 
30°595 
30°511 
30°388 
30°450 


30°751 
80°379 
30°376 
80°497 
30°558 
80°548 


ins. 
30°803 
30°121 
30°501 
30°429 
30°551 
30°498 
80°540 
30°428 
30°575 
30°867 
30°410 


30°629 
30°185 
30°517 
30°343 
30°297 
30°380 
30°622 
30°257 
30°684 
30°290 


30°583 
30°225 
30°456 
30°676 
30°856 
39°456 
30°406 
30°136 
30°670 
30°673 


30°431 
29'978 
30°574 
30°401 
30°574 
80°197 
30°620 
30°382 
30°685 
30°452 


30°400 


| 30°140 


30°620 
30°419 
30°611 
30°476 
30°280 
30°390 
30°733 
30°598 


30°614 
30°272 
30643 
30°642 
80°447 
30°392 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


PABrE, LUT. 


113 


Showing the Lowest Barometric Pressure in each Month from 1840 to 1896. 
At 32 and Mean Sea-Level. 


Year, Jan. 


ins. 
1840 28°24] 


1841 28°653 
1842 28°786 | 
1843 28°082 
1844 | 29°044 
1845 28°624 
1846 28°790 
1847 28°850 | 


1848 29°297 
1849 29287 


1850 29°217 | 
. 1851 29°019 
1852 28°710 


1853 28°720 
1854 28°960 


1855 | 29°646 | 
1856 28°606 | 


1857 28°829 


1858 29°555 | 
1859 28°939 
1860 28°464 
29°42] 
29°097 | 
1863 28°646 
1864 29°416 


1865 28°466 
1866 29°766 
1867 28°816 
1868 29°016 
1869 28°708 
1870 28°547 


1871 28°493 
1872 28°215 
1873 28°232 
1874 28°898 
1875 28°630 
1876 29°476 
1877 28°744 
1878 29°133 
1879 29°462 
1880 29°406 


1881 28°891 
1882 28 °853 
1883 28 °732 
1884 27°451 


1885 28°349 
1886 28°865 


1887 28°79 
1888 29°069 
1889 29°215 
1890 28°726 
1891 29°138 


1892 29°150 
1893 29°244 
1894 28°939 
1895 29°000 
1896 28 °857 


ins. 
28°615 
29°042 
28°885 
28°997 
28°952 
29°452 
29°036 
29°225 
28°580 
28°920 
28°695 


29°134 
28°962 
29°222 
29°069 
29°407 
29°248 
29°196 
29°031 
29°078 
28°673 


28°908 
29°252 
29°396 
29°106 
29°216 
29°166 
28 '556 
29°616 
28°678 
29°080 


29°208 
29°186 
28°872 
28°898 
29°670 
28°881 
29°102 
29530 
28°871 
28°642 


28°722 
28°872 
28°946 
28°807 
28°548 
28°916 
29°271 
29°342 
28°999 
29°514 


29°640 
28°708 
28°668 
28°319 
29°508 
29°525 


Mar. 


ins. 
29°589 
29-020 
29°037 
29°349 


29°048 
28870 
29°239 
28°535 
29°349 


28°999 


29°504 
29°526 
28°751 
29°916 
28474 
28°985 
28°920 
28°602 


28°852 
29°003 
29°216 
29°086 
29°356 


28°916 
28°796 
28°910 
29°186 


29°192 
29°125 
29°080 
29°316 
29°447 
28°260 
29°178 


28°892 
29°320 
28°761 


29003 
28°990 
28°875 
29°050 
29 223 
29°054 
29°075 
28°859 
29°031 
29°049 


29°038 
29°188 
29°272 
28°789 
28'643 
28°299 


28°798 | 


29°389 | 


28°866 | 


29°539 | 


April. 


ins. 
29°392 
29°264 
29°277 
29°276 
29°6038 
29°124 
29°087 
28°984 
29°342 
29°232 
28°775 


29°250 
29°627 
28°707 
29°115 
28°859 
29°214 
29°300 
28°869 
29°000 
29°676 


29°813 
29°279 
29°251 
29°416 
29-926 
29-446 
28°886 
28°856 
29°143 
29°397 


29°138 | 
29°360 


29°632 


28°647 | 


28°997 
28°995 
28°908 
28°831 
29°053 


29°100 | 


25°509 | 
29°131 | 


29°276 
29°177 
29°009 


28°839 | 
29°105 | 
29°372, | 
29 228 | 
29°213 | 


29°431 | 


29°454 


29°691. 


29°288 
28°996 
29°524 


May. 


ins. 
29°254 
28°901 
28°787 
29°354 
29°823 
29°404 
29'017 
29°278 
29°203 
29°115 
29°241 


29°565 
29°391 
29°566 
28°854 
29°423 
29°226 
29°499 
29287 
29 °766 
29°335 


29°467 
29°477 
29°396 
29°766 
29°678 
29°376 
29°526 
29°366 
29°188 


29-092 | 


29°462 
28°900 
29°320 
29°554 
29276 
29°560 
28°803 
29254 
29°531 


29°410 


29°163 
29°102 


29-478 | 


28°914 
29°156 
29°189 
29°212 
29°106 
29°473 
29°381 


29°187 
29°297 
29°470 
29°466 
29°660 
29°755 


June. 


ins. 
29°300 
29°462 
29°154 
28°913 
29-480 
29°109 
29°216 
29°329 
29°269 
29°487 
29°251 


29°465 
29°231 
29°200 
29°306 
29°145 
29°486 
29°324 
29°666 
29582 
29°102 


29°625 
29°169 
29°466 
29°716 
29°836 
29°436 
29°486 
29°656 
29°450 
29°517 


29°474 
29°288 
29°424 
29632 
29074 
29°371 
29°220 
29°286 
29°410 
29°480 


29°282 
29°300 
29°450 
29°530 
29°208 
29°474 
29°680 
29°502 
29°705 
29°307 


29°534 
29°258 
29°244 
29°561 
29°517 
29°399 


| 


July. 


ins. 
29°163 
29°436 
29°204 
29°384 
29°156 
29246 
29°178 
29°726 
28°996 
29°266 
29°168 


28°855 
29°714 
29°098 
29°303 
29°485 
20°274 
29°402 
29°318 
29°247 
29°606 


O22 
29°391 
29°716 
29°616 
29°626 
29°206 
29°236 
29°526 
29°387 
29°514 


29°187 | 


29°648 
29°488 


29°522 | 


29°399 
29°392 


29°157 | 


29°641 
29°016 


29°380 


29°420 


29:090 | 


29°227 
29°372 
29°610 
29°103 
29°253 
29°277 


29°365 | 


29°375 


29°426 
29.168 
29°254 
29°188 
29°399 
29°510 


Aug. 


ins. 
28°846 
29°336 
29°593 
29°271 
29-001 
29°283 
29°323 
29°248 
29°316 
29°153 
29:°293 


29°576 
29-038 
28°987 
29-460 
29°420 
¥9°414 
29 674 
29°368 
29°113 
28°909 


29°371 
29°341 
29°456 


| 29°586 


29°616 
29°306 
29°496 
29-276 
29°493 
29°537 


29°463 
29°464 
29°410 
29300 
29°528 
29°026 
29°322 
29°318 
28.893 
29°412 


28°881 
29°169 
29°086 
29°464 
29°099 
29°483 
29°205 
29°424 
29°127 
29°011 


28°698 
29°209 
29°147 
29°074 
29°245 
29°551 


28°801 
29°221 
28°796 
29°885 
29°249 
28°82] 


Oct. 


ins. 
29°065 
28°820 
28°703 
28°770 
28°850 
29°142 
28°771 
29:091 
29-152 
29.364 
28°893 


28°851 
29:027 
29-095 
29°068 
28°740 
29°427 
29095 
28°798 
28'998 
29°070 


29 217 
28 °621 
29°756 
28°786 
28°876 
29°536 
29°036 
29246 
29°127 
28°482 


29°120 
29°04 


28°795 | 


28°660 
29°174 
28°725 
28°804 
28862 
29°058 


| 29°212 
28°418 


29111 


| 28°922 


28°855 
28°805 
28°778 
29°133 
29°189 
28 660 
29°231 


28 370 
28 °820 
28992 
28°646 
28 823 
28°907 


Noy. 


ins. 
28°401 
28°620 
28°901 
28°995 
28°885 
28°413 
28°920 
28°984 
28°949 
29°142 
28°340 


29°194 
28°685 
29°584 
28°676 
29°168 
29°587 
28°977 
28°860 
28°455 
29°072 


29°092 
29°029 
29°136 
28°636 
28°916 
29366 
29-256 
28°906 
297144 
28°900 


29°393 
28-578 
28°564 
28°707 
29°044 
29°357 
28°255 
29°064 
29°415 
28°766 


28°171 


28°817 
28594 
29°237 
28°802 
29°125 
28°835 
28°960 
28°827 
28°660 


28°363 
29°249 
28°510 
28°802 
28°357 
29°081 


Dee. 


| 
a 
Ins. | 
29°105 | 
28°825 
29-029 
29°513 | 
29°490 | 
28°500 | 
28°963 | 
287439 

28°810 | 
29°407 

28°785 | 


29°449 | 
28°051 | 
29°584 
28-682 | 
28884 
28 854 
29246 
29-020 
28°846 
28°866 


29°091 
29°339 
28 926 
29°546 
29°046 
28°846 
29°096 
28°446 
28°331 
28°843 


29°180 
28°716 
29°146 
28°720 
29-069 
28 °497 
29'055 
28°823 | 
29°075 
28°802 


28°604 
28°957 
28°757 | 
28°874 
28°891 | 
27°651 | 
29°069 | 
28-975 
29°078 
29°323 | 


28°558 
29°145 
28°569 
28°121 
28°79 
28-769 


114 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaslE IY. 


Showing the Monthly Range of Pressure. From Observations 
made daily at 9 a.m. and 9 p.m. 


| 


Year. Jan, Feb. Mar. | April. | May. June. | July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 


ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins, ins. ins. ins, 
1840 2°174 2°102 1°146 1°015 1136 |. 0°826 152 1°459 1-232 1°553 2°053 1°698 
1841 1°665 1°620 1°459 1°033 1°623 0'774 0°770 0°914 1°480 1°442 1°817 1°296 
1842 1°781 1°534 1°338 1150 1°729 1°280 a Ia 5923 0°743 1°229 1'848 1°626 1°472 
1843 2°326 1°356 1°057 US IPAL 1:099 1°342 0°890 1°109 0°904 1613 1°361 0°916 
1844 1:471 1'183 1°684 0773 0°788 0°696 1:034 Uceyly 0°722 1°482 1°455 1:061 
1845 1°660 0°801 1°393 1°458 0°922 TAT 1°118 1'120 1°326 1275 1°944 1°998 
1846 1°714 1'345 1°651 1:190 1°257 1°140 1°109 1°027 1'243 1°509 1°776 1°577 
1847 1°710 1231 1°4738 1°204 1°304 1°186 0°700 1°208 1°813 1°258 1°444 1°949 
1848 1°302 1°638 1°673 0°786 1:160 0°929 1°475 0°725 0°881 1°190 1°683 1°727 
1849 0°879 1°729 1°012 1'145 VEOH Ia 0°697 1160 1°045 1°578 1°076 1°085 1°460 
1850 1'282 1°570 1:082 1-715 1°030 1:130 1°054 0:974 1°234 1°523 1°982 1°625 


185] 1171 1°393 1°470 0°997 0°914 0°866 1°512 0°804 1°506 1°553 1°243 1'180 
1852 1°420 1770 1°408 0°750 0°938 0°758 0°515 1°334 1:098 1°390 1°449 2°134 
1853 1°581 0°873 0°742 1°580 0°796 1°082 1°018 1°407 0°648 0°877 0°819 0°933 
1854 1'219 1°461 1°376 1°399 1°382 0°942 0°968 0°929 0°994 1°443 1-708 1°662 
1855 1:007 0°884 1773 1°654 0°932 1°275 0°705 0°841 1°286 1°391 1°317 1°413 
1856 1°989 1°338 0°834 1°234 1176 0°794 0°802 0°905 1:342 1°159 1084 1568 
1857 1°601 1174 2°021 | 1°850 0°853 1090 0°862 0°719 1-096 1°311 1°833 1:376 
1858 1°138 1°507 1°560 1°526 1147 0°720 0°889 |. 1:017 0'944 1°788 2°211 1'237 
1859 1°801 1°443 1°285 1°303 0°5381 0°670 1°039 1°164 0°991 1'108 2°262 1°838 
1860 1791 2°109 1°962 1°848 1170 1°084 0°713 1:038 1:175 1225 1577 1°424 


1861 0°953 1°600 1°360 0°723 0°884 0°617 0°793 0°813 1'255 1°156 1'202 1°492 
1862 1°351 1441 1°361 1°188 0°827 1:090 0°812 1°000 1°044 1°900 1472 1150 
1863 1°900 1°360 1°270 1°030 1°100 0°850 0°900 0°790 1°500 1°600 1°430 1°530 
1864 1°310 1°510 1°100 1:120 0°650 0°570 0-800 | 1°100 0°880 1°770 2°140 1°130 
1865 1:710 1°400 0'920 0°610 0°780 0°800 0°810 0°700 0°800 1°510 1°620 1°810 
1866 1°720 1°190 1°620 1:170 1°210 0°890 1°170 0°880 1°040 1:080 0°910 1°610 
1867 1°400 2°000 1°930 1°330 0°800 1°150 1°120 0°600 1030 1°280 1°360 1°310 
1868 1°920 1°780 1°730 1°530 0°960 0°780 0°960 0°940 1°420 0°920 1°700 1690 
1869 1°630 1°460 1°470 1°400 1150 0°930 0°750 0°860 1°480 1230 1110 2°180 
1870 2°030 1°530 1°330 1°200 1°430 1:050 0770 0°870 1°580 2°130 1590 1760 


1°060 0°860 0°830 0°860 1°180 1'110 1'260 0°940 1'190 
1:000 1'270 0°980 0°540 0°864 1°098 1268 1798 1:274 
0°878 1°095 0°874 0°608 0°758 1174 1°674 1976 1°452 
1°661 0°842 1°050 0°724 1°250 1°015 1°758 1°637 1°658 
1530 1°024 1°295 1°014 0'664 1'185 1°081 1°392 1°404 
1°416 1:000 0°793 1°031 1°240 1'133 1°591 1°012 1°638 
1°453 1°655 1°031 0°980 0°901 1°142 1°823 1°982 1°586 
1878 1°452 0°962 1°703 1°461 0°900 0°899 0°721 1°058 1176 1°388 1°261 1°462 
1879 =| 1°036 1°406 1°162 1°264 0°983 0°737 1:019 1°264 1°166 1°693 1:098 1°444 


| 
1871 1°870 1°220 1°410 | 
1880 | 1°249 1°724 1°715 1°445 0°954 0963 0°866 0°964 0°986 1°242 1°667 1°610 


1872 1°700 0°990 1:040 
1873 2°023 1°842 1'201 
1874 17400 1°707 1°512 
1875 1°857 0°847 1°286 
1876 1°170 1°294 1°930 
1877 1°692 11185 1°019 


0 776 1°605 1000 0°693 1°444 1°005 2°070 2°017 1°796 
1473 1364 1°102 1°254 1°120 1'280 1579 1°518 aN 
1°350 0°963 0°850 1°048 1110 1°360 1°542 1°690 1°736 
1°069 1°469 0°816 0°826 0°682 1°189 1513 1377 1°498 
1131 0°974 1°149 0°818 1°158 1061 1°583 1578 1°609 
1°505 1118 0°829 11134 0°751 1°227 1°737 1°526 2°565 
1°467 1213 0°804 1°103 1°132 1533 1-462 | °1°748 1°445 
0°960 1°460 0°853 0°778 0°862 0°838 1°322 1119 1°414 
0°810 0°629 0°783 1°082 1°098 1°046 1728 1°550 1655 
1065 0°923 1°041 0°845 1°140 1083 1'219 1°502 1'270 


1881 1°910 1°772 1°356 
1882 2°022 1°789 1°510 
1883 1°809 1°615 1°768 
1884. | 3°035 1°445 1'243 
1885 | 1°'916 1°352 1°333 
1886 | 1°230 1°482 1°453 
1887 1°594 1°414 1°446 
1888 1°622 1°232 1°650 
1889 =| 1°365 1°457 1°476 
1890 1°524 1198 1°494 


0°998 1'140 0°858 0°980 1:030 1°301 2°327 2°226 1°992 
0°959 11132 0°921 1166 0°986 1°158 1°558 ilbibills 1114 
0°902 1‘107 1160 0°917 1°126 1447 1°384 2°048 2°074 
1°038 1023 0°855 1114 1°129 0°707 1°835 1°706 2°521 
1°359 0°950 0°959 0°831 0937 1°140 1°543 1963 1°616 
0°922 0°768 0°718 0°815 0°776 1528 1°636 1°563 1°633 


1614 | 0.871 | 1°081 
1892 1-251 | 1°745 | 1347 
1893 1°205 | 1°607 | 1°159 
1894 1°754 | 2°147 | 1°720 
1895 1:778 | 1°177 | 1°579 

| 1896 2164 | 1°164 | 1°730 

Means 

| 


1840-96 | 1°611 1°437 1°418 1:210 1077 0°935 | 0°935 0°999 1173 1481 1566 | 1°558 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 115 


TABLE V. 
Pressure at 32° and Mean Sea-Level. 


Highest Mean. | Lowest Mean. | Difference. Range of Pressure. 
7 1840-1896. 
Years 1770-1896. : 
| SE] ID, 
Inches. | Year. | Inches. | Year. Inches. |Greatest.| Year. Least. | Year. 
January, 30°270 1833 29°196 1791 1°074 3°0385 1884 0°879 1849 2°156 
February, . 4 . | 80°337 1891 29°202 1776 1°135 2°147 1894 0°801 1845 1°346 
March, 5 5 . | 80°361 1840 29°401 1836 0°960 2°021 1857 0°742 1853 1°279 
April, . A . | 380°298 1817 29°529 1829 0°769 1°848 1860 0°750 1852 1:098 
May, . Fi . 30°312 1836 29698 1779 0°614 1°729 1842 0°581 1859 1148 
June, . ’ : 30°257 1826 29°628 1852 0°629 1°342 1843 0°570 1864 Onni2 
July, . 5 . 30°153 1825 29°633 1798 0°520 1°512 1851 0°515 1852 0.997 
August, . . | 380°138 1864 29°571 1860 0567 1°459 1840 0-600 1867 0°859 
September, , . . | 30°229 1894 29°525 | 1839 0°704 1°813 1847 0°648 1852 1°165 
October, . ’ . | 380°202 1784 29°436 1812 0°766 2°327 1891 0°877 1853 1°450 
November, . -.. . | 80°244 1879 29°422 1877 0°822 2°262 1859 0°814 1853 1°448 
December, . 30:266 | 1780 | 29-318 eee 0-948 | 2565 | 1886 | o-916 | 1843 | 1:649 
Wear, . Q . 29°962 1864 29°706 | 1789 0°256 3°035 Jan. 0°515 July 2°520 
| i 1884 1852 
Highest Pressure. Lowest Pressure. 
1840-1896. 1840-1896. 
Years 1770-1896. Range Range. 
Maxi- J Mini- Maxi- Mini- ona 
mum. Wear, mum, Year mum, Mea mum. Year, 
January, . ; 5 |) eulcoyyal 1896 29°926 1872 11145 29°646 1855 27°451 1884 2°195 
February, 5 30°782 1860 30°131 1869 0°652 29°670 1875 28°319 1894 1°351 
March, “ . » | 80°902 1854 30°146 1891 0°756 29°916 1856 28°260 1876 1°656 
April, . P - | 30°690 1883 30°038 1889 0°652 29°926 1865 28°647 1872 1:279 
May, , 5 5 . | 380°769 1881 30°074 1889 0°695 29°823 1844 28°787 1842 1:036 
June, . ° , . | 30°691 1874 29°939 1852 0°752 29°836 1865 28°913 1843 0°923 
July, . : é 30°616 1863 30°005 1861 0°611 29°726 1847 28°855 1851 0°871 
August, : : 30°686 1864 29°947 1860 0°739 29°674 1857 28°698 1891 0:976 
September, . 5 . | 380°637 1851 30°160 1885 0°477 29°899 1857 28 °635 1847 1°264 
October, 4 ' oh eee fail 1891 29°972 1853 0°779 29°536 1866 28°370 1891 1°166 
November, . : » | 80°810 1857 30°134 1852 2°676 29°587 1856 28°171 1881 1°476 
December, , ; 30°867 1849 29°978 1872 0°889 29°584 1853 27°651 1886 0°933 
Jan. 9 Jan. 9 April 3 Jan. 26 
31°071 1896 29°926 1872 1'145 29°926 1865 27°451 1884 2°475 
TasBLe VI. 
High and Low Pressures. 
The following Table shows all the sea-level pressures above 30°90 inches or below 
28°20 inches during the period 1770-1896. 
High Pressure, Low Pressure. 
Date. Reading. Date. Reading 
| Inches Inches, 
1774 November 23, : ; 80°902 1773 January 18, 28°089 
1789 January 6, . aa qe 30°937 1789 January 18, . 28°070 
1808 February 25, LE: 31-004 1818 March 5, : 28'198 
1820 January9,. . . 31°058 tesoeganuary,7,.  .«. .«. 28°112 
1825 January9,. . . , 30°961 1843 January 13, G Eee Be 28082 
1834 December15, . . 30°950 1852 December27, . . . 28°051 
1835 January2,. . .  . 30°941 1881 November 27, : 28°171 
Bee Marcha; eC 30°902 1884 January 26, : 27°451 
1896 January9,. . . , 31:071 1886 December 8, 27°651 
1894 December 22, 28°121 


116 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste VII. 


Showing the Mean Temperature of the Air in Edinburgh from 1764-1896. 


Norre.—The means where not the average of the maximum and minimum values have been 
corrected. The height above mean sea-level is 250 feet. 


| 
Jan. | Feb. |March.| April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. | 
1764, 36°3 | 38°0 | 38°7 | 44°0 | 52°2 | 55°6 | 59°9 | 57°6 | 51:0 | 46°5 | 384 | 86"1 | 46°2 
1765, 39°8 | 32:9 | 40°0 | 44°5 | 51°9 | 58°7 | 58°5 | 56:8 | 51:7 | 47:2 | 37:1 | 3b°G | 4be8 
1766, 34°77 | 34:5 | 38°1 | 45°38 | 45°38 | 54:0 | 58'°9 | 59°5 | 516 | 466 | 43°0 | 37°6 | 45°8 
1767, 31°77 | 41°1 | 38:9 | 44°38 | 48°7 | 53:1 | 564 | 59°8 | 546 | 45:7 | 43°0 | 89°3 | 46:4 
1768, 33°2 | 382 | 40°2 | 46°5 | 52°56 | 54°5 | 58:3 1 587 | 51:0 | 47°0 | 40:1 | 31 46s 
1769, 35°3 36°6 | 40°6 45°5 50°4 54°4 60°1 56°3 53°9 45°7 40°1 40°4 46°7 
1770, 39°99 | 41°1 | 35°38 | 41°5 | 47°9 | 58°38 | S77 | 58°2 | 55:1 | 44°4 | 38:3 | 37°6 | abs 
A771, 33°8 | B8°2 | 3865 7; 41:7 | 49°5 | 54°3 | 57-4 | 56°38 | 510 | 47-2 | Adel |) Aly aoe 
1772, 32°6 | 32°6 | 37°38 | 42°7 | 48°6 | 561 | 58°0 | 57:4 | 51:0 | 49°0 | 42°4 | 89°6 | 45°6 
1773, | 88°5 | 36:2 | 43°0 | 45°4 | 47°9 | 54°0 | 56°2 | 583 | 51:3 | 46:1 | 39°2 | 86° | 46:0 
1774, 807! || 86°7 | (88:2 | 48°6 | 45-5 | 54:0 | 56:81 S6%7 4) 5281 1 487 |) 89:05) aya 7 aimee 
1775, 38°3 39°9 40°2 47°2 53°0 Spall) S50N7, 57°5 534 45°9 38°5 39°1 47°3 
1776, 29°2 | 86:7 | 42°1 | 46°5 | 49°4 | 54:3 | 59°6 | 56:7 | 51°5 | 47°38 | 41°0 | 881 | 461 
1777, 35°4 | 35°2 | 40°1 42°6 51°2 53°7 575 59°2 55'8 48°8 42°9 38'8 46°9 
1778, of8 | 89° | 401 44°0 531 59°1 61:2 58°7 51°3 42°6 40°8 43°4 47°6 
1779, 37°6 | 47°2 | 46:5 | 47°1 | 510 | 58°1 | 65:2 | 63°7 | 56°70 | 48°8 | 40°9 | 83°1 | 4956 
1780, 28°4 | 35:1 | 44°7 | 42°0 | 58:2 | 57:0 | 60°7 | 68:2 | 57°4 | 45°9 | 38°68 | 89°5 | 47°2 
1781, 36°3 | 40°3 | 44°5 | 47°5 | 51°9 | 59°8 | 6O'4 | 586 | 52°77 | 485 | 434 | 411 | 48°8 
1782, 39°4 | 34:7 | 87°8 {| 40°7 | 47°2 | 57°2 | 60°71 | 56°1 | 51°4 | 44°0 | 35°6 | 385°9 | 45°0 
1783, 37-1 | 88:0 | 387°5 4+ 48:5 | 49°9 | 54:2 | 68°2 | 58°4 | 53°6 | 47:2.) 41:2 | Sil age 
1784, 32°2 | 84°38 | 35:0 | 41°1 | 55-4 | 58:5 | 58:5 | 564 | 54:7 | 46-4 | 39°7 | 34°0 | 45°2 
1785, 38'2 | 32°8 | 34:2 | 49°2 | 50°6 | 60°7 | 58°3 | 54:1 | 54°3 | 45:7 | 48:2 | 861 | 4674 
1786, 36°0 | 37°0 | 35°4 | 45:1 | 49°77 | 57°6 | 564 | 58°7 | 5171 | 44:0 | 39:0 | 386°3 | 45:5 
1787, 40°0 43°8 | 44:4 43°9 49°7 53°8 60°0 60°0 53°6 48°0 38'0 36'8 47°7 
1788, 388 37°2 | 37°4 49°2 50°2 57°2 60°3 58°8 54°4 47°8 42°4 32°2 472 
1789, 34°6 | 40°2 | 34°6 43°8 53°2 56°9 60°9 61°6 55:0 47°6 41°90 43°9 47°8 
1790, 89'4 | 44°7 | 48°2 | 42°6 | 52°8 | 58°8 | 59°0 | 5778 | 528 | 48°8 | 39:9 | 87:9) eae 
1791, 88°8 | 39°3 | 43°9 | 47°5 | 52:0 | 56°9 | 586 | 584 | 54:7 | 46°7 | 41'°2 | 32:7 | 476 
1792, | 34°8 | 39°8 | 40°9 | 49°8 | 48°6 | 58°7 | 58°4 | 60°3 | 51:0 | 46°2 | 44°56 | 87°6 | 47°1 
1793, 37°4 | 40°91 | 37°6 | 40°4 | 49°5 | 53°9 | 60° | 57°8 | 52°9 | B5L7 | 41'0 | 40°6 | 469 
1794, 38°2 43-0 43°2 46'8 50°6 58°4 60°7 56°4 52°2 47°0 40°8 40°2 48°1 
1795, 29°9 31°6 37°5 45°2 49°4 52°9 576 59°3 57°0 50°8 37°9 42°9 46°0 
1796, 43°8 -| 40°5 | 89°0 | 48°9 | 49°0 | 5b:8 | 57°6 | 59°5 | 551 | 44°38 | 389°2 | 31°8: ||) sage 
1797, | 40°7 | 48°8 | 39°5 | 44°6 | 52°0 | 54°4 | 60°9 | 58°0 | 58°8 | 44°7 | 38°5 | 40°0 | 47°6 
1798, - | 3884 | 389 | 40°6 | 49°8 | 53°3 | 60°8 | 60°6 | 59°4 | 54°9 | 48:2 | 39°0 | 35°38 | 48:3 
1799, 37°2 | 36°2 | 38°0 | 41°1 | 48°5 | 55°4 | 58°0 | 559 | 54:6 | 45°1 | 40°3 | 35:1 | 464 
1890, |.35'°3 | 86°38 | 385 | 46°90 | SI] | bb:5 | O16) '59°7 | S51 | 47:7 || 40" | 36° aires 
| 
1801, 39°1 | 89°9 | 425 | 46°3 | 52°0 | 57°4 | 58°9 | 60°4 | 56°2 | 49:4 | 40°0 | 34°0 | 48:0 
1802, 36°9 37°8 42°0 46°6 49°0 5B°5 56°3 60°1 55'1 49°6 41°5 37°9 47°4 
1803, 35'6 37°7 41°9 46°5 50:1 556 62°8 | 591 52°5 47°2 39°0 38'5 47°2 
1804, 40°2 | 36°4 | 88°7 | 48°0 | 54°71 | 59°6 | 59°1 | 58°6 | 511 | 49°4 | 41°6 | 86:2 | 473 
1805, 37°2 38°9 42°5 46°3 47°9 53°8 59°3 59°4 56°4 46°3 42°1 36°7 47°2 
1806, 35°1 | 867 | 89°3 | 41°56 | 500 | 56°6 | 57°65 | 58°8 | 55°5 | 49°5 | 42°9 | 39"9 | TauaD 
1807, 36°3 | 35°7 | 89°3 | 44°7 | 47°8 | 55-1 | 61°0 | 59°8 | 48°2 | 50°6 | 34:0 | 35°1 | 456” 
1808, 85°2 | 85°> | 87°3 | 41°6 | 54°38 | 56:3 | 62°5 | 60°4 | 54:1 | 48°6 | 40° | 85°4 | 467 
| 1809, 86°3 | 38°7 | 42° | 40° | 52°0 | 551 | 57°3 | 57°4 | 52°83 | 51:0 | 39°38 | 86°6 | 467 
| 1810, 36°8 | 362 | 86°6 | 44:5 | 45°1 | 55°8 | 57°2 | 580 | 55°8 | 48:4 | 39°1 | 35°7 | 458 
! 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 117 


TasBLE VIL—continued. 


Jan. | Feb. |March.} April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 

33°6 37°7 43°5 43°6 52°2 54°8 59°3 56°7 54°8 51°5 43°8 35°9 47°3 

36°3 39°4 36°8 40°7 49°0 55°3 57°0 57 ‘2 53°3 47°3 39°8 34°9 45°6 

. | 385°6 39°7 43°3 44°8 49°3 55°9 59°3 57°5 53°4 44°3 37°7 37°3 46'5 

26°5 35'1 377 48°2 477 52°9 59°4 572 54°4 45°4 389 366 45°0 

. . | 33°5 41°6 41°5 45°3 52°0 55°9 58°2 57°8 53°6 47°7 37°6 33°8 46°5 

35°4 35°8 86°4 40°9 48°2 53°2 Dow 55°6 50°9 46°3 38°5 35°2 44°3 

: 38°7 40°3 39°6 44°5 45°4 54°7 57 ‘2 54°1 53°5 42°0 44°7 30°6 45°9 

. . | 372 35°5 37°1 40°8 50°3 58°8 60°0 56°5 52°9 52°4 46°7 38°9 47 3 

. nip one 36°4 42°2 450 50°6 54°8 59°5 62°7 53°7 46°4 37°5 33°3 46°7 

30°4 40°0 40°9 46°9 50°4 55:0 59°0 56°3 52°2 43°9 41°6 39°1 46°3 

|| Se 40°2 42°8 48°9 47°6 52°9 57°5 58°7 574 | 50°6 43°0 41:1 48°3 

. o |} 29) 40°6 43°7 45°5 52°4 59°2 58:0 57°0 50°3 47°8 44°0 36°1 47°8 

. 311 34°4 40°5 42°4 51°3 53°3 564 55°6 51°9 44°8 44°6 37'3 45°3 

. 39°8 39°0 39°6 45°2 50°1 566 59°9 5/2 54°6 45°8 40°8 38°4 47°2 

5 x |) BERIT 39°0 41 °2 46°6 50°7 56°7 61°4 60°0 56°9 50°1 38°5 39°0 48°3 

a) OG 41°8 41°8 46°8 51°8 61°4 62°0 61°3 54°6 50°0 38°8 41°0 48°6 

: . | 35°4 34°0 40°1 45°0 50°8 56°1 58°4 55°2 55°0 501 42°8 42°2 471 

. 39°4 40°1 42°8 45°2 51°2 56°9 57°6 57°0 54°6 48°4 44°8 43°4 48°4 

82°1 38°8 39°6 41°9 51°6 56°3 56°5 54°0 50°3 46°0 39°6 36°0 45°2 

. 5 |) e233 36°0 44°2 46°6 49°8 52°0 577 52°6 52°2 48°5 42°6 35°4 46°0 

34°7 38°6 42°3 45°0 48°8 58°0 59°4 60'1 65:3 52°7 40°2 41°8 48°1 

| 39-1 40°6 41°8 45°8 48°7 55°9 Sein 57°4 54:0 49°7 41°4 40°6 477 

34°7 39°5 38°9 444 55°8 55°6 58°9 54°6 53°0 48°9 41°8 40°3 47 °2 

é | 41°4 40°5 43°0 45°0 §2°3 56°9 59°3 58°4 54°0 48°8 43°2 422 48°7 

° 379 39°6 40°6 44°6 49°0 54°3 57°6 59°1 52°2 45°6 42°4 38°8 46°8 

88°l | 387°2 389°6 | 42°8 50°9 55°9 56°0 54°9 50°0 45°] 40°0 38°9 45°7 

35°0 38°9 34°8 | 38-9 48°0 56°0 59°6 556 51°7 49°2 40°1 41:0 45°7 

|) ehOK6 29°8 39°1 41°1 46°0 54°5 59°2 56°9 53°5 47°4 37°9 40°5 44°7 

= | Bip85} 37°8 38°2 43°5 49°1 55°8 58°6 56°6 53°4 47°4 42°3 38°1 46°4 

39°2 387 °5 40°8 48°4 48°2 552 59°9 59°1 51°4 46°3 41°6 36°6 46°7 

5 33°4 379 46°5 45:0 52°0 §3°5 56°2 57°3 54°6 44°6 39°0 38°9 46°6 

. 35°0 40°0 42°4 46°0 51°7 57°1 56°5 60°7 55'1 45°6 40°9 45°6 48°0 

. 39°4 34°3 42°3 45°6 47°1 52°2 58°9 57°9 571 44°9 44°1 47°8 47°6 

5 - | 41:2 36°2 41°4 49°5 488 55°0 569 557 53°1 47-1 43°1 33°0 46°8 

: . | 36°6 85°4 36°6 45°2 48 +1 56°8 54°8 oont 54:1 49°4 43°6 38°7 46°2 

. | 42°1 44°9 43°'0 44°7 53°2 61°9 59°3 59°9 59°5 48-1 44°7 34°4 49°6 

5 » | 386°2 35°7 42°0 43°2 50°6 56°0 61°6 57°6 51°5 49°1 45°6 39°6 47°4 

33°6 40°4 41°6 43°8 1591) 55°0 59°2 54°1 53°8 46°7 40°2 40°5 47°0 

36°8 42°1 42°6 42°9 51°0 52°8 56°8 5c 52°6 45°0 41°6 36°8 46°5 

, 31°5 41°8 42°4 46°4 48°3 58°4 59°1 56°8 52°4 45°3 42°9 39°7 47°1 

40°6 40°8 41°0 43°7 50°4 55°4 561 56°6 52°5 50:2 37°3 40°7 47'1 

» | 39°0 40°2 40°1 48°6 51°0 54°8 64°0 60°0 54°0 46°3 42°8 42°2 48°6 

c 38°8 33'8 378 45°6 49°3 58°2 59°2 57°8 53°7 48 °4 43°2 37°0 469 

. 36°9 39°9 45:3 46°4 50°9 56°5 59°6 60°5 57:0 47°9 42°0 39°9 48°6 

. co || GH 30°6 37°5 45°2 46°3 572 61°6 59°7 54°1 47°5 41°2 37°3 46°3 

. - | 36°8 41°4 41°] 45°8 48°1 58°8 59°4 58°6 52°7 51°4 42°8 40°4 48°1 

° » | 37°9 411 40°9 44°9 51°2 55°8 60°9 60°7 56°9 51°3 456 46°5 49°5 

: 40°6 36°2 40°8 42°9 50°9 58°5 55:5 56°9 54°8 44:7 39°5 89°6 46°8 

. |) ood 39°8 43°3 40°6 49°9 53°6 58°6 57°0 52°8 45°6 38°8 33°3 46'1 
: - | 345 33°6 38'4 40°7 50°6 51°5 57°5 55°0 51°2 46°4 38°5 33°4 44°3 | 

36'3 39°0 41°6 43°8 49°8 54°9 56°6 584 53°5 49°5 38°0 37°0 46°5 

5 |) chsieal 40°3 37 °4 45°0 50°6 53°4 54°5 56°4 52°6 47°2 36°8 42°4 46°2 

9 |) Seley 41°2 43°0 44°6 49°4 55°6 58°0 56°0 50°0 46°8 44:1 41°4 47°4 

: - | 36°0 33°3 387°2 46°3 51:0 54:1 57°0 54°8 53°0 45°4 41°3 39°4 45°7 

350 33°4 36°6 45°7 | 50°6 57°0 58°8 56°5 58°1 46°0 41°2 43°2 46°8 

. - | 40°0 37 °6 372 42°7 48°0 57:0 580 56°2 53°1 49°4 42°1 41°8 46°9 

. 32°8 42°8 37°0 46°4 47°8 56°6 56°2 59°0 54°4 47°1 41°8 40°4 46°9 

» | 3880 430 44°0 46°6 53°2 57°4 62°2 59°8 54°7 45°5 39°4 41°4 48°8 

A » | 40°2 42-4 38°0 476 45°5 54°4 60°0 By(Ail 54°6 47°8 42°0 36°9 47 °2 

36°5 34°8 39°2 48°8 52°7 57°6 60°8 58°8 55°2 47°1 40°0 35°2 47°2 


118 


| 
| 
| 


eee = 
246) oe) delete . . a ae | 
* e . . 


1764-70, 
1771-80, 
1781-90, 
1791-1800, 
1801-10, 
1811-20, 
1821-30, 
1831-40, 
1841-50, 
1851-60, 
1861-70, 
1871-80, 
1881-90, 
1891-96, 
Means. 
1764-1896, 


09 09 CO CO He om oe 09 09 
NIH OSSOSSOMN , 
SNANKSNAHE 


m ODI 090 WE WR LO 


BPHDOADR HOSCSORTHONS 
NADAAwM ANwWOnwaowrce 


wm CO CO 0 WOO 


35°8 
35'2 
37°2 
37°4 
36°9 
B45 
36'L 
36°6 
36°4 
38°2 
372 
38°2 
38°3 
37°0 


36°8 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Feb. 


° 


37°5 
37°7 
38°4 
38°9 
37 °2 
38°1 
38°4 
38°0 
38°8 
377 
38°8 
39°3 
38°7 
39°0 


38°3 


March, | April. 


38°9 
40°9 
38°4 
40°1 
40°3 
39°9 
41°6 
39°9 


. 42°1 


40°6 
39°1 
40°6 
39°9 
41°2 


40°3 


TaBLE VIJ.—continued. 


May. | June. 
42°8 | 504 | 52:7 
44°6 | 46°4 | 57*4 
44-7 | 48:3 | 54-9 
47-2 | 466 | 55°6 
46°6 | 524 | 554 
44-4 | 48°83 | 55°4 
41°6 | 46-4 | 56°6 
46‘0 | 51:4 | 56°8 
40°6 | 46-2 | 52-4 
45°8 | 49°6 | 55-5 
42°8 | 51:3 | 54:8 
441 | 50°0 | 54:3 
45°83 | 48°8 | 53°8 
44°5 | 49°6 | 55*0 
43°7 | 466 | 54:7 
42°6 | 481 | 54:3 
42°8 | 49°1 | 58°5 
42°8 | 50-2 | 51°7 
431 | 52:0 | 57°8 
44-6 | 51:0 | 55-1 
42°38 | 480 | 55:0 
43°38 | 50°8 | 544 
47°38 | 54°0 | 58°6 
476 | 47-1 | 54-7 
46°0 | 53:0 | 56°6 
48°8 | 54:8 | 56°7 

Decennal 
44°7 | 49°9 | 54-1 
44-3 | 502 | 55°6 
45°2 | 511 | 57:0 
461 | 50°4 | 55:8 
441 | 482 | 561 
441 | 495 | 551 
45°4 | 50-7 | 561 
43°99 487 | 558 
45°2 506 | 55°9 
44°4 | 49°9 | 56°0 
45°38  49°9 | 55:8 
44-4 | 48°6 | 55-2 
437 49°7 | 55-0 
461 51°3 | 56°0 
448 | 49°9 | 557 


July. 


SENOESSIOM 


SUS St O1 OU Or Ser Or ord Cr ag on 
cw nmT SS “I O10 Ooonreaoonr 


BW SMOBS 


OV OU OTD O17 Or 
AOA ANITSH 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Year, 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 119 


Taste VIII. 


Reduction of the “ Edinburgh Advertiser” Observations, showing the Mean 
Temperature deduced from Observations made at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. 


Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug, | Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. | Year. 

1787 q 2 4 1 q 54-4 | 58°0 | 58°5 | 52°6 | 47°9 | 385 | 37°8 2 

1788 | 388 | 372 | 364] 47:0 | 568) 556 | 59°3 | 584) 544) 465 | 43°0 | 31°8 | 47-1 
: 1789 | 346] 386 | 33°38) 41:5 | 51:5 | 54:2 | 586) 60°2 | 53:5 | 46:3 | 39°38 | 42:0 | 46:2 
: 1790 | 388 | 42:7 | 42:2 | 39°8 | 50-4] 55:9 | 583) 56°8 |, 52:2 | 49:0 | 39°6 | 36:5 | 46:8 
; 

1791 | 37°77 | 365 | 41°99 | 442 | 49-4 | 54:6] 566) 5671 | 54:0 | 465 | 39°9 | 31:4 | 45:7 

1792 33°9 | 36°9 | 38°2 | 484 | 45°5 | 50°8 | .55°8 | 57°3 | 50:2 | 4671 | 446 | 37:0] 45-4 
Si jedr9s | 362) 39:5 | 36:0 | 40:5 | 48:8 | 52:3 | 576 | 55:0 | 51:2 | 50°3 | 405 | 39-7 | 45-6 
: 1794 370 | 41:1 | 41-7 | 46:0 | 47°6 | 56-8 | 58:2 | 55:4 | 51:2 | 45°77 | 40°5 | 39:2 | 46-7 
t 79a) 302 | 302 361 | 43:0) 47:1 | 51:2 | 561) 576 | 54°99 | 49°83 | 37-2 | 40°4 | 44:5 
! 1796 | 41-7 | 37°6 | 36°77 | 45°8 | 47°9 | 54:3 | 56°2 | 591 | 54:6 | 44:9 | 38-5 | 30°5 | 45:6 
ifepeiessy | 409) 36:0 / 41:2 | 496 | 52°3 | 58°83 | 568 | 55:5 | 44:0 | 38-4 | 39°21) 46:0 
1798 So} oa | 38°9 | 48°2 | 52-4 | 57-5 | 58:5 |) 57°6 | 532 | 47°6 | 38°6 | 35°99 | 46°9 
B})1799 | 366) 348 | 35°38 | 39°77 | 468 | 54:3 | 56°6 | 55°3 | 556 | 44:5 | 39°9 | 34:8 | 44:6 
r}} 1800 | 345) 35:4 | 374 | 45:0 | 498 | 53-3 | 59:3) 57:6 | 53:8 | 47:0 | 405 | 36:2 | 45:8 


re 
for) 
~ 
ne 
eel 
OU 
Or 


fool | a8 | 390 | 41°38 | 5° 3 | 49°6 
1802 | 35°6 | 365 | 40°3 | 44:9 47:0] 53:8 | 543 | 586 | 54:0 | 48°8 
H603°)) 346 | 362 | 40°0 | 45°3 | 47°73 | 52°5 | 60:3 | 57°2 | 50°S | 462 | 39°0 |] 38:0 | 45:6 
Wega) 40-71 | 35:1 | 37:2 |-40°8 | 50°38 | 57-0} 5771 | 56°5 | 55°6 | 48:5 
1805 | 36°77 | 36°3 | 40°8 | 445 | 45°5 | 508 | 57:2 | 581 | 55:1 | 46:1 | 42°6 | 37°8 | 46-0 
fevoemean? | of'04 373 | 418 | 45°7 | 52-1 | 518 | 55-2 | 508 | 46:8 | 42°0 | 39:0 , 44°6 


1807 | 35°2 | 33:5 | 33:0 | 403 | 46°0 | 50°6 | 566 | 56:0 | 54:2 | 46°5 | 31°9 | 346 | 43:2 
1808 | 34:6 | 335 | 34°77 | 385 | 52:1 | 52:7 | 584 | 575) 515 | 409 | 385 | 35:2 | 44:0 


37°6 | 48°6 | 53°6 | 55-1 | 54:8 | 50°3 | 49°0 | 39°3 | 361) 44:1 

HS10>} 354 | 34:0) 33°55 | 40°38 | 41°38 | 51:5 | 52°9 | 52-7 | 49-4) 43°38 | 387°5 | 346 | 42:3 
Hei) |} 34:2 | 35° | 375 | 41:0 | 49°2 | 52°8 | 56:0 | 53:5 | 51:3 | 50:2] 42°6 | 35:5 | 45:0 
1812 | 348 |) 385 | 345 | 383] 468 | 53:3} 55:3 | 55°6 | 52°83 | 46:8 | 387 | 34:4 | 44:2 
HSIS | 348] 381) 41:2 | 42°5 | 48:2 | 54:0 | 58:2 | 55°38 | 531 | 43:1 | 35°6 | 35°6 | 45:0 
1314 | 24-4 | 33:71) 35°3 | 46:2) 45°:0 | 50°3 | 57:1 | 54:5 | 53°8 | 43°4 | 37°38 | 36:1 | 43:1 
Sijerelo | 32°00} 39°2 | 39:0 | 42°8 | 463 | 52-2 | 52°3 | 53°8 | 503 | 45°6 | 350) 32°4 | 43-4 
Sieeeton |) 32:9 | 32°3 | 33:6 | 36:2 | 44:5 | 49-6 | 52°0| 51-1 | -47°8 | 43:0 | 36:3 | 33:0 41-0 
Biietol? | 36°3 | 37°2 | 35°8 | 42°71 | 41°8| 498 | 52:4 | 51:1 | 50°8 | 39:2 | 43°8 | 33-1 | 42:8 
Peis | 346 | 32°9 | 34:3 | 382 | 48:3 | 57:0 | 58:3 | 55:0 | 51°8 | 51°2 | 46:1 | 39°0 | 45°6 
S19 | 37-4 | 36-4 | 40°00 | 42:9 | 476 | 52:5 | 564] 60:0 | 52:5 | 45°8 | 37:0 | 32:5 | 45:1 


BO205) 313 | 387°8 | 37°77 | 44:5 | 48°8 | 53:0 | 55-5 | 55°6 | 508 | 43°2 | 41°6 | 38-2 | 44:8 


Becteieso7 | 370) 388 | 42°8 | 45:0 | 50:0 | 55:6 | 560 | 54:2 | 47°99 | 41:8 | 39°5 | 45-4 
1822 | 37:2 | 38°8 | 39°6 | 428 | 48°83 | 55:7 | 55°5 | 54:2] 49°38 | 45°9 | 42°6 | 35°6 | 45°5 
1823 | 32:0 | 32-7 | 37:2 | 40°00 | 47°5 | 48:5 | 51:2 | 51°38 | 49°0 | 44:8 | 43°8 | 36:9 | 43-0 
1824*| 405 | 42:0 | 40°6 | 47°6 | 52:4 | 58:4 | 61:2 | 583 | 560] 48:2 | 42°8 | 40°83 | 49-1 
1825 | 41°77 | 42:0 | -43°8 | 48°7 | 53-2 | 59-8 | 64:7 | 62°0 | 59°1 | 51°6 | 41:2 | 41:7 | 50°8 
1626 | 382 | 44°77 | 444 | 486 | 55:0| 64:4 | 65:4 | 62°83 | 56°5 | 51:0 | 41:8 | 43:2 | 51°3 
Beet) ai 6 | 36:0 | 39°9 | 46°8 | 52°6 | 57-2 | 60:0 | 57:2 |-55'8 | 51:2 | 43°8 | 43°8 | 48°5 
1828 | 41:2 | 40°6 | 43-4 |} 46-1 | 52:2 | 588] 61:0 | 59°0| 56:4) 488 | 46:2 | 45:4 | 49-9 
1829 | 35°2 | 39-4 | 408 | 42:7 | 52°6 | 57-4] 586 | 55°61! 51°38 | 47:8 | 41:6 | 37°8 | 46:8 
1830 | 363 | 36°5 |°45°0 | 47:0 | 51:4 | 53:2 | 588 | 54:3 | 52°7| 49:3 | 43:9 | 37:0 | 47-1 
1831 Shon ovun 426 | 47-1) 51-6 | 60-8 | 61:2 | 61:0 | 55°6 | 53°8 | 41-4 | 43°6 | 49-7 


80 29°5 | 36:2 | 39-4 | 


* A change was made in the position of the thermometers during this year. 
VOL. XXXIX. (PART I. NO. 6). U 


120 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Tasir LX; 


Reduction of the “ Edinburgh Magazne” and “ Scots Magazxne” Registers. 
Hour of Observation.— Before Sunrise.” 


Year. | Jan. | Feb. Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. Aug. | Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. | Year. 
° ° ° / ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
1785 / 37:0 | 30-1 | 30°5 q 1 q q 2 q q 40°7 | 33°7 1 
1786 | 33°6 | 33:4 | 30°1 1 q 1 2 1 1 39°9 | 36:4 | 33:7 2 
1787 36°6 | 40°5 | 39:4 1 i q q q q 437 | 35:1 | 33:5 q 
1788 36°4 | 32°4 | 32°0 | 42°6 | 45:9 | 49°9 | 53:0 | 51:6 | 48:4 | 44:8 | 39° | 30:3 | 42-2 
1789 32:2 | 37:1) 29:0 | 37:4 | 4671 | 50° | 54:9 | 55:6) 50°33 | 44:5 | 39°38 | 43°6 | 434 
1790 | 37> | 42-1 | 37°79 | 36:6 | 46:5 | 52:6) 51°5 | (oll | 47-2 | 4452) S78 oe2 | oes! 
Ie 3i3 | ote | 39'5 | 42°1 |) 45°7 | 50-2) 52:4 | 53:2 | 49-5 | 42°5 | 40:0 | 31:6 aoe 
1792 33°3 | 38:0] 37:2) 49:4 | 49°38 | 47-6 | 52:6) 55:8 || 45:7 | 42:0 | 4271 0 36 ane 
1793 | (35°6)| 36°0 | 33°38 | 36:2 | 44:2 | 49:2 | 55:4 | 54:1 | 493 | 49°77 | 39°4 | 39:0 | 43°5 
1794 366 | 40°4} 39°4 | 41:7 | 47:7 | 53°8 | 56°3 | 50°9 | 47:9 | 44:9 | 39:0 | 38°83 | 44:8 
1795 26:0 | 28:5) 32°3 | 41:1 | 45:4 | 481 | oi-7 | 53:4 | 52:5) 48°31 36:2) Bao On ae 
1796 4l°9 | 38:2 | 35°2 | 45:2 | 46:71 | 50:8 | 52°2 | 52:7 | 50:0 | 41°7 | 38:5) 310 | 4e6 
1797 39°9 | 42°5 | 36°38 | 415 |] 48°38 | 50°77 | 57:4 | 54:5 | 485 | 42°6 | 36:3] 38°2 | 448 
1798 37:0 | 36:1 | 36°77 | 45°77 | 49°2 | 54:6 | 53°8 | 52°5 | 50-4 | 44:7 ; 365 | 33:4 | 44:2 
1799 36:0 | 34:4 | 35:0 | 36:2 | 42:0 | 48:7 | 50°7 | 47°38 | 47°99 | 41:4 | 381 | 34:0] 41:0 
1800 34:0 |. 34°5 | 35:0 | 42°8 | 45°8 | 49°7 | 55:2 | 53:0 | 50°2 | 45:0 | 38:4 | 35°0 | 432 
1801 38°2 | 38:1 | 39:4 | 40°9 | 48:2 | 51:6 | 53:3 | 52:2 | 49°3 | 45:3 | 38:4 | 33:8 | 44ael 
1802 35°3 | 36°0 | 38°6 | 41:1 | 43:1 | 48:9 | 49:0 | 52:7 | 48:7 | 46:1 | 39°6 | 36:4 | 430 
1803 34°3 | 35°6 | 38°5 | 40:2 | 446 | 500] 55:9 | 52°6 | 48:0 | 43°83 | 369 | 37:3 | 43-1 
1804 38°9 | 34:6 | 35-4 | 38:5 | 49°0 | 53°7 | 51:7 | 52:2 | 51:0 | 45:7 | 39°] | 34-7) | eae 
1805 34°9| 36°0'| 37°9 | 40°4 | 41°6 | 47:1 | -53°0 | 52:1 | 49°6 | 41-6 | 39°6 | 36:6) eae 
1506 35:0 | 35°0 | 36:5 | 38°9 | 45°0 | 51°1 | 53:4 | 52°38 | 48:7 | 45:4 | 41°9 | 40°7 | ae 
1807 opt | 34:8 B2°6 | 35°9 | 44:0 | 48:4] 52°38 | 53:0 | 41:4 | 46°7 | 32:7 | 35:5 | 40 
1808 35°1 34°4 | 35°1 | 36°7 | 48°7 | 53°3 | 57:2 | 55:1 | 46:6 | 38:5 | 365 | 34:7 ae 
1809 28°8 | 36°8 | 37°3 | 35°5 | 45°0 | 50°4 | 53°3 | 52°6 | 47°3-) 47:2 | 37°9 | 35:7 | ae 
1810 3D°3 vo | 32°8:| 39°0 | 40°0 | 50°6 | 52-6 | bL-7 | 46:9) 42-7 | 37-6 | 33°7 41:3 
1811 32°9 | 36°1 | 36°8 | 40°7 | 47°4 | (51°9)| 54:7 | 5176 | 47-4 | 47°3 | 403 | 354 | 43°5 
1812 34:7 37°5 B4°6 | 37'2 | 44°8 | 53:0 | 51:0 | 48:7 | 47:8 | 44:8 | 37:3 | 34:5 | 432 
1813 34°6 | 39°3 | 40°4 | 41:0 | 46°3 | 55:1 | 56:3 | 50°8 | 48:8 | 415 | 37:0 | 37:5 | 440 
1814 26°9 | 34:8 | 35°5 | 44:5 | 45°4 | 47:7 | 56:7 | 53:0 | 48°9 | 41:0 | 37°9 | 35°7 | Sao 
1815 344 | 40°83 | 39°4 | 42°0 | 491 | 516 | 55:3 | 55:0 | 485 | 45°6 | 35°8 | 34:2 | 4493 
1816 34°5 | 3844 | 35°5 | 37:9 | 44-4 ) 49:3 | 49°99 | 49°8 | 45°4 | 43°9 | 37°8 | 33:2 | 413 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 121 


TasLe X. 


Reduction of the ‘ Edinburgh Magazne” and “ Scots Magazine” Registers. 
Hour of Observation—‘‘ Noon.” 


Jan. Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 
: q 4 4 Di le (60:0) | 713 Wy G9"b |) 62-2 | 61:3 | 51-2 1 1 1 
4 q 4 52°0 | 55°9 | 63:5 | 65°3 | 62°2 | 55-6 q q q 1 
: q q a 479") 50°8 | 58:2 | 62°0 | 66-1 | 60°6 | 55°7 | 42°1 | 37°3 4 
: 40°3 | 384 | 41:0 | 52°3| 60°71 | 60°8 | 63:5 | 66:1 | 59:1 | 51°3 | 45°6 | 33°6 | 51:0 
: 30°5 | 41°4 | 39°2 | 49-4 | 57:0 | 60-4 | 65°5 | 68-7 | 60°3 | 516) 43°9 | 45:2 | 515 
eee) 49-0 | 4671 | 536 | 59°5 | G11 | 60°9 | 55-4 | 53:1 | 43:1 | 38:9 | 50°8 
4071 | 41:9) 47°9 | 48:1 | 56:3 | 61:0 | 64:1 | 63-4 | 61:0 | 52°5 | 445 | 363 | 51-4 
37-2 | 40°2 | 45°5 | 52°2 | 54:0] 58:8 | 61:4 | 64:8 | 55:4 | 49°2 | 47°99 | 39-7 | 50°9 
(39°D)| 42°3 | 41:1 | 462 | 55°35 | 58:2 | 64:6 | 63:1 | 58:0) 53:4 /] 441) 41:8 | 506 
40°77 | 45-4 | 49°4 | 53°6 | 54:1 | 63°7 | 65°0 | 60°5 | 55°7 | 516 | 45:2 | 42°4 | 52°3 
a20 | 344 |) 41°6 | 48:2! 53°6 | 56:6 | 60°8 | 62°9 | 63:3 | 55:9 | 43:2 | 45-6 | 49°8 
46°4 | 43:0 | 43:6 | 56°8 | 53:7 | 60:2 | 60°0 | 66°83 6071 | 51:7 | 43°3 | 36:3 | 51°8 
eve oes | 427-0 | O08 | 57-6 | S81 | 63-7 | 62°6 | 590 | 516 | 445 | 42°3 | 52°6 
4270 | 44:0 | 47°5 | 58:1 | 62°23 | 66:1 | 67°3 | 64:2 | 61:3 | 52°3 | 42:3 | 37-4 |) 53:7 
BOron) 39°29) 41°6 | 44:1 | 50-2) 62:5 | 61:5 | 58-9 | 57-4 506 | 43:6 | 35-9 | 48°8 
30°9 | 39°2 | 43:1 | 54:0 | 54:9 | 616 | 69:5 | 67:0 | 601 | 52° | 43°6 | 388 | 517 
411 | 43° | 46°9 | 55°5 | 58:6 | 65:9 | 63:0 | 69:2 | 62°8 | 55:1 | 44:2 | 36:9 | 53°6 
Sso4 | 41-8 | 47-4 | 53:2 | 59-7 | 62:1 | 607 | 65:2 | 61-8 | 53:2 | 44:0) 40°0 | 52°3 
Jo | 41°3 | 46-7 | 55°8 | 58:5 | 626 | 71:6 | 65:0 | 62°2 | 52-8 | 42:1 | 39°8 | 53:0 
41°9 | 41:3 | 42°5 | 47:3 | 584 | 65°3 | 68:9 | 64:5 | 63:5 | 54:0 | 43°7 | 381) 52:4 
388 | 416 | 49°9 | 53°8 | 53:4 | 63:0 | 67:9 | 67:6 | 64:9 | 54:2 | 49:71 | 41-4 | 53°8 
39°3 | 42°6 | 46:2 | 52:2 | 58:9 | 65°38 | 64:0) 64:7 | 61:7 | 545 | 476) 44:0 | 53°5 
40°6 | 42:4 | 44:9) 47-0 | 545 |) 62°3 | 67:4 | 65°0 | 55°6 | 54:3) 41°6 | 38:7 | 51:2 
38°77 | 40:9 | 43:0 | 47:1 | 62°5 | 64°8 | 70°99 | 67:5 | 60°9 | 49°6 | 42°7 | 37:7 | 52:2 
d4°7 |. 42°8 | 475 | 48:5 | 62°38 | 64:2 | 665] 64:7 | 60:0 | 55:7 | 44:1 | 39:0 | 52°5 
40°3 | 41-4 | 42°9) S11} 55:5 | 675 | 65:8 | 64:6 | 64:2 | 55:0 | 43°5 | 38:5 | 52°5 
37°6 | 41°8 | 50-4 | 51:4 | 59:9 | (68°8)| 70°3 | 65:8 | 64:8 | 57:0 | 50°0 | 39°5 | 54:8 
39°8 | 44:4 | 43°2 | 48-1 | 56°5 | 67°7 | 66-7 | 66:1 | 62°38 | 54:1) 44:2 | 38:2 | 52°6 
Sonera a 00) 952°9 | 57°8 | 712) 71:6 | 69°9 | 63-7 | 51:8 | 44:7 | 41°7 | 55-2 
34:9 | 42:1 | 446 | 56:3 | 58:4 | 65:9 | 72°3| 67:1 | 67:3 | 53°8 | 44:6] 41:0 | 54:0 
Bepe ood | 47°0 | 49°5 | 56-3 | 59°9 | 660 | 69°6 | 68-7 | 64:8 | 55°3 | 45:1 | 41:4 | 55-3 
Repo e077 | 41-4) 43°38.) 48°3 ) 57:5 | 65:6 | 65:1 | 64:1 | 58:0 | 53:7 | 44:7 | 39°3 | 51:8 


122 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste XI. 


Reduction of Waterston’s Register 1800-1850. 


| | 
Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee 
1800, a : . | 33°0 34°3 37°3 47°2 50°5 55:0 61°3 60°6 54°0 47°5 40'3 36°7 
1801, 5 : . | 39°1 39°7 42°5 47°2 51°0 57:2 57°0 61°5 554 49°6 39°0 34°0 
1802, ; 4 . | 38°6 38°0 42°0 46°6 48°6 56°3 55'8 60°9 53°8 50°0 40°5 38°6 
1803, : : . | 36°6 37°8 41°7 470 50°0 55°6 62°8 59°6 52°0 47°6 38°3 38°4 
1804, : : . | 39°83 36'2 38°0 42°3 54°1 59°5 59°5 58°3 57°8 50°2 410 35°5 
1805, 7 : . | 36°8 37°3 43°2 46°4 48°5 54°8 60°8 60°7 57°6 47°3 43°3 38°1 
1806, é g . 363 37°5 39°8 42°1 51°0 57°8 58°8  60°1 56°7 50°5 44°] 41°3 
1807, : 3 i otap 36°5 | 39°8 45°3 48°8 56°3 62°5 G1‘1 49°4 51°6 85°2 36°D 
1808, : 3 . 386°4 36°3 | 37°8 42°1 553 57°5 64°0 617 55°3 44°6 41°3 36°8 
1809, ; - . | 815 39°5 430 41°0 53°0 56°3 58°8 58°7 54:0 52°0 | 41°0 38°60 
1810, : : . | 3880 37°0 371 45°1 46°1 | 57:0 58°7 | 59°3 57°0 49°4 40°3 37:1 
1811, ; - otc 38'5 44°0 44°3 53°2 57°0 61°8 59°0 57:0 53°5 46°0 383 
1812, , ; . | 88:5 41°2 38'3 42°3 51°0 57°5 59°5 58°5 55°5 49°3 42°0 37°3 
1813, : : . | 88°2 42°5 45°2 46°3 51:0 57°8 61:2 59°5 54°5 46°5 40°5 40°0 
1814, - e . | 381°5 38°2 39°8 47°0 49°0 55'8 62°8 58°5 56°5 48°5 41°5 39°0 
1815, . : . | 386°0 42°8 43°8 46°5 53°0 58°0 60°0 60°0 57°0 49°7 40°5 36°5 
1816, 5 : . | 37°2 37°2 39°0 42°0 50°0 55:0 57°5 58°0 53°29 50°0 40°8 36°8 
1817, ‘ : a| “4120 42°0 41°0 46°3 48°0 57°0 59°0 57°5 55°5 44:0 46°0 37°0 
1818, : 4 S|) sookO 38°3 40°0 43°0 52°7 61°0 61°7 59°2 54°6 54°0 48°8 40°0 
1819, : : . | 39°0 37°0 42°0 46°4 52°8 57°7 61°5 55°0 552 48°5 39°5 34°0 
| 1820, ; : . | 32°5 40°5 43°2 48°0 53°2 57° 61°0 59°0 53°5 46°7 44°3 41°32 
| 1821, . . . | 40°5 40°7 42°8 48°8 49°5 55°6 60'S | 59°5 550 51°2 44°8 42°5 
, 1822, . ‘ | S417 40°8 45°3 48°0 54°3 61°0 60°0 59°5 53°0 49°5 46°3 38°7 
| 1823, ; : . | 35°6 36°6 42°5 45'3 53°0 55°3 58°5 58°0 54°5 47°3 47°2 40°2 
1824, : ; . | 42°2 41°2 | 41°0 48°0 51°3 56°7 61°5. 58°3 56°2 47°9 42°9 40°2 
1825, : . . | 41°0 40°8 41°8 48°2 | 50°7 58°3 61°7 61°2 58:2 50°8 40°3 40°0 
1826, . 5 . | 386°0 42°3 40°2 47°5 53°0 63°5 64°9 63°7 56°2 51°1 41°5 43°3 
1827, . . a leosce 36°5 41°5 47°0 53°2 59°0 62°2 60°0 57:0 52°8 44°6 44°1 
1828, : : el alee 41°5 44°0 46°5 52°6 59°5 60°0 59°0 56°'9 53°3 46°3 45°1 
| 1829, - ° . | 85°6 40°6 41°2 44°5 54:3 59°2 60°0 575 52°6 48°5 42°2 37:0 
| 1830, : 3 . | 387°0 38° 45°8 48°6 52°6 55°3 61°2 56°4 54°0 50°8 44°4 37°3 
1831, 5 : . | 37°38 40°5 44°0 46°‘7 51°5 60°8 62°4 61°2 560 54°7 42°0 43°6 
| 1832, : : . | 40°2 41°8 43°5 47°6 51°6 58°7 59°2 59°2 56°3 51°2 42°8 41°8 
| 1833, : : . | 86° 41:0 41°2 47°5 57'8 58'5 58°0 56°5 55:3 50°4 43°1 41°0 
| 1834, : : . | 42°5 41°0 45°0 46°0 55°0 58°5 60°0 60°0 54:0 50°2 44°5 43°0 
| 1835, - . 5) BH) 41°5 41°5 47°0 52°0 57°3 61°0 , 61°0 53°0 47°0 44°5 40°5 
1836, . . ma et.070) 37°6 41°0 46'0 53°83 59°0 59"5 | 9870 52°7 47°5 41°2 40°7 
1837, ‘ : ~| 87°5 40°0 36°3 42°5 51°5 59°5 62° 58°6 55°3 52°0 42°7 43°7 
1838, : : El eeO 32°0 40°7 44°6 50°3 56°5 61°5 60:0 55°0 49-0 41°0 42°0 
1839, : ; - | 37°0 | 38°8 39°5 45'8 51°0 57°5 61°5 57°0 55°5 49°8 45°0 39°5 
1840, ; F “| 40°0 | 39°0 41°5 50°0 50°5 | 58°5 60°0 61°0 53°8 48°0 43°8 39°5 
1841, ; : .| 35° | 39°3 46°8 46°5 545 | 568 59°0  59°0 56°8 47°0 41°3 40°8 
1842, : ‘ ¢ | 904-0 41°0 44°0 47°0 54°8 60°0 60°5 63°0 57°0 47:0 42°3 47°3 
1843, : : . | 40°5 | 360 42°0 48°0 49°0 55°0 62°0 61°'5 59°2 46°3 42°0 | 48°0 
1844, . : . | 39°8 35°3 40°8 50°8 51°0 | 58'8 60°3 58°5 55°8 49°3 44°8 35°3 
1845, . : + | sono 35°5 38°0 47°2 52°0 60°0 59°0 59°0 55°0 49°8 44°0 38°'8 
1846, ‘ 5 . | 48°83 | 48°5 42°8 46°3 54°0 | 65°8 63'3 63°0 60°3 50°5 45°2 35°8 
1847, ; : S| POue0 ml mpOrO 43°5 46°0 53°8  60°0 64°0 60°0 52°0 50°3 46° 40°0 
1848, : : . | 345 40°0 42°0 45°5 56°7 56°0 61°0 58°0 56'0 48°5 41°0 40°8 
1849, . - . | 38° 42°0 43°3 | 44°5 53°0 580 61°5 60°0 55°5 470 43'8 38°5 
1850, Fi 5 . | 84°0 43°0 42°5 | 48°8 51°0 59°0 60°5 Bae Scie vee ee sae 
1800-09, . 36°6 37°3 40°5 44°7 51°1 | 566 60'1 60°2 54°6 49°1 40°6 
1810-19, . 36°5 | 38°8 41°0 45°3 50°7 57 “4 60°4 | 59°5 557 49°3 42°6 
1820-29, . 38°2 40°] 42°0 47°2 52°3 58°6 61°1 59°6 55:3 49°9 44°1 
1830-39, . 37°3 38°4 | 41°4 46°2 52°7 578 60°8 58°7 54°7 50°2 43°0 
| 1840-49, . 38°4 | 37°9 42°5 47°2 52°9 58°9 61°1 60°3 56°1 48°4 43°5 
Means, 37°4 | 38°5 41°5 | 46°1 51°8 57°9 60°7 59°7 55°3 49°4 42°8 


Te 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 123 


Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee. 

. ieee. | ’ ! ’ 51-5 | 53°5| 63:0 | 59°6 | 53°6 | 483] 42°38 | 37-5 
| 1784 32°0 | 35°1 | 35°6 | 41:9 t q 1 57:6 | 55°6 | 47°2 | 40°5 | 33-6 
: 1785 38°5 | 33:0 | 35°35 | 49°6 | 52°6 ; 61°3 | 62°5 | 58°9 | 53°73 | 47:3 | 43°5 | 36°5 | 
1786 36:0 | 37°5 | 36°3 | 46°5 | 50:0 | 60:0 |} 60°6 | 59°6 | 53:0 | 45°6 | 40°3 | 38:2 | 
1787 20,90) 42-5 | 44-> | 46°2 | 525 | 55-| 595) 600 | 54°6 | 48°3 | 42:2 | 32-0 | 

1788 39°3 | 37°0:| 37°3 | 49°0 | 55:2 | 55:2} 60:2 | 60°7 | 55:6 | 466] 44:0] 33:2 

1789 31-7 | 41:0 | 36°0 | 44:9 | 52:5 | 57:3 | 60°2 | 61:7 | 59°7 | 48°8 | 41:5 | 43:9 

1790 ogca | 40°3) || 43°6 | 43:6 | 53:0) | 5d:2\ | 58:9 | 58:5 | 53:6 | 51:0 | 38:3 |) 35°6 
1791 AO 209 (45:0) 46:3 1) 52° | 54-3) | 62°5 | 59:0'| 56:0'| 49°0 | 40°6 | 33°83 | 

Wi92) meen 4-3 | 42-2) 49:0") 51:3) |) b7-6-) 60° | G6Or3-| 52°77 | 47°53 | 40°5 | 39-7 

Li93: — . | 38:2 | 39:2 | 39:0 | 43:°9 | 49-5 | 59°76 | 64:35 | 58°38 | 55:8 | 52:5 | 48:5 | 41-9 

ios. imac tora) 44°35 | 44:5) | 55:2 | 602 | 65:6 | 59-0] 57:6 |. 53°7 | 42°3 | 39-7 


Taste XII. 
Mean Temperature at Glendoich. 


124 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLe XIII. 


Showing the Extremes in the Mean and Absolute Daily Temperatures in Edinburgh 
from 1822 to 1896, by means of the Self-Registering Maximum and Minimum 
Thermometers in Shade 4 feet above Grass and 250 feet above Mean Sea-Level. 
For Description of Position of Thermometers from 1770 to 1821 see Page 67. 


| ee bs oo eae 2 
eae eae Sa aaa a ges 2 
Year.) 292 | Date, sAs Date a& | 2821! Date 2eés Date & & 
Cea 543. : Re ao : Boe! 2 ; =| 
moe Meg em | a8 aie es 
ees alt=} Say = a fa) 
a nee | os Ee x hae, Leola 3S | ne —_ 
UGAUS ee ae 280 ah Sas 81 Aug. 5 ang on Bic 
1771 Sr oe ep = _ 71 ine oa | 22 April 15 | 49 
Wiz). | see eS a of 75 June 11 | 12 Feb. 6 | 68 
1773 eh as =e a an 77 Aug. 5 23 Feb. 12 44 
1774 Sa ea 3 UP July 28 18 Jan, 12,Dec.10) 54 
le =e ms Bots oe ne 76 June 16 | 22°5 Jan. 26 || beep 
777) = ‘ = ay wast 3 0 aT 83 31 gs 
1778 | 
1779 
1780 
1781 | 
1782 
1783 
1785 oe Ae aged Fie sho 89 June 27.] 18 Mar. it 71 
_ 1786 “a he iy = Ait aise 81 June 5 itil Jan. 2 70 
1787 i i aie Be arr 77 July 4 M7, Dec. 27 60 
1788 oe _ es od 78 June 17 14 Dec. 15 64 
1789 ae we ae is. ae 81 Aug. 19 17 Jan, 11 64 
1790 fis es as nF 54 73 June 22 22 Dec. 1 51 
1791 shi re fo: Bie BS 77 July 15 18 Dec, 11 59 
1792 arr ee oe = wae 77 Aug. 12 22 Jan, 12 55 
1793 4c 260 ota soe bbe 82 July 14 23 Jan. 16 59 
1794 aoe a a se “BC 76 July 6 13 Jan. 27 63 
| 1795 | 695 | Aug. 12 1773 | Jan, 29 52°2 | 72 July 6 9 Jan, 29, 81 | 63. 
1796 68°7 June 20 18°9 Dec. 24 49°8 79 Aug. 18 16 Dec. 24 63 
1797 §8°3 July 14 24°4 Nov. 29 43°9 74 May 20, Junel4| 20 Noy. 24 54 
1798 | 69°7 June 28 21°9 Dec. 28 47°8 73 July 4 14 Dec. 28 59 
1799 | 67°7 June 21,22 | 20°4 Dec. 31 47°3 Dats oa 19 Dec. 31 Fen 
1800 70°8 July 24 23°4 | Dec. 30 47°4 a os 15 Jan, 1 
1801 70°0 Aug. 19 25°4 Dec. 19 44°6 nag ono 21 Jan, 25 
1802 | 68°0 Aug. 17 25°3 Jan. 1, 6, 7 42°7 dpa ace 21 Jan. 15 
1803 77°8 July 18 20°3 Jan, 13 57°5 St ons 19 Jan. 138 
1804 67°0 Sept. 14 | 21°4 Dec. 31 45°6 ae 600 17 Jan. 7 
1805 wer ee Fate nue Bod ak 26 Dec. 10, 12 
1806 |... ie i ¥ oe i: os 20 Feb, 1 
1807 ee | Fhe =a es me <a an 14 Dee. 7 
1808 os wal as vee Ser be Ss He 18 Nov. 27 
1809 ie me oon ree Kes a ast 9 Jan. 22 
1810 wie Be se Ag xP 580 aah 16 Feb, 14, 16 
1811 rm As act oie Aen FOG rae 16 Jan. 29 
1812 ee a ae Poe ee ht aaa 16 Dec. 12 
1813 rin jh St i ca Pee OB en 19 Noy. 26 
1814 rn || ae Pa eh Ae aa a 10 Jan. 16 
1815 ed ee oe es a Petia tt spe 17 Jan. 24, Dec 16 
1816 wee Se ete | ves as G50 vas 18 Feb, if 
1817 a ps aaa Bg meet Boyes. I a 21 Dec. 22 
1818 Bie ae ve ran ere moO “0 22 Feb. 2 
1819 rosea aay cu, || ri Sie on, ot ane | 16 Dee. 10 
1820 Se whe ve el ae Ps Kem | ae 10 Jan, 17, 
1821 ee nf haere ae “ith al be 18 Jan. 2 m0 
1822 65°5 | June 5 | 25:0 | Dec, 28,29| 405 | 80 | June 13 | 18 Dec. 28 | 62 
1823 66°0 | Aug. 11 19:0 | Feb. 5 47°0 75 Aug. 11 11 Feb. 5 64 
1824 72°0 | Sept. 2 22°5 Dec. 5 49°5 85 Sept. 2 16 Dec. 5 69 
1825 70° tie 14 27'0 | Jan. 5 Feb. 4} 48°5 83 July 30, 31 | 19 Nov. 10 64 
1826 74:0 | June 28 | 18°0 Jan, 16 56'0 87 June 24, 26} 10 Jan. 16 77 
1827 | 63°5 | July 16,Sept.16) 19:0 Jan, 3 44°5 77 July 16 14 Jan. 3 63 
1828 66:0 | June 27 23:0 | Jan. 11 43°0 76 Aug. 27 15 Jan. 11 61 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLE XIII.—continued. 


| 
| 


125 


| 
| 


=i) ‘ ’ aml é I) Ay 
o o ~ ov o 
am 5 eas S, 2 iS 5 QE 5 
gA8 sae 2% | Bas Sas as 
Mears reas Date. z7 8 Date. Se | 'o-5 3 Date. 3.25 Date. ot 
A 33 aes BR a oem o& 
Se Cas mS | je 8 8 ae 
ae ae a) a A a 
1829 650 Aug. 8 22°5 Jan. 22 42°5 | 75 July 138 15 Jan. 22, 25 60 
1830 | 68°0 July 26 22°0 Dec. 24 46°0 81 July 28 15 | Dee. 25, 26 | 66 | 
1831 67°0 July 29, 31 26°0 Feb. Ary £150 76 July 31 19 | Feb. 4 57 | 
1832 | 65°0 Aug. 10 29°5 Jan, 3, 27 35°5 75 Aug. 10 24 | Jan, 27 51 
1833 | 67°5 July 28 27°0 Jan. 15 | 40° 75 July, 17, 29 | 23 Jan. 16 52 | 
1834 | 68°5 Aug. 12 31:0 | Feb. 21, Nov.24| 37°5 77 Aug. 12 20 Mar. 24 57 
1835 66°5 Aug. 11 28°0 Jan. 20 38°5 77 Aug. 4, 10 22 Jan. 21 55 
1836 | 65°0 June. 15 28°0 Dec. 26 37°0 76 June 15 24 Jans 19 52 | 
1837 | 64:0 July 6 23°0 dings O05) Zio 73 July 10 16 Jan, 12 57 | 
1838 | 685 | July 12 | 180 | Jan. 21 | 505 | 84 Sept. 9 | 18 Heb: 18 | 71 
1839 | 66°5 June 17 24°0 Feb, 21 | 42°5 87 June 17 13 Jan. 30 74 
1840 | 67°5 Aug. 21 27°5 Dec. 24 | 40°0 78 Aug. 9 21 Jan. 30, Feb. 27} 57 
' 1841} 67°0 Aug. 20 21°5 Jan. 9 | 45°5 79 June 10 8 Jan. 9 71 
1842 68°0 Aug. 138 26°5 Jan. WG | -Zabgs 79 July 23 18 Henk, 1a aly 61 
1843 | 67°0 July 14 24°0 Feb, 15 | 43:0 77 July 14 16 | Feb. 15,17 | 61 
B) 1844) 66:0 | July 22,25 | 245 | Feb, 21 | 41:5 | 77 Sept. 1 | 13 Feb. 27 | 64 
y| | 1845) 69°0 June 12 18°0 Jan, 31 51°0 79 June 12, 13 5 Jan. 31 74 
| | 1846} 71°56 June 5 25°5 Deen) 2b) |) 46:0 84 June 5 16 Dec. 18 68 
; 1847 | 75°5 July 12 25°5 |Feb. 8,9, Dec. 31) 50-0 83 July 14 17 Feb. 8, 9 66 
; 1848 | 68°5 July 13 175 Jan. 29 | 51:0 82 July 13 5 Jan. 29 Wd 
1849 65'5 July 10 20°0 Jan, 2 45°5 78 June 5 19 Jan, 4, 6 59 
' 1850 | 68°5 June 24 19°5 Jan. 17 | 49:0 78 July 23 12 Jan. 18 66 
B) | 1851 64°5 June 29 29°5 Dec. 3 350 75 June 29 23 Dee. 3 2 
S) |) 1852) 745 | July 5,6 | 305 | Feb. 20 | 44°55 | 85 July 6 | 24 Nov. 30 | 60 
1853 63°5 June 23 24°0 Feb, 13 39°5 75°5 June 23 19°0 Feb. 11 56°5 
1854 | 62°5 July 12, 31 | 21°5 Jan 2 41°0 75°0 July 12 18°5 | Jan. 2 56°5 
1855) 665 | July 22 | 20 | Feb. 16 | 46:0 | 79:5 | Junel2,Sept.9] 14°5 | Feb, 16 | 65°0 
1856 | 67°5 Aug. 2 23°5 Dee. 3 44:0 81°9 Aug. 2 18°6 | Dee. 3 63°3 
1857 | 70°6 June 27 Dp) Jan, 29 43-4 81°6 June 28 200 | Jan. 29 616 
1858 | 68°4 June 16 26°0 Feb. 2 42°4 78°2 June 16 20°5 Mar. 8 57°77 
1859 | 69°1 Aug. 18 23°5 Dec. 19 45°6 78°7 July 12 18°7 Dec. 19 60°0 
1860) 65-0 July 15 12°4 Dec. 24 53°6 71°7 July 16 BS" Ne Ween 924 62°9 
| 1861 65°5 Aus 28 | 25°2 Jan. 8 40°3 mle June 14 16°3 Jan. 8 54°8 
1862 | 61:0 July 16, 31 | 25°5 Mar, 3 36°5 70°0 | April 30 22°0 Mar. 3 48°0 
1863 66°5 July 10 29°8 Dec. 28 36°7 75°2 July 11, 12 24°5 Dec. 28 50°7 
1864 68°0 July 18 22°0 Feb. 24 46°0 79°0 |May18,July 18) 18°0 Mar. 10 61.0 
1865 65'5 June 8 25°5 Feb. 15, 17 40:0 | 78:0 June 22 18:0 Feb. 15, 17 60°0 
1866 | 70:0 June 7 26°0 Jan. 11 44:0 | 82:7 July 12 20°0 Mar. 5 62°7 
1867 | 66°5 July 10 22°0 Jan. 1 44°55 | 76°7 |July10,Aug.14) 16°0 Jan. 1 60°7 
1868 | 75°5 Aug. 5 28°5 Jan. 10 47°0 87°7 Aug. 5 23°0 Nov. 7 64°7 
1869 67°5 July 11 26°5 Dec. 27 41°0 807 Aug. 28 20°0 Dee. 2 | 607 
1870 72°5 July 24 21°5 Dec. 23 51:0 84°7 July 28 16°0 Dee. 238 587 | 
t 1871 | 70°0 Aug. 11 28°0 Jan. 28 42°0 79°7 Aug, 11 23°0 Nov. 138 567 | 
: 1872 | 68°6 July 5 30°5 Mar, 26 38°1 | 79°7 July 5 23°0 Mar. 26 567 
1873 | 71:8 | July 21 28:9) Jan. 29 42°9 | 82:9 July 21 | 222 Feb. 24 | 60°7 
1874] 692 | Aug. 18 | 236 | Dec. 29 | 45-6 | 81°3 | July 18 | 13°6 | Dec. 29 | 6777 
1875 | 67°3 Aug. 17 23°2 Jan. 1 44°] 76°8 July 7 14°0 | Jan. 1 62°38 | 
1876 70:0 July 16 26°4 Jan. 9 43°4 86°7 July 16 21°3 Feb. 14 65:4 | 
1877 63°8 July 30 26°8 Dee. 25 37°0 72°0 June 14 22°4 Feb. 28 496 
1878 71°8 June 28 19°2 Dec. 14 62°6 83°7 July 20 9°0 Dec. 14 747 
1879 | 67°5 Aug. 12 18°4 Dec. 3 49°] 78°0 Aug. 12 75 Dee. 4 70°5 
1880 | 69°8 Aug, 11 26°8 Nov. 22 43°1 77°6 Aug. 11 20°6 Nov. & 57°0 
1881 68°4 July 14 171 Jan. 17 51:3 79'°2 May 30, 31 9°4 Jan. 17 69°8 
1882 | 67°8 Aug. 12 13°2 Dec. 15 54°6 81°0 Aug. 12 6°4 Dec. 15 74°6 
1883 65°1 July 3 30°6 | Mar. 23 34°5 75°0 July 3 24°5 Mar. 15 50°5 
1884 70°3 Aug, 24 29°0 Nov. 30 41°3 79°9 June 27 23°0 Nov. 30 569 
1885 71:0 July 26 26°0 |Nov. 18 Dec.7) 35°0 82:2 July 24 19°8 Nov. 18 62°4 
1886 68°0 July 2 21°4 Jan. 19 46°6 80°7 July 2 12°2 Jan. 19 68°5 
1887 | 69°9 July 8 | 28°6 Mar. 13 41°3 83-2 June 18 21°0 Feb. 9 72°2 
1888 64°5 May 19 28°5 Jan, 19 | 36°0 76°8 May 19 18°3 Feb. 16 58°5 
1889 | 67°0 Aug. 1 258 Feb. 10 | 41°2 78°4 June 26 20°8 Mar. 4 57°6 
Pees Ome aug.) b | 27-9 | Dec. i9 | 39:7 | 76-0 | Sept. 8 | 28°2.| Dec. + 14 | 52°8 
1891 64°6 July 17 28°0 Jan. 18 36°6 79°8 Sept. 12 20°3 Mar. 9 | 59°5 
1892 67°4 June 9 22°6 Dec. 25 44°8 80°1 June 9 14°0 Feb. 19 661 
1893 72°0 Aug. 15 23°0 Jan. 6 49°0 | 85-9 June 18 15°0 Jan 6 70°9 
1894 | 67:2 July 6 21°5 Jan. 6 45°7 | 77°5 July 6 13°9 Jan. 6 63°6 
1895 | 68°6 Aug. 17 20°3 Feb. 7 48°3.  78°3— | June 26, Sept. 25] 11°9 Feb. 8 6674 
| 1896 68°2 July 20 30°8 Dec. 1 37°4 78°1 May 11 23°8 Dec. 1 54°3 


| 
| 
| 
| 


* At Marchhall, Newington, the temperature fell to 5°-0. 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE XIV. 


Showing the Highest Mean Daily Temperature in Edinburgh from 1857 to 1896. 


Height above Sea 250 feet. 


Nore.—The Mean Temperature was assumed to be the mean of the daily maximum and minimum values. 


1857, . 
1858, . 
1859, . 
1860, 


1861, 
1862, 
1863, 
1864, 
1865, . 


| 1866, . 
1867, . 


1868, . 
1869, . 
1870, . 


1871... 
1872, . 
1873,. 
Lea. 
1875, 

1876; .. 
1877. 
1676, 
1879, 
1880, 


| 1881, 


1882, . 
1883, . 
1884, . 
1885, . 
1886, . 
1887, .. 
1888, . 
1889, 


_ 1890, 


1891, 
1892, 
1893, . 
1894, . 
1895, 
1896, 


Highest, 
Lowest, 
Range, 


| | | 


Jan, Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. 


| 55-0 | 60:7 706 
48:3 | 47-2 | 52-2 | 55-6 | 61:5 | 68-4 
57-9 | 59:8 | 65°3 

58-0 | 60:5 


50°8 | 51:0 |} 48°9 | 50°2 | 59:0) 65:0 
45°5 | 50°4 | 47°5 | 57:5 | 56:5 | 58:0 


468 | 47:5 | 53°4 | 50°6 | 57:5 | 61:5 | 


46°4 | 45:0 | 44°0 | 58°31 65-7 |- 61-5 


45:0 | 45°5 | 48°5 | 54:0 | 60:0) 65°5 | 


49°5 | 45°5 | 50°00 | 51:0} 59:0 | 70:0 
48:0 | 49:0 | 46°5 | 52:0 | 57:0 | 63-0 
49:0 | 515 | 505 | 55:0 | 60:5 | 65:0 
48:0 | 515 | 440] 57:5 | 51:0 | 62°5 
42:0 | 43:0 | 48:0 | 57:0 | 59:0 | 65-0 


42°5 | 51:2 | 52°8 | 47:5 | 60°5 | 58-0 
48°0 | 47°5 | 515 | 54:5 | 57:6 | 67-4 
50°6 | 45°6 | 48:7 | 52:4 | 55:0 | 64:5 
45°5 | 45°5 | 52°9 | 60°8 | 6074 | 62:8 
491 , 46°38 | 50:1 | 56:0} 61:0 | 62°8 
49:0 ; 46°7 | 484 | 57:5 | 59:0 | 66:2 
45°5 | 46°8 | 46:3 | 50°9 | 54:2 | 61:8 
46°7 | 50°9 | 49°6 | 55°6 | 58:2 | 71°8 
41°8 ; 498 | 46°3 | 47-8; 53:2 | 58:9 


512 484 | 48:0 | 53-4 | 61:1) 64-6 
45:2 44:3] 514] 53°6]| 65:4 | 64°6 
49°1 | 51°8 | 50:9 | 52°9 | 56:8 | 59-2 
46°4 | 476 | 47°9 | 53°6 | 566 | 60°4 
DOW ) 4972) D3) | “SLT | (89 |) 67-9 
48:0 | 49°4 | 474 | 56:2 | 55:2 | 61:8 
49°0 | 45°0 | 53°8 | 53°7 | 57:8 | 61°6 
50°8 | 49°0 | 48°5 | 506 | 59°2 | 66°7 
516 | 48:0 | 50°2 | 50°3 | 64:5 | 587 
47°8 | 49°9 | 52:3) 52:5 | 61:5 | 64:2 
49-3 | 47°5 | 518 | 51:6 | 60:0 | 60°9 
46-2 | 50°8 | 51°6| 50°9 | 56:9 | 64°4 
50-4 | 47°2 | 55°3 | 53°8 | 60°6 | 67°4 
47°8 | 49°2 | 53:4 | 584] 606 | 716 
484 | 49°3 | 52°99 | 55:0 | 54:6 | 63°8 
37:0 | 41°4 | 50°0 | 55:4 | 62°8 | 65°2 
48°2 | 51:0 | 50°00 | 55°38 | 61°5 | 6771 
61-6 | 61'S | bo) COC Shia 71's | 
37°0 | 41°4 | 44:0 | 475) 51:0] 58°0 
14°6 | 104 | 21d) Gad) Tay | tes. | 


July. 


Aug, 


Sept. 


65°0 
62°9 
59°4 
64°4 


60°0 
59°0 
56°3 
575 
65'0 
60:0 
61°5 
70°0 
60-0 
60°0 


63:0 
62:0 
64:0 
60-0 
64:4 
580 
59°0 
63°6 
61:0 
63°8 


58°6 
59°D 
58:0 
62°4 
60:0 


oI a 
sos 
ns 


58°2 


former) 
co bo 
on 


AATMAHUD 
WOO ODE ToOwaIN 
400 BOAMBNHNAe 


ee ols 


Oct. 


CUS? St Gr 


CHA OV OT OT OTT 
SSS ON ae Sed NSA ee 
SSSSSUSS KROES 


Noy, 


52:2 
48°7 
45:5 
44°6 


49°0 
48°5 
51°8 
48°5 
48°5 
52°0 
50:0 
52°0 
54:0 
50°0 


455 
52°0 
49°5 
56°5 
52°8 
52°2 
51°2 
43°6 
49°2 
50°6 


554 
47°9 
53°2 
55°6 
54°1 
54°6 
45°9 
50°8 
53°2 
50°2 
47°8 


51°0 
52°6 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 127 


TABLE XV. 


Showing the Lowest Mean Daily Temperature in Edinburgh from 1857 to 1896. 
Height above Sea 250 feet. 


Nore.—The mean Temperature was assumed to be the mean of the daily maximum and minimum values, 


Year. Jan Feb. Mar, | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. 
ESOT, 27:2 | 32°77 | 34:7 | 37°5 | 43:2 | 470] 54:5 | 54:4) 50°6 | 44:0 | 34:2 | 37-4 
1858, . 32°2 | 260 | 27°8 | 35°6 | 42-4 | 51°8 | 504 | 51:3 | 50:2 | 39°3 | 32°1 | 35°9 
HSD9; ola \da°> | 36°2 | 34°9 | 40°75 | 47:°2 | 47:0 | 53:1 | 49:0 | 31°4 | 33:2 | 23°5 
1860, 2(0-\s20'l | dad | 36:2 | 39°D | 45:0) 5275 | 53:1 | 48:0 | 38:0 | 31-8 | 12-4 
SOT; «: Zoe ooo | oS | 39:6 | 3/0) 50-1 | 51-6 | 53:5 | 47-4 | 41:0 | 30°8 | 27-0 | 
1862, . mma! 29> | 25> | 32-5 | 42°7 | 49-0 | 48-1 | 52°5 | 45:6 | 38:0 | 28:8] 36:0 
1863, . ; | 31:8 | 33°83 | 31°35 | 385 | 42:2 | 47-4 | 50°2 | 47:0 | 45:0 | 38°8 | 32°38 | 29°8 
1864, . . | 24:0 | 22°0 | 284 | 38:0 | 41:0) 47°2 | 51:70 | 48°5 | 49°0 | 36°5 | 35°5 | 30°5 
1865, . eon 20-0) | 32:0 | 39°0 | 41-0)| 47:0 | 50:5 | 50:5 | 51:0 | 37:0 | 34:5 | 37-0 | 
1866, . mezoO;ON 26°5)) 27°5 | 36°0 | 38°0 | 46°5 | 50:0) 51:0 | 48:0) 41:5 | 32:0 | 32:5 
NSG7, . mie220) | 23°) 30:5 | 40° | 38:5 | 48° | 48°5 | 53:0 | 49°0 | 36:5 | 35:0 | 30°5 
1868, . 28°5 | 34°59 | 34:5 38°0 | 40°0 | 52:0} 55:0 | 53:0 | 46:5 | 37:0 | 30:0 | 30-0 
1869, . 28°0 |} 30° | 32°D | 35:0 | 41:0 | 44:0 | 53°5 | 47°5 | 49:0 | 33°5 | 30:0} 22°5 
1870, Zoo 200 300 | 43:1 | 42-5 | 51:0 | 54:0 | 50°5 | 46°5 | 42:0 | -34:0} 21°5 
17a 2870 | 31-4 | 32°] 36°) | 38° | 47°D | 52°D-| 52:0 | 41°5 | 38:5 | 31°5 9-5 | 
A872, . SO) ies50 30:5 | 36°5 | 41:5 | 5072 | 54:0'| 52:9 | 43:4 | 39:0 | 35°6 | 31-5 
HS73;. 28°9'| 29°2 | 31°6 | 39°4 | 38°2 | 48°38 | 54:3) 51:0 | 46°2 | 39°5 | 34:5 | 30°5 
1874, . Sem OOM moleon ole e4lcS ok 2) 55:0) dO) 476 | 38:5 | 32-4 || 23:6 
LST; . Tae oO) eat) | 41-0) | 46°6 | 46:2 | 52-0 | 54-4 | 49°1 | 40-2 | 33-2 | 314 
S76, . Zoe Onleal-s isco 40-6 | A482, |) 53:4) 52°] | 44°8! 42:0 | 31-3 | 30°9 
nOTT, Poon 20.9) 920°) || 34°68 | 392 | 5270 | 52°3 | 502 | 46:2 | 32-5 | 34:4 | 26-8 | 
1878, . Minvimos Onleol:S Isaak | 42:9 | 45:0 | 54:6) 518 | 48:0 | 36°2 | 31°38 | 19-2 
MUSTO, 24°6 | 27°6 | 266} 34:0; 386 | 45°38) 48:1 515 | 464, 37°83); 296 | 18-4 
1880, . 28:77 | 39:4 | 37:1 | 40:8 | 43°7 | 48°8 | 54:2 | 55:2 | 48-7 31°6 | 26°38 | 27:0 | 
| | 
} 1881, . 17-1 | 30°0 | 27:6 | 34°5 | 41:2 | 45:4 | 53-4) 47-6 | 50°71 | 34:8 | 35-3 | 29°8 | 
; 1882, . 39°0 | 34:4 | 36:2 | 36:0 | 42:2 | 45:0 | 54:3} 51:2] 46:5 | 39-7 | 34:9 | 13-2 | 
1883, . 32°8 | 32°8 | 30°6 | 40°2 | 38:1 | 48°38 | 51-1 | 53-4 | 45:0 | 40°6 | 36-3 | 33:8 | 
1884, . 31:1 | 31:0 | 34:6 | 39-1 | 42°0 | 46:0 | 51:0 | 49:6 | 50:4 | 37:6 | 29:0 | 30:0 | 
1885, . Zea lO) oo 8 08-9 | 38:9) | 48:6 | 53:6 | 45-0 | 41-8 | 37:0 | 26:0'| 26-0 | 
1886, . 2A) 30:0.) 27-6 | 36:8 | 37:3 | 44-9 | 50-2 | 51-4 | 45-6 | 44-5 | 38:2 | 27-4 
1887, . - | 294 | 283 | 28°6 | 37°6 | 41°7 | 46°3 | 52-3 | 50-2 | 44:2 | 35°8 | 32-4} 30°5 
1888, . mi2o | 287 | 29 | 3675 | 42:0 | 41:2 | 49°5 | 516 | 43°2 | 4071 | 34:9 | 28°6 
1889, . - | 32°3 | 25°38 | 29-2 | 36°9 | 46:0 | 52:0 | 49°5 | 52-1 | 44:0| 40°0| 32:0} 31-4 , 
1690, . - | 30% | 32°5 | 33:1 | 38:2 | 45-0 | 49-3 | 51:2] 50:7 | 50:1 | 36-4 | 29:2 | 27-9 | 
Heol, . mimeoOnmeate2ee 290) -go:9 | 41-5 | 45-6 | 52°8 | 51:2 | 47-2 | 37-4 |} 39°9 | 33-4 | 
1892, . - | 28°7 | 23°1 | 29°1 | 34°7 | 42:2 | 44:8 | 49-6 | 48:0 | 46:0 | 34:3] 35:0 | 22°6 | 
1893, . - | 23°0 | 29°7 | 33°7 | 38:5 | 44-7 | 48-4 | 52-8 | 55:0 | 41:4 | 36-4] 32°8| 29-2 | 
1894, . - | 21°5 | 33-2 | 39:0 | 41:6 | 41-8 | 45°1 | 54-8] 49:0 | 46:1 | 35-6 | 36:4 | 30°8 | 
| 1895, . - | 246 | 20°3 | 32-2 | 38:8 | 43:0] 48°8 | 51-2 | 52:4] 51:0 | 34:2 | 38:6] 28-9 | 
1896, . - | 324} 31:0 | 35°38 | 41:3 | 44:9 | 48-6 | 53:5 | 51:8) 45°6 | 34:4] 30-4] 30:8 | 
Highest, 35°0 | 39-4 | 39:0 | 43:1 | 466 | 52°0 | 55:0 | 55-2 | 51:0] 44:5 | 38-6 | 37-0 
Lowest, »| Wl | 203 |) 25:5 | 32-5 | 37-0] 41:2 | 47-0] 45-0 | 41:5 | 31:4 | 26-0 | 12-4 | 
Range, Lice olei 13-5 | 106 96 | 10°8 8:0 | 10:2 Gay |e Ea TIBG. peGes | 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I, (NO. 6). ey, x. 


128 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLeE XVI. 


Showing the Exutreme Range in the Mean Daily Temperatures in Edinburgh 
JSrom 1857 to 1896. 


Year. Jan. | Feb, Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. Oct Nov 
185%, 22°21 1697) WS 2 ao ye. | 8-6 | 18-1 | 1Y-2 | 1a eo eo 
1858, LOT 22 ee 00 SS 66] V7 | 114 | 28 | aS oe 
1859, . 12h) ddd) 4) 23°03 | 81 | 21-5 | 16:0 | Ok | es) heise 
1860, . LS Oil) Vo MS Sale tors ah elioray |) 1 a°b 84] 164] 15°4] 12°8 
1861, . 20°6 ) 77) A 1 0622-0). | 1459 91 | 12r0) 2G te On ales 
1862, . bl} 2079) 22°01 5761 2°8 9:0 | 1379 8:0) |) 1S" | 2-0) | Saloey, 
1863, . LD:O) Shoe | Oe al tors: | ast | 6-3: | 6°O |) AS Sie Oe 
1864, . 2) we eer) aps65) 20S) 2a 43. | re | Lab 85 | 14:55 | 13:0 
1865, . | £80") 20-07) Wb5) 15-0 119-0) 18:5. | 140 | 25 | AO WoO alee 
1866, . =} 2a°o | GteO)), 22:5 1d*@ | 210) 1-235. | 20°70. | 14-0) | 22:0! tea 2078 
1867, . ~ |) 26:0 ford | erO Web | B'S | 4-5) 18:0) | 15-5) || Wt c)) Orn ab S® 
e568; . - | 20°54 17-0 | 160 | 17-0") 20:5 | 13:0 | 140 | 22°5 | 2S'b ) ah6-0) | 92250 
1869, . -| 20°0 | 21:0 | 11°5 | 22:5 | 10:0 | 18-5 | 14:0] 18:5 | 115 | 2670 | 24:0 
1870; .. s | Lda) Td | 18:0 | 14-0 | “165 | 14-0 |: 18 |] 5°59 0s") | Gee, 
1871, 14-5 | 19°8 |. 2077 | 11:0 | 22:0) 10-5 | 11:5.) 18:0) Biles) 20-0) | S46 
TS i2s= 17-0) 12-5} 21-0) 18°04) “Were, 17-2) 146 1 NS) nS 6) tere) adios 
1873, . eh edeg | E62 eet | BO) 68 | oe) eee 20s aes ease 
1874, . -| 140] 175 | 21-7 | 21:7 | 18:6 | 11:6 | 14:2] 14:6 | V2-4 ) 3083 | 24 
1875, . 2079 | 102 | 159 | 15:0 |- 14-4 | 16:6 | 13-4. | 12-9) ) Shoo) hGrss oss 
1316, .. 226 \ UT |) LT1 | Zar | 7-4 |) T8:0 |) FerG | 125 | We-aeeano es F203 
Lbs HGP T | SL9"9! |) SkorSs eG" Ly 5-0 9°38. TU) 12") ) 28 zoe i aioe 
Isis, . 18:8 } 16:3] 17:8 | 18°9°| 15:3 | 26-8) 14-2 | 13-6 | 156.) 23:6 | iis 
IB 9. p82) 22-2) 197 | 138) 146 | Wer) 6's: | 16°00) PG to-4 one 
1880, | 22°5 90 | TOS | 126 | 17-4 58 8-3 | 14°6 | 1571 | 24°31 23° 
| 
1881, . 2871 | 14°3 | 23°38 | 19:1 | 24:2 | 19°32) 15:0 | 16-7 85 | 22°4 | 20-1 | 202 
1882, . 14-1 | 17-4 | 14:7) 169 | 146) 14:2) 10°38 | 1667 13:07 1477 15°0 (au 
1883, . \Is'6 | 148) 17-3 | 134 | 18:5 | V6 | 14:0) eis 0 7 | ow ? 
1884, . 19°6 | 182 | 20:7 | 12°6| 16:8 | 21°9) 1570) 127) 12'0 | 16:2) 26:6 \caiee 
1885, . ) 296 |) 178 |) -13°6.) 17-38 | W6:3 | S92) ea Oe 2 eo ee 5° 
1886, . 206 | “1b-0 | 26°2 | 16°9 | (20°54 67 eee al Or eS) Go aaliGs 
TSSis, oc Zid | 202 | 19°9 | 13-0) 17'S | 205) W761 WO) tort eet Siar 
1888, Zod | 193 | 207 | 13°38 | 22D ies eo 9°8 | 15:0 | 20:2 | 10°7 
1889, . Ib ] 241 | 23-1 | 15°6 | V5°5 | “12-2 V6" 7) PO) SS "b Yes A ails 
1890, 16°38 | 15°0 } 18-7 | V3-4) 150 11-6 7} “10:8 1) *Y6'8. | N29 23-3) waa 
1B 1,: 3. - | 182) 136 | 226 | 15:0) 15:4) 188 | 11:8 | P16 7 9D 0G) ae 
1892, . ~ | ald | 24b | 262 | TO | 1824 28-6) Vee 1 ae Ors om 
| 1893, . «| 248) 19:5) 19-7 | 19-0 | 15D) 93°23) FOR |) 17-0 | 2a Se-e aD) NS 
1894, . »| 209) L6l | 13D | 154) 12:8) 180) 12°44) 126 ay eZ 20a 
1895, . «| 124) 211 | 173 | 166) 198) W646" 124) 162% Tos 1-23-05) 10% 
1896, . © .| 158} 200] 142] 145) 166] 185] 14:7 | 12°3| 15:2 | 249 20:0 
Highest, .| 269 | 24-1 | 26°2 | 23°7 | 24:7 | 26°38 | 215) 22° | 235 | 28:9 | 28] 
| Lowest, . | 12°4 90 | 10°9 | 106 | 10:0 9-0 8°3 8:0 85 | 113 | 10% 
| Range, . » | 1H) 161 163) W3ek) Wey) 178) 32 | 4B aD Mn) eis 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 129 


TABLE XVII. 


Showing the Greatest Daily Range of Temperature in each Month from 1857 to 1896. 


Year. Jan, Feb. Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. Aug. | Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 

| | | 
Rab, . Mieta-cei tos | 16:9 | 37-1 | 24-7 | 2676 | 25°6 | 21-8 | 283 | 18-7 | 163 | 163 
; 1858, . OM GOn loco eld | 217) 2891) 19:6) 198) 22:7 | 21-0 | 15:0 | L7-1 
1859, . ietesaiee 20a |) 2129) 2378 | 25:2) ) 26:0 | 23:3 | 25:2 | 2h-2 | 186 | 16-2 | 13:9 
1860, . ieorsat |) 15-9) || 18:0") 29:0!) 28:2) 22:0) | 22:7 | 26-5 | 23:3 | 15°38 | 19°5 | L48 
1861, . ieeieouielacs: | 207-7 21-6) |) 27-0 )-21-0)) 17-6 |, 15:2) 18-0' | 17-0 | 18:0 | 17-5 
1862, . 1 15:0°) 1270 | 18:0 | 25:0 | 22°6 | 22:4 | 22-4 | 20-2 | 20:70] 21°70 | 16°0 | 16:5 
1863, . Pae20A8 23-0") 19:8) | 21-0))) 23:0) 190) 30°3' |) 21-0) 4-7 | 160 | 18:2 | 20:5 
1864, . S170 | 15°5 | 21:0 | 22°5 | 31:0} 20:0 | 24:0} 22:0; 18:0} 20°0 | 18:0 | 13:0 
1865, . .| 16°9 | 15:0 | 19:0 | 39:0} 19:0} 30:0 | 24:0} 20:0 | 22:0 | 19:0 | 18:0 | 17:0 
1866, . me 3:On 6.0) |) 22-011) 23:0) | 36:0} 28:0) 3070) | 22:0 | 23:0) 17-0 | 17-0 | 22:0 
: 1867, . ~ | 16:0 | 15:0 | 18:0 | 22:0 | 26:0} 26:0 | 26-4} 21:0 | 20:0} 17:0) 17:0) 18:0 
f 1868, . Lael 2071 |) 2let i 26:0) 32:0) 32:7 | 26:7 | 24-7) ler | 16:0) lez 
1869, . scelelo we || 20:(e\.d2c0 | a4:7 |228°3 | 3810) | 28°77 | 22:7 | 25:0 | 20-7 |) 18:7 
nsvO; . ieZO-Oni kom | 2407 | Sard.) 22-7 | Qiley | 2-7 | 31-0 | 26:7 | -22°0 | 18:0 | 16:0 
heel, . miso) | 14-6 || 24:0 | 21-0 | 30:0) 25:3) 23:0! 26:0 | 24:0 | 23:0 | 21-0 | 23:0 
Hy L872; mimosa Or) 19-0) 26:0.) 20% | 20-9 | 26°83 | 25°7 | 185 | 16:0; 23°% | 26:3 | 17:7 
1873, . .| 154} 163] 18:9 | 244] 21-4 | 24:5 | 22°9 | 20:3 | 24:3 | 25°6 | 25:0 | 27-0 
1874, . mim toc) 200°) 25-9 |) 252 | 23:9 | 22-5 | 24°3 | 20-2 | 20°6 | 17-1 | 17-2 | 19-9 
1875, . mimes l4-Ont ln ole || 2249) 09-9) 27-9) 18:8 | 24-5 | 169) | 18:2 | 14-9 
1876, . Malis 12-9) 6:60) Less | 28:97)" SiG |) 3373), 272°) W8-4 | 169 | 12:4 | 15-7 
S77, Saeie ee Gor e2o:oe 2a |) 24ea) 2522)))) 22°91) 25:3 | 22:1 | 21-7 | 23:0 | 17-0 
reve... meas |) 15-3) | 0876") 24S | 26° | 2696} 29°7 | 25:4) 19:2 } 23°5 | 16°5 | 20-5 
18795. . elo saea-9 20:8) 5 20:3) | 24-7190) 20-9) 21-OF) 2053) | 22°47 | 19:6 | 1958 
1880, . mel d-68 | lore | 2020 | Ata | Qs-7 | QT || 24°6 | 23:6) 22:6 | Ws°8 | 22-4 | 16:9 
1881, . Pa S Se ligne n-On ee 2ocen| oOc2 | 29:4] Dish Wy 2745) 29:9) |) 205 | 21-1 || QIe1 
1882, . 194 | 18:6 | 20°5 | 20-4 | 22°2 | 24:0) 191 | 20:4 | 26:0 | 23°0'| 16:8 | 29:0 
BSS, . 16:55 | 17:6 | 18°9 | 20-4 | 23:2 | 22°38 | 22:4 | 23-4 | 30°70] 21:0 | 16:9] 18-6 
1884, . MMNGsoe lore mot one 24-20) S0r3 | 2ees | 20-9 | 24:3) 20:8) 16:4 | 18:3 | 13:5 
1885, . Pai Jee kell 22m) Dara 2426 26:9 | 24°35) 23:0) | 20:6 | 22-5 || 21-0 
1886, . Paielsca he Le-Or| 7:4) 33°38") 29°5 |- 28:5) | 25:3 || 23:0} 23°0'| 19:0 | 19-3 | 17-0 
1887, . Svea Oneal aale ok | 25°45) 32-6) |) 30h | 24-20) 204) 21-2 |) 164 | 15:6 
1888, . 13:7 | 20°8-| 23°4 | 24:6 | 27:6 | 288 | 23°38} 22:9 | 26:0 | 193] 13:3] 18-6 
1e89, ; NGA 9246) 945) 9:5) |) 27-0") 28 | 26:2 | 29:0) | 22-0 | 20-5 | 18-8 | 16-2 
1890, . Ta<6) |) 7-8) | 20:2 | 26:6 | 26:2" | 27-4 | 22-3 | 21-9 | 28-2 | 21:9 | 19°83 | 16:0 
T1891, ; ple 20:0) i) 2o-0) | 21-0) |) 22:8) 32-4 | 3:6 | 22" | Qi-4 | 25:4) 17-1 | 19-7 | 16:8 
1892, . Pl koe S251 52670) |) sab |} 26:0 | 253 | 25°5 | 24-7 | 200 |) 18:6 | 1971) 188 
1893, . PelOpl ie Lg) | 28:0) | 2456) | 23:4 2851) 25°3 | 25:6 | 23°5 | 18-9) 19-8 | 16:0 
1894, . PO aided: mold 23-4) 26:2 22-90) 21-4) 19-8) | BIO) | 21-2) 13:8 | 19-2 
1895, . . | 14:0 | 20:5 | 18°2 | 22:5 | 26:0 | 29:3 | 22-2.) 20:3 | 26:0 | 21°38) 181] 175 
1896, . Oo Onelece| 27.6 | Sa:2 | 26:0 | 23°% | 22°9 | 17-9 | 17-6 | 14:9) 153 
Greatest, . | 23:0 | 23:0 | 31°4 | 39:0 | 36:0 | 3276 | 33°3 | 31:0 | 300] 256 | 263 | 29:0 


130 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TasLe XVIII. 

Synopsis of Thermometric Observations made in Shade 4 feet above Grass from 
1840 to 1896. The Observations are from Registering Thermometers at a 
Height of 250 feet above Mean Sea-Level. 


JANUARY. FEBRUARY. MARCH. 
5 as ; . pn eS re ee | 
g |g agiagie.|e|)e| .(28\sele.|¢)4) .|S8ieem 
Yer | 2 | Z| SlsmlszlAs) 2] 2 | S|selselAs| 2] g | & SelsElas 
a)94| 8 |etlieales| s § |sitieAleasl fds] € |stigAales 
ei Ble (ecissiad| 2) Ble (sel scise| 818 | a |s2 isc lge 
Seyi agjasja |= | 4 Sales |e soe 28/25 \4 
bff Rhee sy ae | ee 
| 
1840, 52°0 | 21°0 | 31:0 | 45°1 | 33°4 | 11°7 | 50°0 | 21°0 | 29:0 | 43°3 | 31°7 11°6 | 60°0 | 23°0 | 37°0 | 49°1 | 32°5 ) 16°6 
1841, |51°0| 8°0 | 43:0] 39°1 | 27°7 | 11°4 | 53:0 | 26°0 | 27°0 | 42°7 | 83°1 | 9°6 | 66°0 | 28°0 | 38°0 | 54°1 | 38°9 | 15°2 
1842, | 47°0 | 18°0 | 29°0 | 40°1 | 29°8 | 10°3 | 51:0 | 22°0 | 29°0 | 46:0 | 34°0 | 12°0 | 60°0 | 29-0 | 31°0 | 40°5 | 35°2 | 14°3 
1843, | 55°0 | 20°0 | 35°0 | 45°7 | 33°1 | 12°6 | 56°0 | 16°0 | 40°0 | 38°8 | 29°8 | 9:0 | 61°0 | 21°0 | 40°0 50°1 | 84°5 | 15°6 
1844, | 57°0 | 23:0 | 34:0 | 50°4 | 81°9 | 18°5 | 55°0 | 130 | 42°0 | 45°1 | 27°1 | 18°0 | 68°0 | 23°0 | 45°0 | 51°9 | 30°9 | 21°0 
1845, | 53°0| 5:0 | 48°0 | 42°8 | 80°4 | 12°4 | 49:0 | 18°0 | 31:0 | 41°9 | 29°0 | 12°9 | 570 | 16°0 | 41°0 | 44°6 | 28°6 | 16°0 
1846, 59°0 | 25:0 | 34:0 | 47°6 | 36°5 | 11:1 | 64°0 | 28°0 | 36:0 | 52°9 | 36°9 | 16°0 | 63°0 | 17°0 | 46°0 | 51°9 | 34°1 | 17°8 
1847, | 58°0 | 21°0 | 82°0 | 42°4 | 30-0 | 12°4 | 51:0 | 17°0 | 34:0 | 43-1 | 28°3 | 14°8 | 66°0 | 21:0 | 45:0 | 49°1 | 35:0 | 14°1 
1848, 54°0| 5°0 | 49:0 | 40°4 | 26°9 | 13°5 | 57°0 | 15°0 | 42:0 | 47°4 | 83°4 | 14°0 | 61°0 | 26°0 | 35:0 | 49°5 | 33°6 | 15°9 
1849, 55:0 | 19-0 | 86-0 | 42°5 | 31-2 | 11°3 | 54°0 | 240 | 30°0 | 47°8 | 36°3 | 11°5 | 58-0 | 24:0 | 34:0 | 48°7 | 36-4 | 12:3 
1850, 45°0 | 12°0 | 33:0 | 85:9 | 27°2| 8:7 | 55-0 | 25:0 | 30:0 | 46°0|87°5 | 8:5 | 56:0 | 22°0 | 34:0 | 48°8 | 35°9 | 12:9 
| 
1851, | 55°0 | 26°0 | 29:0 | 44°7 | 36°5| 8:2 | 54:0 | 27:0 | 27:0 | 45°8 | 35°7 | 10°1 | 52°0 | 25:0 | 27°0 | 46°8 | 35-2 | 11°6 
1852, 510 | 25°0 | 26:0 | 42°4 | 85°5 | 6:9 | 53:0 | 26:0 | 27:0 | 46°1 | 3474 | 11°7 | 62°0 | 27:0 | 35:0 | 46°7 | 36°1 | 10°6 
1853, 54°0 | 25:0 | 29:0 | 43°5 | 84:2! 9°3 | 45°0 | 19°0 | 26°0 | 87°8 | 29°9 | 7:9 | 52:0 | 25°5 | 26°5 | 42°6 | 32:9] 9:7 
1854, 53°0 | 18°5 | 34°5 | 41°2 | 832°6 | 8°6 | 53:0 | 27°0 | 26:0 | 45°6 | 34°3 | 11'3 | 59:0 | 82°5 | 26°5 | 51°1 | 39°4 | 11°7 
1855, 52°0 | 22°5 | 29°5 | 41°7 | 33°4| 8°3 | 41°0 | 14°5 | 26°5 | 35°1 | 26°0| 9:1 | 47°5 | 29°0 | 18°5 | 42°8 | 32°3 | 10°5 
1856, 49°8 | 24°7 | 25°1 | 401 | 34°3| 5°8 | 56:4 | 28-1 | 28°3 | 45°8 | 37°8 | 7:9} 51°1 | 29°4 | 21°7 | 46°0 | 87°1|] 8:9 
1857, 53°0 | 20°0 | 33°0 | 42°9 | 83°6 | 9°3 | 53°8 | 28°8 | 25°0 | 46°3 | 86°7 | 9°2 | 54:4 | 27°8 | 26°6 | 46°0 | 36°6 | 9-4 
1858, 53°3 | 28°2 | 25°1 | 46°0 | 36°0 | 10°0 | 51°3 | 22°5 | 28°8 | 41°6 | 31°6 | 10°0 | 61°3 | 20°5 | 40°8 | 46°8 | 35°6 | 11°2 
1859, 50°9 | 27°5 | 23°4 | 45:2 | 34°6 | 10°6 | 52°8 | 266 | 26°2 | 45°3 | 84°3 | 11°0 | 56°1 | 28°8 | 27°3 | 49-0 | 87-4 | 11°6 
1860, 50°6 | 22°8 | 27°8 | 38°5 | 30°5 | 8:0 | 46°7 | 17°8 | 28°9 | 38°3 | 28°9 | 9°4 | 51°0 | 26°7 | 24°3 | 44°1 | 32°8 | 11°38 
1861. 51° | 16°3 | 85-5 | 40°2 | 32°4| 7°8| 52°3 26°0 | 26°3 | 48:4 | 84°7 | 8°7 | 54°4 | 29°1 | 25°3 | 48°3 | 34:9 | 13-4 
1862, 52°2 | 28°6 | 23°6 | 43°6 | 36°0| 7°6 | 57:0 | 26°2 | 30-8 | 46:1 | 37°9| 8:2 | 54°6 | 22°0 | 32°6 | 44°5 | 85°1| g-4 
1863, 53°0 | 25°5 | 27°5 | 43°5 | 33°9 | 9°6 | 59°0 | 26°5 | 82°5 | 47°0 | 35°38 | 11°7 | 58°5 | 25:0 | 88°5 | 48°5 | 37-4 | 11°1 
1864, 50°0 | 19°5 | 30°5 | 41°1 | 30°9 | 10°2 | 49°0 | 20°0 | 29°0 | 37°6 | 29:0 | 8°6 | 51:0 | 18°0 | 33:0 | 42°5 | 31°9 | 10°6 
1865, 51°0 | 20°0 | 31:0 | 89°6 | 80°4 | 9°2| 49°0] 18°0 | 81-0 | 38°0 | 28°7 | 9°83 | 54°0 | 27°0 | 27:0 | 41°9 | 81:2 | 10°7 
1866, 56°0 | 21:0 | 85°0 | 45°2 | 84°9 | 10°3 | 51°7 | 25:0 | 26°7 | 41°9 | 88:2 8°7 | 58°7 | 20°0 | 38°7 | 43:0 | 81°5 | 11°5 
1867, - | 52°7 | 16°0 | 36°7 | 37°0 | 28°6 | 8°4 | 53°7 | 29:0 | 24°7 | 47°2 | 88°4| 8°8 | 54°7 | 24:0 | 30°7 | 41°4 | 32:5] 8:9 
1868, 53°7 | 25:0 | 28°7 | 42°2 | 83°9 | 8°3 | 54°7 | 31°0 | 23°7 | 47:2 | 88°38 | 8°4| 56:7 | 28:0 | 28°7 | 49°7 | 38°4 | 11°3 
1869, | 51°7 | 25°0 | 26°7 | 45'0 | 35°5 | 9°5 | 56°7 | 28:0 | 28°7 | 47°5 | 87:2 | 10°38 | 50°0 | 26:0 | 24°0 | 44:0 | 31°9 | 12°1 
1870, | 46°7 | 25°0 | 21°7 | 40°6 | 32°4) 8:2 | 47°7 | 19°0 | 28°7 | 89°6 | 80°1 | 9°5 | 58-7 | 22:0 | 31°7 | 46°1 | 32°83 | 18°8 
1871, 490 | 24°0 | 25°0 | 38°4 | 32°3) 6:1 | 54°5 | 27°8 | 26°7 | 46°1 | 38°7| 7:4 | 61:7 | 25°2 | 36°5 | 50:0 | 37°8 | 12:2 
1872, 52°7 | 24:0 | 28°7 | 44°0 | 33°0 | 11°0 | 53°7 | 28-0 | 25-7 | 46-1 | 35-2 | 10°9 | 61°7 | 23°0 | 38°7 | 47°5 | 85°4 | 12-1 
1873, 54°8 | 24:0 | 30°8 | 44°0 | 86°1| 7°9 | 49°2 | 22°2| 27°0 | 40°4| 31°6| 8°8 | 54°9 | 26°0 | 28°9 | 43°2 | 34°7 | 85 
1874, | 53°O0 | 28°6 | 24°4 | 45°4 | 360} 9°4 | 58°0 | 19°6 | 38:4 | 45'5 | 82°6 | 12°9 | 61:0 | 27°4 | 33°6 50°7 | 38°5 | 12°2 
1875, 53°9 | 14°0 | 39°9 | 45°8 | 36°0 | 9°8| 51°0 | 24°5 | 26:5 | 40°9 | 33°8| 7°1| 56:0 | 28°0 | 28°C | 45°5 | 35:7 | 9:8 
1876, 58°0 | 22:3 | 30°7 | 44°7 | 35°0| 9°7 | 53-9 | 21°38 | 32°6 | 42°5 | 32°5 | 10°0 | 54°0 | 24:0 | 30°0 | 44°7 | 33-0 | 11°7 
UY iE 52°0 | 25°0 | 27°0 | 43°7 | 34°8| 8:9 | 54°5 | 22°4 | 82°1 | 47°2 | 85:2 | 12:0 | 53°1 | 23°0 | 80°1 | 44°5 | 32-4 | 12°1 
1878, 52°4|17°5 | 84°9 | 43°2 | 33°38 | 9:4 | 55°8 | 29'°5 | 26°3 | 47°1 | 37°8| 9°3| 57°8 | 24°5 | 338°3 | 47°3 | 34°7 | 12°6 
1879, 46°2 | 16°5 | 29°7 | 35°8 | 26°7 | 9:1] 49°4 | 21°4 | 28:0] 88°9 | 30°7 | 8°2 | 54°2| 17:0) 37°2 | 43°0 | 31°9 | 111 
1880, 54°7 | 23°0 | 31°7 | 40°6 | 33°56 | 7:1 | 55:1 | 32°0 | 23°1 | 48-2 | 38:2 | 10°0 | 57°0 | 28'2 | 28°8 | 48°3 | 34°8 | 18°56 
1881, 47'0| 9°4| 37°6 | 34°1 | 24°1 | 10°0 | 48°8 | 21°7 | 27°1 | 89°9 | 31°6 | 83 | 57°8 | 15°0 | 42°8 | 44°6 | 32°4 | 12:2 
1882, 53°0 | 29°1 | 23°9 | 46°2 | 37°7 | 8°5| 57°1 | 81:2] 25°9 | 48°7 | 38-0 | 10:7 | 59°1 | 30°2 | 28°9 | 50°2 | 38:5 | 11°7 
1883, . 52°7 | 25°9 | 26°8 | 43°9 | 34°3| 9°6 | 54°1 | 28°0 | 26:1 | 46°1 | 86°4| 9:7 | 53:0 | 24°5 | 28°5 | 42°6 | 30°9 | 11°7 
1884, 53°0 | 26°0 | 27°0 | 45°8 | 36°8 | 9°0 51°6 | 24°8 | 26°8 | 45°7 | 35°6 | 10°1 | 66°6 | 28°4 | 38°2 | 48°5 | 361 | 12°4 
1885, 51°7 | 22°0 | 29°7 | 40°6 | 33°3 | 7°83 | 54:1 | 24:4 | 29°7 | 45°9 | 85°4 | 10°5 | 53°3 | 27°0 | 26°3 | 46°7 | 34°0 | 12°7 | 
1886, 51°4 | 12°2 | 39°2 | 39°2 | 30°4| 88 | 49:0 | 21°0 | 28°0 | 39°5 | 31°0| 8°5 | 56°5 | 189 | 37°6 | 42°7 | 83°38 | 94 
1887, 53°8 | 21°8 | 32°0 | 44°0 | 34°3 | 9°7 | 57°5 } 20:0 | 37°5 | 45-6 | 83°8 | 11°8 | 57°0 | 20°5 | 36°5 | 44°8 | 83°5 | 11°3 
1888, 55°1 | 24°3 | 30°8 | 43°2 | 35°4| 7°8 | 50°5 | 18°3 | 82°2 | 39°9 | 81°9| 8:0) 55°2 | 23°8 | 31°4 | 41°4 | 81°6 | 9°8 
1889, . 54°9 | 26°0 | 28°9 | 44°0 | 35°5 | 8°5 | 54°2 | 21°6 | 32°6 | 42°3 | 82°4 | 9°9| 56-0 | 20°8 | 85°2 | 46°0 | 34°7 | 11°3 
1890, , 53°8 | 25°0 | 28°8 | 46°7 | 36°8! 9°9 | 52°9 | 25:9 | 27°0 | 42°9 | 32°7 | 10°2 | 59°5 | 25°4 | 84°1 | 48°6 | 37°0 | 11°6 
| | 
1891, 51:0 | 24°0 | 27°0 | 40°8 | 82:7] 8°1| 61:1 | 27°5 | 33°6 | 50°3 | 86°4 | 13°9 | 55-2 | 20°3 | 84:9 | 44-4 | 82-0 | 12°4 
1892, . 52°6 | 24°8 | 27°8 | 40°8 | 32°4| 8°4| 52°3 | 14°0 | 38°3 | 42°38 | 82°6 | 9°7 | 63°2 | 21°6 | 41°6 | 43°7 | 30°9 | 12°8 
1893, 52°4 | 15°0 | 87°4 | 41°5 | 83°6 | 7°9 | 54:9 | 251 | 29°8 | 44°8 | 34°9| 9°9 | 67°0 | 24°9 | 42°1 | 51°3 | 36°5 | 14°8 
| 1894, 51°7 | 13°9 | 87°8 | 42°8 | 33°3 | 9°5 | 54°5 | 26°1 | 28°4 | 45°7 | 85°1 | 10°6 | 64:3 | 80°1 | 34°2 | 51°3 | 36°9 | 14:4 
1895, , . | 41°0 | 19°0 | 22°0 | 86:2 | 27°5 | 8°7 | 46°3 | 11°9 | 34°4 | 37-1 | 25°4 | 11°7 | 55°38 | 27-0 | 28°3 | 45°9 | 86:2] 97 
1896. 52°9 | 23°9 | 29°0 | 45°5 | 869 | 8°6| 52°9 | 27°7 | 26°21 47:0 1387°6| 9:4 | 56'1 | 29°4 | 26°7 | 48°8 | 36°0 | 12°8 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 15t 


TasLe XVIII.—continued. 


APRIL. MAY. JUNE. 

: . er . =a+4 mm 45 ica ey a+ —s4s a 

gig EP pasa ais 218 d . (seslaezlea.| g | g bes Basa eee 8 
Year. B | 2 | &|SmlSeiAS| 2 | 2 | & |emlselAS| 2 | 2 | & [sel seas 

1 = =] rs] B=) i = = = [=| 
Ble ae let scse| se) 21g et scee) 2) 8) & (eo! eo sa 

a | Ssalssie | a] 4 Sajaais |S | = Sa (sa |= 
; 1840,. . | 76°0| 31:0 | 45-0 | 57°6 | 39°2 | 18-4 | 74-0 | 29-0 | 45:0 | 55°5 | 40°9 | 14°6 | 72°0 | 37°0 | 35°60 | 64:2 | 46°2 | 18-0 
| | 1841, 64°0 | 28°0 | 36:0 | 58°1 | 37:0 | 16°1 | 76:0 | 28:0 | 48-0 | 61-4 | 42°7 | 18°7 | 79-0 | 35°0 | 44:0 | 61°8 | 45-2 | 16°6 
/| | 1842, . | 72:0 | 29-0 | 43-0 | 558 | 36°1 | 19°7 | 67-0 | 360 | 31:0 | 60:0 | 43°3 | 16°7 | 77:0 | 39-0 | 38-0 | 66°5 | 47°7 | 18°8 | 
1848, . | 65:0 | 26°0 | 39°0 | 53°6 | 37°6 | 16:0 | 69°0 | 35:0 | 34:0 | 58°7 | 40°5 | 13-2 | 71°0 | 39-0 | 32°0 | 59°7 | 44:7 | 15-0 | 
1844,. =. | 71:0 | 31-0 | 40-0 | 58-2 | 40°8 | 17-4 | 68-0 | 30°0 | 38:0 | 58°4 | 39-2 | 19-2 | 74°0 | 40-0 | 34:0 | 64°1 | 46°0 | 18°1 
1845, . . | 64:0 | 28-0! 36:0 | 54°3 | 36°1 | 18-2 | 69°0 | 33:0 | 360 | 55°8 | 40°5 | 15°3 | 79°0 | 38-0 | 41-0 | 65°7 | 48°0 | 17-7 
1846, . 64°0 | 25°0  39°0 | 52°9 | 36°6 | 16:3 | 70°0 | 310 | 39-0 | 65°38 | 41°1 | 24-2 | 84°0 | 43-0 | 41°0 | 73°2 | 50°6 | 22°6 
1847, . 61:0 | 290 , 32°0 | 52:7 | 33°7 | 19°0 | 77-0 | 82:0 | 45:0 | 59°0 | 42-2 | 16°8 | 76°0 | 38-0 | 38°0 | 66°3 | 45°8 | 20°5 
1848, . 65°0 | 260 | 39:0 | 58°1 | 34°5 | 18°6 | 78°0 | 35:0 | 43-0 | 67°6 | 43°3 | 24:3 | 75-0 | 37°0 | 38-0 | 63°5 | 46°4 | 17-1 
1849, . | 670 | 23:0 | 44:0 | 49°8 | 36°1 | 13°7 | 70:0 | 37-0 | 33.0 | 59°0 | 43°1 | 15:8 | 78°0 | 34:0 | 44:0 | 62°0 | 48°6 | 18°4 
1850, 61°0 | 3170 | 30°0 | 54°0 | 3971 | 14:9 | 66°0 | 26-0 | 40-0 | 56°6 | 39°9 | 16°7 | 76°0 | 38:0 | 38-0 | 67°2 | 49°7 | 17°5 
1851, 59°0 | 30:0 | 29°0 | 51°3 | 36°2 | 15°1 | 72-0! 32°0 | 40:0 | 59-2 | 41°6 | 17°6 | 75°0 | 32°0 | 43°0 | 64°4 | 46°3 | 18°71 | 

1852, . | 71°0 | 33°0 | 88:0 | 56°9 | 40°3 | 16°6 | 68°0|37°0| 2 a a 2 |72°0| 43:0] 2 2 2 2 
1853, 60°5 | 32°0 | 28°5 | 51°1 | 40°2 | 10°9 | 69°5 | 31°5 | 38:0 | 56°3 | 42°3 | 14°0 | 75°5 | 44°5 | 31-0 | 65-2 | 51-2] 14:0 | 

| | 1854, . | 580 | 30-0 | 28:0 | 52°5 | 40°3 | 12:2 | 64:0 | 39:0 | 25:0 | 57°8 | 44°0 | 13°38 | 74:0 | 41°0 | 33:0 | 63°4 | 49°7 | 13-7 
1855, . | 64°0 | 30°5 | 33°5 | 53°0 | 37°5 | 15°5 | 70:0 | 30:0 | 40-0 | 52°5 | 39°9 | 12°6 | 79°5 | 41°5 | 38-0 | 65-2 | 49°4 | 15:8 
1856, . = ._ | 61°1 | 35°7 | 25°4 | 51°5 | 40°8 | 10°7 | 64°6 | 36°4 | 28°2 | 54:0 | 43°0 | 11:0 | 73°6 | 43°5 | 80-1 | 62°6 | 49:8 | 12°8 
1857,.  ~—«..:_| 63°6 | 26°5 | 37°1 | 49-4 | 37°5 | 11°9 | 70°9 | 38-8 | 32°1 | 58°7 | 44°5 | 14:2 | 81°6 | 43-0 | 38-6 | 67-8 | 50°5 | 17°3 

"| ; 1858,. . | 65°6 | 26-7 | 38°9 | 52°6 | 38°1 | 14°5 | 66-4 | 35:1 | 31°3 | 58°7 | 43°5 | 15°2 | 78°2 | 43°8 | 34:4 | 65:5 | 51°5 | 14:0 
| | 1859, . =—._ | 68°9 | 25-5 | 434 | 48°8 | 34-4 | 14-4 | 68-2 | 33°6 | 34:6 | 59-2 | 43°2 | 16:0 | 69°8 | 41:2 | 28°6 | 62:4 | 47°9 | 14°5 
‘| | 1860,. ~—«..:-|| 57°7 | 29°5 | 28:2 | 46°8 | 34°9 | 11°9 | 69°7 | 36:0 | 33°7'| 57°5 | 43-7 | 13°8 | 65°8 | 40°8 | 25-0 | 56-7 | 46°3 | 10-4 
1861, . | 63°1 | 31°5 | 31°6 | 50°0 | 37°6 | 12°4 | 67-1 | 29°5 | 37°6 | 57°5 | 42°4 | 15°1 | 71:1 | 40°5 | 30°6 | 60°5 | 49°3 | 11-2 
1862, . 70:0 | 26°0 | 44:0 | 51°6 | 38°4 | 13-2 | 64-0 | 31°4 | 32°6 | 58°0 | 43-2 | 14°8 | 65'2 | 42°0 | 23-2 | 59-4 | 47-3 | 12:1 | 
1863, . . | 57°0 | 30:0 | 27-0 | 51°4 | 37°8 | 13°6 | 64°5 | 36°5 | 28:0 | 56:0 | 42°9 | 13°1 | 68°0 | 42°0 | 26:0 | 63°8 | 47°5 | 16°3 
1864, 69°0 | 30-0 | 89°0 | 53°1 | 89°5 | 13°6 | 79°0 | 82:0 | 47-0 | 60-0 | 42:0 | 18-0 | 680 | 47-5 | 30°5 | 61:2 | 47-0 | 14:2 
1865,.  . | 70:0 | 29-0 41:0 | 53-4 | 38°0 | 15-4 | 69°0 | 36°0 | 33-0 | 56:9 | 44:2 | 12°7 | 78°0 | 40°0 | 38:0 | 661 | 48-0 | 1871 
1866,. . | 59°7 | 27:0 | 32:7 | 48-9 | 86°5 | 12°4 | 76°7 | 30:0 | 46°7 | 56°6 | 39°4 | 17°2 | 79-7 | 87-0 | 42°7 | 65-0 | 48°9 | 16-1 
1867, . 58°7 | 36°0 | 22°7 | 52°0 | 40°9 | 11°1 | 67°7 | 32°0 | 35°7 | 53:4 | 42°3 | 1171 | 75-7 | 43-0 | 32°7 | 63°9 | 49-2 | 14°7 
1868, . | 62°7 | 32°0 | 30°7 | 52°8 | 40°5 | 12°3 | 72°7 | 32°0 | 40°7 | 60°4 | 45°9 | 14°5 | 78°7 | 42:0 | 36°7 | 65-1 | 49°6 | 15°5 
1869, 70°7 | 26°0 | 44°7 | 56-2 | 89°4 | 16°8 | 68-7 | 30:0 | 38°7 | 58-4 | 37°6 | 15°8 | 71°7 | 37-0 | 34:7 | 62°6 | 46-2 | 16-4 
1870, . | 72°7 | 33:0 | 89°7 | 55°8 | 41°8 | 14:0 | 69°7 | 36°0 | 33:7 | 59-9 | 45°5 | 14°4 | 74°7 | 45:0 | 29°7 | 64°5 | 50°8 | 13°7 
1871,. ~—-..:|| 58°7 | 30°0 | 28°7 | 48-3 | 87:4 | 10°9 | 72°7 | 27-0 | 45:7 | 59°3 | 41°4 | 17-9 | 70°7 | 89°0 | 31°7 | 61'1 | 44°3 | 16°8 | 

+| | 1872, . | 62°7 | 30°0 | 32°7 | 51-1 | 38-0 | 13°1 | 64:0 | 30°0 | 34:0 | 53°5 | 39-4 | 14:1 | 75°7 | 88-7 | 37:0 | 63°8 | 510 | 12°8 
>| | 1878, . =: | 57°3 | 32°9 | 24-4 | 50-3 | 89-1 | 11°2 | 62°4 | 30-8 | 31°6 | 55-1 | 41°6 | 13°5 | 71°4 | 37°5 | 33°9 | 62°5 | 47°3 | 15-2 
1874,. . | 69°0 | 34-2 | 34:8 | 53°6 | 40°8 | 12°8 | 66°3 | 35:0 | 31°3 | 51-5 | 41°8| 9°7 | 71°7 | 40°9 | 30°8 | 63-4 | 47°6 | 15°8 
1875, . | 70°3 | 83°8 | 86°5 | 53°2 | 40°1 | 13°1 | 70:2 | 39°8 | 30°4 | 59-2 | 45°6 | 13°6 | 73:4 | 40°3 | 33°1 | 62°5 | 48°2 | 14°3 
1876, 65:2 | 26°9 | 38°3 | 50°3 | 88°5 | 11°8 | 66°5 | 32°4 | 34:1 | 55°8 | 41-9 | 13°9 | 75°8 | 42°4| 83:4 | 6471 | 46°8 | 17°3 
1877, 59°2 | 29:0 | 30-2 | 47°5 | 35°7 | 11°8 | 64:0 | 31°5 | 32°5 | 53-3 | 39°6 | 13°7 | 72°0 | 42°8 | 29°2 | 64°6 | 48-7 | 15°9 
1878, . ~—-.._| 62°5 | 28°8 | 33°7 | 52°7 | 39°2 | 13-5 | 71°5 | 33°5 | 38-0 | 59-0 | 43°7 | 15°3 | 81°3 | 36:4 | 44:9 | 65-2 | 48-3 | 16°9 
1879, 54:2 | 28°7 | 25°5 | 46-5 | 84°7 | 11°8 | 62°3 | 29°2 | 33-1 | 542 | 38°3 | 15°9 | 66:0 | 37:0 | 29-0 | 58°4 | 46°5 | 11-9 
pe, - . | 60-1 | 31-2 | 28°9 | 52°6 | 89°1 | 13°5 | 71°6 | 32°9 | 38:7 | 57°1 | 42°2 | 14°9 | 72°6 | 38-2 | 34°4 | 63°2 | 47°8 | 15-4 
1881,. —._ | 58°5 | 25-2 | 33-3 | 50-2 | 85°5 | 14°7 | 79-2 | 34°0 | 45-2 | 59-3 | 43°3 | 16-0 | 78°4| 37°5 | 40°9 | 62-5 | 47-1 | 15:4 

| 1882,. . | 60:4! 28-5 | 31-9! 50°3 | 87-9 12-4 | 66-8 | 35-4 | 31°4157-9 | 421 | 15-8 | 67°6 | 38°6 | 29-0 | 61°1 | 47°5 | 13°6 
1883, . . | 60°0) 33:1 | 26°9 | 52-8 | 38:9 | 13°9 | 66:8 | 29:2 | 37-6 | 56°1 | 41°5 | 14°6 | 66°6 | 38°5 | 28-1 | 60°3 | 47°3 | 13-0 
1884, + | 63°8 | 28°8 | 35°0 | 52°1 | 36°9 | 15°2 | 72°9 | 34:0 | 38°9 | 57°8 | 41°5 | 16°3 | 79°9 | 41-1 | 38°8 | 62°2 | 47°7 | 14:5 
1885,. . | 65°7 | 82:0 | 83°7 | 52°6 | 38°5 | 1471 | 62:0] 30:1 | 31°9 | 53°3 | 39°9 | 18:4 | 70°6 | 39:0 | 31°6 | 61:0 | 48°4 | 12°6 
1886, . =. | 70°6 | 31°5 | 39°1 | 50°3 | 37°1 | 13°2 | 72°6 | 31:7 | 40°9 | 55-2 | 41:0 | 14-2 | 75°6 | 37:1 | 88°5 | 62°7 | 45°9 | 16-8 
1887, .  . | 59°0 | 29:0 | 30:0 | 49-8 | 35-4 | 14-4 | 68-0 | 29°1 | 38°9 | 57-1 | 41°1 | 16°0 | 83:2 | 40°9 | 42°3 | 67:1 | 49°8 | 17°3 
1888,.  . | 59°6 | 28°3 | 31:3 | 49°6 | 36-1 | 13-5 | 76-8 | 33-0 | 43°8 | 586 | 41-9 | 16°7 | 69°3 | 36°9 | 32°4 | 59°6 | 43-9 | 15°7 
1889, . =. | 61°0 | 31°5 | 29°5 | 48-1 | 87°9 | 10:2 | 74:0 | 39°8 | 34:2 | 59-6 | 44°5 | 15°1 | 78°4 | 39°4 | 89-0 | 66°6 | 49°0 | 17°6 
1890, . —.._| 64°0 | 28°4 | 35°6 | 52°6 | 36°5 | 16°1 | 71:0 | 36°3 | 34°7 | 57-9 | 44:0 | 13°9 | 71°4 | 38°1 | 33-3 | 62°5 | 47°7 | 14°8 
1891, . 60°8 | 26°6 | 34-2 | 50:2 | 35°5 | 14°7 | 731 | 81:0 | 42°1 | 56:1 | 40°0 | 16-1 | 72°9 | 40-6 | 32°3 | 61°6 | 48°3 | 13°3 
1892, . 68°0 | 26-0 | 42-0 | 52°0 | 35°7 | 16°3 | 69-9 | 36-0 | 33°9 | 58°6 | 43°1 | 15°5 | 80°1 | 37°8 | 42°3 | 62°0 | 46°8 | 15°2 
1893, . —._ | 69°5 | 84°0 | 85-5 | 56-1 | 89°38 | 16°3 | 70:5 | 36°9 | 33°6 | 61°5 | 46°5 | 15°0 | 85°9 | 43°6 | 42°3 | 66°8 | 50°5 | 16°3 
1894, » | 63°8 | 34°3 | 29°5 | 54°6 | 40°7 | 13-9 | 64°1 | 32:0 | 82°1 | 54-2 | 40-0 | 14:2 | 74°71 | 88-7 | 35-4 | 62°0 | 47°4 | 14°6 
1895, - | 61°9 | 29°4 | 32°5 | 52°6 | 394 | 13-2 | 74°8 | 38-5 | 36°3 | 62:0 | 44°1 | 17-9 | 78°3 | 37°6 | 40°7 | 65°3 | 48°0 | 17°3 

| 1896, 65°9 | 84°5 | 31°4 | 55°7 | 41°9 | 13°8 | 78-1 | 37-4 | 40°7 | 64:0 | 45°7 | 18°3 | 75°5 | 44-4 | 31°1 | 62°8 | 50°6 | 12°2 


132 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE X VIII.—continued. 


JULY AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. 
: m8 [tus | . aC =) | - reshcey (fre || E> 
a = r= - | Ssleals .| g | - | aecl|@eezl's .| 8 g 3 am/s 2's . 
wer |e ta | & (Sa|se a8] 2) g | Sse se(Se 2 | z | & (sh)s5 iA 
BPE a RoR St esl ale fg ee sti ee Ee feRl eel eae 
Ss S De|] oo] 9o 3 Ler oo] oO] 0 G3 te| ood] 00] oF } 
at Sa/Ss/e [a] 4 agiasi/a |a | 4 aslasle | 
ets on (Se Se em em ene gl ai ieee eel lors mene ae Le Ee aie eee aceiascee| erases | 
1840, . 71°0 | 40°0 | 31°0 | 64:1 | 47°8 | 14°3 | 78°0| 40:0 | 38:0 | 67°7 | 50°6 | 16°1 | 68:0 | 89°0 | 29:0 | 592 | 43°6 | 15°6 
1841, . 73°0 | 41-0 | 320 | 64°2 | 48°3 | 15:7 | 75:0 | 40°0 | 35-0 | 65°5 | 49°2 | 16°3 | 77°0 | 87:0 | 400 | 61°8 | 47°3 | 14°5 
1842, 79°0 | 40.0 | 39:0 | 65:4 | 47:5 | 17°9 | 78:0 | 40°0 | 38°0 | 69°1 | 52:3 | 16°8 | 72°0 | 39-0 | 33°0 | 62°3 | 47°9 | 14°4 
1843, 77°0 | 43°0 | 34:0 | 67°5 | 50°3 | 17°2 | 76:0 43:0 | 33:0 | 66°2 | 49°6 | 16°6 | 75:0 | 82°0 | 43-0 | 66°2 | 48:0 | 18°2 
1844, . 74°0 | 39-0 | 35:0 | 65-4 | 48-4 | 17:0 | 76-0 | 87-0 | 39-0 | 64°5 | 46°9 | 17°6 | 77:0 | 31°0 | 46"0 | 60°9'| 45°3 | 15°6 
1845, 70°0 | 38:0 | 82°0 | 63:0 | 46°6 | 16°4 | 77:0] 40:0 | 37:0 | 64°6 | 46°7 | 17°9 | 72:0 | 81:0 | 41°0 | 64°8 | 43:4 | 214 
1846, 79°0 | 46°0 | 33:0 | 67°3 | 51°3 | 16°0 | 75:0 | 42:0 | 33:0 | 68°3 | 51°5 | 16°8 | 78°0 | 39°0 | 39-0 | 68°9'| 50°0 | 18°9 
1847, 83-0 | 42-0 | 41:9 | 71:0 | 52:2 | 18-8 | 77°0| 37:0 | 40°0 | 67°7 | 47°6 | 20°1 | 66°0 | 81-0 | 35:0 | 61°1 | 41:9 | 19°2 
1848, 82°0 | 38:0 | 44°0 | 69-1 | 49°4 | 19°7 | 70°0| 36:0 | 34:0 | 63°4 | 44°8 | 18°6 | 76:0 | 35:0 | 41:0 | 60°5 | 47:0 | 138°5 
1849, . 73°0 | 44:0 | 29°0 | 64°6 | 49°1 | 15°5 | 70°0| 40:0 | 30°0 | 64°2 | 50°1 | 14°1 | 66°0 | 37°0 | 29:0 | 58°0| 47:2 | 10°8 
1850, . 78°0 | 40°0 | 38:0 | 67°8 | 50°1 | 17:7 | 74:0 | 86-0 | 38-0 | 65°9 | 47°7 | 18°2 | 71°0 | 36°0 | 350 | 60°4 | 44°3 | 16°1 
1851, . 72°0 | 38°0 | 84:0 | 63°7 | 48°5 | 15°2 | 70°0| 43:0 | 27°0 | 63°7 | 49°5 | 14°1 | 66°0 | 34:0 | 32°0 | 60-2 | 44°8 | 15°4 
1852, 85°0| 50:0] 2 2 2 21750) 49°02 2 2 2 | 74:0 | 35:0 | 39°0 | 61°8| 46°3 | 15°5 
1853, 71°5 | 49°5 | 22:0 | 65:3 | 53°1 | 12:2 | 70°0| 45:0 | 25:0 | 63°8 | 51°8 | 12°0 | 66°0 | 41°0 | 25-0 | 594 | 48:0 | 11°4 
1854, 75°0 | 48°5 | 26°5 | 65:9 | 538°4 | 12°5 | 71-5 | 48°0 | 23°5 | 67-9 | 88-2 | 14°7 | 71°5 | 43:0 | 28°5 | 63-0 | 51-0 | 12°0 
1855, 79°5 | 50°5 | 29-0 | 68°3 | 54:9 | 13°4| 73:0] 48:0 | 25:0 | 66°6 | 52°8 | 13°8 | 60°5 | 38°6 | 30°9 | 60°5 | 47°8 | 12°7 
1256, 76°7 | 43°7 | 33:0 | 67°1 | 52°6 | 14°5 | 81:9 | 44°9 | 37:0 | 652 | 52°8 | 12°4 | 67-0 | 40°9 | 26-1 | 58°1 | 48-1 | 10°0 
1857, 75°6 | 45°7 | 29°9 | 69°8 | 52°9 | 16:9 | 76:0] 49:0 | 27:0 | 67°7 | 54°5 | 13°2 | 77°9 | 41-6 | 36°3 | 63°9'| 50°7 | 13°2 
1858, 69°4 | 42°7 | 26:7 | 61°5 | 49°5 | 12:0 | 68°5| 43°6 | 24:9 | 62°7 | 51°1 | 11°6 | 68°6 | 388 | 29°8 | 61°4 | 48:2 | 13:2 
1859, 78°7 | 41°5 | 37°2 | 65:9 | 51°38 | 14-6 | 77°3| 45°8 | 31°5 | 67°1 | 50-9 | 16-2 | 66°3 | 41°3 | 25-0 | 59°7 | 45:8 | 13°9 
| 1860, 71°7 | 44°7 | 27:0 | 65°1 | 49°9 | 15°2 | 69°2 | 41°7 | 27°5 | 61°9 | 48°0 | 13-9 | 67°6 | 35°7 | 31°9 | 59°0:| 48-4 | 15°6 
) | 
| 1861, | 69°9 | 42:0 | 27°9 | 63°8 | 49°5 | 14:3 | 70°2 | 46:9 | 23°3 | 64°7 | 52-0 | 12°7 | 64:0 | 38°0 | 26°0 | 58°7 , 48°3 | 10°4 
| 1862, 680 | 42°8 | 25:2 | 60°7 | 48°3 | 12:4 | 68:0 | 44:0 | 24:0 | 61°8 | 51°1 | 10°7 | 65-0 | 37°3 | 27°7 | 58°8 | 46°5 | 12°38 
1863, | 75:2 | 39°5 | 35°7 | 66°6 | 49°3 | 17:3 | 690 | 39°0 | 30°0 | 62°5 | 49°5 | 13-0 | 60°0 | 41:0} 19:0 | 54°7 | 45°2| 9°5 
1864, 79:0 | 44:0 | 35:0 | 64:0 | 50-0 | 14:0 | 74°0 | 40°0 | 34:0 | 62°6 | 47°1 | 15°5 | 65:0 | 40-0 | 25:0 | 59°6 | 46:4 | 18°2 
1865, | 760 | 43-0 | 33°0 | 66°4 | 51°3 | 15°1 | 68°0 | 43:0 | 25-0 | 62°8 | 50°2 | 12°6 | 74:0 | 48-0 | 81°0 | 65°1 | 51-1 | 14°0 
1866, 82°7 | 44:0 | 38-7 | 65°5 | 60°5 | 15:0 | 71:7 | 41°0 | 30-7 | 62°2 | 50°1 | 12°1 | 67°7 | 38-0 | 29°7 | 59°9:| 466 | 18°38 
1867, | 76°7 | 45°0 | 31°7 | 62°3 | 50-0 | 12°3 | 76°7 | 48°0 | 28°7 | 65:0 | 53-0 | 12°0 | 66°7 | 41:0 | 25-7 | 59°7 | 49°2 | 10°5 
1868, _85°8 | 47:0 | 38°7 | 70°6 | 53°7 | 16°9 | 87°7 | 48:0 | 39-7 | 668 | 52°9 | 18°9 | 81°7 | 420 | 39°7 | 60°5 | 48°9 | 11°6 
1869, 79°7 | 42:0 | 37°7 | 68°9 | 51°0 | 17°9 | 80°7 | 35°0 | 45°7 | 65°6 | 48°6 | 17°0 | 68-7 | 40-0 | 28-7 | 60°7 | 48-4 | 12°3 
1870, 84°7 | 45°0 | 39°7 | 68°0 | 53°5 | 14°5 | 79°0 | 42:0 | 37:0 | 67°1 | 50°5 | 16°6 | 69-7 { 36-0 | 33°7 | 63°1 | 47°4 | 15°7 
1871, 72°7 | 45-0 | 27°7 | 65:9 | 50°2 | 15°7 | 79°7 | 41:0 | 38°7 | 68°6 | 51°0 | 17°6 | 71:7 | 87:0 | 84:7 | 59°5 | 45-7 | 18°8 
1872, 79°7 | 43°7 | 36°0 | 65°6 | 52°6 | 13°0 | 73°5 | 45°7 | 27°7 | 62°7 | 51°1 | 11°6 | 66-2 | 34:7 | 31°5 | 57°6 | 46-6 | 11°0 
1873, 82°9 | 45°3 | 37°6 | 66°9 | 53°] | 13°8 | 71°4 | 43°8 | 27°6 | 63°8 | 52°0 | 11°8 | 76:2 | 38°8 | 37-4 | 58°8 | 46-0 | 12°8 
1874, 81°3 | 47°2 | 34:1 | 66°5 | 53°7 | 12°8 | 76°0 | 40°8 | 35:2 | 63-0 | 50°5 | 12°5 | 67°8 | 40°4 | 27-4 | 60°2 | 47°6 | 12°6 
1875, 76°8 | 43°6 | 33°2 | 64:3 | 49°7 | 14°6 | 73:0 | 46:3 | 26°7 | 64°5 | 52°7 | 11°8 | 72°5 | 42°6 | 29:9 | 604 | 48°5 | 11°9 
1876, 86°7 44°7 | 42°0 | 66°5 | 51:9 | 14°6 | 74:8 | 42:2 | 32°6 | 63°8 | 51°2 | 12°6 | 62:7 | 40°8 | 21:9 | 57°7 | 47:5 | 10°2 
1877, , 69°5 | 45°0 | 24°5 | 64°5 | 51°2| 13°3 | 71°0 | 40°5 | 30°5 | 61°6 | 49°1 | 12°5 | 67°5 | 38°0 | 29°5 | 60°3 | 41°9 | 18°4 
1878, | 83°7 | 44°3 | 39°4 | 69°3 | 52°6| 16°7 | 74°2 | 43°5 | 30°7 | 66°4 | 51°2 | 15°2 | 69°6 | 43°0 | 26°6 | 61°3 | 49°6 | 11°7 
1879, 71:0 | 40°3 | 30°7 | 59:7 | 49°0 | 10°7 | 78:0 | 44:0 | 34-0 | 63-4 | 49°5 | 18°9 | 68-2 | 37°0 | 31:2 | 59°1 | 44:8 | 14°83 
| 1880, 72°5 | 44°7 | 27°8 | 64°4 | 50°9 | 13°5 | 77°6 | 48°4 | 29-2 | 68°2 | 53°3 | 14°9 | 72°5 | 41°8 | 30°7 | 62°4 | 49°7 | 12°7 
| 1881, 75°8 | 42-5 | 33°3 | 65°3 | 51°5 | 13°8 | 76°0 | 38°7 | 37°3 | 62°1 | 48°4| 13°7 | 64°8 | 39-0 | 25-8 | 59°4 | 48°2 | 11°2 
| 1882, | 74°4 | 47°9 | 26°5 | 63°9 | 51°7 | 12°2 | 81:0 | 43°2 | 37°8 | 63-4 | 50°8 | 12°6 | 68°5 | 34°6 | 33:9 | 59°7 | 48°7 | 16°0 
| 1883, 75'0 | 42°4 | 82°6 | 62°9 | 49°4 | 13°5 | 72°8 | 45°0 | 27°8 | 64-2 | 50°8 | 13-4 | 69'1 | 360 | 33°1 | 60°7 | 48°4 | 12°8 
| :1884, 75°6 | 42°8 | 32-8 | 62°9 | 51°2| 11°7 | 78°5 | 42°8 | 35°7 | 65°3 | 51°6 | 13-7 | 66°8 | 40°4 | 26-4 | 60°5 | 49-0 | 11°5 
| 1885, | 822 | 44°9 | 87°3 | 68°5 | 51°6 | 16-9 | 71°0 | 40°5 | 30°5 | 61°7 | 47°9 | 13°8 | 69°0 | 31°6 | 37°4 | 59°8 | 45°2 | 14°6 
| 1886, | 80°7 | 42°6 | 38°1 | 66°1 | 50°8 | 15°3 | 73°8 | 41°5 | 32°3 | 65°5 | 50°7 | 14:8 | 67°7 | 36°1 | 31°6 | 59°6 | 48-0 | 11°6 
1887, 81°4 | 40°5 | 40°9 | 69°5 | 532 | 16°3 | 76°1 | 42°6 | 33°5 | 66°0 | 50°21 | 15°9 | 67-2 | 359 | 31°3 | 59°1 | 46-1 | 18°0 
|: 1888, | 73°0 40°2 | 32°8 | 61°8 | 48°6 | 13:2 | 70°9 | 41:1 | 29°8 | 62°9 | 48°6 | 14:3 | 69-0 | 38°3 | 30°7 | 59°7 | 45-3 | 14°4 
| 1889, | 76°4 | 43°2| 33°2 | 64°5 | 49:0 | 15°5 | 74°1 | 42°4 | 81°7 | 63-2 | 50°8 | 12°4 | 69-6 | 34:6 | 35:0 | 59°6 | 46°4 | 18°2 
| 1890, | 70°1 | 43°5 | 26°6 64°3 | 48°8 | 15°5 | 71°8 | 40°1 | 31°7 | 63°5 | 49°7 | 18°8 | 76-0 | 42°3 | 33-7 | 66-2 | 50°4 | 15°8 
| | | 
| 1891, 73°3 | 45°4 | 27:9 65°7 | 521 | 18°6 | 69°5 | 40°4 | 29-1 | 63°1 | 50°6 | 12°5 | 79°8 | 42°4 | 37°4 | 62-2 | 49°8 | 124 
| 1892, /71°8 | 43°4 | 28°4 | 62°4 | 49-4 | 13-0 | 71°3 | 39-2 | 32°1 | 63°8 | 50°5 | 13°3 | 64°5 | 38-2 | 26°3 | 58-2 | 45°6 | 12°6 
1893, | 72°5 | 44°2 | 28°3 | 64°4] 51°1 | 13°3 | 84-0 | 42°6 | 41°4 | 69°6 | 53°7 | 15°9 | 72°7 | 34:9 | 37°8 | 60°6 | 46°7 | 18°9 
1894, | 77°5 | 46°5 | 31:0 65°7 | 52°2| 13°7| 68°1 | 44-4 | 23-7 | 63°7 | 50°1 | 13°6 | 65:9 | 37-2 | 28°7 | 58°3 | 46-0 | 12°8 
1895, | 74°7 | 45°5 | 29°2 64:0 | 50°3 | 13°7 | 77-0 | 44°6 | 82-4 | 65°8 | 53°1 | 12°7 | 78°3 | 41:0 | 37-3 | 66-4 | 50°8 | 15°6 
| 1886, 75°3 | 48°8 320 65°1| 51°8 | 13°8 | 73°1 | 43°7 | 29°4 | 63°8 | 49°8 | 14:0 | 66°5 | 39°9 | 26°6 | 58:8 | 47°8 | 11°0 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


Taste XVIII.—continued. 


133 


} 
OCTOBER NOVEMBER. DECEMBER. 
Pas mele ale ob g-| a @elagila |_| aes aie 
Year. |e] sg lsaiselaal 2) 2! os leeleél€sl 212) & lssistlas 
I g S| Cl ie a| & 8 a |oulgs sy) Sl ls eA ee a ee A 
“4 S| S am seH/aal a 4 3 am) anjias he 3 atd|/eH\/aa 
Bl) 8) Se |fe\selse| | 2 |e Sol sol/se| & | & |e [Sol se| sa 
=a |4 422 25/3 | 4 | 8 Saalesia | a | sid [Ss | si 
1840,.  . | 61-0 | 30°0 | 81:0 | 53°0 | 39°5 | 13°5 | 55-0 | 27°0 | 28-0 | 47°7 | 35°6 | 12°1 | 54-0 | 22°0 | 32°0 | 41°7 | 21°5 | 10°2 
1841, . | 60°0 | 28°0 | 32:0 | 49°6 | 39°0 | 10°6 | 55°0 | 23°0 | 32°0 | 44°2 | 33°8 | 10°4 | 51-0 | 23-0 | 28°0 | 43°9 | 84:0] 9:9 
1842, 65°0 | 25:0 | 40°0 | 55°3 | 37°9 | 17-4 | 54°0 | 20°0 | 34:0 | 46°6 | 35°2 | 11-4 | 600 | 30°0 | 30-0 | 51°83 | 89°9 | 11°4 
| | 1843, . | 65°0 | 25°0 | 40-0 | 51°5 | 38°3 | 13-2 | 60-0 | 26:0 | 34:0 | 53-2 | 35°1 | 1871 | 62°0 | 32°0 | 30°0 | 56°5 | 39°0 | 17°5 
| | 1844, . 62°0 | 28°0 | 84°0 | 53°8 | 40°4 | 13-4 | 62°0 | 28°O | 34-0 | 48°1 | 38-1 | 10°0 | 44°0 | 20°0 | 24°0 | 87°1 | 28°9] 82 
| | 1845, » | 71°0 | 30°0 | 41°0 | 56°7 | 42°0 | 14°7 | 61:0 | 24°0 | 37°0 | 50-2 | 36°9 | 13°3 | 55°0 | 23:0 | 32:0 | 46'1 | 31°2 | 14°9 
1846, . 64°0 | 30°0 | 84°0 | 54°8 | 41°4 | 13°4 | 60°0 | 22-0 | 38°0 | 50°5 | 39°0 | 11°5 | 55:0 | 16-0 | 39°0 | 41°2 | 27°6 | 13°6 
1847, . 68°0 | 34:0 840 | 55°6 | 42°5 | 13-1 | 60°0 | 25:0 | 350 | 53°0 | 38-2 | 14°8 | 57°0 | 21°0 | 36-0 | 45°9 | 33°3 | 12°6 
1848, . | 64°0 | 28°0 | 86°0 | 52°2 | 41°1 | 11°1 | 53-0 | 300 | 23-0 | 458 | 34-7 | 1171 | 59°0 | 21°0 | 88-0 | 45°5 | 85°5 | 10-0 
1849, . 66-0 | 28-0 | 88°0 | 51°8 | 38°2 | 13°6 | 58-0 | 21-0 | 37°0 | 47°0 | 36°3 | 10°7 | 49°0 | 21°0 | 28:0 | 40°5 | 33:2] 7:3 
EI I VR eae |G ne ne en a A 
1851, . ~—.._:_| 630 | 33°0 | 80°0 | 56°0 | 44°4 | 11°6 | 51°0| 25°0 | 26°0 | 42°5 | 32°1 | 10-4 | 570 | 23°0 | 34:0 | 44°5 | 36°9| 7°6 
1852,. —. | 62:0 | 32°0 | 80°0 | 52°2 | 40°5 | 11°7 | 59-0 | 24-0 | 35:0 | 47-7 | 37°83 | 9-9 | 56-0 | 26-0 | 30-0 | 47°5 | 36°9 | 10°6 
1853, . 58*0 | 34°0 | 24-0 | 52°7 | 44:2 | 8:5 | 56-0 | 30°0 | 26°0 | 47°8 | 38-7 | 9-1 | 53°0 | 32°5 | 20°5 | 41°2 | 32°8| 8-4 
1854, . 62°5 | 32°0 | B0°5 | 53°6 | 42°3 | 11°3 | 58°5 | 31°0 | 27°5 | 46°9 | 37-2 | 9°7 | 54°5 | 27:5 | 27-0 | 45°3 | 34°6 | 10-7 
1855, . —._-|| 62°5 | 29°7 | 82°8 | 53:1 | 41°7 | 11°4 | 55-2 | 29°9 | 25°3 | 45°0| 37°6 | 7°74 | 49-4 | 22°9 | 26°6 | 41°2| 33°4] 7°8 
1856, - . | 67°9 | 40°1 | 27°8 | 55°0 | 48°6 | 6:4 | 56°2 | 25°1 | 31-1 | 48-1 | 38°4| 9°7 | 56°3 | 18-6 | 37°7 | 45°1 | 36°6 | 8:3 
1857,. —-._| 63°4 | 36°5 | 26°9 | 56°7 | 46°8 | 9°8 | 58-9 | 28°8 | 30°1 | 50°2 | 41°9 | 8-3 | 56°7 | 32°3 | 24:4 | 51°1| 42°38] 8°3 
1858,. = .._| 61:2 | 30°5 | 30°7 | 510 | 38-4 | 12°6 | 51-1 | 24°8 | 26°3 | 43°6 | 35:4. | 8-2 | 51:1 | 27-5 | 23°6 | 44°2| 85°0| 9-2 
1} | 1859, . —. | 65°5 | 24-4 | 41°1 | 50°8 | 40-2 | 10°6 | 51-1 | 26:9 | 24:2 | 43-9 | 33-8 | 10-1 | 49°6 | 18°7 | 80°9 | 36°5 | 30°1| 6-4 
)| |} 1860,. 3... - | 579. | 27-2 | 80°7 | 51°6 | 41-2 | 10-4 | 47°9 | 26°1 | 21°8 | 42°3 | 34°5 | 7°8|51°8| 88 | 43°0 | 36°9| 30°0| 6°9 
1861, . 62°0 | 83°4 | 28°6 | 54:4 | 44°5 | 9°9 | 54° | 22-4 | 32-1 | 43-4 | 82-6 | 10°8 | 54-0 | 22-5 | 31°5 | 40°7 | 83-4] 73 
1862, .. _—. | 63-0 | 82°0 | 31°0 | 53-7 | 40°8 | 12°9 | 54:0 | 24°5 | 29°5 | 41°5 | 32°1|; 9:4] 53°0| 32-1 | 20°9 | 47°3 | 37°6| 9°8 
1868, . =. | 58-0 | 81°5 | 26°5 | 51°8 | 41°8 | 10-0 | 57-0 | 26°5 | 30°5 | 49°1 | 39°1 | 10-0 | 560 | 24°5 | 31°5 | 46°8 | 36°1 | 10°7 
1864,. =. _| 57°0 | 81°0 | 26-0 | 51:0 | 39-7 | 11°3 | 56-0 | 29-0 | 27-0 | 46°7 | 359 | 10°8 | 58-0 | 25-0 | 33-0 | 43°9 | 34°8! 9-1 
1865, . 63°0 | 29:0 | 34-0 | 51°8 | 40°1 | 11°7 | 54:0 | 28-0 | 26:0 | 46-7 | 35-7 | 11-0 | 56°0 | 32-0 | 24:0 | 48°1 | 38°3| 9°8 
1866,. =. | 61°7 | 33°0 | 28°7 | 54°3| 44°5 | 9-8 | 56-7 | 29-0 | 27-7 | 46°5 | 37°7 | 8°8 | 55°7 | 28-0 | 27°7 | 46°4 | 37°2| 9-2 
1867, . 62°7 | 32°0 | 380-7 | 52°3 | 41°9 | 10°4 | 58°7 | 31°0 | 22-7 | 45°81 37°9| 7°9 | 53°7 | 27-0 | 26°7 | 44°3 | 86°4| 7°9 
1868, . 58°7 | 30°0 | 28°7 | 50°9 | 40°1 | 10°8 | 59-7 | 23°0 | 26-7 | 43°4 | 35°4| 8°0 | 54°7 | 26°0 | 28°7 | 45°4 | 37°5 | 7°9 
1869, . 64°7 | 31-0 | 33°7 | 52°9 | 42°6 | 10°3 | 57°7 | 25°0 | 32-7 | 47°1 | 36°9 | 10°2 | 55°7 | 20-0 | 35-7 | 41°8 | 32°0} 9°8 
1870,. —..._-| 66°7 | 33°0 | 83°7 | 52°8 | 41°5 | 11°3 | 54°7 | 29°0 | 25°7 | 44-9 | 35-1 | 9°8 | 50°7 | 16°0 | 34:7 | 38°7 | 31°7| 7:0 
1871, » | 64°7 | 28°0 | 36°7 | 53°5 | 40°9 | 12°6 | 51:9 | 23:0 | 28°9 | 43°7 | 82-7 | 11°0 | 53°7 | 25-0 | 28°7 | 43°8 | 31°6 | 12°2 
1872, 58°7 | 28°7 | 30°0 | 49°7 | 41:4] 8:3 | 60°7 | 30°7 | 30°0 | 45°9 | 86°9 | 9°0 | 55°7| 24:7 | 31°0 | 43°8 | 35°2| 8°6 
1873, . 58°4 | 28°3 | 3071 | 52-2 | 384 | 13°8 | 56-4 | 26°3 | 30°1 | 48-2 | 36°9 | 11°3 | 54°0 | 27°6 | 26°4 | 46°8 | 37°3 | 9°5 
+}| 1874, . —.._ | 63-0 | 32°8 | 30-2 | 53°6 | 42°1 | 11°5 | 61°7 | 27°8 | 83°9 | 45:9 | 37°3| 8°6 | 50°0| 13°6 | 3674 | 386°4 | 27°3 | 9:1 
'|| 1875, . 62°9 | 31°8 | 31°1 | 52°1| 42°6 | 9°5 | 57°9 | 25°7 | 832°2 | 44°4 | 35-4] 9:0 | 53°5 | 27-9 | 25°6 | 44:2) 35'9| 8:3 
|| 1876, - | 66°1 | 88°5 | 27°6 | 54°6 | 46°3| 8°3 | 55:6 | 26°6 | 28-9 | 44°8 | 36°8| 8-0 | 52°1 | 28-4 | 23°7 | 43°7 | 87°2| 6°5 
1877, » | 62°3 | 29-4 | 32°9 | 53:9 | 40°9 | 13°6 | 57°9 | 28°0 | 29°9 | 48°3 | 38-3 | 10°0 | 52°0 | 23°8 | 28°2 | 44°6 | 35-4) 92 
1878, » | 65°2 | 30°0 | 35°2 | 54:9 | 42°9 | 12°0 | 47-3 | 26°5 | 20°38 | 42:9] 33-1] 9°8|47°B| 9-0] 38°8| 35°7 | 26:2] 9°5 
1879, - | 60°2 | 29°0 | 31°2 | 52°8 | 38°5 | 14°3 | 55°5 | 24°6 | 80°9 | 44°7 | 35-0 | 9°7| 51°7 | 7:5 | 44:2 | 40°6 | 28°9 | 11°7 
1880,.  —._ | 61°8 | 24°3 | 37°5 | 49°4 | 38-5 | 10°9 | 55°8 | 20°6 | 35-2 | 44°7 | 84-1 | 10°6 | 55°5 | 21-4 | 34°1 | 41°7 | 83°8 | 7°9 
1881, . —._ | 650 | 28°3 | 36°7 | 50°3 | 38°5 | 11°8 | 61-4 | 29°0 | 32°4 | 51°6 | 41-0 | 10°6 | 52°6 | 25-2 | 27°4 | 43°7 | 33°7 | 10-0 
1882, . —. | 65°3 | 29°9 | 35°4 | 53-7 | 43°2 | 10°5 | 5474 | 29°01 25-4 | 44:9 | 35°0| 9°9| 52°0| 6:4 | 45°6 | 88°4 | 28°8| 9°6 
1883, . 61°0 | 82°6 | 28°4 | 54:3 | 41°0 | 13°3 | 57:0 | 28°3 | 28°7 | 46°5 | 36-7 | 9°8 | 52-9 | 28°8 | 24-1 | 46-1 | 36-1 | 10°0 
1884, . 59°7 | 31°2 | 28°5 | 53°7 | 43°6 | 10°1 | 57:8 | 23°0 | 34°8 | 46°5 | 37°0| 9°5 | 53°3 | 25°4 | 27°9 | 42:3 | 83-6 | 8:7 
1885, , 55°3) 27:4 | 27°9 | 49°3 | 38:4 | 10°9 | 60°8 | 19°8 | 41-0 | 45-9 | 36:0| 9-9 | 55°0 | 20:0 | 35:0 | 43°7 | 84:3] 94 
1886, . 68°7 | 35:0 | 33°7 | 55°5 | 45°5 | 10°0 | 57°1 | 80-0 | 27°1 | 50°6 | 39-0 | 11°6 | 52°1 | 19:8 | 32°3 | 40-0 | 30:0] 9°7 
1887, . 60°4 | 28°5 | 31°9 | 511 | 39°1 | 12:0 | 51°8 | 28°8 | 23°0 | 43°6 | 36°2| 7-4 | 50°9 | 23-9 | 27°0| 40°7 | 82°8| 7°9 
1888, . 63°1 | 32:2 | 30°9 | 53°9 | 41°9 | 12-0 | 570 | 30°9 | 26-1 | 47°0 | 39°3 | 7°7 | 56°7 | 22°7 | 34:0 | 45°6 | 37°1| 85 
1889, . 58°2 | 36°] | 22°1 | 51°4 | 40°8 | 10°6 | 59°] | 29°3 | 29°8 | 49°2 | 38-8 | 10°4 | 559 | 26-4 | 29°5 | 44°6 | 34°6 | 10°0 
1890, . 64°9 | 29°3 | 35°6 | 55°1 | 43°8 | 11°3 | 57°3 | 251 | 32°2| 47-1 | 36-0 | 11°1 | 54:9 | 23:2 | 31-7 | 38°7 | 31°9| 68 
1891, . —._ | 61°9 | 321 | 29°8 | 53-8 | 41°9 | 11:9 | 53°0 | 27°7 | 25°3 | 45°8| 87°1) 8°7 | 55-9 | 28°8 | 27°1 | 44°0| 35-4] 8°6 
1892, . 59°8 | 25°9 | 33°9 | 49°1 | 38°6 | 10°5 | 55°8 | 30° | 25°7 | 48°1 | 38-1 | 10°0 | 53°1 | 16°9 | 36-1 | 39°4 | 30°2) 9:2 
1893, . 65°2 | 29-0 | 36°2 | 55-4 | 42:5 | 12°9 | 55°1 | 28-4 | 26°7 | 45°38 | 36-0] 9°83 | 53°9 | 25-0 | 28-9 | 46°3 | 37°8| 85 
1894, > | G44 | 281 | 36-3 | 52°6 | 40-1 | 12°5 | 60°3 | 30°4 | 29°9 | 50°6 | 41°3| 9-3 | 56-2 | 27°6 | 28°6 | 45°6 | 36-2 | 9-4 
1895, . , | 62°8 | 27°4 | 35-4 | 50-1 | 38°4 | 11°7 | 55-5 | 33°3 | 22-2] 47°83 | 39°0| 8°8| 51-9 | 25°5 | 26°4 | 41°9 | 33°5| 8:4 
1896, » | 63° | 28°8 | 384°7 | 48°7 | 37-8 | 10°9 | 53°7 | 26°3 | 27°7 | 46-0 | 88°1 | 7°9 | 56-2 | 23°8 | 32°4 | 42°7 | 85-2) 7°5 
| 


154 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XIX. 


Abstract of Temperature Observations. 


Daily Mean Temp., 
Mean Temperature, 1764-1896. Extremes, 1840-96. 1795-1804, 1821- 
1850, 1857-1896. 


= 3 x 3 e a o ar 43 ry 
~ ~ rs o 
Sl peepee of ke oils wl 3 e 3 a | | 2 
: ; : } _, |f3l. 184511... ; : 
January, ~. | 43°8| 1796 | 26-5 | 1814] 17-3 | 59-0 [30, 31. 1846] 5-0 /{3)° Thee bisao | 516 | 165 | 861 
February, . | 47:2| 1779 | 29:8 | 1888 | 17-4} 64°0| 28, 1846 | 11°99] 8. 1895 |52-1 | 55°0| 19°0| 36°0 
March,. . | 46°5 le 342 1785 | 12°3 | 68:0 | 31. 1844 | 15:0] 2 1881 [53-0 | 62:0 | 25:0 | 37-0 
April, . . | 49°8 { A 389 | 1837 | 10:9 | 76-0} 28. 1840 | 23-0} 17. 1849 [53:0 | 60:8 | 265 | 34:3 
May, . .| 55°8| 1833 | 45-1 | 1810] 10:7 | 79-2 |30, 31. 1881 | 26-0 | 9. 1850 |53-2 | 67-0 | 35°0| 32°0 
June, . . | 61-4| 1826 | 51°5/| 1860] 9-9| 85:9] 18, 1893 | 32°0| 4. 1851 |53-9 | 74:0 | 41:2 | 32°8 
16. 1845 
July, . .| 65°2| 1779 | 54:4| 1879] 10:8! s6-7| 16. 1876 | 38-0 { 2, 1848 \|48°7 | 77:8 | 47:0 | 30° 
4, 1851 
August, . | 63°7| 1779 | 52:6 | 1830 | 111 | 87:7 5. 1868 | 35:0 | 30. 1869° [52-7 | 755 | 45:0 | 305° 
22. 1844 
September, . | 59°5 | 1846 | 48-2 | 1807 | 11:3 | 81°7 6. 1868 | 31:0 {3 1345 | bo 72:0 | 35°5 | 365 
27. 1847 
October, . | 52°7| 1831 | 42:0 1817 | 10-7 | 71:0] 14. 1845 | 24:3 | 20. 1880° |46-7 | 62°0 | 29°5 | 3255 
November, . | 46°7| 1818 | 34-0 | 1807 | 12°7 | 62:0 | 17. 1844 | 19:8| 18. 1885 |49-2 | 56-7 | 24:0| 82*7 
December, . | 47°38 | 1843 | 31:0 | 1878| 16-8 | 62-0 |11. 25. 1843 | 6-4 | 15. 1882 [556 | 55:0 | 12:4 | 43° 
( Jan. 31, } alaee | 
Annual Mean ; 1779 i : a j 1845 F ; H a 
dixie | 4976 iaue {| 48°8 | 1879 | 5-8 | 87-7 | Aug. 5, 1868) 5-0 i eo i 82 | aly 18, Dec, 24 jos 4 
1848 


TABLE XX. 


Showing the Low Day Maxima (25° or below) and the High Night Minima 
(61°°0 or above) recorded in Edinburgh from 1840-1896. 


Low Day Maxima. High Night Minima. 

_ 1849 December 28, . ; : 25°0 1842 August 13, . : : Z 61°0 
| 1850 January 17, ; f : 25:0 1850 June 24, . : ; , 61°0 
1860 December 24, . : 4 19°8 1857 August 20,. ; ‘ " 63°0 
1860 December 25, . - : 19°0 1857 July 13, . ; 5 . 61'2 

| > 1860 December 26, . . ‘ 23°0 1868 August 5, . i é ; 63°0 
| 1864 February 24,  . : ; 24°0 1870 July 24, . ; Ae 61°8 
1879 December 3, ; : 5 25°0 1872 July 4, > > , ° 61'3 
1881 January 16, ; 4 , 25°0 1872 July 21, 5 5 . F 62:1 
1881 January 17, ; ; 3 24°8 1875 August 17,. , _ . 61°6 
1882 Decemberl3, . 3 ; 24°5 1878 June 28, . ; - ; 62°2 
1882 Decemberli, . : : 20°0 1881 July 14, , > 5 61°0 
1895 February 7, : : . 24°5 1881 August 11,. , , 0 62°2. 
1890 August 5, . , . : 63°3 

1893 Junel7, . . , . 61°8 

1893 August 16, . > . 61°4 

} 1896 July 20, . . ; 62°5 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 135 


TABLE XXI. 


| Reduction of Adre’s Observations from 1824-1831, showing the Mean Maaimum, 
| Minimum, and Average Temperature, and the Mean Daily Range of Temperature 
Jrom 1824-1831. 


1824, 1825. 
. : 
. Max Min Mean. Ee Max Min Mean. a a 
Sijggumery, =. =. wt; 43°6 36°] 39°8 7°5 43°4 347 39°1 8:7 
ot 43°8 34°3 39°0 10°5 44°5 33:4 39:0 111 
March, . ; , ; ’ 45°9 33°4 39°6 12°5 48°4 34:0 41°2 14°4 
——— «=~— ti tS 54°9 35°5 452 19°4 56'S 36°4 46°6 20°4 
a. tt 60°9 39°38 50°1 21°6 60°4 41°0 50°7 19°4 
Tite, 5 9) nee 67:0 46°3 56°6 20°7 67°6 45°8 56°7 21°8 
—o . . . 69°8 50°0 59°9 19°8 Tile 51'l 61°4 20°6 
August, es 66°6 47°8 572 18°8 68.6 51°5 60:0 71 
September, . ‘ 5 : 63°0 46°2 54°6 16°8 65°7 48°1 56'9 17.6 
October, . ‘ ; ; 51:9 39°6 45°8 12°3 57°5 42°8 50 14°7 
November, . ; : 5 46°8 34°7 40°8 131 44°6 32°5 38°5 1271 
December, . ‘ ; : 42°7 34°1 38°4 8°6 42°4 35°6 39:0 6°8 
1826 1827. 
|| January, 85°3 27°8 31°6 7/53 39°8 SIE Oi ooae 8'8 
|| February, 47°5 36°0 41°8 11°5 38°5 29°4 34°0 9°1 
|| March, . 49°5 34°2 41°8 153 46°0 34-2 40°1 11°8 
)| | April, . 555 38:0 46°8 17°5 52°6 387°5 45°0 151 
|| May, 62°3 41°3 51°8 21°0 58°4 43°2 50°8 15-2 
June, 72°2 50°6 61°4 21°6 65°4 46°9 56‘1 18°5 
July, . 72°6 514 62:0 21°2 67°8 49°] 584 18°7 
August, : 71:0 51°6 61°3 19:4 62°6 47°9 55:2 14:7 
September, . 63°7 456 54°6 18:1 62°0 48 0 550 | 14:0 
October, 58'2 41°7 50:0 16°5 55°7 44°6 502 |) sA1°1 
November, 44-4 33°1 38°8 11°3 48°1 37°5 42°8 10°6 
December, 44°8 37°3 41:0 75 47:0 87°5 42°2 | 95 
1828, 1829. 
|| January, . : . ; 43°2 85°7 89°4 75 363 27°9 32°1 8:4 
B\iMebruary, -. . . . 45°2 35:0 40°1 10°2 43°6 34:0 38°8 9°6 
ee: © .lw| 498 36°4 42:8 12:9 462 33-1 39°6 13°1 
ee. CC, 526 37°8 45:2 14'8 48°9 34°9 41°9 14:0 
on 5 2. 59°83 43:1 51:2 162 611 422 51°6 18°9 
i, 9 i 64°9 48°9 56°9 16°0 63:8 48°8 56°3 15:0 
—— ssl fC 64:9 50.3 57 6 14°6 63°3 49°7 56°5 13°6 
August, . aa 65°3 48°7 57:0 16°6 61:0 47°1 54:0 139 
September, . . . 61°9 47-2 54°6 14°7 57°9 42°7 50°3 15:2 
Codie: 9 557 41°2 48°4 14°5 52°8 39°1 46:0 13°7 
Moember, . wl wt 49°3 40°4 44°8 8:9 444 34°7 39°6 7 
December, .  . . 47°3 39°4 43°4 79 40°2 31°8 36:0 8:4 
1830. 1831. 
January, . F ; 5 38°3 30°3 34°3 8:0 38°3 31°1 34°7 7:2 
memes of ll wt; 41°6 30°5 36:0 111 43°7 33°6 38°6 10°1 
meee. ll, 51°3 37-2 44:2 14:1 48°3 36°6 42°3 11°7 
Lrtiy og 5A‘7 38°6 466 16°1 51-1 38:9 45-0 11°2 
> oe 55°9 43°6 49°8 12°3 B75 401 48°8 17°4 
eee Ceti, 60°2 43°8 520 16°4 65°8 50°3 580 15°5 
Wier) os  C, 64°9 50°5 57° 14:4 66°2 52°6 " 59'4 13°6 
August, o ok! Se 59°8 45°5 52°6 14°3 66°2 54:0 60°1 12°2 
September, . . . .| 58:8 45°5 52°2 13°3 61-2 49°4 55°3 11°8 
Goteber; =. 6 lw 55-4 41°6 48°5 13°8 57°7 47°7 52°7 10:0 
November, . a “ 3 47°4 37-7 42°6 9:7 45:2 35°5 40-2 9°7 
December, . 5 : ; 39°6 81:3 35:4 8°3 46°0 BY Ars 41°8 8:3 


| 
| 
| 
| 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). ¥ 


136 MK ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XXII. 


Showing the Extreme Temperature from 1824 to 1831, with the Monthly 
Range of Temperature. 


January. February. March. 
Year =: 

Max. | Date. | Min. | Date. | Range.| Max. | Date. | Min. | Date. | Range. | Max. | Date. | Min. | Date. 
1824, pe ,| 9 log le ae] aa | Sen |. PS ogi agel| (aoe eee ele ton lenoe an ae 
1895, 68 | 97 ‘lias |} s5 i] 30 Hoga= || 19 hoo ae || Mesomalieegon a7) op nes 
1826, 48 | 91 4 10) | 16°] 88-4544 6 oo |e | ope Io | Pop lee 
1827, bo | 6 | a4 |) Boa] BS | oso Alcog, veeoo { : } 32 | 58 | 31 | 18 
1828, pB | 21 | a5 | ate Bed 57 | aeniicoa: | alee |) Menpdives ler) lt ecee lemme 
1829, fo). a a5 { ee } 99 | {52 | 7 98) | agi) cog a7 |i ston |) epaalas 
1830, a | 4190 | tou) “27 A 7. 25 hoi7 |eao- | dole ee lees soon ime 
1831, 47 3 | 20 } a } 7 4 55. | 16 19 4 36 | 55 | 97 | 28 | 24 

April. May. June. 
ise, .| 70 | 21 | 24 { ae ese aes a } a9 | a1 | 4¢ | ea | 7 ~\—37. late 
1825, e7 | 7 | 2 |-i9 | 42 | 72 | 18 | 92 | 28 | 40 | 81 { an 87 | Je 
1826, oo | ar 27 | 30°] 89 | 7a | Quel ag on | 4a) 87 { a } 39 | 5 
1827, Bo) 20 Wer || 251” By iess Weetegl) Bilayer } 33 | 74 | 12 | 89 | 7 
1828, e | 29.| 26 |°y | 89 | ee | iB) 86 | 8 1 go | 75. or aoe 
1829, 56 { a } o7 | 1 | 99 | 70 { ae } so | 2 | 34 | v2 | 20 | 86 | 6 
1830, 73°10 1°17 | 2 | 86° | wd | dB. | Bgl Pow | “Sen 4 von! Boe epeimecs 
1331, oo) 56 127 | 4.) 87 vo: |) Be | ge. die |) aoa, goed eee 7} 
July. August. September. 
1824, gf (4409 87 | Bt | 4B 171 | 1 BR Oe ae all eb Sp ee ee 
1825, 83 { antes B  ao-1 Fe | oq [aa lea i) ear Weare ay tlt Be ee 
1826, .| 80 go | 22 | 41 4 er | 20 |, 44 Voog | ape wee oon eb ede 
1827, v7 | 46 1 41 | | Be les | 2B) Sa] ne) Seowlle yee) te) ccgenlanon 
2 3 16 8 
1828, 72 { et a2 Oe | 80. 56 |) ae gg \ Cesc lberebalh se 33 | 14 
yeeu, .| vo | 16). 42 1 10) 88°) Fy | See | te | cen ene) owen ae } 
ym, .| S1 | 284 40 | | 41 | 68 | B | 6 | S| sar ieee || OF |) gery) aga 
1st, | 78 | Bi {4a | 2a) Bo | 74 | op Peaes ge | ead, wa) | Ga ees 
October. November. December. 

ies, |. 1g 220 |) AB) 4 |) ep ee es) e. | 800 1, ba: eaten ee 
1925, .| 70 | 3 | 98 | 22 | 42 | 62 | 21 | 19 | 10 | 38 | 53 | 15 | 25 | 81 
1826, .| 70 re } 29 { 4 } au 4 BS et ae | Mga Ne pa) Sze eae ee 
1927, .| 67 | 24 | 81 | 29 | 36 | 566 | 18 | 28 | 24 | 3a | 54] 5 | 24 | 99 
1608, *,°| 66 | 12°] 29 | ie) By A cp | or tee |u| Bt Wop7 4) ae } = 
1929, .| 61 | 11] 29 | | 82 | 5 | 8 | 28 1 18 | 82 | 54 | 6 | 28 | 2F 
1830, .| 61 | 20 | 30 | 17 | 81 | 58 A 28 |e | so. | 48 | 16 | ab Ne 
ist, .| 67 | 7 | 88 | @ | 29 +58 | a |°o2 | (20 | ge-) ba |-a1 | op lege 


January, 
February, 


March, 
April, . 
May, . 
June, 
July, . 
August, 
September, 


October, 
November, 


December, 


January, 
February, 


March, . 
April, . 
May, 
| June, 
July, 


August, 
September, 
October, 


November, 


December, 


January, 


February, 
| March, 
April, . 
May, 
June, 


July, 
August, 


September, 


October, 
November, 
December, 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TABLE XXIII. 


Highest Night Minimum and Lowest Day Maximum. 


ma 
29 


21 


5 
27 
13 
29 
31 


27 
18 
20 


24 


13 
21 
13 


1824, 
Lowest 
Maximum. Date. 
36 16 
15 
39 o 
34 3 
39 il 
51 20 
59 20 
57 30 
57 21 
43 29 
13 | 
ae 29 | 
on 30 
29 5 
1826. 
12 
26 { a \ 
P 18 
Be 19 } 
42 26 
42 27 
51 3 
61 
55 21 
64 12 
54 18 
47 28 
34 27 
32 5 
1828, 
11 
31 { i } 
32 14 
37 6 
42 Pil 
7 
50 x 
53 15 
58 14 
58 14 
= 13 
55 14 
43 29 
38 11 
41 28 


137 


1825. 
Highest Lowest 
Minimum. Date. Maximum. Date. 
46 30 31 5 
44 12 31 4 
47 10 41 16 
50 15 46 12 
48 9 47 24 
58 12 55 19 
61 14 57 10 
60 20 63 29 
56 25 57 14 
50 Y) 42 20 
10 
41 1 35 { a } 
43 18 31 31 
1827. 
45 29 24 3 
= 5 18 
37 { 6 \ 30 { 19 
23 
47 { 24 \ 33 4 
48 30 36 24 
(22 
51 | 29 46 10 
55 17 56 5 
57 25 62 1 
3 
54 ‘ ane 50 16 
57 17 51 20 
28 
52 26 46 (es 
13 { 22 
50 - } 35 ee \ 
Dil 26 35 29 
1829. 
38 10 30 22 
45 15 32 18 
45 20 36 13 
42 15 39 10 
49 29 51 6 
57 3 55 28 
59 14 54 5 
59 8 49 13 
55 1 51 18 
48 19 45 31 
46 12 37 18 
50 6 30 27 


138 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XXIJI.—continued. 


| 1830. : 1831. 


Highest ate: Lowest hte; Highest Dates Lowest 


Minimum. Maximum. Minimum. Maximum. 
January, . : : : 37 26 32 19 41 3 32 
February, . : 2 : 48 25 26 6 48 10 30 
Marclijw fut) | eee es 29 39 16 44 { so 40 
rite se fat Ur. deem) © ols 28 36 { 4) 46 27 40 
Manis 44. a Gems 52 17 43 9 48 20 43 
June, . F 6 A 51 29 54 15 55 13 58 
inlet e 8 eek ke EN) vet eet 54 12 59 29 59 
3 4) 
avec, ecee Vee) Ge { a 49 28 58 } ah 60 
September, . : : ; 56 2 52 21 59 4 57 
October, ; 49 20 47 26 57 tao | 51 
November, . 6 51 1 42 30 48 1 | 33 
December, . 0 F - 43 16 27 24 43 } Be | 35 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 139 


TaBLe XXIV. 
Mean Daily Temperature. 


The mean temperature is the average of the Minimum and Maximum. 


7 
| 1824, 1825. 
Highest. | Date. Lowest, Date. Range. Highest. | Date. Lowest. Date. Range. 
: ° ° ° ° ° ee 
|| January, 2 49°0 26 80°5 16 18°5 48°5 30 27°0 5 21°5 
|| February, . 47°0 8 32°5 15 14°5 48°0 12 27°0 4 21:0 
p|| March, .| 51:0 | 18 30°5 4 20°5 500 | jor} | 38:5 4 16°5 
i aee, 2; 580 29 31°5 1 26°5 54°0 2] 38°0 18 16-0 
i\| May, . .| 59°0 30 40°5 20 18°5 58°5 6 43°0 28 15°5 
Si dune, . . 64°0 7 50°0 19 14°0 69°5 12 49:0 19 20°5 
eae | (67-0 14 50°0 31 170 70°5 ie 540 it 16°5 
August,. .| 61:0 26 50.0 22 11°0 68°0 20 54°5 12 13°5 
September, . 72°0 2 35°5 29 36°5 62°5 18 49°5 28 13-0 
October, ; 56°0 1 33°5 15 225 60-0 3 37°5 25 22°5 
November, .| 51°5 17 32°0 30 19°5 49-0 21 27:0 10 22°0 
December, . 50°5 13 225 5 28°0 46°5 18 27°0 31 19°5 
1826, 1827. 
|| January, 44:0 21 18°0 16 26°0 48-0 29 | 19° 3 29:0 
|| February, 47°5 3 35°5 18 12-0 42°5 26 25°0 18 17°5 
March,. .| 62°0 10 35°5 17 26°5 51:0 23 27°5 5 23°5 
S| April, . 53°5 8 37°0 27 16°5 55°5 30 33°0 24 225 
S| May, . .| 580 | 15 42°5 10 15°5 59-0 21 | 40°5 iy | 186 
S} June, . 74°0 28 50°0 5 24°0 63°0 10 50°0 3 13°0 
duly, . .| 69°5 5 530 20 16°5 63°5 16 | 530 12 10°5 
mee | 5 | jas} | 580 12 14° 61:0 3 49-0 16 12-0 
September, |  g0:5 17 48-0 15 14°5 63°5 16 445 20 190 
October,. .| 61:0 23 41°0 28 20:0 57°5 16 38°5 29 19°0 
November, . 48°5 1 27°5 27 21:0 53:0 13 29°0 24 24:0 
December, . 50'0 11 28°5 5 21°5 52°5 26 29°5 29 23°0 
1828, 1829. 
January, : 50°5 21 23°0 vl 27°5 40°5 1 22°5 22 18°0 
February, . 52°5 27 30°0 14 22°5 47°5 12 28°0 18 19°5 
March, . 53:0 13 31°5 6 21°5 51:0 20 30°0 Te ay) PO 
iol, . 57°5 29 38°0 8 19°5 47°0 15 33°5 1 13°5 
May, . .| 357-0 a 45:5 20 115 59°5 29 45:0 2 145 
ime, . 66°0 27 48:0 6 18°0 62°5 3 46°0 6 16°5 
—. Ct 64°0 3 50°5 29 13°5 63°5 14 50°5 5 130 
August,. 64°5 27 51°5 16 13°0 65:0 8 48°5 13 18°5 
September, . 64°5 25 44-0 14 20°5 60°0 1 45°0 16 15-0 
October, . |  58°5 12 36°0 29 225 54°0 19 38:0 23 16°0 
November, . 54°5 21 32°0 iil 22°5 48°5 3 30°0 18 18°5 
December, . 48°5 30 36°5 9 12°0 52°0 6 26°5 27 25°5 
1830. 1831. 
January, 41°0 4 260 19 15°0 44-0 3 26°5 25 17°5 
February, .| 52°5 25 23°0 6 29°5 51°5 10 26°0 4 25°5 
March, . : 54:0 26 34°5 16 19°5 48°5 20 34-0 24 14°5 
i ae 58°0 28 26°5 2 31°5 520 16 39°5 1 12°5 
jo) ES 17 420 9 15°5 58°5 31 36°0 6 225 
yates, 59°0 28 46°0 19 13°0 62°5 13 55°0 3 7°5 
July, . . 68:0 26 50:0 in 18:0 67°0 31 53°5 22 13.5 
August,. 61:0 3 46:0 28 15°0 64:0 22 55-0 28 9°0 
September, .|  59°0 2 46°0 21 13°0 65:0 4 50°5 28 14°5 
October, . |  55°0 20 39°5 30 15°5 60°0 19 45°0 28 15-0 
November, . 53°5 1 35°5 24 18°0 53°0 23 27°5 20 25°5 
December, . 45°5 16 22:0 24 23°5 46°5 25 32°0 28 14°5 


140 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE XXV. 


Showing the Mean Daily Variability of Temperature in Edinburgh from 1840-1896. 


Year. 


Dec. 


° 


OD 6D OD NI AI oD oD OD 09 CD 


Nov. 


Oct. 


Sept. 


Aug. 


IWOOHOOMAHOM 


AN OD oD HOD CD OD SH OD 09 OD 


IMHO OOHOIMOON 


AI OD 6D OD OD OD OD OO CI OD 0D 


COMODO MOA AA A 


OBDADIOGO HHI N 


NAMMAHANAA 


DODBDIQH OH O16 W119 


NANMHANAAA 


TOMA NDHWH1ON1IO Dr 


ita kelaie hw rel Keo a Tr Sere 


CAND OOAAT A oO N oD oD 


Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. 


Jan. 


Mmm OO Hr ODO Mh 


AAINMDANMAAMAN 


AQ GD C2 OD I= <H 4 00 CO SH 


ANANANAAA AN oD 


reo r~nnonrdtnor 


Wiel Wake ww ses Metal wit ee he 


AOD NN OD NI OD OD OD GN OD 


DWDAHAMDOOHAHOMrm~d OO 


Sey Leeann here Cet pares: Tel hens 


ANAMDAMMANAA 


IO HHI AANA HOS 


OD OD sH Od D190 CORO 0 


ANANDAAAATH 


DOAMAOrRH GIONS 


ANNAANANANATAAT 


1d S18 NWN Ow 
i) 


aay aule Celta Sie iwc a Cs we a 


OD GI OD NI oD SH OD OD OD OD 


AANMONMOACHO 


DOC ACD OOO NAN HA 


ANAMDAIDA A CO mH 


ag 


“@nonnwoonsms 


AANAANIANAATAAGS 


OBHoOMmMOMDO OD 


MOMOANN MOA 


ANAMIRAAMOAOD 


wie ah. Mow a ee Venere wie wt ce 


ONANDAAINANN ON 


MMT OWnANO+H1Q 


AMAMIANMAACN 


OW ARPOOOArnO 


ANNMANANAN 


09 OD SHIN CD ID ID OMAN 


Os Cree weenie rece ME 


ANNANAAAADA 


NOOO MDWO1IG rH Ho 


ANQAAAAAA SD 


CO SO OD HO SH HO XH 


AONAANAN NOON 


m~OOMmMWOAOMDMS 


ANMAAMDMAAANN 


OHAAOAMm~A HIS Dre 


ANMAAMNAAN AD 


~OMmMMOANRTAWwOHS 


DANOAA HAO OD 


AN O16 090 H HD 10 069 © 


ANMMIANANAAAAN 


Sr9.1o HtHrmoOONSO 


Pes a ee a ee eae 


OANAAANTAAAMAA 


SCOnmARMHANAH 


ANAANANAHAAN 


OO OM OM SHINS 


MAANANAAAANN 


Ow AAA WO10m 


ANMAMANA AN oD 


HOI Hr H10 0 1 O 


Se ereer ya. tay Cet e es verils 


AANNADANDAN 


OMm~orr- O74 OOO 


AANINHAAMOA 


DAAHAOonnmowoodt~r 


AANAAAOANANAOAN 


HOOMAIGQMCOTSON 


AMANO OANAN oO 0 


QNWAMmMARMMOO 


ANMAHADAMANN 


Cae ey WC tae es Dent er 


NAA OD oo HN OD SH OD OD 


~~ N1W S Hr 10 HOO OH 


me ter A Ley See) iM) Cente (on on: ey as 


ID AQ HIM Mm DQOON 


MONATRNAANNA CD 


MiHD OA MDMW NWA 


NOMDHHRrOANM~ 


PICT Page he eon eet ee 


AMON OANA AMON 


mOoMmANoORWOMIMONM 


OD 00 19 9919 1 NO HIG 


MDANANAAANIN 


MAMAWDONnOMON 


ANAMDMMAMAANN 


ASM OH rt HO HIG 


WONANANA ACN 


ONMDOODMDRAOrnmN 


AANTAAAAMAAAN 


WM OIGNMNOONAH 


NDDWAONNOWBHAD 


AANMDAN HOON OD 


ONNWMWr-TADNMAM~ 


ANANANAAAAN 


NwWoxmnoeootan 


ANIAADAIDAIAANNAN 


rONDMHOMAOMDS 


AANANTADANAAH 


IMOMOWIAMeA SS 


AANANAAMANMIMNAAN 


AMAwW ACOA anwes 


ita Se ee 


NN C109 NI 09 99 OD 0D OD 


MOANDOOMmMMDOS w 


Bee UR ee ee ee Le 


ANAANAAANAAA 


Nonwnionnr oro 


Be OS ee SOLS. BS 


MOAMIMOAN NCO 


mABWAMRAHAAOMm 


AMAMNANOADN 


MAAN WWMEN OOD 


eae ee Tek teak er ta Pee a 


eS mn Kou La vee) Len Aen 


NER a we eT ON gu > © 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 141 
TaBLE XXV.—continued. 
Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Ang. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov Dec. | Year 
1891, 31 | 36 | 3:0 | 21 | 27 | 26 | 24 | 20 | 25 | 24 | 23 | 3-2 | 2-76 
1892, Dei | 3-7 .-| 2-5 |. 97 | 34 | 27 | 2°8 | 24 |. 9% | 8:7 |: 3-4 | 2-97 
1893, a9 | 29 | 24 | 31 | 23 | 32 | a2 | 21 | 381 | 3:3 | 34 | 3-5 | 9°87 
1894, OeeeG |) 24 | 27 | O4/\99 | 21 -| 20 | 1:9 | 31 | 88 | 3-2 | 2-78 
|| 1895, 20 | 29 | 26 | 27 | 27 | 27 | O1 | 24 | 24 | 3:0 | 27 | 29 | 2-59 
|| 1896, 40 | 3:2 | 3:0 | 22 | 28 | 26 | 23-| 28 | 27 | 30 | B81 | 28 | 2:88 
Max., wee | £5 | 4 | 39 | 3.9 | 36 | 86 | 42 | 4:4 | 40 | 43 | 3:88 
|) Min., foe, | i-7 | 19 | 20 | 19 | ve | 16 | 16 | 18 | 24 | 21 | 2°50 
|| Range, . 24 | 30 | 28 | 22 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 26 | 26 | 2:8 | 22 | 0-88 
| 
| 
Decennial Means. 
| 
)\| 1841-50, . | 3°77 | 3°25 | 3°31 | 2°83 | 2°98 | 2°76 | 2-72 | 2°91 | 3°22 | 3°30 | 3°57 | 3°14 | 3°15 
|| 1851-60, | B15 | 2°82 | 2-41 | 2°55 | 2:76 | 3:02 | 2:47 | 2:27 | 2°54 | 2°77 | 2-90 | 3-28 | 2:75 
‘|| 1861-70, .| 2:86 | 2:85 | 2:48 | 3-00 | 2:85 | 2:66 | 2°65 | 2-49 | 2:36 | 2°74 | 3:17 | 3-43 | 2-79 
1871-80, .| 3°33 | 2°66 | 2-89 | 2:81 | 2°66 | 2°58 | 2-46 | 2°53 | 2°61 | 2°98 | 3°10 | 3°13 | 2°81 
1881-90, 3-15 | 2°86 | 3:12 | 2-46 | 3-04 | 2°68 | 2:48 | 2°52 | 2-40 | 2:74 | 3°04 | 3°20 | 2°81 
Means, 
1840-1896, . | 3°24 | 2-91 | 2:84 | 2-71 | 2°83 | 276 | 252 | 2°54 | 2°61 | o-90 | 3-14 | 3-28 | 2-85 
TaBLE XXVI. 
Variability of Temperature. 
Years 1840-96. 3 = NO, GEO SSEES 
4 3 10° or more. 
a ss 5 3 
= — » ~ a ~ 
3 ; a8 ; 3 3 A £ A ; : p 
rs a 3 e ee 2 oe ae 
° ° | ° ° 
4 | £1848, '50)| .., | / 1862, ’65 | f 26. 1841 
44 a ppl 20 eee 274°) WO ee gag (| W200 | 29. 1848 | 28 a Mier 
47 1848 17 1855 30 | 14°0| 3, 1845° | 12:5] 2 18943 9 pall te 
4:5 1843 17 | 1855, ’65 | 28 | 15-1 | 17. 1892 | 128] 1.1879 | 11 | 10 | 21 
41 1876 19 1873 2-2 | 14:0 | 26. 1845 | 133] 29.1886 | 11 | 11 | 22 
3°9 1888 2°0 1885 19 | 13:0] 5.1841 | 151] 5. 1860 | 15 5 | 20 
39 1857 19 1863 20 | 10°6| 26. 1894 | 14:2] 14. 1884 Drcalluea allomre 
3°6 1843 16 | 1853, 54 | 2:0 | 11°5 | 21. 1843 | 13°5 | 27. 1885 8 5 | 18 
3°6 1842 16 | 1858, 60 | 2:0 | 12°5| 25. 1847 | 15:5 | 29. 1869 4 5 9 
42 1843 1°6 1861 2°6 | 135 | 30. 1843 | 11-2] 28. 1873 7 2 9 
4-4 1855 1'8 1882 26 | 14:5] 18, 1849 | 12°5| 28. 1871 Gea 10) |aato 
49 | 1847 | 21 ic eealeZCN ele ON aecers | len | 10; tera | 14° | 17 | 81 
43 1866 271 1871 2-2 | 14:2] 17. 1882 | 13-4] 24.1860 | 16 | 10 | 26 
3:38 1843 2°50 1860 0°88 | 15°1 |Mar. 17, 1892] 15:5 |Aug. 19, 1869| 129 | 101 | 230 


142 


Mean Daily Variability of Temperature in Edinburgh from 1865-1869, from Daily 
Observations made at 9 am, and 9 p.m. and Compared with Means Deduced 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


From the Average of the Max. and Min. 


Mean 9 a.m., 
ay Peas 
So Oa. WANG Op ms, 

Mean variability from Max. 
and Min. 

Difference, . 


Smoothed Difference, . 


Comparison of Mean Variability of Temperature at Hawkhill (Edinburgh) and 
Kirkcaldy for the Years 1776-1777. 


Hawkhill, . ‘ . 
Kirkcaldy, . 5 


Difference, . 
: 


4°5 
4°2 
4-4 
3°3 


.{-1l 


-11 


Jan. 


° 


34 
3°5 
+01 


4°3 
40 
4°2 
29 
=153 
—11 


Feb. 


3°4 
374 
0°0 


3°4 
3°3 
3°4 
2°4 
-1°0 
-0°9 


Mar. 


3°8 
3°8 


Apr. 


34 
3°4 
3°4 
2°9 
-—0°5 
—0°5 


May. 


371 
3'1 
3'1 
3°0 
-0'1 
-0°4 


Apr. | May. 
3°4 | 2:2 
3°77 | 24 


0°70 |+0°3 |+0°2 


TaBLE XXVII. 


June. | July. 
37 | 33 
3°6 | 3°3 
36 | 3:3 
ZEB) BY) 

-0°7 |-0°4 

-0°4 |-0°5 


TaBLE XXVIII. 


Hour of Observation, 8 a.m. 


Aug. | Sept. 
3°3 | 2°8 
2°6 | 3:1 
30 | 3:0 
2°6 | 2°6 

-0°4 |-0°4 

-0°4 |-0°7 


-1°3 
—1°0 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Aug. | Sept. 
24 | 33 
2°4 | 2:5 
0°0 


-0'°8 /+0°6 |+0°1 |+0°2 


Oct. 


34 


Year. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 143 


| 


TABLE XXIX. 


Showing the Monthly and Annual Rainfall in Edinburgh for 120 Years 
and 6 Months. 


Year. | Jan. Feb. Mar. April. | May. June. | July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. Year. 
ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. 
1770 “73 et'9 "84 1o9 2°44 2°68 1°74 1°34 3°36 1°20 6°78 3°59 27°88 
1771 1:04 ali *b4 “44 1°38 “48 1°85 3°23 1°74 5 59 3°76 97 22°19 
1772 2°68 1°39 1°68 1:30 2 02 3°00 3°69 2°71 3°26 3°51 5°66 1°28 32°18 
1773 3°53 115 1:23 3°63 1°83 87 1°41 1°28 3°68 2 95 3°37 3°91 28°84 
1774 278 2°02 “86 174 3°49 3°87 1°51 4°82 2°93 1:30 2°18 2°69 3019 
| 1775 4°59 3°01 1°59 58 1°42 1°21 5°81 2°36 3°82 5°31 3°62 ‘76 34:07 
1776 3°26 2°36 1°46 1°21 63 2°37 3°08 2°41 2°75 1°73 2°75 2°08 26°09 
1778 
1780 “72 “88 130 3°38 3°15 1°95 1°29 62 4°65 2°78 1°29 67 «=| 22°68 
1781 1°78 272 03 1°48 2°09 2°17 
1782 ace Ls i ale 500 | 
1783 x e: ihe af sh ee 
1785 1°50 2°31 52 35 “94 111 2°72 2°00 10°69 2°82 4°42 1:27 30°65 
1786 2°54 119 63 30 2°40 "22 5°50 171 1°24 3°85 2°30 1°53 23°41 
7 14 1°25 212 1°36 4°73 3°22 5°00 1°82 60 2°46 83 8°42 31°95 
1788 1°03 2°20 173 1°78 86 2°13 2°63 IIL 7/ 3°28 “40 1:07 SUS) 19°43 
1789 4°77 1°02 1:24 1:02 11653 114 2°69 1°53 2°04 3°46 5°21 3°93 29°20 
1790 1:96 175 85 | 2°60 2°42 2°90 2°02 3°13 2°65 2°18 2°49 2°57 27-52 
1791 2°36 2°15 69 2°97 1°82 2°53 1°38 3°40 1°28 3°96 3°49 1°39 27°42 
1792 1°40 1°67 2°88 1°37 3°21 513 4°09 3°40 3°00 4°30 2°50 4°05 37°00 
1793 1°53 2°25 3°14 113 1°06 1°48 114 2°50 “51 1°52 2°14 2°30 20°70 
1794 1°40 2°19 1°00 2°12 1°88 1°07 2°16 1°80 3°14 3°58 4°46 3°92 28°72 
1795 2°81 3°87 1°37 3°01 1°20 3°92 2°42 3°62 1°12 4°87 4°58 3°81 36°60 
1796 3°28 1°40 "43 1°09 1°43 1°03 th “45 2°21 1°19 1°31 1°06 17°65 
1797 1°32 67 1°20 1°47 1°96 2°18 519 4°50 2°99 3°24 1°20 1°26 27°18 
1798 1°80 55 1°52 1°56 1°62 2°53 2°10 2°99 2°28 2°15 2°07 1°41 22°58 
1799 89 1:57 “47 2°15 3°27 87 2°60 5°66 4°02 199 179 1°23 26°51 
1800 3°26 49 1°34 2 05 2-50 53 “40 1°26 2°53 3°33 98 2°91 21°58 
1801 1-75 1°44 82 60 1°99 20 5°25 88 2°66 1°59 1-06 2°17 20°41 
1802 71 1°87 69 “73 “86 2°21 4°19 2°13 2°37 2°43 2°09 1°02 21°30 
803 “80 1°56 “74 1°16 1:13 1°35 86 2°00 1°82 1°00 2°26 113 15°81 
804 3°72 +57 2°58 2°04 1°58 1°32 1°86 3°91 “74 2°37 1°92 1°96 24°57 
805 65 1°58 67 “64 1°01 1°38 1°48 2°83 2°66 1°33 “38 1°57 16°18 
806 2°66 118 48 “74 2°23 20 2°74 2°65 98 1°92 4°47 wey 21°96 
807 “69 61 1°26 2°06 yal 60 1:29 2°59 4°39 3°68 2°21 1:31 22°30 
808 “72 2°16 (2 2°93 1°92 2°61 Bl7 4°83 2°46 2°03 “(2 2°80 29°07 
809 2°76 3°16 21 2°01 2°14 2°98 2°39 5°56 2°94 Lt) 1:32 3°24 29°90 
810 1°47 1°34 3°16 1°46 1°84 1°92 3°82 3°14 "22 1°22 4°50 2°82 26 91 
811 1°61 3°30 1°37 72 3°35 3°68 277 2:12 1°70 3°43 3°90 3°69 32°64 
812 1°47 3°59 3°10 1:10 2°10 2°24 1°34 3°40 1:08 2°82 3°97 “89 27°10 
813 83 2°26 25 2°03 3°21 1°44 2°58 86 1:23 2°94 1°45 1:07 20°15 
814 86 63 1°65 2°90 “49 1°41 2°59 2 23 1°30 1°43 3°70 3°10 22°29 
815 1°50 1°46 2°22 “89 3°01 2°29 2°18 1°37 1°90 2°84 56 1°61 21°83 
Sie i Ol) Te07, | 1e27, | 2-18 | toi. | 522: | 2:96 | 2:96: | 1:94 95 | 2°43 | 25-24 
817 2788) 1°53 87 s19 2°44 4°80 3°85 5°25 85 1°55 2°70 3°66 29°48 
818 | 2°49 81 1°76 60 1°80 2°00 3°40 “70 1:80 1:10 2°60 2°52 | 21°58 
819 3°50 1°79 “84 3°10 2°32 1°64 1°48 1°93 1°43 3°75 2°35 2°93 27°06 
820 “BL 1:22 1710 b2 4:20 3°40 1°30 2°70 1°21 2°66 1°44 2°41 22°67 
! 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). a 


144 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLe XXIX.—continued. . 


Year. Jan Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug, Sept. Oct Nov Dec Year. 
ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. 
1821 2°50 “54 2°46 2°60 1°85 “61 1°51 1°47 1°58 1°43 4°22 2°94 
1822 1°23 2°50 3°57 1°41 1°80 1°36 4°53 2°36 WF 2°39 PA 1°60 
1823 2°23 3°85 “66 1°68 2°35 1°00 4°25 3°87 1°82 3°10 1:07 4°38 
1824 “87 1°70 1°34 “57 63 2°01 1°58 1°50 1°62 4°73 4°38 3°88 
1825 1°31 “69 “43 1°41 3°25 2°05 "15 1°89 2°85 2°19 3°91 1°99 
1826 DD) fai 1°33 sy 25 “30 2°31 1°83 1°01 1°38 “76 1°26 
1827 3°33 1°58 4°84 2°74 1°28 1 62 2227. 4°89 115 4:97 1:02 2°90 
1828 1°70 98 118 1°42 1 85 “81 4°57 3°43 2°31 “86 3°94 2°18 
1829 2°49 1°61 "32 3°35 Bad 2°03 4°48 6°80 iV /7f 2°53 2°48 1°33 
1830 "95 1-21 1°78 2°28 1°96 2°54 6°57 6°69 3°63 16 3°13 2°35 
1831 66 3°88 1:97 1'54 69 1°41 2°44 4°03 1°55 2°15 2°95 1°26 
1832 61 1°42 1°29 1°21 E85) 2°89 1°14 3°64 "92 5°53 “95 2°28 
1833 57 2°53 1°43 1°34 79 3°48 1°53 1°16 2°37 1°13 71 3°84 
1834 3°28 *86 1°65 44 51 1°45 3°20 1°18 4°50 1°23 1°22 be, 
1835 1°08 2°48 2°28 79 2°04 a02) 37 1:99 5°43 2°09 2°76 1°89 
1836 4°06 1°62 3°79 1°54 56 2°50 6°53 2°45 2°81 1°66 3°05 2°46 
1837 1°23 2°14 1°28 1°61 1°53 2 86 4°54 4°13 1°73 2°02 2°03 1°67 
1838 2°47 Ua 2°76 1°78 2°90 516 2°45 2°97 4°00 1°55 3°06 73 
1839 1°76 1°45 1°47 33 47 3 91 3°51 177 3°09 2°38 1°65 1°66 
1840 3°72 1°58 43 19 3°97 275 3°46 1°99 2°39 2°01 2°33 68 
1841 E23 1°64 60 1°14 1°14 1 56 3°87 3°64 2°63 4°53 2°28 1:96 
1842 101 ical 3°44 15 1°45 97 Ibs 1°36 1°45 98 1°63 1°79 
1843 1°69 1°38 99 1°87 299 2°26 3°59 1°40 89 4°20 2°20 34 
1844 1°23 TZ 2°42 40 ‘15 27: 2°39 PAA 2°70 82 3°92 37 
1845 Ue (7 61 1‘67 40 2°24 3°08 72) | 38:48 Weyi7 6°14 1°70 2°04 
1846 2°64 1°60 97 2°88 rea 3°59 4°17 5°01 3°35 3°60 1°74 UP 
1847 | 51 79 13 1:25 477 179 1°37 91 125 3°48 1°64 4°88 
1848 1°26 6921 2°80 1°06 60 6°04 1°36 2°00 1°45 4°56 2°42 1°84 
1849 | 2°84 97 1°05 1°64 1°66 2°45 2°58 2°31 2°02 1°74 1°50 1°45 
1850 1°62 2°84 14 88 3°14 118 1°63 2°20 1°83 1°16 2°61 eal 
1851 2°89 "59 3°30 2°06 53 PUG 3°00 4°25 1°40 1°02 “91 66 
1852 3°27 2°01 63 43 1°92 2°80 1°90 4°30 2°20 2°18 3°42 6°45 
1853 1°78 1°58 42 "57 1°10 6°90 2°50 3°32 1°82 3°26 ‘76 1°62 
1854 3°02 61 1°01 “BA 2°45 3-15 1°85 1°34 87 1°44 3°04 U7 7/ 
1855 ‘78 1°24 1°05 55 1°89 2°48 3°89 2°84 44 2°60 1°43 1°20 
1856 2°45 D207 "24 1:93 3°12 2°97 2°00 3°54 5°15 Salt 1°42 2°68 
1857 1°53 45 2°04 1°85 1°69 3°92 1°34 2°26 4°65 1°20 2°35 1°64 
1858 147 1:02 157 70 1°63 2°69 3°94 2°20. 2°00 4:07 1°60 1°46 
1859 2°34 1°44 2°96 Parle 21: 2°06 3°21 oil L172 3°44 2°70 2°35 
1860 3°97 1°60 1°74 56 1°80 3°58 1°21 2°45 3°16 2°85 2°88 7°65 
1861 “7D 1°47 2°31 1°46 73 2°70 3°47 3°65 4°75 23 4°00 1°02 
1862 | 3°83 90 4°64 1°32 3°71 2°80 2°70 3°70 2°10 3°42 2°00 2°80 
1863 | 3°44 22, 74 2°03 1°61 3 50 “65 3°47 2°65 2°19 1°91 2°22 
1864 1°25 2°14 3°10 1°16 2°13 1°20 2°15 80 3°40 6°90 1°79 2°07 
1865 | 2°29 1°70 ‘99 "30 365 “41 3°20 3°41 55 3°96 1°60 1°59 
1866 2°49 3°50 1 85 1°37 1°50 Mey 3°34 2°73 2°95 1°28 2°71 2°29 
1867 562 1°68 ial Oeil Biol 2°80 5°68 2°64 1°53 1°50 74 1:26 
1568 3°61 2°08 1°95 3°28 1°81 “48 34 4°30 3°27 2°13 1°45 3°87 
1869 2°84 2°67 79 1°01 2°64 1°74 73 76 4°33 1°48 1°42 1°82 
1870 1°68 5°70 afi 43 131 2°25 1°65 1°29 1°84 1°76 69 2°40 
1871 1°25 2°41 1°07 4°55 83 1°90 2°80 2°56 2°55 2°45 2°87 1°63 
1872 | 3°63 2°02 3°30 1:70 346 3:13 3°58 3°28 5°80 3°38 3°60 2°08 
1873 2°32 1°38 1°60 IN 2°70 IPA 2°80 4°53 4°46 3°07 2°47 1°44 
1874 174 70 1'73 ‘90 1°50 1°60 3°34 4°87 1°75 2°42 3°11 2°10 
1875 2°74 117 90 67 715 2°00 3°26 1°13 2°67 2°34 4°92 1°80 
1876 80 3°42 3°08 3°41 1°01 2°60 P22 3°40 4°02 2°32 3°64 6°73 
1877 517 1°85 1°67 298 2°21 1°89 4°57 8°33 1°25 2°50 2°01 1°37 
1878 2°56 50 58 1°43 2°71 2°41 ‘76 4°02 2°80 179 2°92 v7) 
1879 1°29 1'78 2°30 Zize 1°74 5°16 5°78 2°44 1°65 92 1°85 1°39 
1880 47 1°50 1°54 317 76 1°55 3°40 40 2°77 3°20 3°35 Di) 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLE XX1IX.—continued. 


1881 1:00 
1882 1:20 
1883 2°24 
1884 | 3°78 
1885 1/413} 
1886 3°00 
1887 60 
1888 1°62 
1889 60 
1890 3°20 
1891 49 
1892 90 
18938 54 
1894 2°02 
1895 1°60 
1896 60 
Max. 5°62 
Year. | 1867 
Min 14 


770-76 
1780 |} 2°234 
785-90 
791-00) 2°005 
801-10} 1°593 
811-20; 1°660 
821-30} 1°716 
831-40} 1:944 
841-50) 1°580 
851-60} 2°345 
861-70) 2-780 
871-80] 2°197 
881-90} 1°837 
891-96) 1°025 


» 1673 


1°636 


1°681 
1°537 
1°760 
1°643 
1917 
1°787 
1°281 
2°306 


1331 
1°943 


1°698 
061 


1185 


1404 
1'133 
1°423 
1791 
1°835 
1°421 
1°496 
1°865 
WHE 
1°618 
1'558 


1°530 
049 


1°549 


1°892 
1°437 
1°432 
1°898 
L077 
1167 
L176 
1507 
2°124 
1°436 
1027 


L494 
"050 


“iT 
“40 
1°48 
“29 
2°53 
1°25 
2°80 


“48 
2°75 
1°95 
2°65 
2°67 
3°24 


6°90 

1853 

“20 
1801, 1806 


1939 


2°127 
1°477 
2°481 
1°433 
2°743 
2°563 
3°272 
1°915 
2°345 


1°565 
2°290 


2°168 


145 

July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov Dec. | Year. 

ins. ins. ins, ins. ins. ins. ins. 
3°20 5°65 3°45 1°95 2°40 1°80 28°22 
3°73 1°44 og 7/ 2°65 2°83 4°90 30°23 
4°25 3°20 2°25 2°03 1°33 1:00 22°33 
4°41 2°30 2°23, 1°10 1°30 2°80 24°66 
°88 2°45 2°40 1°30 1°40 “40 17°58 
2°87 ‘74 2°42 3°58 bb 2°20 26°05 
Pd) 1°69 4°21 1°33 31845) USI) 19°80 
5°65 1°80 obit S(O) 4°20 *85 24°86 
3°66 5°05 "80 3°40 “65 1°20 22°31 
2°27 3°40 PANG 2°49 4°56 1°44 20°70 
2°67 4°40 4°01 7/83 MBH 4°49 24°23 
1:00 4°52 1°01 3°36 1°34 98 22°41 
2°50 2°90 1°36 2°80 1°33 2°10 20°93 
2°08 3°50 "30 3°00 1:10 1°64 28°25 
4°58 4°37 "82 3°18 2°48 ZAls 26°72 
4°18 1°76 Bi 3°50 *bO ADS) PRX) 
6°57 8°33 10°69 6°90 6°78 8°42 38°96 
1830 1877 1785 1864 1770 1787 1872 
oi lis) “40 "22 16 38 34 15°27 
1825 1880 1810 1830 1805 1843 1826 

Decennial Means. 

2°924 2°152 3°335 | 2°824 3°266 2°487. 27°593 
2°425 2°958 2°308 3:°013 2°452 2°334 26°594 
2°905 3°052 2°124 1°876 2°093 1:973 | 22°841 
2°671 2°282 1°546 2°446 2°362 2°431 25°004 
3°222 3°473 1°901 2°364 2°703 2°481 26°324 
3°017 2°531 2°879 2°175 2°070 1°799 25°468 
2°421 2°442 1°934 3121 2°164 1°660 24°201 
2°484 PSOE 2°341 OEE 2°051 2°748 25°832 
2°391 2°675 2°737 2°688 1°831 2°134 27°109 
3°151 3°496 | 2°972 2°439 3°074 2°351 29°386 
8°302 | 2°772 2°221 2°093 2°357 1°769 24°281 
2°835 3°575 1°875 2°928 1°353 2°286 24°313 
2 815 2°797 2°396 2°517 2°378 2°211 | 25°855 
091 “090 “080 081 079 ‘071 071 


072 


146 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE 2X XX, 


Absolute Droughts of more than 14 Days. 


Commenced. 
June 20 
July 28 
April 14 
May 24 
October 13 
January 5 
July 1 
August 10 
February 14 
December 28 
June 6 
December 6 
March 13 
July 8 
April 17 
June 8 
March ii 
February 12 
May 21 
October 4 
March y 
September 24 
November 18 


September 17 


January 17 
March 31 
January 2 


February 10 
March 13 
July 16 


June 12 
July 22 
February 28 


Terminated. 


July 5 
August 20 
April 28 


June 25 
October 29 
January 28 


July 20 
August 25 
March 4 


January 12, 1799 


June 22 
January 1, 1800 


March 30 
August 1 
May il 


June . 25 
March 22 
February 29 


June 4 
October 20 
March 23 


October 9 
December 3 
Ovtober 3 


February 1 
April 20 
January 20 


February 25 
April 11 
July 31 


June 26 
August 9 
March 14 


Days. 


Commenced. 


February 27 
May 15 
December 30 


September 26 
June 13 
February 6 


March 6 
April 8 
December 17 


July 5 


_ September 27 


February 9 


March 14 
June 22 
June 115) 


October 29 
June 24 
August 16 


July 21 
March 17 
April 2 


February 7 
April 9 
August 11 


May 21 
December 21 
June 15 


June 15 
November 6 
March 15 


September 6 
February 7 


Terminated. 


March 17 
June 3 
January 13 


October 20 
June 28 
February 25 


March 23 
April 26 
January 2, 1362 


July 21 
October 16 
February 23 


March 28 
July 6 
July 2 


November 13 
July 22 
September 4 


August 4 
March 31 
April 21 


February 25 
April 26 
August 27 


June 4 
January 4 
July 2 


July 2 
November 21 
March 30 


September 20 
February 22 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH, 147 


TABLE XXXI. 


‘alls of 1 Inch or more of rain in 24 Hours. 
Years 1770-1776, 1780-—June 1781, 1785-1817, 1824-1831, 1854-96. 


Year, Date. Amount.} Year. Date. Amount.}| Year. Date. Amount.} Year. Date. Amount. 
ins. ins ins. ins, 
1770 | Nov. 7 | 2:30 | 1797 | Oct. 20 | 1°30 | 1813 | May 16 | 1°02 | 1874] June 26 | 1°54 
“ 9 | 1:06 . Dec. 18 | 1:03 | 1814 | April 24 | 1°30 ay July 24 | 1°72 
a wi C4 1°20 1798 Jan, 26 1:03 5 July 29 1°50 = Aug. 14 1°53 
1771 Oct. 7 1°49 nf June 20 1:40 ” Nov. 18 1°10 - Nov. 30 1°32 
4 eee | iis | 1799 | May 10 | 1:05 | 1815 | May 11 | 1°12 [1875 | Nov. 7 | 1°28 
45 Nov. 17 1°80 oe June 4 1:00 1816 July 8 1°30 1876 | Aug. 31 1°52 
1772 | Jan. 12 | 1°07 cs Anes 1 | 175, 1827") April 24 |, 1°30 a Dec. 31 | 1°34 
s May 26 1:00 5 Sept. 13 1°70 Pe Aug. 16 1°26 US77 | dan. 1 1°00 
%y Nov. 1 | 1:80 * ig. | 2516 i, Oct. 11 1°66 in 4 30° |) 105 
1774 | May 24 | 1:40 | 1800 | May 17 1:15 | 1828 | July 12 | 2°00 ee eAprile 9) 4) 29 
%5 Aug. 17 | 1:20 | 1801 | May 23 | 1°01 . Nov. 30 | 1°60 ss July 17 | 1°35 
fs Dec. 4 | 1°01 | 1802 | Feb, 19 | 1:07 | 1829 | April 10 | 1718 ay eAues Teh) ba 
1775 | July 30 | 1:13 | 1803 | Aug. 9 | 1°15 - July 5 | 1°09 5 f ye20, |) 188 
7 Sept. 10 | 1-01 P, se De i Aug. 3 | 1°80 Pa aoe) aM 
% Oct. 5 | 2°50 | 1804 | Oct. 22 | 1°62 e ni 22) |, 129° [1878 oe Wis 
1785 | July 31 | 1-07 ‘ Nov. 13 | 1°00 A ee e26) |) 00" W879") Mar, 17 |) 1-28 
> Sept. 6 1°36 1806 May 2 1715 re Oct. 14 1°05 is June 21 1°31 
» ped 3°70 i Nov. 9 2°25 1830 | July 30 1:30 = July 18 2°95 
” » 24 | 3°80 | 1807 | Sept. 6 | 3°51 ” Aug. 15 | 1°51 | 1880] April 31 | 1°56 
% Oct. 18 | 1°57 | 1808 | April 5 | 1°71 o ey ale 102 eile duly 7) lyk ie 
” Nov. 5 | 1:46 B May 6 | 1°05 is Sept. 21 1:27 (ssi | Jan, 29 | I-94 
1787 | May 12 | 1°44 As June 8 | 1-00 | 1881 | Aug. 80 | 1°07 F Feb. 13 | 1°44 
” July 26 | 1:58 oc July 24 | 1°55 | 1854 | June 18 | 1:25 ene, 23") 1-80 
% Dec. 9 4°20 . wy. 28 1°55 1856 | Sept. 8 1:06 # ee 25 1°21 
” roe LO 1°05 Bn Aug. 4 114 1857 June 7 1°25 1882 | May 7 1:20 
1788 | Sept. 21 | 1-13 iy oe Pb i Sept. 13 | 1°40 [1884] Aug. 13 | 1:70 
1789 | Aug. 29 | 1-13 - Oct. 14 | 1:50 | 1858 | June 17 | 1°43 » | Sept. 6 | 1°46 
1790 | Nov. 24 | 1:35 | 1809 | Jan. 10 | 1°59 ee Aug. 30 | 1°43 | 1889] Aug. 19 | 1°41 
1791 | June 17 | 1°13 i, Feb, 3 | 1:80 | 1859 | Nov. 5 | 1:12 | 1890 eet) ihe 108 
” Aug. 16 | 1°17 _ June 1 | 1:00 | 1861 | Sept. 23 | 2°40 my piSepie so) | I71g 
» Oct. 22 | 1°07 a July 5 | 115 | 1864 | Oct, 20 | 2°43 | 1891] Mar. 16 | 1°55 
1792 | July 13 | 1°18 af Aug. 12 | 1:14 | 1864 | Oct. 23 | 1°50 sf Sept. 20 | 1:94 
1794 | Sept. 2 | 1-00 x Sept. 8 | 1:20 | 1865 | May 30 | 1:29 ] 1893] June 22 | 1-00 
ee Oct. 6 | 1°15 5 oe ye 140 “ Oct. 18 | 1:35 | 1894] Feb. 11 1:03 
» aeons) 107 | 1810 | Jan.” 15 | 1-25 || 1866 |; Sept. 29 | 1:40 “5 Say SIGH a 14 
1795 | May 14 | 1°50 Feb, 14 | 1°10 | 1867 | July 22 | 1°30 Pou) edu 62. |) p24 
1895 | July 26 1°63 
” oe wee 1°40 Bp Mar. 9 1:01 1869 Sept. 12 170 |1896' July 8 1°28 
» July 23 | 1°45 3 eelOM | Ito. easrt |) Aue 2% | 1-22 
" Nov. 17 | 2°63 a June 19 | 1:00 | 1872 | May 15 | 1°01 From ADIE, 
1797 | July 30 | 2-00 a Aug. 8 | 1°10 » | July 27 | 113 | 1795) Nov. 18 | 2:89 
” Aug. 18 | 2°30 is Pilot ie 3g se Oct. 22 | 1:07 | 1797| July 30 | 2°63 
; Oct. 18 166 | 1812 | Mar, 21 1°21 1873 | Oct. 1 1°15 x Aug. 18 2°56 


148 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste XXXII. 


Showing the Number of Days the Wind Blew from the Eight Principal Directions 
wn Edinburgh for each Month during 138 Years. 


JANUARY. 

Calm e Calm 
Year.| N. |N.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.| W. |N.W.!| or | Year.| N. |N.E.| E. |S.E.} S. |S.W.| W. |N.W.! or 

Var. Var. 
US Zal een 3 3 9 5 3 8 wee ee 1828 ||| ... ee 10 5 8 8 See ae 
UAERY | see 4 1 1 5 20 3 1 tes 1829 1 1 10 4 aap 4 4 if 
SA oes ae aie eee 6 12 12 1 ire 1830 3 2 4 4 1 6 6 2 3 
1735 3 sis 2 1 1 5 17 2 aes 1831 1 2 5 5 3 7 6 2 
1736 2 1 as 5 12 6 5 wee hee 1832 1 4 3 1 12 6 as 4 
G4 ieee ee 9 wale te Ele 22 Rae a5 1833 1 5 2 2 3 int 2 5 
1765 AAG 15 an 16 ais ads 1834 | ... 1 4 aah 3 15 6 1 1 
1766 me 4 aa Ke 27 ae Ae 1835 1 1 2 1 wee 2 23 1 0 
1767 mee hk 3 vis 20 elie ae 1836 ee ] 2) 1 aie 2 22 3 : 
1768 ae 15 een ae 16 5 3 Pe 1837 2 6 1 3 5 3 8 3 cia 
GOT ase ae 9 see wae 22 wae ae USBIS) Ih oss SE 9 6 5 5 4 2 Pro 
1770 3 eae Ae wat 1 15 8 4 ves 1839 2 1 1 te 1 4 15 6 1 
1771 4 valk 2 1 1 iL, 6 5 sae NOAM ies 2 1 2 1 9 14 ane 2 
1772 5 2 7 2 sae 3 9 2 Wl 1841 2 2) 2 3 bse 2 12 4 4 
1773 5 aes 1 2 2 10 10 ‘ae il 1842 1 1 6 2; 6 10 2 3 
1774 4 1 4 Il ote 5 10 3 3 1843 ame 1 at al 9 14 5 ote 
On| Mees Yar 5 9 3 10 4 ae Sat 1844 | ... ne 1 il are 3 22 3 1 
1776 2 y) 10 4 3 4 2 ane 4 LS25y eee il 1 5 3 8 10 3 Si 
1777 1 fi 5 oa 2 1 10 5 ane 1846 | ... ‘iia 6 2 aie 7 13 ee 3 
1778 2 3 3 1 5 5 10 1 i 1847 2 ves 3 13 2 5 2 oat 4 
Te dT ae 3 3 wee 2 7 13 2 1 SA Gm eres Hos 2 6 4 4 12 1 2 
1780 2 6 7 3 eis one 6 i 6 1849 | ... 3 1 2 2 5 14 1 3 
PAS Pes. 2 11 nee mee 4 11 2 1 1850 | ... 1 13 2: 53 6 4 sets ane 
MASA She nae 5 Are siete aa 26 wee wale fst Ieead mate aie 5 13 8 4 1 5 
L783) 0c. aes 5 ae ‘ele ive 26 bac aa 1852 2 ear wae wae 4 6 il/ 2 Ao 
1784 1 2 3 2 ais 2 14 7 ar 1853 3 1 3 4 3 | 1d 1 1 mae 
1785 6 3 o 1 2 10 3 1 1854 1 1 3 4 7 8 5 2 oe 
1786 4 ] 8 ae te 7 8 3 1855 4 4 5 ons ae 4 6 4 4 
1787 2 3 2 1 nad 9 12 2 1856 1 2 4 5 4 7 3 3 2 
1788 4 2 1 Res ae 3 18 3 1857 2 5 2, 1 1 7 8. 3 2 
1789 4 4 10 1 ies 5 4 3 1858 4 2 i 1 1 8 6 5 3 
1790 1 ae 3 2 aide 8 13 4 SS 59M eeee ine ws ae 2 13 15 i ah 
1791 1 1 3 vee 4 13 7 2 1860 2 3 2 1 8 5 9 wae 1 
1792 5 3 10 ine 1 8 4 iS Gi | tees it 4 oie 3 9 12 1 1 
1793 5 3 7, wets 4 13 4 1862 1 SH 1 2 10 5 9 1 2 
SEA tock ake Ae ie 5 18 8 1863 | ... 3 1 dd 5 12 6 4 ae 
1795 | 11 10 es re 3 5 2 ee 1864 | ... ite il 2) 10 15 2 i ee 
1796 a4 3 1 1 6 20 re Je 1865 2 2 5 2 3 6 6 5 5 
1797 Ae 8 ae ie 2 20 1 hie 1866 2 aie 2 2 2 if 13 3 Ae) 
1798 ate 1 welt oe 5 22 3 nae 1867 4 2 8 1 3 Y) 8 3 ‘i 
BLAST JIN Geena 1 6 nae ee 5 19 ed ann 1868 6 33 4 2 5 9 2 me 3 
1800 1 1 19 aig 1 ul 8 wee er 1869 1 1 3 3 10 5 6 2 Pe 
I80l | .. 1 2 Ree not a 27 1 ae 1870 4 2 ies 4 ela 2 8 10 1 
1802 pes 9 tee Sa 22 aac a US 7a lee une 3 6 3 8 10 1 aa 
1803 uae 7 nee 14 oa aan WHEW oan 6 att 4 2 14 1 4 <8 
1804 ae 6 4 ie 5 12 ee 4 SHS Il soe ea 2 4 2 11 12 Set ose 
LSODy) c.5 1 5 if 3 6 4 Aa 5 1874 1 SAG 1 ade 2 7b 19 1 
1806 1 4 2 is Eee 5 13 6 ad Selle 2 3 2 4 6 12 ig 2 
ESO i | se. oe 4 aa ee 23 4 Sab 1876 3 wae 3 1 3 1 14 4 2 
1808 2 1 von aes 1 10 14 2 1 URSVAE || Yor 4 1 4 5 9 7 il a 
1809 | ... 2 22 Mis es <e¥ 6 1 . MST Sales 2 1 i 2 2 22 2 BMD 
1810 1 9 des Paik 3 17 1 1879 1 1 1 11h 4 1 10 1 1 
LSULa ee. 9 ae ave 11 8 3 1880 | ... as 2 1 l 6 18 3 a 
1812 2 1 1 2 10 9 6 USSI ee. 4 3 3 3 2 10 6 Me 
1813 2 2 3 23 1 vate TS82i\\| vee 1 2 an 1 7 18 2 a 
1814 it 8 ve 4 2 8 2 6 1883 | ... sae i 7 3 8 11 1 one 
1815 u 4 2 4 “or 13 5 2 1884 | .., 2 2 1 3 22 1 fi 
1816 2 1 3 4 3 4 11 3 1885 |... 3 3 5 2 5 if 3 3 
1817 l 1 B) i 16 3 1886 2 5 3 7) a0 4 11 4 Fn: 
LBLS pas 1 er 2 3 12 13 an NA 1887 | ... 2 1 ies 3 10 11 1 3 
1819 1 1 1 2 5 11 5 5 eee 1888 1 een 3 ia 2 5 12 4 4 
1820 | ... 9 1 van era 3 12 5 1 1889 uf Sha 4 1 2 1 20 1 ml 
182} <. 1 7 1 res 7 13 1 1 1890 | ... ave 2 al 1 8 17 1 1 
1822 1 1 He 2 4 16 6 1 1891 3 ah 2 2 1 4 15 2 2 
1823 af 2 TH 8 u 2 2 1 3 1892 1 ee 2 2 2 3 15 4 re 
1824 | ... 7a i} a 1 8 14 5 2 1893 2 1 6 1 1 1 14 2 3 
1825 2 1 poe ellis 9 15 2 2 1894 2 1 3 1 3 7 il 1 2 Si 
1826 |e aie 5 3 ul 13 2 4 3 1895 Uf 3 5 3 1 ee 8 3 1 
1827 1 2 8 1 7 8 3 1 1896 3 aie 2 ae ate 2 20 3 19 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 149 


TaBLE XX XII.—continued. 


FEBRUARY. 
Calm Calm 
Year.| N. | NE.| E. | SE.| S. |SW.| W. |NW.| or | Year.] N. | NE.| E. | SE.| S. |SW.| W. | NW.| or 
Var. Var. 
1732 | 1 1 1 1 By IO || IO oo | 1828 2 9 2 | 10 7a ose 2 
1783 | 1 les: 3 i || a 4 1 ee e829) kee il 5 1 1 1 | ia 2 6 
13! |) os Seon 4 | 12 8 4 spo || UBIO) |] al OF Nees 3 De | Wel 4 3 2 
1735 | 1 i |) ae i | 7 | ah 1 1831 | 1 2 2 1 1 9 7 5 fe 
1736| 4 | 4 3 6 1 1 4 6 Ae) (ES ee |e 3 2 | 16 3 1 4 
Pomme | 10 |... |... | we | 19 | 50 || LEB on 1 6 3 2 9 5 1 1 
meee is |... | |. | UB] re seas || he 3 1 1 6 | 14 1 2 
WWGGU Ih. |)... Pee eee cy 20) By) || TIGRIS || Ae Ween Oh | eer eae 3 | 29 1 at 
mene t2 |. |. | | 16 | oe sop || EBS Na 6 Dall eer 1 4 | 10 5 o. 
meee iS | |. | ee | dA | ssis je 2 1 1 8 | 10 4 re 
17/06) | eal Pees cet Tt [28 Il on so | RES |G il 7 3 DW cee 5 3 1 
ios |... |. eile 16 6 3 ... | 1839 Oya tlle. 2 Ql ie 2 1 
We | 1 3 ii 2 4 5 5 1 ... | 1840 4 | 10 1 6 5 1 2 
1772 | 8 4 6 i 2 2 | 11 ; .. | 1841 | 2 1 i 5 1 6 2 2 2 
ier ib |... 3 3 8 7 Gell. MIPISdO Pee “eet | Paes 4 i |) 2 8 2 1 
iy | 1 eri... 4 | 13 8 2 ee || LEI) Si WSO Wence Waee 1 3 4 ita 
Tao) 1 |... 1 2 4 | 13 Grapes 1 11844] 2 5 1 Opal eee A Wa8} 2 a 
WIG: « 2 2 2 A |) sibs 1 il g }1845 | 1 2 4 2 1 3 9 2 4 
Winn | 2 | 38 6 1 1 3 9 3 USA sh ale allt cary alles 1 1 8 | 16 1 a 
ily 2 1 1 Q |b 1 ea else el 3 3 ites hae 3 9 7 1 
179! |... 5 lee 8} Nal) 183 | 2 | 1848 |... 1 2 rig See @) |] 1183 3 cs 
moe 7 |... 2 Whee 2 9 3 A | TAO |W hee le Pee ea 4 | 22 1 ae 
Meu |... 2 1 1 3 |] wa 5 2-] 1850 | ... 1 OTe M die 2 6 | 14 3 a 
mene is |... |... |... |10 |... oo |) LER 1 ta ae 5 | 12 (eal Goa | 
eee 02 ||... |... |... | 16 |... cee || CD |) 2 alot ae 1 1 1 | 2 2 diy 
1784| 4 | 5 3 5 1 2 6 3 1853 | 8 3 7 2 1 1 4 2 mA 
1785 | 7 6 6 D) “Nl Seve ae 5 2 IGGL | eM eagle gen 1 il @ || ial il 
1786 | 2 | 6 4 |, i |) ala 3 1855 | 3 3 8 Erie 3 2 2 4 
1/7 \\0ceen ae 3 e. 9 | 12 4 ‘na || UHR | a 2 4 2 4 6 1 6 3 
1788) .«. 1/un 4 2 8 Seilibae soy || SEIN moe touleee 3 fail. | ail 1 1 
Mase 2) |... Beall 2 6 9 6 ; 1858 | 4 4 6 2 1 4 1 3 3 
AGO! |. 1 >; ee 4 | 20 3 SOM eee lero loc, 6 || asl 2 1 
Pets 4 |... 8 1 5 | Ti 4 1860 | 2 OS We allt cn 1 AW iy 3 ma: 
woe? | 2 | 8 1 6 5 5 1861 | 1 4 1 1 7 9 dy alt &. 1 
gee |... Bemis, @) |f i133 2 1862 | 1 2 6 1 Y 2 7 2 a 
gael |... 8 il 8 | 10 1 1863 | 2 gee ae 1 6 | 13 4 1 ie 
1795 | 7 T. |e 2 1 4 TIEYSL |) Gok 2 7 2 2 4 5 5 2 
1796 | ... : 8 il 3 | 16 il woe || LEG || B 1 8 Gina nares 5 Gralla. ae 
ic a 2 | YB Wl ane joo |) LEGG I & 3 3 Olea 4 9 6 
1798: ... 1 1 Xe HK acle Sm MUSGi |) ilee ilhwen Sled 4 5 | 14 1 
ago). |... | 14 A Th Be Nl ee Non alses Co som alee 2 | 20 6 1 
oie |. | 21 |... sTealpe ee 5 1 ee eSGOn| ela eee 1 2 4 6 | 12 2 
1801 | ... 1 6 eee ee | B05 le coo |] SO |) @ 1 4 7 il 4 3 6 
Papen... |... 3 a mM || ann a || Weal |) 7 il 7 3 4 | 10 2 
1803 | ... 2 ie XB | oho see) | TSO poe 1 4 6 lee ets a le 
1804 | 7 2 2 Aa 5 6 4 3 11873 | 2 2 4 TE yes 1 {| 6 2 
1go5 |) 2 | 3 3 1 5 |i 1 2 11874) 2 2 3 3 3 4 8 2 1 
1806 | ... 3 2 8 | 12 1 2 | 1875 | 2 2 8 1 Titles 8 2 4 
mae | 2 | 1 Pe chau eal Pe letszecieo oe 6) |" a 1 % | 8 3 1 
Menge | 2 | ... BE 19 2 (iyi | O | oe Tl ee 1 5) | ity 4 
Oegoniee |... | 11 A 16 1 GUST sical ace 1 1 2 & WL A@ | oo 1 
1810 | 1 2 il || 2 | 15 5 1879 | 1 3 4 8 1 1 tO" | aoe a 
Tei) 2 | 1 il 5 5 7 6 1 1880 | ... 1 2 1 1 8 | 14 2 ih 
| 1 2 1 3 | 10 9 3 | 1881 4 4 5 3 2 2 7 1 
1813 | .., i i ae 3) || Pal 1 1 |) EE |) 1 1 1 BR | ay 3 e 
TStan 2 |... 3 B lo. || 18 2 3 con || LES a re 3 4 6 | 12 2 PA 
1805) ... 1 1 i il || 7 Gil be .. | 1884 plese 6 2 9 6 3 es 
1816 | ... | 2 3 5 9 7 .. | 1885 | 1 1 CP lice nae) Fl 3 1 
mewn, |... | .c- |... | 18 5 9 ... | 1886 | 2 3 4 3 2 5 5 1 3 
TSS! = 2 3} || az 6 3 a seve sy. 2 2 1 2 | 12 5 2 2 
1819 | 3 2 4 2 6 4 7 soo || EES 4 7 “ 15 2 at 
1820 | ... 3 4 ‘ie ee 9 | 10 2 coe || LEO | 1 3 1 1 14 5 ae 
1821 2 1 re lie 3 | 10 3 2 | 1890] 1 1 | 10 Dea |ae TAL hikes 3 
U2. | or oe AW HV @ i 1 |} age att oe Deal ee hs: 16 2 7 
1823 | 4 2 5 1 3 4 8 1 moo |) 1EOE || & 2 5 1 2 10 3 4 
1824 | 4 5 5 2 il 6 ell 1 | 1893] 1 1 3 2 3 1 | 12 2 3 
GZ: || 53 ee 1 |10 | 10 4 By | SURGE We i aye 1 2 2 6 | 15 1 1 
1826 Serer. | vcs 1 2 | 20 4 1 sec | AUS 93 2 i 3 1 3 5 4 
1827} 3 9 1 1 1 2 4 6 1 | 1896] 1 : 3 3 2 3 || 353 1 1 


150 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XX XII.—continued. 


MARCH. 
Year.| N. |N.E.| E. |S.E.] S. |S.W N. |N.E 
L782") <2) fe eae ts a Wa Sp BP 10, | & | 2 
1788} 2) eb Boles fs pee 2% | |e | Ohlsen mel 3 
1734 a 4 | 6 | 10 See tds ol Seen 12.) 1009p 1 
i786}. 2 | 6 ibo2 Woe. he we flee ll & I Sas ean eee 5 
1796 )9 bead & esa ts Yo lose lot ee (On eons eee 5 
LFS ack Ne Pe lr Se tie, eral 4/381 | 27) 7 | 38\¢ | 
refit Oey ae ee: fle ne cic ll ven, cl) St Vases | eevee eben es 
1766 | ... Og A eG ag a {| DT] 8 Ve Tas be) |e) a 
W787. ck Wick WU? Wee Nikasee WA a | 2 | @ |) |e a 
GBS: Ticcte Wn eMPOOD Ic ® esc) “lla! B/S | @ | Tees Te Oe 
SU [eR i ers | an | ee | ec ba 2 | 2 | Bl) 1 ison 1S eee eraren mee 2 
LAO ee Ac le Gilte Irae [28 To] 21) Be 8) Se ae Weiet eioaae 1 
TI 6 Wea ke ee Po FS | A a a ae ele Ren Remain ce 8 
We) £1 6 |e | a | ge) 2 Pen eee Ahatraisor |} 6 1 
AB ee Wok Weel We |S 1 |) 2 fen. a ete sei ee 2 
Lae) Wwe Be BS | 8 2 | Palys! 6. Wr oie Woe. eNone 6 | 
eh ee ieee |U.co |e Be | 12 1 |) apa see eee 3K 
V6 Noo fae) £ le.) a) 1% 1/3 }5)3811)6) 8 | 
Lei ob ee Ne We le | 3 9 | of | OO) ioe vet Wome ees 1 
SB Wee RS ek |) S| 8 4 | A | yA oF oe ele oe eon ne 4 
AO ee Be. ct | 22 2° | 6) ) 0 sleet Oe Trees ane re 
HO et te (ec) 8? | 42 1/2 /|5 | 2 | 1) 9 | 36 |)oe 
PSI Wetee la |e | 8 3 |... |-4 | i | 3 | 6) 9) | So 
TG) ce i elt Cae a a 1|2)2)4 1) 7 | 6 | 5°) oo 
ABR es caalteeet ely = = Ae 4 | 3 | 6 | 2 | o | 8 oe te 
ist |Get oe |e: | 2 |... “ 6 | 4 | 4 | 3) 4 | 8.]- 4 aa 
ives th Noe Wed? |. 1 % ve [one + 2 | 2 | | 8) | oe 
DRG |e Heese Ge |)" a 3 » Pan ee lee nee meaner Males) |, 3 
i) ea ad) a a a a 3 | 7-9) Sb) a er Ne et 14 
Segue eet) le ieee |e Bes... 1 2 a PB | WE | dl ao Ao eon ia 
cn po a ha a i ee 9, 2/1 )2 1 1) 6 | 5 |) 
Tm | ey al a a ci ea hes we | @ dua | DT | | 7 | 0g 
FG h 22) og PAO en a eens ae ¥ 8 iu. | 2 ls | 8 | 6.) isin 
TR cas anf coca, Re (Reg a eh 1] 1 /... | 1-8) 8) 7 
ee lme ie eds | 28 118 be 1°| 7 | 14°) 1°) 85) 2.3) 
ee ee) ae, es . | 8 | & | 8 | 89) 8.) 4 | oa 
Tap CUIN ee Te Rady I Ni = 2 |3.| 8 | 2 | 1hil>s- icon 
1796 | 1 “he hog MAE oh ee Le 41/2{8 |2)| 4°) 4) 6 | 
1707 ban ee ea ee os 2) 5 | 8 | 8°)... | 8 250 
708 UB Ioe de | L be 4/4 ]7-| 6 1 7 | 30] 29 
1799 1° || 29 Rees as we | DW cea edes le 
1800 17 Bleed is 4) 5 |4|2|]2)]1 | 8°) oo 
1801 IES Sollee be Ba, a Sea en 2 
1802 | a 13s 1|2{3 ]1 | 2] 6.) | 7 
1803 SA OB * Le 2\.. | 7 | 6B | 8 | 2°| 9 | 45) 
TDA SON OE BA be, A) | 6 1 ]1873| 1 | 6 | 12 | 2,.|.. | 4 | 4 oo 
1805 Se GA vee | TO: ae 4 Pan ae el ee be are Lesa |) 1 
f5G8 |, eee Oe ey 7) a” | 6g Se 4 1875) 2°) 3) 7 9) a) oo eo ee 1 
rl feted J eal a (are (OP ey NRE eT al Re 1 
1808 Thee oe RS eA Fe Wal 3 | 1877 1 | | aoe ea ae i 
Bo 8) Oa te let | 10 ct | Aueaeners 2)2).. | 1 | 2 |18 |) ei 
aS it Hee erate ee ee at cre | Beal) SamanatarS 316] 7 |a.,| 4 |i | 
1811 eg We Petal, aetna A a es le 1880 gs | 9] 2]. | 1 |10; | a 
PEt 110 ee Se le) 8 1881 4/.. | 5 | % | 2 |15 | ae 
1813 Cay at 8 GAS 8S S| el a8 1382} 1 | 1/8 1... |... | 2 122 | 
1814 ed cok Me os Ue dass | 8.1 6 lb | a0 piel) 1 
PSE Le She a: Ee) TOS A 1884 we | | 8 ab tO eal eee 20 
WSlou ya Wh al A 08 yw 1s85| 1} 8 | 4/1 1/1) 4° 5 | 
re es | Bo ebay ee We ea i966 | 4. | 8. || 4°) 8° pal oS bee 1 
FOS | SU a Me a ol ON OD a 687 )] 2 hae | 1 0 Nees eel Oe 5a 
1810, |e, | SRM oo eel oe cele nl ee} GD 1968130) 4 19 |. ee ee aa Lig 
1620:| eG MO ei, Ue I 1ss9 |) 2° |. |. 4 | 4 | aoe eae 1 
Ip |) 2A Pa ee ee a hs lies (Cn A as ale er ee I NA re | 
1822} 2 |. Ju. | 2 | 1 |) a4 1 1]. Ptsor] 6 | 2 | 8 |... | 2 ad) on 
1888 | 8 jhst, om eaBe | eS Wop a a tae 1 | 1892 8) 6/4 |2)6/ 4 | 4) 
rc Rm uh Re Mes (rr oagl Bere WM eR a) 7 }ises} 1]... | 4]... |... | 4 [16 | 20 
TBOS | sxe H See EB et oe Ne 5 J1s94/ 1 | 8 | 2-| 1 | 21 5 |18 | O95 
1826 | 2) 2 ge as ep 2/1895, 6°| 8 | 4 | 1 | 8 |12 | 2 oe 
1827 | -8 2 Ba ee bla Be Seine 2/2 ]|.. | 1 | 4 (20 |) 2 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. how 


Taste XX XII.—continued. 


APRIL. 

Calm | Calm 
Year.| N. | N.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.| W. IN.W.) or | Year.| N. | N.E| E. |S.E./ S. /S.W.) W. N.W J or 
Var. Var. 
1732 | 1 3) at 3 2 3 2 5 soo | eR |B 8 2 3 1 5 6 1 1 
1733 | 4 | 10 4 2 3 4 1 2 .. | 1829] 8 6 6 2 1 3 5 4 = 
1734 | ... 1 7 Ball ee HN 1 |p oop Fe | | SEO Bee Aen tee DR | ea) 6 4 4 
1735 | 1 1 8 2 4 6 7 1 be tes] hice Tuaeees 8 | 10 Tee, 4 4 1 2 
1736 | 1 G Se 3 5 2 7 6 ... | 1832]... 9 8 Deel 6 3 1 1 
eee | 14) |... |... |. | 16 fo... = FL ER) Nh ie 1 7 1 1 |) a5 I) oe in 
meer te | | lie | 17 [ou ee as34q) 0 hs Metter (emer ae i || 10 1 2 
emer 5) fi | ce ieee |) UB | aes ... | 1885 | 4 1 7 itlass |e i pie 2 pe 
SM (1208 | occ | cscte | iene | 10) | oe ... | 1836 | 6 3 3 Det Be 2 | 10 4 Ke 
MMP LO! | we | vce | see | LA fel a P 183% | 2 halle leer fee) 6 3 1 2 = 
Me TS | cel cee | leew | LB | ne .. | 18388 | 4 3 5 1 4 6 6 1 
1770 | 5 3 2 3 1 4 9 3 Pe aeISSOUlN te | 4 8 1 2 8 4 2 
ar | 2 1 5 1 6 | 10 5 1840 | 1 6 4 19 jee 6 8 2 2 
2 | 1 3 8 1 1 5 5 6 1841 | 1 4 4 3 1 6 8 2 1 
ays | 1 2 1 1 5 | 10 9 1 von (LEG || OD || aul 9 il eee ee 4 1 2 
1774/ 1 2 4 4 3 5 8 2 1 | 1843] 1 1 4 2 2 7 8 3 2 
1775 1 if pen 5 6 | 16 1 1844 | ... 2 Dale Blin 8 | lz 4 2 
1776 | 4 2 it ae 3 ig nates eae 2 | 1845] 1 6 | 10 eee 6 Be le. 3 
ney | 2 6 8 1 3 1 fi 2 1846 | 1 7h We 5 1 1 2 2 1 
1778 | 3 6 ate NT, 2 5 8 2 1847 | 2 4 4 Ae oe | al 2 3 
ao) ....| ... 30 F., 1 6 | 16 4 1848 | 1 5 7 2 1 2 5 4 3 
1780 | 3 5 4 4 4 2 5 3 1849 | 1 3 9 4 2 3 5 1 2 
1781 3 | 15 7 ras ae 1 Pea is50) |) 2/11 Set. 1 6 1 wR 
eae... | 27 Eee ibe ox Slike A i ed ae 7 6 Da 8 2 5 5 a 
ein. |... | 12 Pela. Ae | Wem Ih 1852 | 2 7 8 rie 1 6 1 3 
1784 | 1 1 3 alt lea 3 | 12 6 1GKR | 1 4 2 2 4 | 16 1 re 
ReeCMe a) | we | ee | vee | 21 4 1854 |... SEN SOIR || Aes ie | ane 3 * 
memes 2 |is |... |... 5 3 2 1855 | 1 2 2 1 1 tom | 7 3 
1787 | 4 1 C), clea ee i | ie 3 1856 | 1 4 2 3 5 3 7 4 1 
1788 | 2 1 1 1 6m lata 5 1857 | 5 6 Ae 1 5 5 4 ¥ 
1789 | 3 5 7! @ "| ial 4 1858 | 3 4 Cm leew eae elie e 8 9 a 
| 1790) 1 4 | 10 Ome... 3 Sail t 1859 | 3 4 7 1 1 3 ji 4 bs 
791.|... Smon |... 1 3 3 1 1860 | 4 2 | 12 2 2 1 6 1 if 
gz 14)... | 10 Oh Ne Me 8 8 1 1861 | ... 1 | 1 3 sl cl eee 8 3 it 
mes) 2 |-1 | 17 4 2 4 1862] 1 1 3 at Uk oe 3 5 5 11 
ioe) 1) |... if || een ee |) ait 2 USGSSE lee Olea 2 2 if 9 6 3 7 
feels. |... | 11 4 1 6 alae TG | eee lke Sia Ae. || tl 2 2 
1796 | 7 1 ae. i 7 6 1 1865 | ... 2 8 4 1 4 | 10 1 i 
Memmi 6 |... |... |... | 11 2 1866 | 1 21) 13 5 2 2 Bll oe By 
ene |... | 14 | 1 eae! 1 1987) DW ae 4 2 4 5 | 12 1 * 
ern d..||... | 13 3 12 1 1868 | 4 4 BW ce 1 |e 6 1 as 
1800 | 1 5 1 6 | 14 2 1869 | 3 3 4 1 3 8 Sigal a i 
zen. 1) .., 9 1 ‘oo 1G 3 Soy ie70 | 1 5 Hn ree 4 i |) 1 I 

ieee... |... Sa ho; been| Oza |e son (AGL | Al Et all Sele: 1 6 1 
Hage... |... 7 , Ue lees Mb Sn us 13 6 3 2 1 4 9 2 : 
1304| 4 | 4] 8 6 1 3 4 | 1873 | 3 5 | 10 item) ee 1 8 2 At 
fgeoels | 6 | 3 2 1 7 2 1 7 11874] 2 2 3 1 2 3 | 12 4 1 
fegeseae | 1 i10 | 2 |... 1 | lo 2 875.1 2 2 i al eae em 2 | 12 1 3 
imei | 6 |... |... |... | 16 1 ... | 1876 | 8 3 7 2 Ml oe | 4 a 
eessieye| 2) 2. |... 1 2 8 7 iON ALS Ze I a 3 | 14 6 cee ie 3 il a 
ieee se) to}... |. |... 4 6 1878 | ... 1 || ae 6 2 3 Ge allege on 
emo) ...2) ... 8 Sale 8 9 2 i Was7or| 8 | 12 1 Laie 4 1 1 
Wei} 2° | 2 | 10 2 1 2 Hi 4 ... | 1880] 1 5 7 2 2 1 8 4 ad 
ems) | 7-| 9 DM ep 1 3 3 PA aS8it nome ei 7 1 SE. 3 4 1 
i. 3) || bi Tay 9 4 3 ... | 1882] 2 1 | 12 BW em 3 5 1 1 
eae |... 2 | 2 4 4 | 12 4 2 ... | 1883] 2 2 7 4 1 2 8 3 1 

18) 1° | 11 3 Dh ee 3 7 3 no sss | 3 6 9 4 1 4 2 1 
1816] 2 | 4 | 8 6 1 2 4 3 eer sss... 4 7 2 1 9 3 3 1 
ieee! 7] 2 |\2-].., 2 5 8 ee ses 91 8 kale errs ee 4 6 1 2 
isis) 1 | 9° | 10°) 3 Geel ics fm lies ore ss7 | 1 3 1 4 1 4 5 9 2 
1819 | ... Se lc 1 3 6 3 4 .. | 1888] 2 7 3 2 2 2 8 4 ‘ 
1820; 2 | 1 GS ee a 6 | 13 4 ... | 1889] 2 1 | 12 1 2 2 9 1 pe 
SAliees |... 5 BE. 5 | 12 2 3 11890] 4 |... | 10 1 3 1 8 3 Ss 
1822} 1 4 5 2 4 6 5 2 1 | 1891] 2 } | isl 2 OL ee 4 3 4 
eases |) Bi 10°. |... 2 7 3 2 | 1892] 3 3 9 Wesco 1 2 | 10 1 1 
1824] 2 | 6 Be ld. 1 2 9 4 1 | 1893] 1 4 9 1 Oy ae 8 1 4 
TGV: || |, Nl age ee 7 9 2 3 | 1894] 1 3 8 9 1 3 SF es 2 
1826 | 1 3 1 1 6m 3 4 1 11895 | 3 2 OR i a 1 3 | 10 1 1 
1827 | ... 6 4 2 1 9 3 1 4 |1s9) 1) 1 2 ie ety 8 BA 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). A IN 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XX XII.—continued. 


MAY. 
Calm 
Year.| N. |N.E.| E. |S.E.} S. |S.W.| W. (N.W.| or | Year.| N. |N.E.| E. | S.E./ 8S. 
Var. 
1732 2 2 6 3 6 4 5 3 UPAR | AaB 4 12 1 ap 
1733 1 6 15 2 aes 1 5 1 1829 2 6 6 1 4 
1734} 1 7i 7 ce 1 4 7 4 1830 6 9 2 an 
1735 | 2 6 3 1 son 3 8 8 Ussi |\%.. 6 | 12 2 1 
17369 | Qeg| a3 8 gyi 3 2 2 1832)\) “3 i 10 6 1 Pee 
7G eee aoe ORM ieee nee se 21 es SSS lee. 1 a 4 ies 
1765 : 18 Be me a0 Bical ees bak 1834 a 10 1 a 
1766 ‘ 17 F eee a AT) ee hie 1835 it 7 jp até! 2 2 
1767 _ TG il eae aor a 15 “Oe foe 1836) |... 11 11 1 oon 
1768 | . ae 1G We aoe soe less) ae pe eey/ |} ah 7 7 2) Geko 
1769 | ... See 19 - was See 12 ie wee 1838 1 11 8 7 nae 
1770 2 6 15 aA 3 sae 3 2 see 1839 2 6 9 1 1 
1771 4 5 6 1 4 7 4 odo om 1840 3 8 9 1 550 
1772 4 7 8 1 u rot 8 wis 2 1841 1 2 6 1 1 
1773 1 8 10 OA Bae il 10 1 See M8425 ee 6 3 5 1 
1774 if 10 5 ar ca 3 3 2 1 1843 | ... 5 17 rae 1 
1775 2 1 3 ane 1 fi 15 2 ee 1844 2 2 18 1 ata 
1776 6 4 4 wee 2 3 10 2 nr 1845 2 7 14 soe ae 
YATE a 2 4 3 2 5 i 2) nt SAG mea 2 5 3 ies 
TREN, ee 3 7 1 6 7 6 1 oe SA hee. 2 | 10 3 1 
1779 A 3 7 aA 2 7 6 1 5 | 1848 | ... 1 8 oe ae 
1780! | .. mee 4 2 D 10 9 il ae 1849 1 4 13 2 aa 
1781 : 3 12 4 3 5 1 i 2 1850 i 2 10 2 1 
UCASPA III Gre ae 15 ee sie ae 16 Ave oa 1851 5 1 3 aa 2 
SON wees av ST ss noe as 19 AS ee 1852 | 5 7 6 oa il 
1784 | 4 1 3 Dre Ne Gray tel: 2 WET |) can it | ee 3 2 
P78 Del eee 2 3 aha AnD 2 19 5 1854 1 1 0 3 5 
1786 | ... 1 5 2 FAS 3 18 2 1855 3 10 3 3 i 
1787 2 u 8 4 han 2 12 2 SGI eee 9 2 1 5 
WAS8).), c 5 9 1 1 7 7 1 1857 | 1 7 9 D 2 
V789) | cs ie 10 tf 2 7 4 il 1858 5 4 11 ave 2 
1790 1 1 17 2 cies 2 8 nen S590) ee. 4 14 4 3 
1791 3 i 5 3 ie 4 13 2 1860 u whe 6 4 7 
1792 3 g 6 PC 1 8 if 4 1861 4 6 3 2 ane 
Hoel se. Pcs 6 2 1 8 4 10 S625 | vee 2 Y) 4 1 
1794 1 2 7 ae re 4 11 6 aSBeim| eee 3 5 3 ax 
1795 | 3 2 6 st Ss 5 | 14 1 USI | ase 2 || 10) 3 ee 
1796 2 Z 10 4 1 en i) wes 1865 1 2 8 5 4 
1797 1 eee i) ait ace 1 17 3 1866 | ... 1 9 6 aut 
1798 | ... ee 10 Ae Seis ie 20 1 1867 5 6 12 1 2, 
ON tons 1 12 2 ia 1 1l 4 1868 2 2 2 2 12 
1800 | ... re 14 See ahs 2 15 NAG z 1869 4 6 14 Bee ae 
USM Gres si 13 1 ie il 16 Ae fae 1870 2 4 3 2 ae 
1802 | ... Pon 15 a a ee 16 Ae A iss 8} 6 ule 7 3 
TSS |e. as Lae Nese oo Pe 26 is ms S72 |e 9 2 1 an 
1804 | ... 1 6 i 3 12 3 2 4 1873 3 12 i sae 
1805 2 4 11 1 ie 1 2 8 2 1874 2 4 15 1 eae 
1806 1 8 12 1 ore 2 4 ] 2 1875 1 2 6 ao mah 
1807 | woe si 20 rae wae Hee 11 ane Sh 1876 2 4 10 1 i 
1808 1 is 7 7) 2 9 5 sas 5 TYAN tsa 6 10 2 3 
1809 |... 1 13 fs coe aes 15 2 AD ASS) |) age 2 10 4 2 
L810 | 32. bi 14 2 hate eee 13 2 1879 3 4 9 1 sin 
Tha Eas 10 6 sce 6 3 Ae 1880 | ... Sean 1 a 
LOZ. s a. 4 10 4 ne 4 7 2 1881 1 6 6 mae Re 
LSUS | se 13 4 2 ~ 5 5 2 1882 | ... 2 9 3 1 
LS DA) ers 10 12 1 wa 6 2 a 1883 1 8 2 ee 1 
1815 2 2) 7 3 1 7 7 2 1884 | ... 5 4 1 2 
LSLO!}) or. Pe Neel 4 ey we 9 5 USS beleee 3 5 2 1 
ne by fa 5 8 Rel sre 8 | 12 1 1886 | 1 6 4 5 1 
1818 | ... Siac Wp mess 2 2 38 1 “ 1887 | 2 2 5 2 4 
1819} 1 3 9 4 1 5 7 1 aan 1888 | ... 2 6 4 1 
1820 | ... 1 15 1 “Ae 7 5 2 Lae 1889 |} 1 DA || alls} 3 4 
1821 4 PA ait) Bil ae 2 7 2 1 SOOM Bee Dy |) allay 2 4 
TOZZI ke 14 2 1 3 5 Ant 6 1891 6 3 8 1 2 
1823 1 1 8 3 2 PMT Dy a nee ae B92) aye 2 9 ah 1 
1824 1 6 | 18 uf 1 2 2 1 4 11893] 2 iat) 1 3 
Z| Saas 5 15 2 1 2 1 1 4 1894 5 3 6 1 2 
1826 As. 20 VA ares 3 6 tes i 1895 | 8 5 8 2 1 
1827 5 8 4 2 6 5 1 | 1896 | 6 6 4 cae we 


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THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 1538 
TaBLE XXXII.—continued. 
JUNE. 

Calm Calm 
W. IN.W.| or | Year.| N. | N.E.} E. |S.E.] S. |S.W.) W. |N.W./ or 

Var. Var 
9 4 1828 | ... 4 5 bate P) 8 8 2 1 
iI 4 1829 2, 6 2 2, 2 3 6 4 3 
7 or 1830 1 6 4 owe ney 4 3 7 5 
5 2 He USSR Wl sac 6 5 2 1 9 2 3 2 
13 3 dap 1832) |) 22. 8 6 i Aa see 9 2 4 
14 aa ee 1833 1 500 7 2 2 5 11 wee 2 
17 Ba Peeelssaale a ii 5} TLD ape 6) az 2 — 
14 oan 1835 1 2 13 ae 1 2 10 i Sie 
16 ane Noa UOT | onc Mie 4 ?) 2 10 12 Bae se 
1a eee eae 1837 4 2 see ee 5 10 5 1 3 
18 Bon oe 1838 1 3 7 1 age 8 4 1 5 
11 1 he 1839 1 9 a 1 par 4 5 1 ie, 
10 2 ase 1840 1 2 4 2 Pee 6 10 4 il 
Vi il ah 1841 2 4 9 1 ae 2 9 1 2 
9 zh ans 1842 | ... 7 6 2 cae 3 9 3 waa 
9 3 wee 1843 | ... 5 16 1 ae ite 4 3 1 
5 550 nee 1844 1 3 6 1 ae 7 6 2 4 
9 2 met 1845 1 Avie 3 i if 7 9 6 2 
7 wire ae 1846 | ... 1 4 D, 2 3 12 ies 6 
11 as 3 1847 2 3 5 2 nee 4 9 3 2 
3 1 3 1848 | ... 1 16 1 wae 2 8 aa 2 
15 1 2 1849 3 3 ‘ale 2 Rae 1 12 4 5 
Overs : 1850 | ... 1 5 eae Ne 35. || ilk} 3 a 
25 a Gioph ) Bee ae 5 1 3 5 | 15 1 se 
18 Fog 1852 6 3 4 1 3 2 9 1 1 
10 1 SSS) cos io 6 6 il 3 12 2 ore 
ital 4 1854 | 3 1 4 4 4 5 7 1 1 
7 ane 1855 1 2 4 il 4 4 11 2 i 
8 3 1856 4 4 11 Fie 2 2 4 1 2 
8 3 Usaye | cao 3 5 wer u 113 1 6 i 
3 3 Ufsyatsy | pac 2 3 il 2 10 8 3 1 
21 3 1859 1 4 6 3 1 1 11 2 1 
6 1 1860 | ... ge 14 1 4 if 3 1 or 
8 a 1861 2 3 15 2 1 3 4 aup ue 
9 6 USGZileees 1 3 if 1 4 13 4 3 
4 3 1863 | ... 2 5 3 2 7 6 1 4 
3 2 1864 1 1 3 ?) 3 4 14 2 Be 
15 2 NS Ge lees ae 6 6 1 6 10 1 wae 
13 2 1866 2 4 6 2 2 3 10 1 Hon 
22 ial 1867 4 4 2 1 1 2 14 2 neta 
19 2 1868 2 2 1 2 2 6 15 ae ie 
16 4 1869 4 4 4 ae 1 2 10 5 see 
21 Bon eae 1870 2 3 2 2 aes nae 14 6 1 
2! ee 1 1871 3 7 4 5 oa 2 1 2 6 
21 ane a0 1872 2 Sete 8 re 6 ann 12 i 1 
7 4 4 USS || Gon 2 8 2 nae 4 10 3 1 
9 3 4 1874 4 3 6 apn) 1 4 8 4 ae 
10 2 3 WED I) ooe 3 5) ane al 2 13 2 4 
20 fat nae 1876 1 6 4 1 2 il 11 4 vale 
10 2 ae NUSY ATL NN Gre 1 10 1 1 4 12 1 eae 
19 en 1878 5 fi 8 1 fee iL 7 1 ane 
113} 4 1879 ) 4 9 2 1 5 7 cit nae 
4 il 1880 2 4 12 aes 360 2 8 iais 2 
8 1 1881 | ... 4 5 3 Site 4 11 2 1 
see 3 1882 3 5 1 2 4 6 2 7 ac 
6 2 1883 3 2 9 Bre 2 5 9 ans ee 
4 1 1884 2 5 3 a aan Boe tt 7 6 
2 8 ae 1885 1 7 1 2 aan 4 9 4 2 
if bee i 1886 2 4 7 eae kei 2 10 4 1 
14 wits jen 1887 1 2 i 1 3 1 7 6 2 
13 1 eae 1888 | ... 5 | 14 2 OF ase 2 2 3 
10 4 wae 1889 1 11 1 2 3 10 Pi pao 2 
1 ee 1 1890 1 wat 6 2 2 1 if/ he il 
10 A 4 1891 | ... 3 13 2 1 1 5 3 D 
12 2 1 1892 2 2 6 1 2 1 12 u 3 
17 1 1 1893 4 1 if 2 2 2 8 2 2 
6 2 5 1894 2 3 8 1 2 2 9 3 ap 
14 1 4 1895 1 2 10 1 1 il 12 2 ab 
13 2 1 1896 3 3 10 1 1 1 9 2 


S. |S.W. 
1 2 
2 
7 
i 
1 
6 
if 
3 
3 
9010 3 
3 6 
5 a 7] 
3 8 
3 
4 
4 
7 
5 
3 
6 
1 
5 
1 
2 8 
9 
4 
7 
2 
1 
1 
8 
1 
6 
soe 3 
508 1 
ele 
1 | 10 
20 2 
2 
7 
3 
8 
3 
8 
2 
>on 4 
O90 4 
1 | 10 
2 
8 


154 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE XX XII.—continued. 


JULY. 
Calm | Calm 
Year.| N. | N.E.| E. S.E. | S. |S.W.| W. |N.W.| or | Year.| N. | N.E.| E. |S.E.] S. | S.W.| W. |N.W.) or 
Var | Var 
1731} 4 5 4 tl ae 4 WN a 1 1828 | 3 8 7 3 2 3 2 1 
IEPA] 8? 3 2 2 1 5 | 10 6 1829 | 5 6 3 3 1 5 Clie 
1783) | om 4 4 1 1 eeledip 4 1830 | 1 5 2 1 1 | 10 5 3 
1784 | 18 1 8 pears 3 8 6 eS 6 1 i ibess 7 6 4 
1785 | 3 5 2 4 3 4 7 3 SS 20 ee 2 € |nenalind 4 5 4 
TCS hccs, Clee lela, cllzcaa meet ene On| es UREN aoe [hose 6 1 1 Be | 12 
7655 |e seen 9 aoe Were heal ees 1834 | ... By W518) Mites: 2 4 2 1 
7/600 | eee |e ia ete OLB ; 1835 te 7 Sr alee Ree 1 
GH eee | eaten || le Peele Le 1836 2 3 2 1 5 | 14 4 
TZESa oe ites, WLS alee pala wer 1837 | 5 3 3 2 2 Hf 2 5 
1769 | ... 4 we Sey lent NAG cs 1838 | 2 1 i allt 1 6 | 10 4 a 
1770} 5 4 8 4 3 6 1 1839 | ... 1 5 2 2 9 8 1 3 
iG HAl || 3 3 ak 9) 3 2 1840 | 1 2 Di |e Nee 5 | 11 4 (G 
ie |) 3 4 2 2 8 9 1 1841 | 1 3 6 ils es 3 8 4 Ye 
1773 | 08 3 5 2 (Sit 2 a ea 1842] 1 3 7 oh 2 4 5 4 4 
Ava Nese 2 1 7 8 | 10 3 1843 | 2 2 1 belie. 7 9 6 2m 
iia || 8 i 5 2 a 5 5 2 Deut eda st | ae 6 4 2 3 | 10 2 33 
1776 | 1 2 7 2 4 8 6 1 ae) 2 6 3 1 4 8 5. | 
Lion uses Ll) oh ae 1 NN Ty I ee 3 | 1846 | ... 1 4 2 2 9 | 10 3 al 
WARP one 1 3 3 Beta 1 AA AEUSH Z| es cee | oepe | ested eee eee 1. 06) ee om 
1779 1 4 2 2) 5 9 1 7 | 1848 ine Dll vess 2 5 | 20 1 ig 
SOEs wl) ae 6 i alas 4 | 16 1 2 | 1849] 1 6 Di issue lhe 7 8 4 3 
1781 ml Das hater {I easeulll tom Mailer ee LSSOn mee, We] HO |) oo 4 4 9 3 ae 
1782 Sue eee lve D3) Piibate TEBE || Sop 2 aoa eer 2 A 6 eee wit 
1783 Bie see ligare Dy Ws. 1852 | 4 9 7 1 Oa ee 7 1 oil 
1784 5 eon ee 3 Oat 1 WEBS) goa Mone i 2 5 9 | 11 3 ae 
1785 1 2 4 Belts 5 3 1854 | 2 4 alae. Bees 4 2 a 
1786 | 1 eee renal tat || DE 5 1855 | ... 6 7 2 1 2 9 1 3 
1787 | 1 9 1 3 3 | 1B 1 S56 ee Bio | se eae ellen ee fi a | 
1788 al oy he | aley |i} 1 TSS 70 2 1 ile i enpee Wicca PO |) le 8 i 
1789 1 5 2 il || ia 7 1 1858 | 1 4 2 3 Pie lbs 8 4 | 
1790 | 1 1 1 2) eae ale 9 2 5 Onl ree eee (el ellie, 1 2 | 16 1 
1791 A gilteae 3 8 9 ii 1860 | 1 6 9 il D4 soy oui a ee 
1792 4 3 it | ae 5 5 TEKSIE aoe il 6 4 2 By 1 15: ee 
1793 7 Bee 8 | 12 1 1862 iT || 2 1 8 | 15 3 
1794 i 2 : |) 3 1863 3 ANN ee ieee 3 | 16 4 
1795 | 3 3 7 2 2 ik |] etkil 2 1864) 2 || 3, 8 1 1 Ae il ; 
1796 | 1 2 BI lee Fol hee 4 | 18 3 1865 | ... 8 5 2 5 tl ee ; 
1797 a fi ; 1 | ee Wass 1866 | 1 6 8 ON 3 9: ae ; 
AOS eee ll ere Pp alleen lane AT D5ye |e Oy | ete |G 4 8 2 1 1 7 2 
VOD eee cee WO all seen ill-ten alles elles a Gee ... | 1868} 4 6 2 1 2 6 9 1 ; 
1800! ... 2 3 ee oo 8 1869 | 4 2 OSS 8 2 | 13) ; 
1801 13 dealieee 16 1 TSO ae, 2 4 4 1 2 8 aa 
1802 14 as 16 ve [bibl | oe 1 1 3 3 5 | 15 3 
| 1803 9 Pe 22 eee S25 28 10 1 4 i, | alil 1 
1804 | 1 ae lal a 2 7 2 ApS 750 1 Denne % Qi) 3 
1805 3 8 2 Dante 3 2 | 1874) 1 1 2 1 3 2 | 16 3 
1806 | 1 4 9 He ee 2 8 2 4 | 1875) 3 5 Coe eretal Ieee lah, [pal 3 
1807 5 Vie lated We LOeele ... | 1876 | 8 1 Pye eee essere) (hI) 6 
1808 cle aa Daline ace lke “he N 6 Oe aye le Wiss eae 2 5 5 | 16 1 
1809 See MS eliace Mleedlien 17L6 2 Me | (lyelal 5 9 Te Wee. 2 | 10 3 
1810 4 5 Binl| ane Ty alG3 2 wt erode! a 6 5 De Wes 2 | Ip 1 
Tse} ol 2 4 2 2 3 | 16 1 1880 | ... 5 WD eullindes dlgess ale 1 
1312) a 4 fa! 3 8 9 1 1881 | ... dl drapes |e las Hy | SF Cu ; 
1813 | 1 4 7 3 2 7 6 1 1882 2 PR ar Tah) ate 3 ‘ 
1814 Doll is 1 a |lfalis 9 3 1883 | 1 4 4 1 4 6 6 4 2 
1815 9 i) | eae ace BMG. ia 1884 1 ice {ee et 6 li 
1816 | 1 9 7 2 alae 7 1 1885 2 2 Nea 1 | ta |) te 3 i 
1817 | 38 3 1 5 2 4 | 10 8 | 1886) 1 4 4 1 11/8 6 4 dy 
1818 | 3 5 1 2 1 4 | 15 1887 | 1 1 i ise 1 A ae 5 et 
1819 All Dal ea 4 | 10 4 1888 4 | 11 3 2 3 6 1 dl 
1820 7 | 18 DS Ml epecetl|. See Ml cD 1 1889 | 3 i, | 10 2 1 | ve (ae 3 | 
1821 4 5 1 1 BOL 1 by B90!) 1 | 6 2 2 a ilp 1 |e 
1822 3 || i Al eae ae | 1 | 1891} 2 2 Un TN Tih 5 2) | 12 3 | a 
1823 1 6 Bill aa 9 | @ 2 3 | 1892 ae) 1 |... | a | 16 |) 
B24] 2 jw | 2B we | ew | 1B 1 41803) 2 | 5 | 7 | 1} a | 4 | 10 ee 
1825 | 1 1 tel ») 4 1 4 1 6 | 1894] 1 3 Be | ek 1 2 | 14 1 | 
1826 1 4 2 1 9 8 2 4 |1895| 2 1 6 1 2 | 2 | Teen 
1827 7 1 1 - 8 | 18 1 1896 | 7 il Al re 1 1 (8 2.) 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 155 


TaBLe XX XII.—continued. 


AUGUST. 

Calm Calm 
Year.| N. |NE.| E. | SE. | S. |SW.| W. | NW.| or | Year.| N. |NE.| E. | SE. | S. |SW.] W. |NW.| or 

Var. Var 
1731 | 5 Beh Ub 1 1 1 2 3 1828 | 6 3 7 2 1 4 6 2 Re 
1732] 1 3 4 3 1 5 9 5 1829 | 2 5 3 Sil ase 3 5 6 4 
1733 1 4 1 1 7 |) alt" 6 1830 | ... 9 (ees 1 2 6 2 4 
1734] 1 1 4 1 1 6 | 15 2 fo) Psst} 1 4 ile ame 4 8 4 8 
ESD. |) «so 3 4 3 1 Sa OH ee Soon EB ea! 6 1 Lee pos 5 | 12 1 4 
emer | 12 ot ll ke ol ee | U8. | asd Te peises | it. | ra eel ae Ti ROP alae 3 
IM US ce Vcsep.. | coe 2B | one son | aR BYE | Bon il Gado 3 6) } 10. |... 5 
GS | a eee all bt DAA aoe Per elsabulon |) aie ASN aes 2 | 12 2 oy 
il Gi? || ee 1 || Se cemm|en Aa fee oa] eA OPT USAGE isee Ieee 5 4 2 8 | 13 4 ee 
MM TA | ce | cee | coe | UE | oes Hon save 2 2 9 Ol Wee 6 5 4 2 
EM | LE | as | ores | eee | QO | ww mon | DEBS || 2 2 ile bees a2 3 5 
1770 | 1 4 Ge || ee aL) abt |) ath) 2 sen | BO 5 lea ee i |) ae: 4 2 3 
ig | 2 2 jc ee 3 9 | 12 2 no | USO ae 3 3 ole eee 5 | 15 2 2 
1772 | 1 1 2 2 2 Hs eeealeallss 1 .. =| 1841 2 2 Oe 8 | 18 2 2 
igr3 | 3 2 5 2 4 CAE iC ee ... | 1842 1 Be le i.) te 5 2 5 
1774 | 4 2 1 2 5 7 9 1 Fee [s843" 3, 1 3 1 il 9 9 2 5 
Wend | i. 2 3 2 9 9 5 1 me is44 en, |e 4 ae ail 2 | 15 4 4 
m6 |... 4 3 4 2 6 | 10 1 1 | 1845] 2 4 4 Dalia 3 7 5 5 
Wary ||... 2 bY a ae a \ 10 | 10 1 4 11846]... 3 | 10 it 1 3 7 1 5 
mys) 1 | i 3 1 2 BPW | oe gay | 1 4 1 2 5B | 12 3 3 
7g | 4 1 8 2 2 9 3 1 4 | 1848-] .., 1 5 1 1 Spor 2 7 
1780 | ... 2 | 16 2 1 3 3 ASUS AGi lox. dl ck 4 1 1 4 | 11 1 9 
1781 cca | TESS Sea |e Ve (De Beda USHON Sees ioe Dlh +at. 1 6 | 13 9 os 
1782 —_ 1 | cece sl Mecaeeeiemh Femme Ft: a ae Pee asiuts|| eee 9 2 1 9 8 2 oe 
Pepa, |... | 18 cha, Wed cena Ree el Hie .. | 1852] 2 6 Dena i 5 | 14 1 ae 
1784 | 3 2 3 1 4 | 16 2 1853 | 2 u 1 2 2 iy) all 7 a 
A785 | 2 3 7 1 il 4 9 4 USHA De il ee lh ae 1 1 8 | 13 6 a 
Meso... | 8 Dy ae 5 | 14 2 1855 (| ... 1 1 1 2 6 | 15 3 2 
p87 |... 2 Baa cee ills 1 | 18 5 S56Nl ee 2 5 1 5 6 7 3 2 
mes | -1 2 Beate | 8 | 17 1 1857 | ... a | 12 1 1 2 Shed ay 3 
eo) 1 | ... 6 Bale | 16 4 1 1858 | ... 1 5 1 By | al) 8 3 ae 
a) a 6 Dea. 5 | 16 2 1859 | ... if BL | oie 2 fe Wale We 
iol) 1 5 B} 4 2 9 6 er sGon |e 3 2 1 3 6 | 16 
OD |< PEC QDe |... 2 4 Salih ce, sock | VAN oT1 Ge even ee nn ee 1 2 i || 2) 1 
11/¢8)\ an 5 1 2 mt WO Ml ae REP TSGo7!) 1 1 Mi 1 ie |) | pee 5 
1794 | 5 AV ew 3 4 9 6 1863 | ... 4 1 1 1 Ce Watt 4 1 
1795 | 2 4 1 1 6 | 15 2 1864 | ... 1 8 4 2 als) joa 1 
1796 | 1 Oe | 1 Gy \s9 1 1865 | 1 1 8 6 1 6 8 | Re 
1797\| ... Peete el x: 6 | 18 5 WARE | aoe 2 6 4 2 Fa) tol 1 
1798 | . 3 Oui eee t || 23 3 ... | 1867 | 2 1 aie & || SeenON | a4. ay eee 
moo)... |... Bar| 1 Wa Nee Pen S68) 2 4 Boll she 6 6 Bia i cer 
1800 | ... 4 OME eeren cc) Se 8 ag 8 ... | 1869 | 4 2 cle lees 2 Oe ilats 2 
Pee. | 12 |... |. ee iO! allt ae son || IRSA! || 22 9 Soll eakes tlh coat 2 6 9 
12) a O. | eae ee dl POS a pond 6 | (ols W Ail reeeamed ame 2 2 2 Hy \t SUBS 3 
; 1803 Deere, los. Seon otal NA PRM S728) (2a he 9 3 Fe Mec) Ie Nee 
1804 | ... PMS | ccy,. | os 5 | 17 1 GU s73) | ok 1 84 lh 1 Gaels Swale 
1805! 1 1 2 A al 7 | 14 4 Ty Ws74 | oe 2 6 ihe ae A Wath 1 
1806 | 1 1 2 1 1 By |e 4 Bet] ayy I a |) ao 8 ehy os % | 4 D) 4 
1807 8 5 Fee ee erP LS7enl 4 1 Gig awe 2 2 9 1 6 
1808 | ... 1 8 1 1 4 | 14 1 P8777 | ak 5 | ali! 4 2 i} ae i we 
1809 | ... WUDE ers | cos. | see -| UB |! ce SEE 1878" | st 03 (Sion | tae abel Meare yaliiesec 1 
SO 1 in es 2 | 18 2 S799 | 2 8 2 1 ESN Ase || ee 8) 
re) 3° |, Bae ei 1 8 | 11 5 1880 | ... Ua ata ies 1 3 8 1 Ae 
1812 | 1 9 | 10 3 1 3 3 1 1881 | 1 7 4 flys sleet 3 8 7 +f: 
1813 | 1 2 oe 2 8 | 10 5 1882} 1 DM) ee ee 5 A Ws 6 2 
We) oe | os 2 Greil ee i | 12 4 1883 | 1 1 rly ali 5) 3 | 19 4 ae 
Waieh 1 | 2) 2 ey W738 1 Rep sgal oe il 3 2 4 | 11 6 2 2 
1816 | 1 4 7 Bae’ ack 2 9 4 TH USS5s |) tl 7 1 1 2 6 2 1 
oeeeeids) 3 | 8 | § | 7 }-¢6 |. Beth 1886" |. De eoeleseet| co" il 9! | 1S ot 1 
1818 | 2 | 10 2 4 1 4 6 2 POU say), 2 B Goa see fcact a | ie 4 1 
mec, | 14 |... .| cs |-12 3 3 .. | 1888} 1 1 5 1 2 || ah 2 1 
TB20n Ire ) BAN oe 2 9 | 14 2 .. | 1889] 1 1 3 “le ee al piles hy oe 1 
1821 | 1 MeO) hese |! oa: Se AB. all sss 2° | 18990 | .. 2 6 ea ee 4 | 15 2 1 
U2. |i al apt ks 2 1 6 | 11 2 7 | 1891] 1 2 7 2 1 By at 3 1 
1°23) a oe i ee 3 9 /11 5 2 | 1892 1 5 we et B uTOher |) 2 
1824 | 1 3 9 a3 1 | 10 2 5 118938] 2 |... 4 1 rhage Mee ef 3 6 
Teale | 6 i 4 9 4 8 [1894]... |... 5 ft 3k 3 | 18 4 oF 
1826 | .., 1 3 A aul 8 1 8 11895] 2 1 1 2 ‘ 4 |18 | ... 3 
1827 | 1 2 7 2 1 3 6 6 3 | 1896| 6 3 Sl ae cp als 3 1 


156 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XX XII.—continued. 


Year.. 


1731 
1732 
1733 
1734 
1735 
1764 
1765 
1766 
1767 
1768 
1769 
1770 
1771 
1772 
1773 
1774 
1775 
1776 
1777 
1778 
1779 
1780 
1781 
1782 
1783 
1784 
1785 
1786 
1787 
1788 
1789 
1790 
1791 
1792 
1793 
1794 
1795 
1796 
1797 
1798 
1799 
1800 
1801 
1802 
1803 
1804 
1805 
1806 
1807 
1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1813 
1814 
1815 
1816 
1817 
1818 
1819 
1820 
1821 
1822 
1823 
1824 
1825 
1826 
1827 


: 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


N. |N.E.| E. 
1S lige a] 

3 2 3 

YA | es 3 

2 1 1 

2 1 2 

a bos 3 
: 10 

ree ; 8 
ch 8 
a) 12 
aa ae 9 
2 4 9 

6 2 6 

3 2 1 

wee [nae 2 
2 2 7 

5 4 5 

a5 6 3 
aso. llssor 1 
4 1 2 

oe i 2 
BON ocr. 6 
So5me| oct Weel) 
Sou Woes |Z 
mea tcc 7 
: pe 6 
50 il 8 
WW eonee |} 

ane 502 8 
2 2 of 

4 1 1 

Pe Wes (plo 

BD Ill S00 7 

x se 5 
Orn || eereen | sO. 

3 1 4 

ae “8 5 
We s6c 4 

se 1 5 
+6 Shr 9 
ac iL i) aliit 
see mor, | us) 
ia oe 8 
Age ie 5 
1 1 5 

“ot 1 2 
Ae 2 2 
1 3 6 

2 3 5 

meu Micon |ioLe 
rig |tevens | MLO 
2 8 3 

ae Ware 6 

1 5 6 

Sir 6 5 
1 1 2 

1 OF Sines 

1 2 2 

2 1 4 

my yal leery. 
4 | cee 3 

LO ere tes 

ove 2 9 
LP lies 3 

a 2 5 

1 1 3 

ss 1 7 
1 9 


S.E. 


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Poot BRR Rw, pt ttt 


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THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 157 


TaBLe XX XII.—continued. 


OCTOBER. 

Calm Calm 
N. | N.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.| W. |IN.W.| or {| Year.; N. |IN.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.] W. |N.W.)| or 
Var. Var. 
1 1 i 6 8 Uf 6 1 WEPAS |" Soc won ste 4 3 9 11 1 3 
ane 3 2 7 4 9 5 1 1829 4 2 1 3 Pos 8 11 2 see 
noe 1 il 2 1 12 8 6 1830 | 1 ee aye 2 4 10 5 9 
3 3 1 il 3 6 a 7 NSSils eee i 1 1 1 22 4 wae ik 
1 ee 8 5 1 5 10 1 Hoe 8325 \e ine 1 ie 2 fon 10 | 12 2 4 
sale 4 aad 27 site _ 1833 1 8 2 il 6 10 oe 3 
6 aay 3 va ‘ 28 ai aa 1834 | ... nee his <u 1 6 20 4 was 
ae a 9 ‘ae F 22 oa nec 1835 | .2. 2 1 2 see 8 13 5 eae 
050 0 wes site ne 81 im ays 1836 4 aaa 3 5 ae 6 12 1 ae 
& ‘ 17 ee “a 14 tae aoe 1837 1 ee 2 ef 4 5 14 5 eee 
ide ida 14 ies “5s sae 17 ae ge 1838 il 2 2, 1 1 6 12 2 4 
son ons 5 aus 2 11 13 ‘ate Aca TUBB) II ban 2 6 3 3 9 2 1 5 
2 1 int 2 4 15 a wae ad 1840 1 2 3 il 1 it 10 10 2 
1 1 6 5 6 8 4 site aha SA eae 7 6 2 1 1 8 5 il 
2 aah aan ait 10 5 14 ‘gis Ao 1842 2 al 1 i Ap 1 13 10 2 
ul aa 3 3 3 7 14 a ce 1843 3 2 2 1 1 4 13 4 1 
1 2; se 1 1 if 15 3 1 1844 | ... 3 1 6 4 4 8 3 2 
aes 4 3 2 2 8 11 il ana SAS ve 2 1 2 2 3 17 2 2 
bas 2) 8 1 4 6 9 fo 1 1846 il 4 2 6 3 5 7 a 3 
3 2 6 3 5 2 1 1 8 470 seas 3 9 5 1 5 7 1 nae 
sod tas 4 oy 4 10 7 3 3 1848 | 3 7 2 4 2 5 5 1 2 
ae 3 ants 4 11 10 wa 3 1849 i 3 4 aac aan 9 8 5 iL 
eri ei, 1 ae ies arc 30 Ber cok 1850 3 1 i Ran 2 8 10 6 wa 
Pat ae 14 ‘ate bod ont ily) ae ae 1851 2 ee wae safe 3 14 | 12 ee isis 
an aoe ae an ate ant 31 wae an 1852 | 6 2 3 1 % B, 13 1 1 
2 fan 5 4 4 2 11 3 4G 1853 | 2 1 2 5 6 6 6 3 Mas 
1 2 1 1 2 4 117 3 1854 2 2 hie nae 2 10 7 4 4 
nee aah 16 1 es 4 8 2 1855 il 2 2 il 4 By |) al 2 2 
iS aon 10 3 1 6 9 2 WE56N ee 2 2 3 5 a 3 5 4 
2 £56 4 aoe ‘ols 5 17 3 1857 2 1 6 1 il 5 6 3 6 
3 1 8 4 a 6 9 ; SS eee 1 5 ee 1 7 14 2 il 
2 me 10 2, 3 6 7 1 ie 1859 2 2, 4 4 4 5 8 2 bei 
1 1 11 i or 2 7 2 Bs S60) Paen 2 2 ane 2 6 18 il ie 
2 15 5 4 4 1 MCSE Yl Ben BGs uae 2 9 8 10 2 ware 
i 4 ae 14 112) WER | con 4 2 2 || Bal San nue 
2 nee 3 1 6 12 7 1863 | ... 4 3 3 6 12 ra 1 
ome 1 1 10 5 8 4 2 1864 | ... 15 4 sale 2 8 ous 2 
sn 1 aes 1 27 2 wae 1865 2 9) |) al? 4 ae il 6 4 Te 
6 3 Baie 3 12 if uN 1866 1 2 1 4 5 5 10 3 aoe 
“6 6 wae sat oy 22: : We | Goo BBO 3 il 4 8 15 nae oe 
i 7 are ome 2 15 7 1868 | ... "an 2 1 6 6 14 2 ‘lee 
acn 5 Rite Bao 2 22 2 1869 3 6 1 2 2 2 8 7 nan 
3 1 4 ash Ae vie 20 3 ae 1870 | 2 3 8 486 3 A || We i sel 
ses 5 Oo) ale aes 26 vas an 1871 ul 1 7 uf 6 14 itt mae 
ae 13 a ane “ike 18 ba a NS 72N es ‘er 4 il 2 1 18 2 wee 
3 3 5 2 8 8 2 | 18738 1 wae 2 awe 10 | 18 a3 aoe 
3 3 5 6 re 2 4 al 7 1874 1 Pe 3 1 3 3 14 5 1 
2 2 6 5 1 5 6 2 PA || ass} ano it | ale 2 2 1 8 1 2 
1 6 Ae aoe ae 23 il ee 1876 2 2 |) 10) 2 2 4 6 2 1 
2 id ssi ach 2 9 8 7 1 NST |) sas 1 1 3 3 4 16 3 3 

sae oe 13 ie. oF ane 18 a sd 1878 | 2 a 1 6 8 4 7 3 

eae il 8 ed Toh ] 21 det ~~ 1879 | ... 1 5 1 saa 1 22 1 
1 1 2 8 3 10 6 ‘ee en 1880 1 7 4 1 is wee 7 10 1 
1 8 1 3 2 8 4 3 1 WKH | oe 3 7 8 1 3 = 9 Rh 
ona 5 | 10 5 1 5 1 4 1882 | 1 1 6 4 5 4 Ul 1 2 
ea sae a 5 7 Wi il) 1) ale) 4 é 1883 1 1 1 2 1 a 14 4 was 
“on 5 3 6 abt al 2) an 1884 | 3 1 2 iL 4 14 5 1 
3 1 7 7 1 3 7 2 ... | 1885} 1 7 5 Or Nace 2 5 9 a 
5 7 2 8 4 3 1 Sob 1 1886 | ... 6 a 2 4 4 8 cee wise 
see bch 4 8 2 13 4 ey a 1887 1 1 Se ae ae 4 17 6 2 
3 4 4 ae 3 5 9 3 irk 1888 1 aoe 1 1 2 9 12 5 tee 
3 1 5 2 5 Py 1) alal 2 ae 1889 1 1 9 4 3 2 9 1 1 
Ra, ihe ‘ibs 3 bia 7 20 Son a 1890 | 2 sae 1 Roe 1 A |) 2 3 ais 
1 3 6 6 3 8 3 Fe 1 1891 |... Mae 1 3 8 4 8 il 6 
1 il 4 5 2) 10 7 1 1892 | 4 1 3 2 1 3 15 2 Ae 
1 2 6 i 1 5 10 4 1 1893 1 ae D ses see 2 | 23 ast 3 
2 1 2 1 3 ul 11 3 1 1894 3 2 6 5 2 oe 9 2 2 
Son ae 1 4 ) |; alt) 4) at 3 | 1895 7 2 3 ee 1 aoe 16 1 1 
1 By 1) 2 2 3 5 2 3 41896 | 7 2 2 1 ee, || ali 5 1 


158 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE XX XII.—continued. 


NOVEMBER. 

Calm - Calm | 
Year.| N. | N.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.] W. |N.W.| or N.|N.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.] W. IN.W.] or 

Var. Var, 
1781 |... 3 2 il | bee 3. | 16 5 2 4 2 5 3 6 5 2 1 
WAPH| 8: nea hoe 6 3 3 | 10 4 1 3 2 ORs eee 7 8 Bie! 
1768'|) ol Sal ee. 1 A |halba |) Tak 1 ; a 1 2 5 i= jf we 6 1:3 
1784] 1 ate eee 3 6 | 13 6 SA es: 1 1 1 1 6 | 12 6 2 
1735 | 1 ee |. 3 6 | 10 4 5 3 < 10 Wp Ree] 3 4 7 | 12: 1 2 
7G: |. ellen Sae|eeceke| esse |e ua e. ‘ Teall ee 1 5 | 18 2 3 
ANS || Se | see | ees te | ee 23 be Pegi 6 Bol os. 3° | 17°" 
1766 | ... Ba Ses, cellos 25 7 bec pe 8 4 2 3° | 12°20 
TAYE || oe Goh fec wales . | 24 ae 1 4 2 Daa ree 3 | 15 3°*0| a 
1768 | ... Sel Welt. caves eee A Heel bc 2 2 2 if || 4 Bs 
1769) Rec Gre lcctalioat) litae Roan i ye 3 6 6 2 1 ae & 2 
1770 | 5 1 5 3 2 8 4 2 a 1 2 6 6 1 6 Eee cs 3 
Tye al IY Te lines Bl aly 3 2 5) 2 Daa lites: 4 1 5 8 4 Aa 
1772 || 8 1 2 4 5 8 6 1 ch Deaallitccecte lle 2 2 Gy | ata al 9 
TB) cle lees 1 2 4 | 12 9 1 i) 1 4 5 6 Wh baa 4 Cee 5 
1774 | 8 1 4 CE ae 4 | 10 3 1 ae 1 1 2 2B Wal |) itil 2 1a 
1775 | 4 3 6 5 2 6 2 2 Ba eee lies. 9 OF ie 5 7 il 6 
1776\ |)... 2 1 4 “| all 3 2 e. _ i 2 6 1 Bh) ald! 2 2 
7 (7h Lope | reel eee tate 1 Sy |K26E 0. @ 2 1 1 5 4 4 8 1 4 
778) ee 2 5 2 3 5 Meee 5 7) | oe 2 eee 2 8 | 13 1 4 
1779 | 4 4 nt | ae 1 3 8 2 i 2 TAP ee 1 4 | 16 4 2 
1780 | 1 3 OPN ech | Pee 4 | 15 3 2 Ik Ee 2 2 | 10 8 1 6 
TR eee aed FG) |e Well hein iteeseeenl| R23 Bellen By. Biadlitese 1 1 4 45) 573 ae = 
17 SOU cael eee PLOW Ets Mell tc cpen | Acereunelelananaes i Grant etal hcenyl|$ % cx 4 | 15 7 Fs 
TBS ek Ve cME TOR [Pc ccteilince ch || Reactant OM eee ge 2 4 1 2 2 8 9 2 * 
T7S4\) 1 3 aT eee 9 | 12 3 aie OF || 2 2 7 5 5 7 £ 
1785 | 1 1 Spal seis. 2. | 19 4 A 3 5 Dl ose il 8 6 5 an 
1786 | 8 3 9 4 1 1 3 1 ch 3 4 4 2 3 bake 2 5 | 
eye plas ||Nees 3 1 1 1 6 4 + BM | eccteel| peel ieee 2 3 8 9 3 
1788 | 1 1 1 5 2 |) it 2 % 5 1 2 6 3 3 4 3 1 a 
T7891) Bs Thos 8 a at heseeee | SLT Hey ee “eh ~ 1 2 3 5 aa il bh 
1790 | 3 |} atl 3 1 3 7 1 te ab 1 1 Dee alLON a ate 1 aoe 
1791! 3 2 5 1 2 5) atil 1 an 9 | 10 4 1 4 1 1 
17925 | Pol 2 Cy alees Ol eee hcl 8 5 bs 4 3 2 1 2 || 10 1 aa 
1705) WD) eee 0 Me tesa 2 3 D An TOMA elk ea 3 a || ale BE ain 5 | 
1704 0 Di aiieee 7 6 i 7 7 Di, = he 1 3 1 2 a) 316. 4\ ee 3 
705 |W daae |e 3 1 6 4 4 5 ee 3 1 7 2 2 3 8 2 2 
1796 | 3 1 CEN ier: 2 PA 8 Walla Nh oh, i 2 2 5 3 1 5 8 4 a 
ZO | bee ee, nL ie ik |h ay 2 7 LPG seemealeneee 1 1 4 | 18 5 Ly 
1798.4) be aeall ese 9 en salt ees es) 2 PSs 4 bee Aas 2 4 | 14 5 a 
1799 | ... 4 iL dp ee pee! ae 1 Be 4 1 6 4 2 2 ll 4 = 
S00) lieve eee 1 oe a FS} ee rh TR areal .5 ened ee 1 | 12-4) 16 " 
1801 | ... 2 3 sacatalasectac|E2O 5 a bake bee: Searles 1 A | ine 4 a 
TOA eee lb eee hall oe RUE Pere A 5 3 6 DW ane 2 7 5 By 
1803 wes 10 ic SHE 19 co 1 ae 5 5 1 2 8 if 2 Bsn 
1804 | 2 2 6 8 1 3 AW se 4 D) 2 6 1 il 2 13 3 i 
1805) 28. | be. rts ase 1 ep eal 2 3 2 2 4 1 2 Thay 4 2 
1806 | ... 1 3 1 1 6 | 16 1 1 4 4 5 3 OO pe 7 3 aa 
1807 | 2 3 A ae ee es 6 vi 2 2 9 2 it 4 8 1 ni 
1808 | ... 3 6 2 1 4 Of ke 5 See nh Ron Ie ae 2 3114 | lo il cal 
SOE ESR tere bl PLB Gace il tecet les co eC De. dl bos * 4 4 Beet], Sean ala eee 4 8 7 
1810} 1 “Wee 1 1 9 il i 1 4 BRA ee seeallieee Th Nts 4 # 
Tete | eels. Bill ecm eaaeal ae | 10 3 th 2 De | tose sees 2 Sel m2 4 b 
1812 | 1 2 5 HA alte 8 3 4 i ee Cie lle eee 3 i rl) | le 3 a 
TSHG eee | en |tees 4 3 | 10 8 5 me Ofer 3 1 2 8 9 405 a 
1814 | ... 4 1 1 2 4 | 15 3 aS Omilige: GH nk 3 5 | 16 Q--1 Ty 
1815 | 2 if} ee 2 Hail et OMe eli 3 is 2 Oe ES. 3 1 8 6 7.) Se 
1816 | 3 3 1 Odie, 8 6 6 1 ee 2 4 6 1 8 5 2 2 
1817 or 1 4 6 9 7 3 Pe Sigal tree 18.1 2 pe ae 4 oa 
1818 | 1 8 9 2 8 sail! tesa Rall ore x 1 2 4 1 3 8 4 3 4 | 
1819 | 3 4 iW le seek WA be is 4 ay es 2 9 3 2 1) | 2") : 
1820} 1 1 5 1 2 4 | 10 6 Ke 1 2 2 1 1 49) 1S eee 1 
1821} 1 1 2 3 1 CE MGeliee gy Pople ae 3 2 3 2 | 07 1 eye: 
1822 eee aoe eee 3 4 17 5 wee 1 1 | eee 6 1 eee 2 13 3 5 | 
1898 | 4: 1 2 1 2 7 8 | eae 4 me 4 5 5 5) | Ons bs 
1824 | 1 re 1 1 6 | 16 3 em 5 3 89)! he. 2 2 9 4 re 
1608 | 80) 2G] 2 4 be) Le) Fay hol) od 2 we [ow |. | 18)) 801 1Oe | 125) Soe 
| 1828 | QF)... 1 |! 2 6 9 7 4 2 38 6 2 2 2 | 12-41 ie oT 
1827 | 1 eS i ee 2 62/12 5 2 72 a 4 2 1 3° 1 W5 2 ah 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 159 


TaBLE XX XII.—continued. 


DECEMBER. 
Calm Calm 
Year.| N. | N.E./ E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.} W. [N.W.] or N. |N.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.|] W. IN.W.| or 
Var. Var 
17381 | 3 ace 1 z z A | 15 4 ie aH 5 i 16 4 ach 5 
1732 3 es 4 5 6 6 5 2 wea 1 2 2 5 4 6 2 1 8 
1733 | ... fs as ~ 4 | 16 | 10 1 bag 3 2 4 il 4 5 3 3 
1734 | ... 1 1 PA | alo) i} al) 5 2 Sef des ae Sa 2 Seen Aen Oise 2 
1735 2 3 1 3 10 1 8 3 ce saa ees 1 3 a 13 11 2 1 
1764 | ... eee 18 435 ae tes 13 bee at 1 a 2 sab a 6) 20 il 1 
a765D | ... ed 14 a des eee 17 K: a sa a 2 1 See BW BRN aoe ast 
1766 | ... aise 15 ‘ Oca 2 15 Pad BH 2 1 if ita de 4 16 1 aes 
767 | ... ae 113) ae ae 1S) eee sn 3 4 3 1 Aan b |) 12 3 ie 
1768 | ... noe 12 : wet aie 19 me oa 4 3 3 ae oat 12 6 3 Site 
1769 | ... me ZT Nae on es 27 oe oe a 1 ay 2 1 iB} |) 1 1 
1770 | 4 Sa &3 *, 38 | 15 if 2 i a *: 4 8 3 5 6 vial 5 
ail | ss 2 2 4 9 7 6 1 a ae 3 3 1 5 4 8 3 4 
1772 1 ails 4 as? 5 14 5 1 i al ae 7) ee Be 8 16 1 3 
1773 | 3 4 8 4 see 6 5 1 tes Ee 1 1 “re a) ale/ 2 
1774 1 1 4 4 5 9 4 2 1 ae ae eis eile 11 18 1 1 
eo |... 1 1 bps Wale 8 1 Pe Ee 8 | 14 1 2 A) ses 2 
aac | ... 3 2 2 5 10 6 1 2 4 wee AS wile 6 16 4 1 
1777 2 2 5 se 1 8 10 3 wie 7 2 HB ane pc 3 13 5 1 
78 | .. mais 4 2 1 3 20 1 Pe ae tee 2 Uf 4 5 9 2 2 
1779 1 Bed ee 3 1 4 10 5 7 uid 1 6 4 6 it ies 3 
1780 | 2 3 7 1 3 4 | 10 1 = 2 2 5. 8 an i 9 3 1 
el |... mee: ||) ee ati ae 18 fie he oo ee an 1 8 | 18 4 ae a 
mys2)| ... aon 13 ek vias 18 shi ae 1 me a 1 BB 4 ree tes 
mss |... “5 ines aM ae 14 Soe A 2 2 = 2 Os |) alg? 7 ae ie 
1784 zi 11 8 was ise 4 1 wis 3 3 2 6 5 8 2 2 Bs 
1785 | 7 5 4 4 1 3 5 2 ate 1 a2 a AS & 8 | 16 6 ar 
1786 8 2 4 oe Bop 7 9 i ae 1 2 A 3 2 14 5 3 1 
1787 | 12 1 7 ack 1 4 5 il ree, 4 1 1 Ss 4 it 8 4 2 
1788 | 11 4 4 1 eis 1 6 4 eer 1 Ake oan nce 4 14 8 2 2 
mys9| ... not 2 it WT jf aig} | ale 2 Me fe aa y's 6 | 16 8 i ‘ch 
1790 | 6 iL eae 1 as 6 8 9 pad 3 3 i 3 3 11 5 1 1 
aoe 9) |... 1 oor Be 4 | 12 5 an 4 1 5 4 6 Se 5 2 4 
1792 3 1 2 1 2 8 12 2 Ra 3 1 “60 52 2 7 11 1 6 
R793 |... fe 8 1 as 7 12 3 ‘ie ee ae 4 2 2 10 6 5 2 
oe) 1 |... 9 1 2 | 14 1 3 3 Vien || Bea 1 ate 2 ib) | 10 1 oie 
1795 | 1 1 1 D 5 bye ee) aut te se 1 10 3 2 4 | 11 ei oe 
1796 2 1 6 saa aS 1 17 4 bat 1 4 4 1 1 12 2 isis 
UAO7 |... i Stiles 5 | 19 3 is 1 i nae 1 4 /10 | ll 3 a 
798! |... 1 15 it 2 12 me ae Aa ibe 2 1 2 10 12 4 Bee 
799!) ... 2 | 20 3 Pe ee 6 aes 1 2) 4 4 6 5 7 2 oe 
madeieet |... | 10 | ... A 1 19 4a0 4 1 3 ae 2 3 | 15 3 =p 
1801 | 3 2 GS henp ‘ie mae 13 5 oe 3 Wes 11 ae eg 3 10 4 ae 
T8027) ... on 8 Sis Nea 400 23 was ate 3 3 1 1 7 15 1 ie 
1803 | ... ae 15 5a Bae eee 16 ahs ob 1 4 6 12 bits 7 1 Sete 
1804 | ... 2, 12 1 2 3 6 ais 5 2 aa Boo uate 2 5 19 3 aah 
1805 | 6 en ss 3 1 nc 67 18 4 ve 5 3 2 ie ets, 93 |) alil 3.) 4 
1806 | 2 WA Sc is ase 17 5 2 33 ae aa 4 ae il 2 | 20 3 1 
1807 | 1 D Giaiee's ae wae, 2 1 ee ‘ies GK alal 5 2 3 6 1 lie oak 
1808 6 om 4 5 50 2 8 4 2 ai 1 ee 4 7) 4 18 2 a, 
1809 2 1 2 ont nen 2 21 3 fate 2 2 2 1 eke 2 20 2 cite 
1810 | 2 Qi | eae i ei 4 | 19 2 Rie Sa i we 86 2 7 | 20 1 ae 
Tene 2) |. 2 1 1 6 | 14 5 a 3 1 1 1 act 15 9 1 
USRZ |). «.. 6 2 11 8 4 ike hs id 1 2 1 2 6 Wf 2 es 
Tes |... eed | ees 3 7) || 1183 6 ae rh ne 5 3 2 1 By Hale} 4 
1814 2 2 4 6 co 11 2 4 avs 3 4 ware mite 3 18 3 ana 
1815 1 1 5 2 6 9 7 ate 1 2 1 4 5 14 3 if 
1816 | 1 1 3 5 2 9 8 2 oe ‘ie 3 2 1 = 4 | 14 6 il 
1817 4 eee i 4 3 9 2 8 aaa 1 4 nag 2 2 5 10 7 eae 
1818 1 2 2; 4 4 9 3 6 ie il S00 1 B00 2 5 15 7 “ale 
1819 1 4 4 3 aoa 5 9 5 bac 1 1 1 3 4 14 ae 7 
1820 | ... 5 9 AN ae 5 VE a 1 i Bh ike eas 3 4 | 18 1 3 
1821} .. 1 1 2 4 6 15 1 1 3 12 3 2 noe 7 600 4 
1822 ae 4 6 3 11 4 ae B} 1 1 ode 2 6 15 it 5 
1823 | ... Sais 1 1 1 IP) 10 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 12 2 5 
1824 | ... 1 eee aos an0 13 13 4 ah ts 1 2 1 2 i 10 2 2 
1825 1 1 4 5 1 9 1 4 5 1 650 2 2 1 4 15 4 2 
1826" |) ... me ae 6 2 8 8 2 5 aye i 5 6 1 i 14 2 2 
1S8270\\ <.. 7 aa 2 17 8 1 1 1 3 6 2 1 7 6 4 1 
ee eee ee ee eee 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). 2B 


160 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste XXXII1.—continued. 
ANNUAL VALUES. 


Calm 
Year.; N. N.E.| E. |S.E.} S. |S.W.| W. |N.W.) or [| Year.| N. | N.E.) E. | S.E. 
Var. 
Ms2uls: en 50 | 44 31 60 98 | 38 nae 1829 | 25 47 49 | 30 
1733 | 15 25 48 | 25 28 {110 86 | 28 ane 1830 | 10 42 35 | 29 
1734 | 12 24 36) /-21 9) 38 91 109 | 34 as 1831 3 40 43 | 27 
1735 | 18 | 33 36 | 33 35 60 116 | 34 ee 1832 8 37 37 | 20 
L764 |) .. at UGH Wes5 Bh ane 229 | wa Bs 1833 8 8 70 | 19 
E6bs|\ NAb USHA en ide es 225)|\ ses 3 1834 2 8 82 7 
1766 “8. Aleaae S17 |\ ee. ee we 280))| sss ENS 1835 | 10 10 86 | 21 
WGia Se eee WEN |) Aaa a: ee Doan inee er 1836 | 16 39 44 | 23 
T7680 | eee ists 169 | ... ase hot UVP Moe a 1837 | 29 39 44 | 23 
TACO ess Ht! ee U2D iol sce oe we ZA00) = a 1838 | 21 32 62 | 24 
LOM Se. 28 52 8 25 {101 86 | 28 an 1839 | 10 32 48 | 37 
ileal ose eles 45 | 15 37 97 86 | 24 Ae 1840 | 12 37 44 | 23 
1772 | 81 34 66 | 21 35 71 90 | 14 4 1841 | 12 26 53 | 28 
1773 | 28 28 40 | 18 47 80 118 5 1 1842 9 44 41 | 28 
1774 | 26 31 43 | 26 45 69 95 | 21 9 1843 | 12 30 59 | 18 
1775 | 18 25 43 | 23 48 91 98 | 16 3 1844 9 18 73 | 33 
1776 | 14 40 42 | 26 38 95 85 | 15 abit 1845 | 14 28 55 | 25 
1777 | 14 34 55 8 25 61 131 | 22 15 1846 | 15 23 51 | 32 
1778 | 16 27 ay NT 37 63 Wa ali 27 1847 |! 14 20 61 | 37 
1779 9 19 51 8 22 74 Ha bi Ee} 48 1848 | 10 24 53 | 23 
1780 | 17 PAL 61 | 21 24 66 117 | 16 23 1849 | 11 28 58 | 26 
USL | se Poe EBS eats See aig PPD Worcs 8 1850 | 13 1%) 62 | 21 
WiS2 Sloe ae 154 |e he ar PAN ae be 1851 | 14 16 40 | 15 
WSSh|) ee Be 25a liners Pr ae ZAO Gl tee ae 1852 | 46 46 41 | 13 
1784 | 30 | 37 Bey Pak yl al 4) 24) |) ale) ey! Sa lsSbo ine aes 57 | 40 
1785 | 45 30 45 | 19 9 54 125 | 38 pb 1854 | 17 19 23 | 16 
1786 | 28 21 93 | 13 1 49 130 | 30 a 1855 | 22 38 44 | 19 
1787 | 37 ila AG. \ iy, 11 51 133 | 29 oo 1856 | 25 39 50 | 18 
1788 | 29 17 (Al |) 223 8 62 [sl | 25 See 1857 | 16 38 56 9 
1789 | 33 13 88 | 20 6 95 85 | 25 ahs 1858 | 26 26 43 | 14 
1790 | 19 10 70 | 24 4 61 140 | 37 BS 1859 9 22 49 | 17 
1791 | 27 16 76 | 18 14 63 113 | 38 Be 1860 | 18 23 64 | 24 
1792 | 30 14 104 | 13 7 78 90 | 30 ‘ele 1861 | 15 23 44] 17 
HOSM | lie 5 88 | 17 5 83 116 | 39 Sab 1862 8 15 40 | 28 
1794 | 16 3 78 | 16 9 87 115 } 41 ae 1863 4 22 37 | 20 
1795 | 42 21 79 | 24 24 54 94 | 27 tee 1864 8 il 91 | 29 
1796 | 17 8 59 | 16 12 39 198 | 17 cute 1865 | 14 15 78 | 49 
1797 3 1 94 6 1 24 206 | 30 es 1866 | 14 27 58 | 36 
1798 1 6 77 3 ty 20 245 | 13 Hey 1867 | 34 26 52 | 15 
1799 1 f Wiles | te ul 16 176 | 18 Rae 1868 | 29 33 382 | 18 
1800 3 11 123 i 3 19 190 | 15 ah 1869 | 34 32 39 | 10 
1801 7 9 100 4 we 2 2211 \| 22 Amb, 1870 | 22 33 48 | 28 
1802)... ; OGmleas wae ane 266 ee 3 1871 | 19 35 54 | 36 
1803 | ... OZ a ees fae ner 262 1 1872 | 16 35 62 | 28 


1804 | 20 | 22 76 | 20 | 13 | 68 84 | 18 45 | 1873 | 14 | 24 70 | 12 
1805 | 19 | 27 45 | 29 | 12 | 61 98 | 34 40 | 1874 | 25 | 19 49 | 12 
1806 | 17 | 28 CU Uae ep aU ef alas) || ei 26 ; 18/5 | 15 ,; 28 87 | 14 


1807 | 10 | 17 YS cc as weet zag hal: 506 1876 | 85 | 28 76 | 19 

18/7 | 7 | 20 56 | 38 
LUST ES Wi 7 | | haa By |healyak |) alls aye 1878 | 14 | 30 67 | 26 
1810 | 5 | 25 88 | 18 LE EZ Walreee || Piz oor 1879 | 9 | 88 68 | 36 
1811} 18 ° 31 56 | 30 | 16 | 91 101 | 27 Bs 1880} 6 | 41 81 | 11 
1812; 19 | 52 61; 34 | 20 | 8 | 66 28 1 1881 | 2 | 48 46 | 33 
1813 | 5 | 66 40 | 28 | 18 /124 56 | 27 1 | 1882 | 12 | 20 45 | 20 
1814 | 7 | 43 49/42 | 18 |109 | 68| 34 et 1883 | 23 | 27 40 | 20 
1815 | 10 | 43 81 | 37 | 16 {113 92 | 23 int 1884 | 11 | 26 30 | 25 
1816 | 17 | 42 57 | 51 18 | 49 82 | 47 3 71885 | 4 | 49 41 | 26 
1817 20 | 31 26 | 46 | 80 | 77 87 | 43 5 | 1886 | 18 | 48 48 | 22 
1818 12 | 48 49 | 40 | 438 | 79 Cp \\ ayy ... | 1887 | 12 | 20 32 | 11 
1819 | 138 | 29 67 | 19 | 18 | 81 | 104} 44 ... | 1888 | 14 | 29 72 | 17 


1820 | 19 | 31 78 | 12 | 12 | 58 | 184} 80 2 | 1889 | 18 | 22 75 | 20 
1821 | 11 15 68} 81 | 7 | 61 | 147 | 15 20 | 1890 | 14 6 79 | 18 
6 | 14 61 | 29 | 21 | 87 | 106 | 12 29 | 1891 | 26 | 14 60 | 13 
| 1828 | 15 | 14 60 | 26 | 18 | 79 | 114} 19 22 | 1892 14 | 17 67 | 19 


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7 | 70 | 122 | 385 23 | 1893 | 23 | 18 59 | 11 
16 | 80 87 | 32 46 | 1894 | 18 | 20 63 | 26 
1895 | 38 | 25 64 | 21 
16 | 78 99 | 34 18 | 1896 | 388 | 24 52 | 10 


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THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 161 


TaBLE XXXII. 
Direction of the Wind. Mean Monthly Percentages, 1764-1896. 


Calm 1 Calm 

N. |N.E.| E. |S.E.| S. |S.W.| W. IN.W.| or N. |N.E| E. |S.E.| 8S. |S.w.! w. IN.W.] or 

Var Var 

Jan. | 41) 4:7/131| 6-2! 5-9|18:5|37-1| 7-2| 3:2 | Aug.| 2-6] 5°5/17-7| 3:8| 3:8)14:7|408| 6:5! 4:6 

Feb. | 4°6| 4:8|13°2| 6°0| 5:0|19-4|36°2| 7°8| 3:0 | Sept.| 3:8) 5°7/17°3| 5-2] 5:4/15-2| 36-7] 6:0] 4:7 

Mar. | 6°4| 7:2/17°6| 6°0| 4:5|14°6/32°0| 8:8) 2-9 | Oct. | 3°8| 4:°5/14:0| 7-0| 6-2/15°8/38-4| 7:1] 3-2 

April | 5°3|10°5|24°6| 5°6| 3°8|11°1|27°8| 8:3) 8:0 | Nov.| 5-2) 4:3/13°2| 6-°0| 5°3|16-6|37°6| 7°8| 4-0 

May | 3°8|11:0/29°5| 5-4| 3:6) 10°4|27-2| 5:°9| 3:2 | Dec. | 5°0| 4°1/12°8| 6:2| 5:6 20°0' 35°8| 6°9| 3°5 
June | 3:7) 9°1/24°1| 3°9| 3°7| 123/332] 6:4| 3-6 

July | 3°2| 6°38 | 19-6| 3-7| 4-4] 13°9/ 38-6] 6-2| 3:6 |Mean.| 4:8) 65/181) 5-4) 4:7 15-1[85°3| 7-1) 3:5 


TABLE XXXIV. 


ercentage Frequency of Wind Direction Decennial Means. East Wind includes 
N., N.E., E., SE.; West Wind, S., S.W., W., N.W. Calms and Variables have 
been excluded. 


January. February. March. April. May. June, 
Year. 
E W E W E W. E W. E W E WwW 

1764-69, . a . | 33°9 66°1 35'9 64°1 42°5 57°5 51°7 48°3 49°5 50°5 46°5 53°5 
1770-79, . a . | 34°8 65°2 23°2 76°8 40°7 59°3 31°0 69°0 50°0 50°0 43°2 56°8 
1780-89, .. : . | 36°6 63°4 43°0 57°0 51°6 48°4 44°7 55°3 39°6 60°4 45°3 54°7 
1790-99, . ; . | 25°8 74:2 28°7 71°3 40°6 59°4 53°3 46°7 40°7 59°3 38°7 61°3 
1800-09, . | OOLO 63°2 28°7 71°3 44°7 55°3 41°0 59°0 46°8 53°2 34°4 65°6 
1810-19, . - . | 22°9 771 19°9 80°1 33°6 66°4 53°7 46°3 59°4 40°6 45°5 54°5 
1820-29, . ; . | 84°6 65°4 29°6 70°4 32°2 67°8 40°5 59°5 51°9 38'1 40°9 59°1 
1830-39, . ae) 206 70°4 23°6 76°4 32'9 67°1 48°4 51°6 59°6 40°4 40°4 59°6 
1840-49, . c . | 25°3 74°7 31°9 68°1 34'9 65°1 51°6 48°4 49°2 40°8 44°7 55°3 
1850-59, . : . | 28°8 71°2 29°3 70°7 34°8 65'2 48°5 51°5 53°9 46°1 36°0 64°0 
1860-69, . : . | 25°8 74:2 25°0 750 39°8 60°2 44°4 55 6 49°3 50°7 39°3 60°7 
1870-79, . . . | 25°4 74°6 37°8 62°2 40°1 59°'9 54°4 45°6 515 48°5 46°3 53°7 
1880-89, . : . | 21°4 78°6 26°8 73°2 35°8 64°2 54°8 45°2 45°7 54°3 48°4 51°6 
_ oe ‘i : . | 26°8 73°2 30°7 66°3 30°2 69°8 51:0 49°0 53°9 46°1 48°0 52°0 

eans, 
1764-1896, . o | Zeal 70°9 29°5 70°5 38°3 61°7 47°5 52°5 51°4 48°6 42°3 EC 

July. August. September, October. November. | December. Year. 

Year. 
E. Wi E. W. E We E. W E W E. W E W 
1764-69, . 6 - | 43°5 | 56°5 | 86°2 | 63°8 | 27°8 | 72°2 | 25°3 | 74:7 | 26:1 | 73:9 | 41°5 | 58°5 | 38:2 |; 61°8 
1770-79, : . | 381°9 | 68°1 | 26°3 | 73°7 | 36°4 | 63°6 | 24°9 | 75:1 | 30°3 | 69°7 | 24°7 | 75°3 | 33°2 | 66°8 
1780-89, . : . | 24°0 | 76°0 | 34°7 | 65°3 | 32:0 | 68:0 | 28°0 | 72°0 | 38°6 | 61°4 | 51°3 | 48°7 | 39°1 | 60°9 
1790-99, . . | 26°1 | 73°9 | 25°5 | 74°5 | 82°7 | 67°3 | 26:0] 74:0 | 39°0 | 61:0 | 383°9 | 66:1 | 34:7 | 65-3 
1800-09, . : - | 41°8 | 58°2 | 281 | 71:9 | 22°9 | 67°1 | 32°9 | 67°71 | 32°5 | 67°5 | 34°3 | 65°7 | 36°2 | 63°8 
1810-19, . E . | 88°1 | 61°9 | 37°9 | 62°1 | 88°1 | 61°9 | 44:2 | 55°38 | 31:1 | 68°9 | 32°6 | 67°4 | 38°2 | 61°8 
1820-29, . c . | 46°2 | 53°8 | 31°5 | 68°5 | 31:9 | 68:1 | 31°1 | 68°9 | 21°6 | 78:4 | 25°2 | 74°8 | 35°7 | 64:3 
1830-39, . : - | 86°9 | 63:1 | 385-1 | 64:9 | 36°3 | 63°7 | 19°4 | 80°6 | 28°5 | 71°5 | 24°9 | 75:1 | 34°7 | 65:3 
1840-49, . - - | 380°9 | 69°1 | 27°8 | 72°2 | 42°7 | 57°83 | 35:4 | 64°6 | 26°1 | 73°9 | 27°6 | 72°4 | 36°5 | 63°5 
1850-59, . : . | 84°1 | 65:9 | 23°8 | 76°2 | 30°9 | 69°1 | 25°3 | 74°7 | 24°9 | 75°1 | 16°4 | 83°6 | 32°71 | 67°9 
1860-69, . c . | 89°6 | 60°4 | 28°1 | 71°9 | 24°6 | 75:4 | 28°8 | 71:2 | 29°8 | 70°2 | 25°2 | 74°8 | 33°3 | 66°7 
1870-79, . i - | 31°3 | 68°7 | 40°8 | 59°2 | 37°2 | 62°8 | 30°1 | 69°9 | 35°3 | 64:7 | 26°3 | 73°7 | 38°0 | 62°0 
1880-89, . < . | 27°6 | 72°4 | 30°6 | 69°4 | 33°3 | 66°7 | 34°3 | 65°7 | 23°2 | 76°8 | 16°8 | 83:2 | 33°2 | 66°8 
ee : a - | 38°4 | 61°6 | 29°1 | 70°9 | 30°5 | 69°5 | 29°4 | 70°6 | 28°4 | 71°6 | 30°7 | 69°3 | 36°0 | 64:0 

eans. 
1764-1896, : - | 84°6 | 65°4 | 31°0 | 69°0 | 33°5 | 66°5 | 80°38 | 69°7 | 29°9 | 70°1 | 28°4 | 71°6 | 35°6 | 64°4 


162 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE XXXV. 


Showing the Mean Annual Percentage Frequency of East (N., N.E., E., SE.) and 
West Winds (S., S.W., W., N.W.) from 1764 to 1896. 


Year, Direction. Year, Direction. Year. Direction. 
E. W. E. Ww. E. Ww. 
1764 37°4 62°6 1811 35°6 64°4 1858 30°7 69°3 
1765 37°8 62°2 1812 45'5 54°5 1859 26°8 73°2 
1766 36°3 63°7 1813 38'2 61°8 1860 35°8 64°2 
1767 35°9 64:1 1814 88°6 61°4 
1768 47°5 52°5 1815 33°2 66'8 
1769 84°2 65°'8 1816 46°0 54°0 1861 27°8 72'2 
1770 34°2 65°8 1817 384'2 65'8 1862 27°7 72°3 
1818 40°8 59°2 1863 24°3 757 
1771 33'2 66°8 1819 32°3 67°7 1864 39°3 60°7 
1772 42°0 58'0 1820 371 62°9 1865 42-7 573 
1773 31°3 68°7 1866 37°0 63°0 
1774 35°4 64°6 1821 ‘ 86'2 43°8 1867 34°8 65'2 
1775 30°1 69°9 1822 32°8 67°2 1868 30°6 69°4 
1776 34°4 65°6 1823 83'5 66°5 1869 31°5 68°5 
1777 Byler, 68'°3 1824 31°8 68°2 1870 37°0 63°0 
1778 31°4 68°6 1825 82'6 67°4 
1779 27°) 72°5 1826 28°1 71°9 
1780 35°0 65'0 1827 34°6 65°4 1871 40°3 59°7 
1828 43°2 56°8 1ey2 . 38°6 61°4 
1781 40°6 59°'4 1829 47°3 (OATS 1873 33°2 66'8 
1782 42°5 57'5 1830 35°5 64°5 1874 30°0 70'0 
1783 34°3 65°7 1875 42°4 57°6 
1784 39°1 60°9 1831 34°1 65°9 1876 45°7 54°3 
1785 38°1 61°9 1832 31°3 68°7 1877 33°3 66°7 
1786 42°5 Sy fla) 1833 31°2 68°8 1878 37'8 62°2 
1787 38°6 61°4 1834 28°5 71°5 1879 41°7 . gOBte 
1788 38°3 61°7 1835 34°8 65°2 1880 38°4 61°6 
1789 41°9 58°1 1836 33°3 66°7 
1790 33°7 66°3 1837 38°0 62°0 
18388. - 42°1 57°9 1881 36'0 64°0 
1791 37'5 62°5 1839 38°4 61°6 1882 27°2 72'8 
1792 43°8 56°2 1840 85'1 64°9 1883 30°6 69°4 
1793 33°4 66°6 1884 26°7 73°3 
1794 31°0 69°0 1841 36°0 64°0 1885 33'9 66'1 
1795 45°5 54°5 1842 36°7 63°3 1886 88°7 61°3 
1796 27°3 HT 1843 34°83 65°2 1887 Dan 778 | 
1797 28°5 wb 1844 39°6 60°4 1888 39°1 60'9 | 
1798 23°8 76'2 1845 36°0 64°0 1889 38°4 61°6 
1799 42°2 57°8 1846 36'4 63°6 1890 33°6 66'4 
1800 37°8 62°2 1847 39°5 60°5 
1848 33'2 66'8 
1801 32°9 67'1 1849 37°3 62°7 1891 85'2 64°38 
1802 26°5 73'5 1850 29°6 70°4 1892 34°6 65°4 
1803 28°0 72°0 1893 33°7 66°3 
1804 43°0 57°0 1851 23°3 76°7 1894 36°6 63°4 
1805 369 63°1 1852 40°4 59°6 1895 42°9 57°1 
1806 35°7 64°3 1853 38°6 61°4 1896 35°0 65°0 
1807 32°6 67°4 1854 20°9 79°1 
1808 41°8 582 1855 36°8 63°2 
1809 48°2 51°8 1856 38°6 61°4 Means. xi 
1810 37°3 62°7 1857 35°7 64°3 1764-1896. 35'6 64°4 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLE XXXVI. 


Days with Thunderstorms. 


163° 


Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. 


ee 
5 


> SH Oe DH es pep 
* Woo: : 


Pd a rs 


mn! 

> pono 
> eee: 
5 8 Ea yaparyate 


a 
Faipocket* Thorens SOP Ss 
a iy 


ae 
ee ry 
a) 
_ 


pers BRE BS 
= 

> HoNDwnwenrH: 
women: : 


Pa ea Ne) 
oo et 


> bey: 
ROM eS: 


bo coe bo 
mPrmpwpwo§: por: : 


Dore: 


Year. 


_ 


SO Ol Ordo PbO OOCOrRP AN FROWN = OD ONO) OS O10 Ht ST CO CO 


_ 


i 


_ 
DHWNISONANHARN ROHNER ROO DPR 


164 


we) tel we eke 


: ep: 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XXX VI.—continued. 


Mar. | April. 


Pye — i — bes 


rt Mee 1 
7 oe} 1 
vee 1 “ 


May. 


es 


Dot tet 


fons as 


a 


mero: 


mb bo 


June, 


> etool poo: 


DWH OrD! Hp BD el RE Pee Pe HO: 


wher: 


Cri ft 


TRE CRD wo Me DN: : 


July. 


MHPl pwr: ci: : 


oo: 


Bre we: 


La me 


OHH WNWnNnoar eS Brel pwn: 


mp cone: Lt ) KP OP Dee ROD 


Aug. 


les} mts ons RAD be : 


Nore 


oe es 


* Wirt a 5 


a5 ithe 932 OP, 0 
8 rar 


i oo) 2 


Oct. 


7 ww: 


Lol —_ 


a 


ey ' = . —_ 
NOAA WAPWHROrOGN AOrHwoODorrwa 


— 


= i 


_ 


mies m 
L ri 
ae | — 7 5 ft é r e Fi 


ay 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 165 


TaBLE XXX VI.—continued. 


col i oe i 1 1 
a i ae ie Ass ah 
oo br 3 a 
oo, i a 7, 2 
oo | oe ea ee 
meg, . 2 

—— «Cat i 
ee Re oe ie 2 
—- | tt So, Be is 1 3 
a ‘af 1 2 - 1 
a ey be be = i 
a a 1 1 se on ca 1 
a 2 a ie, a 
CO 1 2 i 1 


onto 
= ws 2 
poe 


hm Oo ee bo bh 


is 
MDD we: OMrwpxrrn 


mol De: 
ore 


ee CO 


2 

1895, . : 35 603 te aed 3 
H296; . : oe eon son 1 0 2 
0 


> Wooo: oo 


Totals, . 15 10 ll 31 103 7 
1770-1896, . 


Means, 0°12 | 0°08 0°09 0°24 0°81 1°34 1°83 1°21 0°46 0°14 0°05 0°05 6°44 


233 154 59 18 7 7 818 


Year. Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. {| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 


Decennial Means in Days. 


1781-90, . 
1791-1800, 
10, 
1811-20, 
1821-30, 
1831-40, 
1841-50, 
1851-60, 
1861-70, 
1871-80, 
1881-90, 


ooo 
bo wb 


0 


WHfaQ 3 8 


ae. 
Ora nee 
bos 2 


ci (EMINOG i foo 


0°2 


Doe et 
HPHOHOOCOHOOOO 


@. GO, SC, « 
coooo. : 
mw: Bo: 
DO ~T EAT ~3 cc TON HO 
BPNRPNeH HE HOHO- 
ORO GOKRANWONN 
NWR Hee DR RD 
Or Pwo woOKROTIR OK 
BN OOH HEHEHE OOO 
ANTONY AH HOGA6a 
ecoocooooCCoOCSCSO 
DOIN WEANWNWAA HK 
ocoono,. 
Ornwnw: 

o o 

_ 
ae. ©, ©S, .- 
mpl Re 
_ 

COMAMANTAA APP 
EAR ATWIVAWSS SH 


iw) 
rey s 
ob: : 


1771-80, ‘ 01 Ol aie Sc ‘ ‘ : : O1 01 


166 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste XXXVII. 


Diurnal Distribution of Thunderstorms. 


NumsBeEr IN Hour ENDING. 


A.M, P.M. 


abe ab tie | cle owls 4/5}6/7/81/9|10/11 


ee ee en 


_ 
s wQre~aTPM!w: ; 


e 
SHH OHNNWHEH: 


w| eee] wee] wee] evel wel eee 


HH NOAmMHe: wo 
> HORRENH: : 


wee] won| wee] eee] eee] woe 


5s RNWOR: : 
_ 
= RPoIDPwoconmww: : 


November, Son]! amelll toa’s fy ane 
December, . Ap lecereeeeltesca||. 1 


wee] eee] weef 2 | to] weed] wee 


Storey are) RCULOMCUES 


2 
— 


wee] wee] woe] wee] wee] vee 


Year, . 


18 |48 |41 |29 |21 15 |12 |10 


January, é Bi eecel eral corlleere EW SMW ose sane 5 aig eral 2 
February, Belen Sai liead * Ae ee 
Marches. (Mie. | ei |iisce| cace|tecslhi <caltgean| ete Pn of ie uel coneheceaetieste 
ATU Mee) acsie der iilven|ience|teesd| menlaice pot oe a6 “00 ; Fac lpeeael 
DEY ue eens Srehi|-nss| ovel| weal mona aeee tecliltees ; an “ e slagieel ects 1 Bat 
DUCE ars Se (ares |ee's| esl weer rede allows alae an Fe re Eales rise | cess: 
July, {al 56 


I a Le OE Lae ne ed 


Bepeemtber, 5 + | ase| oil soo] sas| coe] Sool ccsl ete) net OO a ea ee 


October, 
November, 
December, 


Year, . 


wee] nee 


wee] eee 


wee] eee 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


Taste XXXVIII. 


Days with Snow. 


| Jan. 
| Feb, 


a 


5 100 WO OO Ph et pb 


et 


_ 
fo>) 


DON WONADA:? 


a a 


[8 
ee? 


_ 2 
HOON > OF Ol ee NT OVNTR O10 NNN NOWNN OO 


— 


i 


i 


a 
DORMNONMAM CHONONAMEFPW Wee 


“NIOWOO: ONWHE STOOD OOP EP COUNT NT OD Co Or: 


. . nl . . 
B/e|/eBlelel sl] sis Fd | ef Sulla eral alee | ales 
sileis|s/2/a|8 2 Sjei/si/sle|/s/2/4 
So), eae wee 5|29/24] 1820 | 7] 2] 5] 1 ales 
elise iia ltt Bor ool ee eat ele | a li@ lia! a) fh. | Tal is 
7) el ae 34/10] 1822 | 2| 2| 7| 2 el fal t 
foal Boe Fik.ate kl Sh i4op20N 192s -}1|i8| 4| 2 bel ot 14 
Pale Te Vi [ba hs | O4 |2olkeg Haad: | |p| ele 2) 6| 4 
| |g nl ieymoo ns tate eS) 48) & 112) Mel ial) 4) '7 
4| 2 (2 |) 4126) 28 ‘1896 | 6] \4] 2| /8 ule eae! 
‘oli = bette par} ie reer Pa Per Pt 8 Bt os 
ZA e io hoe teas oa) | 4 lee 
Mote wi | eB lie) aot te29 | s| 4|..) 3 | 5 
5) ale é| 1|28|154 1830 |10| 8| 5| 2)... boll 
i woo ni imias test! | 3] 9| 3)... | ... Bilao 
Pale sie bea 47 | sey) tess | 3) ..| v1 o.t..)..|.. | 3 
fon) 1) 4 ee saieel ise |B) 1) 6) 21... 2) 2 
pee | ibe sce o7 | ieee |r| s| 3) i}... Pelee 
il ai hep ess) “te55 .| a] 2) 2] a] 1 
10] 1 (, | pea tiga tase! 2 3] 7) 1/0.) 3] oa] 4 
ile... esis ie) tear” | 8 | 9 | 12) to.) 2 1 
2) 1 ieecalw poe) tess | %s i419! ei) 7) 3| 2) 5) 4 
8| 2 oe ou eae 7 esto. 2 | 9 1| 2 
ela Fi) Siewittol] Paea ot et 6) 2! .2 hi 
ae Sibi eubaorkisl) paar chae| @| oo} i 3| 2 
Bon Ah sibweia7y © wean chart 4) a |. 2| 3| 2 
Ri 3 Zi uewsehhol) @ a3 tb a'tigy) er] rade ae 
“ae #} aii | Sei) @ test | sis) 7) |. es 
ON nL Meseeee TA) Wasa ot Sts | a) eae 
aly. cls) 8) ON) Sede tal Pos ING 
Oe... Soil -siimtey tea | 2) 2) a | a ales 
5 ne el eeeist ore cieigy a 4) 9 | te i ae 
8| 4 5|aa3|27) i849 | 4| 2] 2] 4 ph 4 
3 Beye oie as) serlse)| tes | ai) | 2 Tele | ec 
8| 5 Seca seooitsseetant «let | |... lee eo 
Mees | Ul 14) 17 | tee | 4] 1h... Olen ress) 
meet | 2| 7) 24 e5) tesa | 3 |) 9 | 7 | Wes 2 
aie| 6 Balika | sarge deed Sg | 2 |”... Se eae 4 
Mee a) |i. | 2 |i }o5| 55 | 5/14) 8) 1) 3 2 
el lea hot  vese | tals. | os | se 1 
Mae 7) 2) sorliga.|) ien7 | 5 | 2) {| | c a 
Recall. | 7) e8\84) ates. | 1) 2) 9) i ill 
Balsa T|-..: 4\30|19| 1859 | 2| 2| 2| 7 4 
ieee e)| 22020) ise | @| 7 || 2 4 2| 5 
Maer Nols! 90| 35 ise | 3| 4) 3}... | 2 Beha 
(eon ey 1 sai] tesa | 1a) 7) 1)... coat 
eee | thio sp ves | 1 || 2) 1 |”. lee 
PAP oeieg it sol ‘eee | 1/111 5]... |... aod 
te eaeeaer2a) 404) 1865. | 9 10) 1 Re zat 
Hee 20) 5) 240 \23) isee | 1|.2| 8 i PeMlaee 
5| 2 2) 4| 6|26|46| i867 | 11) 4/18 a lee 
re Pea esos) ses | 5| 2} 2) 1 Toe 
6| 1 isles so) ise9 |)... |-8| 11 1 


VOL. XXXTX. 


PART I. (NO. 6). 2 ¢ 


167 


168 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XXXVIII.—continued. 


Winter. 


—_ «| | | | | | | | | | | | LS | | | 


Te fl i eee bl Rete ec pet) 1885 | 1 A Weel) 22 soa 3 
1ST Hee BABI 2 eles | eal Tees a | Uae) | setae ola 18 
Age MMU ee | geAlh lV ces elven, es oe S87 5° | et. lleeb al moles 1a 27 | 
Teves A og eS FP ei 1888 | 2:| 6 | 10) 4 1 | 4a 12 | 
toe eN ee Bal) 1 eee lice-cs | cu tS 1889 Gil) 28 lt se Ne ve 
Hee, eto l) 2)| 92 al. 4] 5 | 
e768 | 6 9! 9) Bit 3] 5 LSOOm Silica) al ea lcs 1| 23) ae 20° 
ay Aci 2a) Sol T4).0:. |) 8 1891, 8) seo} ceo] o9s) 2a) | cele 34 | 
Haye ey | al | 6 rd Ll eel, 1g92 |) 6 | 8 | 10) ob a.) 2 ene 16 
eyo eh or Bed Bolas 1893-| S154 dl 2) cole Soamas 19 
igus a | a2. | oN Cee 28 
1895. °| a0] 7 1 8°) ea oA oe 16 | 
Ee ere eae Pl ay | merhad reo | k | WLS 1 2 - 
GSU Fol 7.8 a ee! le 
cae a 2) 2) 3 1770-1896 [623 |570 |611 [207 | 57. 390 |2664| ... 
1883 | 3| 3| 14 OF cabal | 
isa) | 1) 8 1 ella Means, | 4:9| 4:5] 4:8)1°6| -4 | +3 |1:4| 3°1/21-0] ... 
Decennial Means. 

1770-79 |6°4| 4°7|5°7|2°0| 5]... | 20/22] 215 | 1830-89 | 4:9/51/5-4/2°3| +7] -4/1-0| 1:5 

1780-89 |5°6|5:0/5°8/1-4| -7| °5| :8/41] 23:9 | 1840-49 [49/43] 2:8/ -9| -1| -3| -9| 22 

1790-99 [45/45/36] -7| 1]... {11| 3-1] 17:6 | 1850-59 | 3-4/4-1/3-1/1-0] 6] 1] -6|1:8 

1800-09 |5°6/5:2/5-2/3°5| 9) ‘1/1:8|4:1] 264 } 1960-69 | 3°4/5:2/5°2| 3] -3| ... /15/23 

1810-19 |7°0| 4:7|7°3/2°8| -4| -5/21/5-0| 29:8 | 1870-79 |3:5|3-1/4-4/1-5| -2| +4) 1°6| 45 

1820-29 |5°7|4:3/4°5|21| -2| -2/23/ 9:5] 218 | 1880-89 |3°8|/4:2/61|1:0/ -5| -2|1:3| 3-4 


Year, Winter of, 


1770-71, 
1771-72, 
1772-73, 
1773-74, 
1774-75, 
1775-76, 
1776-77, 
1777-78, 
1778-79, 
1779-80, 
1780-81, 
1781-82, 
1782-83, 
1783-84, 
1784-85, 
1785-86, 
1786-87, 
ie7-88, 
1788-89, . 
1789-90, . 
1790-91, . 
1791-92, 
1792-93, 
1793-94, 
-\1794-95, 
1795-96, 
| 1796-97, 
1797-98, 
1798-99, 
1799-00, 
1800-01, . 
1801-02, . 
1802-03, . 
1803-04, 
1804-05, 
1805-06, 
1806-07, 
1807-08, . 
1808-09, . 
1809-10, . 
1810-11, 
1811-12, 
1812-13, 
an 
1814-15, 
1815-16, . 
1816-17, . 
1817-18, 
lgieeio, 
1819-20, . 
1820-21, . 
1821-22, , 
1822-93, 
1823-24, 
1824-25, 
1825-26, . 
1826-27, 
1827-28 
1828-29, 
1829-30, 
1830-31, 
1831-32, 
1839-33,°° . 
1833-34, 


9 emo 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TABLE XX XIX, 


Showing Date of First and Last Snow by Winters. 


Earliest Snow. 


December 11 
November 6 
January 9, 1773 
November 22 

” 24 


” 17 


December 30 
November 17 


October 30 


November 13 
October 30 
December 1 

= lf 


November 26 
January 1, 1790 
November 30 
December 3 
November 20 
January 23, 1794 
November 30 


December 4 
November 19 
December 25 


» 18 
November 4 
9 21 
a 12 
oe 14 
dE 27 
December 1 
November 29 
” 13 
October 14 
December 10 
November 6 
December 2 
November 18 
” 17 
” 9 
” 16 
” 8 
October 1 


December 21 
October 22 
December 3 
November 3 
January 1, 1823 
December 11 


October 13 
November 21 
” 6 

»” 22 

» 10 

25 


” 
December 29 
November 15 
December 14 
November 8 


169 


Latest Snow. 


April 16 
” 19 
May 5 
March 5 
% 29 
April 13 
» 25 
March 24 
May 3 
April d 
May 8 
» 5 
” 6 
April 29 
May 17 
April 30 
March 5 
April 4 
” 2 

30) 13 
March 13 
” 31 
April 18 
January 30 
May 8 
March 25 
» 7 

” 30 
April 8 
March 12 
April 12 
May 19 
” 2 
April 24 
May 1 
April 16 
Led 16 

” 22 
May 30 
” 6 
April 9 
May 7 
April 28 
March 23 
April 14 
May 11 
April 16 
99 11 

45 21 

» i 

” 26 

» 11 

” 22 

a 10 
May 27 
April 28 
” 25 

” 5 

” 30 

” 3 
March 25 
” 24 
April 16 


Year, Winter of. 


1834-35, . 
1835-36, . 
1836-37, 
1837-38, 
1838-39 
1839-40, 
1840-41, 
1841-42, 
1842-43, 
1843-44, 
1844-45 
1845-46, 
1846-47 
1847-48, 
1848-49, 
1849-50, 
1850-51, 
1851-52 
1852-53, 
1853-54, 
1854-55 
1855-56 
1856-57, 
1857-58, 
1858-59 
1859-60, 
1860-61, 
1861-62 
1862-63, 
1863-64, 
1864-65, 
1865-66, 
1866-67 
1867-68 
1868-69 
1869-70, 
1870-71, 
1871-72 
1872-73, 
1873-74, 
1874-75, 
1875-76, 
1876-77, 
1877-78, 
1878-79, 
1879-80, 
1880-81, 
1881-82, 
1882-83, 
1883-84, 
1884-85 
1885-86, 
1886-87, 
1887-86, 1. 
1888-89, , 
1889-90, . 
1890-91, 
1891-92, 
1892-93, 
1893-94, 
1894-95, 
1895-96, 
1896-97, 


Earliest Snow. 


January 11,1835 


December 6 
October 27 
December 6 
October 12 


November 28 
December 15 
November 113} 
October 26 


December 9 


November 28 
December 29 
November 8 

” 6 
January 31,1851 
November 19 
October 8 
December 13 
November 24 
December 5 

” 29 
January31, 1858 
November 19 
December 13 
November 18 

94 15 


” 
December 3 
* 16 
%5 30 
a 6 


November 6 
1 28 
an 10 


December 13 
October 22 
November 11 


5D 25 
” 8 
December 7 
October 29 


November 22 
October 26 


November 1 
93 8 
” 9 
” 30 
December 9 
P 1 
N ovember 14 
October 4 
December 11 
October 26 


December 10 
October 23 
November 13 
December 29 
October 24 

» 10 


Latest Snow. 


April 16 
” 2 
May 10 
” 17 
” 14 
March 24 
February 10 
March 26 
April 12 
March 24 
” 17 

» 21 
April 1 
February 24 
April 18 
May 4 
» 3 
February 3 
May 10 
January 17 
May 10 
February 19 
March 24 
April 3 
” 21 

” 9 
May 8 
April 14 
” 8 
March 26 
Ue 8 
May 2 
March 22 
April 9 
March 27 
” 26 
April 20 
» 21 
March 12 
April 4 
March 13 
May il 
April 10 
oy) 1 
May 1 
January 17 
March 29 
5 21 
May 8 
” 1 
” 8 
April 10 
i» 6 

i> 22 
March 21 
April 13 
May 16 
April 28 
” 16 
May 20 
March 5 
” 27 
April 14 


170 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TABLE XXXIX.—continued. 


Decennial Values. 


Earliest Snow. Latest Snow. | 

Winter. | 
Difference from Difference from | 

a8 Mean Days. Fhe Mean Days, | 


| 


| 
Bae! 
DH 
\ 

| 


1770-71 to 1779-80, . i a . November 30 6 April abi 1 } 
L7SDeI-., U7BA-90) de. noe uae oe val 3 2 1 TI | 
1790-91 ,, 1799-00, . é ; : December 7 13 March 25 16 “ail 
1800-01 ,, 1809-10, . : F ; November 17 if April 30 20 - 
TAHT RIDER, oa we ras a ei 12 i 18 8 
162 IR SO. gy ite 5 el 3 5 22 12 
Pspoenl s winea 20) as te ap er 20 4 a 17 7 
1eapeal Bee 0, 4a ef ee eit March 25 16 
iecheot, SIS 60) wes December 11 17 a 28 13 
1860-61 ,, 1869-70, . F a : November 28 A April 6 Son 
fegeris 1879280y Se a ge 8 ; A 9 
USAD"B1 :, HBBO=90, se cc lS oe <n aie 10 fa 14 4 

Mean date, . 4 5 : 59 24 isa He 10 80> 


Norr.—Black—days later than average. Italic—days earlier than average. 


TaBLe XL. 
Days with Hail. 
Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct, 

1770, il 1 2 1 1 a0 : vos op ove 
1771, 1 - 200 iio aes 500 1 one 
1772, ie 2 1 5 1 B vee ‘ 
1773, 250 1 2 1 1 
1774, 330 1 3 1 nes ; j 2 1 
1775, 1 1 4 1 ih 
1776, ee 2 2 


See 
ans SI 
on~nr~I~T 
Soe 
i 
e _ 
ob 
Bel Dre: pp 
I iN} 
i} mS oS oe 
Senet a oneite silane sater SO se te oe i: ~ mee we Sel ow Rots 
+ os 893 3 ete Pie ied i Se ts! es 
2 a ee ee ee ee 
spimin ie = 


> powwow Rs : 


aed 

ans 

G2 G&G 

< CONT 

. ~ 

Hoo 

CONN HB: ww: 
to 
to 
He 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 171 


TasBLeE XL.—continued. 


Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 


‘a 1 1 Z. 1 4 3 14 
1 ee 3 1 1 £. ae a 14 
th 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 19 
: . on 1 ce ee 1 1 9 
: sy ee 7 1 ee £: 1 15 
ee 1 1 ee a : 1 1 9 
d 3 ae se . 1 2 1 1 18 
7 os 2 me 1 1 Be 14 
1 2 2 1 2 op i 15 
1 “as 2 s. 1 a 


a ee es 


> web 


im bo 
Doe bP ps 


DENET BAMA WNWHEARNNH OW TROOP POO 09 
pit HPwNmwnws 
nore 


BHU DNIWOHOMW NWED: WHEN NW: Popwpw: wor 


Cr ae So 


a 


tO Oo HEB DO ONT: 


2 Ce SRR PATO OUR: 


a 
eee et 
Seas 
_ 
a 
bo oo 


eid is) er emer aa = 


— 
nO 
2 pot ws woe 


ee wd le wt sen oe 


vee 1 Sod 

ves 500 500 1 aa 1 5 

ts 1 1 1 2010 3 

1 a0 2 1 200 6 

505 G0t 1 aes B55 1 

. a0 1 3 1 1 6 

: oe «os 1 1 1 3 

. , , son one 2 2 cad 585 So sia 4 
: ’ 1 300 can 1 5 1 “00 a 1 1 1 11 
see ose o> 4 2 aia ie Sh0 1 7 

300 2 one as 4 1 oor ‘ 1 1 eae 9 

. . aoe vee 1 1 pee eee vee oe oes on 2 
. 2 . bee u an 600 So 1 oc 4 

. 1 : 2 * oat “08 1 1 1 6 

. 1 1 2 sis : on 1 2 1 8 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


172 


T — - = ———__——. ——- —— - — — 
q =H 00 ros BY} ROAMRADOHWO ONMANAHODON WHRNDHR © KH 
S 8 CY SUN ee ees Sed el a ae ies telirsteed ao AN Ae a : 
Sr 
2 ee eee 
3 ae) fy) Se) Se) ee tioteco! Set is Pe SUNS eet eat ress) Oe 
o . : s Satay oe Ta it ° Cates . . cis : ce ec e CO 
(=) : So 
| er a WP ak SE ce en fr ae ea a ee re go ri ee 
Le Min corse Se asies cee SeerGD PCDICND Sst Cred: ces esas) suisse ON ns) 8 
° Steet ere cues) ate Be Cae : Sure Peake se Aves as scree Ss Sete 
7 ro) 
ee ce ee eo te a a ee ee, eee ee 
ey roet cs ccf cs fifty rte Nr 10 ON FO UN IOAN rom INN TF 
36 = © “se tef>e =e oa ‘oy a : : . : : . ~~ S 
7 i A ae ee 
made tN RIO 1 = N Pa os bl OO rd aro for} oD 
= | AoC ae clsl 6. 5 te ae a e 3 
® ° 
nD | 
I 
~ ap 6 Oe b=, OO oro) (Ste See S BB BS Sal SR 8 8 SB BONS otal Gta er UR! 
nS oh Se hae as siesetes : 2: 2: an at spas) seks uae oOo Ss 
S < 
a i | 
Ss > 2 NN: rH INN OO an © oo 
8 = aay sgl USCIS OGL gs Using’ 2) teebsmelstmeebsewsmts, oe : ial 3 eS 8 
s 3 nity Mp esttabaskse) Zecdchene” (sf meme S 
S > 1 See 
MwA Velde et eae elim (ious ete! Be. Pe ie je An re: : ohh oe Se ea os SON strait 6S oO sH 
1 | Sed. Geman reine Gel Seek (Ti Be eal aad eceanie OS 2 eg toe 2 IGN Shaan: aes 
. 3 oO 
| 5 
va i ah ae Tee ao ee 
ic} > oiret ft tM tA tr At tA IN IONN AO Hw rir 2 iN pete 9s 7 e(ks=) GN ce ne = 
le 3 : 5 : Sire : : 5 ay 
S| 1 
eS A BAH ON NAN tA AANWAN int re grgieo CN) Se Sr riesicaicg) 5 St os] 
Ee : : : : Ost ; c OS 
< 
I ES ee Tare I i Sat SS EO I AS 
a ‘tmnt stim: PEIN LP IAAN FT NMWMNHA THN IN MH IAM BRB O 
3 : ey : bie ate Seer : : : Po oO 3 
a oo: Ey 
I Se ee ee eee ee! 
a ed est ed ed re ee ee oe So et ee ide fe SS ON Niet 8 Pret oot etiog se Toe ao 
gZ . Tee Je Ht) at tne saree oe, ae . eo. - ~ 2 aD for) oS 
1 
r=] pion rAninrd Go fA SST cies cio eas nr GUS EMS FS istNoOr i] o 
a als, ele SOAS SR See RY Wee a a! Oe Sixeat fat 8c) Wir i fe Gh Mele tal er ite ap) = Kw : 
= ° 
I 
| ee eS HNO Sa Se cpap so) Vrasin 6. 6) 6) we! elmea’s®) “Gel we, Ne tell hs : 
oS 
H SoS 
ie Ein Cv Re. Cha tithe Dia BOC the pe a ee a ee kt eee Oe aan 
° 2 31 
SM qe Eb hee eRe eC OC CTR ee ea Pe oS 
ANDI OKNASS TANHMHAWSOKDDS PAAMDHMORDRSD FANMHAOO = 
monpwwowoooo or hy rh bh rr Sr OO Om 0O0 OM OOO DPARAAD = 
DODDDDDOWDODOO COO OOM OOOO [cole oe ole Ole ome Oe ole ole oie o) c 0 0 0 OO ‘eI 
Se ce oe Di oe ee Oe ee Oe ee I eB oe Boe Oe oe oe oe Mmrnn nnn nine nnnininir 


Decennial Means. 


ocooocooocoooocoonnr 


Ato oI row 


_Oocoocace “oooo 


Sgt ee we oes els ey ae we 


AWAAHHAN MAD 


Th act he Gis eto I 


Mat OWO WN ine 


eA tee eee Se 


coooeor 210° ,0O 


KOANKARMOMrROwH 


SOnnANHANFNROOOr 


COMDGMRMODNWAT 


ee, Sang eae oi a Okie “leer. 


COnCOnmnooocoor 


ANMOMAMWON WANA tH 


mts) a Ce ee. a ee te ce eee ie 


ee ee ee ee ee 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 173 


TaBLE XLI. 


Days with Gales. 


Year. Jan, | Feb, | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 
1770, 5 8 6 3 1 4 2 3 2 3 6 10 53 
1771, 9 1 3 1 9 be 4 il 1 7 4 3 43 
ie?) a = 2 ae 2 6 3 2 3 4 8 5 35 
1773, 5 5 1 2 se fe us il 5 1% 2 2 29 
1774, 1 11 1 5 1 1 4 3 i ae 4 6 37 
1775, 7 11 5 2 6 a a ae es 4 1 4 40 
1776, ; 1 10 6 3 1 1 1 Re es 2 f 1 33 
WT, 3 1 1 1 Me ~ 1 2 2 3 3 il 18 
78, 3 2 4 2 3 ae A, 3 ee 5 2 6 25 
1779, 6 5 7 5 2 1 Me 3 1 il 3 34 
1780, 1 3 6 2 Ke 2 % ; 1 3 1 1 22 
1781, 2 2 2 3 = 2 2 1 3 1 1 3 22 
1782, ; 5 1 9 a Be a 1 Fs 3 2 2 23 
#783, . 2 3 3 ee 3 PE 4 oe 3 5 ee 2 25 
1784, 5 3 ae ne 1 ae 1 2 1 1 2 2 18 
1785, . 4 na ue ah a a 2 1 2 3 12 
1786, 7 3 1 1 a 1 ae 1 3 2 19 
1787, af 3 4 1 ai ee 3 is 2 2 15 
1788, — ae 1 1 a 1 5 2 5 se 15 
1789, 1 4 we i” 1 a 2 4 12 
1790, 3 4 1 1 il 3 1 4 a 6 5 1 30 
1791, 13 2 1 £ La iS 1 il 3 5 26 
1792, il 4 gh 7 1 2 ee 1 4 3 9 32 
1793, . 1 4 2 2 on 1 is 1 2 3 2 3 21 
1794, . 6 3 4 2 i it 1 1 7 2 26 
1795, . 1 2 2 1 1 Fe 3 1 4 7 3 25 
1796; . 6 1 1 Ae, 1 2s 1 2 2 2 2 18 
1797, 5 3 a Ae 1 sa al 4 2 1 17 
Wns, 5 "i 7 2 2 ee i 1 ae 1 sf 20 
1799, 5 2 4 . 10 1 1 2 1 3 5 4 33 
0S 5 a 1 5 1 1 5 4 ce 10 6 D 40 
WSO, . Cw 5 4 5 3 2 , 2 it 6 5 32 
HBODT 3 2 4 2 2 1 2 a 1 3 1 3 22 
1803, P 1 9 1 2 2 a - ~ - 3 2 4 24 
1804, . , 2 9 1 ne 2 hs 5 cae 2 +a me 1 8 
0 7 5 3 Br ca a 1 2 2 1 2 1 24 
1806, . : 5 5 1 ae 1 3 ae 2 Ae 4 D 5 28 
oes. 2 1 il 1 2 2 3 1 2 4 3 3 23 
1:00) ann 8 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 6 4 2 30 
int ae 4 6 ee. 4 a 2 3 1 1 il wi 8 30 
LL ie re 2 2 1 4 2 1 te 1 1 oe 4 18 
1811, : 7 1 4 5 3 5 2 3 a 4 3 5 42 
iC 5 3 5 a 5 B3 1 om 1 3 5 6 34 
cic a 6 9 4 1 m4 1 a 3 7 6 ii 1 45 
MSU 1 5 1 2 2 2 1 6 4 3 4 6 37 
1815, ; 5 5 9 7 i 2 1 2 7 4 3 12 57 
1gt6 .. = 6 8 5 5 ae 7 1 6 5 3 9 12 67 
1817, . 7 8 12 1 1 3 2 2 5 2 8 5 56 
1818, ; 14 8 16 10 2 3 i 2 2 4 2 9 72 
1819, i a LO i 3 wee 3 oA oe 1 2 7 1 3 31 
1820, : 8 6 2 2 3 ae 2 6 6 4 2 3 44 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


= 
‘ 


TABLE XLI.—continued. 


wenaes AASRA-RSA 


co oD 


SSREEHSLE BRESHAEEED EGSTSSSRS 8 SRRRS" 


a 
3 Eas) 
val 
SS eS — ESS a 
3 $C CD) Ca vt v1) CO) GNI! SSC e Seb cul) 73 Seely SCONE ahs Mig row NN: coco SH 31S) Ot GON Itt AMWANHOS 
A 
1 
E OHIO N (RHR ADH :MDHOMMD ONMIOAWOM | MO 2552 2 OO TAN tA INN F TBM NN (HOWE 
3 MONO WHADHON GeO) OIG CO Coles GN RAMHONMWAH 2 WAHAW rd 1 AIM 2 DONNA ANAM 109M RO 
(e) 
1 el ae ee ee | ee Gee eS cr area ee D 
Pel 
Fy ONM Hon HOON ADM’ 2 ¢ stn AMAR tenor: ih Bark Or) ea mromoO 2: ites: 10D 2 1 TM MONON 
5 r3 : EO. S : . eS, MPO 4 BE $ : re 
wm 
2 ee a 
Sp Mee INN TOON MMF rKAN AAO rei: Aro st tat ee ee | ede eee ee eae GN eet Qe ee ft ON) Zrtiet os 
< . - 25 : : 
Se ee ee ee Sn ne 
et 
Lz) Seite irstiveth ce es as IN IN NMOS 2 Set = SIGN) Be IGN IGN scot) ey ost sss UPR ESET e cirticOi ce) | (See) Sp wa eet aie em ON 
3 , . a oe 4 tell eh a ee Cw et. Cee as COE oe . eo. alan so) Meat) ie ed corre, (elie ae) fait ot One tel) Or Le 
ler) 
ee ee 
q Be i TO a gee SIN critica AS cette cre eee ea ee eieteaON cers, gcd! ors e SOONG SGN) eas 
= : . 5 A ok 6 : : Seas | Se ay Oo CCC ee Seats egmraaets: s 5 AB a tA 
Lay a : 
i a a is ac a ek ane Ln 
} 
aI cer Vet SOACN GY Onin! RUT OL IOI VOU. S60e stay a crams 2 a | Sirti oF St SNe retire 8 303) 
a ah Ae wor | . = : 5 Bs ee Se ae nace saree i sHice 0 5 =) agette ie 
tole oe on ne i a ana aa 


pril. 


. | Apri 
‘ ae 
1 


HOMRIOMm AID o lDIDM MoH DON OOnwWHH ODO SH st 


tal 


rN OD HW COMNIN NOD 69 Haig on cog I~ HO SH AMDANAMWIHAORAD HHO INNNN ID DOIQT 1OAHwWA ANN rAANANNDOM 


oe Does Ee Mh Le th on reHOMHANANTr Hin or ANC Mion An NOs Norns or~waAa as 


OmMAAAIADACH 


175 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLE XLI.—continued. 


K ROMROANAHOOA DWMOMHO ot 
eS IDWIDOSBOANAND WANA = 
Pure; 
ima H oN 
3 WCONMRHONMAM : WAMMOR 2m 
A S160) 
I 
b AMODANNAND AMMO : are 
° -_ [ed - D> * 
Aa oo % 
! 
3 ONAAAMWANDRO Aric in «2/00 
° ca 
1 
Ss ArNOOdH cnt BM ae HO 
: fe) 2 
oa an 
mM 
! 
1 
op KON AN MOHAN i a oD oo 
=] 3 : : soe 
4 va 
Bb HAHN 2 i tin 4 4 a) 
e i eae Se 
& ri 
! 
_ OANMARM iA 1M AR nO 
5} ; an 
car) 
! 
ba AAA AN AN Lol waoic ANN 
3 : : XG 
= as 
1 
I 
see WPAN :9r an) oD in bale] a 00 
yy . . . Qa 
<q 
I 
I ROdTKRHONONH © IHHHN =H 0d 
3 : wie 
=| HES 
! 
WAO Dey pA 69 AAANMm: : ~ 


nn es 


eS 


Oo on 


ere 


~ on 


na nn 


Decennial Means. 


rHAOAMDMOSMmOODW 


HOMMoDooNKROMM 
DANAHAODOHAA SH 


OD NOD OI SH SH OD OOD 1 I 


HONMDOMMAHAAA HW 


SMawel ek eatery ale: re reyahte mie wie: Seem 


ANMDAADMAMODAAA COD 


INOHODCrOMOMM 


MARTA MOMATHONN 


ADWDNAOHAMMHnAHHNDH 


a iehiel are sey Verecwleerm yt) Wi eee rwie le, 


Ye LR IG IN Ne 


2D 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). 


176 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE XLII. 


Days with Mist or Fog. 


Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. 


4 
2 
a 
5 


wo 
ml ph > wee pn oc 


bop: : 


_ 
~I 
~ 
go 
row: : 
Nowhere 
2S pee be es) paleoioos, = 
heres 
Nore 


_ 
~r 
oo 
ior) 
. 
ee 
a 
eo 
> ee esol ei: 


_ 

~I 

ve} 
be 
eo 


> > pepo: 
ee 


i 
~I 
co 

oS 

Nor 
_ 


ee 
> NWN PNR St 
> bol Come: 3 


i 
oe 
Oo 
@ 
on 
WAPNW: 


al 
co 
_ 
& 
ry 
rc 
CO. > 


_ 

@o 

~_ 

& 
aa 
Wis Sie 
e 


> 5 ete Oo ooh 


>of tet pol tf 


> NNN e wl: 


Helo: 


Now ee oo Combo CO Rte: 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLE XLII.—continued. 


Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. 


Pe bob: 
mt bo or co: bo 
> DONE NHO: ow: 
> > wpnpwn 


a es 
tS 


- etret ooo cw: eb t: 


on G9 et oC ed 
con: 


NH ee Pe Ho: 


es — i oe ino 


3 5 
I bo me: 


ot oe we) 
— 


MAWWH: DOA WH: 
Df ome Oaen 
fio cm ene: 
toe pow: 
COCO OONIR ER: on 
He 


2 Pep? aM: 
ip 
— 
(JN) 
a 


> Wwwwwnbp: :: 


me > 
> wnt 


= cob) com 
A Cnheys 


NPR: 


_ 
Noe 
B98 6 Cn ieye 


_ 
mt ON 5 5 
a Ker) 


2 o> eto: 


oo et 
eco: etCos Poe CO ONNRE PNP Deo POM Re: : 


pom? cone: mee 
MEoMoNN: : 

> HHO e pe: wo: 

wool wl wp! 

Doce ee: ~ 

ORR RO! NON SHH HOwH: 


Mrpprp: 


bat et bet et > 


meter? cob bo b> 0 Coetool 2: 


DHE POOP RD wR: wRDDNDeD 


WH WOwWehxa: 


bei st 


NP bw > eet: 


met oo bd Re: 


ha 


N 
co 


157 184 176 
ata 1:2 15 14 1'2 


145 


221 
17 


205 
1°6 


Taste XLII.—continued. 
Deeennial Means. 


155 
1:2 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


168 
13 


Sein eked e. ee) x fe 


Year. 
1770-1896, 


Totals, 
Means, . 


178 


Big ial, erltet (Sx Gea eNMes Kes es tet os 


Oh 2S ler ariier genie, wer cal” tee kee ae 


gsr Se Re, Cee gem wen! er gm) ate 


Sst et (ert ay abisatumy, et was ve 


a ge wee Sn very Sime ae” OO hehe 


egy (esau, (ec Henirer: ey leriier elles, 


Dp al eee Wet eee SeP Owe Sl es ce, ae 


ay, eee a ABE Wor AP Ee ee oe Ape ko 


ooocococococo 
TTT Tet te ens 
Sets ess sees Set eS 
MDWRMOMrINAMDNiI9Q OD 
~~~ DDDODDDOOD 
be Oe oe | 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLeE XLIII. 


_and from 1800 to 1896. 


Showing the number of Auroras observed in Edinburgh from 1773 to 1781 


179 


_ Nore.—During the greater part of the time it is probable that only the brighter displays of this meteor were recorded. 


April. | May. | June, | July. | Aug. | Sept. 


oy: : a -_ na ge 5G a 1 Bee, 1 


awe Steip ot te 
ees 
Ne 
Ces pot: 


et 


e ha 1 

‘ 1 

1 zi re 

. ira 1 

; 3 1 i oe 
eee. |) | ‘A 

mo) ; i i a . 

ao 1 i i ie a i 

co 3 1 1 ’ ss 

en. 1 i i oe 3 

1828, . ’ aoe 2 

1829, .° ./ Be re 

a ae 1 oe i j i 


i on 1 
1832, ; & 4 we ‘ wae a 
1833 ; 3 i eee eee . eee eee 
1834, ‘ . Bae a aS 1 
1835" : ; es Ms Ba is 
ie e : : nas ; : -” ue 
1837 ; iB é . 4 ae By 
1 - - - j ss: = 
7: ae A : ~ ¥s om 

i 3 i i. : : oe : iS 


Oct. 


————$———_ | — 


2 bs be: 


Nov. 


2 


Dec. 


ll a 


> WONOe: ow? Mino h: 3 2 


41: 
— 


DO eH PbO bd Oo eH! on 


180 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE X LIII.—continued. 


Year, Jan. | Feb, | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec, | Year, | 


Pap 8 Boro 
= ets 3 oo 
ciee) se) SereaenlcS 


a) StS Ce, NC, a eee 
302 mbes foe 
= 


_ 
oo 
Cs 
a] 
bo 
i 


1852, . : 2 908 nes see tee . 
1853, . . 6 S00 te. 500 see 
1854, . 5 ae 5 ao woe ; on 
1855, ; j ; te ies ‘ tee 
1856, . ° : aS on ode . eae 
1857, : ; aS Bc0 a3 . oy 
1858, . - A é ; tee 500 =n toe 
1859, . ° 1 1 : 5 1 | “1 bac 1 
1860, . ° u 2 : a 9 1 toe tee 


= 
oo 
a 
Nn 
alee Paka es ee Pere 
i 
3 
a, mL tener af ate 
po 
Pa es 
5 
: 


_ 
(on) 
~ 
= 
no 
bo 
H 
ee 
> Swern PDD: 2 2 st 
=" 


ae 1 6 4 1 2 a 
1872, . ies 1 ade il ; ee a 1 
1873, 3 4 3 of 2 j i 1 us 
1874, s 2 1 1 f 2 ' 
1875, 2 ey i if, ws 


1882, 2 ; ‘ te a ; 3 a 

1883, 1 1 { a oe . a ; 

1884, > ee i 1 ’ ep ‘ail : ; a 

1885, i 2 il ie 1 ve “ 

1886, 1 ice 1 al F 1 1 Soc Bite 1 ane 

1887, wee eee aoe eee eee oe 
1888, . cc 1 ny a 
1889, ; a Men a 

1890, . Bi } is ‘os. 

1891, 2 2 x a, 2 1 ” 

1892, ; 3 1 1 7h cae 2 1 1 a 

1893, . pe ie ; Be 1 a 1 “aan 
1894, 1 2 Ay 1 Abe 8 A ss 1 ate 
1895, 1 1 3 ie bee sal ae oe 1 19 
1896, . a sae ie EN i 1 ne : 


Total, . 32 42 47 33 12 il 6 21 43 47 41 
4 4 6 4 38 4 5 “4 
Year, '+ | 1873 | 1779 1871 1871 | 1880 | 1880 | 1894 1830,1870 1870 1870 1825 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 181 


TABLE XLIV. 


Showing the number of Days on which Lightning without Thunder was 
observed from 1807 to 1835, and from 1868 to 1896. 


Year, Jan, | Feb, | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 


1807, . . one 360 a0 on 1 ace 1 


182 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TasLe XLV. 


Bright Sunshine for Hour ending Greenwich Time for Six Years ending 


July 1896. 
AM P.M, 
Noon ‘ 
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 
Hrs. | Hrs. | Hrs, | Hrs. Hrs. Hrs. | Hrs. | Hrs. |{Hrs. | Hrs. | Hrs. |~Hrs. | Hrs. | Hrs, | Hrs, 
January, ret | onte seo | ce] OB GRA Nee Fee BA) ksh ART ORG. Ve ceas| eee ES, 
February, .| .. a |} 5 | 12] 43] 89] 98) 96] 98) 95] 53] 16] ... So: 
March, . 8° - 0°4 | 3°7 |. 9°2°} 12°3 | 18°8 | 14:0 | 143 | 18°4 | 11:9 | 12°1 80.) 1:8] 
April, . »] a. | 10] 38:7 | 7:2 |10°2 | 12°71 | 13°1 | 14°9 | 14°3 | 13°8 | 14:1 | 138°9 | 116.) 85} 15 
May, . | 11 | 61 | 8°8 | 9°6 |10°1'} 12°4 | 18°4 | 14°5 | 14°9 | 15°6 | 14:6 | 14:1 | 13°7.) 12°9 9°3 
June, . | 81] 71 | 9:2*| 9°9 |10°8°) 11°2 | 10°4 | 12-2 |.12°6 | 12°3 | 12:7 | 12:4 | 12:4.) 11°9 | 10-2 
July, . » | 149°) 5:3 1°69) || 8:5 | 9°2 9°6 9°5 | 10°7 | 11:0 | 11°38 | 77:4 | 10°5 | 10°2.| 9°5 7:0 
August, . | OL} 1:4 )°5:3 | 83 }11°0*| 12°38 | 12°0 | 12°8 | 11°9 | 18:2 | 12:7 | 11°8 | 10°0.| 7:9 3°5 
September, ae i 10 | 52 | 9°6 | 11°6 | 12°4 | 12°8 | 48°3 | 13°2 | 12:3 | 12°5 | 10°0 4°3 04 
October, see . a 0°8 | 5:0} 10°5 | 12°0 | 13°2 | 13°0 | 13°1 | 10°8 7°4 23a! weer Bo 
November, Pe3 a 3°3 8:4 | 9:7] 9:3 75 6'1 11 01 ‘ p 
December, . one 0°4 3°72 60 | 7:3 5'8 DOES Tl Maen age ; 
Spring, - | 11 | 71 |12°9 |20°5 |29°5 | 36°8 | 40°3 | 43:4 | 43:5 | 42°8 | 40°6 | 40°1 | 33°3 | 23:2 | 10°8 
Summer, . | 5:1 |18°8 |21°4 |26°7 | 30° 33'1 | 31°9 | 35°7 | 35°5-| 36°8 | 36°8 | 34°7 | 32°6 | 29:33 | 20°7 
Autumn, . eae -- | 10 | 6°0 |14°6.} 25°4 | 32°8 | 85°7 | 35°6 | 33°8 | 29:2 | 21°0 | 12°4 4°3 0°4 
Winter, peli ece | eee econ! fesw |edt2 0) Debi Ss) |e 28ebn |e Zoran corn el Oromo) emt On arm so Ge 
Year, , | 6°2 |20°9 |35°3 |53°2 | 74°8 | 100°8 | 123°5 | 138°3 /189°9 | 1364 | 128°1 | 101'7 | 79°9 | 56°8 | 31°9 Rep 


TasBLeE XLVI. 


Per cent of possible duration, 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


183 


Showing the Number of Sunless and Sunny Days in Edinburgh for the Six 
Years ending July 1896. 


Month. Sunless.} 1-10 | 11-20 | 21-30 | 31-40 | 41-50 51-60 | 61-70 | 71-80 | +80 | Max. 
| °/, 
January, . . oe ag ; 83 33 8 19 13 Lop) 2 2 1 a0 72 
February, . : 5 5 0 41 39 19 15 15 17 8 11 4 1 82 
March, A a : “ 30 25 20 24 23 13 18 13 ills) 5 85 
April, 2 : : : : 22 26 20 13 27 26 19 13 12 2 84 
ay, : : : 5 18 30 17 21 21 27 19 9 14 10 87 
June, 28 33 aby 17 14 26 13 15 8 9 87 
July, 22 37 29 24 26 20 10 13 5 = 78 
August, 11 38 30 27 22 il) 24 13 5 1 82 
September, 21 39 19 16 15 ily 20 18 13 2 81 
October, : : ; : 29 40 14 21 24 16 24 10 8 act 80 
November, : : ' ¢ 70 29 12 19 12 Ug) 5 10 4 72 
December, ; ; ‘ . | 106 26 1a 13 8 9 5 5 3 73 
Total c ; F : 481 395 216 229 220 220 Wi 132 92 30 
Per cent., . a , ; : 22 18 10 11 10 10 8 6 4 1 
Seasonal Percentages. 
Sunless.| 1-10 11-20 | 21-30 | 31-40] 41-50] 51-60] 61-70] 71-80 +80 
13 15 10 10 13 12 10 6 8 3 
11 20 14 12 11 11 9 7 3 2 
22 20 8 10 9 10 S 7 4 1 
42 18 7 9 7 8 5 3 1 is 
Departure from Mean of Year. 
Sunless.| 1-10 11-20 | 21-30 | 31-40 | 41-50 | 51-60 | 61-70 71-80 +80 
9 5 Se: if 3 7) MN er See 4 2 
iy 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
Sb 2 2 il il sae 1 1 te oe 
20 noe 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 1 
Notr.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 
VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). 25 


184 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TasLE XLVII. 


Mean Temperature at 9 a.m. 


Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. 
1731, ona “0 we ice ner 54°5 59°9 55°8 53°5 47°8 39°2 34°4 
1732, 34°1 42°0 41°7 44°0 49°2 58°2 57°6 54°4 49°5 44°7 36°7 35'5 
1733, 39°2 40°0 38°9 47°6 52°8 60°9 61°0 55:2 50°0 43°7 43°5 43°3 
1734, 35°6 41°8 44°8 50°0 49°7 581 61°8 57°9 500 46°8 36'9 36'1 
1735, 36°3 38°7 39°3 47°7 50°6 57°7 59:0 580 49°8 43°9 42°2 38°2 
1736, 36'0 32°8 42°0 47°1 50°3 me 200 Gn 500 450 ae bor ail 
Means, 36-2 | 391 | 413 | 472) 504 | 579 | 59:9 | 562] 50°6 | 45-4 | 39:7 | 37:5 | 468 | 
Taste XLVIIL. 
Mean Temperature at 9 a.m. Brought to Mean of Max. and Min. 
i a 
Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. Year. | 
1731, Gar, pac 608 Bc a 543 59°9 56'0 53°8 48°] 39°6 
1732, 34°7 42°8 42°4 44:0 | 48°8 58:0 57°6 54°6 49°8 45°0 37'1 
1733, . 39°8 40°8 39°6 47°6 | 52°4 60°7 61°0 55°4 50°3 44°0 43°9 
1734, 86°2 42°6 45°5 50°0 | 49°3 57°9 61°8 58'1 50°3 47°1 37°3 
1735, 36'9 39°5 40:0 47°7 50°2 57°5 59 0 58°2 50°1 442 42°6 
1736, 36°6 33°6 42°7 47°1 49°9 Ao bein aie Bee 30% 500 
Means, 5 : 
Years, . 36'8 39°9 42°0 47°2 500 57°7 59°9 56°5 50°9 45°7 40°1 37°'8 
TasLe XLIX. 
Rainfall.—Inches. 
Year Jan. | Feb, | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov 
1731, . or mae ree ore ate 2°06 1°54 1°86 2°12 1°48 1°42 3°12 
1732, 1°28 2°41 0°79 3°11 4°62 1°20 3°20 1°62 t 2°52 0°42 3°62 
1733, 137 2°52 2°64 0°82 0:08 2°14 0°64 2°68 1°84 1:08 0:33 3°63 
1734, 0°59 0°60 2°12 1°01 3°31 2°21 071 1°28 1:27 1°32 1°61 2°33 
1735, 3°00 8°51 5°38 1°63 0°72 aes rae 500 wae rae fas , 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 185 


TABLE L. 


Mean Variability of Temperature at 9 a.m. 


: : 
Feb. Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 
me af ee - 3°7 TI 2°9 3°9 5°3 3°6 4°8 ne 
4:5 3°4 31 2°8 25 35 2°7 3°3 2°9 3°8 3°6 | 3°28 
Br7 3°6 3:0 3:0 3'1 3°6 3°8 2°3 3°6 4°4 3°8 | 3:42 
32 3°9 3°6 34 3°5 3°3 27 30 371 3°6 3°9 | 3°39 
3-0 2°6 3°2 31 3°8 31 3°8 3°4 39 3°8 3°7 | 3:39 
3-1 2°8 4-2 3°4 A hs se oh a Ba ie we 
35 3°3 3°4 31 3°83 3:2 3°2 3°2 3°8 3°8 4°0 | 3-4 
TABLE LI. 
Mean Humidity. 
| | | 
Feb, | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 
i- ai - eee eeeor il Wega |) (286 |) 1:80 | 2-06 | 2°41 |. 2°84 2 
37 | 194) 2°97 | w77 | I64 | 1-90 | 1:82) 1:84 | 2:45.) 2:49 | 2°64 | 2°15 
Peco. |) 2107 Icee |) Lb) it | ive | 2-00 | 1-96 | 2°08 | 2:15 | 1-98 
2°02 | 1:75 | 1°81 | -160 | 1°98 | 1°85 | 2:02 |. 1°96 | 2°35 | 2°24 | 2:47 | 2-02 
2:27 | 2°56 | 2°45 | 1:66 | 1:76 | 2:00 | 1°81 | 1°96 | 2:40 | 2°59 | 2°77 | 2:99 
246 | 9:39 | 211 | 1°81 He pr = 2 
PG 2 2A DAs aled 700) Ie8ba\) 1:85 | t-95. |) 1-91 | 2°24 | 2°36 | 9:47 | o-11 
TaBLE LII. 
Thermal Windrose, June 1731 to May 1736. 
Monthly 
N. N.E. E. S.E. Ss: S.W. Ww. N.W. Rage 
32°3 35°8 34°8 34:2 359 38°5 35°7 26°5 12-0 
31:7 34:8 33°9 35°9 41°4 424 39°1 35:0 10°7 
34:2 37°5 40°6 39°4 44:2 44:1 43°6 38°3 10:0 
451 44°5 44°5 50°7 50°8 50°8 47°8 42°5 8°3 
47°4 49°6 51:0 50:2 54°7 54:3 50°7 47°8 73 
555 54°6 58°9 59:0 65°3 63°9 558 54:9 10°7 
59-0 56'1 60°0 62'2 63'2 62°1 59°6 59-2 (Fall 
56°3 54°5 57°3 60°3 53°8 584 54:9 54-4 5°9 
44:3 49°5 50°5 50°1 54°6 522 50°3 48°8 10°3 
43°4 45°0 45°8 454 45°3 46°4 43°0 39°0 74 
37°7 39°5 38°3 39°9 43'1 40°4 40°5 32°6 10°5 
33-0 34°6 37°4 35°4 37°7 41°5 36°3 36°3 8°5 
is ye ey 21°5 26'1 28-0 29°4 254 23°9 32°7 
SG, ole ie oo 4671 46°3 44°7 48°8 48°8 47°2 43°0 5'8 
Summer, 6) sw. | BTS 55:0 58-0 60°6 61°7 60°4 57°9 572 6°7 
A ws | ALD 45°0 46°8 44°6 45°6 46°6 442 40°3 5'3 
Weems Cw | B84 34:9 35°5 351 37°0 40°8 36°8 33°8 8°4 


186 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste LIII. 
Thermal Windrose, 1770-1776—7 Years. 


N. | N.E. E. S.E. 8. S.W. W. N.W. | Calm. | Mean. 


January, . . 32°2 31°8 32°6 31°8 36°5 376 34°1 30°3 271 33'2 
February, . . | 3374 34:0 35°5 37°0 365 39°0 33°4 35°4 317 36°3 
March, ; . 35°3 38°6 36°3 | 36°9 41°3 41°2 38'5 B41 36°0 38°3 
April, . : 40°4 43°3 42°5 42°8 46°6 45°3 45°3 B94 45°0 44°] 
May, . = 3 47°6 46°6 50°1 52°0 52°8 51°5 50°7 453 48°3 49°3 
June, . : 6 536 553 55°9 58°7 57°4 56 3 55°6 54°2 cae 55°7 
July, . : : 56°7 56°2 582 56°6 606 59°6 58°0 57°4 62°0 58°4 
August, ‘ 5 57°2 56°8 578 58°3 60°0 58°2 578 56'4 58°0 57°5 
September, . : 51°7 52°9 53°8 53°9 53°7 51:3 50°8 51°'9 fa 52°3 
October, . . 42°1 48°8 47°0 44°7 49-1 48°3 45°6 40°5 43°5 46°8 
November, . : 37°8 40°9 40°9 39°3 41°4 40°8 391 36'S 44:0 39°7 
December, . : 36°1 38°1 37°7 38°4 39 0 40°2 357 37°3 370 38°5 
Range, . : 24°5 25°0 25°6 26°9 24°) 220 24°6 27'1 
Spring, F . 42°4 44°1 43°8 40°1 45-7 46°4 44°8 38'9 44°1 43°9 
Summer, . - | d5°7 55'8 57°2 57°9 59°4 58°3 572 56°1 60°0 572 
Autumn, . ‘ 44°3 49°8 48°7 45°5 476 46°2 44°8 42°6 43°7 46°3 
Winter, : . 33°4 35°4 35°1 35°0 37°7 39°2 34°4 33°7 295 360 
Year, . .| 440 | 484 | 46:0 | 431 | gro | 45-9 | 465 | yay | 379 
Taste LIV. 


Mean Humidity with Different Winds, 1731-1736. Scale 0°5 to 5:0. 


N. N.E. E. S.E. s. S.W. W. 

January, 2°47 3°65 2°53 2°67 2°36 2:27 2°36 
February, 2°53 2°57 2°30 2°28 2°12 2°14 2°23 
March, . 2°40 2°78 2°60 2°38 2°19 2°09 2°05 
April, . 2°02 2°41 2°68 2°10 2°10 1°89 1°97 
May, 1°52 1°85 1:96 1°63 1°74 1°61 1°55 
June, 2°03 2°39 1°86 1°64 1°51 1°54 1°57 
July, 1°95 2°43 2°07 1:93 1°68 1'70 171 
August, 2°68 2°30 2°23 1:92 1°82 1°82 1:88 
September, 1°88 2°45 2°10 2°04 1°76 1°92 1°89 
October, 2°26 2°91 2°50 2°40 2°14 2°29 2°14 
November, 2°52 2°82 2°30 2°44 2°47 2°25 2°42 
December, . 2°66 2°40 2°97 2°65 2°51 2°35 2°41 
Range, . : ; F 114 1:06 vi | 1:04 1:00 0°81 0°87 
Spring, : ; . : 1°89 2°17 2°35 2°18 2°07 1°91 1°88 
Summer, . ; - - 2°12 2°38 2°04 1°85 1°65 1°73 1°74 
Autumn, . 4 5 : 2°22 2°73 2°31 2°33 2°18 2°10 2°13 
Winter, ; : ; ‘ 2°58 2°69 2°62 2°53 2°39 2°24 2°34 
Year, : P ‘ 2°19 2°36 2°26 2°26 2°19 2°06 2°02 


' THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 187 


TABLE LV. 


Showing the Departure of Temperature from the Normal, smoothed by 
continuous Five Year Groups. 


Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 
7 4 ri 0:3 0:3 L5 0:2 0-7 16 06 06 08 0-7 
9 16 07 0-6 0:0 18 0-2 0-4 10 0-8 0-2 0-1 06 
19 0-0 16 0:0 08 18 O-4 0-7 O-4 13 0-0 0:5 06 
2:0 0-7 7:9 0s 0-1 1s 07 0-1 O05 12 0-2 1:3 06 
18 Ag) 21 12 O01 ng O4 O-4 1:2 O05 03 1:4 07 
08 4 16 I4 TO LIE MS (eos O05 JI: 07 O05 0:9 08 
1s 13 2:0 18 2: vi) 15 OL Ld OF 07 0:3 12 
21 16 12 07 LEG, 10 0-9 0-6 I's 0:2 07 0-6 0-9 
3-1 19 0-0 05 v0 10 05 0-5 w7 0:3 0-9 0-1 08 
25 Ly 0-4 0:3 05 Ld O06 0-1 08 0:3 08 03 06 
26 07 0-2 0-0 05 05 0-4 0:0 0's O-4 0-5 11 02 
eT 14 15 0-7 16 0-4 21 4 0:0 O-4 0-1 0:2 07 
“otal 0-4 24 O4 17 05 2:0 25 08 O4 0:0 0:3 0-7 
vat 1:2 29 0-2 2:2 1°8 2-4 29 1:0 03 0:5 0-9 20 
0-9 11 24 O05 1:4 2°5 2:9 2°3 0:2 12 AO 0-1 08 
10 0:9 19 0:3 O° 16 3°3 2°2 0-6 03 0-9 10 08 
21 15 O-4 Os 16 0-6 2:0 0-7 0-4 08 12 08 01 
0-2 2-0 25 0-6 1 ile 1:5 vig d 03 08 0-3 Ld 03 
0-2 27 43 0-1 0-7 0:9 0-7 ree | 06 17 1:2 25 0-9 
0-1 0-8 BL 0:8 1:2} 03 0-7 03 Ol 0-9 07 22 OL 
0:2 12 30 0-9 1:2 0:9 01 0:2 0-0 08 O-4 32 O-4 
0-7 O-1 3-1 it 0-8 15 06 0'8 01 06 0-2 12 01 
1:0 2°3 13 0-1 1:2 1:2 0-7 16 0:2 0:0 08 0-9 05 
15 27 0-4 0-6 1-7 1:0 1:2 15 0:5 06 O-4 LG 0:9 
0:5 2-0 03 1:8 15 1:0 0:8 16 0-0 0:2 0:9 Ih 0:8 
0-2 25 O-4 0:0 1:3 0:3 08 1-4 03 1:0 06 0-2 0-7 
0-9 3:1 15 06 0:8 0-6 0-7 0:3 0-9 0-9 0-6 05 0:8 
10 05 0:3 tT 0-1 O05 05 0°6 0:0 1:3 0:2 0:5 0:3 
0-0 0-7 0-6 14 0-5 Os 0:3 0-9 0-0 0:9 0-2 03 0:2 
1:2 15 0-9 0-4 0:2 OF, 06 0-4 06 06 I4 0-8 0:3 
1:4 a3 0:3 23 1:0 07 0:9 0:7 1:0 0-1 18 0-2 06 
12 OL Ly tot 0-5 0:3 0-4 0°6 1:5 0:5 zg 12 0-1 
2-3 08 12 15 0:9 0-6 1:2 0:5 11 vy | 15 £8 0:3 
1:3 0-7 0:5 0:9 1:5 0:9 14 0:9 1:3 0:2 13 21 0:5 
06 05 01 1:3 0-9 a2 0:5 1:3 16 0:8 0-7 25 0-4 
00 07 0-3 07 0:2 0:2 0:9 1:2 LE 0°6 07 2-0 02 
06 0-7 0-4 11 1:4 1:0 11 1°8 0-4 15 05 7 0-6 
10 0-2 1:2 0-9 0-7 0-7 0:7 Lt 07 1:2 0-1 16 06 
0-2 08 06 0-0 03 05 0-4 1 0-5 1:2 05 05 0-4 
omer 0-0 | Oy | OL | 04 | 13) 18) o9 | 14) 20 | 10 |- oo 
0:0 Lh 0-9 Ly 0:9 06 1:3 1°6 05 0-7 0-8 16 0:3 
0-8 1°2 0-1 19 0:5 0:3 0:9 1:4 0-2 1:0 They 16 03 
0-9 1°7 13 2°3 01 0-1 0:5 Vig 03 14 Th 18 06 
i | Ss 05 18s 0-4 05 0:9 0-7 05 1:8 Ths) 26 0-5 
10 08 1:0 26 06 0-2 0-1 01 06 1:2 O-4 26 0-5 


Norr.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


188 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 
TaBLE LV.—continued. 


April. | May. 


Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. June, | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. 
1811 ded 0-0 0:2 2:0 O-4 Os 06 O-4 0-4 1:3 0-9 22 
1812 30 07 07 O-4 12 0°8 0-2 05 07 0:2 10 2-2 
1813 37 0-4 0:3 0-8 01 07 0-0 05 0:3 0:0 13 26 
1814 a3 0:0 12 08 | OF iL 07 07 05 10 24 27 
1815 BON O2 | OG.) OF.) ee Ee) OFM Lea) OW eer ete 
1816 25 06 18s 0-9 1:2 0-6 05 16 05 O-4 0-4 23 
1817 0-3 O-4 0-9 Ld 06 0-2 05 05 06 0-2 01 29 
1818 0-9 07 Ll ee, 0:9 O-4 03 0s 0-9 1:0 0:9 19 
1819 0-2 0-2 0:2 0-4 1:0 0:5 0:0 Ol 0-4 O-1 1:8 05 
1820 | Ot 02 | 10 | 06 | O4 | O4 | O2 | O4 | OS | 1:0) Ti) oe 
1821 LS NOOO eit 09 | O06 | 07-05 | OUSO5 | 05 1-25 ieee 
1822 | 72'S. | 05" | 12 | 1:0 | 05, | O28 | Oy | O85 F035 1 10:67 io ee 
1823); 08 | 03 | 13 | 0:9-| 0:5 |°O0 | GO | OF | OG |. 06 |) Loamiae 
1824 OF Ot) et 05 | 14 | 17 | O9 | O4 | OL \° Od) | 0:45 ieee 
Re25e eh. 307 |) O'S.) 0:4) 5 1-0) ead 1:00) 01 10°| 1:0 | 0-2 | saie 
1826 OS: | O'S) | 0:8 10 | 1:0: (9 28 | 83: 1° 0:8) Oe), arose 0: 2 ee 
SOT) (ees 004: 1 50:8) 085 es 18 | O06 | 03 | OF) TD | O05 eae 
S282 12: | 02 a, Tks 0:3 ars 08) | O2 | £8 | O8 | 1:4 | (OS) ates 
1829 16 06 15 0-1 0:5 0:2 07 2:0 0-1 19 tert 15 
rs30 | 09 | Od") PS | O01 O17 mor 08 | £6 | O38 | 1:9 | O'S) aie 
1831 18 0-4 Gl O-1 1:0 O-1 06 21 06 2:0 0:2 0:5 
1832 CO 'V OT eae OC a2 1200-00 a2) aot 2:5 | 0:9 | as 
KSsa° ||) 0:8 |) S1c0; | eek08 a0: 1:0 | 0-4 | G0) |" Ot 0-1 19 | 09 | 2-4 
1834 ot 1:2 | 0°5 03 14 0:0 07 DoT nO 0-4 0:9 1:9 
1835 06. | O8 ) O9 | 77 | TS | WO N08 138 77 Os: | 90 Cee i 
1836 0-2 LI 0-9 23 07 0-2 03 0:8 13 0:0 0-2 20 i 
1837 I'4 16 18 26 13 O-4 O-4 12 14 0-3 O-4 1:2 ; 
1838 Ll 21 18 Ld 15 0-2 07 ae 16 O-1 0-5 0-7 9 
is39 | 22 | 79 | o4 | 24 | 141 O7 | O7 | OF | OF | O8 | O7 | OT 
1840 21 Ue zak 0:0 0-5 0:5 I'S 0:3 0-0 0-9 0-6 16 0s 
1841 0-3 0-8 1:7 0:9 0-3 0-9 iy 0:5 0:7 Lh 0-7 3:1 03 
1842 08 | 22 | 24 | 21) o8 | 17 | 16 | 08 | OF | 7:5 | 0:8 |) 2a 
1843 0-3 Ld 15 1:5 0-38 08 19 0-3 1:2 0-9 1:2 24 02 
1844 | 20 | O1 OG | 4 107 09 |} 73 | O2-) 22 | o2 | 24 | TR 
1845 23 | 70} 08 | O08 | 08 | OF | OS | OF | 15 | 05 | BS | (ORR 
1846 11 | 02 | O68 | O85 | 18 | 12 | o8 | 12 | 08 | 09 | -2:5 |) 
1847 0:3 A: 0-9 0-8 1:8 0:8 0-3 0-9 0:7 0:5 2:2 0-3 | 0 
1848 | O08 | 27 | 20 | oG | 18 | 11 | O6 | O7 | O04 | OY | 2:1 | \Ou 
1849 | 17 19 | 16 | 08 | 18] O02 | OO | 14 | TO | 01 | 06 | Te 
1850 | O65 | 28 | 12 | O8 | 1S O72 O44 09 0b) Oe Oe 17 | 
1851 05 | 23 | 05 | 06 | 01] OO | 04 | OF | O6 | O82 | 0% | TOR 
1852 04] 1:0 10 | 18 | O1 | 10 | 10 | 05 | 03 | 0-4 | -0-7 | GR 
1853 1:8 1:2 0:0 Led, 0-3 0-7 1:5 11 0:7 0:9 0:4 oI 07 
LSb4 yee! Grd, ie 701 1-5) OSS Wee WZ EO Oe, ea a 15 | 1:1) 
1855 | 08 | 09 | 02 | O08 | o7 | 16 | 15) 1:7 | 18 | 21 | 2: | 
1856 | 11] o& | 08 | 02 | og | 17 | 08 | 1:5 | 15 |) 14 | 1:3 | 32a 
1857 i a fn (2 a Bs te Ya 06 | 08 | 07 | 09 | 0-7 | Ti 
1858 ai | 0-1 06 18 0:2 O-1 0-2 0:2 01 0:7 01 | 03 
1859 1:0 O4 0-7 2-2 0°6 0-8 0-6 0-2 0:2 0:3 0-8 0-8 | 0 
1860 al Ob 0-0 22 0:5 HSS; 2-1 168] 0-6 05 26 12 | Gam 


Nove.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 189 


TaBLE LV.—continued. 


Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | Juue. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 
0-7 0:5 0-4 19 0-2 19 16 1-2 16 0-1 Uf 0-8 0-7 
0-1 0:8 0:8 07 0-4 18 19 7, Ld 0-1 12 0-4 0:8 
0:0 0:9 Hoi 0:3 0-4 07 16 L4 0:2 0:2 06 2:4 0-3 
0:8 Il 2:0 0-1 0:0 0:3 HS} IS; 0:2 0:2 0:2 3:3 0-2 
0:3 0°6 21 0:3 0-5 0:4 1:0 7 0-1 0:3 1:2 29 0-1 
O-4 0:3 1:9 0-7 0:2 0:7 0:2 0:5 11 05 0:3 29 0:2 
0-6 1:5 17, 1:0 0:9 0:8 0-4 0-1 1-4 0:0 0-4 2:4 0:5 
0-7 1:8 1: 16 0:5 0:9 0:8 0-4 0:8 0:2 0:2 0-8 0-6 
0-2 2°7 0:0 16 0:0 0:0 0:8 1:1 0:7 0:3 0:6 0:0 0-6 
0:9 2:2 0:9 11 0:3 0:2 1-4 07 | 0-2 0:6 0-7 0-2 0-6 
1:4 0-8 0-1 0:9 12 0:3 1:0 0:3 0:2 0:6 0-1 0:0 0:2 
1:5 0-1 1:2 0-8 1:0 O-1 1:0 0:2 O-4 0:6 0:2 HF 0:2 
2°4 0-5 1:5 0-4 oT 0-6 0:2 0-2 0-5 0-5 0:2 O-1 0:3 
3-4 0-3 0-6 0:7 12 0:0 0:5 0:3 0°5 0-1 0:3 0:4 0-4 
3°6 0-2 0:0 0:3 1:2 0-1 0:2 0-6 0:7 0:5 0-7 0-5 0:3 
31 11 0-4 0:4 0-8 0:3 0:4 O-4 0-2 1:2 0-2 eT, 0-4 
1:2 0:3 1:0 10 0:9 O-4 0-7 05 06 0-7 0:5 11 0:3 
0:5 1-4 0:8 HEL IZ O-4 0-6 0:0 O-4 0-1 0:6 15 O-4 
18 1:2 0:9 Ih 0:9 0:5 0:8 0:5 0:2 7023 0:5 18 0-8 
12 16 0:3 0:9 0:2 0:9 0:8 01 0:1 0:9 0:2 Beil Od 
ei 11 0-6 1:0 0-7 15 1:7 O-4 0:3 12 0:5 Hil 0-6 
0:9 2°4 0-4 0:2 0:0 1:0 1-2 0:0 0:3 0-6 0:9 0-5 0:2 
0-9 2:0 0:2 0:6 0:6 12 0-7 IY) 0:3 06 1:2 0-2 0:0 
2:0 1:9 0-1 0-7 13 HG 0-7 0-6 0-8 0-6 0:9 0-9 0-1 
1:5 1:2 Ih 0:9 15 O-4 0:0 OL Ol O-1 0-9 0:3 0:0 
5 0-1 PH, 125) Ue, 09 0:2 08 0:3 0:0 1:2 0:2 0-2 
1:2 0:5 18 18 0:7 0:3 0-1 1:0 0:7 0:5 1-7 01 0:3 
21 7, US; 16 0:2 0:2 0-6 0:5 0-4 0-6 1:8 0-6 0:0 
25 0-5 13 16 0:2 0-1 0-5 0:8 0:9 0-1 11 0:3 0:2 
2:0 0-1 12 14 0:5 0:9 16 1:0 O07 7 O22 1:8 O-1 O-1 
1:7 0:9 0:2 O-4 1:3 0:5 0:9 0:2 1:0 0:0 1:2 0:0 0:5 
1:3 1:5 1:0 0:5 0:3 0-1 1:0 0-1 0:8 0-1 16 0:2 0:6 
0-6 0-1 0:6 0:8 0-7 0:2 0-8 0-6 0-9 1:0 2:0 0:7 0-6 
0:2 0:2 1:5 20 2:0 0-5 0:9 0:6 0:3 19 21 0:6 0-6 


Norrt.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


190 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste LVI. 


Showing the Smoothed Percentage Excess or Defect of West Winds from Average of 
One Hundred and Thirty-Three Years. The Values have been smoothed by 
continuous Five Year Groups. 


Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. 
clipes Wie Nl eee, | ge: Gl pave. el eee \aeae” 4 eign pele e 
1766 6 9 if 4 a 5 10 5 7 15 3 
1767 6 6 5 5 2 4 10 5 8 9 9 
1768 2 i 6 5 5 HL 15 3 2 7 4 
1769 0 4 8 0 4 2 9 4 6 10 om) 
1770 3 5 14 5 8 6 ‘f 10 fi 2 3 
Weal 1 0 5 12 12 5 2 11 3 5 5 
1772 0 3 + 14 15 ul 3 12 7 9 1 
1773 8 2 6 21 3 2 7 12 5 9 2 
1774 | 16 8 0 22 2 3 4 8 5 10 4 
1775 Ly 8 6 19 5 iL 3 2 2 7 2 
1776 15 10 0 14 10 i) 7 6 5 8 3 
} Lei |) 11 5 20 7 3 3 3 2 1 2 
1778 | 16 6 6 10 i, zl 5 i 9) 0 6 
iio | ate 2 4 3 13 0 4 9 8 1 6 
1780 6 3 us 3 10 3 6 9 3 6 Ze 
1781 3 15 3 3 9 2 7 18 a 15 6 
1782 4 26 3 7 11 2 6 9 2 11 2 
1783 i 22 16 1 11 1 7 9 il 11 il 
1784 i 27 18 1 19 3 16 4 if 0 13 
1785 3 ile Lh 8 19 2 14 ik 6 1 12 
1786 4 19 21 13 17 a 17 2 at 3 11 
1787 ga | 21 24 13 12 9 16 2 it i 15 
1788 5 3 15 0 2 7 17 5 6 13 23 
1789 0 6 ¥ I 1 7 15 5 1 15 15 
1790 6 0 £2 0 2 9 15 5 il 20 G 
1791 8 8 4 11 6 di 13 6 1 20 17 
1792 4 5 6 10 il 3 12 5 id 12 18 
1793 6 9 1 ya ety 7 6 9 Bo ga tee 
1794 5 9g i 5 14 1 5 1 3 1 13 
oD o) | ok 1 9 2 1 2 5 14 2 9 13 
1796 7 1 5 5 13 Lu 10 15 3 9 6 
1797 3 3B 12 Zt 10 a 5 15 4 c 0 
1798 3 3 12 4 8 12 12 12 c: 12 7 
yo) |. <8 3 7 3 10 11 7 6 i it 10 
180) 3 5 3 12 7 15 2 2 3 10 6 
1801 = 8 5 6 17 10 13 3 il 3 6 5 
1802 vB 8 6 20 15 13 4 3 0 3 4 
1803 Z. 6 14 13 11 9 8 9 4 7 ts 
1804 9g 11 6 8 5 9 10 it: 13 12 g 
| 1805 6 9 6 1 2 8 4 14 12 Ly 2 
| 1806 3 6 20 2 3 4 | 138 10 7 8 4 
1807 | 6 6 21 3 8 2 10 2 3 9 vi 
1808 2 7 27 0 4 4 10 1 0 1 10 
| 1809 | 4 8 21 0 4 2 6 vf 8 1 9 
| 1810 4 5 19 6 2 2 8 vB 9 2 13 | 


Nore.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect, 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 191 


TaBLE LVI.—continued. 


Year, | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year. 
ls of de z) ie Te oP gee ms de Ap ge Weis 
1811 4 8 ie 8 6 3 8 10 L4 7 De B56. 
1812 3 9 ie 0 12 ir 3 3 9 8 1 Te BO 
1813 |- 8 7 2 4 uy Ly 3 1 8 12 8 & | 27 
1814 2 10 1 7 8 15 i 5 6 15 4 tT |eee 
1815 3 11 6 il 6 AZ. 6 0 6 31 11 4 \ toe 
1816 A 11 8 7 9 6 3 w 6 16 7d) 4 31 
1817 9 12 LBs SLL 4 4 12 11 1 20 2 @ \#Ss 
1818 9 13 10 5 6 6 16 12 3 18 3 10 | 28 
1819 10 9 13 2 8 4 12 10 8 9 2 6 | 02 
1820 8 8 14 2 LD 5 14 5 6 5 1 7) Ox 
1821 5 2 12 8 4 6 14 7 12 4 9 Sate 
1822 2 3 12 9 8 9 9 6 uf 4 12 4 1-4 
1823 2 2 10 6 Lh 4 7 4 6 0 13 8 | 24 
1824 3 8 7 9 16 9 4 9 1 2 15 7 (2389 
1825 Beh eS 5 8 vi 14 2 6 4 2 14 12) |) 395 
1826 3 1 6 9 17 16 6 8 2 2 8 9 1:5 
1827 9 4 4 6 13 12 18 8 3 2 4 1 Ld 
1828 6 0 3 8 9 8 8 1h 0 3 4 2) \e2x0 
1829 | 20 4 9 2 8 Be tor) | 77 4 5 5 1 | 38 
1830 | 18 7 10 6 10 2 Lh 16 2 15 5 CO \"2e 
1831 Lh 9 0 i 5 4 5 7 5 10 13 3 | 00a 
1832 5 10 11 i 2 2 7 3 0 17 13 9+ || 3:6 
1833 2 11 10 4 2 0 i ef 5 15 9 14 | 36 
1834 1 10 10 i 3 4 5 i 2 9 5 8 | 38 
1835 5 8 2 2 1 10 5 4 12 9 5 4 | 24 
1836 2 4 8 2 9 8 b 5 18 13 4 A |) 02 
1837 2 9) 0 1 13 i 3 6 rs) 5 9 3 16 
1838 3 4 a) 0 16 3 9) il 3 4 7 2 16 
w39 | 7 9 4 1 8 3 1 1 5 1 6 3 | 23 
1840 u 9 ct 3 8 8 1 6 4 gf 15 Di) | 22 
far) 10 | 77 3 0 eae 3 8 3 2 6 | 1 | 07 
1842 | 11 | 75 9 Ga) 0) | 0 1 Sul. a7 0 y 4 | 0-9 
1843 10 3 11 2 12 uv 3 6 12 1 3 7 10 
1844 | 11 3 9 PAN GE 2 1 4 eed 2 6 3 | 1-0 
1845 4 6 i 1 IG: 0 2 1 4 6 5 Qe al 
1846 if 6 if 4 6 2 6 3 3 12 9) 7 12 
Way) 4! 12 DY ty, y 4 7 3 61s 701) i Ce! 
1848 | 10 le 1 15 2 4 8 5 9 10 14 2 | 07 
1849 7 16 0 9 4 6 7 9 i wi 18 4 | 31 
1850 4 21 3 14 3 5 1 6 10 2 14 4 | 31 
1851 3 7 0 7 6 10 1 8 9 6 12 0 | 22 
1852 1 6 4 4 4 8 1 10 2 8 8 11 51 
1853 1 8 4 6 1 7 2 9 5 7 2 |) Ee 
1854 3 10 if 9 1 3 5 11 1 3 0 4 | 05 
1855 8 8 al 12 2 i 7 6 0 3 4 9 16 
1856 fi 5 2 9 2 5 2 5 3 6 4 19 | 04 
1857 Z 3 2 8 10 4 0 4 4 1 2 13 1:9 
1858 3 8 5 aH 4 1 0 2 Uf 3 2 CO a 
1859 8 9 14 6 5 2 1 7 16 0 5 7 | 45 
1860 | 12 3 8 8 1 1 2 12 19 11 2 3 59 


Norz.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 
VOL. XXXIX. PART I, (NO, 6). 2F 


ee 
————— 


A NO Or Aosta ARO RAVI HS, 69 HID 80 ce €2 60 


ORNANHHREMMAN NRWOHODDKAAANOCHwRr WHRDONRNAHOD WONS 
re bs Th | ei ere 


° 


14 


AO SECOND III CLAS ANA SHONYCORHO ANH OONNAOP™ Se 


Sept. 


SORrFrnARaWtHtoOn 


Aug. 


July. 


MORIN RMNRNDMDAMDORNNNQ KWYAONHOGBRHALN 
“tr 60 LO WD et OD Sp) Se SY eS 


WCODMDDONDSH NWANRQAHYNOOVWNS 


TaBLE LVI.—continued. 
June. 


moon NADRNVGO'H DVD 
ares eal ED E200 = Ww SORES 


April. 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


oon 


© on 


%S 4 % 


NAN 


—_—————— 


oP ABDDNIOWD NOD SS oS SiS WOnmAHOAHOD WreOH 


Mar. 


See eae ot lS Aoike GY a= NHNONDOMMH NRDODOWOOOCS YS 


Feb. 


192 


NGM KL 


ica a) 


Notr.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


Ne 


ft 


l' 


BoM 


= 
Co S> So / Cr G1 SI DOK. Co Co Wh PK ALK @D Coe AR Oot & DN OD 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLe LVII. 


Five Year Groups. 


Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. 
Hundlredths | of an | Inch. 

5 2 5 2 4 4 ii 12 15 6 
ee 1 1 6 2 1 6 11 12 1 
26 il 2 11 3 0 BY 18 & 3 
22 2 5 4 7 1 3 9 3 4 
25 § 5 2 6 5 Q 0 4 2 
20 5 4 § 1 2 4 2 3 2 
17 ae ane or 3 2 | 1 2 7 2 

8 1 8 10 1 1 11 2 10 8 

3 ee 12 12 2 2 13 1 16 0 

4 3 3 8 0 4 10 7 19 6 

6 4 4 2 6 1 6 5 23 7 

1 Ci 6 1 2 1 1 6 21 1 

6 5 10 3 1 3 0 10 20 7 

0 6 13 2 i O 2 10 12 4 

2 5 10 3 1 1 1 8 18 4 

if 33 9 0 3 2 1 10 7 2 

8 “73 4 0 1 4 D 8 6 4 
10 2, 0 1 es | 20 1 0 1 a 

5 0 4 i 1 10 1 4 0 3 

6 2 I 1 5 10 i) Z 6 3 

Q 4 ® 3 1 4 0 0 4 8 

6 4 6 Tf 1 1 3 5 10 Z 

6 i 0) 5 i) fl 4 2 9 3 

1 5 0 5 1 1 0 B} 8 4 

5 8 2 4 4 6 2 8 9 4 

6 8 4 1 3 10 3 5 10 gy 

8 10 Pe 5 3 9 i 12 6 9 

6 2 9 8 q 6 2 12 iG 12 

4 4 9 1 4 10 6 6 9 1h 

9 5 10 § 2 2 5 2 4 15 

0 0 9 6 2 4 10 8 5 9 

3 0 2 3 2 1 7 12 1 9 

3 2 1 ur 3 0 0 13 4 1 

8 5 2 4 8 2 1 9 7 6 

4 8 2 3 8 1 3 4 1 2 

if 16 5 (a) 6 3 b wy 7 1 

4 13 4 1 8 0 7 0 6 12 
10 18 3 3 5 5 4 2 1 5 
12 13 2 8 4 7 1 6 i 2 


Norz.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect, 


Dec. 


193 


Showiny the Departure of Pressure from the Normal, Smoothed by continuous 


Year. 


Thousandths| 
of an Inch, 


40 
29 
32 
15 
18 
10 

il 
12 
17 


MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


194 


TABLE LVII.—continued. 


Dec. 


vase, 

. Ca;r 

oa 

—<—<— | —_—_———. = 2 


VRRH HA wero o 


DW WMRNORNRGMONR 
NON 


NODNDOAYERAON 
nN 


HNODHDOSOOHAWS 
Ns re ei 


MARNORAINAINRWNRDHS 


QHDRNMNRROAN SO 


mOoOFtHOAMOOeNON 


MODS HMIH OH '9'D 
aor 


MOWOANRQMDAAHORA 


iS NARNRRHOSS 
A 
= IDNDAHMO WMH 
Oo SA 
es | DOM NOMS NAH 
GB) ref St 
ro) 
SH | FROM ONNARRWO 
“44 
BQ q 
yl SHHRMNRDANRDSOO 
ad Lon) 
> ° 
oOo n 
a Gig HHH 4) VOD 
a so : 
EF foo) 

~ 
p Ee} 
B =| 
is SIQDAWDON SOHN 
SI xq 
S : 
ay QDHANROrrons 
<4 
8 AHH OHDADNAL 
Ss AANA 
e MWA Do ~FR WN 
& VQwAN ™ 
A DOMADNRDNRHNN 
iS — ~NN 
H re A100 +H 10 SO Bh 0 DO 
3 DDD DDOHOHDD 
al be A ce I cee I oe ce oe ee ee oe 


SD 8 ra RH i OD 1 SD LV 


Be) Se eta eS tt SFR 


OOO SN eo SSD 


BnOVBAInNRNOAsS 
NNN 


MOBDONADNYOHON 
NN 


DHNONHRATDHEANY 
re retri 


S 919 NR NH NNN 


MWOVYSRVQRNAONHOON 


SED ESET eS Se SS 


Woot Oo OOO ON SD 
are 


OHNO DH RQN 


DNROrONHDLO 
N = 


SSS Oe COE a ce 


OOmrsoronns 


Sale alae cla na 


VS VGOOn HAAN 
ors 
AAOMDOMRNRNAN 
rt St rej ri 

rN oO Hug SO b= OD © 
OD 09 09 09 69 CO OD OD OD SH 
lc ole alte ole oc oc ole ole ole ole 6) 
bc ce I ee ee ee oe | 


rerem®gnwnnnvsoon 
NNN 

HOVODBRNAODr 

MBINNQDHRNOAYOLR 


DONVWMWNNDSD LVS 


Nn 
mao +19 ok 0 SO 
SSH osH Hoh OH SH SH HE Ot 10 
WDDDAMDDDOAO®D 
ee aa 


NNW DH Hw HRVNY@ 


SSD TSR WSN OD V 


SED AAO EO SS FS ears 


RAHOMDNHOOHOON 


Nors.—tThe heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TaBLE LVII.—continued. 


195 


Jan. 


Ne me NN 
SAN Ss CNN COW NR 


mom 
Ss %* 


17 


_ 
Damen aeoradsaw= 


Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. 
Hund\redths 
LZ. 4 0 11 
19 10 1 11 
13 14 2 
10 2 
5 9) 
sy) 3 
1 0 i 
i 0 
4 2 
1 1 


— 


— 
ie es or) Ore FOOONFHNOD NAR DBNWRNS OO AotOoornd> 


SS oe SS) DOW We WWW MIWRW WO BO OTH DWADNDNRANS 


ooo- QSORKWKWORMHR BHBSAHDHOWONHKPWWH 
S 09 So NAH Ss D AA NW DO INO sr rPNHwWDS 


ee 
_ 


July. 


of an 


Correo OHNVGHANWMOOAS WS WIO OH re D Or 09 =F Or Gd OO Gd i FH DO 


Aug. 


Inch. 


i= 
AS 


—_ 


Ni Co NO WONYVWoFEArPNWS HS AQ hw AB SH NS OMMMONND 


Sept. 


WW GOON SWwWWD ANC 


— 
naned DMDONm|ANrts% ond NIN ORK D 


Oct. | Nov. 
5 2 
2 2 
Th 1 
2 6 
1 11 
5 13 
4 13 
5 10 
1 13 
1 0 
2 1 
8 0 
5 3 
6 0 
2 2 
6 3 
3 4 
7 3 

10 il 
10 2 
15 8 
12 i) 
7 4 
2 1 
6 1 
8 2 
2 2 
7 i 
3 il 
3 4 
a 10 
Y 4 
2 5 
5 11 


Notr.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


12 


AnNnaanw DRANK S 


Rm FD RK HK Co PH & OO = 62% ® 


= = 
C9 ®@ NO 


Year. 


Thousandths 
of an Inch. 


5 
23 
20 
30 
24 

4 

7 
34 

7) 


10 
9 
12 


196 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TasLE LVIII. 


Showing the Smoothed Percentage Excess or Defect of Rainfall from the Normal. 
The Averages have been Smoothed by continuous Five Year Groups. 


S 


Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. 


de | tes |< e 
a7 i ane 


° 
=< 
lo 

° 
~— 
fo} 


af 
1768 18 33 10 5 13 
1769 6 37 28 19 uel, if; 
1770 Ze 26 33 10 g 


1771 0 15 25 22 i 
1772 7 19 33 ly 14 
1773 46 5 23 2 4 
1774 69 19 7 9 4 
6 
2 
(G 


CO warn 
XR 
—" 
() 
—" 
(o) 
Je) 
(ac) 
eo 
Sim Oe coo 


Ne 
VQ BWNWD TH Dw wes “TC 
N 


1775 | 48 | 43 | 10 | 29 
mie | 48 | 86 } 0 | 7 
ir | 84 | 82 |e) 49 
is. | 95 85 |) Ga ems yaa 
1779 | 20 | 9 | go | 59 | 26 
1790 | 36 | 2 | o | 46 | 64 


6 
4 
3 
11 3 31 15 44 17 
5 
ii 


a 


1781 44 34 7 21 57 
1782 36 22 19 12 39 
1783 43 39 9 27 16 15 21 15 63 8 22 

1784 51 21 19 41 19 33 ti whip 64 14 6 

1785 23 9 5 48 11 19 30 31 31 9 8 36 
1786 42 10 5 27 4 20 22 42 27 23 15 37 
1787 al 6 20 37 3 27 31 42 42 2 14 46 
1788 16 13 13 9 19 10 27 30 22 5 2 58 
1789 19 0 12 25 14 12 3 19 21 4 7 54 
1790 3 2 3 28 i 25 6 10 1 11 20 16 


i791 | 72 a es et i>) 19") 77 1 | 2 | 19 | 99m 
L702) 4) 10 Nees | eae 1) 86 8 i) 18 |) a7 2 | 72 | 20 | 2300 
1093). 2 || MP | a7 | at 6 | 28 | 15 2 | 25 |\~-41 | 40 ae 
p04 188.) sl. | Aie~ || ie. | o> ae 6 |-79 | 18 | 21-| 93 
1795 | “4 | 2 9 | 47 | 22 | zo s | a | 18 | 
1796 | 6 2 | 2s | 21 | ae 0 8 5 7 | 40 | ae 2 
a7 \. A 5B 6. 2% J 2 8 | 23 0 2 | 10 | 92 
1798 | 6 | 45 | 35 8 | 10 | 33 7 9 | 12.| 14 | Jon 
TON. 9 ey | a0 2 | w-| ge] It)" in: | 15 | 22°) oe 
1800 | 15 | 30 | 37 8 5 ly 4 s | 10 | 19 | 35 | af 
1801-| 25 | 78 | “FY |. 28 0 | 6&1 B | ots, 7 | 20 | 33 am 
1802 | 8 | 80 | 20 | 14 | 7 | gv |.10 | 27 | 90 | 7 ee 
1608.) 28 |) 27 | "Sr" | 938 |. -<68. | 39 2 | t¢ | 19 | 82 | 37 
1804 | 18 | 20 | 32 | 31 | g0 | 89 | 20 3 | 32 | 30 6 | a 
1805 | 16 | 36 | 28 | 22 | a2 | 54 | 41 0 | 16 | 20 5 | 
1806 | 15 | 29 | 25 9 | 79 | ys | 00 | 20 | 2 | 2 |) 7 
1807 | 265 1. | 66 9 pM “27 7 eee 7 | ez | 23 
1808 | 17 2 | 23 | 20 1 | 22 | 20 | 34 6 | 92 \ oie 8 
1809 | 27. |. 28 | 72 | 32 | 12 | 10 | 10 | 30 1 | 46 4 | 26 
1810 | 79 | 60 | 12 | 20 | 16-| 26 | 11 | 36 | 2 | 77 3c 


Nore.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


Jan, 


Feb. 


18 


16 
13 
24 
25 
29 
17 

8 
34 
22 
37 


6 
10 
29 

9 
28 
34 
25 
20 
30 
25 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


TasLe LVIII.—continued. 


Mar. | April. 
Se ee 
4 8 
25 20 
13 12 
9 6 
20 6 
1 0 
11 3 
26 2 
8 15 
27 31 
13 21 
19 12 
10 0 
%£ | 14 
12 3 
19 oD 
6 36 
24 47 
32 49 
16 28 
12 27 
15 11 
12 31 
36 31 
36 26 
53 20 
51 22 
27 29 
15 34 
15 53 
Uf 52 
20 51 
36 49 
41 26 
5 12 
4 22 
Ly 6 
34 0 
3 TL 
3 21 
27 28 
28 45 
16 49 
57 51 
38 | 83 
23 30 
3 I 
12 1 
39 1 
73 12 


May. | June. 
net NO 
30 15 
13 0 
29 3 
13 13 
16 11 
12 13 
31 20 
43 26 
40 14 
33 19 
28 25 
11 22 

1 84 
3 37 
10 35 
15 36 

14 36 
27 32 
33 21 
32 9 
43 16 
46 10 
44 4 
46 6 
44 6 
23 21 
23 44 
4 60 
2 51 

1 36 
3 7 
1 4 

18 1 
Le 18 
16 25 
8 61 
7 58 
16 40 
9 27 
i) 37 
Lh 45 
6 51 
i) 64 
8 71 
5 82 
11 42 
12 32 
25 42 
38 39 
17 29 


July, | Aug. | Sept. 
ei Mics als 
& 8 35 
6 16 48 
18 29 42 
0 28 32 
18 L BL 
28 16 23 
20 18 23 
13 8 29 
2o epee 40 
8 35 36 
6 12 43 
6 15 41 
15 21 27 
& 13 32 
24 0 33 
22 8 29 
2 35 27 
42 69 21 
45 84 x7 
37 75 19 
15 59 19 
6 19 3 
31 15 17 
2 26 28 
23 22 34 
29 9 47 
31 5 36 
46 5 12 
27 4 10 
6 16 8 
14 27 ie 
8 25 20 
6 Lh 25 
4 4 19 
5 8 21 
21 4 16 
20 2 22 
21 De 28 
29 17 37 
25 8 29 
ha 17 26 
22 10 36 
6 15 4? 
13 9 Ge 
Lif 5 2 
7 13 4 
3 ae 11 
16 20 33 
6 19 30 
4 9 9 


Nov. 


a 
24 
44 
11 
18 


NN 
MS %*® D D Oo Cot. 


mL me OM®NMON 
DUSSSHSRSNHO 


Norz.-—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


Dec. 


1 


Yea 


° 
spore 
Cc} 


Ke 


N 
PERPADADSst9M WNHDOHORAN 


i 


SD HO OD SP Co D WD 


Noh 
Hy TS Cot & 


km H 1M 6 Co Co NW NOD C9 > Cs De 


— 


97 


Tr. 


198 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TasLE LVIII.—continued. 


Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. 


—_—————. | ——— | | | | 


1861 44 22 62 6 18 37 20 0 14 10 
1862 33 Lh 64 15 2 29 27 1 28 37 
1863 16 13 54 18 21 0 13 is 7 46 
1864 33 9 48 19 29 13 L4 1 th 37 
1865 51 21 2 2 29 13 7 i. shih 22 
1866 43 51 18 15 31 42 5 i ve 22 
1867 59 37 12 13 vf dll tts) if 1 20 
1868 53 oe.) 270 las 20 16 16 11 37 
1869 40 71 20 55 14 16 18 8 28 
1870 20 75 6 42 1h 35 13 42 13 


2 

0 

0 
1877 | 28 B, | ae. 389 31 || 712. |, 38 1 | 23 
1878 6 6 i) 20°) a) |) B87 4) Bia gs |) Bye, 
1879 | 10 i 7.) €4i 5 | 19 | 26 | 49 5 | 19 
1880 | 28 5 i eet o | 28 | 21 1 Teall 78 
1881 | 27 1 | 14 | Ga5 0 Soe5| Moo |) Bas 6 5) =26 
1882 2 7 5 "| “a6 | big | Ser +) Bae 7 1 \ ei 
1883 | 10 4 4 1 i | eo 4) Siz 7 iy eso 
1884 | 33 | 23 6 1 | S26 |) Sey. a) Mis | See 5) Sra ey, 
1885 | 26 | 30 13: °| Mir 4 Bey 3 | 26 8 | 28 
1886 | “19 | 4e6 | $24 | 29 | S|) Ser wl a | ae 6 | 85 


1894 37 36 12 22 16 25 2 22 43 22 


Norr.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 199 


TaBLe LIX. 
Showing the Smoothed Departure from the Average of the Non-Instrumental 
Phenomena. 
: So : a a : 
‘ ‘=| . n | . n 
| 2e/ 2/2) s Bree) a | oe) ee 
3 <2) Se = o = Ha mq S cy 
Year. | Days. | Days. | Days. | Days. | Days. Days. | Days. | Days. | Days. 
772 | 8 $0 | 42 | 10 0 os | 32 | 5 1 
L773 1 26 38 8 0 2-2 1-4 6 3 
L774 2 20 28 6 1 2-0 0:4 14 4 
.775 0 28 28 2 2 16 1:2 19 5 
.176 0 20 32 2 2 O-4 0:2 23 5 
ay | 2 10 | 38 1 y; 02 | 02 | 26 6 
778 0 vie} 3°8 3 3 0:0 2°8 26 6 
779 2 18 | 40 5 3 06 | 80 | 24 6 
m2 | 78 | Bo | 4 3 04 | 52 i9 6 
} 1:0 . 
Oe 3 y -F ; é 04 | 9-0 8 2 
4 ¥ 06 | 116 | 8 1 
733 | 8 go | 28 | 9 6 Pee tue 5 
734 | 12 as | 32 | 10 5 1-0 ts : : 
735 | 5 pat 16 |\ 17 4 eel eae, | oe 
786 2 80 | 00 | 18 8 ei) tee laa : 
187 1 12 | 86) 6 i Solis . 
es | 2 fo | 16 | a 8 oA ee i og ‘< 
89 | 6 10 | 12 | 9 9 a ae : 
mmo | ty | 10 | 6 9 el cae ie 5 
791 6 16 | 0-4 5 7 : 2 4 
792 8 26 0:8 2 9 a ee 6 1 
793 4 3:0 0:2 8 & 0:6 12 3 2 
795 6 3'0 0:4 8 10 0-8 3-8 7 2 
796 6 16 16 & 12 0-0 1:8 7 yj 
797 1 tes 16 6 10 1:0 18 10 6 
798 8 L6 34 3 5 0:0 0-4 15 6 
99 3 16 32 2 i) 0:2 0:5 18 8 
300 6 2:0 0-8 1 6 16 16 20 1 
=| 8 Sy) 22 |- 1 6 14 | 06 | 18 5 
302, 8 34 2°6 4 8 2-2 0-8 10 8 
303 5 SL | 46 7 10 1s | 12 9 9 
j 2 26 3°8 8 y O-4 28 1 11 
3 2-2 4:6 8 8 06 34 2 8 
5 06 | 34 6 6 £0) \- 62 4 6 
5 04 | 46 2 9 08 | SY 3 8 
08 6 0:4 46 3 11 0:4 58 1 9 
5 0:4 5:0 0 10 16 56 5 3) 
6 0-2 4-4 2 6 0-2 46 3 5 


Norz.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 
1L. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). 2G 


200 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


TaBLE LIX.—continued. 


a 
Year. | Days. | Days. | Days. | Days. | Days. | Year. | Days, | Days. | Days. | Days, Days. | 


— = 


a 


—_—_—— 


1851 9 10 | oy 2 6 1873 5 56 | 1:8 9 | 
1852 9 06 | 28 4 0 1874 1 52 | .08 9 a 
1853 5 1-2 2-8 5 2 1875 1 3-4 0-2 8 a 
1854 5 TS ees" 1 3 1876 1 26-1 "CO > a | 
1855 4 0-2 46 | 12 4 1877 3 16 18 5 a 
1856 6 0:0 | 58 | 16 5 1878 1 28 | 12 | 1 | 
1857 5 12 | oy \ a6 8 1879 i 30 | OY 7 8 | 
1858 . 10 |) 52 | 18 8 1880 1 40 | 06 9 i 
1859 4 G6 |. 96 | 1 10 . 
1860 3 Z2 | ge: | 7 9 1881 1 50 | 16 | 15 5.4 
1882 8 62 | 34 | 23 3H 
1861 5 ZL lp og-2 8 7 1883 2 56 | 3:8 ||| a ie 
1862 4 LO 4, 82 8 6 1884 0 52 | 149) ag g | 
1863 y 22 | 42 7 5 1885 rf 36 | O2 | 15 7 | 
1864 6 D6 INSEE. Lt 2 1886 1 20: | 7:2 } a 
1865 8 Loo 0 i 1887 1 08 | O6 2 
1866 2 00 | x6 9 0 1888 1 14 | 0-4 ul | 
1867 4 00 | &4 9 0 1889 3 02 | 26 0 4a 
1868 1 OZ) oo 1G 3 1890 0 02 | 58 2 6 | 
1869 0 12 | 60 7 5 a 
1870 4 32 | 58 y 10 1891 1 14 | 56 3 y 
1892 1 26 | 68 3 6 
1871 4 30 | 50 | 10 12 1893 1 44 | 70 9 3 
1872 2 50 | 2S -|- 17 10 1894 0 42 | 58 | ay DQ 


Notz.—The heavy type indicates an excess, and the italic type a defect. 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 201 


: TasLE LX. 


Showing the Number of Times the Shade Minimum fell to or below Freezing Point in 
each Month during 81 Years. 


Year, Jan. | Feb. | Mar, | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec, | Year. 
1803, . 16 i Noes: oe oa re 8 9 48 
1804, . 7 15 11 6 ae i 2 11 52 
1805, . 14 8 3 2 1 5 4 10 47 
p06, .- -. 17 t || Ald 6 a 2 2 4 48 
meO7,, . 15 19 23 10 an a 21 17 105 
MOS s, 17 15 18 7 ee i 4 7 11 80 
1809, . 22 8 4 12 1 ie 7 14 68 
wa10,, . - 10 15 23 5 3 2 7 13 78 
ai, . 18 11 10 5 18 62 
Miz, . 16 7 17 5 7 15 67 
hn 16 3 3 3 8 14 12 59 
ia. 29 20 18 in 2 2 10 18 99 
‘CLES on Pe) 2 9 3 15 20 75 
BIG 21 18 16 10 3 16 22 106 
uy 13 one els 6 1 5 3 17 71 
me, . (Cte 17 19 | 92 11 5 74 
PO Ct 11 10 2 see 1 oe a ae 5 13 21 63 
a 18 7 12 is a ee te noe is a 2 13 52 
‘921, 9 9 2 oe a 1 7 28 
1822, 10 5 5 os as fe 1 12 33 
823, . 23 20 8 1 ti ms 1 9 62 
824, . 9 10 16 12 6 3 8 13 12 89 
| 825, j 9 12 16 8 3 act 5 15 14 82 
826, 21 4 10 7 4 3 14 9 72 
827, 18 20 13 6 2 1 8 4 72 
828, 10 13 12 6 Fo 4 3 2 50 
829, 22 13 14 8 ; 6 10 18 91 
| 880, : 23 17 10 4 3 7 17 81 
| 
|831, ili 12 10 1 4 ie ee 11 5 60 
| 840, 15 18 17 3 1 an 1 10 21 86 
841, : 21 14 2 2 1 ee 4 15 10 69 
842, 23 9 8 4 ae a 7 7 6 64 
843, . 19 15 11 5 1 12 14 2 79 
844, 17 23 22 1 3 1 5 5 25 102 
2 a 19 22 21 8 a 1 2 6 19 98 
i, an 6 8 12 12 1 en 2 5 26 72 
i, Se 20 19 9 9 1 il Ae 7 15 81 
a 25 12 14 14 a on 5 11 11 92 
849, 16 7 4 8 es ae ai 10 15 67 
850, . 26 7 9 4 5 1 5 4 61 
351, ; 6 8 7 7 1 1 Bat 17 10 57 
i. Ae 16 5 6 4 Ae 4 ae 35 
L aan 7 17 11 4 - 2 10 8 59 
359, ; 10 9 4 14 9 12 18 76 
i. 7a 22 21 12 9 7 15 86 

i. 17 9 6 3 2 Lag 11 17 65 

62, . 8 5 12 4 1 1 19 1 51 

63, . 9 8 i 1 = 1 4 10 40 

64, 18 20 15 3 1 1 9 11 78 

65, 20 | 19 | 924 3 “2 4 2 Te eee 

eg, io) 1) 46 3 2 1 7 ay Ge 

67, : 21 5 19 ae 1 1 5 10 62 

68, 13 6 4 3 fl 1 13 6 47 

69m, 11 7 23 5 5 6 12 15 84 

je .| 18 19 15 1 a 1 12 16 82 


202 MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Taste LX.—continued. 


Year, Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. 
USVI e os 19 4 4 3 2 < ite f 5 19 
1872" i 18 9 9 6 eae 6 : % ; 1 2 
1873, . 8 12 3 Bs 5 0 : 2 9 
1874, 10 16 4 — aA Fr : a: 6 
1875, 8 7 7 COC a ac 4 1 7 
1876, 9 9 9 5 2. : : ze 6 
1877, , 5 3 16 9 5 3¢ ; 2 6 
1878, 14 5 14 4 is ae ao 3 13 
1879, 28 19 16 9 2 Oo Go 5 11 
1880, .| 16 1 6 i ie ; om & 3 11 
TSS. 25 15 16 8 As acs 4 1 
1882, . 4 4 3 3 680 7 2 8 
1883, . 6 3 20 ah 1 ; ot 3 
1884, . 8 i 7 6 1 if 
1885, . 14 8 11 3 1 1 5 5 
1886, . c 19 19 19 2 2 ' mae so 
1887, . 11 10 15 9 2 ; a 2 5 
1888, . 9 17 20 8 i Ny 2 
1889, . 6 13 9 es : ; a 5 
1890, . 6 15 4 4 sa ; 2 7 
1891, 18 6 16 4 1 Bon ans non 5 
1892, 15 11 21 7 500 . oe ° 4 4 
1893, 11 a 6 300 oD 2 7 
1894, 13 7 3 re 1 : : ‘ 3 1 
1895, 26 22 5 4 . fs . 3 4 
1896, 7 7 nee 4 4 


1811-20, . | 18°5 | 10°8 12'4 4°3 05 0'2 = 20 80 

1821-30, - | 15°4 | 12:3 10°6 52 ish) fic : 0°3 32 71 

1841-50, .|19°'2 | 136 11'2 67 11 0-4 4°5 85 

1861-70, .| 145 | 11:2 14°1 26 13 50 17 =| 1071 

1871-80, . | 13:5 8°5 8°8 37 09 oC 2'2 9°0 

1881-90, . | 10°83 | 10°38 | 12°4 4°3 0°6 01 16 4°3 
Means, 81 


years, . | 154 11°3 11°3 4°6 09 00 0:0 00 ol 2-4 77 


Sy40t ete Mis “e (se) 0 (oe) ©! =: ‘ese 


= < o. ey le 


THE 


First Frost. 


November 


” 
October 


” 
November 


TasLE LXI. 


1858-59, 
1859-60, 
1860-61, 
1861-62, 


1857-58, . 


1862-63, . 


METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


each Winter, with Date of First and Last Frost. 


First Frost, 


November 25 
October 29 
” 21 
November 3 
1 


October 30 


Showing the Number of Times the Shade Minmum fell to or below 32° in 
: 


203 


Last Frost. 


April 


70 September 27 May 2 1863-64, . 72 An 6 May 
77 November 1 oF 17 1864-65, . 87 a 21 April 
66 October 28 April 10 1865-66, . 59 as 23 May 
63 December 4 = 22 1866-67, . 62 = 26 3 
47 November 5 5 3 1867-68, . 43 “ 4 He 
103 October 13 June 8 1868-69, . 71 * 20 ap 
70 nF 8 April 24 1869-70, . 86 ne 17 April 
103 November 2 May 11 1870-71, . 61 6 15 May 
84 59 6 ,, 18 1871-72, . 85 es 4 April 
94 October 3 April 18 1872-73, . 35 - 5 March 
29 December 9 May 28 1873-74, . 50 _ 9 30 
76 October . 20 March 25 1874-75, . 47 November 1 05 
35 November 14 sh 22 1875-76, . 49 October 12 April 
28 ‘ 4 io 24 1876-77, . 51 November 9 May 
65 By 29 April 19 1877-78, . 50 October 17 April 
63 October 29 May 22 1878-79, . 116 " 29 May 
84 September 27 . 31 1879-80, . 58 = 15 April 
80 October 21 50 12 1880-81, . 94 + 19 sp 
85 An 6 12 1881-82, . 33 . 16 np 
54 A 29 April 8 1882-83, . 58 i 26 May 
66 50 18 6 30 1883-84, . 33 November 7 April 
88 9 ff is 4 1884-85, . 57 October 11 May 
71 e 17 May 14 1885-86, . 82 September 27 ” 
72 ee 25 an 3 1886-87, . 50 October 12 x 
73 3 21 April 12 1887-88, . 78 np 12 April 
70 7. 13 i 27 1888-89, . 36 November 27 March 
95 September 29 May 19 1889-90, . 46 oD 17 April 
106 5D 22 April 25 1890-91, . 66 October 27 May 
67 ap 23 May 15 1891-92, . 65 November 23 April 
91 October 26 5 17 1892-93, . 51 October 18 March 
88 September 27 April 30 1893-94, . 38 9 30 May 
62 October 18 6 21 1894-95, . 70 9 19 April 
83 0 2 Ma 15 1895-96, . 33 f 24 March 
40 June 4 1896-97, . 51 " 11 April 


204 .MR ROBERT COCKBURN MOSSMAN ON 


Tasue LXII. 


Showing the Number of Times Frost was Registered on each Day 
of the Year during Eighty-one Years. a 


slalelalslelals d/2l/glElel ele 

Sle lalgi|s/2)alo Sia lst hls |e ia le 
diss S8Hliseods | 20n|| Silane. cad 19, - | 80 | 34 | 26] 16] 8 see 
Di i A00| S8)186))| 16) Ses. 1 Z0 Wie 44 | 38 | 23 | 12 1 S00 
Divs 41 | 32} 31 | 17 Oy | ss 1 21, 48 | 34 | 29 9 2 AC 
Ried SO) SH asus | 8 lbal 3 22, 46| 29/34] 8| 1 mil 
Dit 38 | 28 | 34 | 10 eee 3 23, . 46 | 30 | 32 Soll wae ol 
Gar. 42 | 32 | 32 | 14 Goren 4 24, 386 | 31 | 28 fae ano 
63 . | 45 | 33:| 29 | 11 2 1 4 26, . . | dl | 32 | 22 | 11 1 
8; . . | 41 | 81 | 382 9 5 1 3 26, 42 | 36 | 25 Sh lleen 
One - | 40 | 41 | 36 | 15 4 >is 4 Pf, 39 | 38 | 21 8 Lae 4 
10%. ; . 7 09 | 8L | 37 | 16 3) nae 3 28) « 34 | 34 | 21 5 7A it 
The 5p 25> |) 83831) Sire |) alls) 3 6 29, 89 | (5) | 20 7 1. ieee 2 
12, 43 | 33 | 36 | 19 3 5 30, BD!) ae) 20 G6.) cae: /|Byesen eee 
13, 38 | 35 | 33 | 19 2 5 31, 31 20 | ..» Lola a5 
14, 40 | 26 | 30 | 19 4 2) 
15, 471) 80, |"81| 12+) 2 7 ————— 
16, . | 40 | 26] 34)14] 2 4 
ys - | 389 | 28 | 29 | 13 4 5 Totals, . |1220916 \917 |373 | 72 Shalt 194 
13; . 82 | 32] 29) 13] 2 10 


| 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 205 


Taste LXIII. 


howing the Number.of Times the Minimum Temperature vm Shade fell to or below 
20° during Exghty-one Years. 


Year, el | = a |B 3 e 9 3 Year, | a a & = 5 3 3 
Pea | sialéiailals Seo isekeg lke ie | a | s 
I 
1803 1 =| oa ee 1 1857 1 1 
1804 1 1 ‘ 2 1858 Me - ae 
1805 a a 1859 ae : 
1806 a3. 1860 1 i 5 6 
1807 1 : 2 3 
1808 2 2 1861 2 : 2 
1809 4 4 1862 fee 1 1 
1810 é 6 , 6 1863 - ey he 
1864 2 1 1 4 
4 ; jealmeeee cee 4 1865 I Tew 3 
1 : eT: 3 4 1866 ii : 1 
se G 3s Disiit k 2 1867 5 5 
14 Toa ee 5 | Peerets| ae 1/16 1868 ae > 
S laa Die 1 3 7 1869 an 3 3 
a % |) dan | (econ ieee ere 1 3 1870 K 2 1 3 
a a ; Age 1 1871 : kes 
no a ; 3 3 1872 : =e 
5 : re 5 1873 bem ane 
1874 1 4 5 
TL, Wines ne 1 1875 ally ones ; ite 1 
3 4 oe a 1876 ip ; es 
- 2 x att ae 2 1877 Sanh aL 8 3 
oe |... ; 1 1 2 1878 1 sl 2 3 
el... ddl eee 1 : 1 1879 3 1 ae 4 
6 = es - 6 1880 4 
3 | 2 1 ile ; 6 
loa ae ella 1 1881 TB Wee ac Lae ace tecee ciiacs 5 | 19 
Bal ss al: 6 1882 a ‘ scl tb 
i 3 nee 3 "i 1883 Re q 
1884 Sy 1 1 
% | Sle aes 1 4 1885 ie 
Rie = oa 1886 2 1 3 
1887 ae 1 Ss 1 
ae” : = 4 1888 ne i ga eae 1 
ae. f , 1 3 1889 oy A : 
i) 8} : a 4 1890 es : 
soba ; ‘ 2 6 
a | 1B k 8 1891 J ae 
5 ee 4 4 : 4 8 1892 il Ay 3 4 
Bes 4 1 i : 5 1893 2 _ 2 
ae: : : 4 1894 2 a 2 
4 9 ee ‘ 4 1895 3 9 1 13 
5 ; ‘ _ 5 1896 P 78 ae 
: F , elie ; Totals, 117 | 54 | 10 1 1 8 | 48 |239 
Decennial Totals. 
Die \ 3 a Loader 5 3 | 11 | 45 1861-70 | 11 5 Dee incee aes 4 | 22 
18 7 gels 1 il 4 | 32 1871-80 5 1 Te Ml otal ee eal ee 9 | 16 
23 |16 Bama rect aenll), 1 6 | 51 1881-90 | 15 2 2 elit cae 6 | 25 


SUMMARY AND 


( 206 ) 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
GENERAL SUMMARY, 63-92 
Preliminary, . . 5 . 63 
Barometric Pressure, 63 
Mean Temperature of the Air, j «= 168 
Temperature Variability, 71 
Rainfall, soe Lee NS 72 
Droughts and Heavy Rains, 73 
Direction of the Wind, 76 
Mean Relative Humidity, 77 
Thunderstorms, 78 
Snow, 79 
Hail, 80 
Gales, 81 
Fog or Mist, . 81 
Auroras, 81 
Lightning, 81 
Hourly Sunshine Valeo 81 
Rainband Observations, 82 
Solar and Terrestrial Radiation, 83 

REDUCTION OF THE OBSERVATIONS TAKEN IN 
EDINBURGH FROM JUNE 1731 To May 17386, . 84-92 
Pressure, 84 
Temperature, 85 
Rainfall, 86 
Variability of Teripeciburey 86 
Humidity, 5 86 
Wind Direction, ; ‘ 86 
Gales, 3 ; ; 87 
Fog or Mist, . : 87 
Thermal Windrose, . 87 
Hygrometric Windrose, 88 
General Results, 88 
Does the Weather move in Cycles? . 89 
Days with Frost, : 92 

APPENDIX OF REMARKABLE ATMOSPHERIC PHENO- 
MENA, . 93-108 
GENERAL TaBLEs. Barometric Pressure, 109-115 

Table I. Mean Barometric Pressure from 
1769-1896, a os 

» II. Highest Barometric Pressure in 
each Month from 1840-1896, . 112 

» III. Lowest Barometric Pressure in 
_ each Month from 1840-1896, 113 


OF PART IL 


BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—continued. 


Table IV. Monthly Range of Pressure, 
i V. Summary of Pressure Ob- 
servations, . aa 
5 VI. High and Low Pressey a 
TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS, . : 116-1 
Table VII. Mean Air Temperature from 


1764-1896, . 
= VIII. Reduction of the Edinburgh 
Advertiser Observations, . 11 

» IX. &X. Reduction. .of the Edin- 
burgh Magazine and Scots 
Magazine Registers, — 
Reduction of WATERSTON’S 
Register, 
Mean Temperature at Gin, 
doich, 
Extreme Daily Temperature 
Values in each Year 1770— 
1896, a 
Highest Mean Daily Tem- 
perature in each Month, 
1857-1896, 2 
. Lowest Mean Daily Tem- 
perature in each Month, — 
1857-1896, sm 
Extreme Range in the Mean 
Daily Temperatures in each — 
Month, 1857-1896, 
Greatest Daily Range of 
Temperature in each 
Month, 1857-1896, h 
Synopsis of Thermometric — 
Observations from 1840- 
1896, a 
Abstract of Temperature 
Observations, 1764-1896, . 
Low Day Maxima and 
High Night Mian 

1840-1896, 

» XI. to ) Reduction of Apm’s Obser- 
XXIV. ( vations, 1824-1831, 35- 

py SAV. & — Daily Variability of 
XXVI. {+ Temperature, 1840-1896, — 


‘ al. 
od i686 


=< STU 


7 XIV. 


eh SVs 
=~ XVI. 
oo KVL: 


rae ae ac. ¢ 


f xk 


THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


IMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS—continued. 


Table XXVII. 

eee XVIII. 
FINFALL, . ; 

Table XXIX. 

me XXX. 

ee SX XT. 


Yup OBSERVATIONS, 


Table XXXVI. 
Pe XXX VII. 
Pex xX VIII. 
ee XX XIX. 
a XL, 
A XLI. 
XLII. 
ee XLII. 
me XLIV. 


Table XXXII. 
Pee XXIII. 
pee SX XIV. 
Pe XXXV. 


N-INSTRUMENTAL PHENOMENA, 1770-1896, 


Comparison of Variability 
of Temperature from 
Observations deduced 
from different data, 

Temperature Variability 
at Hawkhill and Kirk- 


PAGE 


142 


caldy, 1776-1777, 142 
- 143-147 
Monthly ad Annual Rain- 
fall for 1204 Years, 143 
Droughts of more than 14 
Days, . 146 
Daily Rainfalls a an. meh 
or more, 147 
: 148-162 
N meter of Days the Wind 
blew from the Hight 
Principal Directions for 
each Month during 138 
Years, 148 
Mean Monthly Berens 
ages, 1764-1896, 161 
Decennial Means, . 161 
Mean Annual Percentage 
Frequency of East and 
West Winds, 1764-1896, 162 
163-181 
Days with Thunderstorms, 163 
Diurnal Distribution of 
Thunderstorms, . . 166 
Days with Snow, . 167 
Date of First and Last 
Snow by Winters, 169 
Days with Hail, , 5 ico) 
Days with Gales, , 173 
Days with Mist or Fog, 176 
Auroras, 1773-1781 and 
1800-1896, : 179 
Days with Silent Light- 
ning, . 181 


OL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 6). 


207 
PAGE 
SUNSHINE, : 182-183 
Table XLV. Honnly Semeline Values, 182 
XLVI. Analysis of Sunless and 
Sunny Days, . 183 
REDUCTION OF OBSERVATIONS TAKEN FROM 1731- 
1736, 4 184-186 
Table XLVII. Mean Temperate at 9 
A.M., ; 184 
» XLVIII. Corrected 9 a.m. Tem- 
peratures, 184 
- XLIX. Rainfall, 184 
rf L. Mean Variability of Tem- 
perature, : 185 
Ap LI. Mean Humidity, . 185 
5 LII, Thermal Windrose, 1731- 
1736, . 185 
¥ LIII. Thermal Wandioss, 1770- 
L765 186 
- LIV. Mean Humidity ek ae 
ferent Winds, 1731-1736, 186 
SmMooTHED DEPARTURES FROM THE Lona AVER- 
AGES FOR EACH Monta, , 187-200 
Table LY. Tomer, 187 
5 LVI. West Wind, 190 
+5 LVII. Barometric Pressure, » 198 
i LVIII. Rainfall, 196 
4 LIX. Annual Non-Instrumental 
Values, . 199 
Frost In SHADE, 81 YuARs, ; - 201-205 
Table LX. Monthly and Annual 
Values, . 201 
> LXI. First and last Frost i 
Winters, : . 203 
, LXII. Daily Values, - 204 
9 LXIII. Number of Days on which 
the Shade Temperature 
fell to or below 20°, . 205 
SUMMARY AND CONTENTS, , , . 206 


2H 


Vol. XXXIX. 


R.C. MOSSMAN ON THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 
PLATE |I.— SHOWING THE DEPARTURE FROM THE AVERAGE. 
Note.— THe RED INDICATES AN EXCESS anp THE BLUE a DEFECT. 


PRESSURE. 
1820 ta30 te: ___ 1860 __te70_—«(1880___ 1890 


JANUARY 


FEBRUARY 


MARCH 


APRIL 


JUNE 


JULY 


SEPTEMBER 
- *\ 
? 


OCTOBER 


NOVEMBER 


DECEMBER 


ROG. Mossman. delt. M‘Farlane & Ershine, Lith™* Edin® 


NOTE.— THE VALUES HAVE BEEN SMOOTHED BY CONTINUOUS FIVE YEAR GROUPS. 


Vol. XXXIX. 


Notre.— THE RED invicaTES AN EXCESS anv tHe BLUE a DEFECT. 


TEMPERATURE 
1820 1830 1840 


1610 


R.C. MOSSMAN ON THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 
PLATE IIl.— SHOWING THE DEPARTURE FROM THE AVERAGE. 


ne, Lith"? Edin? 


1860 _ sto 


z 
< 
o 


3 
z 
3 
3 


Me Be t+ ene i 
it | 
McFarlane & Erak 


3 lin 
- fil 


= 
= 
=) 
D 
> 
i) 
==) 
= 


5 ili T = if 5 a | | + T ; tT 1 | =} im | t al 1| r ~ | 4 7 Sai T a4 1 rel ‘lis 
CC eee or re: : 
ESSRERFSSLSESELS SSRERS SLRKERV’ SRSRSKVLSSARRERCRSRARERASSSRERZ SRRSRS SSSR ESLSSIAFRISAR ERS 
pabchak ie! keke pra eolel +++ Fl TERS Sede S See ei less te ey Mp Tice tail peek eas ChAT +++ 41 1 t++eete er tr etttt t1itte Bit 
ri = oe or fon (-3 
‘ = < 3 = > Fo > = a ta = 3 
< > ie} ca: a 
rs a < = = = = = 
S cs = < = = ra 2 wi ui 
= oa = 3 (2) E e = a 
< i = = a = S w 
=) a = a 
S = 
2 
+ 
o 
o 
2 


Be i 
Ht 


ie 
cae 


Be, 
| a | 


| 


LJ 
NOTE.— THE VALUES HAVE BEEN SMOOTHED BY CONTINUOUS FIVE YEAR GROUPS 


if 


ie + | 
=I 
aon 
a Hs Sae22h Sree 
fl 


bh. SREB ao bee ued eee eet —+. i= S Cs St 
- = ae... “Sener sane. 8 ‘| | | Ul) Cee i SERRE “Saee 


Iv 
Mii ./ 
a 


VRP “WN 


A 
| 
a 


go 1800_ 


2 sa 


= 25a 


Mossm). dele. 


SacI. Vol. XXXIX. 
R.C. MOSSMAN ON THE METEOROLOGY OF EDINBURGH. 


PLATE II[— SHOWING THE DEPARTURE FROM THE AVERAGE. 
Note .— THE RED INDICATES AN EXCESS anv tHE BLUE a DEFECT. 


WEST WIND. ANNUAL VALUES. 
1730 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 i350 «L880 1870 ‘18800 701780 ms0__—*1800 a0 —*1820 1690 164018501660 1870 880 | 


i. + 04in)/—_+—_+— rT a a 
eel a as 
+ 02in}— i il 


PRESS sean; 
-URE. ooin| 


— 


——+—_+ 


— 04in|- 


+ 151 1 

+ 1o|— : 

= Aol 
~ | TEMPER teen, 


“ATURE. ,°;| 


— 10+ 


= + 20% 
+ 10%— 
RAIN. "een 
— 10%|- 
— 20%|— 


+ 6 %t-—+ 
+ 4% 
+ 2% 
WEST » 


WIND: 
— 2% 


| 
ean 


= 45 


= 6%—_+ 


Days 
+ 10 


+ Oh t——— 
SNOW. ‘ean be 


o 


Days |- 

+ 10 

+ 5 
HAIL Mean, — 


anni 


> 


‘eo ail i 
| 


=~ 10 |— 


Days | 
+10 | 
+ 5} 
FOG. “een 
— 5 +++ 
= 10 


om 


ao 


wed 


| 
L a ‘ oe = Went shee | ee See 


Se ieee ee 


ase 


THUNDER-STORMS BY DECADES. 
RED, LONDON. BLUE, EDINBURGH. 
1780 90 (800 isio (820 i830 1840 aso 1860 1870 1880 1aso 


“y aa? | | : 
(eum 10 hw. 
| 4 —) Y ‘ 
i. 
5 
| | + 
all 
sea; at age a 
zal | | 


M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith’ Edia* 


NOTE.— THE VALUES HAVE BEEN SMOOTHED BY CONTINUOUS FIVE YEAR GROUPS. 


Li TN \ (bai 
ry | lee) Se i ae SS ——— 
7 ERE OT PE a: Te 4 Ww ro , 


we wali : i _ 


( 209 ) 


VIL—The Automorphic Linear Transformation of a Quadric. 
By Tuomas Morr, LL.D. 


(Read April 5, 1897.) 
(1) It is well known that Cay.ey effected the transformation of 
DP Min? gt oe +H,” into Se are nae ke 
by introducing an intermediary set of variables 
hs Chale Be) avy 6, 


connected with each of the other sets by means of a linear substitution of a peculiar 
type. The substitutions in fact were 


11104 e528, + 403+... =) 
15104 +50. + los03+ -. . = | 
1510) + 15202 +13303-+ » .. =a | 
and 
119; +l,0, +l 05+... =§,) 
1100 +1298. +ls003+ -.. =& f 
1130) +5302 +l5:0,+ ... =&s | 
A afel ng ae Ws 


where the determinant of the first substitution is unit-axial and skew, and the deter- 
minant of the second substitution is got from the preceding determinant by changing 
rows into columns, and where, therefore, the number of arbitrary quantities introduced 
by the two substitutions is only }n(n—1). Cay.ey did not in any way indicate how 
he was led to the substitutions. It has to be carefully noted, however, that when they 
had been divined or devised, the essential difficulty of the problem had been overcome ; 
all that remained was the simple algebraical process of eliminating 0,, 6,, 6;,... and 
so finding the expression for each of the a’s in terms of the és. It is true that this 
process does not take a simple form in the original memoir.* In later days, however, 


he would doubtless have dismissed the matter in a couple of lines. For, writing the 
two sets of substitutions in the form 


PCO TOL ah =(@, «By, 2p, -~«)s 
ot en 
Dene. 


il Loy ley at )(,, 03» O55 ee p=, E55 La Seah 


* Cayzey, A., “Sur quelques propriétés des déterminants gauches,” Crelle’s Jowrn., xxxii. pp. 119-123 ; or Collected 
Math. Papers, i. pp. 332-336. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 7). 21 


210 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


we have from the second 
(0,, 0,03...) = ( Ly Ly ey S89 (&, £,> £3 nee 


and therefore by substituting in the first 


C by ye lag eC Gay lon gy - ++ Eis Bos Ess +) = (ys By, ys. ++), 
boy Uop bog | Lig Loe Ugo + +. 
l l 


which is all that was required. Indeed, it may be seriously questioned whether up to 
the present date this be not the best way of formulating the theorem for the construc- 
tion of an orthogonal substitution. For example, in the case of two variables, we have 


(%,%)=( 1 AVI —r)7 (Gs &)s 


l-a 1j|a 1 
=( 1 A\_1 ie) CARE) 
Fax Sp eae ee 
EN pak 
142 TEX? 
=(1—» 2r ) (E15 &)- 
To? 14e 
SA ol SX 
12 14>? 


(2) The next step in advance was taken by Hermire,* but he also made use of an 
intermediary set of variables, his mode of defining them being that each one of the set 
was to be the arithmetic mean of the corresponding members of the two given sets— 
that is to say, 6, was defined by the equation 


6, =43(#,.+&). 
Strictly speaking there was not much new in this, for it was in entire correspondence 
with CayLEy’s intermediary equations, and very probably was derived from them. 
Thus, from the first equations of the two sets we have by addition 
21,10, + (lpg + la )O2+ (ys +45))O3+ » +. =% +8; 


ue. 20, =%,+&. 
His after-procedure, however, was different from CayLzEy’s, and apparently lent itself 
more readily to generalisation, both in his own hands and in Cay.ry’s. 


(3) An entirely new departure was taken by VeLtMann.t He dispensed with inter- 
mediary variables, laying down at once the connecting equations 


* Hermite, Cu., “Sur la théorie des formes quadratiques ternaires indéfinies,” Crelles Journ., xlvii. pp. 307-812. 
See also xlvii. pp. 313-342 ; and Camb. and Dub. Math. Journ., ix. pp. 63-67. 
+ Vevrmann, W., “ Die orthogonale Substitution,” Zedtschr. fiir Math. wu. Phys., xvi. pp. 523-525. 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 211 
®t lygtgt ... = Ly Ei tly +lyést+ ... 
Day tly y+ logy 0. = Link +l ko tlk, +... 
1544 + lg9Gy + UggHg +... = big€) + los& + lak t . . . 
and affirming that these implied that 2,, x,,«,,..., and, &,&,..., were ortho- 


gonally related. By way of proof he solved for ~,, “, x, . 
expressions for them in terms of &, &,&,... 


.. and obtained CayLey’s 


(4) It does not appear to have been remarked—and it is certainly very important 
that attention should be drawn to the fact—that the much more general substitution, 


viz., the substitution for the automorphic transformation of a quadric can be expressed 
in an exactly similar way. 


Denoting any quadric 


at? + bx2+Cty+... le RT ai 
+ 2h2,%,+29%,%,+.. ace | a 
+ first, + . by hb f ...|m% 
Ee O. UGG oa | a 


—a form which brings into evidence the discriminant of the quadric, and from which 
the terms of the quadric are readily obtained by multiplying every element of the 
square array by the x which stands in the same column with the element, and there- 


after by the 2 which stands in the same row with it—we may enunciate our theorem 
as follows :— 


The substitution— 


AL, + (h+lio)to+(G+lis)%+...= a, +(h+1))E +(9 +45))E3 +...) 
(h+1,)a,+ bay + (flog )ta+.-. = (A+1,)& + bE, +(f+ls)Ea+ - - - ‘ 
(9 +15) )ay + (f+ 159) + = a | 


Cla... (gt lis&, +P log) Eo + c&+ . 


where, as before, the l’s are any 4(n)(n—1) arbitrary quantities and l,, 
transforms 


—— ne 
2 ———— ene 


G+] PAU ¢ 


ie ae into o. fo bs 2 
ah g Ly ahg ...\& 
hob f .v.lay hed fori, 
fu ¢ | Bx sf pe ee fs 
5 a a . ; ss . : Oj 
Using with the given equations the multipliers z,, x, 7, .. . and adding, we have 
sa ao) Xs, rs & . & é, pb 
2 Ath, gthys + | % a h+ty gtly . ales 
| vdel O° (Ee ey Set Pe 
| + | & 9th: Fle Guise | fe 


212 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


But the left-hand member of this may be partitioned into 


sie ot 


the latter of which evidently vanishes. 


ue, en ewes 
and Ba , 
dy © 4 4 uy 
ne) In» gg a) 
Te a1 Age Hg 


member in the same way we deduce 


oh 
ah g i, 
iad ia i BPP A 5 


Had we used the multipliers &,, &, &, . 


us 
ae 
GW 6G elie 
he 702 fo tales 


G Aft ake, 


Se ae 
Mans (sa agro ali Lip titgee 
el is nae ise tay. aiag 

9 ff © 1. 4|ts bs, Up 


Consequently if we partition the right-hand 


ae 
Ali 
»| Be 


.. the same process would clearly have given 


Z, Wy, By . i Lr Ly We me 
ah g & bey Cay . & 
hb. f £5 Lo + ag ee 


We are thus led to two equations whose right-hand members are seen to be equal: 
hence the left-hand members are also equal—which is what was to be proved. 


(5.) CayLEy’s solution of the problem of automorphic linear transformation of a 
quadric* differs so seriously from this that a thorough investigation of the discrepancy 
between the two seemed imperatively called for. 


Writing the substitution of the preceding paragraph in CayLEy’s manner we have 


( @ h+h, gt+hs 
h+ly, 6b f+ls 
gt+ly f+ls, g 


and consequently 


(2%, %%,.-.)=( a 
ee i 


ass) Oops Wor nig 5 same) leat 


Athy g+l, 
St Log 
Itls FAlss ¢ 


Aytly g+ly 
h+ly 6b  f+ls, 
Ith flog ¢ 


ore) a ote h+ly g+ls, 
hth, 6  f+lsp 
g+hs f+log ¢ 


Now if, for shortness’ sake, we put this in the form 


(X,, Ly, Le 


ve »)=(A) AVE, &» £3, sib »)s 


CAYLEY’S corresponding result will be found to be 


(2, %s Uy y+ +e)=(D) (ANA) (DE » &, &,-- 


* Crelle’s Journ., 1. pp. 288-299 ; or Collected Math. Papers, ii. pp. 192-201. 


.++)(G, fay Soy ae 


~ is 


-»-)(&, &s ane 


| 
| 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 213 


where D is the matrix corresponding to the discriminant of the quadric. The latter 
result is evidently much the more complicated, but the difference between the two is 
far greater than the outward appearance of the expressions 


(AYA) and (D)-*(A’)(A)(D) 


might at first suggest. Even in the case of only two variables—the transformation of 
ax’ +2hay+by’—the repeated multiplications implied by (D)~'(A’)(A)-(D) involve a 
surprising amount of labour. 

It was soon ascertained that considerable simplification of CAYLEv’s coefficients was 
possible, and at last it became apparent that in every case they could be reduced to the 


comparatively simple forms given by the other formula. The consequence, of course, is 
that when D and A have the forms 


( Gea a). and (© a h+ly gth, ...) 
i ee h+l,, Oma Wicete mee 
Gas 


Itl, f+ls. C 


es se 


h 
b 
I 
we can assert the curious theorem in matrix multiplication that 
(D)(A)(A)(D) = (A%)(4). 


(6.) On account of the lengthy expressions involved, the proof is not by any means 
easily set down if the calculus of matrices be not utilised.* Confining ourselves to 


matrices of the 8rd order and writing, v, —m, » for ly, ls, b3, the identity to be 
established is 


Oak gy ( @«hW—-v gte)-@ h+tyv g=pn)y (a hg) 
og h+v 0b ede b a spall 
g9 f ¢ Gt trN . ¢ Oe (ise ae Gf 
See ry Gm) { @ hoy gy ) 
| ie ociais fA hy  wW f=Xr 
pete Ge JtN 6 ls 
Now if we denote the complementary minors of a, h,... in D by A,-—H, ..., and 


the complementary minors of a, h+v,...in A by cof(a),—cof(h+v),... we know 
from CaYLey that | 


* With the aid of this calculus, however, the proof is very simple, and will be seen to hinge entirely on the fact 
that A+A’=2D. At its fullest extent it stands as follows :— 


D-14’a-1D = D-1(2D - A)A-1D , 
=(2-D-1a)a-—1D , 
=2a—1D-1, 
=A-(2D—A), 
=e Ads 
Here 4’ is the matrix got from A by changing rows into columns: but this relationship is not a necessity for the 
existence of the identity, which will hold if a, D, A’ be any three matrices whatever fulfilling the condition 


A+4'=2D, 


214 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


(a h g)t=(A H G) 
hk Ob 2 ¥ Di Dd, .D 
Cn ee ee 
D DD 
G F OC 
D» Dr _ D5); 
and 
( a htv g-—w)"_( cof@) cof(h—v) cof(gtu) ) 
Aa bi Ne A A A 
gtu fr-rA ec cof (h+v) cof(b) cof(f—r) 
A A A 


cof(g—u) cof(f+A) cof (c) 
A A A 


Consequently the product of the four matrices on the left side of the identity is a 
matrix whose (1,1) element is * 


A H G 

ae eee a h 9 

a htv g—m oo = ania) 
ee ee ESN oes a one” 
gtu f-rA ¢ | cong—#) nice one 


and the product of the two matrices on the right is a matrix whose (1,1) element is 


cof (a) cof (h—v) cof (g+ 4) 
NTS Me? A 


’ 


a ’ h+y , I-b 
or, as CAYLEY would have written it, 


= — stereo, h+y, g-u). 


We have thus to prove the identity of these two elements, and eight other identities 
like it. 


Multiplying both sides by DA we see that this is the same as to prove that 


A H ils a h g oe cof(a), cof(h—v), cof(g+m) 
a h+tv g—p cof(a) cof(h—v) cof(gtu) ° a, h+v- 5) jaa 
h—-v b f+nr | cot (h+yv) b cof (f—X) 


g+u f-rX ¢ | cof(g—mu) cof(f+A) ¢ 


But the left-hand member of this can be partitioned into 


A> H Gia h g A HH G |e h gq. 
Se RCC ee TEC. 
stats a Witmetedite: AON al A 

ie See ee ONY 28 mM —A 


* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxxii. pp. 461-482. 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 215 


and by reason of the identities 


A H O20. 
ah yg 
Ce 
eG 
A H G_o 
Gee ts 
the first of these parts 
py h ; g 
~~ “cof(a), cof(h—v), cof(g+p)’ 
ia, h+yv , gJ-—— v3 —v ) 


“cof (a), cof(h—yv), cof(g+p) De Oy cof(h—yv), BGEEN: 


Consequently by removing the expression which is common to both sides we have only 
to prove that 


AS GH sGoira ae 
ee col) cof (g+~)) + ——_|___—* = 0. 
we vee | Coke x. 
=P o IN 
w—r 


Now, as will be seen from a later paragraph, 


cof (a)=A+ ?, 
AN; hav 


Soy) = EN Tee 


The first part of the vanishing expression is thus 


=D(-H- rua-boie? eG pe 2s) H+ Au) 


| 
| 
. eae 
oan a 5 a 
b 
7 Sf. 


ki, 0, F 
a 
| c| 
| and the second part 
A H G a h g 
A+ H sala ee 
Vm +A Dag i % +y h b f 
IN y A MY 
| =) ee | Hut oe B+. x? LS OL aor eas le 
= AM A MY 2 
| (oN G+rv — 7 bf Bw tok g C+y 


By reason, however, of the trinomial elements in the second square array this can be 
partitioned into 


216 rato DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


> 
ioe 
S 


ca 
SS 


= 
l 
oe, 
“il 
> 
a 
S 
i) 


and taking these three terms in order we have the first 
_A H Ga ah g 
yap A BOG ar: 
=H .6)D- 
the second 
_A H G|{ha ph vw 
ep |, CA aN 
ee RN | ee oR oie 
mMo—rAvA. y Pp yp 


and the third, if » be used for aA? + bw? +c? + 2fuv + 2gvr+ 2hdg , 
A H 


AN MY ey 
=O eee Me 
A oe ‘eee 
Mh ge oh ee 
Au ea? 
“a hg oe oe 
A MY pA MY GQA_B 
- pat a ey a ie 8 
ar 3 1 1 oe 
ali if 1 
al a! i 
A 
=—-—wD+ (\a+uh+yrg), 
ah r 
pee x ie. 
De Wy es || 2 


= —oD+AD(Ae+ph-+y), 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 217 


=-D{ aoe =N0\a-+ wht) 
ww. Fr 
ap 
wy 6 ly Dae 
ae mov 
ak a 
eb 7 | ie 
Pe | D 
The sum of the three parts is thus 
fie 
D( vH— »G — —_—_—_ 
(" ie ah g a 
ly oy ip Mw 
g i ce }\y 


an expression differing merely in sign from that to which it has to be added. The 
desired vanishing result has thus been reached.* 


(7.) It will be remembered that in the case of an orthogonal substitution, viz., the 
Case where f=g=h=...=0anda=b=c=....=1, Cayiny was enabled to give a 
simple rule for the formation of the coefficients of the substitution, the original wording 
of the rule being t 

“Les co-efficients propres a la transformation de co-ordonnées rectangulaires 
peuvent étre exprimés rationnellement au moyen de quantités arbitraires l,, sowmises 
au conditions 


= ee See ee 


Pour développer les formules, ul faut dabord former le déterminant A de ce systeme, 
puis le systéme inverse L,,, . . . et écrire 


Aa,,=2L,, [rs]; Aa,,=2L,,-A 


ce qui donne le systéme cherché.” 


Such a rule was a practical impossibility when the problem for the general quadric 
came to be solved, because of the very complicated character of the results to which 
both he and Hermite were led. It will now be seen that as a consequence of the 
simplification above effected this impossibility disappears. 


Taking once more, for shortness’ sake, the quadric with only three variables, viz. 


* Since this was written I have ascertained that the simplification here given of CayLEy’s solution was known to 
FROBENIUS, whose paper of the year 1877, “Ueber lineare Substitutionen und bilineare Formen” (Crellés Journ. 
Ixxxiv, pp. 1-63) is a carefully written and methodically arranged exposition of the theory of matrices with applica- 
tions. It would appear not to have received due attention from subsequent writers. 


The simplification is also explicitly referred to in one of a series of valuable papers by Dr Henry Taper in the 
Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. (1890-93). 


t Crelle’s Jowrn., xxxii. pp. 119-123 ; or Collected Math. Papers, i. pp. 332-336. 
VOL, XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 7). 2K 


218 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


we know that the requisite automorphic substitution in its implicit form is 


a+ (h+v)y+(9 — mye 
(h—v)ae+ by +(f+re 
(g+m)et+(f—A)y+ cz 


Consequently, if we denote the determinant of the coefficients of x, y, z by 4, we have 


on solving for x 


A.w= | (h+v)é+ bn +(f—A)E 
(g—mE+(S+A)N+ o¢ 
a€+2hn+2& h+y 
= | (h+v)E+2bn +2f€ 
(g—m)E+2fy +2c& f—r 


= | (2h—h—v)éE+ 2by+ 2f€ 
a h+v g-p 


=) ae eee 
g f—-xr c 


Cae 


Now all the determinants here have their last two columns identical with the corre- | 
sponding columns of A. It follows, therefore, that if the determinant adjugate to A be 


| Ly 
Ly, 
L 


31 


(2a—a)E+2hn+29f h+v g—pm 


| (2g —g+mE+fnt2c€ f-rA 


= aE+(h—v )n+(gt+ mg 
= (h+v)é+ ineis—rx 
= (g—mE+(f+An+ e¢ 


aE+(h— vnt(gtu)e Atv g-p 


A far 
Yew 
JM 
S+nr 
G , 


eye 


a h+y 
ee 0 
oN 


2 


L,, Ly; 
Ly» Lys 
Ly» L,s 


? 


r 


Gap g ht+v 9-p 
F+X in_+ 2| f 8 ee 
c ec f—r ¢ 


the result which we have just reached may be written :— 


(ae) n+ (2 =igts) tC. 


A. t= (2eaaco— A) é+ 
Similarly 

a 
and 

A.z= (2cuGat) e+ (2 ras 


We have thus the following rule for the formation of the coefticients a,, of the linear |~ 


substitution which transforms the quadric 


yee (pip 


a +(2 =a A)é. 


aa? + by? +0 +... . + 2fyet Qgza+ Qhay+ . 


into itself :— 


—————— TT 
———— ee 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC, 219 


Denote the discriminant by D, and form the determinant R adjugate to 
a h+yv Oly 


h—-v b T+ 
gtu f-r c a — 


then 
A . a,,=2(r col. of R)(s” rowofD) whenr+s, 
and 
A . a,,=2(r" col. of R)(r™ row of D)-A. 
This is manifestly just as simple as CaYyLey’s rule for the formation of an orthogonal 
substitution, into which rule it is seen to pass when a=b=c=...=1 and f=g=h= 
ao s=0. 


(8) The most elegant proof of the rule in all its generality is got by using the theory 
of matrices as follows :— 


Taking the substitution in its implicit form, and solving for x,y,z, ... we have 
eee) —( 2 kty g—uw ...)( @ hay gtu ...)(E,9,6,--.)- 
feeb ft. | lbw) 6b. fax 


gtu f-rA ¢ te g—-u f+trA e¢ 


Now the first matrix here is equal to 


(ly In la ) 
Se amar 
be Be ke 
ee AG 
Te = 
eae 28s, A 


DOG | 


and the second can be expressed as the difference of two, viz., as 


( 2a 2h 29 See ak a: h+v g-p 
2h 2b ieee h—y aes 


Peete eI foe fen ve 


On performing the required multiplication we thus have 


( olin Ly Ly... ohn Ly, Ly . . oun Ly Ls . ee ae il ) 
ig... La Gah. 10h ‘ve 
ols Ly» L, pees ols Ly» Ly» z ohis Ly» Ly é 1 
Meso)... “2 by. or 6. a 
ois L,, L,; : ols L,s Ls N ols L,s L,. : ee tat iL 
i i Guy ae E 


and this difference being expressed as one matrix we obtain the matrix of the substitu- 
tion. A glance suffices to show that it is identical with the matrix 


220 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


Cay a2 ag --- ) 
A277 Ao2 = Agg 
3; 3g 33 


as specified in the preceding paragraph.* 


(9) It will have been observed that in the construction of the substitution use is 
made of the peculiar matrix 
(0 @yin Oke «gam 
h—v b FHA 
Te C 
In fact this matrix is the material out of which the substitution is built up, just as the 
matrix of a unit-axial skew determinant is the material for the formation of an 
orthogonal substitution. And as in dealing with the problem of orthogonal substitution 
CayLEY was thus led to study the properties of skew determinants, we cannot do better 
than follow his example and examine into the nature of the determinant of the analogous 
matrix employed in the more general problem which we have just been dealing with. 
This more general determinant is seen to be obtainable by the superposition, so to 
speak, of the zero-axial skew determinant 


] = 
ay ‘ rv 
Be —A 
upon the axisymmetric determinant 
“a ho g 
he Oy 
Giese ve 


And as by changing the signs of all the Greek letters the value of the determinant is 
unaltered, it follows that in the final development of the determinant there can be 
no terms involving the product of an odd number of these letters. Further, as each 
term of the final development of the determinant must be of the n™ degree in the letters 


which it contains, it follows that the said terms may be classified as follows :— 


th 


1, terms of the n™ degree in Italic letters \ 


and of the 0™ /. . 9. Greek = is. 
2. terms of the (n— 2) degree in Italic letters \ 
snd-of theses: 5* 2.05. 5 Greek letters J ’ 


or, for shortness’ sake, let us say terms of the degreen+0, n—2+4+2, n—4+4 


* See also the third line of the proof that D~'a’a~'D=a ‘a’ in the footnote to § 6. 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 221 


Bearing this in mind it is not difficult to arrive at the final development in any 
given case. Thus, for the determinant of the 3rd order, we look first for terms of the 
degree 3+ 0, and then for terms of the degree 1+2. The aggregate of the former is 
readily seen to be 


oh Sg 
eel 


and, each of the latter being composed of an Italic letter with a Greek cofactor, the 
| aggregate is almost as easily seen to be 


r Me v 
a h Gulen 
ene OR EN. ie 
g a c Vo 
We have thus 
a h+tv g-w|=|ah g oo , 
hay b * ftA hb f Ae 
gtu f-rA ¢ Ca ie 
Gakuen v. 


an identity which may also be viewed as giving an expression for the sum of a ternary 
quadric and its discriminant. 


Next taking the determinant of the 4th order we first look for terms of the degree 
4+0, then for terms of the degree 2+2, and lastly for terms of the degree 0+4. 
The aggregate of the first kind lies to hand as readily as before: those of the second 


kind are most easily obtained by seeking for the coefficients of p’, po, o” 
which are seen to be 


a Stat) ergs) “a1< Jc r) 


a h 


h b 


a 9 g 
7) 


a 
g C 


’ 


eee 


the determinant which thus becomes zero-axial skew with the Pfaffian equivalent 


|v —p i 
nN —-C 
p 
| 


When we come to determinants of the 5th order it is seen that there are still only 
three kinds of terms, the degrees of which are 5+0, 3+2, 1+4: and in obtaining the 
aggregates no new consideration is necessary. 


| and the aggregate of those of the last kind by dropping out all the Italic letters from 


pear: A ge tp 
p 


Vv 
ion 
LF 


: 


222 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


In the first four cases the expansions therefore stand thus :— 


a ht+yv|) =|a hl t+ Pv; 
h—y 6 | h b 
h h meee T 
f a ek a, g toe aa 
io 1h EX ee pate 
Gta f—r ¢ og Re ge ele 
a h+v g—-w r+erl)/=|ahg rl|+B+ec, 
h-v b f4+r q-e 0 af ag 
gt f-A ¢ pp Gi P70 
(= Gro Ppp i rgqgpda 
where 
he p o r T fa v 
ah ag 
Fei \ eae |e p 
ah 3 
galt 
r 
e e Y oer T 
Be 
v 
and 
Cao Xd nue waa t 
po 
Tas 
a h+v g-w r+r n-w ahgern 
h—-y b f+r g-c m+x lO. of GQ. ae 
gtu f-X ¢ ptp I-¢! = |g f © p tit Dee, 
T—-r Qqto p—p ad k+é r gp ak 
n+y m—-x l+¢ k-O e nmt k e 
where 
x o A 
ar re i i 123 a 5 r 5 a 9 
123| |124| [125] |134) [135] {145} [234] [235] (245) |345 
eer ees i ae 
123| {124 
125 
re 7 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 223 


123 
123 


4th and 5th columns of the determinant preceding D, and where 


being used to denote the minor obtained by deleting the 4th and 5th rows and 


Ceelends 2 a x te re Ye 
p p p 
6 6 Cy) 


(10) The law of formation of the bipartites B and D, when properly looked at, is 
very simple. The square array in each case consists of the secondary minors of the 
axisymmetric determinant which immediately precedes it,—in other words, the 
elements of the square array of B are exactly the elements of the second compound of 
the determinant which precedes it, and the corresponding elements of D are the 
elements of the third compound. The bordering elements, of D say, are the elements 
of the quasi-Pfathan 

ly 


jr 
Mo 
p 
6 


taken in a backward order, viz., in the order 0; $, 9; x,7,A; W,7, mY. 

The law of formation of E is equally simple. Hach term is the product of three 
factors, the first being an element of the preceding axisymmetric determinant, and the 
two others being primary minors of the quasi-Pfaffian just referred to. The Pfaffian 
factors which are to accompany any element are determined by the position of that 
element in the determinant-array, the law being that when the element belongs to the 
place (r,s) we delete the r® frame-line of the quasi-Pfaffian to obtain the one factor and 
the s™ frame-line to obtain the other. Consequently, if we denote the quasi-Pfaffian by 
ff and the minor of it obtained by deleting the r frame-line by ff", we may write each 
term of E in the form 


(78) £9". 


We are thus further led to see that E also is a bipartite having the beautifully simple 
form 
i" i’ Fog Fe” 
uj 
ff 
F° 
Hee 
ie : 
and it is suggested to inquire whether there be not a mode of writing D and E, and 
perhaps even the term preceding D, which will put in evidence the fact that they are 
members of a. series advancing according to a definite law. 


se =>e 
Se Y oe > 


g 
si 
C 

P 
l 


FreBrw sg 
eo ~~ 8 


N 


224 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


Each term, it will be observed, is constructed from two distinct sources, viz., the 
axisymmetric determinant and the quasi-Pfaffian. From the first source we have 


in the first term the determinant itself, 
in the second term, viz., D the array of its secondary minors, 
in the third term, viz., E the array of its quaternary minors, 


the last of these being merely the elements of the determinant by reason of the fact 


that the order of the determinant is the 5th. Now there is no difficulty in writing all 


these in the same way if we employ the so-called umbral notation throughout. ‘They 
are in fact a 


12345 
12845 |, 
Tae a i ae : 
123|,)/124),... 0. (0 ingame 
1 1 : 
AE] STS) 1 1. 2 a) SGA 
Again, from the second source we have 

in the third term, viz., E the primary minors of the Pfaffian, 

in the second term, viz., D the tertiary minors. . .. . ae 

in the first term nothing, 


the last involving no anomaly because the quasi-Pfaftian we are dealing with has onl 
five frame-lines. Now, if we adopt for this quasi-Pfaftian an umbral notation analogou 
to the preceding, viz., 

(12345) 


it will be found possible to represent its minors in a fashion closely resembling that fe 
the minors of the determinant. In fact, its primary minors will be 4 


}2345|, 1345, . ... (in number) 
and its tertiary minors 
W451, 035), 434), . . . . @Oinmumber 


The three terms of our development thus are 


ee eo ees ak ee Ps 


123 
,|124 


34 | 
133 ; 
ters [445i 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 225 


Wae45) (1345) 


Hl 


il 
2 ee ee | oo 3 4 


1 
1 
2 
| J1345| 


where, as evidence of the appropriateness of the notation, it is most important to 
observe that if any element of a square array be taken it will be found to be such that 
its row-numbers taken along with the numbers of the bordering element in the same 
row with it form the full set 12345, and its column-numbers taken along with the 
numbers of the bordering element in the same column with it form the set 12345 


also. Thus the element ; Ay in the square array of D has || 4 5| for the bordering 
element in the same row with it, and ||35| for the bordering element in the same 


column with it; and | ; in E in like manner has the bordering elements || 1 3 4 5| and 


)2345|. 


(11) In the verification of the foregoing developments it is very interesting to 
observe the necessity which arises for using a linear relation like KRoNECKER’s between 
co-ordinate minors of an axisymmetric determinant. In the case of the 4th order the 
term B, and in the case of the 5th order the term D are dependent upon it for certain 
of their details. 

Let us consider the mode in which the details of the term D are ascertained, these 
being the Italic-letter coefficients of 6’, 9>,... in the development of the determinant 

a h+y g—p. r+r nw 
h—y b T+A q-o m+x 
= f— N c Dip lee! 
T—r gto p-p d k+@ | 
n+yWy m—yx I+ k—0 e | ; 

The case of such a product as 0¢ presents no difficulty. We have only got to delete 
the 4th and 5th rows and the 8rd and 5th columns, and from the resulting minor 

a h+y r+ 
h-y b Y-o 
CJ aN Pp 
strike out all the Greek letters. But when we come to the case of 0A, or Ou, or Ov the 
process is not so simple. Fixing the attention on the @ in the place (4, 5) we see that 
it can go along with not only the X in the place (2,3) but also with the A in the place 
(3,2). In the former case its Italic-letter cofactor is 
Cat 
So ag 
nm k 


or Le 
je 


? 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 7). 21 


226 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


and in the latter 


a O85 
—|h f q\._or a 3 4 J 
n lk 
But there exists the identity 
135 2 ON. a Mebane ty Ke 
ee _ ie +e See ak cf) 


consequently the cofactor of OX is 
145 123 
hea a Wege dp 

as desired for the sake of symmetry in the square array of D. 3 

The identity (K’) is noteworthy in that the terms of it are third-order minors of al 
axisymmetric determinant of the fifth order, and not of the sixth order as is the cas 
in Kronecker’s theorem. The best mode of establishing it is to make it dependen 
upon the latter. Thus, taking the axisymmetric determinant of the fourth order 


| 2345 
| 2345 Ips — gp 
we have from KRONECKER : 
a8) 2 oe Lazy tices 
Bi: ee ee te ( 


and this is simply what (K’) becomes if 5 be struck out of each term of it. In oth 


words (K’) is the Extensional* of (K). The idea of applying the Law of Exte i 
Minors to all Kronecker’s identities is thus suggested. For example, knowing from 
KRONECKER that 


rae = Me Rlike ee a eed 0 
456 ; 356 346 345 
if the terms be minors of the axisymmetric determinant 
123456 ; 
12 345 6 e 
we can at once vouch for the identity 
Ee oe THe 12578. yes 12678... 
45678 04 SR Goh aay 2 34678. 34578... 


in connection with the axisymmetric determinant _ 


i2oe oD OS. 
La opee Oe On(, 8s y6. 


TS = sr 


* Muir’s Theory of Determinants, p. 213, § 179; or Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin., xxx. p. 2. 


——— ee 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC. 227 


(12) The procedure followed in § 9 is equally effective in finding the like develop- 
ment of the primary minors of the determinant. For example, let us consider in the 
determinant of the 4th order the cofactor of the element (18), viz. :— 


(h—-y b q-o 


gtm f-r ptp 
T—T qto d 


Here the ageregate of terms of the degree 3+ 0 is 


h-b q 
gf Pp 
i g--d ||., 


The ageregate of terms of the degree 2+1 


| ib =o | A G g Le a qd 
ai elt |g! P| + ook ep 
fg Yr o a i—r q ad 
og fF) — oh r|—rNA r| — the gq — p| 6 q| -uWf p 
by lf p lg @| ie | lg a qd |; 


and as the coefficients of the Greek letters here are determinants of the 2nd order 
formable from the 2nd and 4th rows of D, this may be written 


Dit may ag) 
a) iy Sea) 


(p; oc, NG, M; v). 


The aggregate of terms of the degree 1+ 2 


h a hog —vy b =¢ 9 oma 
=|g -2r paieeede  (B\) tet ake ND 

7 o —T ¢g —r a adj, 
_ S Care 
ee) |p’ 

Ta doit, 2-7 

9 d|X 


yo—-u T 
XN —o 
s 


by deleting the 1st and 3rd frame-lines respectively and changing one sign. 
Lastly, the aggregate of terms of the degree 0+3 


228 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


which being a bordered zero-axial skew determinant is expressible in the form 


olv —mu T 
AN -—o 
pe |> 


where, be it observed, o is the Greek letter in the place (4, 2). 
We thus have 


cofactor of (1,3), ie. g—u, nA 


= G — | 2™ row of D (O:0sA;T MY) + ice Es . + oly -—p 7 
4” row of D G e Aaa 
r Pp 
Similarly 
cofactor of (1,4), 2c. r+7, in A 
ene 
= R + | 2™" row of D a - + NrNv —p# is 
, Pp 
3” row of D R Z A -o 
r Pp 


A reference to the original determinant A shows that the cofactor of (8, 1) differs 
from the cofactor of (1, 8) simply in having all the Greek letters of the opposite sign. 
Consequently 
cofactor of (3,1),7.eg+mu, nA 


Ts sas 


= G + | 2. row of D (p.o,A,T Mv) = EM |v 9 Tea 
4 row of D G | AX -o 
x Pp 


(13) The relation between the cofactor of (7, s) and the cofactor of (s, 7) just referred 
to shows that the adjugate of A is a determinant of the same form as A, and therefore has 
a development similar to that of A as given in§ 9. But the adjugate of A is equal to 
the 3rd power of 4; consequently we may equate the one development to the 3rd 
power of the other,—a process from which one or two curious identities arise. 

A similar result follows from the verification of the identity 


A = (1,1).cofactor of (1,1) + (1,2).cofactor of (1,2) + 
by substituting for A, cofactor of (1,1), cofactor of (1,2), .. . their developnients 


obtained in §§ 9, 12. 
Thus, recurring for shortness’ sake to the 8rd order, we have the identity 


ReMi BY 2 

AH G|X a4 h-g|o ah g 
HB Fav he Chef) y i tame 
GF -C\.2 UF aes BR] Ce a 


AUTOMORPHIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATION OF A QUADRIC, 


IN 
No 
Jo) 


fw (X%,Y,Z)=(a@ hb g)(@,y,2, 
Neis: eM 
&.F 2 


ther words, we have a condensed expression for the product of a ternary quadric 


B=-Y. z 
iS oan a 
coy | He B E 
Gee | Ge FY C 
ah gi\e 
feb. Foley 
GF ath ees, 

BY ez 

* By 

oe y 

a, 


e (2 is the product of the preceding three square arrays in reverse order. But by 


OCR. Xe hg) 
Et Meath, Bf 
* erg Y ie Cc > 
aX hA gA 
- =|%A dA fA 
a eegAs x cA |, 
proves the theorem. 
in, we have the identity 
. p o A Ge ue y 
a 3 ag Gast h i, h ¢ e ? 
hob| |h oleae Ff a 
f a 4 ag q 
g if gq 
. a 5 r 
- a Y q! 
: I T 
jul 
V 
_%g9 h rip Cae alae ae Sieben elk 
| 9 h , 
b i q 
6 é 6 
f c P 
g P d 


ttn 


gab Sf gil GPR Usa hf ¢ pip 
us aa pr T 
ears 8 : 3 4 
J P Pp 
P ad d, 
where 6 is the zero-axial skew array 
. =p =6: —Xr 
Oe Wie ta. 
GG: a 1d 
on ale vy : 
and connected with it the identity 
p o Nes 6 8 TE er tae 
ah a g ar -—~p-o¢ -Alg hr 
Be Be Fle he gales is a 
a a ag c. % —vy |\f ¢ Pp 
= r d 
GF NOs Moy ig Pp 
a h | 
ety ‘ 
cakes ih 
| Me 


2 . . e . . . . . . Vv 


and a similar identity got from the two by subtraction. 


VILI.—A Contribution to the Comparative Anatomy of the Mammalian Organ of 
Jacobson. By R. Broom, M.D., B.Sc. Communicated by Sir Wm. Turner. 


(With Two Plates.) 
(Read 7th June 1897.) 


Since the Organ of Jacobson was first described in 1811, a large amount of study has 
been given to its structure, development, and morphology ; and as a result of these 
investigations, we have now a very good idea of the distribution of the organ in the 
animal kingdom, of its relations in many typical forms, and of its minute anatomy in a 
few representative types. With the exception, however, of SEYDEL’s work among the 
Amphibia, very little has been done to the study of the comparative anatomy of the 
organ, and it is hoped that the present contribution will assist towards a clearer under- 
standing of its comparative anatomy in the Mammalia. 

The organ is present in the large majority of mammals, and is generally fairly well 
developed. The most important investigations into the general anatomy of the organ 
and its relations have been those of GRaTIOLET, BaLogH, KiLEIn and HERzFE Lp. 
GRATIOLET has apparently examined the organ and its relations in a considerable 
number of the higher mammals, but, unfortunately, I have been unable to see his paper. 
BatoeH has made a very careful study of the relations and minute anatomy of the 
organ in the sheep, and has shown the complicated arrangement of the cartilages in 
connection with the organ and its duct and with the naso-palatine canal. To KLEIN we 
are indebted for a very careful study cf the organ and its relations in the guinea-pig, 
the rabbit and the dog. Though Herzretp has also added considerably to our know- 
ledge by the examination of some interesting new groups, his most important contri- 
bution to the subject has been in connection with the comparative anatomy of the 
organ. He has apparently been the first to recognise that, according to the various 
relations of the organ and its duct found in different mammals, it was possible to 
arrange the animals examined into a few not altogether unnatural groups. Owing to 
observations having up to that time been made in an insufficient number of forms, he 
has, unfortunately, over-estimated the importance of certain points, and thus to a large 
extent has rendered his grouping unsatisfactory. 

The present communication deals with the results of an extended examination into 
the general relations of the mammalian organ —its distribution, varying degree of 
development, and extent of variation in allied forms. In all the forms I have studied, I 
have made the examination by a series of vertical transverse sections, which seems the 
most satisfactory method, and gives uniformity in the results. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 8). 2N 


232 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


The following is the list of forms I have examined :— 


MoNOPREMATA. 


Ornithorhynchus anatinus ; adult. 
Echidna aculeata ; adult. 


MARSUPIALIA. 


Dasyurus viverrinus ; mammary foetal, and 2 grown. 
Dasyurus maculatus ; adult. 

Phascologale penicillata ; mammary foetal. 

Didelphys murinus ; mammary feetal. 

Didelphys marsupialis ; mammary foetal. 

Perameles nasuta ; mammary foetal, and adult. 
Petaurus breviceps ; almost adult. 

Petauroides volans ; adult. 

Pseudochirus peregrinus ; mammary foetal, and adult. 
Trichosurus vulpecula ; intra uterine, mammary foetal (3 stages), and adult. 
Phascolarctus cinereus ; % grown, and adult. 
Phascolomys mitchelli ; 4 grown. 

Macropus ualabatus ; large mammary feetal. 
Macropus sp.?,; early mammary feetal. 

Epyprymnus rufescens ; mammary foetal. 


EDENTATA. 


Dasypus villosus ; adult. 


RopeEnNtTIA. 


Lepus europeus ; young. 

Lepus cuniculus ; foetal (3 stages). 
Mus musculus ; adult. 

Hydromys chrysogaster ; adult. 


UNGULATA. 
Sus scrofa ; foetal. 
Bos taurus ; foetal (2 stages). 
Equus caballus ; foetal. 


CETACEA. 


Delphinaptera leucus ; foetal. 


INsECTIVoRA. 
Erinaceus europeus ; foetal and adult. 
Talpa europea ; early foetal. 

CARNIVORA. 


Felis domestica ; young. 


Se 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 233 


CHIROPTHRA. 
Mimopterus schretbersii ; adult. 
Nyctophilus sp.?,; adult. 
Pteropus poliocephalus ; adult. 


PRIMATES. 


Homo sapiens ; early foetal. 


GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 


In its typical form the mammalian organ of Jacobson is a specialised portion of the 
nasal mucous membrane, situated in the anterior part of the base of the nasal septum, 
and forming a tubular process, blind posteriorly, but opening in front in the region of 
the naso-palatine canal. The inner wall of the tubular organ is lined with highly 
specialised neuro-epithelium, while the outer wall is composed of ciliated columnar 
epithelium, considerably resembling that of the nasal passage. Into the organ there 
open a large number of mucous glands, which are situated chiefly at its posterior 
part. Along the outer wall, which generally bulges into the lumen of the organ, 
there run one or more blood-vessels, frequently forming a sort of plexus. On its inner 
and under sides, at least, the organ is supported by a curved cartilaginous plate—the 
recurrent cartilage—which is itself supported by a curved bony plate, the palatine 
process of the premaxillary. 

While, as a rule, the organ is fairly well developed, in a number of animals it is 
quite absent, and in others only a rudiment is present. It is difficult at present to 
account for the remarkable differences in the degree of development of the organ in 
different mammals, as absolutely nothing is known for certain as to its special 
function ; still, from comparative observations, a few interesting general conclusions 
can be arrived at. In the first place, the organ is, as a rule, better developed in the 
lower forms than in the higher. Thus, in both the Monotremes the organ is exceedingly 
well developed, and in all the Marsupials yet examined it is at least fairly well devel- 
oped, while among the Primates, it is absent, according to Herzrexp, in Cercopithecus 
and Inuus—the only old world monkeys examined—and in man it is quite rudimentary. 
Another conclusion that may be safely arrived at is, that in large animals the organ is, 
relatively, considerably less developed than in the smaller sorts. For example, in the 
two species of Dasyurus, D. maculatus and D. viverrinus, though the former is about 
twice the size of the latter, the organs are absolutely about the same size in 
each; the cartilaginous capsule of the organ, however, is much larger, and the 
extra space is filled up by a great development of glandular tissue. In all forms in 
which the organ is developed it receives the secretion from numerous mucous glands, 
which lie chiefly towards the posterior part of the organ, and in most small animals, e.g., 
the mouse, where it fills the greater part of cartilaginous capsule, only at that part. 


In the larger animals, ¢.g., rabbit, dog, etc., where the organ only occupies a small portion 


234 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


of the space enclosed by the cartilage, it receives the ducts of glands throughout 
its whole length. 

While it will thus be noticed that there may be a very considerable difference in the 
degree of development of the organ in even closely allied forms, I have been led to a 
much more important conclusion, viz., that though the degree of development may vary 
greatly, there is throughout large groups a very marked constancy of the type, followed 
by the organ in its general relations and connections. For example, in all the Marsupials 
that have been examined, with one exception, which will be referred to later, the organ 
opens into the upper end of the naso-palatine canal, near the point where the canal 
opens out into the nasal cavity, while there is never more than a rudimentary 
cartilaginous support given off to support the naso-palatine canal either from Jacobson’s 
cartilage or from the nasal floor cartilage. While this holds good for practically all 
Marsupials, of no Eutherian that has yet been examined can the same be asserted. The 
two known Monotremes have in their organs a number of features in common, but which 
differ from those of any other animal. And the same can be said of the different 
Rodents which have been examined. Again, in all the higher Eutheria in which 
Jacobson’s organ is well developed, there is a very complex development: of the nasal 
Hoor cartilage, giving rise to a cartilaginous support for the naso-palatine canal as well 
as to a posterior nasal floor cartilage, while Jacobson’s cartilage is produced downwards 
and forwards to form a support to Jacobson’s duct ; and so unvarying is this type, that 
even in forms in which the organ of Jacobson is completely aborted, as in Pteropus, the 
cartilages still retain the same general arrangement. From the small tendency to 
variation in the organ and its cartilages, we have in them a factor of considerable value 
in the classification of the Eutherian orders, probably of more value than either dentition — 
or placentation. 

In the following pages the relations of the organ in the principal orders will be 
considered, and the affinities and significance of the various arrangements dwelt upon. 


MOoONOTREMATA. 


The differences of the organ in the two Monotremes are such that it will be more 
convenient to consider the two separately. 

Ornithorhynchus.—The presence of the organ in the Platypus was recognised by Sir 
W. TurNER in 1885, but was first described in detail by SymineTon in 1891. Since 
then further details have been supplied by Witson, Wixson and Martin, W. N. Parkgr, 
ELuior Smiru, and myself. 

It is unfortunate that in Ornithorhynchus—the most primitive mammal at present 
existing—there is a most remarkable degree of specialisation of the structures in the 
anterior part of the snout, and that this specialisation is in a direction entirely dissimilar 
to that found in any other known vertebrate. This peculiar development in the snout 
to some extent affects the organ of Jacobson and its cartilages, and renders it difficult to 


ie 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 235 


say whether certain of the peculiarities presented are due to the specialisation, or are 
retained primitive characters. 

The condition of the cartilages of the snout may be briefly described as follows. In 
the hinder part of the nasal region the nasal septum is a short, thick, simple cartilage, 
which gives off above two well marked alinasals, as in higher mammals. On _ passing 
forward, when we reach the plane passing through the anterior part of the prevomer or 
dumb-bell shaped bone, the nasal septum becomes divided into a very slender upper part 
supporting the alinasals, and a thick lower part. This lower part is here in close contact 
with the inner parts of the well developed nasal floor cartilages, while a little in front it 
becomes united with these, and forms a well developed flat cartilage, stretching right 
across from the one premaxillary bone to the other. About 3 mm. in front of the plane 
of the anterior nares the large flat plate of cartilage becomes thickened and arrested in 
the middle line, but laterally it passes out to the margins of the beak, and sending de- 
velopments in front and behind forms the support of the beak throughout its whole 
extent. ‘Though in none of the higher vertebrates is there any cartilaginous develop- 
ment similar to the large rostral cartilage of Ornithorhynchus, there is reason to believe 
that it is a very great development of the prenasal element. 

With regard to the nasal floor cartilages, which on passing back are separated off 
from the median or septal part of the main cartilage, there is little or no doubt but they 
are the homologues of the nasal floor cartilages of the higher mammals, though in some 
respects they differ from those of any higher form. In the typical mammalian condition 
we have the inner part of the nasal floor cartilage quite simple and curving up by the 
base of the septum ; in Ornithorhynchus alone among mammals the nasal floor cartilage 
at its inner part is thickened and excavated to receive the anterior part of the organ of 
Jacobson. 

The organ itself differs from that of any other known mammal in being made up of 
an anterior and a posterior part with the opening near the middle, as was shown by 
Symineton. In fig. 1, Plate I., we have represented a transverse vertical section through 
the anterior part of the organ. ‘The large organ (J.O.) is seen completely surrounded 
by the nasal floor cartilage, and almost completely divided into an upper and a lower 
part by a large turbinal plate (t.J.c.). The inner part of the nasal floor cartilage rests 
on the anterior part of the prevomer or dumb-bell shaped bone (Pvo), and at the outer 
side of the nasal passage the cartilage is seen united with the alinasal (a.n.). In this 
section is also seen the hinder part of the nasal valve (val.). 

On approaching the region of the naso-palatine canal and the opening of the organ, 
the turbinal plate becomes considerably thickened, while the cartilages surrounding the 
two organs hecome separated by the body of the prevomer. On reaching the plane 
passing through the opening of the organ, as seen in fig. 2, the cartilage is found to be 
open below, and the outer part of the cartilage surrounding the organ is seen to be free 
from the nasal floor cartilage. The organ is here made up of an upper part lying above 
the turbinal plate and an inner part. Inferiorly, the inner part may be said to open 


236 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


directly into the mouth, as the little pocket into which it opens in common with the 
naso-palatine canal is frequently so shallow that the ducts practically open independently — 
into the mouth. 

Behind the plane represented by fig. 2 the organ becomes much less expanded 
laterally, while the outer part of the cartilage of the organ becomes united with the 
lower part of the inner portion, forming a complete capsule to the organ ; and the organ 
becomes almost cylindrical instead of flat as in the anterior part. Fig. 3 illustrates a 
section across the posterior part of the organ. The turbinal plate, which in the anterior 
and middle region is moderately flat, here passes upwards and inwards, and then down- 
wards, being to a considerable extent folded on itself. Below the prevomer, which here 
attains its maximum development, is seen a large thin plate of cartilage (o.n.fic.) 
stretching across from one side to the other, but distinct at the sides from the alinasals, 
This cartilage is a backward continuation of the part of the nasal floor cartilage on the 
outer side of the naso-palatine canal, which, on passing backwards, becomes distinct from 
the alinasal, and sweeping inwards below the prevomer unites with the cartilage of 
the opposite side, and forms the large plate which supports the back part of the 
dumb-bell. 

It is exceedingly difficult, as already remarked, to pick out which characters of the 
organ are inherited from reptilian ancestors and which are specialisations peculiar to the 
genus or order. Unfortunately the order of reptiles, which probably contained the 
ancestors of the Monotremes—the Theromora—is long since extinct, and the only living 
reptilian order in which the organ is known to be well developed—the Squamata—is 
only but distantly related to the Monotremes. Among lizards the organ of Jacobson is 
usually very well developed, but there are great differences in the structure and relations 
of the organ in different groups. In the Varanide and in snakes a most complex and 
highly specialised arrangement is found; in the Scincoide a different mode of 
specialisation is met with; while in the Agamide and Geckonide, on the other hand, 
though the organ is well developed, it is comparatively simple both in structure and its 
relations, and it is in these latter simple Lacertilian types that we recognise some affini- 
ties to the organ of the Monotremes. In the Gecko we find the opening of the organ 
situated inferiorly, almost exactly as in Ornithorhynchus, while we have an even more 
remarkable resemblance in the presence of a large cartilaginous turbinal process im- 
vaginating the organ from the outer side. It would thus seem probable that the mode 
of opening of the organ and the well-marked turbinal in Ornithorhynchus are reptilian 
heirlooms. The anterior extension of the organ would seem at first sight to be also a 
reptilian character, seeing that the organ extends slightly in front of the duct in lizards, 
but it is possible that the specialisation of the beak may be sufficient to account for this 
peculiarity, and until the very early development is known it had better be regarded as 
a doubtful reptilian character. Another reptilian character is to be noticed in the 
prevomer or dumb-bell shaped bone being quite distinct from the premaxillary, and not 
united with it as a palatine process, as is usually the case in mammals. 


—— - 
————————— 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 237 


Echidna.—In Echidna the organ is considerably simpler than in Ornithorhynchus, 
and it is uncomplicated by any remarkable cartilaginous developments. W. N. Parker 
has studied the structure of the organ and its relations in the young animal, while the 
adult condition has been described by myself. 

The most striking point of difference of the organ in Echidna from that of Ornitho- 
rhynchus is the absence of any anterior development. The nasal floor cartilage is com- 
paratively simple, and, in the adult, but feebly developed, and quite distinct from the 
alinasal. Immediately in front of the region of the naso-palatine canal, the nasal floor 
eartilage is a small cartilaginous plate which abuts against the base of the nasal septum 
by its thickened inner edge, and becomes rapidly thinned away on passing outwards, 


- only forming a support to the inner third of the nasal floor. On passing a little back- 


wards the thickened inner part becomes divided off from the slender outer part by the 
naso-palatine canal passing upwards (figs. 4 and 5). At first the inner part is irregularly 
square shaped, but a little farther back it becomes hollowed out on the outer side for the 
reception of the duct of Jacobson’s organ, as it opens into the naso-palatine canal (fig. 5). 
On passing still farther back this inner cartilage becomes very distinctly “ C”-shaped, 
with the anterior end of Jacobson’s organ in its concavity. The cartilage is about 
uniform in thickness, but at the outer end of the upper part of the ‘“‘C” there is a very 
distinct thickening. A very little beyond this plane the lower part of the ““C” joins 
with the thickened outer rim, and Jacobson’s organ becomes completely enclosed in 
cartilage. The naso-palatine canal receives the duct of Jacobson anterior to its opening 
into the nasal cavity, so that the organ only communicates with the nasal cavity in- 
directly by the upper part of the canal. Fig. 6 represents a section through the 
posterior wall of the naso-palatine canal. To the outer side of the cartilage of Jacobson 
the thickened portion will be observed (rud.t.); this is found, on examining the suc- 
ceeding sections, to be continuous with the turbinal, and is, no doubt, the remnant of a 
turbinal which once extended to the front of the organ as in Ornithorhynchus. The 
organ itself at this plane is found on section to have the ordinary mammalian kidney 
shape. The outer part of the nasal floor cartilage is still seen as a small inconspicuous 
fragment. A short distance behind the plane of fig. 5 the organ is met with in its full 
development, and assumes an appearance which it retains to near its posterior end. On 
section it is found to be nearly circular with the outer wall so completely invaginated 
as to leave very little lumen in the organ. It is completely surrounded by cartilage, 
and the invaginated wall is supported by a flat turbinal plate of cartilage passing in- 
wards from the outer wall of the capsule. The capsules of each side rest on a flat 
cartilaginous plate, which passes right across from the one side to the other, and com- 
pletes what would otherwise be a little gap in the lower wall of the cartilage of Jacobson. 
This cartilaginous plate is exactly comparable with the similar plate in Ornithorhynchus, 
and is developed from the small outer portions of the nasal-floor cartilage, which become 
greatly enlarged, and pass inwards. 

On comparing the structure of the organ and its relations in Echidna with that in 


238 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


Ornithorhynchus, it will be observed that in the posterior parts of the organ there is a 
close agreement between the two forms. In Echidna, the whole organ being posterior to 
the duct, this region is naturally developed to a greater extent than in Ornithorhynchus, 
where the organ extends in front of the duct as well as behind, but otherwise the only 
points of difference at present worthy of note are the absence of the prevomer in 
Echidna, and the different degrees of development of the turbinal plates—in Ornitho- 
rhynchus large and curved; in Echidna small and flat, The anterior part of the organ 
in Echidna differs remarkably from that in Ornithorhynchus, and yet it is not difficult 
to imagine an intermediate or ancestral form from which both would be derived—the 
Echidna type by simplification and the Ornithorhynchus type by specialisation. In this 
hypothetical ancestral form the organ probably extended little, if at all, im front of the 
duct opening, but had a well-developed turbinal which extended right to the front of 
the organ. If in Echidna the turbinal were carried forward to the front of the organ, 
and the part of the organ in the neighbourhood of the naso-palatine canal, instead of 
being reduced to a duct, were well developed, there would be as great a resemblance to 
the Ornithorhynchus condition even in this region as is to be seen in the posterior part. 
The well-developed anterior part of the organ in Ornithorhynchus is but a continuation 
forwards of the various structures met with in the region of the duct rendered possible 


by the great development of the nasal floor cartilage in the anterior region. 


MARSUPIALIA. 


The marsupial organ of Jacobson was apparently first described in 1891 by 
Symineron, who studied the condition in pouch specimens of the kangaroo and rock | 
wallaby. At that time the organ in Echidna was undescribed, and Symineron, com- 
paring the Marsupial organ with that in Ornithorhynchus, concluded that its affinities 
were more with the higher Eutherian type than with that of the Monotreme. With the 
exception of a short note by C. RésE on the organ in the wombat and opossum, and a 
few incidental references in one or two of my own papers, nothing further had been 
written on the subject till last year, when I communicated a paper ‘“ On the Comparative 
Anatomy of the Organ of Jacobson in Marsupials” to the Linnean Society of New South 
Wales. This paper, which will appear in the Proceedings of the Society, contains a | 
description of the organ in representative genera of the principal groups, and of the | 
changes met with at different stages of development. From my study of the organ in | 
the various marsupials, it was seen that in all the diverse forms the organ conformed | 
more or less to one main type. Of this main type, however, there are two minor | 
varieties—the simpler one found in the Polyprotodonts, the more complex in the | 
Diprotodonts. In the present paper I will take Dasyurus as the typical representative | 
of the former group, and Petaurus of the latter. 

Dasyurus.—In Dasyurus we meet with the simplest form of the marsupial orga. 
As the structure of the organ and its relations have been described in some detail im the | 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 239 


above-mentioned paper, a brief account will here suffice. The nasal floor cartilage is 
well developed and simple in its structure. Fig. 8 represents a transverse section just 
in front of the naso-palatine canal. Here the nasal floor cartilage is seen as a curved 
plate of cartilage resting on the premaxillary bone, and with its inner end curved 
upwards by the side of the base of the septum, and then slightly outwards, forming a 
support to the inferior septal ridge. The naso-palatine canal on passing upwards passes 
slightly backwards, and in fig. 9 it is seen cut across as it lies between the premaxillary 
and its palatine process, and dividing the nasal floor cartilage into an inner and an outer 
part. The inner part, which becomes Jacobson’s cartilage, is very irregularly ‘“ C”- 
shaped, there being an inner curved portion for the reception of the organ and a well- 
marked little process passing out into the septal ridge. In fig. 10 the canal is found 
first opening into the anterior end of Jacobson’s organ, and then communicating with 
the nasal cavity. 

If the three sections of Dasyurus figured be compared with the corresponding figures 
representing the condition in Echidna, the wonderful agreement will be at once evident— 
the simple condition of the nasal floor cartilage, its division into two parts by the naso- 
palatine canal, and the mode of communication of the canal with the anterior end of 
Jacobson’s organ and with the nasal cavity. Even the details of structure of Jacobson’s 
cartilage are exceedingly instructive. The outer end of the upper part of Jacobson’s 
cartilave is in fig. 10 seen detached from the inner plate, forming a bar along the 
concavity of the organ. A very short distance, however, behind the plane of fig. 10 
the lower end of the inner plate of Jacobson’s cartilage passes outwards and unites with 
the bar. This interesting little bar of cartilage, which is present in nearly all Marsupials, 
I have elsewhere called the ‘“‘ outer bar of Jacobson’s cartilage.” Its chief interest lies in 
the fact that there is not the slightest doubt but it is exactly homologous with the 
rudimentary turbinal found in the anterior part of the cartilage in Echidna, and that it 
is thus the remnant of an ancestral turbinal. The posterior and main part of the body 
of the organ lies in an open curved plate of cartilage, which only supports the organ on 
its inner and under sides. We thus have in this primitive marsupial type a series of 
Structures which are in all details easily traceable to the monotreme condition. In 
Ornithorhynchus the ancestral monotreme type is complicated by excessive cartilaginous 
developments, while in Echidna the primitive condition is obscured by the rudimentary 
condition of the cartilage in the anterior region. In Dasyurus, on the other hand, we 
probably have a nearer approach to the proto-mammalian proportions than in either of 
the existing monotremes, but, unfortunately, the organ has become much more feebly 
developed, and the cartilages are so reduced that at first sight one fails to observe the 
traces of their former grand developments. 

Didelphys agrees very closely with Dasyurus as regards its organ and cartilages ; 
Perameles, on the other hand, while agreeing fairly well with these more normal 
polyprotodonts, shows some slight peculiarities, which have been considered in my above- 
mentioned paper. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 8). ate 


240 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


Petaurus.—Petaurus | have chosen for consideration, as it shows the diprotodont 
marsupial characteristics in their most typical form. The main part of the organ agrees 
very closely with that in Dasyurus, as will be seen by comparing fig. 15 with fig. 11. 
In front, however, there are some remarkable differences. ‘The nasal region, generally 
at its anterior part, is somewhat more expanded laterally than in Dasyurus, and the 
inferior septal ridges are much more developed. It is probably in connection with this 
broadening out of the base of the septum that the inner part of the nasal floor cartilage 
assumes its characteristic development. In front of the naso-palatine canal the nasal 
floor cartilage, as seen in fig. 12, closely resembles the condition in Dasyurus (fig. 8). 
In fig. 13, in the plane just behind the point where the palatine process divides off from 
the premaxillary, the nasal floor cartilage is seen in its characteristic form. Its outer 
part is very much reduced, but the inner part, which becomes Jacobson’s cartilage, is 
much better developed than in Dasyurus. By comparing this figure with fig. 9, the 
following points of difference will be noticed. Instead of the cartilage being composed 
of a vertical curved plate, with a short process passing to the inferior septal ridge from the 
upper end, we have here a moderately flat plate passing markedly outwards, and resting 
on the palatine process of the premaxillary, while from near its middle there passes 
upwards and outwards a well-marked process, which passes into and supports the well- 
developed inferior septal ridge. The interpretation of the morphology of the different 
structures here seems at first sight rather difficult, but an examination of the succeeding 
planes gives a satisfactory solution of the problem. In fig. 14 we have represented a 
transverse section through the point where Jacobson’s organ opens into the naso- 
palatine canal and into the nasal cavity. It will be observed that there is a much more 
marked connection between the organ and the nasal cavity than in Dasyurus. In the 
ridge we find a portion of cartilage which we have no difficulty in recognising to be the 
outer bar of Jacobson’s cartilage, and we are thus driven to the conclusion that the ridge 
support seen in fig. 13 is the homologue of the short plate which passes out to the little 
ridge in Dasyurus. This being so, we see that two of the peculiarities of the Petaurus 
arrangement are (1) a great development of the ridge process, and (2) its arising from 
near the middle of the inner plate instead of from its upper end, which probably means 
that in Petaurus the upper part of the cartilage is developed to a much greater degree 
than in Dasyurus. A third peculiarity, and probably the most important, is that the 
inner plate of the cartilage at its lower end passes down on the outside of the palatine 
process of the premaxillary, and forms the inner wall of part of the naso-palatine canal. 
In almost all other respects the details of the anatomy in Petaurus agree with those in 
Dasyurus. One feature worthy of note is, that in the diprotodonts the organ almost 
always has a well-marked vascular plexus, while in the polyprotodonts the plexus is 
more or less rudimentary. In my paper above referred to I have pointed out the 
peculiarities of the different diprotodonts, and here need only call attention to one, viz, 
pyprymnus. In this rat-kangaroo we have a peculiar arrangement found in no other 
marsupial yet examined, namely, that the organ opens directly into the nasal cavity 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 241 


slightly in front of the point where the naso-palatine canal ends. In every other 
respect the characters agree perfectly with the Marsupial type, and the peculiarity is 
probably due to the lengthening of the front of the snout in connection with the well- 
developed front incisors. It will be noted later that the opening of Jacobson’s organ 
into the nasal floor in front of the naso-palatine canal is one of the most noticeable 
characteristics of the rodents, and it is interesting here to notice a parallel development 
in an animal which to a considerable degree approximates to the rodent type of dentition. 


EDENTATA. 


With the exception of Parker’s Monograph on the development of the skull in the 
Edentata, practically nothing has been published on the organ of Jacobson in this order, 
and Parker's figures, though showing the presence of the organ in different forms, do 
not enable us to form any idea of the more delicate relations. Symineron, who has 
made sections of the snout of the Peba armadillo, and of a foetal 3-toed sloth, but has 
not yet published his results, kindly informs me that he finds the organ well developed 
in the armadillo, and that in the sloth it is rudimentary, and opens into the nasal cavity. 
Through the kindness of Mr F. EH. Bepparp, F.R.S., I recently obtained the head of an 
adult hairy armadillo (Dasypus villosus), and have since made a study of the organ of 
Jacobson and its relations in that form. I[n this species the organ is moderately well 
developed, and though it is possible that in such a varied group as the Edentata there 
may be some considerable variations in the relations of the organ, Dasypus villosus may 
provisionally be taken as the type of the order; and, judging by the structure in this 
form, it seems probable to me that the other genera will not depart very greatly from 
the Dasypus type. 

Dasypus.—In a short paper recently published I described the condition of the 
nasal floor cartilage in its anterior region, and more especially the remarkable little 
nasal floor bone which is associated with it. The cartilage differs in some respects from 
that of any of the lower mammals, and also from the majority of the higher forms. In 
most mammals the nasal floor cartilage arises as two lateral plates from the base of the 
nasal septum: here, in front, they appear to rise by a splitting up of the lower third of 
the nasal septum. In the plane passing through the anterior part of the papilla the 
cartilages are quite below the base of the septum, and do not form any floor te nasal 
cavity, the floor being formed by the little nasal floor bone. 

Fig. 16 represents a transverse section near the middle of the papilla. Here the 
nasal floor cartilage has almost its normal development, for though the outer and inner 
parts appear detached by the posterior part of the nasal floor bone, they are quite united 
round behind the bone. The nasal floor cartilage and bone both rest on the peculiarly 
flattened out premaxillary. The inner part of the nasal floor cartilage is very large, and 
is Seen curving upwards and outwards almost exactly as in Dasyurus; there is here, 
however, practically no inferior septal ridge, the large glandular ridge being apparently 
the homologue of the upper of the two ridges in Echidna, and not of the lower, which 


242 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


corresponds to the inferior septal ridge of marsupials. A very short distance behind 
the plane of fig. 16 the inner part of the nasal floor cartilage, or Jacobson’s cartilage, 
becomes much thinner, and the upper part curves outwards and downwards, thereby 
forming a cavity for the reception of Jacobson’s duct, which in fig. 17 we find lying in 
the concavity thus formed, and opening into the floor of the nasal cavity. In this latter 
figure we find the outer part of Jacobson’s cartilage detached as a little flat plate which, 
though different in shape, is, there is little doubt, the homologue of the outer bar of 
Jacobson’s cartilage in marsupials. The duct of the organ is seen to have a plentiful 
supply of vascular tissue, especially on its upper side. A little behind this plane the 
outer bar becomes united with the lower part of the inner plate, and the organ rests in 
a sort of “V-shaped trough. For a short distance Jacobson’s cartilage still retains its 
connection with the outer nasal floor cartilage, then becoming detached the “V” 
becomes gradually rounded into the normal “C” shape, and the outer nasal floor 
cartilage becomes more and more reduced. Fig. 18 represents a section just beyond 
the point where the naso-palatine canal opens into the nasal cavity, and it will be 
observed that there is no connection whatever between the canal and Jacobson’s organ. 
The two cartilages of Jacobson are separated by the vomer, and rest on the palatine 
processes of the premaxillary. The organ has the usual mammalian kidney-shape, and 
in structure does not differ apparently from the marsupial organ. Along the concavity 
of the organ there is a rudimentary plexus composed of one large and three or four 
small blood-vessels. 

From the consideration of the above-mentioned details, it will be seen that there is 
little to distinguish the Edentate organ from that of the Marsupial. The most striking 
difference is the opening of the organ into the nasal cavity much in advance of the naso- — 
palatine canal, but this is only an extreme exaggeration of the condition met with in the 
rat-kangaroo, Aipyprymnus. 


RoDENTIA. 


In no order of mammals has the organ and its relations been studied so thoroughly 
as in the Rodentia, and yet in no order is the difficulty of interpreting its affinities so 
great. Kern has fully described the details of the anatomy in the rabbit and guinea- 
pig, while HerzreLp has examined the organ in the rat. I have myself examined the 
organ in the hare, at birth, two stages of foetal rabbit, the mouse, and the Australian 
water-rat, Hydromys. 

Though the organ is probably better developed throughout this order than in any 
other of the Eutheria, there are certain peculiarities both in the organ itself and in its 
relations which distinguish it from that of any other mammal. At present I will leave 
out of consideration the minute structure of the organ, the well-developed plexus, and 


the glandular connections, and confine myself to the study of the relations of the organ | 


and its cartilages. 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 243 


The most striking characteristic of the organ is that it apparently always opens on 
to the floor of the nasal cavity in its anterior part, and well in advance of the naso- 
palatine canal, with which it has no connection. This peculiarity has been found in all 
the rodents yet examined, and from the examination of Dr Brarn’s sections of the 
embryo rabbit of 13 mm. described in his recent paper ‘‘ On Certain Problems in Verte- 
brate Embryology ” I find that the characteristic peculiarity is already distinctly marked 
even at this early period. 

Lepus.—To illustrate the Rodent type of organ I have taken a feetal rabbit (head 
length 19 mm.), as in adult animals the great development of the premaxillaries to 
some extent mar the cartilaginous arrangements. In front the nasal floor cartilage pre- 
sents no remarkable peculiarity, differing little from the simple marsupial type, except 
in that the development is confined chiefly to the inner part, which curves up close to 
the base of the feeble nasal septum. In fig. 36 we see the much compressed nasal 
cavity passing down and curving into the outer concavity of the nasal floor cartilage, or, 
as it may be here called, Jacobson’s cartilage. Almost immediately beyond this 
plane the duct of Jacobson is found passing off from the nasal cavity, and occupying 
the concavity of the cartilage. In fig. 37 we find Jacobson’s organ quite sepa- 
rated from the nasal cavity, and almost surrounded by cartilage. It will be noticed 
that there is a rudimentary outer bar, on the one side united above, on the other below, 
resembling more the condition in Dasypus than in Marsupials. On the palate the 
extreme anterior part of the naso-palatine canal is cut across. Fig. 38 represents a 
section near the posterior part of the naso-palatine canal. Jacobson’s organ and 
cartilage are found in their normal form, and the cartilages are supported by the pala- 
tine processes of the premaxillary. Below and on the outer side of the naso-palatine 
canal is seen a small cartilaginous element, the explanation of the significance of which 
is the most troublesome problem in the snout of the rodent. The little cartilaginous 
process passes forwards almost to the front of the canal, supporting it on its outer side. 
Behind, it supports chiefly the lower wall of the canal, and when the canal opens into 
the nasal cavity the cartilage forms a true nasal floor cartilage. As it passes still 
further back it curves inwards and upwards, and forms an inner wall to the lower part 
of the nasal cavity. Throughout its whole length it is quite unconnected with either 
Jacobson’s cartilage or the alinasal. In the lower mammals the only cartilage with 
which homology can be claimed is the outer nasal floor cartilage of the Monotremes. 
In the higher Eutheria, however, we have a somewhat similar cartilaginous development 
complicated in front by the presence of an anterior process of Jacobson’s cartilage, which 
is absent in the rodents. By a comparison with the simple higher Eutherian type, as 
found in Miniopterus, it will be seen that the peculiar process of cartilage is a much 
moilified outer nasal floor cartilage. 

From the consideration of the above features it will be noticed that in the rodent we 
have a number of lower mammalian characters together with what would seem to be a 


_ higher Eutherian feature. The well-developed condition of the organ, with its large 


244 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


vascular plexus and its numerous glands, all point to an affinity with the lower mammals 
—Monotremes and Marsupials, and the structure of Jacobson’s cartilage with its rudi- 
mentary outer bar gives strong support to this affinity. The mode of opening of the 
organ is similar to that in Dasypus, and is but an extreme degree of the condition in 
Aipyprymnus. The well-developed naso-palatine canal, and the process of the outer nasal 
floor cartilage passing forward with it, reveals a character which seems to remove the 
rodent from its lower relatives, and suggests an aflinity with the higher Eutheria. 
Taking the various points into consideration, one of two conclusions seems to be 
possible—(1) Either the rodents are an aberrant group sprung off from the main 
Kutherian stem somewhat earlier than the development of the common ancestors of the 
higher Eutheria; or (2) they are a modified and specialised branch of the higher 
Eutheria. From the primitive characters of the organ and its cartilage found in the 
rodents and in none of the higher Eutheria, and from the fact that in no known higher 
Eutherian has a condition similar to that of the rodent arisen by secondary development, 
the first of the two conclusions, viz., that the rodents are a specialised offshoot from the 
early ancestors of the higher Eutherians, seems much the more probable. 


HicHer EvTHERIA. 


In a few typical members of the higher Eutheria the organ has been carefully 
studied, but though much has been done in the way of describing the details of the 
anatomy practically no attempt has been made to indicate the significance of the various 
details. Not taking into consideration the Anthropoidea, in which the organ is gene- 
rally rudimentary or absent, I have studied the organ in the following orders :— 
Chiroptera, Insectivora, Carnivora, and Ungulata (Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla). 
Notwithstanding the great differences in the general structure of the members of these 
different orders, the organs of Jacobson are formed on a common plan, and the differences 
are very slight. In the bat, when the organ is developed, we have the same type as in 
the pig, while the organ in the ox scarcely differs in one detail from that in the cat. 

The affinities are such as to lead irresistibly to the conclusion that, in spite of the 
great outward differences in structure and the differences in habits and dentition, we 
have the various groups connected by ties of a common ancestry. And, furthermore, 
not only do the common ties indicate a close relationship, but they distinguish at once 
the higher Eutheria from the lower mammals. The simplest form of the higher 
Kutherian type that I have met with is that found in the Chiroptera; it will, therefore, 
be convenient to consider first the structure in its simple form as seen in Miniopterus. 

Chiroptera.—Until recently it was believed that there was no organ of Jacobson in 
the Chiroptera, but in 1895 Messrs Duvan and GarnavuLr discovered a moderately 
developed organ in Vesperugo pipistrellus, and in the same year I found a very well | 
developed organ in Miniopterus schreibersii. Though the organ is thus seen to be 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 245 


occasionally present, it must be admitted to be more normally absent: it is interesting, 
however, as showing the value of the general anatomical arrangement of parts as a 
factor in classification, that even when the organ is quite absent (Pteropus, Nyctophilus) 
the cartilages still follow the same general arrangement as in Miniopterus where the organ 
is so well developed. 

Though Miniopterus gives us the simplest form of the Eutherian type, and though it 
has certain affinities with the Marsupial arrangement, it is further removed from the 
Marsupial type than is the Marsupial from the Monotreme. 

If a transverse vertical section be made through the posterior part of the papilla an 
appearance will be presented like that shown in fig. 19. The nasal septum is rather 
slender, and from a little below its base on each side there passes out a thin nasal floor 
cartilage, which is present here as a moderately flat plate, curving slightly upwards at 
its inner end. In the middle line, a considerable distance below the base of the septum 
is a small oval cartilage—a development of the prenasal. By the side of the papilla is 
seen the naso-palatine canal passing upwards and inwards, and at its upper part curving 
first outwards, then inwards. The upper portion is considerably dilated, and represents 
really the anterior prolongation of the lower part of the nasal cavity. Round this 
dilated portion there is a curved cartilaginous support which surrounds it on its outer, 
upper, and inner sides. On tracing the curved cartilage forwards the inner part becomes 
lost, only a small portion of cartilage remaining on the outer side of the canal at its 
upper end. If we trace the curved cartilage backwards we find a most remarkable 
development. Fig. 20 represents a section a very short distance behind fig. 19, and 
here the naso-palatine canal is found freely opening into the nasal cavity. What in fig. 
19 represented the nasal floor cartilage is here divided into two parts, while the outer 
part of the curved roof of the naso-palatine canal is likewise separated from the inner, 
and, furthermore, the inner part of the nasal floor cartilage is found united with the 
inner part of the curved roof of the canal, forming one piece, which is really Jacobson’s 
cartilage. Jacobson’s cartilage thus consists of an upper moderately flat portion and a 
lower portion, which is markedly concave, and which has in its concavity the anterior 
continuation of the duct of Jacobson’s organ. The outer part of the nasal floor cartilage 
proper becomes lost shortly behind this plane, but the outer part of the cartilage which 
supported the canal (0.n.f:c.) becomes well developed. In fig. 21 we have a section a 
little way behind the naso-palatine canal. Jacobson’s duct is seen almost surrounded 
by the well-developed Jacobson’s cartilage, while what was the outer canal cartilage 
becomes a very well developed nasal floor cartilage. On the inner side of each cartilage 
of Jacobson is seen the anterior part of the prevomer. In this region Jacobson’s duct is 
a pure duct lined with squamous epithelium. Fig. 22 represents a section through the 
most developed part of the organ. The organ is here almost surrounded by a cartila- 
ginous capsule ; while the nasal floor cartilage forms a large flat plate which, to some 
extent, passes below Jacobson’s cartilage. The broad posterior part of the prevomer is 
seen stretching from the one cartilage of Jacobson to the other. 


246 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


In tracing the affinities between this type and that of the Marsupials we have at first 
a slight difficulty. With regard to the main body of the organ and its cartilaginous cap- 
sule the agreement between the two is close, but as we pass to the front the differences 
become more marked. The organ has a fairly long distinct duct, and even after it opens 
into the upper part of the naso-palatine canal it preserves for a short distance its indivi- 
duality as a distinct groove. One of the main characteristics of the Miniopterus type, 
and of the higher Eutherian type generally, is due to this anterior extension of the duet 
of Jacobson being supported by an anterior process from the cartilage of Jacobson. Then, 
again, the outer part of the nasal floor cartilage is much better developed than in the 
Marsupials, and in some respects it has more resemblance to the Monotreme type, espe- 
cially where the posterior part becomes well developed and passes in below the organ 
of Jacobson. The great development, however, of the outer part of the nasal floor carti- 
lage gives rise in front to a special process passing forward on the outer side of the naso- 
palatine canal. The anterior process of Jacobson’s cartilage, and that from the outer 
nasal floor cartilage, unite in front by their upper edges, the united cartilages forming 
the support to the upper part of the naso-palatine canal. Though there is no similar 
development in Marsupials, there is frequently present in Diprotodonts a downward pro- 
cess of Jacobson’s cartilage by the side of the naso-palatine canal, which is apparently a 
rudimentary homologue of the anterior process in Miniopterus and the higher Hutheria. 
Different modifications of this downward development of Jacobson’s cartilage are found 
in Perameles, Trichosurus, Phascolarctus, Macropus, and Phascolomys. The posterior 
and anterior developments of the outer nasal floor cartilage are no doubt homologous 
with the outer nasal floor cartilage and its anterior process in the rabbit, but whether the 


rodent condition represents a degeneration from the elaborate arrangement found in the | 


higher Eutheria, or a pure parallel development, it is difficult to decide definitely, though 
the latter alternative appears the more likely. 

Lemuridx.—I have not had an opportunity of examining personally any member of 
this group, but fortunately HerzFELp has made an examination of the organ and its earti- 
lages in Lemur, and so far as he has figured his sections the type followed differs in no 
essentials from that of Miniopterus. 

Insectivora.—The organ in members of the Insectivora has been examined by HARVEY 
and Herzrevp, while Parker in his monograph on the development of the skull gives 
numerous figures of sections through the organ. Parxnr’s figures, however, are on too 
small a scale to give more than rough indications of the arrangements. Harvey has 
noted the general features in the hedgehog, and Hurzretp has figured the organ in the 
mole, though this latter animal is a much less satisfactory insectivorous type than the 
former. 

Taking the hedgehog as the insectivorous type, we find in it an organ which differs 
but little from that of the bat, except that in a few points there are indications of a more 
advanced stage of organisation. As in the majority of the higher Eutheria the naso- 
palatine canal is long, and passes very obliquely upwards and backwards, and the great | 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 247 


length of the canal is one of the points in which we have an advance on the Chiropterus 
condition. The other main points of difference are due to a less degree of development 
of the organ in the hedgehog, and a greater of the bony tissues. Though the naso- 
palatine canal passes up very obliquely, it is supported by cartilaginous walls almost 
exactly as in Miniopterus, and unquestionably of the same nature. Fig. 23, which repre- 
sents a section of the snout of the hedgehog cut slightly obliquely, shows on the one side 
the naso-palatine canal almost surrounded by cartilage. The upper and inner corner of 
the canal is really the continuation of Jacobson’s duct. If this figure be compared with 
fig. 19 the close agreement of the two will be at once manifest. In the hedgehog the 
nasal floor cartilage is represented only by the inner part above, and by the feebly 
developed outer wall of the naso-palatine canal. In the other side of fig. 23 the section 
passes through the point where the naso-palatine canal opens into the nasal cavity, and 
Jacobson’s duct is likewise seen opening into the nasal cavity at this point. Jacobson’s 
cartilage is here represented in two portions—a lower small concave portion which lodges 
the duct of Jacobson, and a small upper plate which is the continuation of the nasal floor 
cartilage proper. ‘This section may be compared with fig. 20 of Miniopterus. Almost 
immediately beyond this plane the two portions of Jacobson’s cartilage unite, and we 
soon get on section an appearance like fig. 24, with the organ well protected by a large 
cartilage. This section may be seen to agree fairly closely with fig. 21 from Miniopterus, 
the outer nasal floor cartilage being unrepresented in the hedgehog. 

Carnwora.—As a result of Kirr’s work we have a very complete account of the 
organ and its relations in one of the members of this order, the dog. Though the 
arrangement of the cartilages in the dog is quite characteristic of the carnivorous type, 
their development indicates some degree of degeneration, and in the cat we have a much 
better representative of the order, as the cartilages here attain their full development. 

As in the hedgehog we have an advance upon the Miniopterus condition, so in the 
¢at we have a further stage in the specialisation of the same type; and the hedgehog 
condition stands almost intermediate between the primitive bat condition and the more 
specialised condition of the cat. 

In the cat we have a very long naso-palatine canal supported by cartilaginous walls 
asin the hedgehog. The mutual relations of the canal and its cartilaginous walls are 
well shown by Kuzrn in his paper on the organ in the dog, and the condition in the cat 
is essentially similar. In both the bat and hedgehog the organ was seen to open into the 
nasal cavity as well as into the naso-palatine canal; in the cat the duct of the organ 
opens into the canal well in advance of the posterior end of the canal, and thus only 
communicates with the nasal cavity indirectly by means of the naso-palatine canal. In 
fig. 25 the naso-palatine canal is supported by cartilage almost exactly as in the hedge- 
hog; the nasal floor cartilage is, however, much better developed. Fig. 26 represents 
Jacobson’s duct separating off from the canal, and already the inner part of the cartilage 
—the anterior process of Jacobson’s cartilage—is seen distinct from the outer portion or 
the process from the outer nasal floor cartilage. In fig. 27 we see the whole four 

VOL. XXXIX. PART I, (NO. 8). Ze 


24 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


(6/9) 


elements which are derived from the cornual cartilages all distinct. The section is made 
in a plane a little behind the point where the naso-palatine canal opens into the nasal 
cavity, and the palatine process has just become detached from the premaxillary bone, 
The nasal floor cartilage proper is seen divided into an inner and an outer part, and at 
the outer and lower corner of the naso-palatine canal is the remains of the outer canal 
cartilage. Though in this type this little cartilage which supports the outer wall of the 
canal is quite unconnected with the outer part of the nasal floor cartilage above, a com- 
parison with the condition in Miniopterus, and especially with higher Ungulate types, 
leaves little doubt but that it is morphologically a part of the outer nasal floor cartilage. 
Beyond the plane of fig. 27 the inner part of the nasal floor cartilage proper unites with 
the lower part to form Jacobson’s cartilage, which now presents an appearance similar to 
that in the hedgehog. 

Ungulata.—N otwithstanding the numerous points in the anatomy of the Ungulates, 
which would seem to mark them off from the rest of the Hutheria as a well-defined group, | 
it is remarkable that in the relations of the organ of Jacobson and its cartilages there is 
the closest agreement even in small points of detail with the condition found in other 
higher Eutherians such as the Carnivora and Insectivora. The agreement is more marked — 
than between the Polyprotodont and Diprotodont Marsupials, and one is forced to the 
conclusion that there is a more intimate relationship between the Ungulates and some 
other of the so-called orders of the Eutheria than is at present believed. 

The different groups of Ungulates seem to be related to each other in much the same 
way as are the Chiroptera, Insectivora, and Carnivora; and in the types which have been 
examined so far we find evidences of a parallel development, the pig representing the 
simpler condition and the cow the more specialised. a 

Sus.—The general anatomy of the snout of the pig has been fairly well illustrated 
by Parker, but he has not entered upon the details of the anatomy of the structures 
related to the organ of Jacobson or the naso-palatine canal. I have myself examined 
the snout of a foetal pig (head length 19 mm.), which will be found to illustrate fairly 
well the Ungulate type in its simplest form. On the whole there is a marked agree- 
ment with the condition in Miniopterus, except that the outer nasal floor cartilage and 
the anterior process which it normally gives rise to is likewise undeveloped. In fig. 28 
we have a section through the point of entrance of the naso-palatine canal. By the 
side of the base of the septum is the inner part of the nasal floor cartilage. Above the 
upper part of the naso-palatine canal, and towards its inner side, is the well marked 
anterior process of Jacobson’s cartilage, and between this and the nasal floor cartilage 
and a little internally is situated the palatine process of the premaxillary. The close 
agreement with Miniopterus will be evident on comparing this figure with fig. 19. In 
fig. 29 we have the condition of parts a little further back. Here Jacobson’s cartilage 
is complete, the anterior process being in contact with the upper part or nasal floor 
cartilage exactly as is seen in Miniopterus (fig. 20). On the one side the duct of 
Jacobson has just become separated off from the naso-palatine canal, and on the other 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 249 


side the canal is opening into the nasal cavity. From this section it will thus be seen 
that Jacobson’s duct opens into the naso-palatine canal just as the canal is opening into 
the nasal cavity. In this it agrees with Miniopterus and the hedgehog, and also with 
most Marsupials. In fig. 30 we have a section through the body of the organ, and 
showing the normal relations of the organ, the cartilage, and the palatine process. 
Bos.—In the Ruminants the condition has long ago been carefully studied, and the 
structure and relations of the cartilages, etce., were fully described by BaLocH in 1860, 
though his illustrations unfortunately are exceedingly diagrammatic. Of the ruminant 
type I have examined two stages of foetal calf and a young goat, but the peculiarities of 
the arrangements are perhaps best shown in the larger of the fcetal calves—one about 
six inches in length. As in the pig, the condition of parts closely agrees with that in 
Miniopterus, so in the Ruminants we have an arrangement as closely corresponding with 
that of the Carnivora. In the cat we have a long naso-palatine canal, and the duct of 
Jacobson opening into the canal much in front of the union of the canal and the nasal 
cavity. In the Ruminant a precisely similar condition is found; but the agreement of 
the cartilaginous structures is even more remarkable. Fig. 33 represents a section 
through the anterior part of the naso-palatine canal, and even in this plane the duct of 
Jacobson is already seen to be split off from the canal. The nasal floor cartilage is very 
well developed, and still attached to the nasal septum. Around the naso-palatine canal 
and Jacobson’s duct is a curved plate of cartilage in which there is no difficulty in recog- 
nising the two elements—the inner, which embraces Jacobson’s duct, being the anterior 
process of Jacobson’s cartilage, the outer, the anterior process of the outer nasal floor 
cartilage, Between these anterior cartilaginous processes and the nasal floor cartilage 
lies the delicate palatine process of the premaxillary. In fig. 34 we find the nasal floor 


| cartilage almost united with the anterior process of Jacobson’s cartilage, and farther out 


the outer nasal floor cartilage separated from the inner is seen united with its anterior 
process, Fig. 35 shows the appearances just anterior to the opening of the naso-palatine 
canal into the nasal cavity. Jacobson’s cartilage has now attained its normal form, and 
has as its support on the inner side the premaxillary palatine process. The lower part 
of the outer nasal floor cartilage again forms a sort of nasal floor, as is found in 
Miniopterus, and in the rabbit. The close agreement between the condition of parts in 
the calf with those in the cat will be well seen by comparing figures 33 and 35 with 25 
and 27 respectively. 

quus.—In the horse we have an aberrant modification of the Ungulate type brought 
about probably by the great development of the premaxillaries. As I have elsewhere 
deseribed the peculiarity in detail, I will only here briefly mention the main features. 

In the horse the naso-palatine canal does not open into the mouth, but ends blindly 
after passing forward for a short distance. The organ of Jacobson, which is normally 
formed, opens into the canal which carries the secretion back into the nasal cavity. 
In connection with the rudimentary canal and the well-developed premazxillaries, the 
cartilages are modified considerably anteriorly. The nasal floor cartilage is much com- 


250 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


pressed laterally, and instead of an inner and an outer process being sent forward to 
support the ducts, we have these processes rudimentary, and retaining their attachment 
to the nasal floor cartilage throughout their whole extent. Fig. 31 shows Jacobson’s 
duct and the naso-palatine canal distinct, while the cartilaginous supports are seen as 
outgrowths from the laterally compressed nasal floor cartilage. In fig. 38 the structures 
are all seen in their usual relations. 


CETACEA. 


Through the kindness of Professor D’Arcy Thompson, I have been enabled to make 
an examination of the snout of a young foetal Beluga. It has lone been known that 
the organ of Jacobson is absent in the whale tribe, but I was anxious to see if the 
arrangement of the cartilages would give any evidence of the affinities of the group. 
My work for the most part confirms KUKENTHAL’s recent researches. Before conclusive 
results can be obtained, however, younger embryos than any yet studied will have to be 
examined. 

The peculiarities of the Cetacean are due to the nasal openings being shifted from their 
normal situation in the anterior part of the snout to the upper region of the head. The 
palatal region does not depart much from the normal type, there being even a small 
papilla in the anterior part ; there is, however, no trace of a naso-palatine canal by the 
side of the papilla. Fig. 39 represents a curved section cut so as to approximate to the 
transverse in both the region of the nasal cavities and the snout. Above are seen the 
two nasal cavities separated by the cartilaginous nasal septum, which passes right down 
to near the palatal region where it rests on the vomer. On each side of the nasal — 
septum is seen a peculiarly developed cartilaginous plate. At its upper part it forms a 
floor to the nasal cavity, but its chief part is closely placed against the nasal septum 
which it supports down almost to its lower end. This cartilage is, with little doubt, the 
true nasal floor cartilage, and its peculiar development is evidently the result of the 
shifting of the anterior nares. It passes well forward in advance of the region of the 
nasal cavities still resting by the side of the nasal septum, and ends about midway 
between the nasal passage and the papilla. 

The only mammal in which I have met with a nasal floor cartilage at all compari 
with that in the whale is the horse, where, owing to a sort of rostrum being formed by 
the well-developed premaxillaries, the nasal floor cartilage becomes laterally compressed 
somewhat as in the Cetacean. Though the evidence afforded by the condition of the 
cartilages is too slight to lead to any conclusions, so far as it goes it suggests affinities 
with the higher Eutheria. 


ee 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON, 251 


CoNcLUSION. 


From the careful examination of the relations of the organ in the various groups of 
mammals it will be observed that not only is there a close agreement in the details of 
the anatomy in allied forms, but that the anatomical details of the structures related to 
the organ are so little affected by variations in the habits of the animals that, even in 
allied orders, evidences of affinity are here manifested when lost in most of the other 
characters. It will also be seen that in the organ and its cartilages we have a steady 
eyolution which has apparently been only but slightly influenced by the great changes 
in external structure. 

In the Prototheria we have an organ in a highly-develuped condition, well supplied 
with glandular tissue, and having a large vascular plexus along its outer side. In the 
Marsupialia, though there are numerous little modifications—specialisations and degenera- 
tions—when these are examined it is found that they all point back to the Prototherian 
type, and leave little doubt but that in the Marsupial organ we have only a degenerate 
and slightly specialised variety of the type found in the Monotremes. In the Hdentata, 
so far as known, the organ might be regarded as a more degenerate and slightly aberrant 
variety of that seen in Marsupials. In Jacobson’s organ and its relations we thus have 
a feature which reveals an affinity between the Monotremes, the Marsupials, and this 
the lowest order of the EHutheria, notwithstanding the great differences manifested in 
their modes of development. In the Rodentia we have a well developed organ whose 
cartilage bears some resemblance to that both in the Marsupials and in the Edentata, 
with the additional feature which has not been observed in either of these groups—a 
posterior nasal floor cartilage which is continued forwards as a supporting cartilage to 
the naso-palatine cana]. As this cartilage is found in the higher Hutheria, e.g., Miniop- 
terus, we see a certain affinity with this higher group. On the whole, however, the 
agreement is more with the lower than with the higher forms. 

The examination of the organ in the higher Hutheria also reveals some striking 
relationships. As a rule, the organ itself is more or less rudimentary, the plexus absent. 
and the glandular tissue much reduced. In the cartilages, however, it has been seen 
that there is almost invariably a peculiar and characteristic development by which any 
higher Eutherian in which the organ is developed, and the majority of those even in 
which it is absent, can be at once distinguished from any of the lower mammals. In the 
complex development of the nasal floor cartilage we have, apparently, a thoroughly 
reliable character by which the higher Eutheria can be divided off from the lower into a 
distinet group by themselves. For this group I would propose the name Cenorhinata, 
while for those Kutheria which have the primitive arrangement of the cartilages of the 


nasal floor the distinguishing name Archeorhinata might be given. In the former 
group would be included the following orders:—Primates, Carnivora, Insectivora, 


252 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


Chiroptera, and Ungulata; in the latter, the Edentata, and probably the Rodentia, 
There should be no difficulty in placing the Sirenia in its proper group, as in it there is 
known to be a well-developed organ of Jacobson. The position of the Cetacea will have 
to be decided by other characters. 

In the Marsupialia or Metatheria there is no doubt we have a most satisfactory 
sub-class, but there seems reason from the present investigation to divide it into two 
sub-orders, the Polyprotodontia and the Diprotodontia. The position of the Bandicoots 
has frequently been a matter of doubt, and there are unquestionably some Eutherian 
characters to be met with in the group, as the presence of an allantoic placenta, as dis- 
covered by J. P. Hit, the ossified patella, and a character which I have observed in no 
other marsupial, the intercommunication of the two nasal cavities behind the region of 

Jacobson’s organ. Notwithstanding these advanced characters, there is little doubt but 
that the Peramelidee are rightly placed with the other Polyprotodonts, as has been dom 
by THomas. 

The Rodents, as has already been shown, have the organ so specialised that it is a 
little difficult to decide whether we have an advancement of the early condition, or a 
specialisation of the later; the evidence, however, mostly points to the former conclusion, 
and at present we may tentatively regard the Rodentia as belonging to the Archao- 


rhinata. This being so, we may classify the Mammalia thus :— 
Crass—-M amMALta. 


Sub-class I, Protheria. Order Monotremata, 
Sub-class II, Metatheria. Order Marsupialia. §. O. Polyprodontia. 
8. O. Diprotodontia, 
Sub-class ITI. Eutheria. Group 1. Archzorhinata. Order Edentata. 
Order Rodentia (?). 
Group 2. Cenorhinata. Order Chiroptera. 


Order Insectivora, 
Order Carnivora. 
Order Primates. 
Order Ungulata. 
Order Sirenia. 
Order Cetacea, 


A further subdivision of the orders in the group Cenorhinata might be made, the 
Chiroptera, Insectivora, Carnivora and Primates being apparently more nearly allied to 
each other than to the Ungulata. 

In conclusion, I must express my thanks to the following gentlemen for their kind: 
ness in assisting me with specimens and in other ways:—Sir Wrii1am TURNER, 
Sir Witt1am Frower, Mr F. E. Bepparp, Dr Ex.ior Smirn, Mr A. G. Hamitton, 
Professor Wriison, Professor D’Arcy THompson, and Dr Brarp. 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF ''HE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 2538 


REFERENCES TO LITERATURE. 


Ayton, W., “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Jacobson’schen Organs der Erwachsenen,” Z. 7’. Heilk, B. 16, H. 4. 

Anton, W., “ Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Jacobson’schen Organs bis Erwachsenen,” Vhdign. d. Deutsch., 
otolog. Ges. 4 Vers., Jena. 

Batoeu, C., “ Das J acobson’sche Organ des Schafes,” Sitzwngsd. d. K. Akad. d. W. Math. naturw., 1860. 

Bawpey, H. H., ‘The Nose and Jacobson’s Organ, with special reference to the Amphibia,” Jowr. Comp. 
Neurol., vol, iv., 1894. 

Beano, J., “The Nose and Jacobson’s Organ,” Zool, Jahrb, Anat. u. Ontog., Bd. iii., 1889. 

Beraneck, E., “ Sur le développement des nerfs craniens chez les Lézards,” Recueil. Zool. Suisse, vol, i, (1884), 

PbL9. 

a, G., ‘Ueber die Nasenhohlen und der Thranennasengang der Amphibien,” Morph. Jahrb., Bd. ii., 
1877. 

Bory, G., “Die Nasenhohlen und der Thranennasengang der Amnioten,” Theil I., Morph. Jahrb., Bd. v. 

Bory, G., Jbid., Theil II., Morph. Jahrb., Bd. vi. 

Bory, G., Zbid., Theil III., Morph. Jahrb., Bd. viii. 

Broom, R., “On the Homology of the Palatine Process in the Mammalian Premaxillary,” Proc. Linn. Soc. 
WV.S.W., 2nd ser., vol. x., 1895. 

Broom, R., “ On the Organ of Jacobson in the Monotremata,” Jour, Anat. and Phys., vol. xxx. p. 70, 1895. 

Broom, R., “ On the Organ of Jacobson in an Australian Bat. (Miniopterus),” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 2nd 
ser., vol. x., 1895. 

Broow, R., “ Observations on the Relations of the Organ of Jacobson in the Horse,” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 
1896. 


> 


Broom, R., “ On the Comparative Anatomy of the Marsupial Organs of Jacobson,” Proc, Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 


1896. 

Brown, Av., “ Die Endigung der Olfactorius Fasern und Jacobson’schen Organe des Schafes,” Arch. f. mikr. 
Anat., Bd. xxxix. 

Dursy, E., “Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Kopfes des Menschen und der hoheren Wirbelthiere,”’ 
Tiibingen, 1869. 

Dovat, M., and Garnavtt, P., “L’Organe de Jacobson des Chiroptéres,” Compt. Rend. Hebd, des Séances 
de la Société de Biologie, 10th ser., 28th June 1895. 

Fisu, P., “The Cerebral Nervous System of Desmognathus fusca,” Journ. of Morph., pt. i., 1895. 

Fusiscuer, E., “ Beitrige zu der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Jacobson’schen Organs,” etc., Sttzwngsberichte 
Phys. Med. Soc. Erlangen, 1878. 

GucrnBavr, C., “ Ueber das Rudiment einer septalen Nasendriise beim Menschen,” Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xi., 
1885. 

Gotat, C., “ Nervous System,” Merkel & Bonnet’s Ergebnisse, Bd. ii., 1892 (pub. 1893), 

Gorrs, A., “ Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Unke,” 1875, 

Gratiotet, “ Recherches sur l’Organe de Jacobson,” Paris, 1845. 

Harvey, R., “ Note on the Organ of Jacobson,” Q. J. M. S., 1882. 

Herrick, C. L., “Topography and Histology of the Reptilian Brain,” Journ. of Comp. Neurol., vol. iii, 

Herzre.p, P., “Ueber das Jacobson’sche Organ des Menschen und der Saugethiere,” Zool. Jahrb, Abth., f. 
Anat. u. Ontog., Bd. iii., 1889. 

Hi, J, P., “ Preliminary Note on the occurrence of a Placental connection in Perameles obesula, and on the 
foetal membranes of certain Macropods,” Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., vol. x., 2nd series, Nov. 27, 1895. 

Horrman, C. K., (On Jacobson’s organ in Reptilia), Bronn’s Thierreich, Bd. vi., Abth. iii. 

Howss, G. B., “ On the probable existence of a Jacobson’s Organ among the Crocodilia,” etc., Proc. Zool, Soc., 
1891, 

JACOBSON, “Rapport de M. Cuvier sur un mémoire de M. Jacobson,” in Annales Muséum d’ Hist. Naturelle, 
tom. xviii., 1811. 

Kum, E., “Contributions to the Minute Anatomy of the Nasal Mucous Membrane,” Quart. Jour, Mier. 
Sci., vol. xxi., 1881. 


254 DR R. BROOM ON THE 


Kern, E., “ A further Contribution to the Minute Anatomy of the Organ of Jacobson in the Guinea-pig,” 
Ibid., 1891, vol. xxi. 

Kier, E, ‘ The Organ of Jacobson in the Rabbit,” Zbid., 1881, vol. xxi. 

Ktuin, E., “The Organ of Jacobson in the Dog,” Ibid., 1882, vol, xxi. 

eileen A. v., “Ueber das Jacobson’sche Organ des Menschen,” Gat. Schr. des Wirz. Medic, Facutti it 
Siir Rinecker, Leipzig, 1877. 

Lepovucg, H., ‘‘ Le Canal naso-palatin chez l‘homme,” Arch. de Biologie, vol. ii., 1881. 

Lea, E., “ Die Nasenhohlen und der Thriinennasengang der Amnioten Wirbelthiere,” Morph. Jahrb., Ba 
viii., 1883. 

Tannese M. v., “Die Nervenurspriinge u. Endig. im Jacobson’schen Organ des Kaninchens,” Ande Anz. 
1892. 

Leypic, F. v., “Die in Deutschland lebenden arten der Saurier,” 1872. 

Leynpia, F, v., ‘“‘ Zur Kenntniss der Sinnesorgane der Schlangen,” Arch. fiir. mikrosk, Anatomie, Bd. viii., 187 

Macauium, A. B., ‘The Nasal Region in Entaenia,” Proc. Canad. Inst. Toronto, 1883. 

MarsuHatt, A. M., ‘‘ The Morphology of the Vertebrate eli k Organ,” Q. J. M. S., 1879. 

Meer, A., ‘On J cee s Organ in Crocodillus poroeus.’ 

MerkEt, F. v., “Das Jacobson’sche Organ und Papilla palatina beim Menschen,” Anat. Hefte., Bd. Abth, i 
i, Heft. iii., 1892. 

Parker, W. i, “On the Structure and Development of the Skull in Lacertilia,” Phil. Trans., part ii., 1879 

Parker, W. K., “On the Structure and Development of the Skull in the Common Snake,” Phil. Trans 
part ii., 1878. 

Parker, W. K., “On the Structure and Development of the Skull in the Pig,” Phil. Trans. 1874. 

Parker, W. K., “ On the Structure and Development of the Skull in the Mammalia,” part ii., Hdentata; part 
iii., Insectivora (Phil. Trans., part i., 1885). z 

Parker, W. N., “On some Points on the Structure of the Young of Echidna aculeata,” Proc. Zool. So 
1894. ; 

Prana, G. P., “ Contribuzione alla Conoscenza della Struttura e della Funzione dell’ Organo del Jacobson 
Bologna, 1880. 

Ramon y Cayat, S., “‘ Neue Darstellung von Histologischen Bau des Centralnervensystems,” Archiv, fi 
und Phys., Anat. Abth., Heft vi., 1893. 

Ratuxg, H., “ ent nickcltineeaasthiohte der Natter,” Konigsberg, 1838. 

Raver, P., ‘« Anatomie Microscop. de l’)Organe de Jacobson chez boeuf,” etc. Arch. intern. de la 
anes 6. 

Ravat, P., “ Le Canal incisif et ’Organe de Jacobson,” Arch, intern. de laryng., 1894. 

Rvuyscu, “ Thesaurus anat. tertius,” Amstelod, 1744. 

Résg, C., “ Ueber das Jacobson’sche Organ von Wombat und Opossum,” Anat. Anz., 1893. 

Ross, C., “ Ueber das rudim. Jacobson’sche Organ der Crocodile und des Menschen 4 Anat. Anz., 1893. 

Sarasin, P. und F.,“ Zur Entwickelung Gesch. und Anat. der Ceylon Blindwiihle,” Wiesbaden, 1890. — 

Scuwink, F., “ Ueber den Zwischenkiefer und seine Nachbarorg. bei Siiugethiere,” Miinchen, 1888. 

Snypet, O., ‘‘ Ueber die Nasenhéhle der hdheren Siugethiere und des Menschen,” Morph. Jahrb., Bd. : 


Tu 
fa. 


p. 44. t 
Ssype, O., ‘Ueber die Nasenhéhle und das Jacobson’sche Organ der Amphibien,” Morph. Jahrb., B 1. 
xxill., p. 453. 


Suurrer, C. Pu., “ Das Jacobson’sche Organ von Crocodilus porosus,” Anat. Anz., 1892. 

Situ, G. Exxiot, ‘ Jacobson’s Organ and the Olfactory Bulb in Ornithorhynchus,” Anat. Anz., 1895. 

Souegr, B., “ Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Nasenwandung,” etc., Morph. Jahrb., Bd. i. > 

Syminoton, J., ‘On the Nose, the Organ of Jacobson, and the Dumb-bell shaped Bone in Ornithorhynehm hus,” 
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1891. 

Syminoton, J., “On the Organ of Jacobson in the Kangaroo and Rock Wallaby (Macropus pigantous a 
Petrogale ‘pondeilintely” Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol, xxvi., 1892. 

Symineton, J., ‘On the Homology of the Dumb-bell shaped Bone in Ornithorhynchus,” Journ, Anat, ¢ 
Phys., vol. xxx., 1896. ‘ 


a we a i a 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON. 255 


Turner, W., “The Dumb-bell shaped Bone in the palate of Ornithorhynchus compared with the Prenasal Bone 
of the Pig,” Journ. of Anat. and Phys., vol. xix., p. 214, 1885. 

Wisrpersueim, R., “ Die Stammesentwickelung des Jacobson’schen Organes,” Taybl. Versamml. deutscher 
Naturforsch v. Aertze in Salzburg, 1881. 

Wiepersueim, R., ‘“ Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen,” 1879. 

Wiuson, J. T., “Observation upon the Anatomy and Relations of the Dumb-bell shaped bone in Ornitho- 
thynchus, ete.,” Proc. Linn. Soc. F.S.W., 1897. 

Wuson, J. T., and Marti, C. J., ““Observations upon the Anatomy of the Muzzle of the Ornithorhynchus,” 
Macleay Mem. Vol., Linn. Soc. N.S. W., 1893. 

Wriceat, R. R., “On the Organ of Jacobson in Ophidia,” Zool. Anz., No. 144, 1883. 

ZuckeRKanpDL, E., Das periphere Geruchsorgan der Saugethiere, eine Vergleichend. Anat. Studie, 

Stuttgart. 


REFERENCES TO PLATES. 


GENERAL.—2a.J.c., anterior process of Jacobson’s cartilage; a.m.f.c., anterior process of the nasal floor 
cartilage; g., glands; 7.¢,, inferior turbinal bone; J.c., Jacobson’s cartilage; J.d., Jacobson’s duct; Jo., 
Jacobson’s organ; /.d., lachrymal duct; mx., maxillary bone; 7./.b., nasal floor bone; mfc., nasal floor 
cartilage ; 7.p.c., naso-palatine canal ; n.s., nasal septum; 0.b.J.c., outer bar of Jacobson’s cartilage; o.n.f.c., 
outer part of the nasal floor cartilage ; .c., papillary cartilage; p.n., prenasal cartilage ; Pmx., premaxillary 
bone; p.Pmx., palatine process of the premaxillary ; Pvo., prevomer; rud.t., rudimentary turbinal cartilage ; 
u.c.¢., united canal cartilages; 7.e., anterior processes of Jacobson’s cartilage and of the outer nasal floor 
cartilage ; ¢.p., turbinal plate ; v., blood-vessel ; val., nasal valve; vo., vomer; v.s., vascular space. 

The parts shaded in lines are bones; whilst the dotted structures are cartilages. 


Puate I. 
Fig. 1-3. Transverse sections of the organ of Jacobson in Ornithorhynchus anatinus, x 5. 
Fig. 4-7. 3 5 s Echidna aculeata, x 20. 
Fig. 8-11. * Fs = Dasyurus viverrinus (mammary foetal speci- 

men), x 20, 

Fig. 12-15. a i 4 Petaurus breviceps, x 20. 
Fig. 16-18. 7, % ss Dasypus villosus, x 5. 

Puare II. 
Fig. 19-22. Transverse sections of the organ of Jacobson in Mintopterus schretbersii, x 25. 
Fig. 23-24. # 5 6 Erinaceus ewropeus, x 10. 
Fig. 25-27. 3 5 5 Felis domestica (Young), x 10. 
Fig. 28-30. - a - Sus scrofa (foetal), x 20. 
Fig. 31-32. ss . = Equus caballus (foetal), x 7. 
Fig. 33-35. Pe Me is Bos taurus (foetal), x 10. 
Fig. 36-38. * a 5 Lepus cuniculus (foetal), x 20. 


Fig. 39. Transverse section of snout of Delphinaptera leucas (fetal), x 14. 


- 
6 AUG. 1898 


bo 
c=) 


VOL. XXXIX. PART I. (NO. 8). 


= Trans Roy, Soc. Edin® Vol XXXIX. 
D* i BROOM ON MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON — Prare [. 


M‘Farlane & Erskins, bith Rdin™ 


ORNITHORHYNCHUS. ECHIDNA, DASYURUS, 
PETAURUS, DASYPUS. 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin® Vol. XXXIX. 
ON MAMMALIAN ORGAN OF JACOBSON.— Pracz IL 


Fig 38. 


M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith"? Edin? 


ERINAGEUS, FELIS, SSUES. EQUUS, BOS, 


MINIOPTERUS, 
LEPUS, DELPHINAPTERA. 


A 
4 


— 


ee 


MINIOPTERUS, 


ON 


MAMMALIAN 


ERINACEUS, 
EEPUS, DELPHINAPTERA. 


ORGAN 


FELIS, 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin’ Vol. XXXIX. 
OF JACOBSON.— Prare IL. 


M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith’? Edin? 


.SUS, EQUUS, BOS, 


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CONTENTS. 
PAGE 
ve Definite Integral e Jf ‘edit, with Extended Tables of Values. By Jas. 
Tre 
Bureuss, C.LE., LL.D., F.R.S.E, : BPO bes as ON 


ieee separately, 25th March ‘1898, 1 


or between the Coaxial Minors of a Determinant of the Fourth Order. By 
‘aomas Murr, LL.D., : 5 F : 5 320 
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-Heppxg, M.D., Past President of the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain, Emeritus 

_ Professor of Chemistry in the University of St Andrews, . ; : . 341 
a: (Issued separately, 15th October 1898.) 


bsolute Thermal Conductivity of Nickel. By T. C. Baris, M.A., B.Sc., Assistant 

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¢ art IL By Professor C. G. ron D.Sc, F.R.S.E. (Plates I. and Il. F . 457 
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Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile. II. By Professor Tarr. (With 
’ . . ‘ . . e e e . 491 
(Issued separately, 1st December 1898.) 


EDINBURGH: 


MDCCCXCIX. 


Price Nineteen Shillings. 


(257) 


t 
i ie e— dt, with Extended Tables of Values. 
By Jas. Burcesss, C.I.E., LL.D. 


| 2 
—On the Definite Integral a 


(Read July 15, 1895.) . 


The integral i e~“dt occurs so frequently in various branches of research that, as 


s 1783, LapLacEe suggested that it would be useful to tabulate its values for 
ranges of integration.* It is employed in investigations on the theories of 

conduction of heat, of errors of observation, of probabilities, ete. These are 
to physicists and need not be dwelt upon.t 


The Integral.— Previous Tables. 


ae 
The important formula or result— 


| e“dt=}J/7, (1) 


0 


o have been discovered about 1730 by Euuzr, { who expressed it in the form— 


: 1 
| (ad) =— J7;§ 


ae. Bins? ul =e Cae me 
mg x=e ', we have (log. ) da Re dé. 


ce | edt = | edt 4 | edt, (2) 
; 0 0 t 


towre de? Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1783, p. 484; conf. TopHuNTER, Hist. of the Theory of Probabilities, p. 486. 

f. Guatsaur, in Phil. Mag., vol. xlii, (1871), pp. 429-31. 

S ascribed this integration to LapLAcn; ORIANI (in Zacu’s Monatliche Corresp. for March 1810, Bd. xxi, 
ted out HuLmr’s prior claim, but Gauss did not correct his statement, Theoria Motus Corp. Cel., art. 177, 

erke, Bd. vii, Ss. 233, 280, 289 ; Davis's transl. of Theor. Mot., pp. 258, 259. Lucenpre (Exercices de 


ntégral (1811), tom. i, p. 301) asserts EULER’s discovery, and refers to his paper, “ Evolutio formule integralis 


in Novi Commentarit Acad. Scient. Imp. Petropol., tom. xvi, (for 1771) p. 111. Conf. 2b., p. 101 ; and 


1. Scient. Petrop., tom. v, (lor 1730-1731) p. 44; also EueEr’s letter to Gouppacu of 8th Jan. 1720, in 
. Math, et Phys., tom. i, p. 13. 

the form used by LecenpreE in his “Traité des Intégrales Eulériennes” in Fonctions Elliptiques, ete. 
). 365, 517-524, 


VOL ‘XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 9). 2R 


oi 


258 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


the integral may be taken as separated into two parts— 
(1) i “dt, which Mr J. W. L. GuatsHer calls the Hrror-function complement, and 
indicates by ‘ Erfe.’ And— 
(2) | “e-edt, which Mr GuatsHer proposes to call the Hrror-function, denoting it 


by ‘ Erf’* Mr R. PENDLEBURY accepts Mr GLaisHer’s name for the second, and writes 
the first as ‘erf,’/—which might lead to mistakes.t For convenience of reference, we 
may indicate the second by G. 

And we shall put for the multiple of the first function here dealt with— 


t 
He?! e-Pdt 
Vi) 


Whence, from (2)— Hai G; and GaN (1-H). 
Ja 2 
And since + ./mr=0°886 226 925 452 758 013 649 083 741 670, 
and its reciprocal— == 1:128 379 167 095 512 573 896 158 903 120, 
also log a = 0:052 455 059 316 914 268 038 104 750579, 3 


it is comparatively easy to derive the value of G from that of H, or the converse. 

4. In 1789, M. Kramp, in his Analyse des Réfractions, was the first to tabulate 
from ¢=0'00 to t=3°00, for every hundredth of a unit, together with the logarithm: 
values and differences. To these he added a third table of the logarithmic values « 


eG=e" | “edt, which is useful in connection with the theory of refraction. Kram 
t 


apparently computed the earlier part of his table by the usual formula (8) given below 
but it converges so slowly for values of t>1, that Kramp employed a difference formula 
—to be referred to later—in order to fill up and complete his table. For the lowe 
values of ¢ his results are carried to eight places, and are generally quite accurate 
from t=2 to t=8 the values are carried to eleven places, and for the last he g 
G = 00001957729 in the table and ‘00001957669 in the text,{—the true value 
00001957719 3236779. 
BEssEL, in discussing the theory of refraction in his /undamenta Astronome (1818 8 


pp. 36, 37, next gave two tables,§ the first of log. ¢€ Ve e~"dt from t=0 to t= 0 
t 


* Philos. Mag., vol. xlii., 4th ser. (1871), pp. 296, 297, 421. 
+ Ibid., p. 437, If aioe is to be called “ Error-function,” it would seem to apply rather to H than to G. 
shi Didar pp. 134, 135. : 
§ In March 1816 appeared Gauss’ Bestimmung der Genauigkeit der Beobachtungen, in which he employs se 
of the constants dependent on values of H.—Werke, Bd, iv, Ss. 110, 111, 116. 


THE VALUES OF [[ edt. 259 
agreeing in the main with Kramp’s third table, but differing occasionally in the last, or 
7th, figure. This may have been due to some recomputation in places where the third 
differences were irregular. His second table is a continuation of the first, employing as 
arguments log, x, from 0 to 1 at intervals of ‘01, with first and second differences. This 
is equivalent to a short table of log,, (é ic} from t= 1 to t= 10, arranged at intervals in a 
geometrical proportion of which the ratio is— 

tx log 7-01 =¢ x 1:023 292 992 281. 


It is not explained how this table was computed. 

The next table of the kind appeared in Lecrenpre’s “ Intégrales Hulériennes” (1826),* 
giving 130 values of 2G, computed to ten decimal places, and arranged in two parts. 
The first contains the values from ¢=0'00 to ¢=0°50, computed by the usual series, 
and by halving the values of the integrals we can readily verify or correct the 
early part of Kramp’s first Table. The second part is adapted to Euier’s form of 


the integral, viz.— 
-3 3 
J (log, ~) da: = (tog, ;) ; 
x x 


and is arranged with x as argument, from x«=0°80 (that is, t=0°472 380 727 077) 
to #=0°00 or t=. But, though when «=0, ¢ is infinite,—in the previous entry, 
%=0°01 makes t= ,/log.100 = 2145 966 026 289,—so that this table does not really 
cover the extent of Kramp’s. It was computed by quadratures, and the process is labor- 
ious and effected by means of logarithmic tables extended to twelve decimal places.t 
In his “Theory of Probabilities” | (1837), Dz Morean reproduced Krampr’s table of 
this integral (G) without revision. Mr Guaisuer, in the Philosophical Magazmne for 
December 1871,§ has further extended it from ¢=3'0 to t=4'5 at intervals of 0°01, to 
eleven places for the first fifty values, thirteen for the next, and fourteen for the last fifty. 
It would be easy enough to compute it in the way indicated below for any higher values 
of the argument (§ 25). 
5. But it is with the other integral that this paper is concerned, viz.— 


Se Sa (le 
H= ed at edt. 
je oft=t~ Gel 


A table of this was first published by Enckn, in a paper on the Method of Least 
Squares, in the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch for 1834, || giving the values of the 
integral, for the arguments t = 0 to t= 2°00 at intervals of 0°01, computed to seven deci- 
mail places, with first and second differences. This table, the author says, was derived 


* In his Traité des Fonctions Hiliptiques et des Integrales Eulériennes, tom. ii, pp. 520, 521. 

t Op. cit., tom. ii, pp. 517-524. The method explained below (§ 12) is different. 

ft In Encyclopedia Metropolitana, vol. ii, pp. 359-458. He also gave a short abstract of it in his Differential and 
Integral Calculus (1842), p. 657. 

§ Vol. xlii, 4th ser., p. 436. 

|| The paper is continued through the vols. for 1834 (Ss. 249-312), 1835 (253-320), and 1836 (253-308). The 
Table is in the Jahrbuch for 1834, Ss, 305-308. 


260 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


immediately from the table for the integral | e~“dt in Brssev’s Pundamenta Astronomiz,.* 


There seems to be a mistake here, for the table could be derived directly only from 
Kramp’s Table I. 
Dr Morean reproduced this table also in his “‘ Theory of Probabilities” (Hncyclop, 
Metrop., 1837), and again in his Essay on Probabilities (1838), but there he extended 
it to t=3°00 from Kramp’s data. Again, GaLLoway, in his “ Treatise on Probabilit y” 
(1839), prepared for the 7th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, printed EncKr’s 
Table, also continued to the same point. 
6. Further, and in dependence upon this integral, ENCKE gave a table t of the values of 

ge ie 


Jr 
0 


ce bl a (5) 


p being the numerical value of t when H =3, giving 0°5 for the value of the integral K 
when the argument is T(=pt)=1. His table gives the values of K to five decimal places 
only with the argument T, at intervals of 0:01 from T=0 to T=3°40 and at intervals of 
01 from T=3'4 to T=5. It was computed from the previous table by direct inter. 
polation, and was also reprinted by Dk Morean both in his Theory and his Essay. 

Here it may be noted that this second table is so readily derived from a table of th 
values of H, when these are determined with precision, that there seems little reason fe 


computing it. For if we multiply the arguments in such a table by 1/p = 2°096 716 165 
65 _ 629 
31 OT 30> 
arguments at intervals that are inconvenient on account of the fractions. But since the 
arguments required in practical applications nearly always lie between two consecutiv 
tabular arguments, and interpolation has to be made at any rate, we may as well perform 
the operation on the values in a table of H as in one of K. This is done by multiplyin 


or approximately by we have at once a table of the values of K, only wit 


the argument (T) for K by p= 0°476 936, or, approximately by 2 , and taking the corre- 


sponding value from the table for H. Thus, if for the argument for K we have T=377: : 
then 3°72 x p=1'7742 =¢, for which our table gives H=0°987 8960: and ENoxw’s table, | 
by interpolation, for arg. 3°72, gives K = 0°98790. 

But, we might also compute the first part of ENckn’s table from the formula— 


K=0°538 164 958 101 235T —-040 805 140 181 145T?+ -002 784 561 677 8354T° — 
— 000 150 809 348 77027T7 + 000 006 670 286 943 3025T® — 000 000 248 189 408T™ 
+000 000 007 964 597 724T*—-000 000 000 224 304 823T+-000 000 000 005 627 4561" 
— 000 000 000 000 127 2874T”+ ete. (6) 


This will give values correct to fourteen decimal places, as far as ‘'=1, and seven 


* Berl. Astronom. Jahrbuch fiir 1834, 8. 269. Mr J. W. L. GuatsHer (Phil. Mag. (1871), vol. xlii, p. 484) re 
that, if Enoxn’s table were derived from Busset’s, it must have been “by interpolation from his second 
But he overlooks the fact that Brssnx’s Table II. is only a continuation of Table I., giving the logarithmic value 
the multiple of the integral by ¢” from t=1 to t=10, with logarithms of ¢ for argument. 

+ Berl. Astron. Jahrb., 1834, Ss. 309-312. 


THE VALUES OF &-['e~“dt. 261 
terms only will give correct results up to that point to nine places; but at T=2 
(K = ‘822 656 449) the whole ten terms will be required to give eight figures correctly. 
When T” consists of only two figures, the computation is easy, if we begin with the term 
haying the highest power of T. For the larger values of T, however, if not for all, it 
is easier to derive the values of K by interpolation from those of H. 

7. It was a suspicion of some errors in the last figures of a few of the values in 
these two tables in De Morean’s Essay, and in some values in Arry’s Theory of 
Errors of Observations (1861),* that led me to recompute the table of H. It was begun 
during a holiday in the hot season of 1862 at an Indian hill sanatorium, where I had 
very few books, and rather as an amusement to occupy the middle hours of the day, than 
with any idea of publication. 

Commencing on a more extensive scale than ENcKr’s table, in fact computing for 
intervals of 0'001, the values were worked out to about twelve places, but only nine 
were preserved, together with first and second differences. To this I added the values t 


of se", partly as a check on the working, with differences. The work was at that 


time advanced from ¢=0 to ¢=1°250, after which it was entirely laid aside for more than 
thirty years. The computation of the portion carrying the argument to t= 8 is exceed- 
ingly laborious, even with the intervals doubled after ¢=1°5. But the values have been 
given to fifteen decimal places from computations generally made to three or four figures 
more, and might have been depended on as accurate even beyond the sixteenth place. 

This table, then, as recomputed, besides enabling us to construct ENcKr’s second 
table of K to seven or more decimal places, affords also the means of reconstructing or 
verifying and extending Kramp’s Table I. (for G) by means of the expression (4). 
Several important constants also have been computed to a degree of accuracy perhaps 
beyond any practical requirement. 


The Formule. 


8. The formule available for computation, as pointed out by Lapiacg,§ are primarily 
three,—(8), (10) and (11), with the continued fraction (13), which he supplied to facilitate 
calculation where the series become very slowly convergent. 


(1) In the integral | e~“dt, if we develope e~”, we get— 


t4 t6 t3 i i. 
a, —— =f = ‘i _— ; , 
at (1 semen 12.9 7 ete.) rae meseea | (7) 


* Op. ctt., pp, 16, 20, 22-24. 

+ I began by using the value of = given in SHORTREDE’S Logarithmic Tables (1858), p.602, viz., 1°283 791 670 946 99 
which is correct only to the tenth place, and therefore could not affect any of the results up to the eleventh place. 
This was examined later, and the true value of the constant found to be 1°283791670955126. SHoRTREDE’s 


logarithm of vw 8 correct. His value of sin 1° is also in error after the tenth decimal. 


i In the small table given by Arry, Theory of Errors, p. 24, six of the constants dependent on » are in error in 
the 5th and 6th places, three of them in the 4th. 
§ Théorie Analytique des Probabilités, 2e. ed. (1814), p. 103, and Mécanique Céleste, liv. x, ¢. i, sec. 5. 


262 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


and taking the integral from ¢=0 to t=t¢, we have 


¢ 
6 ff 
pre 7+ H9— = Ele a eS a 


s : A 9 ti 9 fi eabers 
That is— = , Gabe (:-5+ — 3I7 +i9 — aq tete.) = 5 


(2) Integration by parts shows at once that— 


9 
= 02 lite a! +2 -t2 
| ite A Be A | n+dte-%. 


And putting successively n=0,n=2, n=4, n=6, ete, we get by repeated substi 
tutions— 


a ty 2 She Euae 274% 
[ate =te-* +2] edie De (+50) + © | tidte aa Galera 35) ee tdte-* 
which vanishes when t=0, and when t=¢, we have— 


t 
2. 2¢? (2¢8) 2 v8 E 
= {2 = 
Mc =e +734 135 °13.57* ete. =4 JH. 


(3) By a process similar to the last we find that— 


Je-rdte-#= —ft-9-1¢-8 h(n 1) |t-"-*dte-*, ate: 


Hence ip Ga eee ees 128 
‘ | ee ANG 2P T Qep Qe t pe 


Putting ¢=7, the constant quantity is eliminated by making the integral vanish, al 
we have— 


ee I ese IEEE exe ee ee 
-2 = Be BAL) cate : 
i ee = At apt Oe? ~ OP) + etc.) — on ae as Or ete.) 
Then putting 7= ©, we have the series— 


i as Pe el 
(pea c 
ke a eGR Gap + ote) = =G, 
t 


7 ee Ly 1a ss 
“ [, a a ae ae 2 +a (eet ote )P=4 ae 


* Conf. Hymers’ Integ. Cale., pp. 128, 151. 


Se le 


THE VALUES OF = edi. 263 
will be less than that half. But the third series (11) is not convergent, the numerators 
of the successive fractions soon exceeding any value of 2¢° that is likely to be used. 
To meet this case, we have LapLace’s continued fraction,* into which the series is con- 
verted, and which becomes more convergent the higher the value of ¢t. And this can 


be used for either G or H. 


9. When ¢>1°5 it becomes very laborious to compute values of H, and Lapiace gave 


| Laplace's Continued Fraction. 
} 


the series for | peta | | 1 : + Hoag) 3-4 + ete. \ , the form of a continued fraction, 


Qt lL Bt? «244 «= 9.348 
: ] 
putting q= oP 
2 
2) ee (13) 
Gor [ean - 
t 
il 
ue 3q 
+ 4q 
1+ 
1+ etc., 


and this gives a series of common fractions alternately greater and less than the integral. 
Mr GuaisHer has used this in computing his table of the values of the other function, G, 
from +=3 tot=4°5. And for higher values of ¢ the approximation of the successive 
fractions is increasingly rapid. But at any stage the degree of approximation can be 
estimated only by reducing two consecutive fractions to decimals. To attain a nearly 


correct value too, with values of ¢ under 3, the computation of a long series of fractions 
of the form— 


fet =61+2¢ 1+5q9 1499+ 8¢? 1+149+ 33¢? aie 

VY i+q 1437 14+69+39? 1410¢+15g? 1415¢+45q?+159? 
becomes tedious. This is obviated to a considerable extent, by determining once for 
all the coefficients a’, b’, c’, etc., and a, b, c, etc., in the following expressions for the 
numerator and denominator of the fraction when it involves high powers of g. Thus 
we get two consecutive fractions of the form—(when n is even)— 


l+a'qtd@t+cqgt... Baege 
L+ag+tbe@+eg+t+ ... +l"? 


(14) 
“te emt. tg! 
~l+(@+n)jq+.. + mg: 
md the numerator and denominator for L,41 are found by multiplying those of L,_, 
xy ng and adding those of L,,. 


and 


* See Lapiace’s Meé. Cél., ut swp., and Theor. Anal. des Probab., p. 104; De Morean, “Theory of Probabilities, 
63 ; and Diff. and Integ. Cale., p- 591. 


264 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


oo ngNn-1 ae NE 


Sa 15 
nqDn-1+D,, ( 4 


Thus, putting ae gees Got 


When v is an even number the fraction L, is less than the true vaiue, and when 
odd, it is in excess by a quantity c<3(L,~L, 41). 
The larger ¢ is, the more rapidly the fraction approaches its limit, and consequently 
a lower value of n in L, will give a sufficiently close approximation. 
The following values of the coefficients of g in L, can be made to serve in nearly al 
cases when ¢ >1°5 :-— 


_1477q+2070q?+ 2381493 + 114 765g'+ 187 425q° + 460809 
18" 1+ 78g + 21459? + 257409? + 135 13594 + 270 270° + 135 135q° 


i 1+ 90g + 29154? + 423009 + 278 01994+ 729 3309 + 509 98596 
4 T4 91g + 30038q2+ 4504593 + 815 815q* + 945 9459? + 945 9459+ 135 135q7* 


[1 +104q+ 89939? + 71280g% + 611 41594 + 2336 0409° + 3133 9359°+ 645 12097 
“9 “141059 + 4095q?+ 75075q? + 675 675g! + 2837 835q° + 4729 725q° + 2027 025q" 


L__1+1859-+ 70079? +178 8934° + 2386 395g! + 16288 96595 + 51450 525° + 58437 8559" + 10821 9204° 
7 ~1+4186q + 7140q?+ 185 6409" + 2552 550y!+ 18378 360y° + 64324 2607+ 91891 800g’ + 34459 42595 — 


L.-. 1 +1520 + 90804? + 269 724° + 4841 480g! + 37469 5209° + 162 058 0509° +297 693 9009” +151 335 13548 za 
18 141539 + 91809? +278 460q* + 4594 5909! + 41351 3109° + 192 972 780g" + 413 513 100g” +310 134 82595 + 34459 4254?" 


1+4189q + 143489? + 567 4209? + 12686 310y4+ 162 912 75045 + 1167 180 300g° + 4302 906 3004’ + 6859 400 625q8 

ip +8061 162 1259° 
20" 14+190g + 14535g?+ 581 400g? + 13226 850444174 594 4209° + 13809 458 1509°+ 5237 832 600g’ + 9820 936 12598 
+6547 290 750g9 + 654 729 0754" 


1+ 2099 + 17748y? + 796 620g? + 20603 310g +314 143 8309° +2775 672 900g° + 13408 094 700g? + 31335 467 625y8 | 

L + 27125 492 625q9+ 3715 89120070 J 

21 1 +2109 + 17955? + 813 96091+ 21366 45094 + 333 316 6209° + 3055 402 350g% + 15713 497 8004’ + 41247 931 725® } 
+ 45831 035 2509 + 18749 310 5759” k 


1+ 2529 + 26315? + 1488 38493 + 50044 77094 + 1033 829 160q° + 13108 004 9109* + 98983 684 800g? + 416 674 583 325° | 

ip +860 553 193 50099 + 664 761 133 5759" + 81749 606 40 
1+ 253g + 265659? + 1514 2059 + 51482 9704+ 1081 142 370° + 14054 850 8109% +110 430 970 650g’ + 496 939 36 
+1159 525 191 82599 + 1159 525 191 825g! + 316 234 1435 


1 +.275y +31605¢?2+ 1987 875g? + 75297 114¢4+1781 769 1509> + 26460 800 7309% + 241 511 019 750g’ + 1288 808 846 

I + 3659 572 691 77599 + 4601 737 965 8259" + 1645 756 410 
4247 4 27 6g + 3187 8q? + 2018 940g? + 77224 4554? + 1853 386 920g" + 28109 701 6209+ 265 034 329 56047 + 1490 818 103 
+ 4638 100 767 30099 + 6957 151 150 950g" + 3794 809 718 700g" +316 234 143 


+ 


The multiplier q being always a proper fraction, we begin by dividing the | 
coefficient by 2¢, add the next preceding and divide again, and so on to | 
first coefficient of g, adding unity to the last quotient. If, for example, we take © 
f= 157 5,°9 =p=5+ ig Which is easily manipulated—and we find, on dividing down 


the coefficients in the terms for L.,— 


_ 1007439:089305_.. 
3°" 1139733°366404 ‘he detail aaa 
| _ 2535470-688789 _,. 
and 24 2868422°115642 — gee ey ee ao: 3 


These agree to the eighth decimal place, the first being too large and the second too 
small but nearer the true value,—which is 0°883 925 236 007 66. 
For t=1°75, the value of e~“ is 0:052 774 995 980 150 374 66, and since (4)— : 


THE VALUES OF — | ‘edt. 265 
/ J 0 


2a es” 4h 
: BS On te (16) 
with L,; we have H =0'986 671 671 161+ 
and with L,, we have H = 0:986 671 671 255 — 
the true value being, H =0'986 671 671 219. 


Hence this degree of approximation, being to the tenth place in decimals, would be 
practically sufficient for all purposes. And for higher values of ¢, the results are still 
more close, and even a lower order of the fraction L would suffice. For t=3, L,. comes 
out ‘951 813 839 1839+, which is correct to the last—the 13th—ficure. 

10. When the values of L,_, and L, are not sufficiently accordant, either from t 


being small or n not sufficiently high, we may readily compute L,,,. Then if L,_,—L, 


or — (regard being had to 
the signs of a and }, one of which is always negative), and— 

2 b b? 

+, or L,+ — > or Laat aah? Which will be equal or very nearly so,— 


=a, and L,, —L,.,=0, we may find a correction 


will give a closer approximation to the value of L than before. It will be greater or 
less than the true value, according as L,_, and L,,, are both greater or both less than L,,.* 
11. By means of equation (9) we may compute any values of H up to a certain 
point with considerable facility, but with ¢>1 it becomes rapidly more difficult. We 
may, however, use it for such values of ¢ as 2, 2°5, and even 3, though the work is 
lengthy; and for purposes of verification this has been done in the following table. 
For extreme accuracy the continued fraction is scarcely less laborious, till we reach 
t=3. Up to £=1°25 the values were determined for moderate and equal intervals by 
means of (9), and the intermediate values inserted by interpolation, using the highest 
order of differences that could by any chance affect the results. 
| 12. We might, however, make use of the method of quadratures. For H may be 
regarded as the area of a curve of which the equation is y See. Hence the value of 
i represents the rate of increment of that area at ¢; and the area between any two 


_jordinates is the difference of the values of H between the two corresponding values of t. 
And if the intervals between the ordinates are so small as to enable us to find the area 
with sufficient accuracy, we may compute values of H,—or rather of the differences of 
H between two values of t,—with great precision. If, for example, we take the ordi- 
dates, given in the first part of the table, from ¢=1'160 to £=1°170 inclusive, the area 
s found by Simpson’s rulet to be 002 904 196 086+, and adding this to the value of 
i for ¢=1°160 (from the second: part of the table), the sum is the value of H when 
=1170, viz., 0°902 000 398 966,—which is correct to the last figure. 
Or, generally, if V,, Vi, V2,... V,, be the values of the successive ordinates whose 
*In the example above of t=1°75, L,, will be 0°883 925 237 509, and a= — 6231, b= +3854, whence the correc- 


ons are, ~ 3850, +2381, and —1473, respectively, each giving 883 925 236 036. 


+ T. Suveson’s M athematical Dissertations (1748), pp. 109 f. This rule gives a very close approximation. Conf. 
ymers’ Int. Cale., p. 181 ; Hurron’s Mensuration, p. 374. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART 11. (No. 9). 28 


266 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


distance apart is 9=t,—t, A,=V,—V,, A4;=V,,—V,-1, and A,, Aj, the first and last 
of the second differences, and so on; then between V, and V, the area is— 
o{ (SV +V +Vo+.-+4Vn) —35(Ai— 1) — a(Oh-4-4,) - 3 es gal A;) — 7a 5 My A 
5°09 1 2 a*n Lo\— 1 9A\ 2 720 3 160 ae a) 
863 275 33 953 8183 


— 60.480 (45 — As) — 34 T92(4e + Ac) — 3628 g00(4: — 41) — 7930 so0(4s + As) 
3250 433 a 
— 479 001 600 (42 — 4s) - - fe (ui 


of which expression the first three terms will generally be sufficient. Taking the same 
example, we have— “4 


A, = —681 145 A,= +994 $V.+Vit+..+V,+4V,,='290 419 6916 

A’ = — 672183 Aj= +997 et a ie ~ 74g 
Ai-A,= +8962 A,+A,=+1991 — (4; + A,) = — 83- 
Sumo ~ dtgeet 290 419 6086. 


and @=°01.; hence the area is ‘(002 904 196 086+, as before. 

For a single interval, as between V, and V,, by putting A} for the second a ene : 
derived from V_, and V,, and A, the next in succession, derived from V, and V,; 
fourth difference, in line -with Vo, and A,, for the next below, etc., we have ten 
expressed by— 


116 1916 24976 
(Vo + Vi) — HAC + As) — raqq( A+ As) — Taq gG0(48 + As) — 7957 7257 600\8 +A,).. 


Taking the values of V at 1'130, 1'140,... and 1°180, we find for 1°160, Ao= +99 37 
and A,= +99759, also AfS= +70 and A,= +66. Then— 


3(°293 811 239 + -287 044 575) = 290 427 907 


—,(99 3734 99 759) = — 8297+ 
— 1449(70+ 66)= ee aed 
Sum, as before, nearly . . °290419 609—. 
Interpolation. 


13. The method of interpolation employed is familiar, but the process may he — 
explained by which the transference is made from the differences found from 
computed values, to the differences required for those to be interpolated.t I have 
met with it in any text book at my command, and I think the formation of t 
differences indicates that too much stress may be laid on the common warning that 
reliance is to be placed on results which lie nearest the middle of the series of va 

=> 

* Conf. Dp Morean’s Diff. and Integy. Calc., pp. 262, 313-318 ; WooLHouss, Assurance Mag., vol. xi (1864 
By this method the computation might have been abridged in some portions, had I noticed its advantages earl 

+ Mr W. T. B. Woornouss, in a paper “On Interpolation, Summation, and the Adjustment of N 
Tables,” in The Assurance Magazine, 1863-65 (vol. xi, pp. 61-88, 301-332, and vol. xii, pp. 136-176), has dev: 
formula with necessary -tables for interpolating terms in the middle interval of a series, The treatment is inte 
and the formule are rapidly convergent, but not altogether convenient for computing a lengthy table. 


THE VALUES OF salen et. 267 
TJ 0 

from which the differences used are derived.* It appears that if the intervals between 
a series of values be sufficiently small and their number so large that the last difference 
is practically zero, then the results will usually be about equally correct along the whole 
series,—for the first interpolated value is affected by the last difference. 

14. In the computation of the values of any function to be tabulated with equi- 
different arguments, the two usual formule are— 


V,,= V.+an + bn? + cn? + dnt + en? + fn§ + gn’ + etc. (19) 
n.n—1 m.n—1.n—2 NN—1.N-2.n—-38 
and V,=V,+n7A juegos 2+ 499  S3* Ais Az ete, (20) 


By the first each value has to be computed separately; by the second, if we 
determine the values of Aj Aj, Aj, etc., for the intervals to be adopted, the process is 
reduced to one of continuous addition and subtraction, according as the signs of the 
differences require. Now the conversion of the one formula into the other is readily 
effected by means of the numerical values of A70™.t The following table, rearranged 
and extended to A”0”, will suffice for all purposes :— 


01102103) 04 | 08 | 08 Q7 08 09 Q10 gu gl 

meee} h jt) 1 i il! 1 1 1 1 1 1 
fg 2/6; 14 | 30) 62; 126 254 510 1022 2046 4094 
a 6) 36 |150| 540; 1806 5796 18150 55980 171006 519156 


| | 24 |240|)1560| 8400) 40824 | 186480 818520 3498000 14676024 


120 | 1800 | 16800) 126000 | 834120) 5103000 29607600 | 165528000 


720 | 15120) 191520 | 1905120| 16435440 | 129230640 | 953029440 


5040} 141120 | 2328480 | 29635200 | 322494480 | 3162075840 


40320 | 1451520} 30240000 | 479001600 | 6411968640 


362880 | 16329600 | 419126400 | 8083152000 


3628800 | 199584000 | 6187104000 


39916800 | 2634508800 


479001600 


* Conf., ¢.g., De Moraan’s Diff. and Integ. Calc., pp. 544, 545 ; and Woo.Houss in Assur. Mag, vol. xi, p. 73, note. 
+ Herscuen, Examp. of Calculus of Finite Differences, p. 9. His table extends to A!0! (conf. Du Morean, 
Diff. and Int. Calc., p. 253.) This table is readily computed by the formula— 


ArHom+ — (n+ 1) (A"0™ + A*+10m), (21) 


That is, the sum of the quantities in the two lines for A? and A™+1 in the preceding column for 0”, multiplied by 


268 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 
We have here the coefficients in the following values— 


A, =a+b+tetd+etf+g+h+i+k+ ete. 
Ay =2b4 6c+14d + 300+ 62+ 1269 + 2542 +5102-+1022k+ ete. 
Ay =6c+ 36d + 1500+ 540/+1806y +5796h+181507+55980k, ete. 
Ay = 24d + 240e + 1560f-+ 84009 + 40824h +186 4801+ 818 520k, ete. 
A; =120e+1800f-+168007 +126 000% + 834 1207-+5103 000k, ete. 
= 720f-+15120g-+191 520h+4+1905 1201-+16 435 4402, ete. 
= 5040g +141 120h + 2328 4802+ 29 635 200%, ete. 
A, =40320h +1451 5201+ 30 240 000%, ete. ; 
A, = 362 8802+ 16 329 600k, ete. 
Ay = 3628 800%, ete. 


If we write A, B, C, etce., for the first terms of each value in the above, and revers 
the arrangement, we have— 


A,=K-+ ete. 
A, =i+ OK, ete. 
me =H+4I4+ 2 K, ete. b 
aT Sean el 

By SO tg FF oat wpe 
A, =ry3¢4 a+ P45 K, 

240 

331, 45 
A, =E+SR+ a4 Pat 4S K, 

13 SG oy ea negT  inegen. 
A, Retr De ie 
3 23 605 beet 


fe 43 605, 
Bs C45 ao sE+; gti O +795 E+ 12096 + 20160” 


me 127 17 73 
rie a soot ap @+ 91604 + {2096 7+ 359900 © 


A, =A+5 B+; 5 Cty D+ e TOPE ape «Sale ORR KG 


A, =B+04+5 7 D+ 


a or er Er 8 wo a 


15. These equations readily give us the values of A, B,C... K; and now, 
n denote any subdivision of the intervals for which A, As, As, ete., represent 
successive differences, and A’, Aj, As, etc., represent the differences for these smé 
intervals in the value of the argument,—then we have— 
nA’ = K+ ete. mA’, =I+ eat, ete. nh’, =H 4-— se a es and so on. 


n > 


the index of A in the second line, gives the value in the 0+ column : thus A307 + 407 = 1806 + 8400 = 
10206 x 4=40824= A‘0®, The formula is derived from that for A"0m in Hmrscnwx’s Appendix to Lacr 
and Integ. Calculus, (1816), p. 478. 


THE VALUES OF —- | ‘edd, 269 
J 0 


And, by means of (23) we may thus obtain the values of Aj, Aj, Ay, ete. Or, by 
transposition, we have 


WA’ »=Ay=K+ ete. 1 

| 
BAG =A. eae) is ee) K | ia 
Sr Ey BED 87 De te, etn | 


In actual calculation, it is convenient to compute and arrange the quantities in 
equation (23) thus,—the sum of the quantities in each column being equal to the value 
of A at the top of it :— 


Ay | 4, | A; A; A, A; A, A; A, A, 
¥ 3% is oh oe aK sas TACRER ‘ zara ¥ or k=E 
fe) 47. oe ae ae af Ast = ae. 
He eee) a | ico” lari”) aio? 
ree 34 i300 re 7on9 
mee =i f aa afi 
E 2E, cE E. Bae 
D Sp GP. = iD =a) 
C. C = C=e 
B. J Bab 
Al =, 


After K= Ao, the values of J, H, G, ete., are successively found by subtracting the 
sum of the quantities in the proper column from the value of A, above it. If the 
values (a, b, c, etc.) in the last column are determined with extreme accuracy, they 
ford a ready means of verification of the whole operation, since 


V,— Vo=an+bn2+en3+dnt+ .... +k 


270 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


Then, by equation (24), we eae deduce the values of Aj, A}, ete., from the a above 
by dividing successively upwards each quantity in the column, except the lowes 
-n, n*, n®, ete., adding the quotients to the value of A, B, or C, etc., and lastly divi 
the sum by the coefficient of A’. When n=10, this can be done by mere inspection 
Thus, for example—  . 

6821K 
30240.108" 3 


on 13K 
D+ 735+ 6102 


5G 


4 
10 A= 3.103 


cle Shean Pac Wale 


And the quantities in the same horizontal lines may be computed by the ie 
coeflicients ; or, k, 2, h, ete., being first found directly from K,, J, H, etc., we may use t 
integral coefficients in eq. (22). 
16. Again, if in a series of values of a function, the first differences before and afte 
any value V be A_, and A; A?=A_,—A;; the third differences, before and after A? | 
Ay... and A’. At=A'. bey the fifth PE eee before and after A‘, be A®_,-A 
and so on,— 
Putting A‘=4(A_, +A) =A —4A2, 
=4(A?,+A%)=A'— JA‘, 
A) =2(AL +A’) =A’— 2d", 
Ap=3(A11 + A"')=A'— 3%, = 
M=HA+A=A—Fa", | 


Then, as before, expressing the values of A,, A’, A®, ete., in terms of the coefticier 
a,b,c... in the formula (19), we have— | 


Ajp=a+te+e+g +i, =2(b+d+/f+h+h), 
=3!(c+5e+21g+ 85%), At =41 (d+ 5f+21h 4+ 85h), 
Ab =5!(e+149 +1471), =6!(f-+14h +147h), 
=7!(g +301), =8!(h+30k), 
AS=91 4; and A!=10!.4. 
From these we deduce— 

AS, 4A5 386A) 576A° = cao 36A8 576A” 
eA sit at gt Poy b= '—-7+-G,~ 81 * 
Ai Ab, TA; 820A cee 

Se A 16)! One ANY 6)! 8! Om 

A> 2A? 273A° Ae 1408 2734" 
Sa hweGgt ys Ol’ J=Si- ei? Mone 

Ai 330A) Ae oA A® Alo 
g=7\— a Praia ey 1= oP and k=7or 


Substituting these values in the general form of the function (19), and ‘inp ny 


have— 
n(n? — = 


V,=V+n(Mh+502)+ 5 


(Ag+ 7A4)+ 


n(n? —1)(n? — 
3! 


Dae Fas)tetet 


* This is only an altered mode of writing the formula given in Dz Moraan’s Diff. and Intey. Caleulus, p. 9 


conf. Wootnousk, Assur, Mag., vol. xi, (1863), p. 68. 


9 t 2 Q7 
THE VALUES OF — i e-' dé, 271 
VJ 0 


and replacing Aj, A}, etce., by the second equivalents from (26) we have finally— 


Pas Df hae ew) a 2 
V,=V-+n(A-+ 25> 0%) 4+ 2 ee 


i n(n? — _— = 4)( n® =) ( Gas pee 


As) + ete. (30) 


Hither of these formule, which converge rapidly, may be used for interpolating 
terms in a series of values already found, especially if we form tables of the values of 
| each term for the various coefficients of A®, A®, A‘, etc. Thus, to insert values at 
intervals of 0'1 between V and V,, we have— 


¥,=V + — ‘045,A?— 0165. A?+ 007 8375.A*+-003 291 75.A°—-001 591 0125.A%— ete. 


. 
V, =V,+ 5 — 035.A?—:0155.A?+ 006 5625.A*+ 003 044 25.A°— 001 365 7875:A®— ete. | 
YG =V,+5- 025.A? —0135.A?+ 004 9375.A*+ 002 559 25.A5—-001 046 06 25.A%— ete. | 

i 


Lf =V,+5 — °015.A?—'0105.A?+ 003 0625.A*+ 001 856 75.A5— 000 656 3375.A%—ete. 
%, =V,+5 —'005.A?— -0065.A?+ ‘001 0375.A*+ 000 966 75.A°—-000 222 9125.A°—ete. 


V, =V, +, +:005.A?—-0015.A8—-001 0375.A4—-000 070 75.A%-+-000 222 9125.A°-+ete. eer 
V, =V, +5 +:015.A?+ -0045.A°—-003 0625.A*—-001 205 75.A°+-000 656 3375.A°-+ete. | 
V, =V, +5 + 025.A?+-0115.A*—-004 9375.A4—-002 378 25.A5-+ 001 046 0625.A°+ ete. | 
Vy =Vat 5 +:035.A?+ -0195.A°— 006 5625.A4—-003 518 25.A°+ 001 365 7875.A° + ete. | 
V,)=V, +=, +°045.A2-+-0285.A°—-007 8375.A4—-004 545 75.A5+-001 591 0125.A%+ete. J 


If the interval n be 7 we have 


V,=V +0:2A —-08.A?—-032.A?+ 0144. A*+ -006336.A°—-0029568.A°— ete. ) 
V,=V,+0:2A—-04.A2—-024.A3+ 008. A*+-004416.A°—-0017024.A°—ete. | 
V,=V,+02A —-008.A3 +000896.A° ec | 2) 
V,=V,+0-2A + 04.A2+-016.A3—-008. At—-003584.A5+-0017024 At-+ete. | 
V,=V,+ 0-2A + :08.A2+ -048.A3— -0144.A4— -008064.A°+ -0029568.A°+ ete. J 


The series converges so rapidly that it is seldom necessary to go beyond the fourth 
or fifth differences, and the last result in each case is a check on the accuracy of the 
work, But, as it requires fresh arrangements for each short series of interpolated 
values, it is not so satisfactory for computing a lengthy table as the method above 
explained, though a larger number of differences is required to compensate for the more 
rapid convergence. For isolated values, however (30), is most convenient. We may 
proceed by successively correcting the differences in a retrograde order, correcting the 
highest employed, if necessary, to its mean value, by adding half the next above it. 
Thus, if five orders of difference are to be used, make A’ = A5+3A% Then— 


272 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


& 


ae l+n 1l—n 


At=At4= 2 "As At= AS ee At=A?+-3" As A.=A-—5"As, and V,=V+mA, 


To bisect an interval, »=4, and-— 


A A? Ae BAY SAS) DAS BAT «BAR 


2-8 16+ 198+ 256 1024 2048 t 32768 + (33) 
Or, At=A‘+4(A5+4$A%, Al=A8—gAt, A?=A?+4A5, A.=A—A2 and V\=V+44A, 


Thus if it be required to find the value of H corresponding to t= 1°575, we take th 
differences following and on line with 1°574 in the table, and proceed thus :— 


iAP A® Ne A i 
—18656 45985 292 —1192978 427 +188 870 390 940 973 983 952 882 ¢ 6" 


—13=}$A>= +7001 eB +2996 146 = + 297470570 \z +94583 93078 
—18669 x —3' +5992 293x4' —1189 882 281 x —1}' +189 167 861510x4 974078 536 8134 


This value, H=‘974 078 536 813 480, is correct to the last figure, and $A°= — 13, 
small that it might have been neglected without affecting the result. = 

After determining the values of H for moderate intervals, the differences for 
smaller intervals of ‘001 or ‘002 were determined by means of the formule: (22) to (2 
and the table thus filled up throughout. . 


The Difference Formula. 


17. The difficulty of computation, due to the slowness of convergence of the se 
for values of ¢ above 1:0, led Kramp, who computed the table so often reprint 
to ee a difference- formula* obtained from the general series by means of Tay. vA 


” . Dye 943 
a e "dt= —re* (08+ = i 6 ote etc.) 
t 


where Aft=r=0°01. This implies the separate computation of the values of the dif 
ences for each entry in the table. When 7 is small, three terms of the series may 
sufficient, and M. Kramp says he used no more. Mr J. W. L. GuaisHeEr, in comput 
the values of the same function from ¢=8 to t= 4°50, tells us that he computed seps 
22-15 ee 20° 3t 4 

“) 


tables of log. e~* and of log. (r- tr + —_ and then built up his t 


by the successive differences.t This requires for hs table about a hundred andl 
computations of the values of (35), and an error in one would have been perpetuat 


* Analyse des Refructions astronomiques et terrestres (Strasbourg, 1799), p. 185. i 

+ Philos. Mag., xlii, (1871), p. 484. Conf. De Moraan, wt cit. § 117. Mr GuarsHer remarks (p. 482) 
“ {ramp docs not state what value he started from in applying the differences, or what means of verification 
In all cases where a table is constructed by means of differences, the last value should be calculated ind 
and then the agreement of the two values would verify all the preceding portion of the table.” And h 
Kramp’s value for f=3 is in error in the tenth and eleventh figures, so that probably a portion of his table 
in the last two figures (see § 4 above). 


* 


Se eee 


THE VALUES OF = [ie edt. 273 
TJ 


through the rest, if he had not checked his work by means of Lapiacr’s continued 


18, But the formula may be applied with great effect in this way: 7 may be taken 
as negative as well as positive, so that from a value H, corresponding to ¢, we can derive 
both the values at t—r and ¢+7; and by developing the formula more fully, we may 
use it with much larger values than r=0°01. Putting «= — 2¢, the general term is— 


il an ae -2 gn gi-8 a8 ’ 
m+1 { n! C= MT 1, 2.(n— a Bin—6)t Aim—sy ° f 
t 


fraction. 


Tie epanding and adapting to the integral rags |e e-"dt,— 
0 


#3 4 2 
Ane 7" et as tae 
S—604+90%—15 , St" —840°+210¢°—105¢ ,, , 168— 22446 4. 8404 — 8400+ 105 
mes 7.3! 3.5.74! 3.5.7.9.4! | 
_ 16/9 — 28847 + 1512¢ — 252009 + 945¢ | 79 4, 3209 — 72018 + 504018 — 126004 + 94500 — 945 4 
3.5.7.9.5! 3.5.7.9.11.5! (36) 
_ 32¢4 — 88009 +7902" — 277200 + 346502— 10395¢ , 
_~mnmns5 7911.6. ##### | © 
4, 64t!2— 21120 + 237600 — 110 880¢°+ 207 900#— 124 7400?+ 10395 1» 
3.5.7.9.11.13.6! 
_ S4f18 — 2496211 + 3432009 — 205 92007 + 540 540° — 540 54024135 135t 15 1 ote \ 
3.5.7.9.11.13.7 ! J 


For any portion of the table then, say from t=1°9 to t=3, we may compute the 
coefficients of the powers of r for ¢ at the values 2°0, 2°2, 2°4, 2°6, 2°8, and 3; and by 
means of the first we find the differences from t=1°90 to t=2°10, by the second series 
from ¢=2°10 to 2°30, and so on. If, also, we know the values for ¢=2 and t=3 (which 
I have computed separately, both by the general series and by Lapiacr’s fraction), we 
can fill up the table,—first, for all values of ¢ differing by 0°01 ; and, secondly, by form- 
ing from these values the differences in the series H) +nA’+ ““—* A’, + ete., for 1/5, 1/10, 


or any other subdivision of the interval, we may complete the table from ¢=1:900 to 


#=3100. This sufficiently explains the method of computation for the portion of the 
table beyond t= 1:000. 


19. Since the computation of these coefficients of the powers of 7 is also required 
for the other branch of the integral—G, they may be preserved here. 
For ¢=1, e~1=0'367 879 441 171 442 321 595 524, 


A@= —ree( —r+5 4 8 ; ase gg? + 086 5079r°—-011 507 936r7 —-004 541 446 208 112 87574 
+002 954 144 620 811 28779 +-000 206 028 539 362r" — +000 481 935 7597rl! 


+'000 045 088 65627124 000 057 110 7327%8, ete. ) 


Also a =0°415 107 497 420 594 '703 340 268 =E, and H=0°842 700 792 949 714 869 34. 


* Tf we make t=0 in this series, r then becomes t, and we have the series in (9) from which it is derived. 
VOL. XXXIX. PART Il. (NO. 9). 2T 


274 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


And, for our purpose, multiplying the above coeflicients by ae, we have— 


AH = Er — 0°415 107 497 420 594 703 340 2777+ 0:138 369 165 806 864 901 11378 
+ 0:069 184 582 903.432 450 55774— 0-069 184 582 903 432 450675 
+ 0°004 612 305 526 895 496 707%+ 0:015 154718 159 799 4977 — 0-004 777 030 724 284 6274 
— 0:001 885 188 370 1207°+ 0:001 226 287 580 56371°+ 0-000 085 523 991471 
— 0:000 200 055 1477+ 0-000 018 716 639278 + 0-000 023 707 9374, 


These values would be sufficient to compute to seventeen or eighteen places all 
values from ¢=0°90 to £=1°10, making 7 negative for values below 1:0; and, taken te 
7*, they would give accurate results to ten or eleven decimal places. 
For¢=1:1, e¢-#=0:298 197 279 429 887 378 618 226. 


AG = —re-?{1-1L1r+ ‘47302 + 106373 — 188 78674 + 040 8662r°+ ‘032 105 5365 a3) ae 
—'017 586 074,77 —:001 943 926 059 964 726678 + -003 554 076 205 855 387° 
—‘000 392 718 249 540 487!°— 000 466 498 049 077571 +000 134 329 166 5772 
+°000 040 407 357275, etc. }. | 


2 $5) 
and ie €-" = 0°336 479 597 793 244 144 101 453. 


For ¢= 1:25 =7. e-” = 0'209 610 951 665 850 449 333 13; 


AG = —re-# {1—1-257-+°7083/2— 026 41679 —-199 47916744 -090 060 763875 
+015 330 481 150 7936r° —:024 089 510 478 670 635r7 + 003 710 603 798 08758 
+003 354 928 691 130 $879 —:001 369 673 505 8537! — -000 222 973 881 9067" 
+000 236 037 9076r!2—-000 012 746 6147", etc. }. - 


oem 236 521 122 447 290 '787 220 015=E; H=0:922 900 128 256 458 230 14; 
Tv 


and AH = Er—‘295 651 403 059 113 348 402 5072+°167 535 795 066 830 974 287% 
—'006 159 404 230 398 197 587+ -— 047 181 036 404 850 1935r° 
+°021 301 272 963 460 4337+ 003 625 982 609 442 7577 
—'005 697.678 057 620 957+ 000 877 636 175 2817°+-000 793 511 499 767 
—'000 323 956 71507" - 000 052 738 0337r!2+--000 055 827 95r18— -000 003 01487" 
t=1°4: e-?=0°140 858 420 921 044 996 147 971 ; 


AG = —re-?{1—1-4r + -97372—-214693— 171 78674-4137 411575—-014 063 034 920678 
—-024. 523 27177 +-010 363 941 013 5878+ -001 457 789 123 950 0679 
—-002 066 991 235 5915r-+-000 261 420 814 97974 +-000 235 192 74237 
—-000 081 536 3055719) 


z ee 0:158 941 707 677 277 875 860 084=E; H=0'952 285 119 762 648 810 5165; 


AH = Er —°222 518 390 748 189 026 2041774 154 703 262 139 217 132 5047 
— ‘034 119 486 581 388 984 0274—-027 304 066 156 187 30877° 
+021 840 427 294 591 1407°—-002 235 202 785 4109177 — 003 897.770 588 23297* 
+001 647 262 502 3917°+-000 231 703 492 797°— -000 328 531 11677" 
+000 041 550 6717+ 000 037 381 94718 —-000 012 95797" 


For t=1'5  ¢-#="105 399 224 561 864 336 783 218 ; , 4 

AG = —re-°{1— 157-4 116r2— 03757" — 12514 + 0162575 — 0-039 880 95237°— 0-019 866 071 42850 
+0:014 376 658 4397— 0-000 7812579 — 0:002 139 475 108r"° + 0-000 653 239 989 

+0-000 150 973 16r2— 0-000 473 971 717"). 


THE VALUES OF Fa feed. 275 
Iw} 0 


ze f= i8 930 289 223 629 371 531 02=E; H=0-966 105 146 475 310 727 067; ~ - 
T 


and AH = Er—0'178 395 433 835 444 057 29777+0°138 752 004 094 234 26687 
— 0044 598 858 458 861 014374 — 0:014 866 286 152 953 6717° 
+ 0:019 326 171 998 839 777° — 0:004 743 053 201 180 4677 — 0:002 362 677 620 73773 
+ 0:001 709 819 551 5879—0:000 092 914 288 4671°—.0:000 254 448 3937"! 
+0:000 077 690 02r2+-0:000 017 955 28713 — 0:000 014 092r14. 


For #=1°6, ¢-®=-077 304 740 443 299 745 990 466 ; 
AG= —re-#{1 —1-6r + 1:3737? — 0°5653r3 — 0-050 186r# + 0177 52177? - 0:069 203 606 349276 
— 0-010 358 938 412 6977+ 0-017 139 434 892 41678— 0-003 643 030 114479 
— 0-001 744 844 2187+ 0-001 017 260 52r4 — 0-000 004 336r”2 
— 0-000 133 153 8575+ }. 
a0 '= 0087 229 058 633 945 352 846 147 =E; H =0-976 348 383 344 644 007 77 
T 
AH=Er—0-139 566 493 814 312 564 553 8367240119 794 573 857 284 951 24273 
— 0:049 313 494.481 057 106 14rt— 0-004 377 735 689 308 937 447° 
+ 0:015 485 057 562 579 995r6— 0-006 036 565 435 915 3977 
— 0-000 903 600 446 186778 + 0-001 495 056 771 183r9— 0-000 317 778 087 4571 
— 0-000 152 201 11867"! + 0-000 088 734. 67872 — 0:000 000 378 2405718 
— 0-000 011 614 8857. 


For £=1°8, e-® =-039 163 895 098 987 073 '739 770 994 
AG = — re-°{1 — 1:87 + 18267? — 1-04.47 + 0-203 6874+ 0°156 1927-0128 822 552 38097 
+ 0:024 500 434277 + 0-015 248 655 915 34378 — 0-009 845 148 89179 
+0:000 726 814 123 775r'° + 0-001 273 644 989r"— 0-000 455 201 1177 
— 0000 509 014 6956778 + etc. }. 
Feet = 00d 191 723 332 011 061 234 953 87 =E; H=0-989 090 501 635 730714 19; 
AH =Er —0:079 545 101 997 619 910 222 91772+ 0:080 723 547 953 140 205 18973 
— 0046 136 159 158 619 547 9374+.0-009 000 970 208 264 01375 
+ 0-006 902 393 650 673 47276 — 0-005 692 890 593 742 5577+ 0-001 082 716 413 468478 
+ 0:000 673 864 383 396r9 — 0:000 435 074 095 9771 + 0-000 032 119 16877"! 
+ 0:000 056 284 567r!2— 0:000 020 116 1278 — 0-000 002 24947"++ ete. 


lort=2, e-#=0-018 315 638 888 734 180 293 718, 
AG= ~ re-#{1 — 27+ 2-372 — 1-673 + 0:6374 + 0:0575— 0:163 49207°+ 0-076 984 12677 
— 0-002 425 044 091 7173— 0-012 716 049 3879+ 0-005 020 843 35471” 
+ 0-000 253 059 6975r™— 0-000 785 932 1748712+.0-000 191 191 54r!*—ete. }. 


2 ; 
. 666 985 354 092 053 857 069=E; H=0-995 322 265 018 952 734 1517 ; 


AH = Er—0-041 333 970 708 184 107 714 1472+ 0-048 222 965 826 214 792 3332r% 
— 0-034 444 975 590 153 423 09574+ 0-013 089 090 724 258 300 787° — 
+0:000 459 266.341 202 04567*— 0-003 378 888 081 700 76477 
_ +0:001 591 029 824 878 5278— 0-000 050 118 350 7264r° — 0-000 262 802 406 354571 10 
+ 0:000 103 765 696 0671+ 0-000 005 229 98117" 12 0-000 016 242 8497 
+0:000 003 951147r14 — ete. 


tr t=22, e-#=-007 907 054 051593 440 493 635 645, 


276 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


AG = —re-# {1 — 2:27 42-8937? — 2:449373 4 1:287 41374 — -290 94757 — 123 645 663 492078 
+130 351 019 682 5377—-039 684 952 832 451578—-005 712 135 363 9579 
+ 008 778 755 518 16372 —-002 353 401 968 184714 —-000 441 493 573 588rl2 
+000 449 093 84r'8+ }. 


a 008 922 155 064 916 204.491 2763=E; 


AH = Er— ‘019 628 741 142 815 649 880877+ 025 814 768 654 490 885078 
— 021 853 331 805 668 090274+°011 486 501 392 640 657° — 002 595 879 206 44497° 
— ‘001 103 185 782 '78077+ :001 163 012 010 4778 —-000 354 075 302 915r° 
— 000 050 964 5574r1°+ -000 078 325 41871! —-000 020 997 41737” 
— ‘000 003 939 0773 + 000 004 00687" + ete. 


For t=2-4, e-?=0-003 151111 598 444 440 557 819 11, 
AG = —re-* {1-247 + 3:506r? — 3:4087° + 22196874 — 866 9447°+°065 980 647 619075 
+146 185 32477 — 090 795 077 417 989r8+-017 593 1348479 
+ ‘007 180 372 023 417! —-005 537 775 295 94714 001 032 100 464 947! 
+000 376 393 06671" }. 


Szef= 0:003 555 648 680 877 747 112=K, 


AH=Er — 008 533 556 834 106 59287?+ 012 468 474 707 611 299578 
— ‘012 117 650 704 431 36177*+ -007 892 402 268 970 727° 
— 003 082 548 289 99497%+ 000 234 604 002 67077 +000 519 783 660 5478 
—'000 322 835 397 2579+ 000 062 555 00667°+ 000 025 530 87987" 
— 000 019 690 3872+. 000 003 669 7877 +000 001 338 3274 — ete. 


For ¢=2°5, e-7='0:001 930 454 136 227 709 242 213 515; 
AG = —re- {1 — 2:57 4 3:83r? — 3:958373 + 280837! — 1:284 727° + 0:249 007 936576 
+119 667 658 730177 —-114 900 242 504 4178+ 036 175 870 811379 
+002 358 280 2229719 — -006 463 809 307744 + 003 355 4256712 
+000 231 605 1738713 — }. 


and es 0:002 178 284 230 352 709 720 3867 =E; H=0'999 593 047 982 555 0361 ; 


AH = Er —:005 445 710 575 881 774 3572+ 008 350 089 549 685 387673 
— ‘008 622 375 078 479 47674 + 006 117 348 213 573 867°— 002 798 490 157 050474 
+000 542 410 061 32877-+ :000 260 670 173 89578 — ‘000 250 285 386 317° 
+:000 078 801 328 917+ -000 005 137 00467" — 000 014 080 01472 + 000 007 309 077" | 
+000 000 5044714 — ete. 


For ¢=2°6, €-"=0-001 159 229 173 904 591 150 012; 
AG = —re~" {1-267 +. 41737? — 4558673 + 3-489 01374 — 1808 167175 + 0512 492 393 650778 
+054 344 325 079 3677 —-131 050 242 144 6278+ -058 484 912 567 7679 
— ‘006 202 829 135 647! —-010 449 018 028 0671+ 005 053 337 267” 
+002 601 512 38657"5— }. 


and ae 0:001 308 050 049 723 251 542 496=E; 


AH = Er — 003 400 930 129 280 454072+ 005 458 928 874 178 370r3— -005 962 964 160 005 0637" | 
+004 563 804 064 151 757°—-002 365 173 079 59687%+-000 670 365 700 99777" 
+000 071 085 097 1278—-000 171 420 275679 + 000 076 501 19371 — -000 008 113 617" 
— 000 013 667871? + 000 006 610713 + 000 003 40297 — ete. 


THE VALUES OF =: fie "dt. Pris 
For ¢=2°8, €-" = 0-000 393 669 040 655 078 210 9805 ; 
AG = —re "{1— 287 + 489312 — 5:917373 + 5159 41374 — 3237 49687 + 1:361 565 765 079378 
— 0:259 346 70277 — 103 377 617 382 716 0578+-103 997 546 129 38379 
—-036 027 867 912 3379+ -001 055 8017" +004 625 191972—-001 989 64573, ete. }. 


and agee= 0:000 444 207 944 205 666 629 3623 =E; 
T 


AH = Er— 0:001 243 782 243 775 866 5672+ 002 173 657 540 313 0620r° 
— ‘002 628 526 475 179 665r4+ 002 291 852 390 107 3175>—-001 438 121 837 385676 
+ :000 604 818 329 40777 —-000 115 203 865 4317 — 000 045 921 158 897° 
+:000 046 196 536 177! — 000 016 003 86517" + 000 000 468 9957+ :000 002 054 51178 
— 000 000 088 38714+ etc. 


Lastly, for t=3, -"=0-000 123 409 804 086 679 549 4976 ; 
AG = —re~? {1 —3r +56 7? = 75 347-374 — 5375+ 2'804 761978 — 0:967 857477 + 099 867 72478 
+112179— 077 510 8227! + 021 764 06927" + -000 886 0583r!2 
— 003 249 626 464 01227%+ ete. }. 
and Foes 0:000 139 253 051 946 747 853 89 =E; H=0-999 977 909 503 001 4145 ; 
Tv ~-. 


AH = Er —-000 417 759 155 840 243 561 6777+ -000 789 100 627 698 237 8386r3 
— ‘001 044 397 889 600 608 90474+ -001 016 547 279 211 259 33r5 
— 000 738 041175 317 76367°+ -000 390 571 655 222 06977 — 000 134.777 060 991 3278 
+000 013 906 885 47887°+ -000 015 616 235 1117! —-000 010 793 618 597 
+°000 003 030 713 07712+ -000 000 123 386718 — 000 000 452 537144 ete. 


These data will enable anyone to verify the table, and also to recompute to the like 
| degree of accuracy Kramp’s first Table of the values of G. Any value of G may also be 
_ found for verification by multiplying 1-H by 3,/7. 

The constant p and its derivatives. 


20. The value of t= , in the solution of the equation— 


Bs fi Jr. 2 Gat? uf il ‘ 


is of importance, as it enters into the coefficients of various formule. Brssen 
employed the value 0°476 9364, Enckz, followed by De Morgan, uses 0°476 9360, 
and Airy gives 0°476 948.* To obtain this nae es eae accuracy, we may 


proceed thus: Since 0-475 =4 (1—),) and 0°475° =z+y+7G jo’ the computation of the 


series for this value is Pe hitely easy, and gives—for t = °475— 


* It seems strange that the late Astronomer Royal, so late as 1861, should have adopted a value differing from 
that so generally recognised as correct at least to six decimal figures ; he gives its reciprocal also as 2°096 665 (Theory 
of Brrors, pp. 23, 24). Laptace (Théorie Anal. des Probabilités, 2° ed., p. 238), in one of the very few examples he 
gives, makes #?=+210 2497, which would give p=-45853. M. Poisson, also (Connaissance des Temps, 1832, Add. p. 20), 
gives 47414 for the value of p, and ‘67336 for that of p/m, and again (Rech. sur la Prob. des Jugements, p. 208), he has 
‘4765 and ‘6739 for the same quantities. Gauss (Werke, Bd. iv, S. 110) gave the value as ‘476 9363, which is correct 
to the nearest figure in the seventh place. Lastly, 0. Byrne (Dual Arithmetic, p. 200) finds 0-476 936 2744, which 
errs only in the last two decimal figures. 


278 Dk JAS. BURGESS ON 


t 
2 

5. e~ "dt = 0'498 258 053 711 787 564127 43=H. 
/ 7 


For the same value of t, we have— 


2 2 
ae e “= 0°900 466 098 615 398 685 314176=c, 
T 


and Kramp’s formula (36) for a difference 7, becomes— 


}—H =er(1 —0-475r — 0182 9167? + 0-201 776 041673 + 0:016 537 5527+ 
— 0°:056 425397° + 0:003727° + etc.) 
= 0:900 466 098 615 398 685 314 1767 — 0-427 721 396 842 314 875572 
—0:164 710 257 205 0667774 0:181 692 485 033674 + 0:014 891 5057° 
— 0050 8097+ 0:0033577 + ete. 


Using the first three terms, and taking = ‘001936 as a first approximation, we 


obtain H’—H= +:001 741 699 03, etc. But 4-H=-001741 94629, and the differ. 
ence of these is }—H’= +°000 000 24726. The value of se" for t=0°476 936 is 
0°898 80814. Hence the correction is “2S — +0000 000275, and the new value 


of p is 0°476 936 + 000 000 275 = 476 936 275; and from this,—taking in the higher 
powers of r,—we readily arrive at the value, correct to the twenty-fourth place of 


decimals, viz. :— 
p= 0:476 936 276 204 469 873 383 506. 


Otherwise, we may form a difference-formula for the computation of this and other 
values of ¢ corresponding to definite values of H. Thus let H be the tabular or com- 
puted value corresponding to ¢, and H’ the value for which ¢ =¢+ At is sone Put 

h=4,/7(H'-H)e“. Then— 


2 3 4 2 5 LRRD 
Fe ieee eaeell were Tes , 960 ns + Tu 4 4800 + 6520+ 1270 (38) 


Using the above value of H for ¢='475, we find h=-001 934 494 025 806 1229, and 
this series becomes— 
At =h(1+°475h +634 16h? +768 510 416A3+ 1-088 151 25h4+1°575 641 961 805h5+ ...), 


and this gives at once the value of p correctly to seventeen figures. When h is very 
small, the first three terms of (38) will usually be sufficient to determine the values of 
t corresponding to H=0°1, 0:2, 0:3, etc., as given below, § 23. 

21. The following table contains the values of the factors dependent on this con- 
stant, p, together with some others used in Probabilities,* with their logarithms, com- 
puted to a degree of accuracy far beyond what can be required. | 


* These constants will be met with, among other places, in Bussex’s Fundamenta Astron., p. 18; and Ueber d. 
Bahn des Olberschen Kometen, in Abh. d. Math. Kl. d. Kénigl. Preuss. Akad., 1812-13, S. 142; Dz MorGan’s Theory of 
Probab., §§ 68, 100, 116, 150, 152, ete. ; Enoxn, in Berl. Ast, Jahrb., 1834, Ss, 270, 293, 298 ; Gauss, Werke, Bd. iv, 8. 
6; Airy, Theory of Lrrors, pp. 23, 24; Potsson, Rech, sur la Probab. des Jugements, p. 176, etc. 


A | 


THE VALUES OF —~ 
a/ a4 


TABLE. 


UES 


Constants. 


Values of Constants, 


‘edt. 
) 


0:476 936 276 204 469 873 383 51 
2:096 716 165 015 061 071 615 78 
0:227 468 211 559 786 375 973 25 
0°674 489 750 196 035 151 103 81 
1690 695 078 790 009 806 981 30 
0°538 164 9d8 101 235 048 729 82 
0:256 670 391 159 638 137 627 19 
1182 945 419 957 695 955 821 42 
0°591 472 709 978 847 977 91071 
0°845 347 539 395 004 903 490 65 
1482 602 218 505 601 860 540 58 
0°577 189 827 811 086 284 473 01 
0:465 553 230 574 244 418 753 06 
0:509 584 182 684 138 078 029 73 
0-497 198 854 778 314 121 494 65 
0°635 508 087 011 832 529 750 44 
0°550 718 574 905 896 772 795 56 
0°512 501 381 805 211 150 143 34 
0:755 776 391 184 821 580 506 05 
0429 497 009 734 013 564 961 27 
1-255 417 531 354 680 356 016 89 
2-225 169 637 943 592 189 588 00 
0:796 547 742 105 315 688 192 06 
0°898 807 877 788 607 267 593 84 
0-961 057 757 039 779 206 215 42 
1084 437 551 419 227 546 611 58 
1:253 314 137 315 500 215 207 88 
0°797 884 560 802 865 355 879 89 
0°564 189 583 547 756 286 948 08 
1128 379 167 095 512 573 896 16 
0886 226 925 452 758 013 649 08 


| 


Logarithms, 


1678 460 356 521 217 913 230 78 
0°321 539 643 478 782 086 769 22 
1356 920 713 042 435 826 461 56 
1828 975 354 353 208 510 837 65 
0°228 065 288 532 266 035 620 15 
1-730 915 415 838 132 181 268 88 
1409 375 772 459 350 094 499 66 
0°072 964 707 131 715 159 593 59 
1-771 934 711 467 733 964 379 85 
1-927 035 292 868 284 840 406 41 
0°171 024 645 646 791 489 162 35 
1761 318 668 636 906 888 955 99 
1667 969 344 657 835 059 623 16 
T'707 215 939 186 776 502 110 25 
1:696 530 119 639 696 588 914 00 
1-803 121 081 439 621 574 379 57 
1-740 929 724 825 367 889 797 00 
1'709 695 040 673 292 901 513 89 
1878 393 321 375 255 934 940 23 
1632 960 144 510 594 970 490 77 
0098 788 189 088 816 702 448 09 
0°347 363 125 435 823 629 623 72 
1°901 211 810 911 183 297 551 91 
1:953 666 870 228 097 565 590 02 
1:982 749 488 407 280 034 830 52 
0035 204 547 724 194 302 868 63 
0098 059 938 515 076 329 568 76 
T:901 940 061 484 923 670 431 24 
1-751 425 063 652 933 072 824 37 
0052 455 059 316 914 268 038 10 
1-947 544 940 683 085 731 961 90 


279 


NN 


280 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


22. In the theory of Errors of Observations, we may state the proportions of 
the different constants for 
‘modulus,’ ‘mean error,’ 


‘error of mean square,’ 
and ‘probable error,’ as 
in the adjoining _ table.* 1 
; In terms of modulus 1 |) 

And: the “ordinary ~rela< -\| -> Ses OF Maen pis Var 
tions of ‘mean’ or average 
error, IN (double the mean In terms of mean error . . Jr if 

risk); weight of an obser- — 
vation, or square of the | In terms of error of mean square | /2_ 2 
number of observations ae 

ae: : fee! il 
divided by twice the sum | fp terms of probable error. | > 
of the squares of the errors, Pe ee . 


W ; modulus, M; the error 
of mean square, 8; and probable error, E,—are expressed by the equations,— 


yaa M 9¢-\ok) aad 
M=A = Sj) ———_ ey 
Ne Sis ja "= 5 
TSM Ag dae=ee ea g_ Va ft. 
=Mo= piJlr= p Tire a Ore Diag JD Jaw’ 


The values of the constants are found in the table above; but for approximati 
that are occasionally useful, the followmg may be given :— 


For ,/7 we may use a= 1772 455, or roughly t 
2 679 SiS whe 7509 399 
for f=» =» gp = 0797 8848, or FeE= 797 895, or gg= 797 817, or Fe 
Dl a 239 3. 99 _ 41-4142 g: i 
HORS gf De” o Z08= 1 414 2156, or T6971 414201, or 70 86; 
Sut — 
rar es oe = 0476 939, or ee 476 9475, or 22 = °476 928; 
29 
forip aya: 5 og = 0674 4898, or = 674497, or 37 "674 465 ; 
71 F 
forpJxr » » ra = 0845 3472, or a = ‘84536, or sa 845 24; 
5 
and for p®, gpg 0227468, or ee — 227488, or 5— “22727; 
296, _ 239 Ee EAS) 6D at 
Whence,— M=7574 = 769» O79 S= 399 & or a agi . 


* Conf, Arry’s Theory of Errors, p. 24; Galloway’s Treat, on Probability, §§ 145-148, pp, 194-197 ; De I 
Essay. p. 139, 


a 


THE VALUES OF — \ ‘edt, 281 
VJ 0 
BG ae ee «= 763... 97. 167 
Gm oat 94 645 > ga = 296 
eel 82 Gal. 7 300 22.8 
ag (Gs = 76397 980° «ODD. TW OS Ww 
ees 70. 851, 94, 298, 169 
ei 90. ro 78 DOL 239 JW 
eee 113 ee ae te e+ 58 5 
eee me 2» 355A 2042 982 ~ o3an2 °° 20R" 


23. Besides p, other values of ¢ corresponding to certain definite values of H may 
oceasionally be required,* and the extent of the table now given will enable us to 
determine them with a high degree of accuracy by simple interpolation +; thus :— 


For H=0:1, ¢=0:088885991 .. log 2:948 832 9230 


..0°186 367 523.0 


0:2, 0:179 143 455 1:253 200 9459 0:375 512 978.p 
0'3, 0:272 462 716 1-435 303 8936 0571 272 788.0 
0-4, 0°370 807 149 1569 148 0986 0°777 377 028. 
05, 0-476 936 276 1:678 460 3565 1:000 000 000.p 
0:6, 0595116079 1-744 601 6843 1:247 789503. 
0-7, 0°732 869 079 1865 026 3985 1:536 618 445.9 
0°8, 0-906 193 802 1-957 221 0875 1-900 031 193.0 
0-9, 1:163 087 153 0:065 612 2587 2438 663635. 
10, 00 co or) 


Construction of the Table. 


24. In both divisions of the general integral the factor e~“ forms a multiplier. 
Assistance in obtaining the values of this factor might have been derived from the 
extensive tables of e~* by Prof. F. W. Newman and Mr GtaisuHer,{ had they been in 
existence when the following table was begun. But the interpolation for values of 
e*, by means of the formula— 


(an irs 
—*xth__ -x fot 
et! = 6 {itt+ tras tote} (40) 


As the factor in the 


function H is the multiple = e-', it is occasionally convenient to find its value 


is somewhat laborious, since / in this case has the form of 2xh+h’. 


logarithmically, and also as part of the computation of the value of the function, the 
former proving a check on the working for the latter.§ In the first part of the 


* Gauss, Bestimm. d. Genawigheit d. Beobacht., §2; Werke, Bd. iv, S. 110. 

+ Or, the difference formula (38), given above, § 20, may be used to find these values. 

{ Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. xiii, (1883), pp. 145-272. 

§ If we compute in succession, as is naturally the easiest method, the terms of the expression— 
Gi(lte- 0-045 45 ue 


Bezmale al ana 
he sum of the Ist, 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc., terms will give the value of see" whilst the sum of the quotients of the 2nd, 
wv 
th, 6th, 8th, ete., terms, divided respectively by 1, 3, 5, 7, etc., will give the value of H. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 9). 2G 


282 


tables the values of this factor are given for every value of ¢, and, at larger intervals 
from ¢=1'25 to t=6°0 (on p. 295). The following values were also computed with 


extreme accuracy :— 


25. The first part of the table contains the values of H from ¢=0 to t=128 


DR JAS. 


BURGESS ON 


1-000 
606 530 659 712 633 423 603 799 534 990 
‘367 879 441 171 442 321 595 523770 161 
"135 335 283 236 612 691 893 999 494 972 
049 787 068 367 863 942 979 342 415 650 
018 315 638 888 734 180 293 718 021 273 
‘006 737 946 999 085 467 096 636 048 423 
‘002478 752 176 666 358 423 045 167 431 
000 911 881 965 554 516 208 003 136 084 
‘000 335 462 627 902 511 838 821 389 126 
‘000 125 409 804 086 679 549 497 636 691 
000 045 399 929 '762 484 851 535 591 516 


1-128 379 167 095 512 573 896 158 903 | 
0:684 396 560 624 433 066 358 50237 | 
0:415 107 497 420 594 703 340 268 249 

0:152 709 514.177 164 314 421 873 367 | 
0-056 178 690 737 057 656 594 924 613 
0-020 666 985 354 092 053 857 068 941 
0-007 602 959 022 761 767 784 966 646 
0-002 796 972 316 542 974 354 763 250 
0-001 028 948 612 781 823 885 494 178 
0-000 378 529 040 664 308 164 933 856 
0-000 139 253 051 946 747 853 890 418 
0-000 051 228 334 931 587 428 772 169 


at intervals of ‘001 to nine places of decimals, together with the first and second 


differences, and the corresponding values of ae 
1862, by using the general series for intervals of ‘02, and interpolating for the in 
mediate values with six or more orders of differences. 
values from t= 1:00 to ¢= 3:00, computed recently, to fifteen decimal figures,—(1) fre 
t=1:000 to ¢=1°500 at intervals of ‘001, and (2) from ¢=1°5 to t=3°0 at inte val: 


‘002, with four orders of differences. In ie last column of this portion of the table 


are given the corresponding values of log 4 
(3) lastly, values of H and G from 3:0 to ‘6 0 are appended,+ computed by means 
Laptace’s fraction (§ 9),—the values of L (16) being preserved. ‘These would enabl 
to extend the general table still farther if required. : 

* The differences of these values have been omitted from want of room on the page. 


out the tables are stated to the nearest figure in the last place, being taken from the computations. 
+ Mr J. W. L. Guatsuer’s table (referred to above, § 4) of the values of G from t=3°00 to 4°50 (Phil. Mag. 


era 


-e- +10, to sixteen decimal places. 


These values were computed 


The second part contains t 


The differences givens thro 


ser., 1871, vol. xlii. p. 436) is computed for differences of 0°01 and to seven significant figures, that is from cles nto 


een decimal places ; the appended table gives the values computed to fifteen places. 


enable us to carry them to a much larger number of figures. 


But the values of L would 


iF ‘i 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 


ae ee 


A 


Ht + 

*000 000 000 
oor 128 379 “asia 
002 256755 372 
003 385 127 365 
004 513.493 Bese ach 
005 641 849 ae 
006 770 194 Ae 
007 898 525 a6 
009 026 841 298 
010155138 Bee Since 
‘oll 283 416 
o12 411 670 ae 
PES 539 90° 203 
014 668 103 =a 
peer? 278 1128142 
017 924 418 ae 
018 052 526 es 
019 180 598 BS 
020 308 632 eae 
021 436 625 ee 
"022 564575 noe 
023 692 480 858 
024 820 337 808 
025 948145 756 
027075 9oI Pe ion 
028 203 603 646 
201331 249 587 
030 458 836 326 
031 586 362 hos 
032 713 825 Fe 53 
033 841 222 Ee 
034 968 552 a 
036 095 812 188 
037 223 000 “ae 
038 350 114 BF an 
039 477 150 
040 604 108 os 
O41 730985 “50 
042 857 778 boa 
ee 4 486 1126620 
O45 III 106 a 
046 237 636 oy 
047 364073 oe 
048 490 416 WG 
049 616 662 

1126147 
*050 742 809 o4e 
051 868 854 eens 
252 994 796 326 
054 120 632 8 
055 246 360 I 125 618 


». t 2 
THE VALUES OF Fa |e Ut 
/rJ 9 


2 


Nig 


| 


i 


| 


Lal 


Lal 


- 


> 


Lal 


Leal 


= 


Ln | 


Zit 
See 


J 


-128 379 167 


378 039 
374 654 
369 o12 
361 113 


"128 350958 


338 546 
323 878 
306 953 
287772 


128 266 335 


242 641 
216 692 
188 487 
158 026 


"128 125 310 


09° 339 
053 126 
O13 631 


"127 971 896 
‘127 927 906 


881 662 
833 164 
782 412 
729 408 


"127674150 


616 641 
556 378 
494 865 
43° 599 


127 364083 


295 316 
224 298 
151 031 
075 514 


‘126 997 749 


917 735 
835 473 
75° 963 
664 207 


"126 575 204 


483 955 
390 461 
294 722 
196 738 


"126 096 511 
“125 994 041 


889 329 
782 374 
673179 


0 


283 
‘dt, (1) FRoM ¢=0 TO t=1'250, 
5 
[to -o99 
ie A ele — 
=— aa | Jr 
056 371 978 ie as. 113 “1125 561 742 | 
43°53 | 
Beene a0 | | | Maes 
ry 8r é sce a 35 | 
rene 4 154 9 213 998 | 
060 873 300 eens 22 093 606 
*061 998 209 eee : 124 || 17124970978 
063 123 242 te 26 846 113 
064 248 024 6 28 719 O12 
065 372679 Be ie 589 677 
066 497 203 Se 33 458 108 
"067 621 594 256 | 35 || 1124324305 
068 745 851 io 37 188 270 
069 869 970 39 050004 
I 123 980 
279 993 950 B38, | 12) * 123 999/506 
072 117 788 Sar eon 44 766 779 
"073 241 483 es 146 || 1°123 621 822 
SS Ses Fee iS Ss 
ee ice: sou : : ; 82 
017 734778 097 | fs 019 722 
{122942 
"078 857 720 785 157 || 1°122 863 633 
pao ees 625 | 59 ese 
Shoe) | as 382 O28 
092 225593 300 ms 3 
083 347 893 en 6 217 050 
084 470 027 168 || 1°122 049 852 
085 591 992 zr22 005 71 || 1121 880 435 
086 713 787 795 73 708 B01 
3 622 
087 835 409 447 | 15 534.949 
088 956 856 reais 77 358 882 
"090 078 126 sen 179 || 1°121 180600 
Og 199 216 1 120.909 ee a ipa 
See Wall | cgeag | 
Ree 5 539 a 3 
94 501 390 1120 351 ° 445 347 
"095 681 740 190 || 1°120 256008 
096 801 gor 109 3 064 460 
397 921 869 ft 119968 As I‘I119 870 706 
099 O41 641 773 7 674746 
99 041 04 576 9 
100 161 217 99 476 581 
I II 
"TOI 280 594 fe 201 |] 1°119 276 213 
see vareozt ae ees 
ee eos) | erase 
105 756064 ieee 10 452 728 
"106 874 411 135 212 || 1°118 241 361 
See reed cel eatysiooe, 
Soe ee 703 i 7 2 
IIo 228 169 484 | 29 5940 
TTT 345653 |; ary 263 | 22 373 942 


284 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


~ 2 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 5, cfae (1) FROM ¢=0 TO ¢=1°250. 


f="100] 
: H A AG 2 -# : H A | A, Bs 
+ - Jr ane Nia 
o'100| "112 462 916 22 : : 2 ; all 
2) 114696 769 B14 28 5 : 6 : S01 Ore 2775 7 cra 
pees ee 6 586 : hs 369 52| 170201 855 2 A4O 26079 
eee 6 356 3 471 409 53] 171 304 295 2103 22717 
9297 ere, 32 6 240 383 54| 172 406 398 1 933 361 | 
0105 | "118 045 836 234 || 1116007 113 Jo'155 | 173 508 161 Ae ‘08 6} 
6] 119 161 725 5892 37 1 660 6 609 58 ee te ee 
Ae ee 5 653 577 : 56| 174609 583 1078 I 250 374 | 
cee 5 414 39 5 534.02 57 175 710 661 0 733 1'080 905 736 | 
9| 122507 966 5173 ; eee See eee 0 385 ° 530m 
oe 3 5 052 220 59| 177911 778 be aeeee 0 210 184 | 
O°0I0| *123 622 896 2 I°114 808 050 |o"160| * "099 4 
rere) ras ez tye [gag [245 | 22488 ose paso] 17901 825 | oy ong | 550) Pa Baaat 
12| 125 852019 4438 | 24 Be 6 ae 9329, 9 500 a7g 
| 13] 126966 207 ee - pone ; Ba eee 8973 3 aa 
pptsd bases 3936 | > a8 ame 3 182 309 798 8 618 8 794 
ee cere. 3809629] 64) 183 408 412 eeghes 8 43477 
sale ee a Ses 3 426 ae I°113 554596 jo'165 | “184 506 667 7 892 1'098 07 
eee ee 2907 | ° So ee A 186 702 086 7 161 
lites cece 2645 | ¢3 2776 493 8} 187 799 247 6 792 
I 112 380 : Seger Oey EE EOS. 1.096 422 
O°120| *134 758 352 267 || 1°112 246 938 Jo'r70| “189 992 461 096 57 
| 21I te 2 
= = plage e aa 69 1978 919 71| 191088510 ae ee 86% 
a eee 309 1573 71 I i 741 72| 192184184 5 297 5 486: 
se eae ae 73 1436405] 73| 193 279 482 4918 5 108 2 
| apes meta ee 7 1161914] 74] 194374400 Kener 4 728 3, 
o ae i oe oe 746 ae ne 270 JO'L75 | "195 468938 4 = 1'094 34! 
| eee eee 0 466 a 0606472] 76| 196563092 3 769 396 
oe lands Ganeee 0184] 5 ae 7 197 656 862 3 382 357 
| ap ode pee noe |< eo ee>al well accone eee, ae. eel eeesn oF 
| ee Gah E0975 283 i 70) 00 B43 2575 ee 279 
(0°L30] *145 867115 288 || 1°109 469 793 Jo'180] *200935 839 oie L'092 40 
31| 146976440 9 325 gI 180 260 81 8 048 ae eo 
ae peat 9 202 028 04 1813 201 
3 4 5475 8742 | 93 8888584] 82] 203 119 861 7aa6 1 61 
33| 149194 21 8447 95 8 594 767 83| 204211 277 ion I 216 
34| 150302 663 Ties ves 97 8 298 812 84| 205 302 294 : yee 0 8162 
(0°135| “151 410 813 s 299 || 1°108 000 719 |o"185 | ‘206 392 909 1°090 4137 
36| 152 Bee = oy 301 7700 492 86| 207 483120 |, o8e Bae ye oh 
| 37 153 626 214 7 246 03 7 398 131 87| 208572927 1'089 602 
| 38) 154733460] O47 | 06 7093638] 88] 209662325| 3339 9 194 388 
| 39| 155840 400 e066 644 08 6 787 016 89| 210751 315 ee : 8 783 735 
i ihe a4 Ay ee 6 323 310 || 1°106 478 265 Jo'190| ‘211 839 892 8 a 414 || 1'088 371 
43| 160265 064 5607 5c : ee ie aS 7 331 a 733m 
aa 5 381 A 5 539 204 93} 215 103 135 6911 | 7° 7 1213 
| 44 370 445 ese I 5 222020 94| 216190047 eee 22 6 700 j 
omg bers 475 507 4742 320 || 1°104 902 657 Jo'195 | ‘217 276 536 oe 424 || 1'086 2 Be 
4 163 580 250 geod 28 4581177 96| 218 362 602 5 640 26 5 85 
3! pe a ry 4.095 25 4257 582 97| 219 448 242 3 213 28 542 
vp ny ed 4 3768 | 27 3.931 874 98 | 220533455 4783 | 3° 499 
92 532 | 103439 | 29 3 604055 99) 221 618 238 1 084351 32 4567 


THE VALUES OF —- etd. 285 


2 ¢ ; 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= sal edt. (1) FROM t=0 TO ¢=1'250, 


0 


Ae Za A A» eee 
HB : = Wa ‘ - + - | vm 
aT c ; . ‘060 014 129 
0°200 | *222 702 589 434|| 1°084 134 787 \o'250| '276 326 390 1059749 530 | To 
Bf aes faesor PES /"36)  grpets8 Gr] 21786189 "52209 | "Se rogp 5 ts 
By 224869989) 304, | 3° SICA | naira eee 8083: |. 36 8415 774 
3] 225953933| 260, | 4° aoe Ecce: eg eet 37 7879 294 
e593" |, 082164 | ee cosy 6z0 
0°205 | *228 117 801 see, eae: 1081 941 635 hee bee ae it 7 O71 oe : a ee ae 
6 229199 520 1274 46 1497 Ae 5 a 7 8 6 530 43 6258 807 
ert) 0826) 4 eo ck cela 59°7 | asi) s7ta974 
eet) 0377 | 5° Breas | 2o| 28sd40e0 |. 328 47 5 169 310 
88 | coos | >? Ee EN ea tac ener ne 
o'210| *233 521 923 3 Age bea er 698 934 fo a ae 899 723 4347 sp : Fee ae eee 
Re) 2559) 2 geo eee| 6s! sonce. SGe2 | 54|) 2.968.475 
13| 236758970 8100 | 29 ee 3 A Mascari gas 2691 56 2413 647 
14| 237837070 Be Ga8 61 7 009 317 64| 291 113 804 FEE ORG 
re rrzs | 403] 7077 407 070 Jor265 | °292 165939 |, sng 2 pe 
16] 239 991 883 onne | E ey 74 66) 293 ara I 019 oe 0738 487 
17| 241068 593 6 243 67 6 476 532 67) 2942 a 0458 | « BTS AOE 
18| 242 144 836 5773 69 6 008 367 68] 295 31 a I 049 895 ee 11049 612 699 
19| 243 220609 (fi 5 538 254 69| 296 36888 1 049 330 5 9 
p99? 1°075 066 196 fo'270| *297 418 21 566 || 1'049 047 110 
0°220] °244 295 912 4829 | 473 75 9 7 Agee a. 8 764 | ¢o oaaree 
21} 245379741 4354| 29 Sear na ig gk eae 8195 70 7910559 
meee 4t5 095) = 85, | 77 eed reece een | = nee 72 7 339 603 
33) 247518973) 3399 | 79 Mele oo ecco |, O58 4, 6 766 865 
| 24} 248592 371 ae 81 3158573] 74] 30160985 wenGeBe 
0225 | 249665 289| a BH) 1072 010:853))0°275 (307 6553361) oo, al * 616 a 
26 250 737724 19st 85 2193 165 76 303 702 aoe 5 327 “6 5 037 989 
27| 251 809675 1464 87 1707 571 HO SOT ALS y 4748 | gf BASS rsd 
28) 252 881 139 0975 a BA20 O55) 178 eee 4168 | 9, 3876 se 
29| 253952114 go Be xe 299) 5°0 830483 1 043 585 
1070 485 1'070 239 267 |o"280| °307 880 068 584 || 1043 293 188 
0°230 | °255 022600 || 069 993 | 497 eee 8 8 3 8 6 SCE 286 2708 065 
31| 256092 592 Gieg:| 22 || * 069 746 oot Bien ope ee ZEON | 6g 2 121 186 
Ba} 257 162 091 ee 96 9 250 823 82) 309 965 484 1 827 go 1532 554 
es] 8504] 2°, 5753737) 83| srroo7 gir) 23g | 9° 0942172 
9 799598 | 300, [5° BAP ASE CAB SARs cg | 
9'235 | -260 367 602 cee 502 || 1°067 753 851 fo'285 | °313 089 oe 0053 593 a es 
36| 261 435 105 5306 | Se LOSS (ROH ee es bi 1 039 459 o 9 160 564 
37| 262 502 104 ae 06 6 746 367 87 35 I ie 3 865 ss eects 
38| 263 568 597 ge | 08 6 239 783 | 88] 316207 i 8 264 Bae oan ae 
39| 264.634 583 59 09 5731308} 89) 317 245 832 1037 664 
. ; a285 476 1°065 220 lo°290| *318 283 496 602 | 1°037 363 333 
240 | °265 700059 4.965 511 5 945 9 3 7 062 03 6 760 800 
4t| 266 765 024 aaiMe) 4708 697 QI} 31922055 6459] 5 6156 545 
42| 267 829 476 oe) 15 Bae aetO7|)13 293.3 HOLT 5 854 i 550 O71 
43| 268 893 412 Se aff 3078557 | > 93\| 321 392871 ei As re 881 
44| 269956 832 ee ’ 19 3 160672 94| 322428117 1034 638 9 
1 062 90 
"245 | °271 019 733 i 521 || 1°062 640 914 fo'295 | 323 sae 756 4028 es ; ea ee 
46] 272082113 = 3 | 23 2 119 285 96| 324496 784 3 416 : 3 109 553 
47| 273143971 ae 24 1595 789 97 ome S 200 Pata - pines 
48] 274 205 304 ac, 26 1070429] 98] 326563 ee 2187 17 | 1 878 820 
49| 275 266 111 mobouiG 28 0543208} 99) 327595159 |, 431 «70 | 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


Wa | “Pat, 
0 


286 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= (1) FROM #=o TO ¢=1'250, 


#='300] 
| ee ee ea | Fait A 
t H a | is | ge | t H re 
o*300| « fae "031 260 10 oh 0 *379 382054 
i re = Ae fee Lego" es ae 641 a ee 380 379 988 997 ae 700 
2| 330688 042 0337 | oe 0020019 52| 381 377 221 fe 
3| 331 717750 |* 979 78? | 24] 1029397045 | 53) 382373783) 385 
4] 332746835 | 2° 9 | 25 Saso° | aa a8s soos a 
2 
0°305 | °333.775 294 porere 627 || 17028 146.059 ]0°355 | “384 364 706 418 
6| 334803127| 783? | 29 7518054] 56| 385359123) 3000 
il 385 83092) 9c ce> | iae 6888378 | 57| 386352833) 370 
8| 336856903|  °573 | 32 6257036] 58] 387345834] 300° 
9| 337882843| 5947 | 34 Bs || cE 
° 
0°310| "338 908 150 Sg ueae 635 || 17024 989 396 |o°360| °389 329 701 a6 
11| 339932822| 4°77 | 37 4353045| 61) 390320565| © ae 
12} 340956856] 209% | api | gyz5o72 | (62 gorgroyag:| oaue 
13| 341980251] 3323 | go} 3.075 450 Sa oa aca as 
Q 
ae AR GCC CGO om eee 2 434 182 4| 3932 ona 
0°315| "344025 119 1469 | 044 | P02" ae fee "394 oe 855 42474 
6 046 588 4 I 146 727 395 264 12 
rn gubcos anol) | ee4 gel) emer noens Ie asoeeant fee 
18] 347087 589 |, 15 548 | 49| t0x9 852733 | 68) 397236507| 392 
19| 348107117 1018 878 50 9 203 294 69] 398 221 609 sauce 
ere | geevancer | 022° | aN tpcegeed te ieee a ey ee 
aziger t6ryeg) 22!) | ae 7245249| 72| 401172549] 2 996 
23| 352078711) 267 | 57] © 589338] 73] 402154735] tye, 
24| 353194971 fone: 538 5931 817 74| 403 136189 Seca 
: c 66 q 6 : ‘404 116 90 
seg) Setcigee| aoe [Ger[ aeraaealta | eesseney oe 
a7\ 356 220707 || ene |B 3949638 | 77) 406076143] 3 °0, 
28| 357259475 || 2. || 65 3285719 | 78| 407054653 | 8 
2 8 266 368 2953 | 66 2 620 209 79| 408 032 424 
ogee e I O12 287 977 030 
0°330| °359 278655 668 || r'o11 953 112 |o"380]| 409 009 453 6 288 
31| 360290274 ae)? 69 1 284 432 81} 409 985 741 5 544 
32| 361 301 223 es 71 0 614173 82] 410961 285 4799 
33| 362311502 || . Al 73 || 17009 942337} 83] 411936084 4.053 
34| 363321 107 eoeaee 74 9 268 931 84| 412910136 wean 
0°335 | 364 330039 6 676 || 1'008 593 955 |0°385 | ‘413 883 441 pieiee 
36| 365 338 295 oe 77 7917410} 86) 414855 997 ree 
37| 366345873) G82, | 79] 7239316 | 87) 415827802] 108 
38] 367352773 | 219 | 80], 6559659] 88] 416798855] $028 
39| 368358 992 obo an 82 5878448] 89] 417769155 Senbae 
0°340| *369 364 529 684 || 1'005 195 689 Jo*390| 418 738 700 878 
41) 370369 383| 4°54) gs) 411383) 91| 419 707 489 Se 
ge) STE STgNS21) oe | 87 3825536] 92| 420675521| 038 
43) 372377034| 3700 | 88 3138151] 93] 421642795] 6 518 
44| 373379 827 pape go 2449232] 94] 422 609 308 names 
0°345 | “374 381 932 691} roor 758 782 Jo-395 | "423 575 060 8 
46| 375 383 344 mats 93 I 066 806 96] 424540050 a pe 
47| 376384005] O7°¢ | 94], 0373307] 97| 425504275] 4200 
48) 377384091 | 35 oe 96 || 0°999 678 289] 98| 426 467 736 ; Pay 
49| 378 383 421 998633 | 97 Bosr756 | 99) 427439420) 6s oag 


rr tone 


eae t 2 
THE VALUES OF —- | edt. 287 
2 to 6 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= a fe dt. (1) FROM ¢=0 TO ¢=1°'250, 
t= 400] [499 
A A, ZED 7AN AVA 2 L 
ae = 
0°400 | *428 392 355 769 || 0°961 541 299 Jo'450) “475 481 720 829 |] 0°921 532013 
1] 429353 512 eas 71 0771413] 51] 476 402837 | 972 287 | 30 0 702 087 
2| 430313 897 959614 | 2? OSA) a ila CR Sa aie aa 32 || 0°919 871 068 
3] 431273512 | 9°33,7 | 73| 0°959227734| 53] 478242579 | 973455 | 33 9 038 961 
ee 99735? | os o6y 74 8453949] 54| 479161 201 aueeen oo 8 205 771 
0°405 | “433 190419 rea 776 || 0°957 678 873 Jo'455 | °480078 990 6 me 835 || 0°917 371 501 
6} 434147710 bea |e 6go2511} 56) 480995 944 63118 | 36 6 536 156 
7| 435 104224 26 78 6124865] 357] 481912062 Ap al) eI 5 699 740 
8| 436059959 ac 80 | 5345941 | 58) 482827 343 2 38 4 862 258 
eS ls 81 4505742] 59| 483741786 | ane) 39 4023714 
or410| 437969 090 | 782 || 0°953 784.273 |o°460| “484655 390| 7 > sa 840 || 0-913 184 112 
Ir] 438922 483| 3393 | 83 3001537| 61) 485568154; 7 4) at 2 343 457 
12} 439875093 1826 85 2217540] 62! 486480077 See 42 I 501 752 
13| 440826918 a 86 | 1432284] 63) 487391157 Bs 43 0 659 003 
14| 441 777957 is of, 87 0645775 64| 488 301 394 F 37 44 || 0°909 815 213 
0°415| 442 728 209 y 6 788 || 0°949 858 016 [0465 | ‘489 210 787 2 ; = 845 || 0°908 970 387 
16| 443677 673 Tes 7 || 90" go6go12 4 66) 490119 335 ae 46 8 124 530 
17| 444626 347 pee | 2 8278767] 67| 491027036; 220) | a7 7277 645 
18) 445574230, 703 | 92 7487 284| 68] 491933890| ¢o°4| 48 6 429 737 
| 446521321 | 7°?) | 93 6694569] 69] 492839 895 * | 49 5 580 810 
2 Os I 
0°420| °447 467 618 a : 795 || 0°945 900 626 Jo°470] *493 745 051 oe. : 850 || 0'904 730 869 
2x] 448413122| 22°3 | 96 5105 458| 71. 494649356) 4305 | sr 3.879 917 
22) 449357829 one 97 4 309 069 72| 495552810 eee 52 3 027 960 
Rts0301739| 22. | 98 arr 46s | 73) 40G4e54r2 | 4g | 53 2175002 
24| 451244 851 ie 99 2712649 74| 497357 160 fo) 54 I 321 047 
942 313 i goo 894 
0°425) 452 187 164 Bes, 801 || 0°941 912 626 Jo°475 | *498 258 054 S28 855 || 0900 466 099 
26| 453128676 5 a 02 T1I1399| 76] 499158092 | 2 Bee 56 || 0°899 610 162 
27| 454069387 | .,0 45. | 03], 9308974] 77) 500057 274) 98204 | 57 8 753 242 
28) 455009 294 oz | C4|| °939 505353} 78] 500955 598 Go) oo 7895 343 
29) 455948397| 9 3 | 05|| = 8700542] 79] 501853064] | 7 59|| 7036 468 
939 383 : 896 607 ; 
0°430| “456 886 695 807 || 0'937 894 544 Jo'480| 502 749 671 6 | 860 || 0°896 176 622 
31| 457 824 186 Loe 08 7087 365 81] 503 645 417 as 61 5 315 810 
32| 458 760 869 8 3 09 6 279 007 82] 504540 302 ee 62 4.454036 
33| 459696 743| 2°24) rol 5469476] 83| 505 434325 Ee | 63 3592304 
34| 460631807; °F) xx 4658775 | 84] 506327484| , 64 2727 619 
22 
0°435| 461566 o60 ug 812 || 0°933 846 g10 [0°485 | *507 219 780 B = 865 || o'891 862 985 
36| 462 499 501 sos. 14 3 033 883 86| 508111 210 5 2 66 0997 406 
37| 463 432 128 re 15 2 219 700 87| 509001 774 88 2 4 67 0 130 888 
38| 464 363 940 ; a7 16 I 404 365 88} 509 891 471 Bene 68 || 0°889 263 433 
39| 465294036) 99” | x7| 0 58788r] 89) Sr0780gor| | 69] © 8 395 047 
lot - 

0°440 | °466 225115 a i 818 || 0°929 770 254 jo'490] *511 668 261 - , | 87° 0°887 525 734 
41| 467154476 | 9 29 | 9 8951487] 91] 512555352 Biggs 71 6 655 498 
42| 468 083 018 542 | 30 8131585 92| 513441572 g | 72 5 784 344 
43| 469010739 | 27?) | oe 7310552] 93| 514326920, 3% | 73] 4912276 
44| 469937 639 56 Ns 23 6 488392] 94] 515 211 396 a Be 73 4.039 298 
9°445 | “470 863 715 1 824 || 0°925 665 110 Jo'495 | 516094 999 ; 93 | 874 0°883 165 416 
46} 471 788 968 Boe 25 4 840 709 96| 516977727 ei 75 2 290632 
47| 472713 396 eee 26 40151951 97| 517859580 3 53 | 76 I 414952 
Bey 473 836908) 3 oe | a7 3188572] 98] 518740556) 2977 | 77 jee 
49 Be 559 773 921 947 28 2360843} 99] 519620656 879 222 78 || 0°879 660 921 


288 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


2 ft 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= Fe | edt. (1) FROM ¢=0 TO ¢=1250, 
0 


t= 500] 
A A, 2 a | | A 
t H yo a ae zt H a 
“290 | “52 879 || 0878 782 579 forsso| *563 323 366 
PSor| ger g78-aer | 878585 1°40) ° 7 Gos ga8T osr| goats 744 | 833378 
o2| 522255 684 7463 | g, 7 023 262 52| 564989 204 he : 
03} 523132 267 6583 81 6 142 296 53| 565 820746 aoe 
04| 524007 969 . 5 a 82 5.260 465 54| 566 651 368 Bones 
I 
o'505| *524.882788| : 883 || 0°874 377773 Jo'555 | 567 481 07% 8 782 
06| 525756724| 393° | 841 3494224] 56] 568 309 853 ie 
07| 526629 776 395? 85 2 609 822 57| 569137 714 Z 
08| 527501943| 7207 | 86] xr724572| §8| 369904653| 2939 
09] 528373225] 4° 282 | 87|/ 0838479 | 59| 570790670 ees 
0°510| 529 243 620 ee 887 || 0°869 951 547 Jo'560| ‘571 615 764 a 
Ir] 530113128 288) 310 83 9 063 779 61] 572439934 oe7 3 
12| 530981 747 eee 89 8175 182 62| 573 263 180 : efi 
13] 531849478] {435 | 90 7285758] 63) 574085502] 73° 
14| 532716 318 RoE Oee gt 6395513] 64] 574906 898 Broun 
; ; 82 268 891 || 0°865 504 450 Jo'565 | 575 727 367 
18] 334447327 | 5°52] g2] 4012975 | 60) $76 546921 ere 
17] 535311493| 420°] 93|| 3719802] 67| 577365 527 ae 
18} 536174 767 ee 94 2 826 404 ee 78 183 215 bea 
19| 537037146 861 485 95 1932117 9; 578999975 Erp Bee 
0°520| °537 898 630 895 || 0°861 037 034 [0°570| 579 815 806 ee 
21} 538759220 8 oe 96 0141 161 71| 580630 708 eis 
22| 539618913 | “92°93 | 97|| 0859 244502| 72] 581444679 woe 
23| 540477 708 : a 98 8347060) 7a) 584257 720 a 
24] 541 335 606 Seana: 99 7448841] 74] 583 069 829 Sra 298 
0°525 | °542 192 606 899 || 0°856 549 849 Jo'575| *583 881 007 raed 
6 048 706 Gz0° goo 5 650088 76| 584 691 253 45 
2 ne pozge6|| 52°? | axl? | ayaniceall ay eseacegts 809 313 
a8 | 544.758205|. 2 °2? | o2 3848277| 78) 586308944) 7 378 
29| 545 611 602 A ie 02 2 946 236 79| 587116390 ay 
5 6 46 0°8520 0°580| 587 922 900 
F ot ae ae 68 a2 a 3 ie ee: 8, 238 728 476 5 ae 
2| 548 166 376 8 eee 05 © 235 625 82| 589533 116 ore 
33| 549016 160 ot 3 05 || 0°849 330 606 83} 590336 821 2 768 
549 865 037 i | \e6 8424853] 84] 591139 588 
a 847 972 801 831 
0535) 590725: 009 907 || 0°847 518 372 Jo'585 | 591 941 419 os 
36| 551560074 yes 08 6 611 165 86} 592742 311 93 
37| 552406231 | 0757 | o81 5 703239| 77| 593542266 | 799955 
38| 553251480] 5749 | o9|| 4794596] 78] 594341 283| 3° 
39| 554095820] , 754° | rol] 3885242] 79] 595 139 360 an Ae 
fe} - 
0°540| °554.939 250 ges 910 |] 0°842975 18% Jo'590| 595936497) ¢, 
qepasssye1770| 2 2-4) as 2064417] 91| 596 732 695 see 
42| 556623379| %009| xe 2152955), 92| 597527052 || Par 
43| 557464076] 9 ee 13 0240799] 93) 598322268| 13.7 
44| 558303 860 i Biya | 75] ° Rass 2h ose eaale20 "54a me 
0°545| °559 142 732 914 || 0°838 414 423 ]o'595| °599 908074 abe 
46| 559 980689 7957 15 7 500 212 96| 600699 564 a Ae 
47| 300817 7ga) 2°43 | a5 ©585 524] 97) Gor4perrx | ange 
48| 561 653 859 pal a0 5669765 | 98| 602279715 3 660 
49| 562489071 | 9 320° | x7|| 4753538] 99] 603068375] 3. 78 


t="600] 


isl 


4642 862 
5 428 688 
6 213 568 
6997 502 
607 780 490 
8 562 531 
9 343 625 
"610 123 771 
0 902 969 


611 681 219 
2458520 
3 234 871 
4010273 
4784 724 
615 558 226 
6 330776 
7 102 375 
7873 023 
8 642 718 


619 411 462 
620179 253 
© 946.090 
1711975 
2 476 906 
623 240 882 
4 003 904 
4765972 
5 527 085 
6 287 242 


"627 046 443 
7 804 689 
8 561 978 
9 318 311 
630073 686 
‘630 828 105 
1 581 566 
2 334 069 
3.085 614 
3 836 201 


634 585 829 
5 334 498 
6 082 208 
6 828 959 
7574750 
638 319 581 
9 063 452 
9 806 362 
"640 548 311 
I 289 300 


603 856 091 


THE VALUES OF —[‘e-*dt ; 
val. ; 289 
¢ 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= ae | edt, (1) FROM ¢=o TO ¢=1250. 
0 
[to 699 
A Aes 2 -e A ANS 2) 
— t 2 pee: 
+ = Vr H + | Jr 
| 0°787 243 Bene oarer 2 6 : 676 
Boren, | oto || fod 243.43 Doin O42 0201327 901 || 0°739 546 763 
7 5 ee 45 6 298 520 51 | 2 768 393 - ae 62 8585 239 
A880 46 5 353172 52 | 3.506 498 oa 62 7 623 489 
Anan 46 4 407 391 53 4 243 640 6 “eo 62 6 661 518 
782 988 46 3461 182 54 4979 821 aun 62 | 5 699 330 
er) 22 14 5500655): 645715 039 4 256 |903|| 0734 736 930 
“otal eee 1567499| 56 6 449 295 ae 63 3774 321 
bh 6 48 ° 620032 57 7 182 587 ee 63 2 811 507 
779 198 48 || 0779672155 58 7914917 a 63 1 848 494 
oe 48 8 723 871 59 8 646 284 Pa as 63 0 885 284 
ee > 42175 B85 0060) 049376 688 729 ago | 993|| 0°729 921 88a 
se 49 6 826 tor 61 | *650 106 128 pace 64 8 958 291 
eves 5° 5 876 623 62 0 834 604 ae 64 7 994517 
ee 50 4926 756 63 I 562117 ar 64 7 030 563 
Be ion 50 3.976 504 64 2 288 666 Be a 64 6 066 433 
2 EEO .951 || 0°773 025 871 jo°665 | 653 014 250 ie 964 || 0°725 102 132 
nae 51 2074 862 66 3 738 870 3 655 65 4137 663 
a8 52 I 123 480 67 4 462 525 rte 65 | BS Ox 
y6g606 52 OI71I 731 68 5 185 216 ae 65 2 208 239 
F684 52 || 0°769 219 617 69 5 906 942 peers 65 I 243 292 
#7191 953 || 0°768 267 144 {0°670| 656 627 702 719 706 965 || 0°720 278 193 
6838 | 53 7314316] 71 7 347 498 Bae Wo > oenz Ong 
5 884 53 6 361 137 72 8 066 328 7 865 65 8 347 558 
Roan | 54 § 407611} 73 8 784 193 Gleap 66 7 382 030 
ee 54 4453742] 74} 9501092 dates 66 6 416 367 
Bloza | 954 0°763 499 536 Jo'675 | "660 217 026 Wig6s, 200 Ss Ascaris 
ees | 52 2544995| 76} 0931993 ep °° 4 484 652 
7 ane 55 I 590125 77 1 645 995 Fone 66 3 518 608 
o1s7 | 55 0634928} 78 2.359 030 B 069 66 2552445 
Piste 56 || 0°759 679 411 79 3071 100 ees 66 1 586 167 
ae 956 || 0°758 723 576 |o'680| 663 782 203 onee 966 || 0'710 619 778 
7 289 56 7767429] 81 N92 339) os oto 67 | 07709 653 283 
6 333 57 6 810973 82 5 201 509 820% 67 8 686 684 
53376 | 37 5854212] 83 5 9°9 713 ae 67 7719 987 
pets 57 4897151] 84/ 6616949 es 67 6 753 195 
Pyro a2 2 838.939 794 [0085 °687'323 279 see [OSU es 2 
Bee 58 2982 146 86 8 028 522 336 67 4 819 341 
Bea 58 2 024 209 87 8 732 858 E60 67 3 852 288 
0587 58 1 065 989 88 9 436 226 See 67 2885 157 
eaais 59 0107 490 89 | 670138628 ean 67 1917950 
8 669 959 || 0°749 148 716 fo’690| '670 840 062 BG 967 || 0°700 950672 
y710 | 59 ee ae e229 | Gagaa | 071 || 0°99 993. 327 
6751 | 39 7239359] 92) 2240029 Be32 | oF 9 015 919 
; 60 6270785 93 2938 561 6 67 8 048 453 
579 60 10952 636 126 75°5 | 68 7 080 930 
744.831 5 31995 94 33 Gale, 
oo?) 144350905) 10'695 674332 723 5 630 968 | 0°696 113 357 
2910 60 3 390 528 96 5 028 352 bbe 68 5 145 737 
r9s0 | 2 2429945] 97 5 723 014 3 694 68 4178073 
0 989 61 I 469 121 98 6 416 709 2727 68 3 210370 
| 740027 61 0 508 059 99 7 109 435 | 691759 68 2 242 631 
2: a 


290 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 2- 


7="7oo] 
| 
t | H 
0°700 | 677 801 194 
or 8 491 985 
02 9 181 808 
03 9 870 663 
04| 680558 551 
0°705| ‘681 245 470 
06 I 931 422 
o7 2 616 406 
08 3 300 422 
09/ 3983470 
0°710| *684 665 550 
II 5 346 663 
12 6 026 807 
13| 6705 984 
14 7 384 193 
0°715 | *688 061 434 
16 8 737797 
17] 9 413 012 
18] *690 087 350 
1g 0 760 721 
0°720| ‘691 433 123 
21 2104558 
DE 2775026 
23 3 444 526 
24 4113058 
0°725| ‘694 780624 
26 5447 222 
27 6 112 853 
28 6777516 
29 7 441 213 
0°730| -698 103 943 
31 8 765 706 
32 9 426 502 
33 | *700 086 331 
34 © 745 194 
0°735]| *7OI 403 090 
36 2 060 020 
37 2715 984 
38 3370981 
39 4025 012 
0°740] *704678078 
41 5 339177 
42 5 981 311 
43 6 631 480 
44 7 280 683 
0°745 | *707 928 920 
40} 8576193 
47 9 222 500 
48| 9 867843 
49| 710512220 


A 
+ 


690 791 
689 823 
8 855 
7887 
686 g20 


5 952 
4984 
4016 
3.048 
682 080 
Tir 
Oo 144 
679177 
8 209 
677 241 
6 273 
5 306 
4 338 
eis? 
672 403 


1435 


0 468 
669 500 
8 533 
667 565 
6 598 
5 631 
4 064 
3.697 
662 730 
1 763 
° 796 
659 829 
8 863 
657 896 
6 930 
5 964 
4997 
4031 
653 065 
2 100 
1134 
0 168 
649 203 
648 238 
7 272 
6 307 
5 343 
4378 
643 413 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


Ja 
A, 2 | 
ae 
a5 TE t | H 
—= | =— = Se 
968 || 0°691 274 860 [0'750| "711 155 634 
68 © 307 062 51 I 798 083 
68 || 0°689 339241 | 52) 2439567 
68 8 371 399 53 3 080 088 
68 7403542] 54) 3719645 
968 || 0°686 435 672 [0°755 | *714 358 237 
68 5467794] 56| 4995867 
68 4499912} 57) 5632533 
68 3 532 030 58 6 268 236 
68 2564151 59 6 902 976 
968 || 0681 596 279 \o"760 | *717 536 753 
68 0628 419 61 8 169 567 
68 || 0°679 660 573 62 8 801 419 
68 8692747] 63| 9432309 
68 7724943] 64| °720062 237 
968 || 0°676 757 166 {0°765 | °720 6gr 203 
68 5 789 419 66 I 319 208 
68 4 821 706 67 1.946 251 
68 3854031] 68) 2572333 
68 2886398} 69| 3197454 
968 || 0°671 918 811 [0°770| *723 821 614 
68 0951274) 71) 4444814 
67 | 0°669 983 789} 72) 50967053 
67 9016362} 73) 50688333 
67 8048995] 74) 6308653 
967 | 0°667 081 693 [0°775 | “726.928 013 
67 6114459] 76 7546 414 
67 5147298] 77| 8163857 
67 4180 212 78 8 780 340 
67 32132067 79] 9395865 
966 || 0°662 246 284 [o°780| *730010 431 
67 I 279 448 81 0 624 040 
67 0 312 704 82 I 230 691 
67 | 0°659 346054] 83 1 $48 384 
67 8379503} 84) 2459121 
966 | 0°657 413 053 [0°785 | *733 008 goo 
66 6446709} 86] 3677723 
66 5480475] 87) 4285589 
66 4514354 88 4 892 500 
66 3548350] 89} 5498455 
966 || 0°652 582 466 Jo"790| *736 103 454 
66 1616 707 gt 6 707 498 
66 0651076 g2 73105587 
65| 07649685576] 93) 7912722 
65 8720 2T1 94 8 513 903 
965 || 0647 754 986 Jo'795 | 739 114129 
65 6789903 | 96| 9713402 
65 5 824 966 97| °740 311 722 
65 4 860 179 98 0999 089 
65])/ 3895546] 99] 1505 503 


i, edt. (1) FRoM ¢=o TO 
0 


A 
ee 


642 449 
1485 
0521 


-639 557 


638 593 
7 629 
6 666 
5 793 
474° 

633777 
2814 
1 852 
o 890 

629 928 

628 966 
8 004 
7°43 
6 082 
5 ten 

624 160 
3 200 
2240 
1 280 
© 320 

619 360 
8 401 
7442 
6 483 
5525 

614 567 
3 609 
2651 
I 693 
0 736 

609 779 
8 823 
7 867 
6910 
5955 

604.999 
4044 
3 089 
2135 
I 181 

600 227 


599 273 
320 
7367 
6414 
595 462 


t= 1'250, 
[to -7 99 
A, ee | 
= Jr q | 
964 | 0°642 931 069 | 
64 1 966 754 | 
64 1 002 602 | 
64 0038 619 | 
64 || 0°639 074 807 
964 0°638 1IL 171 
63 7147) 
6 184 
5 221 
4258 44 
0°633 295 740 
2 333 229 
137091 al 
0 408 81 
0°629 446 giz 
0°628 485 223 


7523 
6 562 492 
5 Gor 456 
4640 64 
0°623 680 063 
2 719 712 
I 759 5S 
27997 
0°619 840 of 
0°618 880 6: 
792155 
6 962 66 
6 004 ¢ 
0°614 087 55 


THE VALUES OF — | ‘ef | 
Tah of dt. 291 
2 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= yo ha (1) FROM t=0 To ¢=1-250. 
 £="800] : d 
_ Zs [899 
A A 2 
H 2 pee A A 
4 ay Jr t H | he ae gat 
Bicas| - Pee ta | | 
o 695 ie oe a : 2H Bee r io BroeS Se 547.404 |93%|| 0547 869 717 
ES oi0 355 Rae! 31 6 93858 
Sees] 285] | Settee] | 27asg] gas | Se] Scer9g 
aya 206 1 656 2 313 2 53 2 307 478 Gia lass 5077 789 
Re 590 708 180 57 54 2852091 Bees, 29 || 0544 148 135 
3064 001 . i 
5 653 756 589 755 ee 528, es ons Pree iss ha as 2755 929 || 0°543 218 980 
6 242561 25 393° 529 8 28 2 290 327 
| 7850 | & 8530295 | 57] 4480355 ce 28 = AGB eae 
7 417 323 6 906 is ae ee 58 5 021 253 ae 27 0 434.538 
* a 585 958 431 881 59 5 5601 224 fied 27 || 0°539 507 408 | 
03 281 . : 
73 588 290 ae 43 ‘ 7 = : ce a 638 586 B 118 O20) Peee ge ® Gee 
4061 91 I 38 386 26 646 
9172 35! 48 3 586 986 Ge 7192 7 054 O91 
2 Burrs 9 7175578 25 6729 110 
Meee | eee | go] aud 6207 | 25] 5 804050 
aa PaeanD 47 I 692 243 64 8 247 186 5 34 24 4.879 515 
*750 91 . : : 534417 
st 708) 27 S288 PES) TI Tee Cot | 5 ane [P54 | 993 258 508 
Pesun6 | 3/9 32 4 OSH Soir) 23 3 032 030 
. 646 on 8 380 a 8852975] 67 9 847 668 ; we 23 2 109 386 
3234 261 7435 eee 324} 68) *780 379 316 beg 22 1 186 677 
: 576 490 45 962 064 69 0910 041 : : 22 0 264 806 
aif 10751 : 2 : 29 804 
386 on 5 545 oe oe a aes 781 439 845 8 883 921 || 0°529 343 477 
4.960 806 Gp oN 44 86 : ae 729 7963 21 8 422 692 
3 657 A259, 72 2 496 691 20 7502 454 
Beers) 2713) 43, 3384904) 73| 3023 734 7043 | ql 6 382 764 
= ae 2241736] 74| 3549857 eects, 19 5 663 627 
“ais 3e4 0 828 | 943|| 07571 298 886 fo-875 *784.075 O61 - 918 || 0°524 745 045 
Sto 7se | 569885 Palces: 356450] 76| 4599347 fee | 1 eee. 
8 388 693 8 944 i ~ eae i 9 1247173 ier <4) 2.909 556 
8.956 696 8 002 : 472 828 78 5 645 166 : 17 1.992 655 
567.061 | * 7531649] 79| 6166701 Peale 1076 319 
2 2 " 20 01 
RLS 2 aloe sa oeed 8 [786087 319 oe 703 |915 | 0°520 160 551 
ee | | feces) ss| taesar0| 73% | 15] 519245 355 
12192 aaa Geli! 1A 8 330 732 
cae 299 ean 3° 3771 212| 83 8 243 684 ee 14 7 416 685 
‘ : 562 363 39 2 832 188 84 8 760 644 on 13 6 503 217 
“762 : ‘ 160 
eck 388 | 1424 BD lpcces os ors | 285) 789 270 be ; 5 . 913 || 0515 590 330 
3,466 875 0 487 3 0955 465 86 9791 825 ee 12 4678028 
Bea, | 589549 | ol cece 080 .n6 87 | “790 306.047 aan || oe 3 766 312 
4.585 036 83 612 37 0°559 080 526 83 0 819 357 ie II 2 855 186 
76 | | dara | 
142 oh os 
Segara] Gran [036] 557207391 0] 192 sz47| a so [one] osnc ose 
Gece> 5 804 u or 2 353 927 6 09 0125 369 
oe i 4.869 35 5 336 100 92 2 863 498 Pe ae 08 || 0°509 216 626 
Pesos, 3934 | 39 4401147] 93] 3372260 78 3] 08 8 308 485 
6 553000 | °4 3466661} 94) 3880115 506 55 | 07 7 400 949 
eer 9% ; : 06 94 
$454 ou > 066 |934|| 0°552 532 644 Jo°895 | “794 387 062 ee, 907 || 0°506 494 020 
Bozo ees 1133 | 33 I599101 | 96) 4893103 5 135 06 5 587 701 
9570455 o200 | 33|/ _ 0666034] 97 5 398 238 ADDS 05 4681 994 
‘770119 722 | 549 267 Ha ° =) 733446] 98 5 902 467 Baas | o5 3.776.903 
ZZ 548 335 | 3 Sor 339 99 OOS 502 420 ae 2 ienee 


enn pertain) 


292 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


2 ¢ 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= =i edt, (1) FRoM ¢=o TO 
0 


f= "g00] 
A Aa) ieee A 
t H = | ate t H ff 
Reaie Semel. 9 : 68 ‘950 ‘820 8. fe) 80 
2) assets | gor an PR | SSRLRRSEE Hee] Se tae tr ad 
02 7910343 pam o2 | 0 162 736 52 1 804 308 sue 
03 8 410055 ee 02 || 0°499 260 756 53 2259 756 4581 
| 04! 8.908 865 5, | OF Saso407] 34) 2784336] oO 
10-995 | *799 406 774 sgl goo | 0°497 458 689 Jo'955 | 823 168 050 8.48 
/ pie 9 903 783 cee fofe) 6 558 607 56 3 620 899 ae 
07 | 800 399 891 | 5 pee Boe 5 659 Mee 57 4072 882 1119 
/ ° 24 001 
oS] taba) 43] 5s) 3bes] 3) Soka | 228 
I 
o°910| *801 882 826 eee 897 || 0°492 964.674 Jo'960! *825 423 650 8 
~~ 2 2520 al 2067 802 61 5 872 180 937 
- 2 808 cee | mee a 1171 580 62 | 6 319 850 none 
Pe eee aes 95 0276009] 63} 6 766659 — 
rg) 3847514 72°" | 95 || 0489 381093 | 64) 7 212 608 ie a 
O95 | 804 336 448 ‘ 8 Se 894 | 0°488 486 833 pins Pes 657 699 4232 
6 824 488 | 3 7593 232 IOI 931 
- oe ioe 93 6700292} 67 8 545 306 a 
18 5 797 889 | ae 92 5.808 016 68 8 987 824 SAR 
19 6 283 251 | oe gt 4.916 406 69 9 429 486 ae 
484 471 
0°920| *806 767 722 3 580 891 || 0°484025 464 Jo'g70 | *829 870 293 439 953 
21 7 251 302 S Bob hoe 3.135 193 71 | *830 310 246 ORS 
22| 7 733.992 go, | 89 2245595) 72] 0749345) 3038 
23, Baxsnopl) ne. 4 89 1350672| 73| rx87591| 520) 
24 8 696 706 Ba OF") 88 0 468 427 74 1 624 986 bck 
002 
10°925 | 809 176 730 : 887 || 0°479 580 861 }o'975 | °832 061 529 6 
261 9655868 | S2e3! lay 8693978] 76| 2497222 a 
27, 810134 119 757 | 86 7807 779 Wil 2 932 065 
28 0 611 483 7385 85 6 922 268 78 3 366059 oe 
29] 1087963] : 84 6037445| 79] 3799205 ce ae: 
07930 “811 563 559 tte 884 |] 0°475 153 313 jo'980| “834 231 504 : 
31} 2038270 pea 83 4.269 875 81 4662957 ee 
32) 2512099) 3 01 | 82 3387133 82] 5093564! 4,0 16s 
33} 2985045 pia64s |i oe 2505089} 83] 5523326 8 918 
34| 3457 109 es 81 1623745| 84] 5952243 joheons 
I 
0°935| 813928 292 BUT aS8 880 || 0°470 743 103 Jo’985 | *836 380 318 wege 
| °36 8 © 3°3 | 80 || 0°469 863166] 86] 6807550 3 
= 4398595 | A694 469 863 Bebe 
a7, 4808019) 724° | 70 8983936| 87| 7233940] 37) 
| 38] 5336564 Bola Gt 8105415} 88) 7659490) 3 28 
| 39] 5804230 | 0 | 77 7 A2ES)) eo) ke Oe eee 
0 940| 816271019 : 5 be 877 || 0°466 350509 Jo'990 | *838 508 070 3032 
| 41] 6736931 mos (ie 5474128] or} 8931 zo Bea 
| 42 7 201 967 75 4598465] 92 9 353 29 1367 
| 43| 7666128] 470 | 75 3723522| 93) 9774653| Gay 
| 44| 8129415 aaa le, 2 84pc I goalie 095 374 an ee 
2412 
0°945| °818 591 827 ae 873 || 0°461 975 804 Jo'995 | "840 614 861 Sou. 
| 46 9 053 367 aie a2 1103033] 96 I 033 712 be: 
14034 72 O230991] 97 1451731 
43| 9973829 453 192 | 71 | 0459359679] 98] 1 868 916 a 
| 49 | 820 432 753 458054 | 7° S48D.009 | OOK e ee ees e7e) ae 


f=11'2563 
A 2 ae 
= Vr 
869 |) 0°457 619 256 | 
69 75014 
68 5 88177 
67 5 014 150 | 
67 4147 265 | 
866 || 0°453 2811 4 | 
65 
64 
64 
63 || 0°449 824 
862 || 0°448 961 6; 
61 
60 
60 
59 5 51O7aae 
858 || 0-444 661 143 | 
57 3 803 331 
57 2 946 288 
56 2 ogo o1f 
55 1 23451 
854 | 0°440 379 791 
54 || 0°439 525 
53 86 
52 
- 
850) 0°436 117 
5° 
49 
48 
47 
846 || 0-431 875 
46 
45 : 
44 || 0°429 3397, 
43 8 496 0 
842 || 0°427 653 17 
42 6 811 096 | 
oN 5 999m 
aa 5 129 3 
39 4 289 717 
838 || 0°423 450878 | 
38 2612 
37 
36 
35 
834 || o'419 2 
34 
33 
32 
31 


me 


THE VALUES OF —- | ‘edt, 293 
| 0 


2 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= —| e-“dt. (1) FROM f=0 TO ¢=1'200. 
; 5 


: 
f= 1000] os ta [1"099 
i A Ao a P | H A (aN | 20) Es 
: a = = Jr e & Vr 
1000 | “842 700 793 693 | 830 | 0415 107 497 |r050| *862 436 106 787 || 0°374 666 957 | 
414 693 374 274 
oI 3115 485 3 863 2 abe 2, a ee a0 3488 ae apts oe 
ca 38,| 3°35 | 28 Bee eAtes as ese eo | 8 27°3\| <8, er 
03| 3942383 peor pe r919 | 84 310624 
04 4354599 nese 27 1793 297 54 3.920 409 eee Bi 1 526 991 
"844 765 97° 826 | 0-410 966 835 }r°055 | “864299625 | ~' | ~ | 782] 0°370 744 267 
176 52 0554 |) 25! O 141 211 56 4669 978 © 353 | 81 0:369 962 
BE ee, | 4°2729 | 24! 0-409 316.427) 37 noni SOPS72) | gail. voter 26 
> oa S904 24 | 8 492 485 58 ies 4I or 80 3 ob ae 
5995157 OA 4 eae 5 Ze Shoe 40155 
6 403 238 ae 23 7,669 3 59 5 776 353 eae 79 7622 471 

Bree] age | 822) 408 247 152 robo] 856 x45 587 | © se [778] 0-366 84450 

q622548| 59° | 20] 5205164] 62) 6 875721| 5°79 | 76]. 5 290715 
| | 8 6 6 2 

ao 343 3976 | 12 oe 454 °3 pe 24 hee oe 4515 297 

431 319 403.158 Hon 3 599 595 4 7 904 752 2G be 74 3 74° 797 

848 834.477 2 340 818 0°402 748 588 }x°065 | °367 968 106 2 581 773 | 0°362 967 216 
ee) | Gl cee) eboo | e) estes 

Be ce] 29g 700] 68) g053533| 1°37 | 7o|  o6sz.004 
0 438 940 g99/892 ee 85 11 6 13 80 ee) 6 "359 88 

94 pepe | T4 | 0°399 405 119 9 9 413 000 es 9 |] 9°359 902 114 

"850 eo 8265 | 23 oR ae 399 |r070 ee 773297 8 729 | 769 °°359 113 149 
r633735| 2452) 12) poassas| 72| o489088| 795 | Gr] 7577499 
2 030 376 peat II 6 235 415 73 0 847 183 7195 | 66 6 811 816 
2 426 206 5 830 10 5 425 151 74 I 203 612 biaz9 6s | 6 046 56 

395 020 |! i : 7 355 664 - $ 

852 821 227 | 809 |, 0°394.615 754 |1'075| 871 559 276 764 || 0°355 282 240 
3215 438 fee | oS 3807226] 76 I 914176 Pes all aril 4518 850 
3608841) 308 | 7 2999570| 77| 2268314; + iy 62 3756 392 
4 O01 437 1790 06 |) 2192785 78 2 621 690 ee 61 | 2 994 867 
4393 227 Fecha 05 1 386873] 79 2974 304 oe 60 | 2 234278 

854 784 211 Suro | 805 pepe lier eee egee8 158 oe 759 O51 ni aee 3 
5563767 | 59937 | os] So7a304| 82, 4027501) 9337 | 57) o-349 058129 
5 952 340 BETS) oe 8171991 83 4377170 | 342 ee 56 | 9 201 289 
é 777% 63! 8 8 823 8 av 

340 111 BeG.gro or 7 3794 4 4725993 48.068 55 445 390 

856 727 081 6.140 800 || 0°386 569 827 |1°085 | 875074061 é pone 754 || 0°347 690 431 

6 86 uh ae 6 936 
pagan) 537 "58)  Garxxoe| 87| sr67os4| 80° | $3/ 6283 339 
7 883 194 4572 98 | 4173 209 88 6 113 742 Sis) 52 5 431 209 
8 266 969 ES ae 97 | 33761101 89| 6458797 oe eeu 4 680 023 
2 fe) 

858649947 | og 796 | 0°382 579 899 |r'0g0 | “876 803 102 ween 750 || 0°343 929 783 
a) ieee) 2) titi) ses) a) sete 
794109 | , 393 pac oor |) 7831 422 BOS cas 1684 746 

860 173 909 eh ae 92} 0°379 403 968 94 8 172 833 Ae 46 0 938 298 

860552918 | 8 791 || 0°378 612 221 fr'095 | 878 513 399 is : : 745 || 0°340 192 800 
pest 134 | 4 ae go 7 821 370 96 8 853 219 om =e 44 || 0°339 448 254 
I 308 561 | 6 8 70465 
Re a5) e car 362] 98| gago6en| 2333 | 42| 7 962008 
-2 061 046 / he ae 88 5 454 209 99 9 868 220 om: a 4I 7 220 331 


— : Z 


24 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= ee: (1) FROM '¢=0 TO 7=1250) 
VTS 0 


‘t= 1100] 

t | H 
lt-100| ‘880 205 070 
or © 541179 
02 0 876550 
03 I 211 182 
04 | 1545 076 
17105 | *881 878 234 
06 2210657 
07 2 542 345 
08 2 873 300 
°9 3 203 522 
1110] °883 533 012 
It 3 861 772 
2 4189 802 
13 4517 104 
14 4843 677 
r115| 885 169 524 
16 5 494645 
0 ta 5 819 O41 
| 18 6142713 
1g 6 465 663 
|1"120 *886 787 890 
| pear 7 109 397 
22 7 430 183 
23 775° 250 
24 8 069 600 
i1°125| °888 388 232 
26 8 706 148 
27 91023 349 
28 9 339 835 
29| 9655 609 
\1°130| *889 970670 
| 31 ‘890 285 020 
|ea32 0 598 660 
| = 35 OGL 5OL 
/ 34 I 223 813 
117135 | *891 535 328 
36 1 846 137 
37 2156 240 
38| 2465 639 
39 2774 335 
1140] *893 082 328 
4l 3 389 619 
42 3 696 211 
43 4002 102 
44 4 307 296 
t'145| °894 611 791 
46 4915591 
47 5 218 695 
48 5 521 104 
5 822 820 


336 110 
3) cf 
4 632 
3 895 
333 158 
2423 
1 688 
0955 
© 222 
329 490 
8 760 
8 030 
7 301 
6574 
325 847 
5 121 
4 396 
3672 
2949 
322 227 
1 506 
o 786 
0067 
319 349 
318 632 
7916 
7 201 
6 487 
5 774 
315 061 
Aa5° 
3 640 
2931 
2222 
311515 
0 809 
0 103 
399 399 
8 696 
397 993 
7 292 
6 5901 
5 892 
5 293 
304 496 
3799 
3 104 
2 409 
1716 
301 023 


0°336 479 598 


5 739 821 


5 OOF 000 
4 263 136 
3526 231 


0°332 790 285 
2055 298 
Ie2n273 
0 588 208 


|| 0°329 856 106 
|| 0°329 124 967 


8 394 791 
7 665 581 


6 937 335 
6 210056 


| 0°325 483 743 


4758 398 
4034022 
3310615 
2588177 


0°321 866 710 
1146215 
0 426 691 
0°319 708 140 
8 990 562 


0°318 273 959 
7 558 330 
6 843 676 
6 129 998 
5 417 298 


0°314 795 574 
3.994 829 
3 285 062 
2576274 
1 868 466 


O'311 161 639 
© 455 793 
0°309 750928 
9 047 046 
8 344 146 
0°307 642 230 
6941 298 
6 241 350 
5 542 387 
4 844 410 


0°304 147 420 
3451415 
2756 398 
2 062 369 
I 369 328 


l’ 


. 


896 123 843 
6 424175 
6 723 816 
7022 767 
7 321 030 
897 618 605 
7915 494 
8 211 697 
8 507 216 
8 802 O51 


"899 096 203 
9 389 673 
9 682 463 
9974574 
"900 266 005 


"900 556759 
0 846 837 
I 136 238 
I 424.965 
I 713018 


"902 000 399 
2 287 108 
2573 146 
2858515 
3 143.214 

“903 427 247 
3710612 
3993 312 
GH // Susie 
4556718 


"904 837 427 
5117474 
5 396 860 
5 675 587 
5 953 655 
"906 231 065 
6 507 819 
6 783 916 
7 059 360 
7 334 149 


"907 608 286 
7 881 771 
8 154 606 
8 426 791 
8 698 327 


"908 969 215 
9 239 457 
9 509 053 
9 778 005 
"910 046 313 


en Ta a ae 


207-575 
6 889 
6 203 
5518 
4 835 
294152 
3471 
2790 
2110 
I 432 
290 754 
0077 
289 402 
8727 
8 053 
287 381 
6 709 
6 038 
5 369 
470° 
284 032 
3 355 
2700 
2 035 
Lay 
280 709 
0047 
279 386 
8727 
8 068 


277 410 
6 754 
6 098 
5 443 
479° 

274137 
3 485 
2 835 
2185 
1 536 

270 889 
© 242 

269 596 
8952 
8 308 

267 665 


| 0°300 677 276 


oS 


0°299 986 213° 


0°297 231 863 
6 545 753 


3 130094 
2 449 943° 
1770 787 
I 092 625 

0"290 415 459] — 

0°289 739 289, 


5034013] | 
4 365 822 
0°283 698 631 
3 932 439 


1.039 862 | 


0°280 377 670, 
0°279 716 479 
9 056 290 
8 397 101 
7 738.915 
0'277 O81 730 
6 425 547 
5 779 367 
5 116 190 
4 463 015 
0'273 810 844 
3 159 676 
2509 511 
1 860 350 
I 212 194 


0'270 565 O41 
0'269 918 893 
9 273 749 
8 629 610 
7.986 476 


—_—_— 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= - 


THE VALUES OF 7 ['e-“dt. 
Sir} 9 


124g] [1-25 


200 | “910 313.978 


0 581 002 
0 847 385 
1113 128 
1 378233 
“QI 642 701 
1.906 531 
2 169 726 
2 432 287 
2 694 214 


"912955 508 
3216171 
3.476 203 
3 735 606 
3.994 380 


914.252 526 
4510046 
4 766 941 
5 023 211 
5 278 857 
"915 533 881 
5 788 283 
6 042 065 
6 295 228 
6 547772 
"916 799 698 
7 051 008 
7 391 703 
755% 783 
7 801 250 
*918 050 104 
8 298 347 
8545979 
8 793 002 
9939 417 


*QIg 285 224 
9 53° 425 
9775 020 

920 OIQ O1I 


© 262 399 
"920 505 184 
9747 368 
0 988 952 
I 229 936 
1 470 322 
921 710110 
ao t9 393 
2 187 goo 
2 425 go2 
2 663 311 


255 024 
4 402 
3 782 
3 162 
2544 
251927 
I 310 
0 695 
0 080 
249 467 
248 854 
8 243 
7 632 
7 223 
6 415 
245 807 
5 201 
4595 
3991 
3 388 
242 785 
2184 
I 584 
0 984 
0° 386 
239 789 
9 192 
8597 
8 003 
7 4°29 
236 817 


ON’ OV 
N wW 
bh whoa 


ON 
Ny 


fon) 


Ss) 


Oo 
I 


lon) 
H 
HNwWwbtnD TOO OH WHEN ANA CO O H 


oO OV 
(oe) = 
Wowie) oI 


| | 


0°267 344 347 
6 703 223 
6 063 105 
5 423 992 
4 785 885 
0°264 148 783 
3512 687 
2877 598 
2S 
1 610 437 
0'260 978 366 
Ors! SoZ 
0°259 717 244 
9 088 193 
8 460 148 


0°257 833 110 
7 207 979 
6 582955 
5 958 038 
5 335 028 
0°254 713024 
4.092 028 
3 472 039 
2 853057 
2 235 082 
0°251 618 114 
I 002 153 
© 387 199 
0°249 773 253 
9 160 313 
0'248 548 381 
7937 455 
7 327 536 
6718 625 
6110720 


0°245 503 822 
4 897 931 
eo tT 
3 689 169 
3 086 298 


0°242 484 434 
1 883 575 
DIS ae 
0 684 878 
0 087 038 


0°239 490 205 
8 894 377 
8 299 555 
THOS 739 
7112928 


°236 521 122 447 2901 
230 658 328 140 766 
'224 895 874 843 793 
"219 233 531 734 808 
°213 671 014 478 186 


‘208 207 986 796/070 
202 844 062 051 747 
"197 578 804 842 403 
"192 411 732 599 137 
187 342 317 192 141 
"182 369 986 539 023 
‘177 494 126 214 278 
172 714 081 057 979 
168 029 156 781 793 
‘163 438 621 570 507 


"158 941 707 677 278 
"154 537 613 010 895 
"150 225 502 713 389 
"146 004 510 726 399 
‘141 873 741 344 739 


"137 832 270 755 693 
133 879 148 562 625 
23520531399) 291 529 
126 234 023 879 239 
‘122 540 001 142057 
118 930 289 223 629 
‘TEI 959 535 587 539 
105 313 068 275 229 
"098 981 950 627 349 
"092 957 046 104 774 
°087 229 058 633 945 
‘081 788 571 130 589 
076 626 082 133 553 
"O71 732 040 494 964 
"067 096 878 086 755 


062 711 040 496 868 
058 565 O15 7OI O18 
"054 649 360707 757 
"050.954 726 185 724 
"047 471 879 092 242 


044 191 723 332 O11 
"O41 105 318 483 320 
038 203 896 637 112 
"035 478 877 401 325 
032 921 881 129 160 


"030 524 740 435 448 
028 279 510 069 gol 
026 178 475 220036 
"024 214 158 319 685 
1022379 324 441 554 


* 


U 9, 
=| tat (1) FROM ¢=0 TO ¢=1°250. 
50 


‘O1Q 070 402 324 130 


017 583 087 747 389 
*016 198 805 688 967 
‘OI4.Q11 571 415 508 


‘013 715 649 999 807 
"012 605 554077 274 


‘OLI 089 930 302 398 
‘O10 171 986 461 662 


008 922 155 064 916 


‘007 142 319 022 018 
005 689 O17 242 525 
004 508 829 189 593 
003 555 648 680 878 
‘002 789 988 619 ort 


002 178 284 230 353 
‘ool 692 213 637 679 
*OOT 308 050 049 723 
“ool 006 055 779 156 
"000 769 924 759 855 
‘000 586 277 247 094 
"000 444 207 944 206 
000 334 886 877 468 
"000 251 210 892 521 
"000 187 502 615 679 


000 139 253 051 983 
7000 075 663 266 797 
"000 040 297 635 533 
000 021 037 210 443 
‘000 O10 764 921 037 


(5)5 399 426 777 385 
(5)2 654 596 844 717 
(5)1 279 274 084 534 
*(5)0 604 286 289 322 
(5)0 279 792 448 958 
"(5)o 126 982 346 719 
*(5)0 056 489 121 206 
*(5)0 024 632 040 987 
*(5)0 010 528 102 122 
(8)4 410 764 694 683 
‘(8)1 811 305 895 g09 
-(8)o 729 094 500 238 
(8)0 287 666 940 281 
(8)o 111 252 606 808 
(8)0 042 173 976 220 
(8)0 ors 670 866 531 


*(11)5 707 627 016 929 
‘(11)0 713 055 054 375 
*(11)0 082 233 160 452 
*(14)0 261 730 123 925 


* The figures in parentheses indicate the number of ciphers between the decimal point and the figures that follow. 


295 
[60 
Zee 
VT 
020 666 985 354 092 


| 


296 


t : 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—, | e~"dt, (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3 000. 
0 


¢=1'000] 


Hel 


3115 485 478076 
3529348 622 624 
3 942 383 216054 
4 354590 092 706 


0°844 765 970 088 552 
5 176 524 041 197 
5 586 252 789 859 
5995 157 175 372 
6 403 238 040 168 
0°846 810 496 
7 216 932 
7622547 
8 027 343 
8 431 319 
0°848 834 476 
9 236 816 
9 638 339 
0°850 039 047 
© 438 939 
0°850 838 o17 
I 236 282 
1633 735 


2 039 375 
2 426 2c6 


228 277 
585 311 
958 462 
196 492 
149 722 
670026 
610 825 
827073 
175 254 
513 372 


700 942 
598 982 
070 006 


978 015 
188 487 


568 372 
986 084 
311 487 
415 894 
172054 


454148 
137776 
099 952 
219 095 


0°852 821 226 
3 215 437 

3 608 841 

4 O01 437 
4395227 
0°854 784 211 
5 174 391 

5 563 767 
ee 

6 340 111 


0°856 727 081 
7 113 251 323 418 
7498 621 882 434 
7 883 194 O11 301 
8 266 968 596 698 


0°858 649 946 526651 
9 032 128 690 527 
9 413515 979022 
9794109 284158 
0°860 173 909 499 272 


0°860 552 917 519 009 
© 931134 239 312 
1 308 560 557 417 
1685 197 371 843 
2061045 582 382 


448 933 


0°842 700 792 949715 


415 522 743 218 


375 020 |~ 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


A, 
+ 


4692 528 361 
3 363 144548 
3934 593 43° 
2206 876651 
411 379 995 847 
2553 952 644 
409 728 748 663 
8 904 385 513 
8 080 864 796 
407 258 188 108 


6 436 357034 
5615 273152 
4795 238030 
3.975 953 230° 
493 157 520 304 
2 339 940 798 
1523 216 248 
0707 348 181 
399 892 338118 
399 078 187 570 
8 264 898 o40 
7452 471024 

6 640 908 008 

5 830 210472 
395 020 379 886 
421I 417 711 

3 493 325 403 
2596 104 407 
1789 756 161 
390 984 282 094 
0179 683 628 
389 375 962 176 
8573 119 143 
7772 155 925 
386 970 073 913 
6 169 874 485 

5 379 559015 
4572 128 867 
3774 585 397 


382977 929953 
2182 163 875 
1 387 288 495 
2593 305 136 
379 800 215 114 
379 008 O19 737 
8 216 720 303 
7426 318 105 
6636 814 426 
5 848 210540 
375 060 507 714 


214 856 
383 813 
8 551118 


7 716779 
6 880 804 


043 202 
5 203 982 
4 363 150 
3 520 716 
‘2 676 688 


831074 
° 983 883 
© 135122 
284 800 
8 432925 


7 579 506 
6 724550 
5 868 067 
5 010063 
4 150548 
3 289 530 
2 427 016 
I 563 016 
© 697 536 
830 586 


962 174 
8 092 308 
7 220996 
6 348 246 
5 474067 


598 466 
3 721 452 
2 843 033 
I 963 217 
I 082 013 


199 427 
315 470° 
8 430148 
7 543 47° 
6 655 444 


795 766078 
875 389 


3 983359 
3 090022 
2 195377 


791 299 433 
© 402 198 
789 503 680 
8 603 886 
7 702 825 


ESS 


A; 
+ 


829 383 


831043 
2695 
4339 
5975 


| 837 602 


9 221 
840 832 
2434 
4028 
845 614 
7192 
8 761 
850 322 
1875 
853 419 
4956 
6 484 
8 003 
9515 
861 018 
2514 
4001 
5 479 
6950 
868 412 
9 866 
871 312 
2750 
4179 
875 601 
7°14 
8 419 
9 816 
881 205 
882 585 


3.958 
5 322 
6678 
8 026 
889 366 
890 698 
2021 
3 337 
4645 
895 944 
7 235 
8 518 
9794 
gor 061 
a Es ee CODD O7! 70a" | | 0 ee 


A, 
+ 


1660 
1652 
1644 
1636 
1627 


1619 
1611 
1602 


E508 
1586 


1578 
1569 
1561 
1553 
1545 
1536 
1528 
1520 
1512 


1503) 


1495 
1487 
1479 
1471 
1462 


1454 
1446 
1438 
1430 
1421 


1413 
1405 
1397 
1359 
1381 


1372 
1364 
1356 
1348 
1340 


1332 
1324 
1316 
1307 
1299 
1291 
1283 
1275 
1267 
1259 


2) =e rol 
log a +10, 


9°618 160 577 413 6624 
7 291 554 155 3749 
6 421 662 308 121 
5 550.901 871 995 
4679 272 846 726 


9°613 806 775 232 5823 
2 933 409 929 474 


© 308 098 886 36¢ 
9°609 431 258 327 407 
8553549 1794! 
7674971 442 596 
6 795 525 11673 
5 915 210 20191 


9605 034.026 698 1; 3 
4151974 60% 


I 500 606 793 3; 


9°600 615 080 344.77 
9°599 728 685 307 38 
8 841 421 6806 


7953 289 465% 
7 064 288 660 73¢ 


9°596 174 419 2673 
5 283 681 284 
4392074 713 5794 | 
3 499 599 553:4m 
2 606 255 80399 


9'591 712 043 465 7 
0 816 962 53855 

9°589 921 O13 022 3 
9 024194 9172 
8 126 508 223 1612 

9°587 227 952 g4o x 
6 328 528 06808 
5 428 236 6070 
4527975 5 
3 625 045 918 


9°582 722147 69 


9°579 101 868 8 
53 


4556977 130 ar 


Oo fh aca 
THE V —| e- 
HE VALUES OF [-{'edt, 297 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF hae [i <-Pat (2) FROM ¢=1:000 TO ¢=3'000, 
[1°099 
A 2 A 
lg e a x om log eae + Io, 
: ace 106 ogo oa 374273 707 209 786 800 505 903 571 1251 ||9°573 645 393 0185701 
A/S) (hs \peke 3.487 810274 5 896935 Bei) Eee 2732 949 312 1904 
3 183 867 607 580 2702 818164 4 992 121 Be 4 1235 1 819 619 0166579 
3550570 425734 | 1018 aavo8a | 4 086072 | 2082 | 1227 0.905 429 132 2515 
3.928 489 157 815 Paes 286. 2 178 796 pane ae 9°569 990 370 658 8314 
oe 299 624 711 10: aes 282 984 782 270 302 Bee I21I || 97569074 443 5965474 
4669977 994085 369 71 922 388 I 360596 | 05 o08| 1293 8157 647 945 2496 
§039549 916.473 [> go) Foo 7og | 0 449088 | PIC 2] 195 7 239.983 704 9881 
eo ee Borr 935 115 779 537 585 sege) ooo 6 321 450 875 7627 
24295 1179 5 402 049 4575735 
: 367 233 310 821 914 469 
0°866 143 586 635 108 6455 600 995 777 709 826 Gag) TELS 9°564 481 779 450 4205 
ha 236 103 5 673 806 809 6 794 186 oe 1163 3 560640 854 3037 
75 es 042 912 go2 920.426 5 877 383 He 1155 2 638 633 669 2231 
ay ie ae oN We o70.001 4 959 425 Sree | oo 1715 757 895 1787 
4 040 320 1139 © 792 013 5321705 
' 363 353 929 681 202 
0°867 968 105 872021 |° 2 580 809 605 773 120076 2 E ee II31 || 9°559 867 400 5801985 
8 330686 681 626 1 808 610 904 2 198 701 pe LAY 8941 919 039 2626 
8 692 495 292529 1037-334 701 I 276203 sors III5 8015 568 g09 3630 
9 053 532 627 231 5 20) Oe ae © 352589 yan 1107 7088 350 190 4996 
9 413 799 609 343 769 427 868 > 1099 6 160 262 8826723 
0'869 773 297 163 587 359 497 554244 FOstton 048 2a eR alate cree 6 o8« 88 
0°870 132026 215 78 22S ChE Ue : ‘ Co Bile Fees ee eons. 
3 5 783 76! 477 061 ides oe 1084 4 301 482 5001264 
0489 987 692844 | TO Big oa1 | 6 647 140 Zo 3| tego 3 370 789 425 4077 
0 847 182 522 766 6429 111 853 5 718068 9 ees 1068 2439 227 761 7252 
I 203 611 634619 PEE Picea oa 4.787929 a pat 1060 I 506 797 5090790 
. 7 559275 958 BA 4 geo 467 106 763 856729 g2gz| 109% || 9990573 498 667 4689 
Bee |) gis7 c42 719 | 2 924477 306| 1044 |) 9549 39 331 236 8950 
2 268 313 968 459 Bays cen sss {1 QgI 181 Se 1087 8 704 295 217 3573 
2621689 519997 Digan ee pee I 056 848 308 1029 7 768 390 608 8558 
2974 304 014 687 5 Pea ie yan487 53 1021 6 831 617 411 3905 
0°873 326158 387 890 SSE SS 759 185 105 B58 oe 1013 19°545 8 624 96 
2 e 1095 188.099 7 395 3 545 993 975 024 9013 
3977 253 5759 Beeo gioass | 247 729 Smeul soe2 4955 465 249 5684 
4027590 516377 Ro) GE 7 309 309 9 398 997 4016 086 285 2117 
4377170 147458 |°" 2207 6 369 911 990 3.075 838 731 8911 
8 3 261170 940 388 
4725993 408 628 Prone aes Gar 5 429 523 2 982 2134722 589 6068 
0°875 074061 240276 754 488 ees : 
: 488 153 974 11 9°541 192 737 858 3586 
§ 421374 583 779 foe oe ése 3 545 809 pee 966 | 0 249 884 5381467 
ae 7934 391 455 5 807 195 185 2 602 499 eG 959 | 9°539 306162 6289709 
113 741 576640 I 658 231 9 I 8 361572 130831 
45° 797 113595 OF7 12 OFT 943 7416113 043 7280 
0°876 803 101 937 538 344 304 823.943 66 848 ee 536 469 785 367 6608 
fo 80 994033 | 2 806 237 345 8819759 | go56| 92° 5 522 589 102 6298 
oe 9 463 231978 nos) HORS 7ST 725 8 946 920 4574524 2486350 
‘| 31521 597 598 ee ois | 6 922 779 32g, 912 3 625 590 805 6764 
172 833 040440 5 972921 25 905 2675 788 773 7540 
Mets 208 cio 261 | 40505 469 921 95° 763 
ao. Bee tlaaoisea 447 765.) (25 022 258 1660; 297 | 9532 725 118 152 8677 
os 7 958 123 9076 377 265 4 070 498 2 549 889 © 773 578 943 0177 
919 2 335 3 8 333 259 316 3 117949 ane 882 |19°529 821 171 144 2039 
ee 2 594 TPE er oo age. |? 164 519 en 874 8 867 894 756 4262 
9 966 219 689 500 Bab 846) 884 «82 I 210214 | ea 866 7913749 779 6848 


VOL. XXXIX. PART II. 


(NO. 9). 


DEN: 


298 DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


a s 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—_ |e Pat (2) FROM #=1'000 TO ¢=3°000. 
ey) 


1°100] [1149 
Ai Ag As A4 2 x 
t H r, ‘ . : log Ta +10, 
1'100 | 0°880 205 069 574082 © 2550 8 "526.958 736 21 6 | 
I 0541179 ae 620 g36 109,6201538 oo Foe ae 950.030 ee oe 6 ae be a val } 
2| .OS7ORdG 5a4mq4)| 9498" ATE 8 Gazaay ‘| 843 5 046 103 315 6776 | 
3 I 211 181 522535 pe z ae 7 384 409 ips 836 4.088 483 983 0810 
4 1545076 126517 DOE OS 'Jer 6 425850 Doel BB 3.129 996 061 5205 | 
333 158 178 132 959 388 ; 
1°105 | o°881 878 234 304 648 6 735 466 461 6 821 || 9°522 170639 5509962 
6 2 210657 016 319 a8 cist ie 4 506 252 ee 813 I 210414 451 5081 
OR aa cy le ae es Peri) een a Sau © 249 320 763 0562 
8 2 873 299 881925 nee a oes 2 583 403 SEE 798 || 9°519 287 358 485 6405 | 
9 3 203 521 958710 Cheeta 16207777) 791 8 324.527 619 2610 | 
329 490 456 008 963 416 a 
I'110 | 0°883 533 012 414 718 8 86 730 657 361 783 ||9°517 360828 163 9177 | 
II 3 861 772 213 365 ee 79 ab 729 693 162 Bees als 6 396 260 119 6106 | 
12 4189 802 318 851 Bor Coue 8 728 187 4975 768 5 430 823 4863396; 
Bg, 4517 203 696 t50 || 2227 310 22a sy pocaaaleee ee tony aa 4.464 518 264 1049 
14} - 443677 311004 | ou ae ee 6795941 | oe 753 3.497 344 452 9064 | 
1115 | 0 885 169 524 129917 oe ce 725 828 685 . ‘ : 746 || 9°512 529 302 052 7440 | 
16 5494645 120144 | 9 a 990 227 4 860684 ae 738 I 560 391 063 6179 
17 5 819 041 249 687 ee 129 543 3 891 944 ise 731 0590611 485 5279 | 
18| 6142 713 487286 | 307? 237599 | 2 gaa 474 | 947°! 723 | 9'509 619 963 318474 
19 6 465 662 802 411 Suey) ae I 952 281 gia 716 8 645 446 562 4566 | 
2222 TH 
1°120 | 0°886 787 890 165 255 : y oo a 720 981 372 va aye 708 ||9°507 676 061 217 4752 
es Sh Ge I = 381 472 Biocon On eS 6 702 807 283 5300 | 
22| 7.430182 918.443 | 2780 372727 | 719 037437 | 7378) 603 5 728 684 760 2099 
23| 7750250 252724 |_ 1 34259 | 8 cogaes | 32.0) 686 4753 693 648 7482 | 
24| 8069599 522579 [379349 209858 | 7 ogg 727 | 3998) 679 || 3777833 947 9196 
| 318 632 179 128 974 376 
1'125 | 0°888 388 231 701 708 Boe g 716 116 351 g| 671 | 9'502 801 105 658 1112 | 
26)  S7oo1a7,76q4s5 | Tey Sets! eeaan 30g)|) Pam leloG4 1 823 508 779 3479 
27| 9023348 685960 | 770° 927475 | 4 r6ssor| 2/2°| 657 || 0845 043 gtT Orem 
28 9 339835 441 844 Beeeee fe anne 209 22 373| 649 | 9'499 865 709 254.9271 | 
29 9 655 609 008 506 5773 5 : 2 212205 Li 642 8 885 506 609 2715 | 
315 061 354.457 977 660 ; 
1°130 | 0°839 970670 362 962 711 234545 8 635 || 9°497 904 435 3746520 | 
31 | 0°890 285 020 482874 | + oe Bee oe 0 256 250 295) 627 6 922 495 551 0088 
32 0598 660 346536 | 3°39 oe ? | 709 277 328 COE aes 5 939 687 1385217 
33 © QII 590 932 870 re ae 334 8 297 786 2B oe 613 4956 010 137 0108 
g4| aagsegaar gry) © UE a ea7iege | ener noe 3.971 464 546 5362 | 
1135 0°891 535 328 192 333 |° ; ‘a : 6 | 706 336871 ae 598 || 9°492 986 050 367 0977 
g9|  . 840736, 826.370)|) ee 88 eu) negeamn md won 1999 707 598 6954 
a7 2156240 104913 2 oe 2a A 272 562 952) 584 1 012 616 241 3293 
a8). 2465)0g9.009 885, 5°39 39 7 2°27 ah ag gomez ae ak aaa 0024 596 2949994 
39| 2.774334 523 830 25) 578 a aay onmyens 569 || "9489 035 707 759 7957 
307 993 106027 983 680 
1'1 40 | 0°893 082 327 629 857 68 7OI 424237 562 || 9°488 045 950 635 4482 
41} 3.389619 311646 | J EOT TTI | 0 439995 | 47471 555 | 7.055 324 9222269 
42 3696 210 553 441 ae pee 699 455 198 Aol 548 6 063 830 6200418 
43| 4002 102 340038 | 559% 780597 | “3 460 853 ae) 54 5 071 467 728 8928 
j 44) 4907295 056782 | 9195 S77) 483067 | 8 534 4.078 236 248 7801 
304 495 832778 986 420 
1°145 |0°894 611 791 489 560 696 497 547 526 || 9°483 084 136 179 7935 
46 4915590 824 791 3799 335 23% 5 510601 Gas 519 2 089 167 521 6632 
47 5 218 694 649 421 g:t0g .8240ge A 52a yna5 7455 512 1 093 330 274 6590 
43 5 521 103 950916 ee 766 495 3 535 158 7978 505 0096 624 438 6911 
49) 5822819 717253 | 47529 aig eee | 2 540675 | ogg ogs| 498 ||9°479 099050 Otsaae 


THE VALUES OF — | ‘edt. 
0 


V0 


tk we 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=— | e~"dt. (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3'000. 
- 0 


t H 


1150 | 0°896 123 842 936915 
51 6 424174 598884 
52 6 723 815 692 630 
53 7022 767 208111 
54 7321 039 135 759 
1155 | 0°897 618 605 466 477 
56 7915 494 191 630 
57 8 211697 303 039 
58; 8507215 792976 
59 8 802 050 654 151 
I'160 | 0°899 096 202 879 712 
61 9 389 673 463 234 
62 9 682 463 398713 
63| 9974573 680558 
64 | 0°900 266005 303 587 


1°165 | 0°900 556 759 263 017 
66 0 846 836 554459 
67 I 136 238 173 909 
68 1424965 117 745 
69 1713018 382 715 

I‘I70 | 0°902 000 398 965 936 
71 2287107 864 880 
72 2 573 146 077 376 
73 2858514 601 595 
74 3143 214 436046 


I°175 | 0°903 427 246 579574 
- 7G 3710612 031 345 
TT 3.993 311 790846 
78 4275 346 857 873 
79 4556718 232530 


1'180 0°904 837 426 915 217 
| 81 5 117 473 906 625 
| 


82 5 396 860 207 733 
83) 5675 586 819 794 
84) 5.953 654 744 336 
1185 | 0°906 231 064 983 149 
86 6 507 818 538 283 
87 6 783 916 412039 
88) 7259 359 606 963 
89 7334149 125 840 
I°£90 | 0°907 608 285 971 685 
gt 7881771 147741 
92 8154605 657 466 
93 8 426 790 504 535 
94 8 698 326 692 824 


T°195 | 0°908 969 215 226411 
96 9 239457 109 565 
97 9 509 953 346 743 
98 9 778004 942 581 
99 | 0°910 046 312 gor 886° 


Ai 
+ 


300 331 661 969 
299 641 093 747 
8951 515 481 
8 262 927 648 
297575 330718 
6 888 725153 
6 203 III 409 
5518 489 936 
4 834 861175 
294152 225 561 
3.470 583 522 
2789 935 479 
2110 281 845 
I 431 623029 
ZOO Fas) 999 430 
0077 291 442 
289 401 619450 
8 726 943 836 
8053 264970 
287 380 583 220 
6 708 898 945 
6038 212 496 
5 368 524218 
4699 834452 
284032 143528 
3365 451771 
2699 759 501 
2035 067027 
1371 374657 
280 708 682 687 
0046 991 409 
279 386 301 107 
8 726 612 061 
8067 924542 
277 410 238 813 


6 753 555134 
6097 873 756 
5 443 194924 
4789 518877 
274136 845 845 
3.485 176055 
2 834 509 726 
2184 847068 
1536 188 289 


270 888 533 587 
0 241 883155 
269 596 237178 
8951 595 837 
8 307 959 305 
267 665 327749 


As 


557 694 
568 222 


578 266 
587 833 
596 930 


605 565 
613 743 
621 473 
628 761 


635 614 


642 039 
648 043 
653 633 
658 816 
663 599 
667 988 
671 991 
675 615 
678 865 
681 750 
684 276 
686 449 
688 277 
689 767 
690 924 
691 757 
692 271 
692 473 
692 371 
691 970 
691 278 
690 301 
689 046 
687 520 
685 728 


683 679 
681 378 
678 832 
676 048 
673 031 
669 790 
666 330 
662 657 
658779 
654702 
650 432 
645 976 
641 341 
636 532 
631 556 


989 472 
9 956 
99° 433 
0993 
99I 366 
I 821 
2270 
2712 
3 147 
993575 
3.996 
4410 
4817 
5 217 
995 611 


5997 
6 377 
6749 
7115 
997 474 
7 827 
8172 
8 511 
8 842 
999 168 


9 486 


9798 
'T000 102 


© 401 
1000 692 


C977 
I 255 
I 526 
I 791 
1002 049 
2 301 
2546 
2784 
3016 
1003 241 
3 460 
3672 
3 878 
4.077 
1004 270 
4456 
4 636 
4 809 
4976 
1005 136 


421 


393 


373 


359 


Soe 
345 
339 
33? 


9°478 100 606 999 8637 


[z°199 


log BEES) 
J 


7 TOI 295 397 0043 
6 IOLII5 205 1812 
5 100066 424 3942 
4.098 049 054 6434 


9°473 295 363 095 9287 
2091 708 548 2503 
1087 185 411 6081 
0 081 793 686 0021 

9°469 075 533 371 4322 

9°468 068 404 467 8986 
7060 406 975 4012 
6051 540 893 9399 
5 041 806 223 5148 
4031 202 9641260 


9°463 019 731 115 7733 
2 007 390 678 4568 
0994 181 652 1765 

9°459 980 104 036 9325 
8965 157 832 7245 


9°457 949 343 0395528 
6 932 659 657 4173 
5 915 107 686 3180 
4 896 687 1262549 
3 877 397 977 2280 


9°452 857 240 239 2372 
1 836 213 912 2827 
0 814 318 996 3643 
9°449 791555 491 4822 
8 767 923 397 6362 


9°447 743 422 714 8264 
6 718053 4430528 
5 691 815 582 3155 
4664 709 1326143 
3 636 734 093 9493 


9°442 607 890 466 3205 
1578178 249 7279 
0547597 4441714 

9°439 516148 049 6512 
8 483 830 066 1672 


9°437 45° 643 493 7194 
6 416 588 332 3077 
5 381 664 581 9323 
4 345 872 242 5930 
3 309 211 314 2899 


9°432 271 681 7970231 
I 233 283 6907924 
0194016 995 5979 

9°429 153 881 711 4396 
8112 877 838 3175 


——— aed 


t 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—, / e~"dt. (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO #=3°000. 
“0 . 


300 
i200] 
t H 

1°200 | o'9 10 313, 978 229 635 
I 0 581 001 930965 
2 0 847 385 O11 164 
3 1113128 475671 
4 I 378 233 330066 

1°205 | O'911 642 700 580061 
6 1.906 531 231498 
7 2169 726 290 344 
8 2 432 286 762677 


9 2 694 213 654688 
"912 955 507 972 669 
0°913 216170 723012 

476 202 912 196 


13 735 605 546 786 
14 994 379 633 427 
1215 | 0°914 252 526 178 834 


16 510046 189 787 
17 766 940 673 128 
18 | 0°915 023 210 635 750 


278 857 084 596 
0°915 533 881 026 647 
788 283 468 g21 
07916042065 418 464 


23 295 227 882 346 
24 547771 867 652 
1°225 | 0°916 799 698 381 479 


26 | 0°917 051 008 430926 | 
27 301 703 023 094 | 
28 551 783 165073 
29 801 249 863 943 
1'230/0°918 050 104 126 761 
31 298 346 960 561 
SZ 545 979 372 343 
33 793002 369072 
34 | 0°919 039 416 957 668 
1°235 | O'919 285 224 145 002 
36 53° 424 937 890 
37 775.920 343 087 
38| 0°920019 O11 367 279 
39 262 399 017 O81 
1°240| 0°920 505 184 299030 
41 747 368 219 576 
42 988 951 785 080 
43 | 0°921 229 936 oor 806 
44 479 321 875 918 
1°245 | 0°921 710110 413 469 
46 949 302 620 401 
| 47|0°922 187 899 502 535 
| 48 425 902 065 568 
|. 49 663 311 315 066 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


Ai 
+ 


267 023 
6 383 
5 743 
5 104 
264 467 
3 830 
3 195 
2560 
1.926 
261 294 
© 662 
0032 


7OI 329 
080 199 
464 507 
854 394 
249995 
651 438 
058 845 
472 333 
892 O11 
317982 
75° 342 
189 184 
259 402 634 591 
8774 086 641 
258146 545 406 
7520 010953 
6 894 483 341 
6 269 962 622 
5 046 448 845 
255 023 942 051 
4402 442274 
3 781 949 543 
3162 463 882 
2 543 985 306 
251926 513 826 
I 310 049 447 
0694 592 168 
0080 141 980 
249 466 698 870 
248 854 262 818 
8 242 833 800 
7632 411 782 
7 022 996 729 
6 414 588 596 
245 807 187 334 
5 200 792 888 


4595 405 196 
3991 024 192 
3 387 649 802 
242785 281 949 
2183 920546 
1583 565 504 
0984 216727 
0 385 874112 
239 788 537 551 
9 192 206932 
8596 882 134 
8002 563 033 
74°09 249 498 
236816 941 392 


Ae 


626 420 
© 621 130 
615 692 
8 610113 
7 604 399 


598 557 
592 593 
586 512 
580 322 
574029 
567 639 
o 561158 
554 593 
8 547950 
7 541 234 


534 453 
527 612 
520 718 
513.777 
506 794 


499 777 
© 492731 
485 662 
8 478 576 
7 471 480 


464 379 
5 457 280 
4 450188 
3 443 110 
2 436051 
429 O19 
© 422017 
415 953 
8 408 133 
7 401 262 


394 446 
387 692 
381 004 
374 39° 
367 854 


361 403 
Crsyp 4 
599 348777 
8 342 615 
7 336 560 


596 330619 
5 324798 
4 319101 
3 313535 
2 308 106 


As 
+ 


1005 290 
438 
579 
714 
1005 842 
964 
1006 080 
190 
293 
1006 390 
481 
565 
643 
715 
1006 781 
841 
894 
941 
983 
1007 O17 
046 
069 
086 
096 
1007 IOI 
099 
092 
078 
058 
1007 033 
ool 
1006 964 
920 
871 
1006 816 


755 
687 
615 
536 
1006 451 
361 
264 
162 
S55 
1005 941 
822 
697 
566 
429 
1005 287 


| 


(9°411 338 687 769 286 


| 9°409 226 279 409 3% 


[124g 
log are Io, 


9°427 071 005 3762 x 


9°421 848 614 2313 
© 801 530 235 4 
9°419 753 577 6506437 
8 704756 4768. 
7655 066 7140. 
9°416 604 508 362 3 
5 553081 4216 
4500 785 892 
3 447 621 773 4 
2 393 589 065 829 


0 282 917 883 7795 


8 168772 345 
7 110 396 693 
9°406 051 152 452 
4991 039 621 


9°395 410937 645 4840 


4 342 138 925 52¢ 
3272471 616 
2 201 935 718 
I 130531 29m 
9°390 058 258 1560270 
9°388 985 116 491 


6 836 227 394 786 
5 760 479 963 1 


9°384 683 863 942 


9°379 287 755 00: 
8 205 927 45 
7 123 231 30 
6 039 666 5746; 
4.955 233 253 35 


a 


t 2 
THE VALUES OF 7-[ ‘edt. 301 
2 ft an - . 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—- [eat (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3000 ae 
: is 
| 
A; Ay ag A, log. Ee ton, 
- 2 = + ~ Jt 
148 || 9° 869 931 343.0829 
Bee gee oon | 235225 638574 ae os eee = |” Vo 760 843 8433 
0°923 136 353 895 032 5 635 340895 | og. 5 Boe 1004 986 Bene Cee PER Goa 
Be ty | 5040 048 202 | 5 8 284 866 P2266 0 608 814 078 4718 
aa ae ae AAS TTPO 335 7 283 204 ope 170 |9°369 520037 812 3403 
e. lg seen 21 276.ll9'368 450.402, 957 2453 
Pe b eas gooey | 3284 198479 | 5 274 396 31°) 82 | ~ 73393879 513 1860 
ee gine 927223 ; 2 ae | 134 187 6 248 497 480 1631 
541 346 644038 2114 653 761 4 ety ie 1003 947 ae | ee Lee ante 
ee, ae 153t 387 446 : 62 oa 735 198 | 4063 127 647 2260 
0°925 004.992 685 244 38 2 2625 roe 
Sg athe 8I 259 004 204 || 9°362 969 139 847 3117 
ae SEO 805-883 ; © 255 651 353 209 1 874 283 458 4336 
Bree oh 24: gad 080230 ae 508 mae 215 0778558 4805917 
696097 286 241 9 208 357 723 ae = Bg 1002 929 Geese cece 
ee ae puss 108 144 7 eae | 7°91 326 | 8 584 502 7580164 
ee gegen ot 275 6 244 386 nes 231 | 9°357 486 172 O13 2831 
eee BgeIO Ox 888 a 242 134 352 236 6 386.972 679 5860 
ee BOOT 314 154 2 a 118 ane 242 5 286 904 7569250 
eee 6327 134 635 ; 238 344 i os (he 247 4185 968 245 3003 
ae. ee Eye 00.29% : 236 818 577 253 3084 163 1447118 
200 447 93595 225181 659473 ce IOOI 274 Bre alosetoeuisoeeenson 
0°927 513 629 295 425 4610 423 930 au ine aaa ee eS SE ea aie 
Beth nch rey | 424° 189402 | 566 28 775 | 133| 269 || 9'349 773 536 309 1633 
78s 700 864.484 | 3470 955628 | 9 eas 484) 374 8 668 256 852 7195 
Bee ee: Be! gece 12233) i ae ae 279 7562 108 807 3119 
fe) 2 
eo orsoro (7 a 66 233149 ee: 285 | 9°346 455 092 1729405 
0°928 630989 075 979 1769 256108 5 ae at 9 646 me BG Pe en atone 
D7 sb2 siaég2 | 1204022605 | ie Ne eee ce 4.238453 137 3063 
ae piso (2° 459 ae 084 Te 300 3.128 830 7360435 
eae b9¢ oe Bene 5a6 37 ; Dae BA oT 305 2 018 339 745 8169 
ae ed 61 237 867 oo 311 || 9°340 906 980 166 6265 
2°929 734.193 013 578 8.953 079 185 5 i sh 8 145 Ao: learn concn eae were 
953 146 092 763 8 392 839 463 a a : 7 829 ae AUT ORE De 
Me ce E853 597/570 =. cs 84 tee 326 7567 689 895 2724 
cae 382 aa fet (558 729 7 a Sop ies? 331 | 6 452 855 960 2267 
fe) B 
: ae eS | 66.2 0352 is 336 | 9°335 337 153 436 2173 
ee aep toe | 0382 B55 63x | 55% 29 838 | 514) 342 | ~~ 4220582 323 2440 
0°931 039 527 844596 5 606 6or 794 5 = 6a 6173 She | Bee Gombe 
Pe cottg | 5°52 344029 | 4 788 9 | 5826) 3e2 | 1984834 330 4061 
ae ies fig) 082 202 : Fenee 5474 357 | 0 865 657 4505414 
a pe 5 I 271 248 saa 362 | 9°329 745 611 981 7129 
0°931 898 632 688 734 eh cei 55 es 4756 367 | 8 624 697 923 9206 
0°932 112028 233 411 2845 268185 ) 040 nas | Be eee 
324 873 501 596 2295 986 082 ae 588 oe 4017 377 | 6 380 264 041 4446 
ae Bes 1147 897/995 7 294447 3.640 382 | 5 256744 216 7609 
74° 917 105 674 21I 200 403 549 Geta 993 258 Recess uyaaee Soniiad 
rere tsa) | 0654 102 360 | 546 302189 | 2 gy 392 | 3007098 800 5020 
9°933170771 691 583 0 108 794 042 5 = : : 2479| 32. gears soem 
, 4e5 g5 | 209 564 478 204 Be eeu 22 083) 402 © 753.979 028 3880 
eee eas Ce eta 2 332074 POST! 407 || 9°319 626 116 258 8852 


208 478 822 374 


991 275 


302 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 


H 


0°934 007 944 940652 


215 882 422 227 
423 279 553 864 
630 137'326,012 
836 456 728 695 


0°935 042 238 751 513 
247 484 383 636 
452 194 613 796 
656 370 430 256 
860012 820955 
0°936 063 122 773 200 
265 701 273963 
467 749 309 730 
669 267 866519 
870 257 929 882 


0'937070720 484 896 
270656 516160 
470067 007 791 
668 952 943 418 
867 315 306178 

0°938 065 155 078711 
262 473 243 158 
459 270 781 152 
655 548 673 815 
851 307 901 757 


0°939 046 549 445 067 
241 274 283 310 
435 483 395 522 
629177 760209 
822 358 355 336 
158 330 
146070 
294 883 
580 544 
978 267 


462 704 
007 937 
587 476 
174 256 
740 630 
258 365 
698 641 
032 043 
228557 

659078 257 568 
0'942 844 171 087 856 
0'943 028 766 687 588 

212 866 024 318 

396 470 064 980 

579 579 775 887 


0°940 015 026 
207 182 
398 827 
589 962 
780 588 


0°940 979 707 
0°941 160 319 
349 424 


538025 
726 121 


0°941 913 715 
0°942 100 806 


287 397 
473 487 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


A, 
+ 


207937 481 574 
7397 131 638 
6857 772147 
6 319 402 683 

205 782 022 818 
5 245 632 123 
4710 230160 
4175 816 490 
3 642 390 669 

203 109 952 245 
2578 500 764 
2048 035 767 
1518 556789 
0990 063 363 

200 462 555014 


199 936 031 264 
9 410 491 631 
8 885 935 627 
8 362 362 760 

197 839 772 534 
7318 164 447 
6797 537994 
6277 892 664 
5759 227 942 

195 241 543 310 
4724 838 243 
H2C0 Lie 213 
3.694 364 687 
3.180 595 128 

192 667 802 994 
2155 987 739 
1645 148 813 
1135 285 661 
0 626 397723 

190118 484 437 

189 611 545 233 


9 105 579.539 
8 600 586 780 


8 096 566 374 
187 593 517 736 
7 091 440 276 
6 590 333 402 
6090 196514 
5591 029011 
185 092 830 288 
4595 599.732 
4.099 336730 
3 604 040 663 
3 109 710907 
182 616 346 837 


2 


[1349 
“2 =e = log. a 10, 

541 340800 | 90,964) 411 | 9'318 497 384 goomaae 
© 349937 0447| 416 7 367 784 952 9883 
539 359490 eos 422 6 237 316 416 5942 | 
8 369464 | o89600| 42° 5 105 979 291 2362 

7 379 865 sso atoluers. 3973773 5769144 
536 390 696 8733 436 | 9°312 840 699 273 6288 
5 401 963 8 293 440 1 706 756 381 3794 
4 413670 4848| 445 © 571944 900 1662 
3 425 822 7398| 45°. | 9°309 436.264 Sagigame 
2 438424 ee 455 8 299 716 170 8484 
531 451 481 6484| 459 | 9°3°7 162 298 922 7438 | 
° 464997 Gates 464 6024 013 085 6754 
529 478977 gecr| 469 4 884 858 659 6432 
8 493 426 so77| 473 | 3 744 835 644 6471 
7 508 349 Ssuane 478 | 2 603.944 0406373 
526 523759 |  ,yy_| 483 |9°301 462 183/847 
5 539 633 Bong | 9 319 555 065 8762 | 
4 556004 3137| 492 | 9299 176.057 695 0249 
3 572 867 piean| os 8 031 691 735 2098 
2 590 226 3 - |" Sor 6 886 457 186 4310 
Pals ] 
521 608 087 : x a 506 || 9'295 740 354 048 6883 
© 626 453 Fee OSS 4593 382 3219818 
519 645 33° 6i6n8 | eae 3 445 542 006 3115 
8 664 722 0 089 519 2 296 833 101 6774 
7 684 632 524 I 147 255 6080795 
979 565 
516 705 067 oOa7 528 || 9'289 996 809 525 5178 | 
5 726030 8 504| 533 8 845 494 8539923 | | 
4 747 526 4967| 537 7 693 311 593 5029 
3 769109 | aoe | Bae 6 540259 744.0498 
PTO P ESE elie 546 5 386 339 305 6329 
511 815 255 aay 551 || 9'284 231 550 278 2521 
0 838926 anon 555 3.075 892 661 9076 
509 863 152 B24 559 I 919 366 456 5992 
8 887938 ae 564 © 761971 662 3270 
7 913 287 4 : 568 || 9279 603 708 279 0gIT 
° 
506 939 204 Je wh 572 || 9°278 444 576 306 8913 
5 965 693 3034| 327 7 284575 745 7277 
4992759.) fe, SoH 6 123 706 595 6003 
4 020 406 orbs 585 4961 968 856 5091 
3 048638 : 589 3.799 362 528 4541 
chee 887 611 
502 077 460 onss| 598 92 635 887 611 4353 
T 2O6 875 io Geg8r) aoe 1 471 544 105 4527 
0 136988 | 99 oe 602 © 306 332 010 5062 
499 167 503 ae 5] 606 || 9:269 140 251 326 5960 
8 198724 | ue 610 7.973 302 053 7220 
I 
497 230556 e 615 || 9'266 805 484 191 8841 
6 263002 ee 619 5 636 797 741 0825 
5 296 067 6 2 623 4467 242 701 Lp 
4 329755 Pm) 3 296 819 072 587 
3 364070 bee Me 631 2 125 526 854 8947 


2 
, 


/ ["<-#ae. (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢= 3000. 
reo 


eet ee eee 


THE VALUES OF -7- 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 


1350] 
t H 
1°350 0°943 762 196 122 724 
51 944 320 070 544 
§2|0°944 125 952 583 767 
53 307 094 626170 
54 487747 160 891 
1°355 | 0°944 667 git 150418 
56 847 587 556 589 
57| 945026777 340585 
58 205 481 462930 
59 383 700 883 482 
1°360 | 0°945 561 436 561 433 
61 738 689 455 395 
62 915 460 522943 
63|0°946 091 750 721 514 
64 267 561 007 502 
1'365 | 0°946 442 892 336 703 
66 617 745 664 224 
67 792 121 944 478 
68 966022 131177 
69 | 0°947 139 447 177 333 
1°379 | 0°947 312 398 035 252 
71 484 875 656529 
72 656 880 992 047 
73 828 414 991971 
74 999 478 605 746 
1°375 | 9°948 170072 782 090 
76 340 198 468 g96 
ri 509 856 613 723 
78 679 048 162 794 
79 847 774 061 993 
1°380 | 0°949 016.035 256 363 
81 183 832 690197 
82 351 167,307 040 
83 518 040 049 684 
84 684 451 860 162 
1385 | 0°949 850 403 679 746 
86 | 0°950 015 896 448 944 
87 180 931 107 498 
88 345 508 594 375 
89 509 629 847 769 
1°390 | 0°950 673 295 805 096 
gt 836 507 402 991 
ae 999 265 577 299 
93|0°951 161571 263 083 
94 323 425 394 608 
"395 | 0°951 484 828 905 347 
96 645 782 727972 
97 806 287 794 355 
98 966 345 035 560 
99 | 0°952 125955 381 843 


t 2 
wale dt. 303 
2 t 
ae | foes (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3'000, 
[1399 
A A A 
- in = ee log. (et IO. 
182 123 947 820 492399 OXF 964 419 635 | 9°260 953 366 048 2378 
I 8 - 
1632 513 222 3 ae 3779 a Oe sae eae 
1142 042404 | ¢ 68 3136 43 032 
0652 534721 | 492 507073 | 2 489) 047 7431 672 094 4843 

180 163 989 527 Seg: 961 837 Ose 6 256036 9319722 

179 676 406171 487 383 357 | 4 782| 655 || 9°255979 533 180 4963 
9 189 783 996 Bee hail, cones oye 3,902 160 8400566 
ereqezai4 | > 7}, | 959859| aco 2723 919 9106531 
8219 420552 ae IES 102 67 1 544 810 392 2858 

3 742 600 ae 671 © 364 832 28 6 

177 735 677951 | 958521 | SOF 32 ZOO aA 
7252 893 872 | 452 754080 | 846/675 | 9'249 183.985 588 6597 
6771 067 638 x ee oe 7 167 °79 8 002 270 303 4009 
6 290 198571 ae 6 484 3 6 819 686 429 1784 
5 810 285 988 479 912 593 5797 687 5 636 233 965 9920 

Be ie 261 8 956 786 BeGaos 691 4451912 913 8419 

478 oot 680 694 |9°243 266 723 27272 
4853 327522 68 4412 3 2727279 
4376 280254 i oe ne 3714 oe 2 oe 065 042 one 
3.900 186 699 3 011 7 OSI 3° 22310025 
Bresso tOn Po seoeD |i, 2.400 slo 25042 Be CO3 
if 2? 

172.950 857919 ee 237 951 596 aS 517 278 818 6339 
2477 62x27 | 473 230042 | 4 ggq| 773 | 9237 327 746 232 Jo09 
eos 335578 || 2 | om65| oT BIST GAG O51 Beat 
1533 999924 | 5 332 ore | 949444) Foe a 75 293 9435 
1063 613774 | J¢ - 8 720 ae 3 a 939 941 119 

170594 176 345 co 8 947 991 7 2 560 92G 999 3308 
o 125 686906 | 46 489439 |, 2.9| 732 | 9°231 367 054 468 5788 

moeassnay | 2 242779 | aag| TP 0172 31° 348 8629 
pore | CaeRt] Se) i [ostoiein Hey 
8725 8 

doe as ae APIS 25° co co 747 6 582 866 455 9326 
7797 433 834 463 760535 3545 75° || 9'225 384647 980 3615 
7334 616 844 : ake oo 2791} J54 4 185 nee 915 8266 
6 872 742 644 We: 2 034 (od 2995 005 202 3279 
6411 810478 © 932 166 1273 701 1784781 o19 8654 

Peet «84 459 990 894 Secs 764 0 583 088 188 4391 
5.492 769 198 459 050 385 939.740 768 || 9'219 380526 7680490 
5034 658553 Peale eon le: Le es oe 
Ase S77 | fee 8194| 773 972 798 160 3774 
etete aon) 733482) are| 7 5 767 630 973 0959 

163 665 957 327 eee 936 634 Le 4561 595 196 8505 
3.211 597 894 454 359433 5 848 785 9°213 354690 831 6414 
2758 174309 | 3 423 585 5060; 7-9 2 oe 877 4685 
2305 685783 | 7 42°5? ere ale 822729334 3327 
1854 131 525 T 554258 2 Eee 796 || 9°209 728 766 202 2312 

© 620 786 799 8 518 387 481 1668 

161 403 510739 932 673 

8 449 688 113 802 || 9'207 307 140 171 1386 
pons 72? 025 °8 7562 Heys 806 6095 024 272 146 
ae a é gg ge2 ooo 312 3 668 736 ie oe, 

159 610 346 283 be 47g | 929444] 876 6 3 

159 164 380 80s | 5 995479 | 928628] °* 2453 465 041 3879 


304 


(0°954 619 699 


1°430 
31 
32 
33 
34 
1°435 
36 
37 
38 
39 
1°440 
4I 
42 
43 
44 


I “445 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


i / ‘e-"dt. (2) FROM 


H 


0°952 285 119 762 649 


106 604 
341 520 
394 382 
I9gt 352 
657 765 
718 120 
296 085 
314 487 
695 313 


359 705 
227958 
219 515 
252965 
246 O41 


443 839 
602 114 
759 946 
917 336 


0°953 074 284 
230 792 
386 861 
542 491 
697 683 


0°953 852 439 
0°954 006 759 

160 644 

314.095 

467 113 
115 615 
777 696 
147 428 
139 084 
666 064 
640 896 
975 227 
579 823 
364 567 
238 453 
109 586 
835 179 
471 548 
774 109 
697 379 
144 969 
org 582 
223 012 
656 140 
218 931 


771 853 
923578 
0°955 074 873 
225 739 


0°955 376178 
526190 
675777 
824 939 
973677 


0°956 121 992 
269 884 
417 356 
564 407 
711 039 


0°956 857 253 
0°957 003 049 
148 428 
293 391 
437 940 


0°957 582074 810 432 
725796 328 767 
869 105 671 139 
0'958 012 003 733 821 
154491 412158 
0°958 296 569 600 565 
438 239 192518 
579 501 080 559 
720 356 156 287 
860 805 310 362 


0°959 000 849 432 494 
140 489 411 449 
279 726 135 041 
418 560 490 129 
556993 362 620 


Ai 
+ 


158719 343 956 
8275 234915 
7 832 052 862 
7 389 796971 
156948 466 412 
6 508 060 355 
6068 577965 
5 630 of8 402 
5 192 380826 
154755 664 392 
4319 868 253 
3 884 991 557 
3451 933 450 
3017 993 076 
152585 869 574 
2154 662 081 


I 724 369 732 | 


1 294 991 656 
0 866 526981 
150 438 974 832 
© O12 334 331 
149 586 604 596 
9 161 784 744 
8737 873 886 
148 314 871 134 
7 892 775 593 
7471 586 369 
7 O51 302 561 
6 631 923 270 
146 213 447590 
5795 874613 
5 379 203 430 
4963 433128 
4548 562 791 
144134 591 501 
3721 518 335 
3 309 342 371 
2 898 062 682 
2487 678 338 
142078 188 406 
1669 591953 
1261 888 041 
0 855 075 729 
© 449 154074 
140 044 122 133 


139 639 978955 
9 236 723 592 
8 834 355 089 
8 432 872 491 
138 032 274 839 


Ja! o 
Ag A, 
= - 
445 036850 
: 109 040 a 
3 182 953 ae 
2 255 891 
po oece ee ees 
924 501 
440 406 067 666 
439 482 391 Sree 
8 559 563 1987 
PROG SOL) seen 
6 716 434 
6 140 saat 
435 79 
2 36 696 | 919443 
3.958107 Ee. 
3 040 374 bees 
2 123502 
916 009 
431 207 493 
© 292 350 5 143 
429 378076 | +774 
8 464675 bie 
jee wo ee 
gi1 648 
426 640 501 0 766 
5 729 735 909 882 
4 819 852 3 
3.910857 | 908 
3 002 752 
907 212 
422 095 541 
ae | te 
0 283 807 5 ae 
#29 37012024) ee 
8 475 680 Nine 
; go2 704 
417 57297 
6 671 183 ee 
770 302 
4 870.337 | 299.965 
SOTEeOr | een 
898 125 
413 073 165 — 
2 173964 | 22 
I 279 689 75 
0 384344] 5345 
4og 489931 | . 4483 
893 478 
408 596 453 2 541 
7 793 913 1601 
6 812 312 0658 
5020054 889 712 
5 031942 
A 888 764 
404 1431 
3 255364 | Jord 
2 368 503 
r 482 598 5 995 


4947 


© 597651 | 883 986 | 


#=1'000 TO ¢=3000, 


log. a 


9'201 237 874 786 540 
0021 415 942 729 
9°198 804 088 5099 4 
7585 892 488 2162 
6 366 827 8775 38 


9°195 146 894 677 8471 
3.926 092 889 2176 
2704 422 511 633 3 
1 481 883 545 066 
0258475 989 5440 


9'189 034 199 845 059 
7 809 055 111 61 
6 583 041 789 
5 356 159 877 8207 
4 128 409 377 480 


I 670 302 Gog | 
© 439 946 342 
9179 208 721 486 
7976628 o41 


9°176 743 666 007 19 
5 509 835 384 116 
4275 136 17205 
3 039 568 3710 
1 803 131 981 of 65 

9°170 565 827 002 I: 

9°169 327 653 434 217 
8 088 611 277 34 
6 848 700 5315! 
5 607 g2t 196 716 


9°164 366 273 2 
3.123 756 7 
1 880 371 6 
0 636 117 967 
9°159 390.995 68827 
9°58 145 004 819 6 
6 898 145 362 
5 650417 315! 
4 401 820 680 
3152355 455 
9°151 902 021 64 
0 650 819 23 
9°149 398 748 2 
8 145 808 6 


9°145 637 323 74 08 
4 381778 39 
3.125 364 4 
1 868 081 932 
0 609 930 81 


ELS; rt cee, tC en lee 


THE VALUES OF — | ‘ede, 
/7J 0 


Bafta 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—, | e-"dt. (2) FROM 
- 0 


H 


A 
+ 


1 


07959 695 025 637459 


51 832658 198 633 
52 969 891 929 164 
53 |0°960 106 727 711 109 
54 243 166 425 556 


0°960 379 208 952 623 


56 514856 171 455 
57 650 108 960 220 
58 784.968 196 109 
59 919 434 755 333 


0°961 053 509 513 118 


61 187 193 343 797 
62 320487 120355 
63 453391 715 326 
64 585 907 999 891 


0°961 718 036 844 329 


66 849 779 I17 921 
67 981 135 688 946 
68|0°962 112 107 424 686 


69 242 695 191 416 


0°962 372 899 854 406 


71 502 722 277918 
72 632 163 325 203 
73 761 223 858 499 
74 889 904 739 031 


0°963 018 206 827 005 


76 146 130 981 608 
aah 273 678 061 007 
78 400 848 922 343 


527644 421 734 
07963 654 065 414 269 


81 780 112 754007 
82 905 787 293 976 
83 | 0°964 031 089 886170 
84 156021 381 545 


0°964 280 582 630022 


86 404774 480 481 
87 528597 780 758 
88 652053 377 647 
89 775 142 116 896 


0°964 897 864 843 204 


QI |0°965 020 222 4oo 221 
92 142 215 630545 
93 263 845 375 720 
94 385 112 476 234 


495 |0°965 506 017 771 519 
96 626 562 099 945 
97 746 746 298 822 
98 866 571 204 399 


99 986 037 651 857 


137 632 561 174 
7 233 73° 531 
6 835 781945 
6 438 714 447 
136042 527067 
5 647 218 832 
5 252 788 765 
4859 235 889 
4 466 559 224 
134074 757785 
3 683 830589 
3 293 776 648 
2904 594971 
2516 284 566 
132 128 844 438 
1742 273591 
I 356 571026 
C1972 735 74° 
0587 766 730 
130 204 662 990 
129 822 423 512 
9441 047 285 
9 060 533 297 
8 680 880 532 
128 302 087 974 


7924 154603 
7547 279 398 
7170 861 336 
6795 499 391 
126 420 992 535 


6 047 339 738 
5674 539969 
5 302 592 193 
4931 495 376 
124 561 248 477 
4191 850458 
3 823 300277 
3.455 596 889 
3.088 739 249 
122 722 726 308 


235597 O17 
LD Baia: 
1629 745175 

I 267 100514 
120905 295 284 
0544 328 426 
0 184 198 878 
119 824 905 577 
466 447 458 
119 108 823 454 


VOL, XXXIX. PART IL 


(NO, 9). 


37 


37 


305 


t=1:000 TO ¢=3000. 


[1°499 


a Ae 
- - 
713 665 
830 643 ore 
942580 1088 
eco o 118 
187 380 
879 144 
$92 235 | 3169 
430 067 Peon 
Bs2e78 6 210 
676 666 
801 438 527 
874 242 
es 3 254 
053 942 2 264 
181 677 — 
eae 0 278 
hae 869 281 
SS 
702 566 rake 
835 286 6276 
969 o10 5 270 
103 74° 86 
z 8 4262 
39 47 
376 227 es 
513 988 1 EBE 
652 765 Sec, 
(ez oae le 
59 187 
933 oe 8 166 
075 20 
218 062 Hees 
361 945 
506 866 | 5999 
854.059 
652797 3.028 
799 769 1994 
947 776 0958 
096 818 Ba0\9z0 
246 898 2 
48 880 
398 019 7 838 
550181 6.794 
703 388 5 748 
857 640 hee 
O12 941 
169 291 843 650 
8 
485 149 0 488 
644 661 | g55 431 
805 230 
838 371 
966 858 one 
129 548 6 247 
293 301 5 182 
458 119 4115 
624.004 | 333 047 


log. Fe? 410, 
Tv 


NA 


9°139 350911 II5 3273 


8 o9g1 022 823 3260 
6 830265 942 3608 
5 568640 472 4319 
4 306146 413 5391 
9°133 042 783 765 6826 
1778552 528 8622 
© 513 452 7030780 
9°29 247 484 288 3300 
7980647 2846183 


9°126 712 941 691 9427 
5 444 367 510 3033 
4174 924 739 7001 
2904 613 3801331 
I 633 433 431 6022 

9°120 361 384 894 1076 

9°119 088 467 767 6492 
7 814 682 052 2269 
6 540027 747 8409 
5 264504 8544911 


9°13 988 113 3721774 
2 710 853 300 8999 
I 432 724 6406587 
0153727 391 4536 
9°108 873 861 553 2847 


9°107 593 127 1261520 
6 311 524 1100555 
5 029052 5049952 
3745 712 3109711 
2 461 503 527 9832 
Q°I01 176 426 1560315 
9°099 890 480 195 1159 
8 603 665 645 2366 
7 315 982 506 3935 
6 027 430 778 5865 
9'094 738010 461 8158 
3447 721 5560812 
2156564 o61 3828 
0 864 537 977 7207 
9°089 571 643 305 0947 


9°088 277 880 043 5049 
6 983 248 192 9513 
5 687747 753 4339 
4 391378 7249527 
3094 141 107 5077 
9°081 796 034 gor 0989 
© 497060 105 7262 
9079 197 216 721 3898 
7 896 504 748 0896 
6 594.924 185 8255 


2 7 


306 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=-—2- 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


¢ 
['<-#at. (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO Z= 3'000. 


[1'598 


Nal o 
1°500] 
t H i ms . = | log. ei To, 
150007966 TOG t46)475.31" | 0-4 148 robo, (2427 24 898 |. 651 s19|*7 126 | 9°075 292 475 034 5677 
2 342 294 581 325 5727 592635 | 70 573379 | 34 32% 182 
: §78.022 173960 | 4 313 713593 | 73 879042 | T7098] 238 
6 812 335 887552 | 3506 451649 | °F 267944 |g nog 8o5| 293 || 9°07 4505s 
8] 0'967 045 242 339 201 00 662 139 347 
‘ 231505 789510 6 582 458 
I°510| 0'967 276 748 128712 O11 709 830 I 394 079 680 65 058 17 400 || 9'062 220 211 129 3008 
12 506 859 838541 | 103 424 195 207 87 514622 47 606, 457 || 9°°595eamame 280 6865 
14 735 584 033 749 7343 228 191 80 967 017 3o102| 294 
16 902 927 205939) e683 corey | ito) axetene| moos 
18 | 0°968 188 896 053 215 67 924 367 604 
224 600 866 908 6 494944 
1°520 | 0'968 413 496 920123 3230 437 484 I 361 429424 yor 7 653 | 9°049 061 088 327 6412 | 
22 636 736 357607 | ¥ 884 485 351 54 952133 sgzgo| 7° 
24 858 620 842 959 eee go2 eg)| 4° 49724 Means 748 
BB |io'9G9'07 9150825 709 1 rea aie monn 12 oc oe) eels 
28 298 350 777 877 35 626651 839 | 9°038 471 251 6809124 
217 858 315 458 6 406 210 
1°53 | 0°969 516 209 093 336 6 529 095 017 |1 329 22° 441 |. 388 326 17 884 | 9'035 815 106 629 5921 
32 732738 188 353 Bein ao see 22NO2 PALS rago8 927 | 
34 947 944 451255 | 2 885 801186 | 1° 402 727 52 428|_. 97° 
36 | 0°970 161 834 252 441 2 579 691 897 To 109 288 Arua 18 o12 || 9'027 825 825 3404998 
38 374.413 944 338 03 774872 |. 053 
211 275 917026 6 316 363 | 
m 54001970 585.089 500464 Po oS ueSer, hoo! oo oo ulale 8 26(0° 004 || 9022 aoa 1622 
42 795 668 319 880 8687 298277 QI 160240 os 736 133 || 9'019 805 274 848 7106 
44 | 0°971 004 355 618157 7 402 418 173 84 880 104 61 964 172 
46 2II 758 036 330 6123 800034 78 618 140 43 754 210 
48 417 881 836 364 poten eers 72 374 385 bee eae 247 
1°550 | 0°971 622 733 262013 3.585 276771 1 266 148 878 oy 225 8 283 || 9'009 062 566 544 3518 
52 620350 538 740) 2 aoe Gas eto) 120 24. Co oalpme cena 
BA) 01072102 8045887310924 rier 582371 | 53 752747 | yoeea| 353 
56 B20 B58 273) g Beuloeot a | ead oe ere 
58 429 539 456450 Be get hae 4I 430028 suena 420 || 8'998 264 268 546 3093 
1°560| 0°972 628 122 026 600 i: : 4 368 |! 235 296 282 e Beni 452 || 8°995 556008 157 1606 
ee Bz tO soAeg 6318 ah 881 20180025 6 096 810 a4 
64))'0'973'02% 5827303349 | 1855 Go8703 | 73 CHEM NligS ooo) Meet 
66 216 482 402 053 3 678 002 822 17 005 881 59 752 544 || 8°987 410 380 854 5832 
68 410 160 404 875 igs a6) Cee ees 10 946 130 beasties 573 
1'570 | 0°973 602 627 461567 | “1 36, yar qgx [1204 904951 | 9p gy z|T8 602 | 8°981 962 590 873 588 
72 | 793 889 613308 | 5 563 26 467 [1 198 882375 | 3.948) 629|| 8'979 233.484 3493088 
74 | DoS 5 e SOI a ae, Boe ozo wee 878 427 Big8< co: 656 
76 |0'974.172 823 273 614 7 683 497 804 86 893 135 66 609 682 
78 360 506 771 419 Beet aeee 80 926 526 dee ames 707 
1°580 | 0'974 547 009 342 697 5327 592655 1174 978 624 29 170 18 732 
82, 732 33 935 35 | 4358 343 201 | 169°049453 | so4rs| 75° 
84 916 495 478553 | 995 404162 | ©3 139939 |x gor 636) 779 
86 0°975 099 490 882 715 1 838 156 760 57 247 493 72 835 801 
88 Be OSA a oae Wea Ngee: 374 567 nee 822 || 8957 275 555 344 2904 
1'590 |0°975 462015 821 668 179 41 261638, [7 145 520554 35 r70|2® 843 || 8°954 515 179 617 3033 
92 Diy O3 320!) ” BGs 576254) 39 085 395 |) gaiz06| obs 
94 819958 659 560 aur Sot as 33 869078 5 797 424 883 || 8°948 984.005 095 7835 
96 997 226 366 735 6 139 635 621 28 071 655 78 523 gol 
98 | 0°976 173 366 002 255 178 017 342 389 22 203 132 |. 729603 


2 684.970 965 2505 
© 073 992 5400482 


4841 612 622 0778 


6 966 985 076 2080 
4 335 160 515 8473 
I 699 861 599 6854 


6 418 840 699 7419 
3773 118 715 9873 
1123 922 3763774 


3.155 487 222 4166 
© 492 393 459 3858 


5 155 782 865 7587 


7124 809 306 4037 
4 440 869 408 2416 
1753455 154 2243 © 


6 368 203 5786240 | | 
3 670 366 257 0410 
0 969 054 579 6028 


2 844 273 4321567 
0 129 064 311 2976 


4 688 223 0420136 


6 500 903 469 1735 
3 764 848 233 1831 
1025 318 641 3373 
8968 282 314 693 6364 | | 
5 535 836 390.0802 | | 
2 785 883 7306689 
0 032 456 715 4022 


I 751 329 5344710 


6 213 206 301 2408 
3.438.933 1508428 


2 ft 2 
THE VALUES OF —-| e- dt. 


307 
VJ 0 
are =1'000 TO ¢= 3000. 
JABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—-|« ®g¢, (2) FROM ¢=1'000 3 
: 1°698 
| 1600] [ 
A A; A, A, 2 oe 
H e > i: 5 log. oe + Io, 
116 2 18 936 || 8°940 661 185 644 5896 
— 35 oe es Bee 2) | ial po bar P1428 al o57 Brsises 18a 4ee2 
a] 695074 169 503 ge ee i | -o5 5,6) 968 5095 26) SOLEUS 
68 8 2 3070 ° 
Bee) 2255 | ots sass [OP 35E% | char] 984] 0 307 296 Bue O88 
ae Sa aaa 88 8 sug I || 8°926 720 332 775 4952 
i 1088 otg 874 19 OI ; 
. : a eee ge 98)! 8, ues poe “Gey | | geet es Dear 
2 
* oe S6r 952377 LS 2 os 76 747 392 oF fae 037 I 119671 1368709 
: 8 806 702 804 ry 71 139 700 048 || 8°918 314 128 783 7759 
a OT ie can ose (380044 Coal gos 1x2 o7a bese 
8 
"978 038 088 373 203 Oa 1059 981 471 5 599 5°5 19 069 || 8'912 692 621 O10 0202 
6 x40, | 3048 078 201 oe 30.956 505721 079 | 8-909 876 655 589 3595 
oe 363 130 098 650 1993 047 an 48 899 519 a wa 088 7057215 812 8436 
2 24074 846376 |_ 944 14777 | 43 387 170 o2| 096 || 4.234 301 680.4724 
- 283 976 206 932 Bag o* 38015 5 37 893918 9 493 253 103 I 407 913 192 2461 
‘ 153 363 466 638 5 474 149 | 
630 | 0°978 842 839 673 570 ? 8 : 6 870 |2932 419 768 SOE oo ee Ete Io oO 
I 
© Tile'979 000 670 720.440 ee a 26 0647720 voz) T7|| 5744713 148 2277 
: 157474 802 580 Bet 082 14 21 528 807 a3 Beal 222 2 907 9OI 592 4356 
. 13257 355913 5 782 553 333 16 I12007 6 127 0067 615 680 7884 
: Fehon 7 240 pepe o 4471520 IO 714 334 5 397973 131 || 8°887 223 855 413 2859 
: rid 153755 726992 5 378 542 
979 6 24 232 1005 335792 19 135 | 8°884 376 620 789 9282 
774529 915 432 8 999 976 386 ne 3 5259 
yi 926 280 330 247 ke 778 608 994 636117 a ore 140 || 8°878 om 728 475 Ste 
: SS 8 8 142 5 814070 784723 
33 Ee ae 654 ator en arg 2532698 07 oie6 
bia 148 782 450 70 282 843 
49 702 450 707 5 | 8-840 088 
‘ 8 60 19 144 70 088 332 335 3112 
“= ae 3 a ae 03 120 SAT eh 186 Bee e5e99 4 144 || 8°867 220 251 576 8221 
2 eereicg;003 | ° 830 254088 | 968 221 906 se yra| 143) 4.348.696 462 Le 
66 816 081 030173 oe aa 6 | 962 996 494 06 270, 142 I 473 666 992 2783 
23 960 980 065 859 LS) hie 957 790 223 = y 140 || 8°858 595 163 166 2235 
143.941 245 463 Sed Soa Selle came eee 
1°660 | o°981 104 921 311 322 2 988 642 371 952 603 093 67.993 19 ay 35 es 
62 247 909 953 693 pyr | 947 435999 | 48 89 
64 389 951 160964 A ae a ae 942 286 240 29 729 130 8°849 938 805 552 es 
2 : 12 7 046 404 303 4 
= Bo 25° 081 995 0161 764520] 937 so be 10602) peeve 28 Gas eas 
- at 139 229 718611 ee a 5 0g 481 ae ae 
: 6 | 8°841 251 178 7369352 
— a = A BS Te ae - 38 a 72 365 ae 8-848 Be 354 Be 8939 
= 0982 286 is ae Ae Ne se 916 828 807 oe ee 5 442 035 ee Bae 
II 6 09 2532282 71824 
3 asbiat gassoe | 5852 258659 | 3c% 179 Se 15°59 988 || 8-829 619 035 333 6385 
. Be. |134645 479050 | © LCST alae ' nee 
1°680 | 0°982 492 787 002 465 695 429 gol 783 632 76 887 19 080 2 702 313 593 se 
82 626 530 697 894 | 3743 033 Ae? | 896 806 744 g7816| O77] 3782 117 496858 
84 759377 586578 | 7-4 2 | 891 848928 Byeal 002 0 858 447 044 6862 
86 891 332 626 334 1955 039 75 886 g10 174 3 3| 252 | 8°817 931 302 236 6582 
88 Beas 072 a 755 916 OCS EG ey 881 990 472 BO) US 042 5 000 683 0727751 | 
660 
A *98 86 8 6 ee 139: 410 877 089 812 eae 19 031 || 8°812 066 589 553 0367 
Pe 35? 5 Sokee 049 298 4 881 630 88 6 na 
92 281 845 944 324 Bi ae ie 9 872 208 182 Galera | 059 09 129 021 677 443 
94) 410332 785439 | 280 Oe C1) | 867 345 72d aod °°! oe 979 445.9943 
96 537902 280983 6.706 993 575 862 501 96 18 994 


664 609 274 558 


125 849 316216 


677 359 


4 805 628 


0295 471 915 5310 


308 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 


H 


DR JAS. 


A, 
+ 


0983 790 458 590775 
915 455 935 259 
0°984 039 603 394673 
162 908 436 721 
285 374 910172 
0°984 407 007 544 868 
527 811 051 746 
647 790 122 848 
766 949 431 343 
885 293 631539 
0°985 002 827 358906 
119 555 2390990 
235 481 842 933 
350611 776 492 
464949 591059 


0°985 578 499 828 180 
691 267 010677 
803 255 642 665 
914 470 209 578 
0'986 024915 178189 


0°986 134 594 996 633 
243 514 094 426 
351676 882 493 
459 087 753 189 
565 751 080 323 

0°986 671 671 
776 852 
881 299 
985 015 

0°987 088 006 


0°987 190 275 
291 826 667 385 
392 664 885 925 
492 794 094 795 
592218 483 758 


0°987 690 942 224 322 
788 969 469 770 
886 304 355 186 
982 950 997 489 
0°988 078 913 495 458 
0988 174 195 929 768 
268 802 363 016 
362 736 839755 
456.003 386520 
548 606 o11 870 


219 182 
506 560 
260 776 
781 705 
350 802 


231 130 


0'988 640 548 706 408 
731 835 442 823 
822 470 175918 
912 456 842 644 
0'98g9 ool 899 362 132 


—_ — 


124996 444 485 

4148 359413 

3 305 042 048 

2466 473 451 
121 632 634 696 
506 878 
O71 102 
308 494 
200 196 
727 307 
871 184 
612 843 
933 529 
814567 
227 LOK 
182 496 
631 988 
566 913 
968 612 
818 443 
097 793 
788 067 
870 696 
327 134 
138 860 
287 378 
754216 
520929 
569 097 
880 328 
436 255 
218540 
208 870 
388 963 
98 723 740564 
98 027 245 448 
97 334 885 416 
96 646 642 302 
95962 497970 
95 282 434 310 
94 606 433 248 
93 934 476 738 
93 266 546 766 
92 602 625 349 
91.942 694 538 
gi 286 736415 
90 634 733 095 
89 986 666 725 
89 342 519 488 


0 803 
119979 
9159 
8 344 
117 533 
6 727 
5.926 
5 129 
4 337 
113550 
2767 
1 988 
1214 
© 444 
109 679 
8 919 
8 162 
7 410 
6 663 
105 920 
5 181 
4446 
3716 
2990 
102 268 
1551 
0 838 
0129 
99 424 


88 702 273599 | 4° 


2 


BURGESS ON 


Na} 0 
Aes As A, 
— + ad 
852 871731 | ye cel!® 36 
43 317305 | °2 720 039 
38 568598 | 4°7°7| gag 
33 838 754 Ss 44) 908 
829 127 819 * 692 onal? 892 
2 6 875 || 
ue dag | 73768 308 
15 108 298 Seatiea 841 
10 472 829 35 469 23 
805 85618 weenie se 80 
oI Se 4 597 842 785 
796 679284 | 79°57 466 
92 118992 ey 746 
87 577 446 rer 725 
783 054625 Ms 18 704 
78 550508 aan) 8 
74 065075 EO 661 
69 598302 | 00773) 639 
65 150168 * a 616 
760 720650 ae 8 593 
56.309 726.| ed! BIO 
BE QTIGIE A 97, eral) Bae 
Aj5igs62 || oe 521 
43 388274 | ve | 496 
738 851 482 ea 4 18 471 
34 533 162 | 378320 16 
go2a328) Maes ie 419 
25 951 832 393 
21 688 769 ae 366 
717 444073 | 9 29/18 339 
13 217 716 Ae 25) Bin 
09 009 670 ge au6 283 
04 819 907 [+ 789793) 55 
00 648 399 (ee 226 
696 495 117 4 153 282 18 197 
92 360032 35085 a 
88 243 114 TOIg3° 137 
84 144333 | °28 78%] roy 
80 063 659 sig 076 
676 oot 062 BCC CIED 8 045 
71 956510 44 55? O14 
67 929972 aoe 17 982 
63 921 416 2 556 950° 
59 930 811 399° 918 
655 958123 97S Lng 885 
52 003 320 54 803 852 
48 066 370 36951) gig 
44 147237 | 32235] 785 
245 889 ae erst 


3 883 597 


7 


['<-#at. (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3'000. 


[1798 


log. ae 10. 


a 
8°797 344 006 616 5165 


‘794 389 066 961 6468 
‘791 430652 9509218 
"788 468 764 584 3416 | 
"785 503 401 861 9062 | 


8°782 534564 783 6156 
‘779 562 253 349 4697 
‘776 586 467 559 4687 
‘773 607 207 413 6124 
"770 624 472 911 9008 


8°767 638 264 054 3341 | 
"764 648 580 8409121 
"761 655 423 271 6349 
"758 658 791 346 5024 
"755 658 685 065 5148 


8°752655 104 428 6719 
"749 648 049 435 9738 
‘746 637 520087 4204 
743 623 516 383 o118 
°740 606 038 322 7481 


8°737 585 085 906 6290 
‘734 560 659 134 6548 
*731 532 758 006 8253 | 
728 501 382 523 1400 | 
"725 466 532 683 6007 | 


8°722 428 208 488 2055 | 
‘719 386 409 936.9552 | 
"716 341 137 029 8496 
713 292 389 766 8887 
"710 240 168 1480727 


8°707 184 472 173 4014 
"704 125 301 842 8749 
"701 062 657 156 4932 
"697 996 538 114 2562 
"694.926 944 716 1640 

8:691 853 876 962 2166 
"688 777 334 852 4140 
"685 697 318 386 7561 
682 613 827 565 2430 
"679 526 862 387 8747 

8°676 436 422 854 6512 
"673 342 508 965 5724 
‘670 245 120 7206384 
667 144 258 119 8492 
‘664 039.921 163 2048 


8°660 932 109 850 705% 
657 820 824 182 3502 
"654 706 064 158 1401 
"651 587 829 7780747 
*648 466 121 042 1541 


2 


‘etd 309 
THE VALUES OF v= € . 
Be en 5% 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—7- / beatae (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢= 3000. 
1°800] [1°898 
A A2 A; A, ee 
t H Ee a i iz log. Te + Io. 
: 6 || 8°6 0 378 
Bere cy cas cay | 28055 982 307 | 5, S06 ae [8 805881]? Gaol ugas Sra 2b6 Soe Sane 
P 266 za od 4 87433 414 895 628 648 212 AS'TOO 646 || *639 080 148 699 2611 
6 352 805 728615 | 0°04 790683 | 1 giz 659 | 39553! Gir] -635 944.542 5399196 
8 8985 6776 se Oenign 49:73 I 004718 baa 575 || °632 805 462 024 7229 
85 558 944 306 6 B 70338° 17 540 B69 662 907 1536710 
: ; 17 209 351 
=” ae 236 ae 300 SOH10 754 954 3 ee oe (eal 503 || *626516 877 926 7638 
‘, 6 eas 660 329 Baise 25305 430 609 671 201 6p ae 467 ||. 623 307 374 344 0014 
Pr 220) 2h 34a | 42 °57| - Az0l| -G2o2ra 996 405 2838 
18 ae 56 441 pomuer 703 24 2 202918 75 427 393 || °617057944 IIOQIIO, 
Pe | vo8. age B80 nn ley gual 8-679/898'cry 450 e826 
; eee sos Fe aaon | 21912 006 083 a ne: 3 990079)" 318) -6r0 734.616 454 3996 
| el ae 38 ae Be puget i201 879 “I 130 843 73 361 280 || *607 567 741 092 3611 
zs iter ojo, | 20720 071035 587 474762 | 500°] 24x 604397 391 374 4674 
28 267 250 372678 poison 590 274 3 835 921 vs a 203 || “601 223567 3007184 
79 554 760 352 3 621 637 4 
4 i 80 214 28 17 164 || 8°598 046 268 871 1142 
: ia ae a 679099 | 78.974 546068 | Fe coo arx | OF4731| ras | 594 865 496 085 O548 
504177 615 357 HT 930 255 12 022 462 3597 34° 086 || “591 681 248 944 3402 
36 582.002 529 153 | 77924 913790 | 565 452199 | 7°73) 046 | -588.493 527 447 1703 
38 659257 990749 | 77755 461 59° | ° & 808 983 o3 217] 006] “585 302 331 504 1452 
76 689 562 614 3 536210 SNe eee fs 
; : 7661 385 2649 
cys fae, | 70227 19984r | 55 25 5 | 29244l Oo6 | -e78 909 5x6 bes ga9s 
z 887 643 “ben 75 568 356313 |? aT 210 |, 02388) 885 || +575 707 897 899.9386 
46 962 656 124620 Borer 5: O85: 103 t 855777 3 2 Bae 844 || 572 502 804 623 4926 
48|o"991 037 117 283947 | 74401 159327 | 543 387188] © che 803 |) “569 294 236 991 1913 
oe oe Se nat7ane-saniceen 

; ‘ 95° 003 0349 

= _ Bs Bo ae Bee gargor 830739 cs ae a 3 435 973 a O62 866 678 659 0232 
34 257 224 229178 | 7226 339356 | 63 O82 077 78 3°21 679 || 559.647 687 959 1563 
56 329512 483.456 | 72285 254279 °°, 680454 |, gi cgt| 937|| “556425 222 903 4342 
58 401 266 057 282 72753 a ise I 295 467 3 cee a 595 || “553199 283 491 8568 

Gee ea 53 oe 16 5&2 || 8-549 960 86 

Si , 9 999 009 724 4242 

| ‘a _ a iS ase e TOCA 35% 283 ae ae Be pute oe 546 736981 601 1364 
64 613 352 462970 | 7209 775047 | F345 006 33 33°| 467 || °543 500619 121 9934 
66 683 000 999 112 69 648 536 142 517 921043 os 3) 424 || +540 260 782 286 9951 
68 752131 614.211 | ©9130 915099 | ~ 4 618 604 i pi 381 || 537017471 096 1417 

2 fe) 

‘870 | 0°991 820 747 610 707 pa BIT 332 545 é "116 337 || 8°533 779 685 549 4330 
72 888 852 274 657 Beno 895 5 508 062 824 eo 294 || *539520425 646 8690 
74 956 448 875 784 Pus IorCOt 127 4) 809 396 534 3} 250| °527 266 691 388 4499 
76 | 0°992 023 540 667 515 preg 79" 731 1 572 218 37 a 206 || *524009 482 7741755 
78 099 130 887 027 OLE 9S BU 498 351 246 22 a 162 || °520748 799 8040458 

"880 | 0°992 156 2 popeors 208 266 146 435 one sola 16 117 || 8°517 484642 478 0610 
82 221 819 477 125 So 2Uo3 1 957742 |° 623; 073) ‘544217 010 796 2209 
84 286 924 241214 | 05 104 794089 | 13g o85 12x | 72 028) 510945 904 758 5256 
86 351540 220183 Sane) 978 909 5 628528 ae a 15 983 || *507 671 324 3649751 
88 415 670 570624 = fe aa ay 2 487917 ; a ae 938 | “504 393 269 615 5694 

, 47 862 524 3 

890 | 0°992 479 318 433 148 A 68 i 479 363 245 08 780 15 893 oes a 740 510 3084 
92 542 486 932 427 | 03 19° 499279 | 6 204 465 847 || °497 826 737 049 19 
94 605 179 177 241 es EUs 3 161 532 3 992933! 802) -494538259 232 2208 
96 667 398 260522 - ae ae aos © 084 401 i ae 756 eae 246 oe 059 3941 

174© 99° 600 IO || *487 950000 5307123 
98 729 147 259 403 ercenc 7a See 467 023026 3 045 666] 7 2 


310 


2 [t ine a 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—,| eg ig) Rom ¢=1000 =e 
“0 900 ‘000. 


H 


Digoe pe MApiEs> 257 


851 247 233 752 
gIt 604 284 889 
971 503 403 052 
0°993 030947 587054 
07993 089 939 820 183 
148 483 070 250 
206 580 289 633 
264 234 415 327 
321 448 368 988 


0°993 378 225 056985 
434 567 370440 
490 478 185 284 
545 960 362 296 
601 016 747157 


0°993 655 650 170 496 
709 863 447 937 
763 659 380 148 
817.040 752 886 
870010 337 052 


0°993 922 570 888 733 
974 725 149 251 
0°994.026475 845 217 
077 825 688 574 
128777 376645 


0°994 179 333 592 189 
229 497 003 442 
279 270 264 169 
328656 013 716 
377 656 877053 


0°994 426 275 464 828 
474 514 373 415 
522376 184964 
569 863 467 457 
616 973 774 712 

0°994 663 724 646 530 
710 103 608 646 
756118 172 826 
801 770 836 911 
847 064 084 862 


0°994 892 000 386 814 
936 582 199 122 
980 811 964 416 
0°995 024 692 111 644 
068 225 056130 


0°995 III 413 199 617 
154258 930321 
196 764 622 980 
238 932 638 904 
280 765 226026 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


Ay 
+ 


60 357 O51 137 
59 899 118 163 
59 444 184002 
58]992 233 129 
58543 250067 
58097 219 383 
57654 125 694 
57 213 953 662 
56.776 687 996 
56 342 313 455 
55 910 814 843 
55 482 177012 
55056 384 861 
54633 423 339 
54.213 277 441 
53795 932210 
53 381 372 739 
52969 584 166 
52 560 551 680 


52154 260519 
51750 695 966 
51 349 843 356 
50951 688072 
50556 215 544 
50 163 411 253 
49 773 260 728 
49 385 749 546 
Agieso1 803337 
48 618 587775 
48 238 908 587 
47 861 811 548 
47 487 282 483 
47 115 307 265 
46 745 871 818 
46 378 962 116 
46.014 564 180 
45 652 664085 
45 293 247951 
44.936 301 952 
44581 812 309 
44.229 765 294 
43 880 147 229 
43 532 944 486 
43 188 143 487 
42 845 730704 
42 505 692 659 
42 168 015 924 
41 832 687 123 
41 499 692 926 


977 360 
© 947 358 
932 974 
4 934161 
I 950873 
983 063 
6 030 684 
3 093 689 
oO 172032 
265 665 


374 541 
I 498 612 
637 831 
5 792 151 
2 961 522 


145 898 
345 231 
4 559472 
I 788573 
032 486 
291 162 
3 564553 
o 852610 
155 285 
5 472528 
804 291 
© 150525 
Cito 
4 886}210 


2 275 562 : 


679 188 
7 097 939 
4 529065 

1 975 218 

435 447 


909 703 
4 397935 
I 900 096 
416 134 
6 945999 


489 643 
2 047015 
618 065 
7 202 743 
4 800 999 
342 412 783 
© 038045 
337 676 735 
5 328 802 
2 994 196 


A, A, 
+ ¥ 
3 030 002 5 a 
T4324), saa 
2 998 813 325 
83 288 Re 
2 967 810 
52.379] > 484 
36994) 344 
a 657 200 
06 367 Bie 
2 891 124 
75929] > 198 
GoWP ats cae 
45 681 ae 
30 628 a 
2 815 624 
00 667 au 95° 
2785759] 860 
e 899 812 
59007 ro 
PAE BAA ie 
26 609 
11 943 Ae 
2 697325] 269 
82757) 220 
2 668 237 
65764 
39344) 343 
24971 23 
10 648 He 
2 596 374 
Pd 149 14225 
67973) 148 
53 848 aoe 
39772) oan 
2 525 744 
II 767 13.977 
2 497 840 378 
eaoee 828 
(es tae 
2 456 356 
42 628|°9 a 
28950 Abs 
15 322 
cra 528 
2 388 216 
74738) 3 as 
61 310 378 
47 933 327 
34 605 ae 
\2 321 328 


8°434 751 543 675 4 


8 || 8332 605 481 5. 


[1'998 
22m 


log eo +10, 


8°484 651979 646 1752 
"481 349 604 405 7828 
"478 043 754 809 5353 | 
‘474 734 430 857 432 
"471 421 632 549 4745 

8°468 105 359 885 6613 | 
‘464 785 612 865 9928 | 
"461 462 391 490 4691 
"458 135 695 759 0902 | 
"454 805 525 671 8561 | 

8451 471 881 228 7667 
*448 134 762 429 8227 


‘441 450 101 764 367 
438 102 559 897 857 


"431 397 053 0972 
"428 039 088 163 194 
"424677 648 873 2637 
"421 312 735 22747] 


8°417 944 347 22 
"414.572 484 868; 
"411 197 148 154986 
"407 818 337 085 77 
"404 436 051 660716 


8401 050 291 87 


"390 872 166 401 
387 472 509 19 
8-384 069 377 63 
*380 662 771 72 
"377 252 691 449 42 
"373 839 136 821 66¢ 
°370 422 107 828054 
8367 001 604 4985 
"363 577 626 80 
*360 150174 75 
"356 719 248 345° 
"353 284 847 582 


8°349 846 972] 46 
"346 405 622 96 
"342 960 799 15 
°339 512 500 97 
*336 060 728 42 


*329 146 760 2' 
*325 684 564 66 
*322 218 894 70 
"318 749 75° 38 


an ne na a ae 


2 


t 2 
THE VALUES OF —-| €~ dt. 311 
| 2°000 | [2'098 
|| ae H = 2 a As log. ae IO. 
l2'000 | 07995 322 265 018953 Ben ake one | O60 672 868 13 227 || 8°315 277 131 703 9070 
2 303 434 039 OIT ie B40 ane ae 328 304 766 |” es ae 177|| °311 801 038 6707533 
4 404 274 694 303 514 585 450 6 069842 | 23, 790 120|| 308 321 471 281 7445 
6 444 789 279 754 190 797 408 3 788043 | Jeg 723 076] -304 838 429 536 8804 
: ise 2 8087 | la aex6g7| °° || 307 357973 436 1622 
27010 | 0°995 524 849 355 248 550 014 464 | 319 263 623 242 722|12 975 || 8297 861 922 979 5866 
12 564 399 309 712 332 993 562 Teor on eco 204 308 45 107 1508 
14 Bes632) 393 274 | 48.978 202457 | 4 795795 | ar6q22| 275|) 299871 518 9988718 
16 642 550 565 731 G@eossaye | 7 514 183 | 254 098 824 || *287 371 105 4747316 
18 681 156 194 004 ice oe © 370086 Pee 774 || °283 867 217 594 7362 
2720) 0995 719451 452792 | 32 O80 79.426 | 308 178762 | 128 Goo)! 724 || 8280 359 855 358 8855 
| Fae 757438 531 618 681 079 264 6 000 162 165 927 673|| °276 849 018 767 1796 
24 795 119 610 882 377 245 030 3 834 235 153 304 623]] °273 334707 819 6185 
26 832 496 855 912 075 564.099 I 680930 iG ee 572 || °269 816922 516 2022 
28 869 572 420011 299 540199 522 || °266 295 662 8569306 
36 776 023 901 2 128210 
2°030 | 0°995 906 348 443 912 478 611 912 297 411989 Pee ae\ 472 || 8'262 770928 841 8038 
32 942 827 055 824 183 315 661 5 296251 103 316 421} °259 242720 470 8218 
34 S78 494 | 800 r22726 | 3 197935 |p ogog4s| 377] (255722037 743 9845 
36 | 0°996 014 900 494 210 599 020737 I 101 989 078 625 321 || °252 175 880 661 29021 
38 eT | oy 007372 219) CE SEST SA Be foie '248 637 249 2227444 
2°040 | 0°996 085 809 512 320 023 040 362 286 957010 044 134 12 220 |] 8°245 095 143 4283415 
42 120 832 552 681 34738 137 485 4 902 876 ei. 6l 170 || *241 549 563 278 0833 
44 155 57° 690 167 455 276573 2 860912 ezoGaA 120]| ‘238000508 771 9699 
46 190025 966 740 174 445 505 © 831 068 017775 069 || ‘234447979 9100013 
48 224 200 412 245 Pe crr6 42 232 278 813 293 Beets 019 || ‘230891 976 6921775 
2050 | 0°996 258096 044 457 ene Gon bop PEO SUSIE |e ea cc] Bs OLE 2 ar yA) Be Sos 
52 291 714 869 131 344 010923 4 813751 981 867 919!| 223769547 188 9642 
54 325058 880054 O71 179 039 2 831 884 g6a1900 869 || *220 203 120 903 5747 
56 358 130 059 003 32 800 317 154 © 861 885 958 180 819 || °216 633 220 262 3300 
58 390 930 376 247 MA a a1 ZSE9993 725 /4\. eee 769 |) °213.059 845 265 2300 
17060 | 0'996 423 461 789 606 264 456154 266 957 294 944 692 II 719 || 8209 482 995 g12 2748 
62 455 726 245 850 31.999 433 552 5 022 602 Be ea 669 || *205 902672 203 4644 
64 487 725 679 403 RGR GT oot We ariyos| O82) 202318 874°238.7088 
66 519 462 013 377 475 145 800 1 188174 1 899 836 569 |) 198731 601 718 2779 
68 ee 0877 | ors 857 462 | 7° goese ae 888 317, 929 || 795 74° 854 941 9018 
‘070 | 0°996 582 153 016 638 30958 457.440 257 400022 876 847 II 469 || 8'191 546 633 809 6705 
72 613 11I 474079 5 GAAEEE 5 523174 865 428 420 || *187 948938 321 5840 
74 643 814 408 345 449 276520 | 3 657 746 854058, 37° "184 347 768 477 6422 
76 674 263 684 865 507 472 831 1 803 688 842 738 320 || "180 743 124 277 8452 
78 704 461 157 696 . aa ae 249 960951 5 Sane 271) “177 135 005 722 1930 
080 | 0°996 734 408 669 576 ie ee, 4 248 129 483 a ppg he 22 8°173 523 412 8106856 
82 764108 051974 | 127 3 386 | 6 309237 | gogo7s| F72|| “109908 345 543 3229 
84 793 561 125 133 aS E2908 4 500 162 | sogara| 22 166 289 803 920 1050 
86 822 769 698 131 Et BiG 768 2 702210 36 8801 073 "162 667 787 9410319 
88 851 735 568919 goseed 7 © 915 329 7 023]|| *159042 297 606 1035 
: 28724 955 459 I 775 857 

290 | 0°996 880 460 524 378 8x 815 986 | 239 139472 | 164884/!° 974 || 8155 413 332 915 3200 
92 908 946 340 364 : 2 9 4 7 374589 7 58 925|| “151 780893 868 6812 
94 937194 781 761 a ois ae 5 620631 oe ay 876 || 148144980 466 1871 
96 965 207 602526 | re iors | 3.877549 | 5a 006] 827|| “144505 592 707 8379 
e ee Ga) 216 pep oz, | 7 145293 |r yar 479) 7771 “140862 730 593 6334 


312 


t ° — 2° 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF I =; | e-"dt. (2) FROM f=1'000 TO #— 3008s 
> A) 


H 


0°997 020 533 343 667 


047 849 717777 
074937 378 823 
IOI 798 026 876 


128 433 351375 


0°997 154845 031178 
181 034 734 609 
207 004 II9 509 
232 754 833 280 
258 288 512938 
0°997 283 606 785 161 
308 711 266 332 
333 603 562 596 
358 285 269 899 
382 757 974044 
0°997 407 023 259733 
431082 665 619 
454937 774 35° 
478 590 122 621 
502 041 246 219 


0°997 525 292 
548 345 
571 202 


593 863 
616 331 


671070 
913 288 
479 222 
865 503 
559 092 
0°997 638 607 037 325 
660691 767 963 
682 587 209 237 
704 294 809 893 
725 816 009 242 


|2°997 747 152 237 208 


768 304 914 367 
789 275 452002 
810065 252145 
830675 707 621 


0°997 851 108 202 100 
871 364 110139 
891 444 797 227 
QII 351 619 835 
931085 925 457 


0°997 950 649 052 659 
970042 331 121 
989 267 081 687 
0°998 008 324 616 405 
027 216 238578 


0998 045 943 242 801 
064 506 915 016 

082 908 532546 

101 149 364149 

~ 119 230 670056 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


+ 


27 316 374110 
087 661 046 
26 860 648 053 
635 324499 
26 411 679 803 


189 703 431 
25.969 384900 
75° 713771 
533 679658 
25 318 272 222 
104 481 172 
24 892 296 264 
681 707 304 
472 794145 
24265 276689 
059 414 886 
23 855 108731 
652 348271 
451 123598 
23251 424 851 
053 242 218 
22 856 565934 
661 386 281 
467 693 589 
22275 478 233 
084 730638 
21 895 441 273 
707 600656 
521 199 35° 
21 336 227965 
152 677159 
20970 537 635 
789 800 142 

— 610 455 476 
20 432 4904 479 
255 908 039 
080 687 089 
19 906 822 608 
734 305 622 
19 563 127 201 
393 278 462 
224 750566 
057 534719 
18 891 622172 
18 727 004 224 


563 672 214 
401 617 530 
240 831 603 
081 305 907 
17 923 031 963 


A, As A, 
= + = 
230 423 814 10 729 
228 713 064 : eS i oe 
7 O12 993 I 689 440 x 
5.323 554 678 858 5 
3 644 696 1 668 2a 533 
221 976372 657 840 10 485 
© 318 532 647 403 Be 
218 671128 637 016 3 
bere | StOCIS). aoe 
Beet Ae, 616.38e 
213 791051 10.243 
212 184908 ee O48 10 195 
© 588 960 585 801 147 
209 003 159 575 703 099 
7 427.456 EeOROES ee 
205 ee 804 555 649 10 003 
ic a5) 
I ie é 535 787 860 
rite 525927| 8 
noo Coo 7470/8 oe 13 
198 182 633 506 349 9 765 | 
6 676 oe 496 631 ie 
; a a 486.560 aa 
2 215/350 E a a 577 
190 747595 Sianal Doe 
189 289 365 28 on ee 
7 S400"! passin, cos 
4OI 30 429 922 39 
4 971 384 eos 343 
183 550 806 art ese 9 297 
2 19524 | onosa] 2 
I 392 82 
179 aM 666 a 660 158 
Ii2 
le ea T 374557 
176 586 441 365 490 9 066 
5 50982 | Sstare gers 
: pases: Ti 929 
I 178421 : pal ite 884 
169 848 739 8 839 
3 537896 | 320843 
oa he 312 049 ie 
ae ae 303 301 ie 
5 97254 |r 294598] 203 
4 617949 Paseonah 5 
163 332009 297 328 SP 
2 O54 02 268 756 ae 
een 260 232 oae 
159 525 0901 t creal eter 
8 273944 |, 243 316 436 


[2"198 
log a 10-~= 


8°137 216 394 123 5737 


"104 243 019 8795 
8'100 561 939 8509393 


‘074 697 097 686 
‘070 988 222 8112 


"067 275 873 579 946 


8°063 560049 9927 
"059 840 752 049 76 
"056 117979 7508 
"052 391 733 09615 
048 662 o12 085 57; 


8044 928 816 719 13 


8°007 405 773 482 6917 | 
003 634 360 20 
7°999 859 472 565 
"996 081 110 57 
"992 299 274 22 


7°988 513 963 5199 
"984 725178 45 
"980 932 919 043 
‘977 137 185 271 
973 337977 144 


7°969 535 294 660 
"965 729 137 821 
"961 g19 506 626 

‘958 106 401 O 
‘954 289 821 167 


2 fet dt 313 
THE VALUES OF J-[ e~“dt. 
=~? _{"e-@d¢, (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3'000. 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= Te | rs (2) a 
2'200] 
aN A, A, Ag ioe ee 
t H a i f i: 8 Je 
a 8 392 7°950 469 766 905 1754 
2'200 | 0°998 137 153 702 a 17 766 oo1 334 | 197 oe ae I 234924 SE ee 646 238 286 4992 
2 154919 ee 610 205 630 : a 8 226 576 304 || °942 819 235 311 9677 
4 172 a go a 455 636 502 350 855 218273) S65 938 988 757 981 5811 
: 8p 3: a0 SOG ; 140 842 apeeaige: 216 || 935 154 806 295 3392 
ies ae etek | x50 939046 |... 22"| 8x73 || 7-032 3x7 380 253 2420 
| 28° 294 | 16.099 205758 149 745 422 |" 23°24) 29] +927 476 479 855 2897 
12 241 a : 1693 849 460 336 ; eeaeey 185 495 086 || 923 632 105 ror 4821 
14 258 4 pace? 700 900409 | 7 232519 | 177499] o4all -g19 784 255 991 8193 
8 ae aie se 553 517899) 213753 | 1093 8 co0] “915932932 526 3orz 
I 61 366 
16 407 304 737 salen S) "9120781 04 9280 
2'220 0°998 307 948 305 F) 262 252 951 145 ee Le 153 410 7 ao ae a oo ae 6995 
Bt 328 072500 | 78 354575 | 3 520851 | 145495) S71) Gog as8azs gouores 
24 eS, 97 oe 15.975 601 694 1 615256 | 137 625 829 || “900 492 895 105 6768 
2 
15 693 500977 ae 8 2 030 260 2333 
2°230 | 0°998 387 832 061 698 554 137 526 oe 363 yee 114 266 7 Ha ae 376 386 303 7286 
32 403 a 3 “a 415 888 341 é ce aoe 106 564 660 || *884.997 267 991 3688 
pe Ee ee 278 145720 | 6 o43 717 | 098994 6x8] “881114675 323 1537 
3 TOSB 7 TL | 
5007 749 573 3 '873 339 066 919 1579 
2240 | 0°998 464 231 284 863 14 873 880854 oS es bre 076 176 ee ie te O51 183 3771 
42 479 105 165 717 741 088 311 : ue 360 068 683 451 || *865549561 ogi 7412 
= i. Gsure BEAN foroc, G2e| 9917871) relll -sanedg 256 644200 
46 pe 078 47 478 701 823 608 806 | 0538271 369]| +857 746 157 840.9035 
48 522 934 320 302 pee 2° 1 046 453 
3 ea | 8h 62 425 7 328 || 7°853 839 244 681 7019 
2250 19990 537 203 413 ae 220 530664 opens 039 125 287 | :849 928857 166 6450 
52 557 593 943 993 093 007436] ¢ 3 ne 031 838) 246 || -846014 995 295 7329 
54 565 596 951 ee 13.966 516045 a Boo | °7459%) 206 || +842 097 659 068 9656 
55 593 io Erie Bar 049240 | fag gra | 9273°5) 165 || 838 176 848 486 3430 
5 
‘ 8 a WG7(15°509'832 123 439 194 oor Saker 7 125 || 7°834 252 563 547 8652 
"260 | 0 998607 121 116 542 593 160637 : 6 roo |1 203 995 084 || *830 324804 253 5322 
Sf Be | aro 724538 | ° econ | CLE) cas || iceate ore eo 
o4 ae a nee oF 349 284448 | 0 ae oe 995 005 || .822 458862 597 3005 
1 960 : 8 
68 660 763 119 487 a a 119 469 165 i 995 6 965 818 520680 235 oe 
zo) 6 926 || 7°81 023 517 6479 
"270 | 0°998 673 872 483 645 12 990 869 988 nue ee abo 968 069 386 baearn 892 444 0388 
72 686 863 353 634 873 343 888 i oe 961 183 847 806 685 287 014 5744 
74 699 736 697 521 756 778970 a 581 | 994337) go7|| 802 733 207 229 2548 | 
Bl eteg suse | deste] SSS] sense 32s) Seaver cae 
7 6 
: ‘998 737 6 oo 2 505.338 ugh 722 204 oe alk 729 || 7°794 818 624 591 0500 
280 | 0°998 737 661 150219 412 783047 3 88260 | 934937! Gor]! 790856 121 738 1647 
2 Bee etc | 200 004 787 860919 | 927341 62 | 786890 144 529 4242 
84) 782 373 928 053 188 133868 | © oie oe 920689) 67.11 +782 920692 964 8285 
88 786 3 eee cn 93638 | ° ote 155 | 24°75) 575 |) 778947 767 044 3775 
: 11967 167 482 86 997 500 6 537 || 7°774.971 366 7680714 
‘290 | 0°998 798 606 423 041 858 048 828 ee a yes 900 963 499 || °770991 492 135 9100 
810 464 471 869 749 831 136 cee oe 894465) 461 || -767 008 143 147 8933 
822 214 303005 ieteowaca 7 323227 | 938 o04 423 || °763 021 319 8040215 
833 856 810914 GSE 6 435223 | ge, 581 79 031 022 1042944 
536 07 ee 385 || “75903 9 
845 392 883 599 11.430 519044 | > 99394? | 876 196 


VOL, XXXIX. PART II 


; (NO, 9), 


a A 


314 


2300] 


¢t 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—, | «-"dt. (2) FROM t=1'000 TO £=3'000, 
0 


H 


0'°998 856 823 402 643 


868 149 243 241 
879 371 274241 
890 490 358 180 
9Ot 507 351 323 


0°998 912 423 103 700 
923 238 459 140 
933.954 255 312 
944 571 323755 
955.090 489 926 


0°998 965 512 573 224 
975 838 387 035 
986 068 738 763 
996 204 429 869 
07999 006 246 255 904 


0°999 O16 195 006550 
026051 465 647 
035 816 411 238 
045 490 615 596 
055074 845 265 
0°999 064 569 861 092 
073.976 418 262 
083 295 266 334 
092 527 149 274 
101 672 805 490 
0°999 110 732 967 868 
119 708 363 802 
128 599 715 232 
137 407 738677 
146 133 145 266 


0°999 154776 640 775 
163 338 925 658 
171 820 695 080 
180 222 638954 


188 545 441 969 


0999 196 789 783 626 
204.956 338 269 
213045 775 119 
221058 758 303 
228995 946 892 


0°999 236 857 994929 
244645 551 460 
252 359 260569 
259999 761 409 
267 567 688 231 


0°999 275 063 670 419 
282 488 332 518 
289 842 294 267 
297126 170629 
304 340 571 824 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


A, 
a 


II 325 840598 
222 031 000 
119 083 939 
016 993 144 

IO 915 752 377 
815 355 440 
715 796171 
617 068 444 
519 166171 

10 422 083 208 
325 813 811 
230 351 728 
135 691 106 
041 826036 

9.948 750 645 
856 459097 
764 945 591 
674 204 358 
584 229 669 

9495 015 827 
406 557170 
318 848072 
231 882 940 
145 656 216 

9 060 162 378 


8975 395934 
891 351 431 
808 023 445 
725 406 589 

8643 495 509 
562 284 882 
481 769 423 
401 943 874 
322 803 015 

8244 341 657 
166 554 643 
089 436 849 
o12 983 184 

7937 188 589 

7 862 048 036 
787 556 531 
713 709 109 
640 500 840 
567 926 822 

7495 982 188 
424 662 099 
353 961 749 
283 876 362 
214 401 194 

7145 531531 


96 


Ne) 


lee) 
OOOH N WWM 


~ ~ ~1 © 6 co ie] 
RFNWWH UN ATS COW OR HBFnWH HP NAAAA™ C 


~n 


fo) 
mood 


678 446 
809 598 
947 060 
090 796 
240 767 


396 937 
559 269 
727 727 
902 273 
082 872 


269 488 
462 083 
660 622 
865 070 
975 39° 


291 548 
513 5°7 
741 232 
974 689 
213 842 


458 657 
709 098 
965 132 
226 723 
493 839 


766 443 
044 504 
327 986 
616 856 
QII 080 


210 626 
515 460 
825 548 
140 859 
461 358 


787 014 
117 794 
453 665 
794595 
140 553 


491 505 
847 422 
208 269 
574018 
944 634 
320 089 
yfete) 350 
085 387 
475 168 
869 663 


868 848 
62 538 
56 265 
50029 

843 830 
37 668 
31 542 
25453 
19 401 

813 385 
97 405 
oI 461 

795 552 
89 680 

783 843 
78 O41 
72 275 
66 543 
60 847 

755 185 
49 559 
43 966 
38 408 
32 885 

727 395 
21 940 
16 518 
II 130 
05775 

79° 454 


* 695 166 


89 911 
84 690 
79 501 
674 344 
69 220 
64 129 
59 070 
54042 
649 047 
44 084 
39 152 
34 252 
29 383 
624 545 
19 739 
14963 
10 219 
05 595 
600 821 


A, 


2 
7 


f 
log. -e* + 10, 


7°755 237 250 048 7123 
"751 040 003 637 27 
‘747 039 282 869 98 
"743 035 087 746 83 
"739 027 418 267 83¢ 


7°735 016 274 432 97 
"731 COI 656 242 26 
‘726 983 563 695 689 
722 961 996 ioe f 
‘718 936.955 534¢ 


7°714 908 439 208 
‘710 876 449 950! 
‘706 840 985 625 56 
"702 802 046 943; 
"698 759 633 905 | 

7°694 713 746 512% 
‘690 664 384 763¢ 
"686 611 548 657 9 
"682 555 238 196¢ 
"678 495 453 380 


7674 432 194 207 4 
‘670 365 460 6 
‘666 295 252 7 
"662 221 570 554 
658 144 413 958 


7°654 063 783 006 
649 979 677 698 
‘645 892 098 034 
‘641 801 044 
‘637 706 515 6 


625 402 084 gf 378 
"621 293 658 579 
617 181 758 423 
7°613 066 383 914, 
‘608 947 535 048 
‘604 825 211 825 94 
600 699 414 247 ot 
"596 570 142 * 
7592 437 396 02 


588 301 175 3 
"584 161 480 53 16 98! 


"555 086 333 


THE VALUES OF — feat 
Vajo 315 
TABLE OF THE VALUES 2 ft 
OF H=—_/ — {2 
400] na) 2) ROSES GOO TO = O00: 
fi H Ns nN [2°498 
2 A, A 
+ d 2 
_ = + a log. Nae 10. 
"° ee 103 355 68 268 8 2 
318 563 3660 7077 262 689 2 42 6 aS ers os See 
Bee occos; | .009 5900 | 7 pee ererceaey ee ee Ce! 
332 515 464941 6 942 508 884 7 081 130 a2 545] 593 54 747 879 349'9849 
339 391 479 648 B76 org 706 | © 494178 | 952] 563 Res 78919309 
; 6810 102 5 911 789 2/389 ‘53° 395 527 874 0216 
0°999 346 201 582 565 917 577 856 BRK) 534 214 140] 602 2571 
352.946 351 549 744 768984 | °5 333 933 4 503 || 7° 
359 626 359 952 680 008 403 4 760 581 “ 352 474 ‘53° ie 278 974 6373 
366 242 176654 615 816 701 4 I91I 702 8 879 445 525 40942 991 1624 
372 794 366 087 gue reoigag | 9 027208 oe ee "521 649 132 651 8322 
: 6 489 122 18 3 067 249 C1019] 486 517 453 847 956 6468 
0°999 379 283 488 271 Saeko Peeeee o aaoces 995.0% 
385 710 098 838 426 610 567 62 511617 2 4357 || 7° 
392 074 749 064 peeason2a |< 99°34: aaa ak Uae: 855 498 7103 
398 377 985 896 303 236832 | + 413394 4 ad 400 Peel 147 7359592 
404620 351 981 242 366 085 o 870 744 42 047 271 ‘5 5 37 965 617 3529 
F 6 182 © 332371 38 376 LIE As 9 TE 8913 
0°999 410 802 385 694 033 714 5341 243 || ‘492 209178 312 574 
416 924 621170 122 235 476 59 798 238 a3 4 214 || 7°487 98 > 
422987 688.48 | 202 97157 | 8 pehgie | 2999| ” tae | oaanmeooes 126 4026 
428.991 812 899 Bem eoesyr | | 2 742 586 25/738) ree 483 766 493 584 3753 
434.937 816 458 5.946 003559 8 221012 21574 131 ‘479 539 939 686 4929 
2 5 888 2 7 703 568 17 444 ‘475 3°09 O11 4327552 
0999 440 826 116 449 99 991 513 341 103 || “471076 408 823 1623 
446 657 226 212 831 109 763 | 92 700727 4075) 7'466 8 
452 431 655 013 wos Aeon | 2 Oe 09 266] © 13 || 62 cog obo 857 7142 
458 149 908071 718 253057 | © 175744 obar8|) sl a 980 536 4108 
omen | Bakar) SO orl 33] Bae eee 
AE 202 
Bessy y40| 27 07708 SCC a Sealese Nacyaee gai cces 
: 474972 604811 Baya ob, |2 2+ O84 285). 4g Grn eer 
480 471 127067 Woeesascge | 4 19487 en om 445 602 431 692 6452 
485 915 939 901 ia Bue 832 | 3 129422 ze ge eee 608 592 0657 
Mec csrz | 397 584902 |b er eee a) oe Oe ae 6310 
2 2 
07999 496646 359442 | > 93, 34°79 Cale 155 1959 
501 932 917 596 286 558154 | 9° 276 476 6 3 807 || 7424 278 
507 167 669 273 it4 HERG ys eee 499.999) © 781 erie i 631 1955 
512351 080692 183 411 419 I 340258 2 218 756 ae 003 377 751 3399 
517 483 614 317 132 533 625 © 877795 fey 729 hee ee ce ae eae 
° eo) 
eres. 72888, | 9° 745%4 | as eee ope oe 976 6477 
527597 879 416 032 150 4.030 6 . 
532 580 Ae Bs 4982 637 ee 9 512677 | 9235? : pe Le 867 854 673 3652 
Beer acors | 933572880] 8 Sie eer) coal Spacne 288 014 2335 
ec | Biskon| Pooks] ian) S] sou hy 
* Id0 2 o} 
Mey 2, 8r5666 | *°3° 777539 Fear ay) Shel eae oero Tat gen nee 
552024 841 663 789 027997 | 47 74354? 3.552 || 7°381 
556766 559458 WAL at 7 705 7 310202 33 349 528 || oral 819 1542 
501 461 396863 | 094 837 406 6 880 389 | 479513) 503 “377 060.339 380 7464 
rie apies| GLE s| gaseeie| aN) fe] eidiete bess 
I 
0°999 570712 132 B66 4602 352077 O31 249 419 a 454 364 109 as a es 
575 268 872 471 556 740205 | 45 O12 872 3 430 || 7° 8c 8 
579 780 416 751 5II 544279 5 195 926 15947)” 406 359 42 068 5626 
584 247 177 645 466 760 895 4 783 385 eee 3359 400 531 850 8786 
588 669 564 313 422 386 668 4 374226 409 158 358 a 127 747 277 3394 
Wareuasey2 | 3 90° 426 05 800 346 793.488 347 9449 
402 466 335 || “342.455 755 062 6953 


Me) re 82g? | 9 88 | gongsg 8] ee ae 


316 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—- [e-Pae, (2) FROM 
0 


2°500] 
sca 
2°500 | 0°999 593 047 982 555 
2 597 382 834 836 
4 601 674 520311 
6 605 923 434 848 
8 610 129 971 049 
2°510 | 0°999 614 294 518 275 
12 618 417 462 671 
14 622 499 187 184 
16 626 540 071 592 
18 630540 492 519 
2°520 | 0°999 634 500 823 465 
22 638 421 434 825 
24 642 302 693 911 
26 646 144 964973 
28 649 948 609 225 
2°530 | 0°999 653 713 984 865 
32 657 441 447094 
34 661 131 348141 
36 664 784 037 284 
38 668 399 860 872 
2°540 | 0°999 671979 162 343 
42 675 522 282 249 
44 679029 558274 
46 682 501 325 259 
48 685 937 915 218 
2°550 | 0°999 689 339 657 361 
52 692 706 878 115 
54 696 039 gor 146 
56 699 339 047 372 
58| 702 604 634995 
2°560  0°999 705 836 979 508 
62 709 036 393 727 
64 712 203 187 801 
66 715 337 669 239 
| 68 718 440 142926 
2°570 | 0°999 721 510 QII 143 
72 724 55° 273 585 
74 727 558 527 385 
76 73° 535 967 127 
78 733 482 884 869 
2°580 | 0°999 736 399 570 163 
82 739 286 310068 
84 742 143 389 175 
86 744971 089 623 
88 747 769 691 116 
2°590 | 9°999 759 539 479 943 
92 753 280 703 999 
94 755.993 662 795 
96 758678 617 487 
98 761 335 835 884 


-_-—_————— 


A, 
+ 


4 334 852 281 
291 685 475 
248 914537 
206 536 201 

4164 547 227 
122 944 396 
O81 724513 
040 884 407 
000 420927 


3.960 330946 
920 611 360 
881 259085 
842 271 062 
803 644 253 

3765 375 640 
727 462 229 
689 gor 047 
652 689 144 
615 323 588 

3579 301 471 
543 119 906 
507 276025 
471 766 985 
436 589959 

3401 742 143 
367 220755 
333 923 030 
299 146 227 
265 587 622 

3 232 344 513 
199 414 218 
166 794074 
134 481 438 
102 473 687 

3.070 768 216 
039 362 442 
008 253 800 

2977 439 742 
946 917 743 

2916 685 293 
836 739 905 
857 079 107 
827 700 448 
798 601 493 

2769 779 828 
741 233055 
712 958797 
684 954 692 
657 218 397 

2629 747 587 


3° 


29 


27 


A; 


565 961 
166 806 
772 939 
378 336 
988 974 
602 831 
219 882 
840 106 
463 480 
089 981 


719 586 
352 275 
988 023 
626 810 
268 613 


913 411 
561 182 
211 904 
865 556 
522117 


181 565 
843 880 
509 O41 
177026 
847 815 
521 388 
197 725 
876 803 
558 605 
243 109 
93° 295 
620 144 
312 636 
007 751 
795 471 
405 774 
108 643 
814058 
521999 
232 449 
945 388 
660 798 
378 660 
098 955 
821 665 


546 772 
274258 
004 105 
736 295 
470 810 


A, 
+ 


399 155 
5 867 
2 603 
389 362 
386 144 
2948 
379 776 
6 626 
3 499 
37° 394 
367 312 
4252 
I 213 
358 197 


355 202 
2 229 
349 278 
6 348 
3439 
34° 552 
337 685 
4 839 
2015 
B20arT 
326 427 
323 064 
0g2I 
318 199 
5 496 
312 814 
OIS5I 
307 508 
4 885 
2281 
299 696 
7131 
4585 
2058 
289 550 
287 O61 
459° 
2138 
279 795 
7 290° 
274 893 
2514 
0153 
267 810 
5 485 
263178 


=1'000 TO ¢=3'000 


7°338 114 547 421 
"333 769 865 424 
"329 421 709 O71 
"325070078 363 14 
‘320 714.973 298 6185 


7°316 356 393 878 237 
"311 994 340 102 
"307 628 811 969 
"303 259 809 481 
298 887 332 638 16 


7°294 511 381 438 503 


7°272 579 510 102 
*268 182 712 767 
263 782 441 076 


7'250 560779 869 894 
"246 146 610 755 83¢ 
‘241 728 org a 


7228 455 190 7 
224 023 649 8. 
"219 588 634 5 
"215 150144 993 
‘210 708 181 0 

7°206 262 742 715 7! 
"201 813 830 043 146 


‘179 574 159 379 
"166 097 451 8514 


7161 617 269 976 1088 | 


"130 158 714 88. 
"125 650 738 1 
‘121 139 287 © 


, 
2 t "dt 
THE VALUES OF ae fe . 317 
¢ 
| TABLE OF THE VALUES OF ae | meet (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3'000. 
600] [2°698 
P H A; 2 A, log oe 
600 | 0°999 763 965 583 471 27 207 632 2 290 || 7°116 624 361 6509319 
2 66 568 123 426 ies oe ee 26 946 744 = ae 72 || ‘112105 961 861 2105 
4 69 143 716 637 348 905 083 688 128 6 361 55 || ‘107 584087 715 6338 
6 71 692 621 720 522 473 316 431 767 4.123 38 || "103 058 739 214 2019 
8 74215 095 036 erie ee, 177 644 Fer acs 21 || ‘098 529916 3569148 
"610 | 0°999 776 711 390 708 470 369930 | 79 925742 | 249 699 | 2 204|| 77093 997 O19 143 7725 
12 79 181 760 638 444 693 887 676043 | “ er2 | 2 187|| “089467 847 574 7749 
14 — 81626 454526 41g 265 357 428 530 5 343 70 || °084922 601 649 9221 
16 84045 719 883 Bon 082 160 183 188 ee 53 || ‘080 379 881 369 2141 
18 86 439 802052 Re ena 24 939998 pees 36 || °075 833 686 732 6509 
‘620 | 0°999 788 808 944 224 et e26 24 698 945 Pee aes 2 120 || 7°071 284017 7402324 
22 91 153 387 450 Biggs ars oe Gisao 04 || "066 730874 391 9587 
24 93 473 370065 Byer 601055 223 182 4742 2087 || ‘062174256 687 8208 
. 26 95 769 130 697 a7 771 593 | 73 988 440 pon 71 || °057 614 164 627 8457 
28 98 040 902 290 Reuaiors Bi 755 7608 mai 55 || °053050598 212 0063 
630 | 0'999 800 288 918 115 Ben 890675 23 525 152 228 578 2 039 || 7°048 483 557 440 3117 
32 02 513 408 789 Bor (04100 296574 | ¢ ae 23 || "043 913 042 312 7619 
34 | 04 714 602 888 iS ta408e 070019 4547 071) °039 339 052 829 3568 
36 06 892 726969 155 278 608 22 845 472 2 556 |} 1992]) °034 761 588 990 0966 
38 09 048 005 577 Be 6ss 6a 622 916 eee 76 || °030180650 794 9811 
640 | 0’999 811 180 661 268 110 253 356 22 402 337 218619 | ! 961 || 7°025 596 238 244 0103 
42 13 290 914 625 088 069 638 183 718 BGrh 45 || ‘021 008 351 337 1844 
44 15 378 984 263 066 102 595 | 7! 967 044 LAA 30 || °016 416 990 074 5032 
46 17 445 086 857 bi, GLOBO 2297 eee 15) ‘orr 822154 455 9668 
48 19 489 437 153 Pe ae. SODA hee ae 00 || "007 223 844 481 5752 
550 | 0’999 821 512 247978 ser LED SG 21 328540 209 045 1 885 || 77002 622 060 151 3283 
52 23513 730264 1980 362 792 T1Q 494 7476 70 || 6998 016 801 465 2262 
54 25 494 093 056 959 450.473 | 7° 972379 | a ans 55 || °993 408 068 423 2689 
56 27453 543 529 938 743.475 706 998 3 481 40 || °988 795 861 025 4564 
58 29 392 287 004 503 517 26 || *984 180179 271 7886 
‘ ’ 1918 239958 201 655 : 
}60 | 0°999 831 310 526 963 1897 938 096 20 301 862 199 844 |! 811 || 6°979 561 023 162 2656 
62 33 208 465059 877 836078 102 018 8 047 1797|| °974938 392 696 3874 
64 35 086 301 136 857 932 107 19 903971 6 265 82 || °970 312 287 875 6540 
66 36 944 233 243 58 BE, Aee 707 707 eaG 68 | °965 682 708 698 5653 
68 38 782 457 643 Bee ad 513 210 eee 54|| ‘961049655 165 6214 
172 | 0°999 840 G01 168 833 ne i s s 19 320468 ie i I 740 || 6°956 413 127 276 8223 
72 42 400 559555 pee! 129 465 26 || “951773 125 032 1680 
780 261 257 189 276 2 
74 44 180 820 812 “Gn Sen eGe 18 940 189 7 564 12 947 129 648 431 6584 
76 45 942 141 880 D684 752625 | 36. | 1699|| 942 482 697 475 2936 
78 47 684 710 322 ee a6 pas 566 760 suas 85 || ‘937 832 272 163 0736 
80 | 0°999 849 408 712 006 : 6 °) 18 382 579 > coq | 1 971] 6933 178 372 494 9983 
82 51114 331 110 Bes PED tO4 200070 5°09 8 || *928 520998 471 0679 
33 687 4190 0 851 5 99 
84 52801 750144 pee coe org 218 44|| °923 860150 og 2822 
36 669 399 816 9 179 207 
54471 149959 Bei Age, e| «27 8401012 6 31} ‘919 195 827 355 6412 
88 56 122 709 763 ee Ps 662 436 nee 18 || °914 528030 264 1451 
I I 
2/90 | 0°999 857 756 607 132 oe ie > | 17 486.478 Ae I 605 || 6°909 856 758 816 7937 
Be 59 373 018 021 i 8 76 312125 pee 1 592]| ‘905 182013 013 5871 
94 60972 116 787 Dae 2) ee 139 364 ce 79 || ‘900503 792 8545253 
43 62 554 076 188 os ae 16 968182 | 60 654 | 66], 895 822.098 339 6082 
9 64 119 067 407 = s8 Hea GEE 798 566 | 63 ake 53 || “891 136.929 468 8360 


nn e0.. 


318 


TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H= 


0999 865 667 260059 
7198 822 209 
8713 920 378 
0°999 870 212 719 559 
1695 383 232 
0°999 873 162 073 372 
4612 950 462 
6048 173 509 
7 467 900 053 
8872 286177 


0°999 880 261 486 525 
1635 654 309 
2994 941 322 
4339 497 95° 
5 669 473 185 
0°999 886 985 014 633 
8 286 268 531 
Fale 319 15% 
0°999 890 846 491 820 
2105 746923 


0999 893 351 285 919 
4583 248 353 
5 801 772 462 
7006 995 191 
8 199 052 201 


0°999 899 378 077 880 
0°999 900 544 205 356 
1697 566503 
2 838 291958 
3966 511 125 


0°999 905 082 352 190 
6185 942 128 
7277 406 716 
8 356 870542 
9 424 457 015 


0°999 910 480 288 375 
1524 485 703 
2557 168930 
3578 456 851 
4588 467127 


0°999 915 587 316 302 
6575 119 809 
7551 991 981 
8 518 046059 
9473 394201 


0°999 920 418 147 495 
» 1352 415 963 
2276 308 574 

3 189 933 252 

4293 396 886 


DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


1531 562150 
15 098 169 
1498 799 182 
182 663 673 
1 466 690 139 
5° 877090 
35 223 047 
19 726543 
04 386 124 

1 389 200 348 
74 167 784 
59 287013 
44 556628 
29 975 235 
541 449 
OI 253 897 
III 221 
73 112068 
59 255 103 
538 997 
31 962 434 
18 524 109 
05 222 729 

I 192 057 010 
1179 025679 
66 127 476 
53 361 148 
4° 725 455 
28 219 167 
III5 841065 
03 589 938 
1o0gi 464588 
79 463 826 
67 586 473 
831 360 
44 197 328 
32 683 228 
21 287920 
IO 010276 
998 849175 
987 803 507 
976 872172 
966 054078 
955 348142 
944 753 294 
934 268 468 
923 892 611 
913 624678 
903 463 633 
893 408 449 


135 0°9 
BS: 973538 


15 813049 
654 043 
496 504 
340 419 
185 776 

15 032 564 

14 880771 
73° 385 
581 394 
433 786 


14 287551 
142677 
13.999 152 
856 966 
716 106 


13 576 563 
438 325 
301 380 
165 719 
Ogi 3an 

12 898 204 
766 328 
635 693 
506 288 
378 102 


I2 251127 
125 350 
000 762 

11 877 353 
755 113 

II 634 032 
514 100 
395 3°7 
277 044 
161 IOL 


II 045 668 
ROWOSL S35 
818 094 


795 935 
594 849 


10 484 826 
375 857 


267 933 
161 045 


055 185 


a 


153 212 
1793 
© 386 
148 991 
7 607 
146 235 
4874 
3 525 
2 186 
0 859 
139 543 
8 238 
6 944 
5 661 
4 389 
133 [27 
1 876 
0 635 
129 405 
8185 
126976 
5 IT 
4588 
3 499 
2 240 
121 O81 


119 932 
8793 
7 663 
6 543 
II5 433 
4 332 
3241 
2159 
1 086 
110023 
108 969 
7924 
6 888 
5 861 
104 842 


[eta (2) FROM t=1'000 TO #=3'000. 
- 0 


/ 1 199 


89 
79 
69 
59 


1 149 
39 
30 
20 
5 fe) 


I IOI 
gti 
82 
73 
63 


1 054 
45 
36 
27 
18 


6886 448 286 242 2¢ 
"881 756 168 659 
877 060 576 721 38 
872 361 510 427 19 
867 658 969 777 


6°862 952 954 771 2425 
"858 243 465 409 
°853 530 501 691 
"848 814 063 618 4003 
"844.094 151 189075 


6°839 370 764 403 
"834 643 903 262 
829 913 567 765 
825.179 757 913 
"820 442 473 704 62 

6°815 701 715 1401 16 8 
810957 482 219 85 
‘806 209 774 943 69 
‘Bor 458 593 311 66 
"796 703 937 325 | 1g 

6'791 945 806 980 06: 
*787 184 202 280 
°782 419 123 2 
"777 650 569 813 73 
772 878 542 046 5 


6°768 103 039 9 
"763 324.063 4 
"758 541 612 6o¢ 


"753 755 087 4: 
“748 966 287 87 


6°744 173 413 9 
739 377 065 
734 577 243 
‘729 773 946 
"724 967 174 8 

6°720 156929 I 
‘715 343 209 © 
"710 526014 6 
"705 725 345 9 
700 881 202 836€ 


686 387 927 


676 708 371 
6°671 863 382 
667 014919 13 
‘662 162 981 18 


"657 307 568 8783 
‘652 448 682 214 


THE VALUES OF — [‘e-"dt 319 
Nis Ma : 
TABLE OF THE VALUES OF H=—- | <*ae (2) FROM f=1'000 TO ¢=3'000. 
fo 
800] [2'898 
A, A, A, A, 1 2 sik 
t H Fs 5 # 5 og Ee + 10. 
1800 | 0°999 924 986 805 335 9 950 342 I 009 | 6°647 586 321 195 4199 
2 * 5 870 263 441 ee a <8 846 509 ses eo I0ol || "642 720485 8201759 
4 6 743 875 039 863 867 921 743 677 | yor gar | 992|| (637 851 176 089 0766 
6 7607 742 960 Bean OS 641 836 100 867 983 || 632978 392 002 1222 
8 8 461 969 046 a) 63 ae 54° 979 é FS 975 | “628 102 133 559 3124 
1810 | 0°999 929 306 654 152 Shek pial 9 441 096 # 966 | 6°623 222 400 7606475 
12} 0°999 930 141 898 163 Boe ae 831 342 179 97 as 958 || °618 339 193 606 1273 
14 ©0967 7999941 836 657611 AAA ZZ cog, | | 949) otsies2 512 09517520 
16 1784 457 605 Seeenus 147 211 5a68 941 || *608 562 356 229 5213 
18 2591 968 004 d 5 ae O51 143 9 2 933 || °603 668 726 007 4355 
2 I 
"820 | 0°999 933 39° 427 260 - a on 8 956 008 ee 925 || 6°598 771 621 429 4944 
22 4179 930508 | 130 213 ie 861797 | 93294 | 920] *593 871042 495 6981 
24 4960 571|960 771 872 768 502 92 386 908 || "588966989 206 0466 
26 5732 444909] 16 16 85 676116 | Or ig6 | 900|) 7584059461 5605399 
28 Beers | Gea ie BO (oe eye ot Wee a8 409 Sem mTT9 
*830 | 0°999 937 250 253.945 746 118 165 B 494038 | B5.709 | 285) 01574 233.983, 201.9607 
32 7996 372110 eee 404329 | 93325 877 | *569 316032 488 8883 
34 8734 085946 | 73) FR as 315497 | 3796, | 869) ‘564394607 419 9606 
36 9 463 484 285 721 170 pa 227534.\\ g7 cor | COT) 19591469 707 9958778 
38 | 0°999 940 184 655 ogo also: 149433 | oo one 854|| °554541 334 2145397 
"840 | 0°999 940 897 685 461 704 976 186 | 8 054 185 85 402 846 | 6°549 609 486 078 0463 
42 1602 661647 | §o7 Orig, | 7 908784] 3205, | 839) 544674163 585 6978 
44 2299 669050 Ghar va ae 884 220 83732 831 || °539 735 366 737 4940 
46 2988 792 232 one Bor 800 488 | 95 059 | 824]| °534 793095 533 435° 
48 $07 114925 | Beep 75% we 816 || “529 847 349 973 5208 
OS Ir 
"850 | 0°999 944 343 720039 a Ae ae 7 O35 APB aie 8a || 228 6°524 898 130 057 7513 
52 5 009 689 664 Gos tds 554205 | 96 4gr 802 || "519945 435 786 1266 
54 5668 ros 084 | go aoe | «473 724) x9 986 | 795] ‘514989267 1586467 
56 6 319 046779 % 94 ree 394 038 Ae 788 || *510029 624 175 3116 
58 6962 594 437 Be 54795 315 139 a a 780 || *505 066 506 836 1212 
232 51 
860 | 0°999 947 598 826 956 ae - : 7 237021! ,, 773 || 6°500 099 915 1410756 
62 8 227 822 454 aes Rep a 159 676 76 ae 766 || *495 129 849 0901748 
64 8 849 658 277 ee op - 083 097 7 a 760 |] *490156 308 683 4188 
66 9 464 411 002 pe oad 8 007 278 5 ae 753|| 485179 293 9208075 
68 | 0°999 950072 156450 TES AS 6 932 212 75 746 || *480 198 804 802 3410 
600 813 236 74 320 
870 | 0°999 950672 969 686 6 857 892 81 739 || 6°475 214 841 328 0193 
72 Memargasio3o | 3,9 955 344 784311 | 733°3 | 733|| °470227 403 497 8423 
74 1854 096 063 oa! T71 033 711 462 Me 726 || °465 236491 311 8102 
76 2434 555 633 5 ee 639 340 i ae 719 || *460242 104 769 9228 
78 3.008 375 864 ae = - 567 937 sab 713|| °455 244243 872 1802 
880 | 0°999 953.575 628 159 Ss 5 on 6 497 246 6 : 706 || 6°450 242 908 618 5823 
82 4136 383 207 59° 755 oe 427 262 re an 700 || °445 238099 009 1292 
84 4690 710 994 oe ae 357978 ie : 694 || °440 229 815 043 8209 
86 5 238 680 802 547 ae re 289 387 | ¢ 59 687 || °435 218056 7226574 
88 5 780 361 224 Shs ea tae soa 221 484 meO3 681 || °430 202 824 045 6387 
535 458938 67 223 
99 |9°999 956 315 820162 6 6 154261 | ¢¢ 248 675 || 6°425 184 117 ‘O12 7647 
g2 6845 124839 529 oon a 087713 | 6 ae 669 || 420 161935 6240355 
94 7 368 341 802 Bad, 2984 o21 834 be ke 662 || °415 136279 879 4510 
96 7885 536932 a af es, 5 956617 a on 656 || "410107 149 779 0114 
98 8 396 775 445 Bor 446426 SEE Go| Gas || | Cle || PGR eek ect uc: 


320 
DR JAS. BURGESS ON 


TABLE OF THE V. 
ALUES OF H=—2-[‘e-# 
2900] ae “dt, (2) FROM ¢=1'000 TO ¢=3'000, 
[3'000 


é A 
H me A, A, A, : 
; ——— = a Ei log eae +10, 
eae 0°999 958 902 121 gor Bares as | 
9 401 6402 499 518310 Zo 6 . a 
4 9 895 393 a 493 753 a 764 881 oars 638 6°400 038 466 510 56 
6 | 0°999 960 383 444 815 488 051 176 702 253 oe 627 63 on 998 913 34 
0865 855 732 482 410917 640258 | ¢ 388 as ihe 818 
. 8 
2°910 | 0°999 961 342 687 760 476 832 027 578 890 meet 621 || “379 859 me 7a 
12 1814 oo! 643 471 313 884 5 518143 : 6156 
a4 2279 857510 | 405 855873 ss80r: | ©9737 | 6:0 “69 74g 
8 2740 314 899 460 457 384 398 489 | 52°78 | 604 ee a 032 74 jot 
Paes ane | aso eee eee Was: ara co 
: 02 6774 
see ee Se ee pee salve ren 8 | waaay |, oo | 187 
4089 88 444 613 040 22:3 523 : 
24 4 me ate 439 Gas Bee 166 383 57 140 ay 6°349 486 588 817¢ 
26 4.963 665 806 434 336 833 109 824 56558 kb 344 412 292 090 4 ; 
S| PEGE) Bash] ogee | Se] i) a 
° It 
2°930 | 0°999 965 817 233 357 gay 284560 | 49°49) | caaen | 2 ee i 533 7 
32 6 236 574 332 419 340974 4 943 586 560 | 6-324 08 
34 6 651 026005 414 451 673 889 301 | 54285 | coe ae oa 62 
36 7.060 642 108 409 616 102 835571 | 99739 | BEG a a 693 11 
38 7465 475 819 404 833 711 782 391 2 Be 345 a na is 250m 
. - 2 040 
2°940 | 0°999 967 865 579774 400 103 955 729756 52.095 540 || °303 692 841 aera 
42 Do ericten || Bgos aeoceay a ee 535 | 6298 58 
Ae Reresce con) eveeccros im ae ee sx s6r | 535 | 61298 5 aa 
7m gosegrgee | sho wasas | ei? 51031 | 332-288 505740 Gel 
= 9 419 731950 381 700 562 524 563 50 506 Be 3 365 720 6118 
2°950| 0° 474576 | 49 987 5 ‘283 249 731 615 071 
5° | 0999 969 796 957 936 377 225 986 Hone 515 || "278130268 2624 
52 |0°999 970 169 758 818 372 800882 | + 425 104 sro| 6-2mail 
34 0538 183557 | 308 424740 376 142 | 489°? | Sos 2a BBCame 5538 
56 0902 280611 364 097 054 327 686 48 457 500 262 0918 40 29 47 
ft] ERE) Sota] ata] G2) | 
. 3) TZ 
2 a 0°999 971 617 682 993 355 585057 i 268 pe 491 || ‘252 480836 “6H L 
196 4 185 298 i 
os 2 316 ce be 347 260 i 138 815 one a a Nie - 673 3 
2659 511 82 343 168 131 gz erst see 42 S30 
ae 2.998 632 663 | 339 120 ve 047 288 ie a ae ae 398 bi 6 
. - 002 6 i 
i abs 2°999 973 333 751 275 335 118 607 23 pice) 468 || ‘226744545 : 1636 
| seeq grease || Sat ROIPEp Me etme 464 || 6-221 586 863 8 
74 3992 159655 327 247 425 913 531 44 121 Hes ae 3 06 5 
76 4315 537 210 323 377556 869 869 | 43 662 bee ee 708 27; 
ie 4635 088 104 319 550 893 Bab 6Gn | eso oe 261078 29, 
2°98 783.906.| 42 75° 450 || "206 092 973 96 
a © 999 974.950 855 091 315 766 987 seuare 446 || ‘200 921 395 
6 * 
fe iBa 5 262 880 482 312 025 391 3 ae 596 41 868 442 || 6-195 746 342 229 2%6 
8 Baie 206 146 308 325 664 99 727 438 *I90 6 8 8 = 
5 875 873 514 304 667 367 658 297 pane 433 ae ee ce 
eS 5875 8735t4 | Sor oso0cs | 987299 | fogen | 429 180200 350 SA 
reg 0°999 976 414 396 919 297 473 337 576 731 sara 425 || °175 ort 386 479 7 aman | 
768 333 66 293 936 3 536 588 
te 7058 eee 290 a a 496 866 39 722 ce os ae an oe 653 53° 
9 7345 755 876 286 982 323 457561 | 39305 | ari} ex 2368 9a io 
«98 7629 319 531 283 563 655 418 668 38 892 stl fe 59 423 000 934 
3000 8 380 185 38 483 409 || *154 220 841 04 
ha 280 183 470 jeore | aoe "149 014 518 792 559 


9°999 977 909 503 COI 
3 3 342 107 401 || 6'143 804 722 187 


¢ 2 
THE VALUES OF = I edt. 
TJ 0 


321 


2 ¢ 2 Rea 
(3) TABLE OF VALUES OF H=~_| « "dt, AND G= ['« “dt, FROM ¢=3'0 TO ¢=6°0, 
é 


L denotes the value of Laplace’s continued fraction (§9). 


H 


0°999 977 999 503 001 
988 351 342 633 
993 974 238 848 
996 942 290 204 
998 478 006 638 


0°999 999 258 gor 628 
644 137 007 
832 848 942 
922 996073 
965 207 751 


0°999 999 984 582 742 
932 999 724 
997 144 506 
998 806 528 


999 510 829 


27999 999 999 803 384 
Q22 504 
980 048 
988 648 
995 781 


9°999 999 999 998 463 

999 993 
I—*(15) 021 516 075 
itqe) 


L 


"951 813 839 183 927 | 
954 514 373 156 224 
"957 000 847 840 583, 
"959 294 708 327178 
"961 414 842 914 146 


"963 377932 668 129 
"965 198 747 506 567 
*966 890 397 828628 
968 464 548 822 273 
"969 931 604 907 714 


971 300 864 958 029 
"972 580654 473 280 
"973 778 466 897 719 
"974 QOI O13 211 320 
"975 954 360 776017 


"976 943 983 556 604 
"977 874 833 415 583 
978 719 571 814619 
"979 577 750 614 522 
"980 357 595 871 849 
"981 094 307 287 316 
984 229 800 386 619 
986 653 109 231 165 
I‘o 


=f 


G 


‘000 123 409 804 087 
000 067 054 824 303 
"000 035 712 849 642 
"000 018 643 742 332 
*+(5)9 540162 873079 


(5)4 785 117 392 129 
"(5)2 352575 200010 
(5) 133 727 138 748 
(5)0 535 534 780 279 
‘(5)0 247 959 601 805 


(5)0 112 535 174719 
‘(5)0 050062 180 208 
‘(5)0 021 829 577 951 
(8)9 330 287 574 505 
"(8)3 908 938 434 265 
(8) 1 605 228 055 186 
*(8)0 646 143 177 311 
(8)0 254.938 188 039 
(8)0 098 595 055 760 
*(8)0 037 375 
'(8)o o13 887 
(12) 072 877 
(15) 231 952 
xe) 


943 865 
240958 
283 024 


713 279 | 


"000 019 577 193 237 
"000 O10 323 353 804 


"000 005 340 191 779 
°000 002 709 824752 
*000 OO 348 831 4909 


"000 000 658 553 786 
315 375 366 
148 133 768 
068 242954 
030 833 828 


663 189 
937 745 
530 616 
057 687 
433 517 
174 246 
068 679 
026 544 
O10 O61 
003 739 


"000 000 000 OOT 363 

‘(8)o 000 006 520723 

"(8)0 000 000 019 069 
foie) 


*000 000 O13 
005 
002 
oor 
000 


“C00 000 000 


ERRATA. 


Page 257, last line, for | read / 
0 0 


» 258; line 4, for | eee iad | edt 
t t 


» 261, note +, for 1:283791 670, ete., read 1:128 397 167 0, etc., twice. 
» 263, note *, for Probabilities, read Probabilities,” 
» 266, note +, for Mr W. T. B., read Mr W. S. B. 

» 271, line 3, for A,), read A8) 


» 273, line 14, for + ote. | . read + ete. l 3 


» 276, line 22, for e-», read ¢~” 


VOL. XXXIX, PART II. (NO. 9). 


) 


| * The figures in parentheses indicate the number of ciphers between the decimal point and the figures that follow. The 
¢ of H for 76 is 0°999 999 999 999 999 978 483 925. 


3) 18 


isose) 2 


x, —The Relations between the Coawial Minors of a Determinant of the 
: Fourth Order. By Tuomas Mutr, LL.D. 


a aaa Ta 


Se 


(Read January 31, 1898.) 


existence of relations between the coaxial minors of a determinant was 
ered by MacManon in 1893. The whole literature of the subject is 
din three papers, viz.:— — 


MacManon, Phil. Trans., clxxxv. pp. 111-160. 
Morr, Phil. Mag., 5th series, xli. pp. 587-541. 
Nanson, Phil. Mag., 5th series, xliv. pp. 362-367. 


object is to continue the investigation of the relations in question, and 
arly to draw attention to an explicit expression for a determinant of the 
n terms of its own coaxial minors. At the outset some fresh considerations 
determinants in general will be found useful. 


- ———$———$—$———— 


is well known, the coaxial minors of a determinant of the nth order are 2”—1 
e determinant itself and each of the elements of its primary diagonal being 


For example, the coaxial minors of | «,b,c,d,| are 


| @,bqcad, |, 
|@,Boey |, | ADody|, | Ayeg@y|, | Oey, |, 
|@1b,|, |@05|, [aydy|, [One| | Osty|, [es44|, 


elements of their primary diagonals; and the determinants thus resulting 
) be of considerable interest. They appear in Cayizy’s well-known 
orem, which for a determinant of the 3rd order is 


CE TR 
Oe + 6, + a,b,¢,. 


as ly 


by 


eorem may be described as giving an expression for a determinant in 
own devertebrated coaxial minors and its primary diagonal elements. 
we use CAYLEY’S expansion in connection with each of the first 2"*-1—n 
ors, we obtain 2"—1—n equations, linear in respect to the devertebrated 
So that, on solving for the latter, there must result an expression for each 
rART Ty (NO. 10), 30 


324 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


diagonal elements. The general theorem thus obtained is 


Oy 40, 3 Gee we = |aybgcgdy....| — Lay | Oye,0,.--.| + Dab, | ¢,%,..3.| aaa 


closely resembles. 


3. The truth of it may be established by proceeding in the manner just in 
but there is another available process which has the advantage of presenting it mer 
as the ultimate case of a more general theorem, viz., a theorem for similarly expand 
a determinant which is only partially devertebrated. 

Taking determinants of the 8rd order, we have in succession and without 
difficulty of verification, = 


6; 0, 0; | = | a,.¢3| — %| beg | 5 


& - B&B) = | a4bp¢3| — | by¢3| — b,|@¢3| ++ Abe , 


= | a,b,¢,| — a,|b,¢3| — 24) AxCg| — C3|@,0,| + 2a,b2C,» 


Cree 
Proceeding to the 4th order, we have with equal simplicity in the first case 


ot FO, Oy 1 1 
eC b, 
G C Cg % 


es a 


4 


= |abje4d,| — a4] O:ea%4|. 


For the next case we have similarly 


od aedigs 1s aly Oe ee . 
3 
bbe hi) | ee eh 
ee te bi Ae ee. ee re 
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 d d. d 
d 3 4 |) 
d, d, d, dy d, d, d, dy 


and as each of the determinants on the right has already been expanded in the 
form, there is at once obtained by substitution 


|a,b.c,y| — Ay| Dycatly| — Bal aycgdy| + %4bg| Cycl, |. 4 


GOAXIAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 325 


Gels Cis an Oy 
~ Gy -o 
Ba. 0, Cee 0s, Dy 5 a 7 
= = GZ ° 4 
@, or Comic new 6; Pay ha 
aed, dy d, Qi ds dx dy “RS Maal 
= |a,b c,d,| — a) b,c,d,| — 6, a,¢,4,| + ,b,|¢54, | 


— C5{|abjd,| — |b, — blad,| + a,b,d,}, 


= |a,boc,4,| — a] bp¢,0,| — by! 050 | — 6] a, boc, | 
+ abo] Cyt] + Ayes] Boel | + Oyc| a4, | 
— a,b,c.d,. : (A) 
proceeding in exactly the same way, we have the theorem of the 
on, V1z.:— 
Wises a 
OO 
i s = |abpesd,| — Bon) boegdy| + Layb,|c,¢,| — 3a,bpcd,, 
4 
d, ds 


the = refers to combinations of the four elements, a, bo, cs, dy. 


Mavon’s problem of expressing the determinant of the 4th order in terms of 
ninors may thus be transformed into something apparently simpler, viz., 
determinant in terms of its devertebrated coaxial minors and the 
al elements. 

of the determinant |a,),c,d,| the eleven (z.e., 2-1-4) devertebrated 
are 


i, 2a ie gb 0,4 + Agby 644, 
eS yb,¢,d, + db,C,d, + a,b,c,d, — + +a,b,c,d,+4,0,c,d,; = D say, 
= A . + a,b,¢,d,+ 3b Coc, 
we... 
uaa Oy 
Ge) 0; | te. a,b,c, + a,b,c, = C, say, 
Cee es 
Hemet ca)! oi; 
Bb . 0,| te, abd, + a,b,d, = Csay, 
d, d, 
Stay Oy 
G «. G& | 46, a¢0, + aed, = C,say, 
Ch CR 
“Na | 0 Ue 
“fal RCmenOn |a2.¢,. 0.6.0, + 0,0, = C, say, 
é Ged 


326 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


. @ : 
s 2 | 4, — db, = B, say, 
4. . 
Sa 
eal e 
1.0, — AC, = B,say, 
1 
a 
. 4 . aot 
d 1.0., — ad, = B, say, 
1 . 
b 
. 3 . fon 
1.@., — b,c, = B, say, 
2 . 
ay b,d, = B,sa 
d V.0.. — Oslo = D; Say, 
pe 
Pel C0 4— basa 
) VC, —— 43 = 6 Ye 
re 


Using the last six equations to eliminate 0,, , d), C2, d,, ds—these being th 
on one side of the primary diagonal of |a,b.c,d,|—from the preceding five 
we have 


| Bp, abs + Bp tite ae 
BB, +B,B,+B,B,—|— Bae - BB Bags |= | 
gente + ope a 
es By + BBs =i 
- B+ BBSE =O, 
Vag ce +B, Bt an 
- ni +B Bae =cy 


: So On0s One 1d, Cem ser ) a 
But the four fractional quantities Gp dee a? say Ys Yn Ys Y= 


last four equations are connected by the relation 


ViV3= V2V4> i 
and the three similar quantities in the remaining equation of the set are 
terms of these four, viz.:— 


CE an ea 
A34 Y3 - Vas 

AyDol 

ra Fives Ol yava3 
4 

ajby _ Vn ope ae 
Gib, = Yo Y3. 


It is thus possible by the elimination of 1, y2, Ya, Y4 to deduce ee equations, 1 
than two of which, however, can be independent. 


Pie 


COAXTAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 327 


5. Taking the first four equations of the set of five, and using 7, Yo, y3 as just 
indicated, we have 


| | | : 
B,B,+B,B;+ B;B,—D = (BB, o +B,B; Ys) at (Bays + B,B,Be-_ ) a (BB + BB, ral 
¥3 Y2 V1Y3 V2 


V1 
il 
C, > — Byy; ais yee 
Val 
i 
C, = — Byye ee ie 
2 
1 
| C, = —Bay, PD Poee J 


Now, by means of each pair of the last three of these equations, the y’s may be 


eliminated from a corresponding one of the bracketed expressions in the first equation, 
the results of this action in fact being 


B,B,2 ae ae fos —0,0,+ wl O,?+ 4B, B,B, a/ C3'+ 4BB, Ba 
Y3 MY aUDp 
1 C,C,+ /C,?+4B,B,B J/C,?+4B,B,B 
B  —— 128 1 Pye P 3 27306 | 
3¥1¥3 + BiB, Cy 2B, 
—C,C,+ ,/C,7+4B.B,B, ,/C,?+4B,B.B 
BBs as B,B2 = Cot JC; = aC, Dae oe 
2 71 ZEeh| 


| We thus have 


GC, - 6,C, , 6,C, 
2B, 2B, 2B, 


D=B,B,+B,B,+B,B,-+ 


1 1! 
~ 2B, JC,?+4B, BB, ./C,?+4B,B,B, + 2B, /C,?+4B,B,B, /C,?+ 4B, B,B 


| ~ = /G2+4B,B,B, ,/C,2+4B,B,B, ; 

| —a relation among ten of the eleven devertebrated coaxial minors of |a,b,c,d,|. Then 
as for each of the ten there is an expression in terms of the vertebrate coaxial minors, 
and, in the case of one of them, viz., D, this expression involves the original 
determinant |«,b,c,d,|, it is clear that we may deduce from this the result foreshadowed 
by MacManon, viz., an expression for | ab,c,d,| in terms of its coaxial minors. 


__ Making the actual substitutions in places where subsequent simplification is readily 
possible,* we find 


| Mboeaily| = Za,)dyc,d,| + 2 Gyby| |¢y4,| — 2Dayb,|¢,0,| + 6a,b,0,0, + Cite a Gis te Sis 
2B, 2B, 2B, 


| 
~ gp, JOF+4B,B,B, /O?+4B,BB, + op /CE+4B,B,B, /Cy+4B,B,B, 


1 
7 2B, Ni C2+ 4B, B.B, J C,? ae 4B,B.B, ? 


* In the case of each expression under a root-sign a certain amount of simplification is also possible, ¢.g., we find 


C? aN 4B, B.B; = | aod, ? = >2) ay bods | | bod | ay + 4 | aybod, | Oy boy + 4 | ab, | | ad, | | bod | 
+ Bay?) bods? — S2ayb.| ayd,| | bod, |. 


328 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


where B,, B,,... By, Ci, C,, Cs; have the significations given to them in section 4, but 
are to be replaced by using the theorem of sections 2, 3. 

6. Again, taking the last four of the set of five equations in section 4, and be 
in mind that ywy3= Ys, all that is necessary for elimination is to put : 


2B, Cy 07-45 Bay 

etry C, ate / C,? am 4B,B,B; or JB Se 
2B, C,+ /C.?+4B,B,B;” 

Ress O,+ ./C,?+4B,B,B, or _ 2B Be 
Ya 2B, C+ /C2=2n nies 


in the equation 


G2 Bees Be. 
‘i > Yo i Sonys 


The result of this action is 
4B, BBC, + C,0,C, —. C, /C?+4B,B,B, /C2+4B,B,B, 
a5 C, rl C,? +4B,B.B, J C?+4B,B,B, 
— €, a C,?+4B,B,B, Nh C.?+ 4B,B.B. = OF 


and similar equations can be got for C; in terms of C,, C., Cy; for C, in tern 
C,, C,,-C,> and tor C, im terms of CC, Cz 


7. On comparison of these results with those of Professor Nanson it will be fe 
that instead of an explicit expression for |a,b,c,d,| in terms of its coaxial minors, 


equation. The presumption therefore is that each of his biquadratics 1 
resolvable into linear factors. This will now be shown to be the case. The 
necessary transformations is among the most interesting of the kind, and ~ 


connected. 


8. The latter of the two biquadratics is 


DL CQ BR AQRL+2BCD 

CP DM AR BRPM+2CAD 

BP AQ DN CPQN+2ABD 

AL BM CN DLMN+2ABC 
where 

1D; C, B, A; R, Q, L, les M, N 
correspond to but are not identical with the 
C,, Cy CH C,; B,; By By By By Be 

of the present paper. 


COAXIAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 329 


Now this determinant is easily seen to be the same as 


DLMN CQMN BRMN AQRLMN+2BCDMN 


il CPNL DMNL ARNL BRPMNL+2CADNL 
L?M?2N?} BPLM AQLUM DNLM CPQNLM +2ABDLM 
AL BM CN DLMN +2ABC 


Taking BC/L times each element of the last row from the corresponding element of the 
ist row, CA/M times each element of the last row from the corresponding element of the 
2nd row, and AB/N times each element of the last row from the corresponding element 
bof the 3rd row, we transform this new determinant into 


DLMN— ABC CQMN -BOE BRMN— BO 
L 


CPNL —A’Cy; DLMN— ABC ARNL ~ ACH 
L M 


ep pe 
BPLM ABE AQLM — AB N 
AL BM 


2AB?C? 

L 
2A?BC? 

M 
2A?B2C 

N 
DLMN + 2ABC ‘ 


AQRLMN + BCDMN — 


BRPLMN + CADLN — 


DLMN—- ABC CPQLMN +ABDLM— 
CN 


Diminishing now each element of the last column by BC/L times the corresponding 
element of the 1st column, by CA/M times the corresponding element of the 2nd 
jcolumn, and by AB/N times the corresponding element of the 3rd column, we change 
the last column into 


212 
AQRIMN—AC-QN-AB'RM+45— | T(NLQ — BY) (LMR — ©) 
BRPLMN — BA2RL— BOePN +2 BC | | Bar-—c» (MNP—A2) 
Me = or < M 
; A?B°C C 
CPQLMN —CB*PM— Ca’QL +=+ a(MNP — A?) (NLQ —B?) 
I | 
DLMN — ABC J L DLMN—ABC 
id if, merely for shortness’ sake, we put 
A2 
PL(1 ss up )=* 
eae 
Qu(1 = Se 
CoN. 
RN(1 —= cur) =I 5 
he determinant becomes 
DLMN — ABC CNp? BM)? ALp2? 
CN? DLMN— ABC AL? BM)? 
BMv?2 ALy? DLMN — ABC CN)2u2 
AL BM CN DLMN — ABC 


330 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


Dividing the columns by X, «, v, \uv respectively, and multiplying the rows in orde: 
the same, we obtain 


| DLMN—ABC CNru BMpyv ALpy 

| CNXu DLMN — ABC ALpy BM 
BMA ALpy DLMN — ABC CNXu 

| ALwuy BMA CNAu DLMN — ABC 


—a determinant which is seen to have all the elements of the primary diagonal al 
all the elements of the secondary diagonal alike, and to be symmetric with res 
both diagonals. Such a determinant, when of the 4th order, must clear 
function of the four elements which necessarily recur in every line; and, as a1 
fact, it is known to be expressible as the product of four factors, the first of whi 
sum of the said four elements, and differs from each of the others in the sign of tw 
its last three terms. The biquadratic we began with is thus the same as 


(DLMN — ABC+CNAu+BMA+ALuy) 
.(DLMN — ABC+CNAu — BMpA — ALw) 
.(DLMN — ABC—CNaAu+ BMA — AL) 
.(DLMN — ABC—CNAu—BMA+AL py) = 


so that if we put back the values of A, », v and solve, we have 


D=rypy{ ABC + C,/A?—MNP /B?—NLQ + B/C?—LMR ,/A2—MNP 
+ © /A?—MNP /B— BONO), 


and this, on the required changes being made, will be found to be identical 
result of section 6. 


9. The other biquadratic referred to is 


f (1—C) /I-B2 (1—B)/i-@ (1—A),/1—_B? in 

C20 ie 6 (l—a) JI-@ (1-B) /I-C /i—aaa 

(1—B) /1—A? (1—A),/1—B? 6 (1—C) /I—A? /1= i | 

1-A 1-—B 1-C 0 

where 6 stands for (A—1) (B—1) (C—1)-—4A. It is the biquadratic not 
general determinant | @,b,c,d,| but for the very special instance 


Ll Pesos ah 

-1 
he Tee at On NG 
Ye (sae | laa | 

Ry Piel lode age? 


In this case the required transformation is very easy. All that is necessary is 50 
the first three rows by ,/1—B’,/1—C’, /1—-C@./1—A’, ,/1—A®,/1-B 
and then multiply in order the first three columns by the same. The result is 


& 


; COAXIAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 331 


6 d=) /i=2 /P= B82) (=B) /i-@ yi=m ax A) /1—-B? /I—@ 
/1—B? ) (iA) /1—B /1—C?. (1—B) J/1—-C /1— A? 
1-A? (1—A)/1-B? /1-@ ) (1—C) /I—A? JI—B? 

ie (i —8) 1-C /I-2 (1-0) /i-# i ® 6 


the determinant has the elements of the primary diagonal all alike, the 
f the secondary diagonal all alike, and is symmetric with respect to both 
As before, therefore, it resolves into four factors, and we have on 
e value of 0 


sub- 


I(B—1)(C—1) — 4A + (1-0) JI-& /1—B + (1-8) f1-@ Jima 
= (1—A) /1— A? /1—B?=0, 


Meee 2>AB + OSA — 2 + 2(1—C) /1—A? /1—B? 4+ 2(1—B),/1—B? SiS Ke 


‘& A1—A) /1— A? /1— Be, 


dily shown to be in agreement with the more general result in section 5.* 


only does the determinant 


DL CQ BR AQRL+2BCD | 
CP DM AR BRPM+2CAD 
BP AQ DN ~. CPQN+2ABD 
-z AL BM CN DLMN+2ABC | 


into factors, but each of the two determinants into which it may be partitioned 


re lvable. For, multiplying the columns in order by ,/MNQR, ./N ERP: 


nd then dividing the rows in order by ./LQR, ./MRP, /NPQ, ./LMN, 
e new form 


DyOUMN C/NPQ BY/MRP «/LoR +22CL 


: JLQR 
CYNPQ DYIMN AJIQR pBymrp+ 2CDA 
J/MRP 
— , ene 
BYMRP AJLQR DJIMN © J/NPQ + TRO 
AJIQR BY/MRP cCYNPQ pv ytmn+ 248C 
: JLMN |; 


biquadratic of this section another mi 


ght readily have been obtained from the single equation 
Professor NANson’s paper, viz., 


B+ s/T=B/1-C + /1- C'n/1- A? + /1- A/1-B = 0, 
e=A+B+C+D-4a-1-BC-CA-AB, 

0 that this equation gives a much simpler expression for a, viz.:— 

- A= ~2+23A ~23AB +23,/1-B%/1_C2, 

. PART II. (No. 10) 3D 


332 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


and on partitioning this into two the first 1s seen to be 
= (D /LMN+C /NPQ+B /MRP+A ,/LQR) 
.(D JEMN+C /NPQ—B,/MRP—A ,/LQR) 
.(D /LMN—C /NPQ+B /MRP—A ,/LQR) 
.(D /LMN—C /NPQ—B /MRP+A /LQR), 


and the second to be 
DJIMN CJNPQ BJ/MRP DJIMN .C/NPQ.B/MRP 
CJNPQ DJIMN AJILQR CJ/NPQ.DJ/LMN.A /LQR 2m 
BJ/MRP A/LQR DJIMN B,/MRP.A/LQR .D,/LMN LMNPQR 
A J/LQR BJMRP CJ/NPQ. A /LQR.B/MRP 0 /NEQ 
and therefore 
—  =(C /NPQ.A,/LQR —D,/LMN. B ,/MRP) 
(A /LQR .B,/MRP—C /NPQ .D/LMN) 
(B /MRP. C /NPQ—A,/LQR .D,/LMN) + }LMNPQR, 


= 2(CAQ—DBM)(ABR—CDN) (BCP—ADL). 


a 
11. Were it not for the divisor LMNPQR attached to the second determi nant 
the preceding section, the full determinant would be a function of only four varia 
V1Z. :-— 
AJ/LQR, 
B/MRP, 
C /NPQ, 
D,/LMN; 
and as a matter of fact the final expansion of it may be written 
D(A /EQR)'—22(A /LQR)(B /MEP) 
+8(A /LQR.B,/MRP.C,/NPQ. D ,/LMN) 
2a JLQR)(B /MRP)(C /NPQ)?—43(A /LQR)’.B /MRP.C JSPQD, Di 
LMNPQR 


12. Standing in close connection with the subject-matter of the preceding 
the connection of general with particular—is the problem of clearing the equation 


o+h, te + kJea + 1 fad = | 
of root-signs, or of transforming a fraction of which 2+h/bo+k/ca+l,/ab is the 
denominator into one having its denominator rational. Viewing the matter im 
way we reach the result 


(ath Jbe+k Jea+l Jab) (x+h Jbe—k Jea—1 Jab) (a—h Joe+h Jea—l Jab) (a—h jas i a+l yj 
or 
at + HAD + Ita? + a2b? 
— 2a°(h?be + k?ca + Pab) 
— 2abe(h?kc + k?l?a + Ph*b) 
— 8xhklabc . y 


COAXIAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 300 


This, however, is well known to be equal to the determinant 


xe h,foe bJea 1fab 
hfbe «2 lfab kJea 
k fea ljab « hfe 
Lfab kJea hJjbc a 


and we may consequently say that the rationalizant of the expression «+h,/be 
+k Jeatl/ab is the biaxisymmetric determinant of the 4th order which has the 
terms of the expression for the elements of its first row, all the elements of its primary 
| io 2 alike, and all the elements of its secondary diagonal alike. 
Another determinant form of the result is obtained by using the dialytic method of 
elimination. Taking the original equation and multiplying in succession by ,/bc, 
Jed, /ab, we have 


a+ hJfbc + kjea + 1 fab =0 
hbe + 2 Jobe + lb,fow + ke Jab = 0 
kea + la foe + x [ca + he Jab = 0 
lab + ka Jobe + hb fea + «Jab = 0 


mes 


and therefore on eliminating ,/bc, ,/ca, ,/ab there results the rationalizant 


NN al (2 oat ay 
hbe « lb ke 
hea. la  a@ he 
lab ka hb « 


[t is easy to change the one form into the other ; indeed, this change is what has been 


pe in sections 8, 9, Professor Nanson having obtained his results in the latter 
of the two forms. 


13. Another closely related problem, as Professor Nanson has made clear, is that of 


*Xpressing cos(a+ +) in terms of cosa, cos 8, cosy, or say, for shortness’ sake, 8 in 
erms of A, B, C. 


Since 


cos(a+B+y) — cos acos B cosy + cosasin Bsiny + cosBsinysina + cosysinasinf = 0, 
ve have 


S— ABC + A /1—B? /1—-@ + B /I-C@? I-A? + 0 JI-A? /I1-B? = 0, 


nd the problem is seen to be a case of the preceding, the result being either 


S—ABC A /1=B? /I-@? B/JIi-Cji—A® C,/1—A?,/1—B* 

A JI-B /1-@ S—ABC Cia ter Bic? /1— 22 

BYI-@ f/I—A2 © Ji—A?,/1—B? S—ABC i eae: 
O/i=2? JI=Bt  BY/l—-C? fiI—A? A,/1—B? /1-C@? S— ABC | 


| 
i . 


334 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


or 
S—ABC A B Be | 
| AU —B')(1-C%) S-ABC C(1-B*) BA-C?) 
B(1—C®)(1—A2) O(1—A2) S—ABC A(i—C%) 
@(1—A2)(1=B) BA=Ay TAC —B) SABO Ie 


which Jatter can be simplified, as Professor Nanson shows, into 


| S+2ABC A B C 


A+2BCS S C B 
B+2ACS C S A 
C+2ABS B A S 


This, however, can be obtained much more directly from the use of another exp 
sion for cos(a+6+ +), viz. — 


cos(a+B+y) = cosacos(B+y) + cos Bcos(y+a) + cos a cos(a+ 2) — 2cosa on 608 
where nothing but cosines appears, the angles being 
a, B, y; By, yta, at B; geben 
Making in this equation the substitutions 


fsa Beas: a= yy (Me SS) 
Wecige coeur ie 
ee Oe NR aa ea | y=at+6t+y, 


the complete set of four identities being in the notation above employed 


S + 2ABC — Acos(8+y) — Beos(y+a) — Ccos(a+) = 0 
A + 2SCB — Scos(8+y) — Ceos(y+a) — Beos(a+f) = 0 
B + 20SA — Ccos(8+y) — Scos(y+a) — Acos(a+) = 0 
C + 2BAS — Beos(B+y) — Acos(y+a) — Scos(a+f) = 0 


From these cos (8+), cos (y+), cos (a+) can be eliminated, and the desi red result 
at once obtained. ; | 


for a, 8, y gives the similar relation between sin(a+$+y), sina, sinf, siny, 
It should also be noted that the corresponding expression for cos (a+ ) it 

of cosa and cosf is obtained from an identity of a different type, Mee ‘sin 

= sin a cos 8+ cos asin 6, the set of equations being ; 


sin B + cos(a+f).sina — cosasin(a+) = 0 
cos(a+).sinB + sina — cos Bsin(a+f) = 
cosa.sinB + cos B.sina — sin(a+) = 0 


* In effect the substitutions are the same as the circular substitution ( e rs © ) i T 
cos (y+), cos(a+ 8) as invariant. 7 


t 
| 
COAXIAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 335 


and the resulting equation * 


| i cos(a+) cosa | 
' cos(a+P) i! Gass) |) = Oe 
COS a cos 6 i 


The same identity almost suffices to give the corresponding relation between 
sin (a+), sing, sin 8, the set of equations now being 


| — sin8.cosa —  Ssina.cos6 + sin (a+ 8B) = (0) 
| sin 6.cos(a+/) — sin(a+).cos 8 + sin a = 0 | 

sina.cos(a+8) — sin(a+).cosa a sin 3 = (i | 
sin(a+f).cos(a+8)— Sina.cosa — sn B.cosB + 2sinasin Bsin(at+8) = 0), 
whence on the elimination of cosa, cos 8, cos(a+) we have 

‘ sin B sin a sin (a+) 
sin B : sin (a+) sin a _% 
| sin a sin (a+) : sin B —— 
sin (a+) sin a sin 6 2 sin asin 6 sin (a+ 8) 


15. The consideration of the relation between cos(a+8+7+9) and cosa, cos§, 
208 y, cos 0 leads at once to the question of the rationalization of the equation 
| at bjay + cf t+ d jaw + ely + fJyw +9 Jz + hJayew = 0, 
secause 

cos(a+B+y+6) = cosacos cos ycosd — Zoos ycosdsinasin8 + sinasin Bsin ysino. 


By proceeding in exactly the same manner as in section 12 the result of the rationaliza- 
‘ion is obtained in three forms, viz., (1) the product 


| (a + b fay +c Jaz +d jaw + eJ/yz+fJyw +9 Jew + h Jaye) 
(a + b Jay + ¢ Jaz +d Jaw — eJyz — fJyw — 9 Jew — h,/ayaw) 
| (a + bay — ¢Jaz —d Jaw +eJyz + fJlyw — 9 Jew — h Jaye) 
| (a + bay — 0 faz — d Jaw —e Jyz — f yo + 9 Jao + h Jaye) 
) (a — b Jay + ¢ Jaz — d Jaw + ¢J/ye — f yw + 9 Jz — h Jaye) 
| (a — b Jay + cJaz — d Jaw — 0 /yz + f Jyw — g Jaw + h Jayne) 
| (a — bay — 0,faz + dow + oye — f fyw — g fw + h, Jaye) 
| (a — b fay — cJaz + d Jaw — ¢ Jye + f Jyw + 9 zw — h Joya) , 


* Tt is interesting to note the mode in which the more general relation connecting cos(a+8+ 7), cosa, cos B, cos 7, 
»asses over into this on putting -y=0 in the former. The result of the substitution is 


COS a 1 cos(a+f8) cos8+2cosacos(a+f) 
cos B cos (a+ B) 1 cos a +2cos Bcos(a+B) 
1 cos a cos B cos (a+ f)+2 cos acos B 
| ¢cos(a+ 8) cos B COs a 1+2cosacosBcos(a+B) |, 


vhere the elements of the 4th column are easily transformed into zeros with the exception of the last element which 
vecomes 


1 + 2cosacosBcos(a+ 8) — cos?(a+ 8) — cos’B — cos”a, 
o that the value of the determinant is seen to be 


| cosa 1 cos(a+f)  ” 
cosB cos(a+ 8) 1 
1 COS a cos B 


Vith this mode of degeneration may be compared that seen on p. 377 of Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., xx 


i 


336 a8 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


(2) the biaxisymmetric determinant 


a bJay so Jazw dowels fy g Jew hoya 


b Jay a eye = flyw —e,Jaz dd Jaw hh Jayow gg Jew | 
c./az esyz a gla db fay hJayaw dJjaw fJywo | 
dJjaw fJiyw yaw a, hfeyeo fay cf eye 
ejyz ceJfaz bfay  hJayzw a gle filyw da Jaw 
flyo dJjaw hfayew dbfay gjw . a lye fae 
giao Rh foyew dJaw cae ffyw erlyz a b Jay 


hh Jayew gfe flo efye djaw cla bJay 
and (3) the axisymmetric determinant 


a b c d é i WG 
bay La  \ fp enn da Vay Gg 
cae ez a ge bu he dx vf 
dow fw gw a haw ber cm e 
eye ce by hz a ga fy a 

Syw dw hyw by gw aw e 
gzw~ hew dw @ fw @ a 0b 
hayzw gew fyw eyz daw cuz bay—a 


form into factors is well known.* 


16. There is still another variant of the problem of sections 6, 8, viz., to e2 


the relation 
cos~'x + cos-'y + cos-'z + cos-’w = 0 


in purely algebraical form. In essence it is the same as the variant dealt wit 
section 13. 2 


we have vue ae ates 
aye — « fJ1—y? Jl—2 — y fJl—2 Jl—2 — 2 /l—@ f/l-y = w, 


which is at once seen to be an equation of the form dealt with in section 12. 
of the rationalization is 


| & Y 2 w+ 2uye 
yY @ w 2+2yxw ee 
2 w x y+22ewa ; 
we y «#+2wey 


or 
Lat — 22277? + 8ayzw + 42 0?2? — 42 ay = 0. 


* See Quart. Jowrn. of Muth , xviii. pp. 170, 171. 


COAXIAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 337 


Similarly we have for the equation 
cos-’a + cos-'y + cos-*z = 0 


the purely algebraical equivalent 


and for the equation 


cos-'a + cos-'y + cos-*z + cos-*w + cos-'v = 0 


a purely algebraical equivalent essentially the same as that referred to in section 15 as 


giving the relation between cos («++ +8) and cosa, cos 8, cos , cos 6. 


17. This suggests a very simple and perfectly symmetrical mode of expressing the 
relation of section 6 between the coaxial minors of an order lower than the fourth, viz.:— 


oh C; 
a 
22 eE RB, " 2 /=B BB, 


cos-* + cos-’ + cos-? =, (i 


a pene ce 
2,/—B.B,B, 2 a 
The law of formation of the denominators is perhaps not clear, but this is due merely 
to a defect in the notation. If we substitute for B’s and C’s their values as given in 


\terms of the coaxial minors of | a,b,c,d,| we have 


: | a0,¢,| — a,|b,¢,| — 6, |a,c,| — ¢,|a,0,| + 2a,b,c, ; 
> cos~ = 0: 
2(—1)(|@,b,| — a,b.) |ayeg| — a4¢,)4( | 0,051 — b5¢3)! 
ud, further, if we denote by 


| Ab5¢. 
| 000 


pe determinant got from |,b,c,;| by changing the elements of the primary diagonal 
nto zeros, the relation may be written 


Dol | 
aig | = 
<" of _ | 48 | | ae, | | S65 |\? : 
: 00 || 00 00 


18. Another matter which has light thrown upon it by certain of the preceding 
aragraphs is SYLVEsTER’s original illustration of the dialytic method of elimination as 
pplied to ternary quadrics. It will be remembered that from the equations 
Ba?—2C’ay+ Ay? = 0 
Cy? — 2 A’y2 + Bz? 0 
Av—2B’zr+C2? = 0 


e deduced three others 
| O22 + Cay—A’za—Byz = ot 


II 
S 


A’a? + Ayz— Bay — C’zx 
| ~- Be? 4 Ber —Cye —A'cy = 0), 


338 : ; DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


and thus obtained the eliminant in the form 


C B —24A’ : 
Co ame — 2B’ eon, 
BA —20 
A’ A —C —B’ 
B’ _ -C B —A’ 
: C -B —-A’ C 
which, it was afterwards shown, 
fg Cie bi es 
= eid Omerb! AK 
Be pA ie 
Now the given equations may be written 
yA , efB _ 20 
xe /B y JA J AB 
ZEB MepeiCUs Ow . 
yJ0 * 2JfB ~ JBC 
BC OU Sees | 
aoe sn ace Jere 
consequently it is seen that there exists the relation 
see ee eee ee es 
SEG + cos FCA + cos Orn 
and therefore : 
A’ C’ 
- ABC of AB | 
A vy 
JBC if SCA = We 
C’ iby 
wey | JAB JCA 
Similarly the resultant of 
Ba?— Day+Ay? = 0 
Cy2— Eyz+Bze2 = 0 
Lz?— Kew+Cu? = 0 
Aw?—Gwar+L2 = 0 
is s| 
=i i Et =i 
cos 2 JAB + cos 2 JBC + cos JCA + cos rg 
and therefore from section 16 is 
a ec £3) ive G DEK 
| 27AB 2/BO 2/0L 2,/LA’4BO/LA 
E D G K EDG 
2 /BC 2 JAB 2JEA 2/CL*4AB /OL 
K G DH ee 
2/0L 2/0A 2/jAB 2,/BC’ 4LA,/BC 
G K E D GKE 


3 JAB’ 4CL /AB 


2DC /BL 
2EA ,/BL 
| OKA /BL 
260 /BL 


2E ,/ABCL 
2D /ABCL 
2G /ABCL 
2K /ABCL 


KB 
GB 
DL 
EL 


AQ es 


2KB /AC 
2GB ,/AC 
2DL /AC 
2EL./AC 


DEK +2GBC 
EDG+2KAB 
KGD+2ELA 
GKE+2DCL 


th what has been obtained otherwise.* _ 


2GBC+ DEK 
2KAB+EDG 
2ELA+KGD 
2DCL+GKE 


* Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., xxi. p. 333. 


COAXIAL MINORS OF A DETERMINANT OF THE FOURTH ORDER. 


0, 


ua 


: ( 341 ) 


XI— Chapters on the Mineralogy of Scotland. Chapter VILI*—Silicates. By 
M. Forster Heppe, M.D., Past President of the Mineralogical Society of Great 
Britain, Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the University of St Andrews. 


(Read December 6th, 1897.) 


The earlier mineralogists laboured under two great disadvantages. They could not 
readily, on account of the small number of students of chemistry, call in the aid of that 
science: and at the time when mineralogy was becoming a distinct branch of science 
chemistry was in itself crude as well as cumbrous. They were thus forced to rely 
chiefly upon external properties; and, where crystalline form was absent, they were 
confined to what may be called physical properties alone. 

Their knowledge of the composition of bodies being thus limited and uncertain, 
the old nomenclature was to a considerable extent founded upon external features 

alone. 

Tt is the habit of many of the silicates to run out into lengthened crystals, the 
greatest amount of their concreting material being deposited in the direction of the 
‘main axis of the crystal, and when a multiplicity of crystals are concreted, these are 
thrown out from a common centre of crystallismg growth, to radiate through the 
‘matrix, very much after the manner of such crystals as have grown in what we term 
empty or free space, where no matrix is present to interfere with a tendency to diver- 
gence. This fact, the evident displacement of that which is not now displaceable, gives 
us, in the first place, some information as to the condition of the matrix of divergent 
crystal groups at the time of their formation; and leads us, in the second, to consider 
whether that matrix was in a very different condition, or held in degree any very 
different relationship (as a body foreign to the substance crystallising in it) from the 
liquid or the vapour present in those cavities in which we usually find divergent crys- 
talline groups. 

The Swedish mineralogist WaLLERIUS, who wrote in 1747, was one of the earliest 
authors who instituted group-arrangements. After considering the gems, and rock- 


| * Chapter I. The Rhombohedral Carbonates. PartI., . : : Trans. R.S.E., vol. xxvii. p. 493. 


s II. The Felspars. Part I., : ; ; : 5 . 5 XXvili. p. 197. 
» ITI. The Garnets, : : - 5 XXvili., p. 299. 


7. IV. Augite, Hornblende, an Speen tions nance 


» » XXVlli. p. 453. 
» V. The Micas; with a aaa of Haughtonite, a new Mineral 


Species, : : , ; . a 3 xxix. p. 1. 
VI. “Chloritic Minerals,” 2 : ‘ ds 5 XXIX, p. 55. 
VII. Ores of Manganese, Iron, Cie and Ais eit : 2 y) XXX, p. 427 
VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 11). 3 F 


| 
| 
| 
7 


342 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


species, such as felspar, mica, tale, and asbestos, he instituted a family which he termed 
LTornbirg (the Roche de Corne of the French) ; this embraced, as a sub-family, Skiérl 
(Schérl of the Germans). 

CRONSTEDT (1758) adopted the same family, and threw into it, “as a convenient 
pocket,” many of the recently discovered species. 

It is not altogether easy to make out what species were entitled to get into this 
pocket, or which side of its medial partition it was intended that they should lodge . 
themselves in, beyond this that cormeus was to hold “cheap or worthless stones,” 

“mostly of colours from black to dull green.’ 

CRONSTEDT introduced a little more method as regards the “ Skorl” side of the 
pocket, making it nearly synonymous with the corneus crystallisatus of WALLERIUS, 
and destined to receive prismatic minerals of black, brown, green, and reddish colours, | 
but still having some resemblance to horn in lustre. 

He, however, again introduces confusion—a confusion which was continued by | 
WALLERIUS in an edition of 1778—through adopting the term “ Basaltes” instead of | 
Skorl; and HI, in his work on Fossils, 1771, fortifies the error, when, in speaking of | 
the Shirls, he says, “as to size we see them from that of barleycorn up to the Giant's) 
Causeway,” the columns of which he calls ‘‘ Basaltes Hibernicus” or “ Irish Shirl.” 

RomEs DE LisLz, however, in 1783, bringing crystallography to bear, at once got rid \ 
of such excrescences as basaltic pillars, helleflintas, and rocks; but on account of| 
chemistry being still a lagging science, he was forced to throw in many new and indeed 1 
old species, and to increase the number of adjective distinctions; and though we do} 
find these to be all Silicates, yet he departs from the prismatic elongation by introduc- 
ing such species as axinite, staurolite, and harmotome. 

When chemistry came to lend a hand to the structural erection of the science, 
the disintegration of the great “schorl group” commenced. Beremann, by his 
researches, published in 1780, went far to disband it ; the five which lingered last were 
kyanite, ‘‘ blue schorl” ; staurolite, ‘cruciform schorl”; andalusite, ‘a red schorl” | 
rutile, red schorl ; tourmaline, black schorl; and these were extruded from the family 
in the above order. There is this much indication of these a a natural grouy 


the name schorl seems to have been that to which the term was first appliell "tl 
MarrHestus’ Sarepta, 1562, we find that the name “ schurl” was used for the “ste il 
black little stones” accompanying tin ore and gold, and which were thus probabll 
tourmaline ; and as they were metallurgically worthless, it has been suggested that t HE 
word originally was derived from the old German word Schor, meaning refuse. Yj 

“Schorl” is a name still applied to an inferior fibrous, opaque, black tourmaline ; | 
is the sole representative of a great family ; but we still use the adjective schorlows 
“schorlous beryl” —to imply crystals, thinner and more elongated than usual, which # 


imbedded in a matria with more or less of a radiating arrangement. 


rn 
—— aaa 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 343 


[t is more especially the minerals retained longest in this old family of the schorls 
which fall to be considered in the present chapter, and in chemical simplicity the first 
of these is Andalusite, At Si, right prismatic. 


1. Red Andalusite, from Auchendoir, Aberdeen. 


“Red Schorl” from Aberdeenshire has been noticed in several old works, but Mr 
James Sowersy, the author of British Mineralogy (1804), has the credit of first 


 deseribing the mineral. He does this with precision, but, though he shows what it is 


not, he draws a false conclusion as to what it is. 

His description is as follows :— 

“ Aroilla durissima, Scotch Corundum, spec. char. Nearly pure argil; hardest of 
all minerals, next to the diamond. 

“This curious substance was sent me from a dealer in Aberdeen, under the name of 


Red Schorle from Achen-door. I figure it here because it is a substance which appears 


to be new to British writers. Upon inquiry I found it was very little known, nor was 
it to be found in any mineralogical collection in London, nor scarcely in Scotland. 
Hven Mr Jameson had not previously obtained it. From him I hope for a good account 


of it.” 


—_ 


Then follows his description, which concludes: ‘“‘ Among a tolerable quantity I found 
very few with crystallised terminations ; the faces, however, are very distinct. We find 
this fossil has been taken for a rubellite, and Kirwan’s description in a great measure 
accords with that idea. But in many respects it has been confounded with the titanite 
of Kirwan. May the radiating variety be the substance of which Macquart says the 
garnets are formed? He describes it as consisting of straight fibres diverging from a 
common centre, KrrwaN mentions red schorl, and says rubellites are so called. Another 
substance resembling this was found by Morveav in Poitou, which he presumed to be 
adamantine spar,” 

After showing how it differs from certain of the above, and giving its properties, 
SOWERBY writes: “This seems undoubtedly the ‘Spath adamantin d’un rouge violet’ 
of Bournon, which he now considers a variety of corundum.” 

Sowersy finally points out JamEson’s mistake as to corundum occurring at Tiree,* 
and concludes, “therefore, ours is the only thing known at present as corundum in 
Scotland.” 


Though Auchendoir has been given as the locality for this red andalusite, I rather 


| think that both the localities in which I myself found it are in the parish of Kildrummy, 


and that only the grey variety is found in Auchendoir. These localities lie a few miles 
to the south-west of the village of Lumsden. The first—the south side of the Peat 
Hill—affords but few specimens, and these are poor. The second is the southern slopes 


of the hill of Clashnaree, in Clova. 


* The Tiree mineral is greyish-white malacolite.—M. F, H 


344 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


The specimens all lie loose, being the most enduring portions of veins which have 
themselves endured after the disintegration of a very micaceous gneiss. To all ap 
ance, indeed, the specimens seem to represent the “ branches” or knots upon very 
veins of quartz, which veins can, after considerable search, be seen formed in the 
and such as I have found were barren of minerals. The loose lying fragments of 
consist of a melange of quartz, andalusite, labradorite, fibrolite, and an ill-defin 
black mica.* These minerals interlace in a confused manner, there being no appro: 
to a uniformity in growth from the two sides of the vein. The andaluaila crystals, 
indeed, sometimes pass from side to side, lacing the other ingredients together. Th 
mineral is always rudely crystalline, but regular crystals are very rare. The mos 
perfect I have delineated. q 

Though I have figured them as “complete” in the terminal planes, yet all tl 
crystals I have seen had these planes hemihedrally disposed. The colour is a unife 
dull purplish red; but there is this most important fact to be noted, that all t 
crystals which can be sectioned and examined, though uniform in structure and 7 
parent in thin slices, have a central core which is deep purple, with purple spots 
four corners of the transverse section, after the manner of chiastolite. Well-crys 
andalusite thus seems to have a complex internal structure which is independent. of é 
portion of the matrix being caught up during its concretion into a geometri 
This fact, not, so far as I know, before noticed, comes to have an important bes 
all speculations as to the question of the mode of formation of chiastolite erysts 
clay-slate rocks. 

The crystals are sometimes 3 or 4 inches in length, and occasionally an inel 
thickness. Rarely, as noticed by SowkErsy, they form a tube-like sheath to a cents 
core of the felspar; there is not here the slightest appearance of any passag ge 
felspar, as assumed by Bournon; but there is an almost insensible passages into, 
intermixture between it and colourless and brilliant lustred fibrolite. 

The specific gravity of this red andalusite is 3°121. 

The analysis on 1°302 grammes yielded— 


Silica, . 4 5 ‘ : 4 . ‘442 
from Alumina, . ; : ; . 036 
‘478 = 36°712 
Alumina, ; ; ; . , ; . pO:678 
Ferric Oxide, . ; : : : : : 2°302 
Manganous Oxide, . ; ; : : : ‘230 
Lime, . ' f , : : f ; 860 
Magnesia, j : : ; ‘ : J trace 
Water, . ; ; , . : : ; 465 _ 
100:247 


Insoluble silica, 4:184 per cent. 
* See Chapter V, The Micas (Trans, R.S.E., xxix. (1879) 33). 


oe ee oN ee oo 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 34 


ian aanen smeeenemnmcmn memncaat,  ai ae  ail l, 


2. Andalusite from Marnoch, Banffshire. 


The precise locality is the banks of the stream near the Mill of Achintoul, Kinnordy 
Castle. 

, The nature of the ground at Clashnaree—for it is covered with sward and peat 
and the consequent impossibility of tracing the specimens into connection with the rock, 
as well as the confused crystalline arrangement of the constituents of the veins, prevents 

our arriving at any information which can have a geologic bearing on its formation, 
simple though it be in composition. This should not be the case, however, as regards 
its occurrence at Marnoch and elsewhere in Banffshire ; though the light thrown there- 
from is still obscure. And yet it is not so much that the amount of evidence supplied 
by the mode of occurrence and internal structure of such substances as the andalusite of 
Marnoch, the staurolite of Aldernie, the chiastolite of Portsoy, the apophyllite of Kal- 
syth, and the stilbite of the Long Craig is in itself small, as that we have collected so 
few observations on the paragenetic formations, and know so little of the physical laws 
which govern the formation of such crystals as are built up, not according to ordinary 
polar molecular concretion, but apparently by the sequential interlocking of tesselated 

_” each one of which structures seems to have been constructed in defiance of all 
the recognised laws of crystalline accretion. 

As regards internal structural arrangement—the mode of fitting of the molecular or 

c 28 bricks of the fabric—the imbedded andalusite crystals of Marnoch 

Nees almost no insight. Because in the formation of the crystals—however that was 

effected—so much of the matrix has been caught up by the concreting andalusite sub- 
stance as must be regarded as capable of interfering with the free formation of any 
definite structure, seeing that it has chemically interfered with the purity of the material 
attempting to erystallise apart. Possibly its potency to interfere may be all the greater 

that the intruding substance is present not in the condition of a magma mica, but as a 
perfected mineral formation—biotite mica. 

The crystals of andalusite at Marnoch lie all imbedded in a fine-grained schist, 
which has, when fresh, a pale yellow-brown colour, due to a crypto-crystalline magma 
of silicate of alumina. This magma is sprinkled throughout with minute crystals of 
‘ich brown biotite, granules of quartz, specks of magnetite, and twin crystallisations of 
itaurolite, of less than pin-head bulk. The crystals of biotite lie in all directions, per- 
vading the whole mass; those of staurolite have some disposition to be arranged in 
pecial layers; and this is very much more marked as regards the crystals of andalusite, 
"a there are other localities in which it is hardly observable. 


346 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


The crystals of andalusite are from half to nearly one inch in length, by about one 
third of that thickness, and it is to be remarked that though for the most part her 
disposed in layers, they are very far from invariably disposed upon their sides, as 
regards the rock bedding, though that position dominates. They are ash-gr 
colour, and in section and even to the eye a central lozenge-shaped tessela of dark 
and clearer shade of colour is seen; while the whole substance of the crystals is als 
seen to spangle with crystals of biotite. These are equal in size to those general 
occurring in the rock, are disposed like these in all directions, and are 1 ve 
markedly fewer in number. = 

The analysis of these was made on crystals freed ancaiauely from the inclosing ro 
and with even some portion of their outer surfaces removed to ensure as great puri 
as possible. They yielded— 


On 1°3 grammes— 4 
Silica, . ; : . : ; , . 162538 
Alumina, , ; ; , : : . 389°314 
Ferric Oxide, . : z : p ‘ é 1:094 
Ferrous Oxide, ; : ; : ; ; 3:267 
Manganous Oxide, . ; 4 : : : ‘461 
ime ; ; ; ; ; ‘ : ‘861 
Magnesia, ; 3 : : : uty S846 
Alkalies, . ‘ 4 ; ‘ : : ; trace 
Water, . : : : : ; 5 ‘ ito, 

99-491 


_ Loss, 238 per cent. of water in the bath. 


This result shows a very considerable intermixture with all of the ingredients ¢ 
rock, notwithstanding which the crystals are hardly affected by the knife, and 
vitreous lustre. : 

Three theories have been advanced to account for the presence of the eryst 
constituents of clay-slates, for they occasionally bulk so largely as to entitle them 
name. According to the first of these theories, the crystals in question are re 
as the product of chemical action in the ocean in which the original materi ia 
deposited. ‘The second theory attributes and confines the formation of the « 
line minerals to processes of metamorphism which have taken place subsequent to the 
solidification of the rocks. The third theory refers them to an aggregative action going 
on in the still plastic clay-slate mud prior to its solidification. | 

The first of these theories has been maintained by CrEepNER; but agai 
numerous arguments have been adduced, and especially the difficulty of suppo 
ocean capable of depositing from its waters at successive periods mineral s of 
different chemical composition as actinolite, andalusite, chlorite, ete. 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 347 


The second theory has received the support of DELEssE, but in opposition to it 
the existence in the rocks in question of broken crystals which have been re-cemented 
by the surrounding clay-slate substance has been pointed to. 

Striking facts, drawn from the microscopical structure of the rocks, have been 
adduced by Z1rKEL in favour of the third theory. 

Later metamorphic action must not, however, be excluded in seeking to account for 
the origin of the crystalline constituents of clay-slates. 

A review even of the theories themselves suffices to show that four distinct stages 
_ at least may be considered in the series of changes by which the rocks in question may 
have acquired their present character :— 

1st, the deposition of the mud; 

2nd, the formation of minerals during the plastic state ; 

3rd, the separation or segregation of other materials after solidification ; and 

Ath, the action of metamorphic processes. 

If such processes have operated locally, it will have to be considered whether they 
most favour the second or the third of these theories, for they may be local in their 
operation either geographically or geologically. They may have operated in close 
proximity to igneous outbursts, or to limestone formations where there has been 
much crushing of the beds, or even when there has been disturbance alone. And, 
geologically, the change may be apparent throughout the whole sweep of a formation, 
but only up to a certain thickness of its deeper-seated beds. 


TOURMALINE. 


This substance, common in granitic veins as it is, does not often occur in Scotland 
either in well-developed forms or of marked purity. The finest crystal I know of, 
the terminal portion of which I examined, was found in the coarse granite vein of 
Rubislaw quarry. It occurred along with microcline, muscovite, beryl, and garnet. It 
was 85 inches in length by 14 in width. It was curved like the figure 6, but was 
perfectly terminated and formed throughout. Fine crystals are rarely found in 
granite veins in andalusite schist in North Glen Clova in Aberdeenshire. 

Material sufficiently pure for analysis was prepared from several localities, but 
our want of any satisfactory method of determinating boracic acid induced the 
writer to postpone the analyses, except in the case of crystals which were found in the 
jgranitic belt of rock which cuts gneiss near Struay Inn, Ross-shire. 

It here occurs in jet-black crystals of some inches in length along with muscovite, 
orthoclase granular pink, and microcline of a dove blue, garnet and beryl. Its specific 
gravity is * . In powder it is brown. 


* The blank was in the MS. Professor Gurx1u informs me that the specific gravity lies between 3°1 and 3:24 ; 
Scottish examples being nearer to the latter than to the former value.—P. G. T. 


348 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


On 1°3 grammes— 


Silica, é : : : ; ; ; ‘457 
from alumina, . ' : : ' : ‘005 
— P.C. 
462 = 35:538 
Alumina, . ; : : : : ‘ : . one 
Ferric Oxide, . mot. : : : ; . 18 
Ferrous Oxide, . : : i ; ; ‘ Se 
Manganous) Oxide: p48); am Gotha) a) 
Lime, : - : ‘ ; : : .) Os 
Magnesia, . , : : ; : j ; . 3538 
Potash, 5 : : : ; : : : .. OTe 
Soda, : ; : : : . ; 429 
Boracic Acid (os f ; ; ‘ / . 10-768 
Fluorine, . ; : ‘ ; ' : oy LOS 
Phosphoric hee ; cat Naat : : . trace 
Water, ; ; ; : : 5 5 ‘ . 0 2958 
100-000 


Fibrolite, 44.Si. Anorthic. 


This species was first recognised as British by the writer, but there is reas 
believe that it was noticed by Sowerrsy, although he was ignorant of its 
nature. 

In speaking of the andalusite of Auchendoir, while stating that it does | not i 
into felspar, he remarks: ‘‘The nearest approach to mixing insensibly is | 
which in ours are, however, sufficiently distinct.” He also remarks: “The 
chiefly composed of a coarse granite intermixed with indurated asbestos.” i 

In the first, if not in the second of these observations, he must refer to fib 
and had he laid due weight upon the fact that the fibres were “ sufficiently 4 : 
he would have seen that they must have been a material different from the and 
which he was describing. | co 

The fibrolite of Clashnaree occurs in three different modes of arrang 
First, as a corded or stalactitic-like coating to the other minerals, somewhat 
manner in which galmei coats galena. Here it forms a kind of sh 
envelopes labradorite, quartz, and andalusite alike. Second, it radiates 
of fibres through the labradorite, and these fibres often unite into a 
resembles okenite. This variety is very tough. Third, it frequently is disp 
its fibres in parallel arrangement to the crystals of the red andalusite ; 
slender crystals of the red andalusite are often imbedded amongst the fi 
the fibrolite. a 

As the fibrolite is white or colourless, and of adamantine lustre, it is e 
guished, and there is nothing of the nature of a transition; it is a case of the 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 349 


f dimorphous substances lying parallel to one another, as known to occur with 
e and kyanite, and with other di-morphs. 

this third form it is somewhat more brittle than in the others, but it is still 
d to powder with extreme difficulty. I with difficulty separated a sufficiency of 
rolite in its third form for analysis; but when separated it was exquisitely pure 
I t. It had a hardness fully 7° in the scale. 

21 grains yielded— 


oll 


Silica, |. : F : 3 ’ . 38410 
Alumina, . é : ; d ; . 61426 
Ferric Oxide, . ’ : ; : : 215 
Manganous Oxide, . ; : : : 114 
Water, . ; : ; ‘ ; ; 23 
100°395 


3. Mibrolite from Pressendye Hill, Tarland, Aberdeenshire. 


cimens examined J found in small quantity coating gneiss, in thin veins on 
west side of the hill, at about 300 yards from its summit. 

our was dull white ; it was not very lustrous; it was in fibrous and slightly 
fts, which were very tough. No piece was got large enough for the determina- 
e specific gravity. 

= Silica, . : : : : ; .  39°680 


Alumina, . : ; : : ; _ 56822 
Ferrous Oxide, , ‘ ; : : 038 
Manganous Oxide, . : : 5 : 1:100 
Potash, . ; ; , ; . ; ‘860 
Soda, , s : , : , : trace 
Water, . : ; : ; ; ‘ 320 

100°820 


MAS AITKEN of Inverness showed me fragments of granite boulders which he 
dat Auchendown, near Cawdor. These contain a substance of an appear- 
ilar to the last. There is, however, some suspicion in my mind that this 
somewhat plicated plates of a hydrous mica, which show the edges of 
ly. The specimens, having been exposed, are not altogether fresh. 

one fact which so far increases the probability of this being fibrolite, namely, 
mica, which has much the appearance of that associated with the mineral 


XK. PART II. (NO. 11). 3G 


350 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


Saussure, fils, describes it under the name Sappare, in Journ. de Phys., xxxiy, 
213,1789. His name sappare arose from a mistake in reading a label of the mineral, on 
which it was called sapphire; a copy of this label is given in the Journ, de Phys. 
The specimen thus labelled was from Botriphnie in Scotland, and was sent by the 
Duke of Gorpon to Saussure the father. 

In the Deser. Cat. de I’Ecole des Mines, p. 154, published by Sace in 1784, itis 
called Tale blew; but as the present writer found no “Tale bleu” in the collection of 
I’Ecole des Mines, and as he among the specimens of kyanite found a Botriphnie 
specimen of the mineral, it is probable that had been the specimen termed the “Tale 
bleu” by Sacer, and the specimen presented by Saussure, having come from the same _ 
original source. 

The name sappare was used for the mineral by some writers up to 1823, when we 
find it employed by James Smirason who, in virtue of its infusibility, used it as a 
support in blowpipe experiments.* 

Kyanite is no longer got at Botriphnie, and the precise spot where it occurred I have 
not been able to find. Specimens from this locality are in the collection at Jermyn 
Street Museum, and in those of Edinburgh, Banff, and, I think, Montrose. They were 
larger and finer than any now obtained in Scotland. The only associated mineral is 
maregarodite. 

The second locality at which this mineral was found in Scotland was in the vicinity 
of the Burn of Boharm, about a mile above the house of Auchlankart—that at least is 
the spot where the writer has found it in North Boharm. 

Dr Maccuttocu, in writing of it at this spot, gives the following accurate description 
of it, one which should be pondered in considering the metamorphism of the rock matrix, — 

‘“Boharm. This sappare-disthene is said to have been originally discovered in this 
place. The crystals occur in a quartz vein which traverses a talcose clay-slate. They 
pass through both without any change of their direction or appearance; seeming to 
mark a common condition in the schist and the quartz at the period of their formation. 
Although these crystals in general penetrate and impress the quartz, they are sometimes 
bent and waved, as if they had accommodated themselves to its irregularities. This is 
not the case, however, with those imbedded in the talcose slate, which radiate in brushes 
of rectilinear crystals through its mass. This rock consists of a taley clay-slate, so 
penetrated with hornblende as to render its character for an instant doubtful. On an 
accurate examination it will be seen that the body of the rock is a clay-slate, and that 
it is interspersed throughout with lamellar and thin crystals of hornblende. These 
lamelle are generally disposed at right angles to the lamella of the schist, and are some- 
times short and straight, and variously placed, interfering with each other often in every 
direction. More commonly they diverge from a sort of central axis in curved planes, so 


* SmrvHson remarks: “Chemical analysis carries destruction along with it, and bestows knowledge of a sub- | 
stance only at the cost of its existence. One remedy which can be offered for this defect is to reduce the scale of 
operating, and thus as far as possible reduce the amount of the sacrifice.” 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 351 


that their section, according with that of the lamella of the schist, exhibits an appear- 
ance of curved pencilliform groups of acicular crystals, frequently an inch in length, 
assuming an appearance of great singularity. In this direction the schist is visible, and 
appears to form the largest part of the stone, while in the cross fracture, the lamellee of 
hornblende alone being seen, the whole rock seems to consist of this mineral. Occasion- 
ally the hornblende displays crystals disposed in so many different ways that the schist 
is discernible even in the cross fracture.” 

To this description | have only to add that the specimens I have obtained from near 

\Auchlankart were all of the rhztizile or grey variety, much impregnated with the sub- 
stance of the schist, in which indeed I alone here found them, but that I found at the same 
spot—which is at the upper fork of the burn—crystallised staurolite in simple crystals, 
the mode of the occurrence of which—as regards the quartz and the rock matrix which 
alike hold them—was precisely as described by Maccuttoc# for disthene. These crystals 
of staurolite were amber coloured and transparent, but had a central structure, which 
will be noticed below. 
Specimens nearly as fine as those from Botriphnie were formerly found by Colonel 
[rie loose lying in the neighbourhood of Millden and the Burn of Turret, North Glen 
fisk, Forfarshire. One of these has been figured by Sowersy, vol. iii. p. 49. Here also 
nargarodite is the sole associate.* 

“Near Banchory, in Aberdeenshire,” ‘‘ near Mortlach, Banffshire,” and “in quartz 
iear the summit of Ben y Gloe,” in blue radiating crystals, in quartz nodules, in clay- 
late, in limestone at Ardonald, by Cunningham, are old localities at which this mineral is 
10 longer found. 

It has long been known, and is still found at Vanleep, Hillswick, Shetland. At this 
rash, a chasm in the cliffs of the western shore of Hillswick, kyanite occurs of three 
narkedly dissimilar appearances. 

The ordinary blue crystals generally isolated and imbedded in massive quartz are 
ere very rare. Large plumose groupings of a reddish-grey colour, also occurring 
solated in massive quartz, are less rare; but the common appearance is that of veins or 
age isolated nodules of smaller intermatted crystals of an anchovy-red passing into 


SS 


* T analysed a specimen from Colonel Imrim’s collection, and obtained on 1°3 grammes :— 


Silica, : : : A : : 36384 
Alumina, . : i 4 F 3 58296 
Ferric Oxide, , : : i 5 1609 
Ferrous Oxide, ; : ; ‘ : 1-123 
Lime, j : : p j ‘ 861 
Potash, . : : ‘ 5 : "252 
Soda, ‘ : : : : ; "423 
Water, : ; ‘ ' : : 1-445 
100393 
The loss in bath was ; : é 5 4 ‘282 per cent. 
The insoluble silica, q : ; . ; 691 y, 
The specific gravity, : . : : : 3538 


” 


352 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


white, and apparently dark green, from an intimate intermixture of chlorite plat 
Occasionally a plate or two of tale occurs, and very rarely large and fine crys: 
chloritoid. These veins cut the huge beds of quartz which intercept the mi 
strata of the promontory. The locality faces the picturesque sea-stacks of red p 
termed the Drongs. The crystals analysed were picked white, somewhat tinted wit 
pink. 


On 1°2 grammes— 


Silica, . : ‘ ; : ‘ATA 

from Alumina, . : : 022 
‘496 = 38-153 
Alumina, ‘ : ; ; , . 56979 
Ferric Oxide, : ; : . 2 soy 
Manganous Oxide, . : ; ; é, 73tb8 
Lime, . : ; ; : ; ae SEO} 
Water, ‘ 3 pe : ‘ . 2°646 
100-099 


Loses in the water-bath, ‘701 per cent. 


Insoluble silica, 3-024 per cent. 
“h 


From near Millden in Tarffside, Forfarshire. This occurs in large flat crystals « 
fine blue colour. = 
I have found it at the following new localities in Shetland. Cliffhill, near W 
wick, and north-west of Norwick Bay in Unst. Magnetite and garnets are its 
at the first of these localities ; it is in quartzose belts at the last ; the rock in 
being gneiss, and the colour of the mineral pale blue. At the south end of #1] 
of Skewsburgh, in the Mainland, associated with imenite in quartz veins in g1 
is here greyish-white to blue. ‘To the east of the same hill near its north end. 
Kyanite has more recently been found at the following localities :— 
In minute crystals of perfect transparency and deep blue colour along y 
hornblende and red garnet, forming the rock eklogite. This was found b 
DoupcGEon, to the north-east of Obb, in Harris. a 
Finely crystallised in the form of the figure and of a fine blue colour, at a 
about 1100 feet, on the north-west slopes of Garlat Hill, Cowie Hill, Tarffside, by 
Rosert Murray. The matrix here was gneiss and the associate finely eryst 
chlorite. . 
In interlacing grey crystals in gneiss far up in bed of the burn which comes 
the east into Glen Derry, Loch Callater, Aberdeenshire, by the Rev. Mr Peyton. 
In blue crystals in gneiss in Allt Beg, Glen Rinnies, by Mr James WILson. 
In mica schist at a bridge over the Little Drumlach, in the parish of Enzie, 
shire,* by Mr Wattace of Inverness. 


“- 


* Min. Mag,, vol. vi. No, 28. But no description given. 


| THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 353 


By the writer it has been found— 

In small blue crystals in Hebridean gneiss on the hill to the west of Ben Chaipaval 
in Harris. 

In quartzite near summit of Carn Lia, Ben y Gloe, Perthshire. 

In greyish-blue crystals, along with garnet, sphene, ilmenite, and chlorite, in mica 
schist, one mile north of Loch Bulg in Aberdeenshire. 

In large blue-grey crystals, along with ilmenite and chlorite, in gneiss on the slopes 
on the east side of the corry of Meall Buidh, on the south side of the Moor of 
- Rannoch. 
| In gneiss in the railway cutting west of Mulben, Banffshire. 

In bright blue crystals in gneiss near limestone about one mile west of the lime- 
stone quarries at Dulnan, Inverness-shire. 

Loose lying in grey and blue interlacing crystals on the south slopes of Cruach 
_Ardran, in Perthshire. | 

In tufts of grey crystals impregnated with the substance of the rock in clay-slate, at 
the lime quarries of the Burn of Aldernie, Banff. 

In large single imbedded blue crystals and fasciculitic tufts, a peculiar yellow mar- 
garodite slate, south-east of the lime quarries in Glen Urquhart.* 


_In quartzose veins in a clay slate which contains rosette groupings of actinolitic 
erystals in the rocks, about three-quarters of a mile north-west of Sandend in Banff- 
shire. The crystals of the mineral here, an inch or two in length, pass through portions 
of both matrix and vein, after the manner of rivets, just as described by MaccuLLocu 
as occurring at Boharm. They appear to have issued from the matrix into the vein, as 
if formed nearly contemporaneously with the filling of the latter with the quartz; but 
as the terminations are not distinct, this conclusion is drawn from the greater breadth 
of the crystals, where they lie in the quartz, than in the schist. 

These crystals, like those at many other of the above localities, are in parts colour- 
less or pale yellow. 

In lenticular quartz nodules, often morion, and sometimes prase, with pyrite, in 
chiastolite slate, west of the clay-slate quarry near Portsoy, sometimes colourless. 


* This yielded on 1°3 grammes :— 


Silica, . : : : ; P ; 37°53 
Alumina, : F f 3 ; : 58105 
Ferric Oxide, . : ; : : : 2°089 
Lime, . : ; ; : ; : “129 
Magnesia, : F : ; ‘ . ‘076 
Potash, . 4 : ; ie : 259 
Soda, . j ; ; : : ; “741 
Water, . , . ; , , ' 1:198 
100°12 


Its specific gravity was 3°016. 


354 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


EPIDOTE, & 


1. From Balta Island, Shetland. Occurs in a geo which cuts the island near t 
centre of its eastern cliff-lined shore. The epidote occurs in crystals of half an incl 
size, imbedded without any associate in a quartz vein which cuts gabbro. The epid 
is pale pea-green, the quartz somewhat granular. | 

On 1°396 grammes— 


Niliea; ..: " : ; ; i . «bol 
from Alumina, . 4 ' , «tT PRO 
541 = 38753 
Alumina, : : : ; s : ° 26:°986 
Ferric Oxide, . : , f ; ‘ : 7898 
Ferrous Oxide, : : , j ; ; 1:806 
Manganous Oxide, . ; ; : ‘ ; ‘501 
Lime, . 5 : ; : ; ; i 20:378 
~ Magnesia, : fatness ahah : ‘786 
Potash, . : ; : 2 : P P 25 
Soda, ; é ; i : ? : : Pal 
Water, . é : : . , ‘ , 2:376 


= 


Insoluble silica, 7°578 per cent. 


“ac 


2. The above occurrence of epidote certainly in no way bears out the theory « 
resulting as a product of the alteration of hornblende. This, however, may have 
the case at the next locality which I quote. This is Nudista in Hillswick. = 

It here occurs in dull, soft-looking crystals of an olive-green colour, of a 


hornblende, cutting the foliations transversely. The specific gravity of th 
is 3°396. ; 
On 1°304 grammes— 


Silica, . ' . 2 P : . 484 
from Alumina, . ' : : » O09 
‘493 = 37°866 
Alumina, ; ' ; : : 24:722 
Ferric Oxide, . : : 5s : : ; 9961 
Ferrous Oxide, : 4 : ‘ 361 
Manganous Oxide, . : ; : : : 536 
Lime, . : 5 c ; ; : : 23:104 ‘ 
Magnesia, Sep a oe ee 766 
Water, . , 5 é : Ngo oe : 2°822 


100°138 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND, 355 


3. From North Quin Geo, Hillswick. Epidote occurs here filling a small vein. It 
forms stellate groups of rich green crystals over an inch in length. 
The analysis on 1'503 grammes yielded— 


Silica, . ; : ; ; ; : . 36°127 
Alumina, A . : : : ‘ 20:574 
Ferric Oxide, ; : , : : : 14921 
Manganous Oxide, . : : : ; : 306 
ime, : ; p : : : . 23°025 
Magnesia, . : : A : : 306 
Water, . F ; : ; : a ; 4568 

99°827 


Insoluble silica, 7°734 per cent. 
The ferric oxide is to the alumina as 1 to 2. 


4. From Delnabo, Glen Gairn, Aberdeenshire. Out of the old limestone quarry. 
it oceurs imbedded in green prehnite, in radiated crystals of a pale green colour. 
On 1°501 grammes — 


Silica, . é ; ; . ; ; : 38°374 
Alumina, ; 5 , i : ‘ : 26°087 
Ferric Oxide, : ; ‘ ; : a 10°388 
Manganous Oxide, . : : : : ‘ ‘738 
Lime, . F f ; ; : ; : 21°647 
Magnesia, . : : : ; : ‘ "239 
Water, . F : : ‘ ; . : 2°441 

99°914 


Insoluble silica, '7°812 per cent. 
The ferric oxide is to the alumina as | to 4. 


WITHAMITE. 


This red variety has been found only at one spot. This is a projecting spur of 
nygdaloidal felspathic porphyry, which touches the road through Glencoe upon its 
orth side, about three miles above the turn of the glen. The epidote occurs in the 
itle druses, very rarely in bright green crystals. It is then associated with byssolite 
id chlorite. Much more frequently it occurs in the red modification. It forms very 
inute acicular crystals of a brilliant blood-red colour. These crystals radiate from the 
des of the druses, a narrow layer of a milky saussurite-like substance sometimes 
tervening. The crystals are red and yellow respectively in two directions, at right 
igles to one another (MacKnicut and Brewster). Minute specks of quartz sometimes 
cur. 

On account of the extremely minute quantity in which this substance is found, the 
witying of the sample analysed was executed with extreme care. 


356 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


On 1°3 grammes— 


Silica, . : : : : : . 543 


from Alumina, . : ; A Pes OO 
562=43:23 
Alumina, . ; ; 3 : : : 23°09 
Ferric Oxide, . ‘ ; ; : , ; 6°675 
Ferrous Oxide, A f ; : : . LAS 
Manganous Oxide, . : : - : - 138 
Lime, . ‘ ; = ‘ ‘ lee 20:003 
Magnesia, : : : : : : ; 884. 
Potash, . ; : ; ; 5 ; : ‘962 
Soda, 5 : ; are ‘ F : "935 
Lithia, . i ‘ ; P 5 : ‘ 253 
Water, . ‘ : ‘ é ; ; ‘ 24 


99.708 


Insoluble silica, 1:957 per cent. 


This result is by no means a satisfactory agreement with the compositi 
epidote. 


ZOISITE. 


1. This mineral was first found by me in Britain in Glen Urquhart, Invernes 
It occurred in the most southerly of the limestone quarries, about a mile no: 
Milltown. It was found only in one large nodule of calcite of about a hunc 
crystals of a grey to a pale bluish-white colour, about one inch in length, 1 
the calcite. There was a very little quartz; a few specks of chalcopyrite and | 
of light green actinolite in association with the mineral. 

The crystals, and indeed the mineral, has the general appearance of tremolit 
the cleavage leaves no room for doubt. The form is well seen in thes 
but there are no terminations. The cleavage face seems a twin face, a 
repeated re-entering angles which produce a coarse striation. The crystals 
The cleavage face is somewhat pearly; fractures are vitreous. The speci 
taken on three pieces gave 3°004, 3°111, and 3°014. = 

On 1°303 grammes— 


eG 
wi 


Silica, . ; ; ; : : . 484 
in filter, . ’ ; ; , . 029 
from Alumina, . ‘ F ' 3 0s 
‘516 = 39°60 
Alumina, ; ; , : P ' ‘ 31-083 


Carry forward, ‘ ; : : 70°683 


Brought forward, 
Ferrous Oxide, : 
Manganous Oxide, . 

Lime, . 

Magnesia, 

Potash, . — 

Soda, 

Water, . 


Insoluble silica, 1°55 per cent. 


e specific gravity is 3°014. 
ains— 


Silica, 
Alumina, 
Ferrous Oxide, 
Lime, 
Magnesia, 
Potash, . 
Soda, 

_ Water, . 


‘ot (a 


a 


Silica, 
from Alumina, 


Alumina, 
_ Ferrous Oxide, 
_Manganous Oxide, . 


Lime, 


oe 


ART II. (NO. 11), 


Insoluble silica, 2°31 per cent. 


Insoluble silica, 2°334 per cent. 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 


70:683 
2:071 
‘078 
23°336 
trace 
566 
1:056 
2:412 


100202 


41:56 
29°901 
3°205 
22:142 
332 
345 
684 

2°19 


100°359 


‘48 
034 


‘514=39°508 
30°827 

2°52 
‘O77 
22°813 
681 

9 

2°505 


99°831 


the same quarries, but in large crystals of about 2 inches by 14. 
rere lying loose in the quarry, the calcite having apparently been dis- 
rain. They were slightly browned on the outside, but lustrous when 
determinations of the gravity gave 3°312, 3°322, 3°318. 


3H 


357 


These 


358 PROFESSOR HEDDLE ON 


4. From Laggan, Dulnan Bridge, Inverness-shire. 
This was given me by Sir ArcHipanp Gerkie. It was got in quartz veins in 
limestone quarry. It occurs in pale brown crystals entirely imbedded in t 
The crystals are lustrous and well defined ; the associates are chlorite and sahl 
the near neighbourhood there is much kyanite. The specific gravity is 3°438, _ 
On 1:2 grammes— 


Silica, . 3 f F : : . 463 
from Alumina, . : : : . 002 
‘465 = 38°75 
Alumina, : ; : : , ; : 28144 
Ferric Oxide, . : ‘ : F : ; 6547 
Manganous Oxide, . § : e : 3 ‘916 
Lime, . : ; : ; : ‘ : 22:026 | 
Magnesia, 5 ‘ 3 : é : ‘ ‘416 
Water, . ; : ; F , : : 3'333 
100132 


Loses in the bath, ‘155 per cent. 


5. From Loch Garve, Ross-shire. This locality was found by the late W. H 
It is that in which the mineral occurs in much largest quantity in Scotland, and a 
much the largest crystals. It occurs in a quartzose vein, which, starting fro 
centre of the south shore of the lake, strikes right up the hill for two or three 
feet. Sometimes it is almost massive, occasionally in crystals of a stouter | 
those of Urquhart. The colour is ash-grey to white, passing to pale yellowish-l 
It is translucent. The specific gravity is 3°268. oe 

On 1:34 grammes— a 


Silica, . 4 : ; : : 5 : 40:066 
Alumina, : ; : j 4 ; : 30°834 
Ferric Oxide, , ‘ i P ? ; 1:58 
Ferrous Oxide, : ; ; , ‘ : ‘48 
Manganous Oxide, . ; ; ; ; : 22 
Lime, . ; , . ; : ; , 23°66 
Moenesis, «ve GO 7 meee ee ‘476 
Potash, . ; ; ; ; : ‘ : 504 
Soda, . i ; ; _ ‘ : : ‘428 
Water, . ; i : : ‘ hice 2:100 
100°348 


Insoluble silica, 2:2 per cent. 


THE MINERALOGY OF SCOTLAND. 359 


IDOCRASE. 


Inabo, Glen Gairn, Aberdeenshire. Idocrase occurs abundantly, passing 

almost insensibly into garnet in the old limestone quarry. The portion 

analysis was a portion of a magnificent dark brown crystal of about 
length by nearly 1 inch in width, which was fractured by the blow which 

; Its specific gravity was 3°43. 

ammes— - 


chien, | er 


from Alumina, . s ; ; O22 
: “472 = 36:251 
Alumina, . : : : d Seeks 18°626 
Peroxide of Iron, . ; , ‘ 5 é 932 
Ferrous Oxide, : . : : ; : 5:036 
IManpanousOxide,, . . . <« . 844 
Tie ea 13) 
Meme lll lls 1574 ; 
ees 568 
Seo soda, . RESY; 3 ; . : Tad 329 
Water, . : : aie : : . 1:78 
99°875 


Insoluble silica, 1-483 per cent. 


( 361 ) 


Xil—The Absolute Thermal Conductivity of Nickel. By T. C. Barium, M.A., 
B.Sec., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics, University College of 
- North Wales, Bangor. (With a Plate.) 


| (Read 16th May 1898.) 


§ 1. Lyrropuction.—The experiments described in this paper were commenced with 
the view, not only of determining the absolute thermal conductivity of nickel, but also 
of comparing the results found by Forpes’s and Anestrom’s methods for the same 
specimen. Although some readings were taken for AnasTRom’s method, that part of 
the investigation was not completed, because it was found that the experimental 
errors — unavoidable, on account of the necessity of measuring rapidly changing 
temperatures—would be too great for the results to be of any value. The thermal 
conductivity of a portion of the bar of nickel used for ForBEs’s method was determined 
by a direct method involving the determination only of steady temperatures, and the 
results so obtained are given in the latter portion of this paper. 


Forbes’s Method. 


§ 2, Tae Sratica, Expertment.—The nickel bar used was kindly lent by Dr Knorr, 
being a piece about four feet long, which he had no immediate occasion to use for his 
own experiments on “‘ The Strains produced in Iron, Steel, and Nickel Tubes in the Mag- 
netic Field” (see Zrans., vol. xxxviii. part iii. No. 13), This bar was turned down so 
as to be of uniform circular section, and holes for thermometers were drilled into it by 
Messrs Aitken & Allan, Edinburgh. Four thermometer holes were drilled in each of 
the end portions of the bar, so as to leave a length of 19 inches intact for a tube re- 
quired by Dr Knorr at a later period. 

The bar was set up in Professor Tart’s private laboratory, with the same fittings, 
altered to suit the size of the nickel bar, as were used by Professor Tart, and afterwards 
by Dr Mrrcwett, in their experiments on thermal conductivities (see Trans., 1878, xxx., 

and Trans., 1887, xxxiii. part ii. p. 535). One end of the bar was fitted with 
_ white lead into a round hole in the side of a cast-iron pot, which was afterwards 
| nearly filled with solder, This end of the bar was heated by a bunsen flame 
placed under the pot of solder. A constant temperature was maintained at this 
end of the bar by keeping the gas supplied to the bunsen burner at constant 

pressure by means of Professors Tarr and Crum Brown's gas regulator. This 
_Tegulator is like a small gasometer, one of the balancing weights of which, on 
| descending, bends a piece of soft, flexible rubber tubing conducting the gas supply 


, to it, so as to diminish the internal cross-section of the piece of soft tubing; 
| VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (No. 12). oo 


Li 


| 
: 
| 


362 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE 


on the weight ascending, the cross-section of the tubing is increased. ‘The nickel bar 
was protected by a double metal screen from thermal disturbances due to the heater, 
A constant stream of cold water was kept playing on the unheated end of the bar. 
The thermometers used were some of the Kew standard thermometers used by Pro- 
fessor Tarr and Dr Mircuett. Temperatures above 200° C. were not used, and as the 
readings on the majority of the thermometers varied in the course of an experiment 
through a range of about 1° C., the thermometers were simply read by the naked eye | 
to the nearest quarter of a degree. One could be quite certain of avoiding making any 
error due to parallax of more than that amount. A. little mercury was put in each of 
the thermometer holes to give good thermal contact between the bulbs of the-ther- 
mometers and the bar. No amalgamation of the nickel has ever been observed. 

A steady state as regards the distribution of temperature along the bar was not 
reached in five hours from the time the gas at the heater was lighted, and the readings 
on the thermometers usually increased at the rate of about a quarter of a degree per 
hour for a few hours more. The following table shows the readings (uncorrected) 
obtained over an interval of nearly twenty-four hours on 18th July 1894 and the 
following morning. The gas was lighted at 8.30 a.m. i 


Time. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tempe 
12.30 175 130°5 100 78 26 23 20°5 18°2 19:0 
1.30 Wi 133 102°5 80:5, “|- -28 25 22, 19:1 19k: 
2.0 v4 133393} 103 81 28°9 25°4 22:5 19°5 191° 
9.15 176'5 133 103 81:5 29 95°8 99°5 19°7 — 191 
9.45 176°5 133 103 815 | 29°4 26° 23) > sl 820 - 19: 
6.0 177°8 134 104 82°2 | 30 26'5 D352, 20 F 19st 
6.30 178 134°3 104°5 - 82°5 30 26°5 23 20 19°2 
19) 178 134°3 104 82°5 30 26°5 23°] 20°1 19°2 
7.30 177°5 134 104 82:3. 30 96'5 23°2 20°1 19°4 
8.0 178°5 134°5 104 82°5 30°1 26°7 23:4 20°2 19°3 
8.30 178 134 104 82°2 30 26°6 23:1 20:0  ~—« 198 
9.0 178 134°3 104 82°3 30 26'5 23 20 19°4 
9.30 178 134°3 104 82°5 30 26°5 23 20 | Om 
10.0 Wir ol) lod 104 82°5 30 | 26°5 23 20 ; 19:3 
11.20 179 135 105 83 30'1 26°6 23°1 20 19-4 
1.30 a.m. 178 135 105 83 30°1 26°5 23°1 19°9 19°3 
2.15 178 135 104°7 83 30°1 26:5 23'1 19°9 19°3 
3.30 1b7(S)2¢f 135°5 105 83°4 30°2 26°6 23 199 193 
4.25 179 3yspll 105 83:4 30:2 26'6 23 199° |. oe 
5.0 179 135 105 83°2 30°2 26°6 23 19°8 19°2 
6.0 178°5 10335) 104°8 83 30 26'5 23 19°7 19:0 


After several sets of readings had been taken, the bar was reversed, and heated at) 
the other end. The thermometers were never shifted from their positions, except when) — 


the bar was reversed. They were read on each morning before the burner was lighted, . 
and their readings on those occasions never differed by more than one-third of a degree, 


The thermometers were corrected for stem exposure by adding to the reading V. thd 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 363 


product 000113 V°. This-correction seems to me to be probably-too high for some of 
the thermometers, but it is less than that which Dr MitcHetu applied to the same ther- 
mometers, viz., (00016 V*. The value of the stem correction which I have chosen is 
based on the results of experiments to be described later in connection with the other 
method of determining the conductivity. 

The dimensions, etc., of the bar were as follows :— 


Length. of bar, . P aorta € : ‘ » 128°5 cm. 
_ Mass of bar, . : ; : : . 19:28 kilo. 
-*_--- Diameter of bar, atts 6 oa : -*} 4°67 em: 
Density of nickel, 7.e., mass + volume, . .  8°724 gms. per c.cm. 
Specific gravity of a small piece cut off, determined by 
weighing in air and in water, ; : a tee i) 


Distances of thermometer holes from one end of the bar :— 


Number of Hole. Distance to Centre of Hole. 


14°75 cm. 
23°02 ,, 
SHB YE 
39°73 ,, 
88:72 ,, 
97°02 ,, 
TOS=26) 7, 
WBS) 


ONDO-F Whe 


The statical experiment was frequently repeated at the same and different tempera- 
tures, and the following table contains the readings chosen for calculation corrected for 
stem exposure. On 6th August and the following days the bar was heated at the 
opposite end to that at which it was heated on previous occasions. The table shows 
that any effect due to tarnishing of the surface during the few weeks occupied by these 
experiments is not noticeable. 


| “a ; Numbers of Thermometer Holes. 
| Date of Temperature 
Experiment. of Air. 
no iT 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 
July 12 1505 | 114:8 90°2 72°3 28°9 26°0 23:2 20°6 20-2 
13 180°6 | 135:0 | 103°5 81:7 28°9 25°4 22:5 19:7 19:4 
a 16 181:°7 | 135°6 | 104-4 ! 82-1 29-3 26-0 22°8 20:0 18:8 
m O17 181:0 | 136:0 |. 104:9 82°8 29°8 26:1 23-0 20:0 19°1 
| 18 1816 | 136°0 | 105-2 83-2 3071 26°5 23:0 201 19:3 
= 27 69:8 57-0 477 40°8 22:0 20°7 19:2 18-0 18°5 
=? 30 116-7 | 100-1 728 59:9 26°5 241 22:0 20:0 18-9 
31 1166 99°9 725 59-6 26°5 24-4 22-4 20°5 19:1 
August 1 725 59-4 49-4 42°38 23-0 21°8 20°4 19:0 19:0 
2 67°5 55-4 46°8 | 40:3 22-7 21°5 20°4 19:1 18°6 
= 3 67°5 55:3 46°7 403 23°9 23°0 22°4 21:9 18:7 
Se 6 150°3 | 114:2 89-7 71°3 28°5 25°7 23:1 20°9 18:9 
et 198°8 | 147:9 | 113-8 89-2 31:6 27°9 94:5 91-4 |. 19:2 > 
~ el 109°3 85°9 69°5 57-0 25:9 23:7 21°6 19°5 18:9 
y- ~ O- 70°0 57:4 48°3 41:2 22-8 21:4 20:0 188 18°3 
» 10 165°3 | 124-9 97°6 77-6 29'8 26°6 23°8 21:1 18:9 
See | «163 | 123-2 96°0 | 75-6 28°3 25°3 22°7 20:0 18-4 
| ee 


¥ 


364 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE 


§ 3. Repuction or THE Reapines.—'The equation for the conduction of heat in a 
bar, each part of which is at a steady temperature, is :— 


d26 
KAT = Ep, 


where K is the thermal conductivity, A the cross-section, E the emissivity, and p the 
perimeter of a part of the bar, at temperature 6 above the surrounding air, andata 
distance « from some fixed point in the axis of the bar. Since K, A, E, and pp are 


a . 
either constants or functions of @ only, it follows that de 18 a function of @ only, and — 


therefore the value of d’@/dx*? for any given value of @ should be the same, no matter 
which of the sets of readings it is derived from. This affords a means of testing the 
concordance of the various sets of readings. The determination of d’0/dx’ directly— 
by drawing a curve representing @ as a function of «, taking the tangents at various 
points, and thus getting another curve showing d@/dx as a function of x; and from this, 
by a similar process, another showing @6/da’ as a function of w, and using the first and 
last curves to get d’0/dxz* as a function of 6—does not give d’0/dx’ with sufficient 
accuracy. A common proceeding is to find suitable values of the constants in some 
empirical equation representing @ as a function of w, and to differentiate the equation to 
obtain d@/dx. The following method of reducing the readings obtained in the statical 
experiment was adopted after trying others. Curves were made from the sets of read- 
ings on the first four thermometers only, in which log. 8 was shown as a function of a. 
The gradient of these curves increased, but not very rapidly, with log. 0, and therefore 
d(log. 0)/da increased as 6 increased. The curves were drawn by a lath, to the ends of | 
which couples were applied so as to give it the slight curvature necessary to make the 
curve produced by its means pass in close proximity to each of the four points given — 
by the corrected readings of the thermometers. It was noticed that the value of 
d(log. 6)/dx was practically the same, for the same value of 9, for all curves, A new 
curve was then constructed, in which d(log. @)/dz was shown as a function of 6 The 
different points found on this curve lay very approximately in a straight line—that is | 
to say, o( oN was practically constant. The equation to the statical curves 


must then be of the form Hog. 95 5=+B, where 6 and ¢ have the same value | 
for each curve. The simplicity of this method of finding the average values of d0/da" | 
for all sets of readings was what led to its adoption. In any case, d(log. )/dx does not 
vary so rapidly as d6/da, and it is therefore easier to get d0/de with accuracy, when | 
using graphical methods, by multiplying d(log. 6)/dx by 9, than it is to get dda: | 
directly. The values found for the constants in the above equation were ¢= 0000505, ia 
and b=670. The value of d?6/da? is c°(20+b)(9+b)0, The following table contams | 
the values of d’0/dax® calculated, not from the expression just given, but from the | 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL, 365 


numbers found in the curve, using the formula 


WO _¢ d (log. aoe 0) ap He (log. 6) \. 


da? dx dx dg dz 


The temperatures given in the tables are actual temperatures, not temperature excesses. 

They have been got by adding 19—about the average temperature of the air during the 
| experiments—to the numbers used in the curves which were differences of temperature 
‘between the bar and the air. 


d (log. 4) ao 


2, 

Temperatures. ad is Temperatures, Ae da 
40 0335 0239 110 0370 138 
50 0340 0369 120 0375 159 
60 0345 0509 130 "0380 “181 
70 0350 ‘0661 140 0385 205 
80 0355 0823 150 “0390 ‘230 
90 : 0360 0997 160 0395 "256 

100 0365 1183 170 "0400 284 
180 0405 313 
190 "0410 344 

200 0415 376 


§ 4. Tae Cootinc Expertment.—For this experiment a short bar turned down from 
a left-over portion of Dr Knorv’s nickel bars was used. It was a piece of the same rod 
as the bar used in the statical experiment: it was turned down in the same way, at the 
same time, and to the same diameter, as was found by careful measurement. ‘The length 
of the cooling bar was 21°55 cm., and as its diameter was 4°67 cm., the surface exposed 
it the ends was 92 per cent. of the whole surface. This involves an increase in the 
sates of cooling of about ten per cent. ‘This is a serious drawback in these experiments. 
tt has been allowed for by diminishing the observed rates of cooling in the ratio of the 
whole area of the cooling bar to the area of the curved portion only. It is possible that 
n air the emissivity of a vertical surface is, ceteris paribus, greater than the average emis- 
‘ivity of a curved cylindrical surface of the same diameter. As there is heat lost from the 
mds of the cooling bar, there must be some fall of temperature between the centre and the 
mds. I have given up all attempts at making allowance for this. The best way of 
neeting difficulties of that kind is to make the end correction negligible altogether. The 
at was heated over a row of bunsen burners, without the previous warming necessary to 
void “sweating.” The bar was heated pretty rapidly, and turned round rapidly while 
eng heated, and very little moisture condensed upon it. A Kew mercury thermometer 
vas used to measure the rate of cooling of the short bar which was heated to about 250° C. 
‘eadings were not taken until the bar had cooled for some time with the thermometer 
1 position, since the distribution of temperature in the thermometer itself is at first 
regular, This is discussed very fully by Professor Tart in his paper already referred 


366. MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE 


to. The thermometer was observed through the telescope of a cathetometer, and the 
time at which the top of the mercury column passed each degree division mark was 
noted by looking at that instant at the dial of a watch. After some practice it was 
found easy to note the time of such transits to within a couple of seconds from the 
position of the seconds’ hand, without paying much ‘attention to the divisions round the 
dial. The time of transit set down for each degree division was late by the time taken 
to look from the thermometer to the watch, but as this is small and affects each reading, 
it is of no consequence. When the cooling became comparatively slow, as it did below 
100° C., it was possible to see the top of the mercury column disappear behind a degree 
division mark, note the time, and have the eye in position at the telescope again in time — 
to see the top of the column reappear on the under edge of the division mark, 

§ 5. Repuction or THE Cootina Reapines.—The method employed for reduei 
these readings was as follows :—On paper ruled in squares temperatures were plotted as 
abscissae, and the times (in seconds) taken by the bar to cool through one degree were 
plotted as ordinates corresponding to the mean temperatures for those degrees: thus, 
for example, the ordinate corresponding to the temperature 102'5° C. was the observed 
time taken by the bar to cool from 103° C. to 102° C. The advantage of this method 
of reduction is the simplicity of correcting for errors of observation, &c. Suppose, for 
example, that the time set down for the transit across the 175 degree division mark is 
too late, the time noted for cooling from 176° to 175° is too great, and the amount by 
which it is unduly increased is deducted from the time of cooling from 175° to 174°; — 
but the average time of cooling for a range including 176° to 174° is not affected by — 
the supposed error. An error in graduation, by which one of the division marks is 
displaced, produces a similar effect. The ordinates would, if there were no errors of 
any kind, increase in length continuously as the temperature diminishes. If the eurve | 
formed by the ends of the ordinates is not continuous, all that is necessary is to make 
a continuous curve by reducing the lengths of those ordinates which are obviously too 
long and increasing the lengths of adjacent ordinates, and vice versa, so as to keep the 
sum total of the lengths of all the ordinates constant. This treatment will get rid of 
the effects of errors such as those considered above. The way in which this was carried | 
out was to form a new curve in which for each reading was substituted the average of | 
the five nearest readings. This gave a curve which was smooth but with small “waves” | 
along it. A mean curve was then drawn by means of a lath planed thinner towards one | 
end so as to produce the necessary variation of curvature along it. The ordinate at any 
temperature of the curve so constructed is the reciprocal of the rate of cooling at that 
temperature. 

A cooling experiment was done alongside of the statical experiment on several days, 
until the surface of the cooling bar was thought to be just perceptibly dimmer than that | 
of the long bar. It was confidently expected that the repeated heating of the short bar, 
especially as “sweating” was not entirely avoided, would affect the surface and imerease | 
its emissivity. The readings taken show that each time the bar was heated its emis- Ul 


i, 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 367 


i 


sivity was inéreased before the tarnish on the surface became even perceptible. The 
following table will show this, and it provides the means of allowing for it. =. 


_ aaa : Se ae t 


Time of : ae of ae of Time of: 
; i: Cooling “Tempera- || ~2° ing Tempera- ooling Tem yer'a~ || Cooling” Saye era- 
‘Date of ee oment. been 150°| ture ef Air. Apt ieg ture dF Air.) Pica ture dt Air. bee 3 ae ture of Air, 
; in Seconds. in Seconds. : in Seconds, | in Seconds. 
1894 tcf 
July 12 ‘ 1375 20°4° - 2210 20°3° 2295 20°3° 9125_ : 20°2° 
EC 1355 19°5° DOs OES *- 2280 19°3° 
= ily 2087 .| .19°1° 2193 19:1° 4795 LOS 
ys ae 18 - 2105 1s] See 
; ~ August 2 1348 18°8° 2150 18:7° 2200" 18:6" 4660 Nie 5 
i. s, 3 2191 18:7° 4503 Ser 
ss 7 5 : : 2178 18°3° 2214 18°5° : > s 
* 8 1341 19:2° 2149 19:2° 2933 19°1° 4740 19:1° 


The table also shows irregularities in the cooling, due possibly to changes. in the 
state of the atmosphere, or to variations in the unavoidable draughts of the second order 
of magnitude. The readings obtained on 8th August gave the best curves, and they 
have been used to determine the rates of cooling given in a later table. A reduction of 
2 per cent. was made in the rates of cooling found, in order to allow for the increase in 
‘the emissivity which had taken place by 8th August. . A correction is necessary in the 
cooling: experiment for the exposed stem of the thermometer. In the statical experi- 
ment the stem correction was made by adding to the observed reading V. the product 
000113 V2 Using the same form of correction in the cooling experiment, let V. be the 
ybserved, and @ the true temperature, then since = V.+ ‘000113 V2, the true rate of 
sooling d0/dt is equal to (1+ °000226 V.) times the apparent rate of cooling du/dt got 
rom the curves in which stem exposure is not allowed for. Since the thermometer 
arts with its heat to the cooling bar, its temperature must always during the cooling 
ye higher than that of the bar; in other words, the thermometer lags behind the bar by 
mT amount depending on the rate of cooling. No attempt has been made to allow for 
: hat i in these experiments. Some mercury was put into the hole for the thermometer 
0 give good thermal contact between the bar and the thermometer. The following 
able gives the rates of cooling of the short bar found after applying the corrections 


eferred to above, except that due to lag, and that due to loss of heat at the ends of the 
ar, ‘ 


- "Temperature... Rate of Cooling: |} Temperature. Rate of Cooling. — Temperature, _ Rate of Cooling. 
ea, | 00362 | 0149 150 0308 
‘. ae i 00556 0174 160 0336 
60 , ‘00770 "0200 , 170 0363 
eo. |? 01005 "0225 - | 180 “0392 
mee. -... 01250. - 0251 . - 190 0423 


0279 200 0455 


7 


368 MR T. C. BATLLIE ON THE 


§ 6. Specrric Heat or Nicket.—The determination of the specific heat of the nickel 
has been found by far the most troublesome part of these experiments. A portion of 
the cooling bar about 2°5 inches long had a hole drilled into it to receive the thermom- 
eter. A little mercury was put into the hole along with the thermometer. It was 
then heated and allowed to cool. At some instant the temperature was noted just as it 
was let fall into a large calorimeter, and the heat given out by the nickel was measured 
in the ordinary way by the method of mixtures. This was repeated at the same and 
different temperatures, and the results were not quite concordant, but indicated that 
the specific heat increased with temperature. As it was not quite certain that the 
temperature in all parts of the interior of the piece of nickel was that of the mixture | 
when the readings were taken nickel turnings were tried. Several pieces of the turn- 
ings made in turning down the nickel bars were tied together with a short piece of 
thread, whose mass was negligible, and heated in the inner chamber of a double cylinder 
of copper containing glycerine between the cylinders. This was heated to over 200°C, 
and packed up with cotton wool in a wooden case provided with a contrivance for open- 
ing a slide at the bottom and allowing the nickel to fall into the calorimeter at the 
moment of opening. The calorimeter used was a small glass beaker of suitable dimen- 
sions. With it the cooling correction was smaller than with a copper calorimeter of the 
same size. It was hoped that as the heater cooled very slowly it would be safe to 
assume that the temperature of the turnings after being in the heater some time would 
be that of the thermometer whose bulb was inserted amongst them. As the heater 
cooled, determinations of the specific heat could be done on the same day at lower and 
lower temperatures. It was found that the sets of determinations obtained on separate — 
days did not agree no matter how long the nickel was kept in the heater, and as 
all the quantities involved could be measured within 1 per cent., and the correction | 
for cooling was only about 1 per cent., the heater was regarded as the cause of the 
irregularities. 

In some subsequent experiments the nickel turnings were heated in a steam jacket | 
of the usual laboratory pattern, and results agreeing within 2 per cent. were obtained | 
when the nickel was in the heater for not less than two hours. As the heat required to "| 
raise the temperature of 1 gramme of water is not constant, but varies in a manner | 
depending on the thermometer used in the calorimeter, closer agreement than this is 
not to be expected. The specific heat thus obtained was higher than that got for the 
same temperature from the large mass cut off the cooling bar. At the same time there 
is no reason for supposing that the specific heat would not be affected by the nickel | 
being cut up and distorted as it is in the form of turnings. | 

The values of the specific heat given below were found from a solid piece of the 
nickel weighing nearly 100 grammes, and as a glass calorimeter could not be used with | 
so large a mass, a copper calorimeter was made of thin sheet copper, the depth of it) 
being 5 inches, and the diameter 24 inches, There was a slight recess along one side | 
to accommodate the thermometer and a flange round the lip by which it was suspended 


| 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 369 


in the interior of a large copper vessel which protected it from draughts in the room. 
The thermometer used in the calorimeter was one of DucRETET’s précision thermometers 
divided into tenths of degrees centigrade, and it was read by means of a telescope fixed 
a little distance off, hundredths of a degree being estimated by eye. The steam heater 
was used in the ordinary way, but in order to get determinations at different tempera- 
tures the same heater was used with methylated spirits instead of water. A tube was 
ora to conduct all the spirits which condensed in the apparatus back to the boiler 


by a pipe leading in at the bottom of it. Only a small portion of the spirits was dis- 
tilled off, as the flame of the burner heating the boiler was so arranged that very little 
vapour was formed over and above that required to produce heat enough by its con- 
densation to maintain the heater at a uniform temperature. The boiling point rose by 
less than one degree in the course of a day on account of loss by distillation of the 
more volatile constituents of the spirits. The top of the chamber in the heater, in 
which the nickel was suspended while being heated, was closed by a large cork in which 
were two holes, one letting in the thermometer which indicated the temperature of the 
nickel, and another through which passed a fine wire supporting the nickel. The 
ottom of the chamber was closed by a slide padded with cotton wool. This slide was 
lrawn aside when the nickel was dropped into the calorimeter, an arrangement being 
nade for doing all this with great rapidity. The wire which had supported the nickel 
n the heater remained attached to it, and the end of it, which was usually found pro- 
ecting out of the mouth of the calorimeter, was at once seized and the contents of the 
alorimeter stirred by moving the nickel up and down and to and fro in the water. 
Vhile this was being done the thermometer was being watched through the telescope. 
‘wo persons were thus necessary. No correction has been made for the thermal equiv- 
lent of the work done in stirring, as it has been assumed to be negligible. It was im- 
ossible to observe if stirring the water produced an appreciable quantity of heat as 
nder all circumstances its effect was quite obscured by the disturbances produced by 
ther causes. 

The correction for cooling was applied in the following way :—The observer at the 
leseope had in his hands a stop watch, with two hands so arranged that, by pressing 
1e stop, they would start together; pressing another stop made one of them remain 
here it was at the instant of pressing ; a second press made it overtake and go cn as 
fore with the other hand. In this way, the time at which the thermometer indicated 
‘ty reading could be noted to a fraction of a second, the reading being written down 
‘bsequently ; and a fresh reading could be then taken in the same way. A curve was 
ten plotted from the readings thus obtained, with temperatures as ordinates, and times 
#abseissae. The part of the curve corresponding to times after the maximum temperature 
d been reached was produced backwards to the axis of zero time, and in this way the 
mperature which the calorimeter must have cooled from, had its rise of temperature 
en instantaneous, was found. This is very nearly the temperature which would have 


en reached if the calorimeter had not lost any heat at alJ. This correction is probably 
VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 12). a 


i 


@ 


oy 


370 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE : 
too much by something less than one-half per cent. An example of such a curve of 
correction for cooling is given in fig. 1. . ; 

At temperatures over 100° C. another form of heater was used. An iron tube was 
surrounded by a conical-shaped iron chamber riveted on to it, and mercury was put in 
the space between. This was heated by a circular gas burner, the flame of which was 
reculated by the volume of the mercury, which, on expanding above a certain limit, cut 
off all the gas, except what found its way through a small by-pass. The by-pass was 
arranged to allow just sufficient gas through it to keep the burner lighted, and thus to 
save the trouble of lighting the gas when the mercury had contracted sufficiently. The 
arrangement was similar to that shown at Ein fig. 2. The flame rose and fell about — 
ten times in a minute. The temperature at any one place in the heater was very 
steady after it had been in action for an hour or two, but the temperature near the top 
of the inner tube was 2 or 3 degrees lower than that of the hottest part. The ther- 
mometer used for reading the temperature of the nickel in this heater was put in so 
that the bulb touched the nickel. The nickel dropped into the calorimeter through the © 
centre of the ring burner. The inner tube of the heater was prolonged below the 
burner. Corrections for stem exposure have been applied to the readings of the | 
thermometers. It was possible to obtain only an approximation to the stem corrections 
on account of the manner in which the thermometers were placed, with some part of 
their stem at unknown temperatures ; but as the correction is only 2 per cent. in the 
greatest instance, they are probably accurate enough. 

The following tables give the data obtained in the last sets of experiments done :— 


Ser I. 
Mass of nickel, . : t : , 99°3 grammes. 
Mass of water in calorimeter, . ; : 156:7 _ 
Water equivalent of calorimeter, etc., . é 3°5 
Log. Ratio Rise 
Date of Initial Temp. | Corrected Temp. | Rise of Temp. Initial Temp. Fall of Temp. of Temp. of 
Experiment. of Water. of Mixture. of Water. of Nickel. of Nickel. | Waiter to Fall of 
Temp. of Nickel. 
1897 E 
July 7 16:94 21°87 4:93 99°1 77-2 28052 
Ae 18°80 23°65 4°85 99:2 75°2 28072 
” oO» 19°98 24°83 4°85 99°3 74°5 28135 
ees * 20°88 25°72 4°84 99°4 73°7 28173 
bane: 18°65 23°54 4:89 99°4 75°9 28091 
ores 19:60 24°46 4°86 99°4 749 2°8121 
on 19°12 23-99 4:87 99°4 754 | 28101 
Arithmetic 
mean of ob- 19°14 24:01 4:87 99°3 75°3 2°8107 
served values 


Average value of specific heat, '104. 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 371 


ae : | Ser IL 
- Mass of nickel, ed ar isteh 2 ‘ 99-3 grammes. 
Mass of water in calorimeter, . : Ae 126°7 7°) . 
Water equivalent of calorimeter, etc., . : 3:3 | 


Log. Ratio Rise 
Initial Temp. | Corrected Temp. | Rise of Temp. Initial Temp. Fall of Temp. of Temp. of 


of Water. of Mixture. of Water. of Nickel. of Nickel. Water to Fall of 
Temp. of Nickel. 

1710 =| 2313 6-03 994 | 763 28978 

18°10 24°08 5:98 99°4 | 75°3 2°8999 

~ 19°40 25°34 | 5:94 99°4 74:1 29040 

19°88 25°72 | 5-84 99°5 738 2°8983 

18:19 24:28 6:09 99°6 75:3 2°9078 

20°25 26°12 5:87 98°6 72:5 29083 

Z } 18°82 24°78 5:96 99°3 74:55 29027 | 


Average value of specific heat of nickel, °105. 


Ser III. 
Mass of mickel 1. Bs : : 99°3 grammes, 
Mass of water in calorimeter, . — . . 2637 Fs; 
Water equivalent of calorimeter, etc, .  . 3°3 


* 


“ie 


; ; Log. Ratio Rise 
Initial Temp. | Corrected Temp.| Rise of Temp. Initial Temp. Fall of Temp. of Temp. of 


4 


a 
7 | 


of Water. of Mixture. — of Water. of Nickel. of Nickel. Water to Fall of 
‘ Temp. of Nickel. 
Ma 
i 21:05 25:27 4:29, 773 520 3-9093 
mi 22:27 26°31 4:04 175 51:2 28971 
pe 23°80 27°82 4:02 78:1 50°3 2°9026 
21:01 25°23 4:22 78:2 53°0 2°9010 
22°13 26°20 4:07 175 51°3 2°8995 
23°55 27°51 3°96 775 50:0 28987 
22°30 26°39 4:09 OUrE 51°3 29015 
= __ Average value of specific heat of nickel, 105. 
a oo... cm iv, 
Mass of nickel, eae : -s 99-3 grammes. 
Mass of water in calorimeter, . , Seeker (ee 5 


_ Water equivalent of calorimeter, etc., . . 3°5 


372 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE 


Date of Initial Temp. | Corrected Temp. | Rise of Temp. Initial Temp. Fall of Temp. 
Experiment. of Water. of Mixture. of Water. of Nickel. ot Nickel, 
1897 eae 
July 20 21:60 29°75 8:15 145°7 116:0 
sees 22°80 30°93 813 146°4 La 
praca: 20°31 28°73 8:42 > 147°3 .118°6 
3) 3s 21°12 29°32 8°20 147°3 1180 
er 21:90 30°08 8:18 147°3 117°2 
ag 22 18°78 27°35 8°57 148'1 120°8 
an 18°99 27°50 851 148°8 121°3 
+ 19°63 28°05 8°42 149°1 121-0 
23 21:06 29°43 8°37 149°0 119°6 
Arithmetic ; 20-69 29-02 8:33 147-67 118-65 28469 


Average value of specific heat of nickel, -113. 


The average value of the specific heat of the nickel turnings for a range varying 
from just under 100° C. to about 20° C. was about ‘11. This shows that either the 
thermal capacity is altered in the process of disintegration, or that there is some error 
in the determination depending upon the size of the pieces employed. The latter I 
believe to be the case. During the month of June, I did several determinations at the 
same time with a bundle of copper washers, and with the piece of nickel referred to. 
After a few trials I found the mass of copper (114'8 grammes) which had the same 
thermal capacity as the 99°3 grammes of nickel. I tried to discover a difference 
between the rate of rise of temperature in the calorimeter when the copper-was em- 
ployed from that when the nickel was used. The difference in the times taken to reach 
the maximum reading was only about six seconds, the whole time being about one 
minute to one and a quarter. Probably the lag of the thermometer behind the ealori- 
meter obscured the greater part of the actual difference. 

The effect of not receiving all the heat from the nickel would be to mall the appar- 
ent specific heat less than the true specific heat. This error would obviously be greater | 
at low temperatures than at high temperatures, and thus would make the apparent | 
specific heat increase more rapidly with temperature than the true specific heat actually a 
does. Probably this is the real reason why the specific heats of carbon and silicon— 
so-called bad conductors of heat—have been found to be much lower at ordinary | 
temperatures than that expected from Dutone and Perrrt’s law of constant atomic 
heats, whereas at very high temperatures their specific heats are much greater and 
nearly great enough to fulfil the law. Errors of this kind are reduced to a minimum 
by using WaTERMAN’s calorimeter. A description of this apparatus, and a short dis- 
cussion of the determinations of specific heats is given in a paper by WaTERMAN in the 
Physical Review (vol, iv. No. 3) for December 1896. . 

§ 7. It seems to me a disadvantage of Forsxs’s method that its accuracy has to | 


al 


—EE 


eT eee 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 378 


depend on that of the determination of specific heat. While I have no confidence in 
the values found for the specific heat of the nickel, I give the values of the conductivity 
found by using them. I hope to be able at a future time to supplant these figures by 
others which can be relied on. 

_ The following table gives the values of the ratio of the conductivity to the specific 
heat after applying the end correction to the rates of cooling given in a previous table, 
and the values of the conductivity using the values of the specific heat in the adjacent 
column. No corrections have been applied for changes of the dimensions of the mekel 
with temperature as these are really negligible. 


Temperature. Veh sete ue Specific Heat. Conductivity. 
/ 

40 1:19 098 118 

50 119 102 121 

60 1-19 "105 "}25 

70 1:20 108 130 

80 1:20 “HL 133 

90 1:18 114 135 

q 100 1:16 ‘118 137 

a 1-14 121 138 

120 112 124 139 

130 1:09 127 139 

140 1:07 130 140 

150 1:06 134 142 
160 1:04 
170 1:01 
180... 99 
190 97 
200 96 


. > 
| § 8. EXPERIMENTAL AND OTHER ERRorS IN ForsBes’s Mernop.—The sources. of error 
may be classified as follows :— 


a Statical Huperiment. 
(1) Thermometric errors. \ 


_ (2) Errors in reduction of results, for example in differentiating the temperature 
curve. 


(8) Want of uniformity or regularity in the substance or surface of the Forses bar. 


Cooling Experiment. 
(4) Radiation from ends of bar. 
(5) Lag of thermometer behind bar due to gradient of temperature necessary to 
vause flow of heat from thermometer to bar. 
(6) Thermometric errors. 
(7) Exrors of observation in taking cooling readings. 
(8) Errors in reduction of rate of cooling from these readings. 


374 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE 


(9) Difference in the emissive powers of the surfaces of the cooling bar and statical bat 
Some of the causes of such differences may be— 
(a) tarnish. 
(b) differences in the amount of polish. 
(c) difference in the surroundings or in the state of the atmosphere during 
the cooling and statical experiments. 
(d) differences in the radiation due to the temperature of the cooling bar 
always falling while that of the statical bar is steady. 
(10) Errors in the determination of the specific heat. 
Of these the chief are— 
(a) the specimen used for this may not be a fair average specimen. 
(b) want of uniformity in its temperature when put into the calorimeter. 
(c) the calorimeter not receiving the whole of the heat supposed to be given 
out from the specimen. | 
(ad) changes in the thermal capacity of water with temperature as measured 
by the thermometer used (or, in the case of ice calorimeters, errors 
in the value of the latent heat or other constants used). 
Of these there is little difficulty in arranging the errors from (1), (2), (4), (6), (7), 
(8) to be small by using proper care and suitably arranging the apparatus or the bars 
used. Serious error from (3) could be detected by taking a sufficient number of pro- 
perly varied sets of readings. Small errors due to (9) (b) and (9) (c) are difficult to 
avoid and it is impossible to discover their existence. (10) (c) is the most serious eause 
of error in the ordinary method of mixtures. There is probably some error from this 
cause even in BunsEn’s calorimeter, as it usually gives lower values than other | 
methods. (10) (d) is unavoidable in all thermometric thermal measurements. (5) and | 
(9) (d) are inherent to the method and are not to be avoided by the use of thermo- | 
electric junctions instead of thermometers. It is also impossible to estimate the errors | 
arising therefrom. In AnasTRom’s method errors from (10) affect the result in the same | 
way, and as all the temperatures measured are varying temperatures, errors of the same | 
sort as (5) and (9) (d) may occur. AncsTRom’s method is unreliable on other grounds. | 
It is essentially based on the assumption that the ratio of the conductivity to the | 
emissivity is constant. 
The values of the conductivity of copper found by Professor Tarr were (reduced to | 
C.G.S. units) for good conducting copper 1°08 (1+ °0013¢); for bad conducting copper | 
‘71 (14+ °0014¢). The ratio of these values is independent of nearly every source of | 
error ees and yet Dr Srewart (vide Trans. Roy. Soc., 1893, p. 569) found 112) 


13, p. 406) found ‘51 (1+:0057¢) both for pure copper. One has doubts about believ-| 
ing that the wide range of variations of these values is due only to differences in the) 
specimens of metal used. I, therefore, determined to find the conductivity of the nickel) i 
I had used by a method with fewer sources of error. 


as 
—————— en 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 375 


Direct Method. 


§ 9. Tue ApparatTus.—The method of determining thermal conductivity by direct 
measurement of the rate of flow of heat and gradient of temperature is that adopted in 
the following experiments. This method was used long ago by CLEMENT and by P&cLET 
(vide Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, 3° tom. 1. p. 107, 1841), and in their hands did 
not yield satisfactory results as they did not measure the temperatures of the metal 
itself, but it has been used with success by E. H. Hatt, who utilised the metal 
experimented upon as one of a thermo-electric couple to measure its own gradient of 
temperature (vide Pro. American Academy, vol. xxxi. p. 271). 

In the present investigation one end of the nickel bar used for Forses’s method was 
cut off, and an extra thermometer hole was drilled into it. Its surface was repolished. 
The dimensions were as follows :— 


Diameter, from 4°660 to 4°667 cm. 
Length, 42°55 cm. 
Density, 8°75 grammes per c.cm. 


Distance in Centimetres from end at which the Rate of 
low of Heat was measured. 
2°84 
120 
19°54 
27°88 
36°17 


No. of Thermometer Hole. 


oF Whe 


A shorter length would have sufficed, and it would have been an advantage to have 
made more thermometer holes. The bar was fitted up so that one end could be kept at 
any constant high temperature, while a flow of water could be kept cooling the other, 
the rise of temperature of the water and the mass of water passing per unit of time 
being measured. These data were sufficient to measure the rate at which heat left the 
end of the bar. The gradient of temperature at any point is given by the tangent to 
the curve drawn from the readings given by the thermometers. 

_ A slide bench was erected in front of the table carrying the apparatus, and was 
arranged to carry a telescope which could be raised or lowered in a vertical line, and at 
the same time moved to and fro along the bench which was placed parallel to the axis 
of the nickel bar. The thermometers used in the bar were some of Professor Tart’s 
Kew thermometers from the same stock as those used in the Forsus bar, and they were 
placed so as to hang vertically, this being tested by a plumb line. As the telescope 
could only move so as to be always horizontal, parallax was avoided. When the tele- 


| Scope was adjusted so that one of the thermometers was in focus, all were in focus for 


that same adjustment, which was never altered. The readings were estimated by eye to 
the nearest tenth of a degree. 

A diagram representing a vertical section through the axis of the bar is given in fig. 

2. The heater was the cast-iron pot, J, which was used with the Forzes bar. The bar 

was fixed into the circular hole (at K) in the side of it with red lead. A Jena glass flask, 


376 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE | 


F, with a fairly long neck was filled to the bottom of the neck with mercury and put 
into the pot; and the space, H, between was filled nearly full of mereury. To prevent 
mercury leaking through the cast-iron pot it was previously lined with pipe-clay, a paste 
of pipe-clay and water being painted in with a brush and allowed to dry. Into the 
neck of the flask was fitted a glass piece made as shown in fig. 2. The arrows show the 
path taken by the gas to reach the burner, and the temperature was kept constant by 
the mercury cutting off the gas supply at E on reaching a certain temperature, The by- 
pass, B, was opened to allow a full supply of gas while the heater was being warmed up 
to the proper temperature, the mercury in the flask being allowed to run over at D, 
which was at all other times closed. When the desired temperature was reached the 
by-pass, B, was nearly closed, enough gas being allowed to pass through it to keep the 
Argand burner, G, from going out. This gas regulator worked so well that a ther- 
mometer hung in the same place in the pot of mercury showed no variation exceeding 
one-tenth of a degree centigrade during a whole day. 

At first a large steel cap was fitted on the end of the bar, with mercury inside it, 
the idea being to make it at once the heater and the regulator. It showed a steady, 
slow rise of temperature, and, although there was no visible leakage, in a few days fine 
drops of mercury were seen on the iron tray placed under the burner to catch the 
mercury in case of accident. No leakage of mercury could be noticed from it even 
under greater pressure from the inside while standing cold, and therefore the mereury 
must have leaked through pores too small to be noticed while the flame played upon 
them. The variation of the temperature of cut-off is a very delicate test of such 
leakage. 

The rate at which heat was given out at the other end of the bar was obtained by 
measuring the rise of temperature and the rate of flow of the stream of water which — 
played on the end of the bar. A brass cap, M, was fitted on the end of the bar, the 
water entering the space between it and the bar having its temperature measured at O, 
and the temperature of the water leaving the bar was measured at P. The thermom- 
eters at O and P were Anschutz thermometers graduated in fifths of a degree centi- — 
grade. The rate of flow of the water was found by observing the time taken to fill the 
flask, Q, of known capacity to the fiducial mark. The water was supplied at constant 
level from a chamber, §, containing the well-known inverted bottle device, R. Distilled 
water was used, but great difficulty was found in keeping the rate of flow regular until 
the plan was tried of making the outlet of a piece of glass tubing drawn out fine and 
broken off at the capillary portion. With this improvement the flow was very uniform, 
and the temperature of the water (at O) reaching the bar was also very steady, but the 
temperature of the water leaving the bar (at P) varied. When the water had been once 
used it was cooled by being put in the inner chamber of a double copper tank, while 
cold tap water was eleciilettice in the outer chamber surrounding it. The same wast ' 
was thus used over and over again. . 

The order of taking readings was as follows :—1°, the thermometers in the bar; 2°, | 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 377 


the temperature of the cold water (at O) going to the bar; 3°, the time at which the 
‘empty flask, Q, was put to catch the overflowing water ; 4°, the temperature of the water 
leaving the bar (at P) was read every half-minute while the flask was filling ; 5°, the 
time the flask was exactly filled to the fiducial mark ; 6°, the temperature of the water 
entering the cap at O; 7°, the thermometers in the bar. All these readings varied little 
in the course of one evening, and the rate at which heat was given out at the end of 
the bar varied within 2 per cent. The following table gives the readings (uncorrected) 
taken on 6th January 1898. 


Average Rate of Temperatures of Holes in Bar. 
Average Flow of Heatin | ‘Temperature 
Sue Calories per of Air, l 
= Second, No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5, 
4 | } f 13°2 39°6 61:65 88°35 122°2 168°2 
art oe 13-2 39°6 61-7 88-4 122-4 1681 
18 4:86 | 13°2 39°6 61:7 88°4 122°4 168°1 
13°3 39°8 61°8 88°5 122°45 168°2 
21°85 4-88 | 13°3 39°65 61°9 88°55 122°5 168°25 
13°3 39°65 61°8 88°5 122°55 168°45 
: : 13°3 39°65 61°8 88°5 122°55 168°45 
eres os \ 133 39°7 61:85 88-6 122°6 16835 
Mean 21°8 4:86 13°3 39°65 61:8 88:5 122°45 168°25 


§ 10. Correction or THE THERMOMETERS.—The corrections of the thermometers were 
1ot found in the ordinary way, as there is always more or less doubt attached to any 
llowance that may be made for stem exposure on account of the impossibility of know- 
ng the exact distribution of temperature along the stem of the thermometer. The 
nethod adopted was simple and allowed the testing to be carried out with the ther- 
aometers in as nearly as possible the same circumstances as they are in during the 
xperiments, 

The thermometers were tested at three different temperatures, at 0° C., about 100° C., 
nd about 218°C. At 0° C., the correction was found by hanging the thermometers in 
vertical position with their bulbs, and as much of their stem as was under the surface 
fthe bar, embedded in powdered ice washed with distilled water. At the other two 
smperatures the apparatus, a vertical section through the centre of which is shown in 
g. 3, was used. A piece of brass tubing of nearly the same diameter as the bar 
f nickel was cut into three lengths, E, F, and G, and these were brazed together as 
town. The end, H, was closed, and three small tubes, A, B, and C, were brazed in the 
uiddle piece F. These tubes were about half full of Woon’s alloy. The piece E was 
alf-filled with water which was heated by the burner D, which was adjusted until just 
small quantity of water vapour escaped at the open end K. The tubes, A, B, and C, 
ere of about the same depth as the thermometer holes in the bar, and during the test 
le thermometers were suspended in a vertical position with their bulbs near the bottom 
‘the tubes. Asbestos screens were fitted up at L and M to shield the thermometers 

VOL, XXXIX. PART II. (No. 12). 3 L 


378 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE 


from the disturbing effects of the burner on the one side and the escaping vapour on 
the other. The arrangement is just that of a modified reflux condenser. 
The thermometers were suspended with their bulbs in the mercury of the heater 
(at H in fig. 2), and the temperature of the heater was gradually raised to about 
100° C., when the regulator was adjusted to act. The thermometers were left there 
under these conditions from morning till evening. As readings were always taken in | 
the evenings, while the heater was set working in the mornings, the thermometers were 
never read until they had been at the same temperature for several hours. It was there- 
fore thought necessary to keep the thermometers the same length of time at 100°C 
before testing them at that temperature, so as to allow the glass to take on the same 
set that it had in the bar at the same temperature. It is possible that if an ordinary | 
mercury thermometer is kept for hours at some temperature before it is read, 
its reading at the same temperature on some other occasion will only be ga same ater | 
it has remained at that temperature for some hours. 
The burner D was lit, and after the testing apparatus had been at 100° C. for some 
time, one of the thermometers was taken out of the mercury heater and quickly put into 
tube A. After the first two or three occasions, it was found easy to do this so dexter. 
ously that the reading on the thermometer did not fall more than 2° in the interval. 
After it had been in A for some time, during which the reading was constant, it was | 
rapidly transferred to B, and by and by to C. The thermometers were hung up verti- 
cally by means of a plumb line, and the readings taken with the telescope. It was 
found that when E was too full of water, even when it was just over half-full, the read- 
ings in A, B, and C were not alike. When that was the case, the thermometer was left 
in one of the tubes until enough of the water had evaporated. The barometer was read | 
sometime during the test and the true temperature of the bulb of the thermometer found 
from Re@navit’s tables. The difference between the observed reading on the ther- 
mometer and the temperature of the water vapour gave the whole correction at that 
temperature, the graduation correction and the stem exposure correction being thus 
lumped together. The same thing was gone through for each of the thermometers. 
The same sort of process was repeated with the same apparatus, after the water had | 
been dried out and naphthalene put in its place. Pure naphthalene was used, and as | 
the boiling point of pure naphthalene has been determined on the air thermometer scale 
by Crarts, and has been found to be very constant, it is as satisfactory a “fixed” point | 
on the scale of temperatures as one can wish for. The total correction of each of the | 
thermometers was thus found at the temperature of the boiling point of naphthalene. 
The graduation corrections on the Kew thermometers used were known to be small, and 
hence it was only to be expected that an expression of the form a+bé’ would represent 
the correction. This expression suited the values of the corrections found for all the 
thermometers except one to within a fifth of a degree, but the value of 6 was not the | 
same in all cases, as it varied from ‘00008 to ‘000115. Curiously enough, b was smaller 7“ 
for those thermometers graduated up to 300° C. than for those which could not read 


fq 


ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. 379 


above 220° C. The corrections at 0° C. were zero for most of the thermometers. One 
read “55° too low, but that was due toa small particle of the mercury having been shaken 
up into the top of the stem—probably during transit—from which it could not be again 
dislodged. It was on the strength of these results that ‘000113¢? was used to give the 
stem correction in the Forsrs bar experiments. 

The following table gives the corrected mean readings obtained from the last three 
experiments, together with the values of the conductivity calculated from them. 


Corrected Mean Temperatures of Holes in Bar. : 
Date of Temp. Temp. at | Gradient | Mean 


Bigiincnt | of Air End of |at End of| Temp. of Heat in | tivity at 


* Flow of Conduc- 


; Calories End of 
No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. | No. 5. os ee Winter. per Second.| Bar. 


31/12/97 | 14°8 | 39:3 | 74:1 | 115-9 | 168-1 | 242-7 | 28:5 3°66 16°8 8:12 130 
4/1/98 132 | 47:0 | 79°O {118°9 | 170°0 | 243°2 | 37°7 3°23 22-1 7225 ‘131 
6/1/98 13°3 | 40°5 | 62°33 | 89-4 | 123°9 | 1703 | 34:3 2°08 21°8 4°86 136 


§11. Tuzory or THE Mernop.—Let K be the conductivity, 6 the temperature, X 
hhe distance from some fixed point on the axis of the bar, of a section of the bar of area 
\, across which H units of heat pass in unit of time, then 

Ka@ =H. 


dé 
Jamesponding values of 0, H, and 7 are given in the above table for the end section of 


he bar whose cross-section is 17°1 square centimetres (diameter is 4°663 cms.). The 
alues of H given are subject to two corrections: (1) a correction for heat lost by radia- 
ion from the brass cap; (2) correction for the changes in the thermal capacity of unit 
1ass of water with temperature. An estimate of the former error shows that it never 
xeeeded 1 per cent., so that it is probable that these corrections combined do not 
xeeed 2 per cent. They are rather smaller than the corresponding corrections in a 
secific heat determination. 


dé 
The values of dz 2re liable to error from two sources : (1) thermometric errors in the 


mperature of the nearest thermometer hole; (2) arithmetical or geometrical errors in 
fierentiating the temperature curve. Errors from both of these causes would have 
en reduced by having more thermometer holes, and what discordance there is between 
ie values of the conductivity found from the three sets of readings given above is 
-obably mostly due to errors in estimating d@/dx. Differences amounting to 2 or 3 per 
(mt. are only to be expected. All these sources of error effect Forsrs’s method,— 
id, of course, also Anastrom’s—but to these are added in Forpes’s method all those 
ising from the cooling experiment. 
The measurements referred to only determine the conductivity at temperatures some- 
at above that of the air, but the conductivity could be found in a similar manner at 
er temperatures (such as slightly over 100° C., by allowing the water in the cap to be 


380 MR T. C. BAILLIE ON THE 


evaporated into steam). Also, by using an electrical heater, the heat supplied at t¢ 
hot end (subject to corrections for radiation) could be measured and the gradient 
temperature at that end. Such experiments, however, were not carried out in this eas 
because it was seen, in the manner described below, that the conductivity varied littl 
with temperature. 

§ 12. Cuance or Conpuctiviry with TEMpERATURE.—Before the brass cap was 
fitted on the end of the bar for the experiments just described readings were taken wit 
the bar losing heat only by radiation. After the distribution of temperature bee: 
steady, the heat which passed any cross-section of the bar was lost by radiation fr 
the rest of the bar beyond. The following table gives the temperatures obtained, t 
mometric corrections being applied. 


| Corrected Mean Temperatures of Holes in Bar. 
Temperature | 
of Air, 

iNionel: No, 2. No. 3. No. 4, 
13°6 63°85 68°9 78:7 95°35 
8-4 83°55 91:0 107°35 134:°15 
14:3 102°7 112°75 132°8 167°35 

9°2 110°15 121°8 146°2 185°4 


Curves were drawn from these readings, and differentiated. By supposing the bar 
prolonged by an amount slightly over the length of the radius, and produ ing the 
temperature curve to that point, one obtained the curve which would suit the bar if no 
heat had been lost from the end, at which place d0/dz would then be zero. From the 
first set of readings the value of d@/dx at the section which had the temperature 
120°65° C. was found to be 3°55, and its distance from the point at which d6/da vanishe 
was 88 centimetres. The average excess of the temperature of those 38 centimetr 
the bar over the temperature of the surrounding air was 67°45°. This gives the fc 


ing relation :— 
KA x 3°55 = Ep x 67°45 x 38, 


where K is the conductivity at 120°65° C, and E the average emissivity under the 

ditions referred to. From the set of readings obtained on 31st December 1897 
given on page 19, the gradient at 120°65° C. was found to be 5°66, the grad 
63'2° ©. to be 4°33 ; and the distance between the points at these two temperatures 
11'72 centimetres. The average excess of the temperature of those 11°72 centimetres 
of the bar over the temperature of the surrounding air was 76°0°. If we asswme the 
average emissivity to be the swme in these two cases, we find that 1°23 is the value of 
that part of the gradient which is required to account for the heat lost by cooling over 
the 11°72 centimetres in the latter instance. For if =. 
KA x 3°55 = Ep x 67°45 x 38, 


then 
KA x 1:23 =Ep x 76:0 x 11°72. 


— ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICKEL. . 2: :. 881 


s deduct’ 1:23 from the gradient, 5°66, at 120°65° C. in the latter experiment (date 
cember 1897), we find the gradient (the remaining 4°43) which would cause the 
to pass the cross-section at 120°65° C. as passes the cross-section, at 63°2° C. 
adient at 4°33. In other words 4°43 and 4°33 would be corresponding values 
dients at 120°65° and 63°2° respectively if no heat were lost by radiation from 
The conductivities at these two temperatures are inversely as these numbers. 
$s a diminution of conductivity of 24 per cent., with a rise in temperature of 
This is within the limits of experimental error. The assumption that the 
emissivities for temperature excesses of 67°45° and 76° are the same is not 
to be correct. ‘The emissivity in the latter case will be greater, probably by 
of the order of 2 percent. The effect of the increase of emissivity with 
will be to reduce the apparent diminution of conductivity with rise of 
re, and might even change it into an increase, but in any case it would be 
and within the limits of experimental error. 
ie following tables give two sets of data obtained from the curves drawn from the 
d readings already given in tabular form. es] 


. fpr reg 
ey ees NG 


fe ring Values of Al ieriadet “ul Geteponding Values at Ca of Bat of 
ET Temperature SS ao ae er ee 

1) alas  d0/da ~ Excess,  ~ lage ck le ea alana a de/dx 

63°2 0 67°45 38°0 120°65 3°55 

63-2 4°33 76-0 20°45 120-65 5°66 

108°5 0 125-0 30-0 188-7 6-00 

1085 5335 130°8 | 80°55 188-7 8:13 


8 : d0/dx 
ding values of @ and d6/dx which Roe oe | 3: 
be found if no heat were lost rom | ets Ps iis 
108°5 ae UAL = 1565) 
Ditto, { 188°7 + | Dalat 5°55 


— eo s 


ares indicate a diminution of conductivity of the amount ‘000066 per rise 
rature of 1° C. The conductivity cannot falliso much as this, and in any case 
of conductivity with temperature is within the limits of error of such experi- 
oa temperature of 200°C. - he a aad gael dln 

ConcLusion.—The conductivity of nickel found bass the pecs method is *132. 
$ some doubt about the third figure after the decimal point, and that figure is the 
affected by changes of temperature up to 200°C. It is interesting to note that 


VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 12). ede 


382 MRT, C. BAILLIE ON THE ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF NICK} 


the value of the specific heat of nickel found by using nickel turnings, viz., ‘11, wouk 
multiplied by the ratio of the conductivity to the specific heat at the mean temp 
60°, give a result in exact agreement with the above. It should, however, be stated 
the specimen of nickel showed slight fissures. These were not serious enough to af 
the readings sufficiently to make it noticeable in the appearance of the temper 
curves, and the readings obtained from the Forprs bar do not show irregularities : 
such a cause. The nickel used was also very pure. Iam much indebted to my 
league, Mr F. V. Durron, for analysing it for me with the following result:— __ 


Analysis of Nickel. 


Manganese, .. F : : 2 1°63 per cent. 

Magnesium, . : : ; : 0:28 i 

Iron, . : 5 : ‘ . 0°75 ‘i 

Nickel, : 3 : ; ; 97°22 " 
Total, , : ; 99°88 


The Forses’s method experiments were carried out in Edinburgh University Phy 
Laboratory ; the other method was done in the Physical Laboratory of the Univ. 
College of North Wales, and from time to time the work was carried on part 


Edinburgh, partly in Bangor. I have to thank Professor arr and Professor Gri 
affording me every facility in carrying out these determinations. 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. 


io 


Fig. 2, A. Gas supply. 

By-pass. 

Tube leading gas to burner. 

Opening for letting out mercury to regulate temperature of cut-off. 
Place at which mercury acts on gas supply. 
Glass flask containing mercury. 

Argand gas burner. 

Mercury, 

Cast-iron pot. 

End of bar heated. 

Thermometers. 

Bar of Nickel. 

Brass cap. 

Water inlet with thermometer. 

Water outlet with thermometer. 

Flask for measuring rate of flow of water. 

bien ae i \ on reduced scale. 

Fig. 3, A, B, C, Tubulures for thermometers containing Wood’s alloy. 

Gas burner. 

Chamber of water or naphthalene. 

. Open end of apparatus, : 
. Asbestos screens, , 


QnRonoZeornanhoamaSar 


H 
Brno 


*0,80'86 AHNLXIW 4O SHNLVUadWAL GALOAUHOD 
‘0,68°SS YALYM 40 AUNLVUAdWAL TVILIN] 
“SHLANIJ NI SWI 


83 


= 
a 
saunivasadNnalL 


96 


LG 


Til ®la 


»>—— 
(2) “SNOILYNINYALAG LYAH OIAIOSdS NI ONI 
“1009 HOH NOILOHHHOD AHL ONIATddyY AO 


GOHLAW AHL ONILVYLSOTII aAuNDO—'T SIA 
in 
» 7 
? 


\ 


Ly 


86 


aN 


(73880) 


SMe Tic Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys, By Joun 8. Furr, MB, B.Sc. 
. — (With a Map.) 


| (Read 17th January 1898.) 
H LITERATURE. 


| 
| The first geologist to examine critically the Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys seems 
to have been Professor JAMESON, who in 1800 spent six weeks in a mineralogical tour 
through the county, and so barren did he find the islands, from his point of view, that 
he counted his journey one of the most uninteresting he had ever made. As yet, the 
rich store of organic remains which the dark grey flagstones contained had not been 
brought to light, but the stimulus given to this branch of investigation by the work of 
| Hoes Minter and Acassiz awakened interest in the subject, and we find that a number of 
collections was formed, especially from the quarries in the neighbourhood of the town 
of Stromness. Hence when, at a later period (1848), HugH Mrtuzr paid a visit to this 
district, as narrated in his Footprints of the Creator, or the Asterolepis of Stromness, 
many of the fossils of these rocks were already well known to local. collectors, among 
whom he mentions particularly the late Mr W, Warr of Skailland Dr Garson of Strom- 
ness. Professor TRattu of Edinburgh University had for many years been forming a 
collection, and specimens had been forwarded by him to AGassiz, who makes mention of 
ihe fact. Hue Minimr, in the work above cited, and in his Cruise of the Betsy (1858), 
We: a description of his visit to Kirkwall, Stromness, and various parts of the West 
_|Mainland, which contains many interesting facts relating to the occurrence and distribu- 
tion of the fossils in these districts. Further reference to his work will be found ina 
subsequent part of this paper. The general similarity of the rocks around Stromness to 
_ the sandstones of Cromarty and the flagstones of Caithness, as regards the fossils they 
-“bontained, may be regarded as well established at this date, and the subsequent descrip- 
aons of Orcadian specimens contained in Professor M‘Coy’s Synopsis of Classification of 
British Palzozoie Rocks (1858) served in some measure to confirm this opinion. So far, 
there had been no attempt to ascertain the structure of the county, but in 1858 Sir R. 
MURGHISON™ made a brief survey of the islands. He ascertained that there were at least 
“wo main types of sedimentary deposits in the Old Red Sandstone of Orkney,—a lower 
eries of flagstones and, overlying them, conformably, as he believed, a series of yellow 
andstones, well seen in the island of Hoy. The lower series at Stromness rested, by 
neans of a basement conglomerate, upon an axis of crystalline rock. A great advance 
vas made in 1878 by the appearance of the first part of Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE’S mono- 


| * Sir R. Murcuison, Quart. Jour. Geol, Soc., vol. xv. 


| 


VOL. XXXIX. PART II. NO, 13). on 


384 MR JOHN S8. FLETT ON 


graph on the Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe.* As the result of two visits to 
Orkney, in which he was accompanied by Mr B. N. Pracu, he pointed out that the yellow 
sandstones of Hoy did not pass down conformably into the flagstones which form the — 
basis of that island, but were separated from them by a marked unconformity. At ; 
the base of the upper sandstones lay a series of contemporaneous lavas and ash beds, — 
which were in all probability erupted from certain ‘necks’ in the low-lying district at 
the foot of the Hoy Hills. These rocks he regarded as belonging to the upper Old Red — 
Sandstone. The lower Old Red Sandstone consisted principally of a great thickness of — 
flagstones, with which were interstratified beds of yellow and red sandstone, and 
occasionally of conglomerate. The fossils belonged exclusively to this lower series ; and 
a table is given, compiled by Mr C. W. Psacu, showing the distribution of fossil fishes 
in the lower Old Red Sandstone of Lake Orcadie, including those of Orkney so far ag 
known at that time. As Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE anticipated, subsequent revision has — 
necessitated “considerable pruning of the fossil lists.” The conglomerates around the — 
granite axis of Stromness formed merely a local base, “due to the uprise of an old ridge | 
of rock from the surface of the sheet of water in which these strata were accumulated,” 
and were presumably not on the same horizon as the thick conglomerates on which, ir 
Caithness, the lowest flagstones rest. The sandstones interbedded with the flagstones in 
South Ronaldshay were regarded as in all probability the northward continuation of the 
similar rocks at Gill’s Bay, Huna, and John o’ Groats, on the south side of the Pent- 
land Firth. From a geological point of view, the brief notice of the Old Red Sandstone 
of the Orkneys contained in this paper forms by far the most important contribution to 
the knowledge of the subject published up to that time. 
In two papers on the Geognosy of Orkney,t published in December 1879, Protest r 
Foster Heppie showed the existence of a well-marked syncline beginning in the North 
Isles in the island of Eday, and continuing thence through Shapinshay and Inganess Bay 
to Scapa and the north-west corner of South Ronaldshay. The beds which occupy the 
centre of this trough are coarse arenaceous freestones, which rest perfectly conformably — 
on the ordinary blue flags of the islands, and at Heclabir, in Sanday, contain thin beds 
of conglomerate. These sandstones cannot, in consequence, be the same as the yellow 
sandstones of Hoy, which unconformably overlie the flags. In these papers many 
interesting details are given of the minerals occurring in the islands, and of the structura Z 
peculiarities of the flagstones, especially as seen in the magnificent coast sections. 
In 1880 Messrs Peach and Horne made a much more detailed examination of the 
islands than had previously been attempted, and the result was an important paper on 
the Old Red Sandstone of Orkney.{ They showed that in all probability the upper Old 
Red Sandstone of the district was confined to the island of Hoy, while the rest of the 
* Sir Arca, Guixin, “The Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe,” pt. i. Trans. Roy, Soc, Edin., vol. xxviii, pp. 4 7 
i ue Magazine, “ The Geognosy and Mineralogy of Scotland,” part v.—Orkney, M. Fostrr Hepprx, M.D,, 


1880, p. 102. 
t Proc, Roy, Phys. Soc, Edin, 1880 


A 
ft 
— ~~ 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 385 


county consisted of the flagstones and sandstones of the lower series. The distribution 
of these two members was described, and sections given to show their relation to one 
another. In their paper on the Glaciation of the Orkney Islands* a map was published, 
which reappears in the chapter contributed by them to Tudor’s The Orkneys and Shetland,t 
and leaves little to be desired so far as regards a knowledge of the distribution of the 
different lithological types which constitute the Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys. The 
structure of the county, they regarded, with Professor HEDDLE, as, in the main, a syncline 


_which runs from Eday to South Ronaldshay, broken in the Mainland by two great 


faults which cross it and follow the shores of Scapa Bay. In the centre of this syncline 
lie the sandstones which form the uppermost member of the lower series, while the flag- 
stones form the rest of the district, with the exception of the area occupied by the upper 
Old Red Sandstone in the island of Hoy. They showed also that in Shapinshay, among 
the yellow sandstones of the lower Old Red, occurred a belt of contemporaneous volcanic 
rocks, consisting of a single outflow of a diabasic lava.} 


1 —THE PALZONTOLOGICAL SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ORCADIAN OLD RED SANDSTONE. 


The Eday Sandstones.—So far, those geologists who had endeavoured to make out 
the structure and succession of the Orcadian Old Red Sandstone had relied mostly on 
the different types of sedimentary rocks to establish their conclusions, without reference 
to the fossils the rocks contained. But in 1896, in a paper read to the Royal Physical 
Society of Edinburgh,§ the present writer showed that among the yellow sandstones of 
the lower Old Red Sandstone of Deerness, Orkney, occurred three fossils not previously 
recorded from Orkney, and known only to occur in the John o’ Groats sandstones of 
Caithness, viz., Dipterus macropterus (Traq.), Tristichopterus alatus (Egert.), and 
Microbrachius Dicki (Traquair). In this way the opinion, already expressed by pre- 
vious authors, || that the sandstones which conformably overlie the flagstones in 
Orkney were the northern representatives of the similar beds at John o’ Groats, Caithness, 
was confirmed by paleontological evidence. During the following summer investigation 
was made whether the sandstones in other districts of Orkney, to which had been 
assigned the same position, contained the same suite of fossils, with the result that in 
several of the localities examined (in Shapinshay, Inganess Bay, and Hday) one or 
other of them was proved to occur, and it was established that they constituted the 
type fossils of a paleontological zone of the Orcadian Old Red Sandstone, which was 
at the same time distinguished by the lithological characters of its rocks. This may, in 
consequence, be designated the zone of Tristichopterus alatus (Egert.), or, from the 
locality in Orkney in which they have been principally studied, the Hday sandstones. 


* Quart. Jour, Geol, Soc. Lond., vol. 36. 

+ London, 1883. 

t The occurrence of this basalt was noted by Jameson, Mineralogy og the Scottish Isles, ii, 235. 
§ Proc. Roy. Phys, Soc. Edin., vol. xiii, 

|| PzacH and Hornm, op. cit. Sir A. Guixim Old Red Sandstone, p. 409. 


386 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


As will be shown in a subsequent part of this paper, they. fall naturally into two — 
subdivisions, a yellow series beneath and a red series above; and it is the thin layers 
of flag intercalated in the yellow sandstones which have furnished the fossils described. 
A no less striking characteristic of these beds is the occurrence in them of that zone 
of voleanie rocks of which the first mention was made by Professor JAMESON.* 

The Rousay Beds.—The inquiry was next advanced into the beds which underlie 
this zone, and were known to consist of a series of flagstones, presumably of great thick- 
ness, and of wide distribution throughout the county. All efforts to break up this 
series into recognisable subdivisions by means of belts of rock, with sufficiently well- 
developed peculiarities to ensure their recognition in different districts, had hitherto 
failed ;+ and, from an extensive knowledge of these rocks, the present writer felt that 
success was hardly to be hoped for in such an attempt. But should the distribution of 
their fossils show that certain forms occurred only on particular horizons, this great — 
series could be broken up into zones, which could be identified wherever they occurred, — 
if only they contained a sufficient number of organic remains in a satisfactory state of — 
preservation. The base of the Eday sandstones was chosen as forming a well defined 
horizon, from which it would be possible to work downwards into the flagstone series in 
search of type fossils. These underlying beds were then followed from Eday, Westray, 
and Sanday in the north to South Ronaldshay in the south; the geological structure 
being carefully mapped, and a record of the fossils observed in each district compiled at 
the same time. The flagstones of these districts proved to be barren and unfossiliferous — 
compared with the well known localities, chiefly in the West Mainland of Orkney, from 
which for many years fossils had been obtained in great numbers. Yet in every district — 
decipherable fragments were to be found ; and in some localities the fossils were quite as_ 
satisfactory as in the better known beds of the West Mainland. By far the most common 
were the sculptured bones and scales of Glyptolepis paucidens (Agassiz), which occurred — 
in every district examined, often in great profusion, and with them Dipterus valen- : 
cienesii (Sedgwick and Murchison), in every locality, and almost equally abundant. In 
fact, both these fossils occur right up to the base of the Eday sandstones, though as yet 
in Orkney not known with certainty to pass up into these overlying rocks. In Deerness, 
Holm, and Eday the beds immediately below the sandstones are crowded with Dipterus 
valencienesu (Sedgwick and Murchison), often in fine preservation, and covering the 
surface of whole slabs of rock. After these in frequency comes Homosteus Milleri 
(Traquair), of which the large and usually broken plates are often to be seen. Other 
fossils were relatively few. In Crook Bay, Shapinshay, I found a Cheiracanthus, which 
when submitted to Dr Traquair was determined to be Cheiracanthus Murchison 
(Agassiz). At Dingieshowie, Deerness, at Kirkwall, and elsewhere, Osteolepis macrole- 
pedotus (Ag.) is found. Diplopterus Agassiz (Traill) occurs in the Hast Mainland, 
Estheria membranacea at Kirkwall, Rendall, and Westray. Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.) at 
Kirkwall, Dingieshowie, and even in the sandstones at Deerness, as I learned from Mr 


* Op, cit. + ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, op. cit., p. 410. 
ip » Op. cul., p 


Fa 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 387 


Maenus Spence of Deerness, who forwarded a specimen he found in Newark Bay to Dr 
Traquair. To these we must add a new and undescribed species of Asterolepis, of which 

scattered plates were found by Mr Spence of Deerness and myself in Deerness, Holm, 
and South Ronaldshay. These have been presented by us to the Edinburgh Museum 
of Science and Art, and Dr Traquair has kindly consented to draw up and publish a 
description of them. This interesting fossil is, so far as we know at present, confined to 
a narrow belt of the flagstones immediately underlying the Eday sandstones, where it 
occurs with Dipterus valencienesa (Sedgwick and Murchison), and Glyptolepis 
paucidens (Ag.); and should further investigations confirm this restricted distribution, 
it may eventually be taken to mark the existence of a paleontological sub-zone im- 
mediately beneath that of Tristachopterus alatus (Kgert.). That already it should be 
known from three localities widely separated, and in each case from precisely the same 
horizon, shows that it can hardly be called a rare fossil in Orkney, and in the future 
further specimens may be confidently expected to turn up should these beds be sub- 
mitted to careful and extended investigation. With this exception, this list of fossils 
contains none which is not of very general distribution throughout the whole thickness 
of the Oreadian flags. 

But when, in the progress of the mapping, a layer of rocks occupying a somewhat 
lower position was reached, fossils were obtained which were new to Orkney, or among 
the very rarest of those recorded from it. In the island of Rousay I found along the 
west side a belt of rocks containing Coccosteus minor (Miller), the best specimens being 
obtained in a quarry of thin slaty flagstones near Sacquoy Head. With it occurred the 
large enamelled scales of a ganoid fish, of which the fragmentary remains were not 
sufficient for satisfactory determination. Application was made to the proprietor of the 
island, General Burroughs, for liberty to quarry, and permission was at once granted. 
Better material was thus procured, and all doubt removed by the discovery of well pre- 
served remains of Thursius pholidotus (Traquair), an addition to the list of the fossil 
fishes of Orkney. Both occurred on the same bed of rock, and are here recorded from 
Orkney, one for the first time, the other after a lapse of almost forty years, during which 
the knowledge of its occurrence seems practically to have disappeared. Curiously 
enough, when, at a subsequent time, at my request, Dr Traquair examined for me 
certain plates of Coccosteus minor (Miller) preserved in the British Museum,* which, I 
presumed, had come from another locality mentioned by Hucu Mitumr, he informed 
me that these specimens, which belonged to the Egerton Collection, were derived from 
the same locality, but when or by whom they were collected is not known. A very 
careful search, a year or more previously, among all the local collections of fossil fishes, 
had failed to bring under my notice any remains of this fish, and none seem to have 
passed through Dr Traquair’s hands, as he comments on its apparent absence from the 
north side of the Pentland Firth.t 


* A. Smita WoopwarD, B.M. Cat.—Fossil Fishes, pt. ii. p. 291. 
t “ Achanarras Revisited,” Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., xii. 285. 


388 MR JOHN 8S. FLETT ON 


Hue Miter, in his Cruise of the Betsy (1858), p. 358, narrates how, during his stay 
in Kirkwall, he paid a visit to a quarry a few hundred yards to the east of the town, 
where he observed numerous specimens of a species of Coccosteus, which he regarded as 
the same as those he had received from the neighbourhood of Thurso (collected by 
Roser? Dick), and as certainly distinct from, and not merely young forms of, the common 
Coccosteus decipiens (Agassiz). For these he extemporises the name of Coccosteus 
minor. As no specimens of this fossil from Orkney were contained in his collection, 
and no further material had been obtained from this locality for many years, the 
accuracy of this observation remained open to some doubt, in spite of his careful identi- 
fication. Unfortunately, these quarries are now practically worked out and deserted, 
but I can remember, years ago, seeing in the stones of some old houses in Kirkwall, 
which had evidently come from this quarry, great numbers of very minute specimens 
of a Coccosteus. With the rediscovery of this species, however, these doubts in great 
measure are removed; and as I shall subsequently show, the horizon of these rocks in 
the vicinity of Kirkwall is identical with that of the beds which in Rousay contain the 
same fossils. Hence, there is every presumption that this is another locality in Orkney — 
for this species. 

In the extreme south end of South Ronaldshay, I found at Banks Geo further 
examples of the same species, and as here they occur at no great distance from the Hday 
sandstone series of this island, it would seem that the horizon is a somewhat higher one 
than that in which it occurs in Rousay and in Kirkwall ; but as the island is traversed 
by a number of faults, no very great reliance can be placed on any estimates of the 
thickness of the intervening rocks. 

Here, then, we have from three localities—one in the north, one in the centre, and 
one in the south of the county, the extreme stations being over thirty miles apart—the 
occurrence of a distinct and characteristic fossil in the flagstones. With it occurs another 
Thursius pholidotus (Traquair), which is nowhere known except accompanying it, 
From the many quarries in the West Mainland, from which for seventy years innumer- 
able specimens have been obtained, not one case is known in which these have been 
found, and it may safely be presumed that there they do not occur. Their absence, at 
any rate, cannot be accounted for by imperfect preservation or insufficient search. They 
may be assumed, in consequence, to constitute the type fossils of a zone of the Orcadian 
Old Red Sandstone beneath that already defined for the Eday sandstones, and the beds 
in which they occur | shall designate, from the locality in which the fossils are best pre- 
served, the Rousay beds. 

List of the fossils contained in the Rousay beds of Orkney :— 


Thursius pholidotus (Traq.), Rousay. 

Coccosteus minor (Miller), Rousay, Kirkwall, 8. Ronaldshay. 

tlyptolepis paucidens (Ag.), Kirkwall, Rousay, Eday, Tankerness, Westray, Sanday, Evie, ete. 

Dipterus valencienesti (S. and M.), Kirkwall, Tankerness, Rousay, Eday, Evie, Firth, Westray, 
Sanday, ete. 7 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS, 389 


Homosteus Milleri (Traq.), Kirkwall, Firth, Rousay, Westray, Sanday, Tankerness. 
Cheiracanthus Murchisoni (Ag.), Shapinshay. 

Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.), Deerness, Tankerness, Kirkwall, 8. Ronaldshay. 
Osteolepis macrolepidotus (Ag.), Kirkwall, Deerness. 

Diplopterus Agassiz: (Traill), Toab. 

Estheria membranacea, Kirkwall, Rendall, Westray. 

Asterolepis, sp. nov., Holm, Deerness, S. Ronaldshay. 


The Stromness Beds.—A careful examination of the list above given will show that 
not only does it include certain fossils new or rare to Orkney, but that certain others 
well known to occur there are wanting. It may be said that practically all the fossils 
in the museums of the world or in private collections which have been furnished by 
the Orkney flagstones come from a restricted district in the West Mainland, and in the 
vicinity of the town of Stromness. Here the richness in fossil remains, and their fine 
preservation, is in striking contrast to the Rousay beds which occupy the remainder of 
the county. And not only are the fossils more numerous, but species occur which 
have never been obtained from other districts. Of these, there are two species of 
Pterychthys—P. Miller: (Ag.) and P. productus (Ag.)\—Cheirolepis Trailli (Ag.), 
Diplacanthus striatus (Ag.), and Gyroptychius angustus (M‘Coy). These, then, in turn 
constitute the type fossils of still another zone of the Old Red of Orkney, which from 
the locality of their typical development we will call the Stromness beds. With them 
others occur which are present also in the Rousay beds, viz.— 


Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.). 

Homosteus Milleri (Traquair). 

Dipterus valencienesia (Sedgw. and Murch.). 
Osteolepis macrolepidotus (Ag.). 

Diplopterus Agassiz (Traill). 
Cheiracanthus Murchisoni (Ag.). 


No value attaches to these latter as zone fossils, while there can be no doubt 
that the former, or some of them at any rate, are entitled to this rank. Much remains 
to be done before the knowledge of the distribution of the various fossil fishes in the 
Oreadian Old Red Sandstone can be said to be complete, but, from the Stromness beds 
at any rate, we have the result of seventy years of the activity of collectors, and the 
main facts must be regarded as already sufficiently established. That in no case have 
the type fossils of the Rousay beds been obtained in this locality is perfectly certain, 
and is a striking fact when we remember that the present writer has obtained these 
species from two localities in other parts of the county (South Ronaldshay and Rousay) 
in the course of a short space of time; while in no place have the type fossils of the 
Stromness beds been obtained along with those of the Rousay beds, or, for that matter, 
in any locality in which, according to the geological structure of the county, these 
latter are present ; and further, as will be subsequently shown, these results, obtained 
from a study of the distribution of the fossil fishes of Orkney alone, are in substantial 


390 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


accordance with the facts already known regarding their distribution in the other 
districts in which they occur. A mutually exclusive occurrence of this nature can only 
be regarded as due to the disappearance of one series of forms before the arrival or 
evolution of the other, and clearly establishes that the successive stages of the deposition 
of the Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys were accompanied by changes in the fauna 
which inhabited the waters in which the rocks were being formed. 


I].—TuHE STRUCTURE OF THE ORKNEYS. 
I. Stromness Beds. 


To the geologist who endeavours to unravel the structure of the Orkneys, a magnifi- 
cent opportunity is afforded by the excellent and numerous coast sections. So com- 
pletely is the country cut up by sounds and bays, that at no place can there be any 
doubt as to the general structure ; and even in the larger areas of land, as in the West 
Mainland, wherever cultivation is to be found, dwelling-houses and stone dykes have 
been built, and one is, as a rule, at no difficulty in finding stone quarries within a com- 
paratively short distance of one another. If we add to these the many opportunities 
provided by the inland lochs and streams for an examination of the underlying rocks, it 
will readily be understood how it is possible, in a comparatively short time, to map with 
satisfactory detail very considerable areas of country. Only in a very few places do 
superficial accumulations of boulder clay or peat moss conceal the relations of the rocks 
beneath, through any extensive tract of land. Wherever the flagstones are present, the 
structure may almost be said to be writ large on the face of the country. As has been 
frequently observed by writers on the scenery and geology of Orkney, the hills have 
then markedly terraced contours, the harder beds of flag resisting erosion and forming a — 
terrace, while the softer beds between, by their more rapid decay, form miniature 
escarpments. ‘These terraces are everywhere present in flagstone districts of Orkney, 
and to the experienced eye at once reveal the secret of the underlying structure. In 
some places, as in Rousay and in Westray, they form so noticeable a feature of the 
landscape, as to remind one at once of the terraced volcanic districts of many parts, 
both of Eastern and of Western Scotland. That they are preglacial in origin is proved 
by the glacial striations with which they are often covered,* and no doubt they have 
suffered during that epoch a considerable amount of rounding and obliteration ; their 
fine development on the west side of Rousay and of Westray is thus a relic of the old 
preglacial Orcadian landscapes, which owes its preservation to the fact that the ice 
movement being from east to west, the west side of these hills was spared the intense 
erosion to which the rest of the country was being subjected. 

The Stromness beds of Orkney, although, as a matter of fact, probably the least — 
extensively developed of any of the subdivisions of the lower Old Red Sandstone, have, 


* Peacn and Horne, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., Edin., 1880, p. 3, 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 391 


curiously enough, received hitherto by far the greatest share of attention. This is due, 
without doubt, to the number and excellent preservation of their fossils, of which Hucu 
Mitxer was led to make the somewhat hyperbolical statement, that were the trade once 
fairly opened, they could supply with ichthyolites, by the ton and by the shipload, all the 
museums of the world.* The list of collectors who have searched these beds is a long 
one, and includes many eminent names,—Hucu Muitier, Professor TrattL, Mr C. W. 
Pracu, Mr W. Warr of Breckness, the Rev. J. H. Pottexren, Dr Clouston, to mention 
only a few of those who, in a previous generation, were the first to develop their 
palzontological resources. The district to which they are confined is compact and of 
no great area, lying mostly in the West Mainland, in the parishes of Stromness, 
Sandwick, Birsay, and Harray. If to this we add the flagstones which unconformably 
underlie the sandstones of the west end of Hoy, and those also around the granite area 
in Graemsay, we include the entire district from which have been obtained the many 
Orkney fossils which are deposited in the museums of the world. The rest of Orkney 
is a district relatively barren and uninteresting to the collector, with the exception of 
certain areas of the Eday sandstones, such as Deerness—where, indeed, the abundance 
of the fossils hardly compensates for the paucity of specific forms. 

The gramte of Stromness.—Professor JAMESON seems to have been the first to 
recognise the relation between the ancient crystalline rocks of the granite axis of 
Stromness and the flagstones of Old Red Age which rest on them by means of a thin 
basal conglomerate. As it has already been more than once described, a brief notice 
here will suffice. The area occupied is elliptical in shape, and stretches from the Ness 
of Stromness to the Point of Inganess on the west coast, a distance north-west of about 
five miles, with a breadth of about a mile. In the hand specimen it is mostly a pink, 
sometimes a grey granite, of medium grain, and with only a black mica. In many 
places it is markedly schistose, as at the Ness of Stromness and behind the town, some- 
times passing even into a flagey garnetiferoust mica schist. Numerous veins traverse 
it, fine-grained elvans and quartz porphyries, with stony matrix and large quartz 
phenocrysts, and very coarse pegmatites, usually without mica, and showing traces of 
graphic structure. The microscope shows the rock to be a pretty normal granitite, 
with orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline (in small quantities), quartz, biotite, and, 
especially in the segregation veins, occasional micropegmatite. Sections cut from the 
gneiss show it to be of similar constitution, but the pressure twinning of the poly- 
synthetic felspars and the strain shadows in the quartz show that in these bands the 


rock has been subjected to a deforming force. 


The basal conglomerates.—Wherever the actual contact between the granite and 
the flags is exposed, it proves to be an unconformable junction, the rock immediately 
resting on the granite being always a conglomerate composed of fragments of the 
crystalline rock. Admirable sections are to be obtained at the Ness of Stromness and 


* Hues Miuurr, Footprints of the Creator, p. 2. 
+ HEDDLE, Geognosy of Scotland— Orkney,’ p. 135. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 13). 3 0 


392 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


at the Point of Inganess. Both have been frequently described, and of the latter 


locality Professor HeppLE has given a map. The granite conglomerate is also seen at 


; 


the Point of Ness, and in the flag quarry at Garson Burn on the Kirkwall road. In no~ 


case is it of any considerable thickness, 30 feet being probably the greatest depth any- 
where exposed. With it are mixed sandy flags and coarse arkoses, but it is not a little 
remarkable how soon it gives place to a normal fine-grained dark grey flag, exactly 


similar to those which cover such wide districts of the county. In fact, such flags are — 


in many places interbedded with layers of a coarse conglomerate. At Yeskenaby, near 
Inganess, occurs a series of beds of a coarse sandy millstone grit, in which there is a 
well known quarry for millstones ; and though its junction with the granite and con- 
clomerate of Inganess is by means of a small fault, it is easy to see that it is really the 
rock just overlying the conglomerate let down by this fault against the granite. In 
fact, on the north-west corner of Inganess, similar beds occur in the cliff where they 
rest on the granite and granite conglomerate, which form the low shore below. This 
is in Orkney the only representative of the thick sandstones which elsewhere rest on the 
basal conglomerate, a fact which strongly supports Sir A. GEIKIE’s opinion that the 
granite axis of Stromness is a mere local base. Yet the shores on which these fine flags 
were laid down must have been tranquil and tideless, as deposits so fine could not 


possibly rest on an exposed or tide-swept shore. The innumerable sun-cracked and 
ripple-marked surfaces everywhere present in the Orkney flags show that they are the 
accumulations of a*shallow sea, yet they can hardly be regarded as littoral deposits; 
they were rather the finer sediment of landlocked areas of fresh water, in which the : 


coarser material rapidly sank to the bottom, and was deposited immediately around the 


river mouths. 
The Stromness flags.—The flagstones of the Stromness series encircle this granite 


and conglomerate, and are beautifully exposed in the magnificent sections of the west — 
coast of the Mainland of Orkney, from the Ness of Stromness to the Brough of Birsay. 


This most interesting coast has been described by almost every writer on the geology 
of Orkney. Many of the well known localities for Orcadian fossils occur along this shore 
(e.g., Rocket House, Breckness, Belyacroo, Ramnageo, Quoyloo). Starting from Strom- 
ness we find the rocks have a westerly dip along the shore to Breckness, W.S.W., then 
along the Black Craig, W.S.W., at Yeskenaby, W.N.W., at Skaill, W. and N.W., and, 
north of Skaill Bay along Outshore Point to Marwick Head and the Brough of Birsay, 
about N.W. for almost the whole way. The dips roll somewhat, being S.W., W., and 
N.W., as is best seen between Inganess and Skaill Bay, but everywhere there is a per- 
sistent westerly component. Here we are, in fact, on the west side of a great anticline, 
which forms the chief structural feature of the West Mainland of Orkney. For about 
four miles back from the cliff, in all the quarries and burns of Stromness, Sandwick, and 
Birsay, there is the same universal westward dip. The anticlinal axis runs approximately 
from Waulkmill Bay in the south to Crustan Point, a mile west of the Brough of Birsay, 
for to the east of this line, in Firth, Harray, and Evie, easterly dips are consistently 


——_ 
am | 
\ 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 393 


present. The long axis of the Loch of Harray corresponds very closely with the crest 
of the anticline, as on the different sides of the loch the dips are opposite, and at Brodgar 
Bridge, at Ness in Harray, and at Dounby we have the flat or gently rolling beds which 
occupy the summit of the arch. A transverse section of the anticline is exposed on the 
north coast of the Mainland, from Marwick Head in Birsay to Costa Head in Evie. At 
Marwick Head the dip is N.W. about 10°, and this continues, with occasional variation 
and a few small faults, seen in the Bay of Birsay, to Skip Geo, just east of the Brough. 
Thereafter, along the coast by Crustan to the mouth of Swannay Burn, the rocks lie 
very flat, with gentle and frequently changing dips, in which, on the whole, those 
to the east and north-east preponderate. In Costa Head the east dip is persistent, 
and, gentle at first, constantly increases along the shore line to Burgar, and thence 
to Aikerness Point in Evie. In this entire and perfect section no disturbance of 
the flags is anywhere seen sufficient to indicate the existence of a fault of any im- 
portance. 

If we traverse the Mainland along an east and west line through its centre, the 
result is the same. Starting at Skaill Bay, we find that the rocks are rolling, but the 
dips are always westward. Between this and Dounby the low lands are in many places 
covered with boulder clay, but in all the quarries the dips are west till we arrive within 
a few yards of the village, where it rolls to north-east. More exposures can be examined 
by following a line past the Loch of Clumly to the Bridge of Brodgar, which separates 
the Lochs of Harray and Stenness, as along this line there is an abundance of stone 
quarries, and the loch shore yields valuable natural sections. At Aith, W., at Sandwick 
Manse, W. 10° N., at Clumly Loch, W., at Lyking, W. 10° N., finally at Bookan, 
in one of the most prolific in fossils of all the quarries in Orkney, we have an 

- unbroken chain of west dips, which ends only in tbe isthmus on which are placed the 
Standing Stones of Stenness. Along the shore of the Harray Loch, from Voy to Brodgar, 
the section is very complete, and not quite so simple as the inland exposures would have 
led us to expect. The rocks which form the Ness of Tenston have indeed a prevalent 
west dip, but sometimes roll to the east, while reefs of vertical beds run out into the 
loch in a direction N. 10° W., and everywhere there is much contortion and slickensiding, 
the organic matter of the dark flags having been deposited as a brightly polished layer 
on the bedding planes. These are the symptoms which everywhere in Orkney indicate 
the presence of a considerable fault ; and as these broken rocks of Tenston Ness occupy 
a belt of the breadth of about half a mile, the dislocation can hardly be supposed 
to be a trivial one. Traced southwards, the same phenomena are to be seen in the 
tocks around the Bridge of Waithe. From Garson farm, near Stromness, by Bu Point, 
to the Bridge of Waithe, the rocks are folded into many sharp little anticlines and 
syuclines, with mostly a north and south strike. At the bridge and down the Ireland 
shore by Cumaness, reefs of vertical slickensided and crushed rock are seen in several 
places running N. 10° W., and from here along the shore to Houton we have again a 
continual and rapidly changing succession of little folds (as was remarked by Messrs 


394 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


Prac and Horne*). Along the shores of the Stenness Loch from Onston to below 
Deepdale, the same phenomena are repeated. Yet in this district the amount of actual 
crushing and fracture is much less than on Tenston Ness, and there can be no doubt 
that the throw of the fault is rapidly diminishing as it passes south. Similarly, to the 
north, on the shore of the Harray Loch at Kirkness, these appearances are repeated, and 
no doubt the fault runs northward to the west of Dounby village, though here not 
easily traceable, owing to the thick boulder clay sheet which covers these low grounds. 
Here, too, it is dying out, and no trace of it is to be found on the north shore of the 
Mainland. 

Continuing our traverse across this fault, we find that the persistent west dips 
practically cease at the Standing Stones, where, for a time, the beds are gently rolling, 
and they are last seen in the quarries to the north-west of Maeshowe. In all Harray 
the dips are gently eastwards, except on the shore of the loch at the Point of Ness, and 
these east dips continue through the whole of the range of hills which, starting at 
Finstown, runs northwards to Costa Hill in Evie, and separates the parishes of Birsay 
and Harray from Evie, Rendall, and Firth. Similarly, in Greenay Hill, Birsay, in 
Hunland, and in the hills to the east of the village of Dounby, the easterly dips prevail. 
It is only in the extreme east of the Mainland, in Woodwick, Evie, in Rendall, and in 
several places along the shores of Firth Bay, that this direction is reversed, the rocks 
of this district having in many places a very gentle inclination to the west, and forming 
thus a little marked syncline. 

Such being in its main features the structure of the West Mainland of Orkney, we 
would naturally expect to find the Sandwick and Stromness beds repeated on the 
eastern limb of the anticline in Harray and Stenness. This, however, is not the case, 
as the richly fossiliferous beds on the west side of the Stenness lochs do not reappear on 
the east, where the rocks in many points resemble the Rousay beds of the North Isles 
and the East Mainland. They are comparatively poor in fossil remains, and have never 
yielded, to my knowledge, the type fossils of the Stromness zone. This is, there can be 
little doubt, the effect of the north and south fault, which has let down these compara- 
tively barren beds against the Stromness series which encircles the granite axis. It is 
only in the northern part of this area, at Dounby, Greenay Hill, and other localities in 
Birsay, that the fossils of the Stromness beds are to be found in quarries with an 
easterly dip, and here the evidence points to the theory that the fault is rapidly dying 
out, as it passes northwards to the west of Dounby. The Firth and Harray beds may 
be, in consequence, relegated to the passage beds between the Stromness and the Rousay 
series of the Old Red of the Orkneys, and seem to be on the same horizon as those which 
occupy the wide area which stretches from Stenness, through Orphir, into Kirkwall. As 
we shall see later, when we continue the section through Rousay and Hgilshay into the 
Eday sandstones, we have a constantly ascending succession; and as nowhere do the 
Stromness fossils recur, the inference is obvious—as might have been anticipated from 


* Pracu and Horne, Old Red Sandstone of Orkney, p. 10 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 395 


the fact that at Stromness they rest upon the granite axis—that the Strommness beds 
form the lowest zone of the Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys. 

It is a matter of great difficulty to form a reliable estimate of the thickness of this 
series in Orkney, as will be evident when we consider that its true base is nowhere seen, 
and that its upper boundary must, in our ignorance of any but the general facts regard- 
ing the distribution of fossils throughout the county, be of necessity an arbitrary one. 
By far the best continuous section of these beds is that exposed along the shore from 
the Ness of Stromness to Breckness, nearly three miles to the westward. The section 
runs in a W. or W.N.W. direction, and during its whole course there is a continuous 
exposure of the rocks at low water. They dip along the shore about W. 10°S., and 
during the first half of the distance the average amount of dip is 15°. In the little 
sandy bay beyond the churchyard the dip swings southwards, and is more gentle for a 
little, but on the west side resumes its previous direction and amount. If we draw a 
line perpendicular to the strike and measure the distance, it is almost exactly two miles, 
and the thickness, allowing for an average dip of 12°, is about 2000 feet, which is exactly 
the thickness estimated by Sir A. Grrxix for a section parallel to this and a mile further 
south, from the centre of Graemsay to the base of the Hoy Hills.* As a matter of 
fact, as the flagstones at Ness rest on the granite conglomerate, and the rocks at Breck- 
ness, if prolonged northwards along their strike, are seen to be on a level not greatly 
differmg from those which at Inganess rest on the west end of the same granite axis, 
we are led to the conclusion that the western conglomerates must be on a much higher 
level than those at the east end of the granite outcrop. . But the lowest rocks in this 
district must be those which have been uplifted by the Tenston fault along the axis of 
the West Mainland anticline. This fault is prolonged southwards through the Bay of 
Ireland ; and if we carry the section backwards from Stromness to Bu Point, we find that 
along this shore the rocks are so rolling that no great thickness is required to be added 
to our estimate, the same beds being probably again and again repeated by means of 
gentle folds. 

Results in substantial accordance with this are obtained by taking a section some 
six miles to the northward, from the fault on Tenston Ness on the Loch of Harray, to 
Skaill Bay on the west shore of the Mainland. The length of a section from Tenston 
due west to the Atlantic is nearly four miles, and in the intervening country the dips 
never vary greatly from a true W. In amount they differ, being 12° or more at 
Lyking, at Voy nearly flat, at Sandwick manse 5°, at Rango 5°, at Skaill 3 to 7°. If 
we accept 5° as an average, the thickness is 1760 feet. In this case the conditions are 
not so satisfactory as in the preceding, the exposure of rock not being a continuous one. 

To this must now be added the rocks which lie between those of Breckness and 
Skaill and the base of the Rousay series. That at both these places we are well within 
the Stromness zone is evident from the fact that they are among the best known 
localities for its type fossils. The district in the N.E. corner of the West Mainland 

; * Sir A. Gerxin, Vld Red Sandstone, pt. i. p. 410. 


396 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


(Birsay and Evie) will, in my opinion, be found the most suitable for this purpose. If — 
we take a section from Crustan Point in Birsay, the centre of the West Mainland anti- _ 
cline, to Burgar in Evie, where we cannot be far from the level of those beds which in 
the west of Rousay contain Thuwrsius pholidotus (Traq.) and Coccosteus minor (Miller), 
and strike southwards across the narrow Eynhallow Sound, the total distance is five 
miles, measured across the strike of the beds. The dips throughout are eastwards, and 
their average amount is about 3°. There is no evidence of any important fault. The 
thickness must in consequence be about 1300 feet. The exact position of the Crustan 
beds in the Stromness series is difficult to fix, but, as along the western shore from 
Skaill Bay by Outshore Point to the Brough of Birsay, the dips are mostly N.W., as 
we travel northwards the section is a constantly ascending one, and the beds which 
occupy the centre of the anticline at the northern shore must be far higher in the series 
than those which occupy a similar position in the neighbourhood of the Harray Loch. 
The Crustan beds in consequence are, in all probability, on a similar level to those in 
the vicinity of Skaill Bay; and if we add the lower half of the thickness between 
Crustan and Burgar to that from Tenston to Skaill, we obtain a total thickness of about — 
2500 feet for the Stromness beds of Orkney. The beds of Evie may, on the other 
hand, be relegated to the basal part of the Rousay series, and as yet there is no paleon-_ 
tological evidence to prevent such a step. These passage beds, in fact, between the 
Stromness and Birsay series below, and the Rousay beds above, are comparatively 
unfossiliferous, and have yielded little of value to the most careful search. 


A 


Mainland. Rousay. 


Il. The Rousay Beds. 


The Rousay beds of Orkney le mostly to the north and east of the county, where 
they cover a much more extensive area than the better known Stromness series. As 
yet, however, little attention has been paid to them and their fossil contents, and the 
scarcity and imperfect state of their fossils is indeed disappointing to one who has been 
accustomed to investigate the West Mainland beds. One may travel for days along 
the shores or among the quarries on this group of rocks without bringing home more 
than one or two imperfect specimens. Yet they are never entirely barren, and careful 
search is always rewarded with recognisable organic remains, usually scattered bones and 
scales, while in a few places we may find even entire fishes, as perfect in every detail as 
those which abound in certain of the quarries of Sandwick and Stromness. Very 
characteristic of these rocks are the scattered bones, the teeth, and sculptured scales of 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 397 


Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.), and with it Homosteus Milleri (Traq.) is the most abundant 
fossil—if we except only the head plates and scattered fragments of Dipterus 
valencienes (Sedgw. and Murch.). But the last is quite as common, and probably 
commoner, in the Orcadian beds, while the two former have certainly their principal 
seat in the beds now to be described. With these a not unfrequent fossil is the little 
crustacean Lstheria membranacea, which, as at Thurso, sometimes covers the whole 
surface of slabs of rocks, and is, so far as I know, confined to this zone. Other fishes 
oceur—Chewracanthus, sp., Osteolepis macrolepidotus (Ag.), Diplopterus Agassiz (Traill), 
Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.); but their principal development seems to have been in a 
previous time, as they are much more numerous in the lower series. Of the fishes 
peculiar to this zone, Coccosteus minor (Miller) can hardly be said to be rare, seeing 
that already we know it in three separate and widely distant localities. It is a very 
suitable fossil for zonal work, as even its scattered bones are so characteristic as to 
establish its identity readily. Of the different species of Thuwrsius, only one is as yet 
known to occur ; and indeed, until a means is discovered for diagnosing these fishes from 
scattered head plates, bones, or scales, it is unlikely that they will ever be recognised as 
common fishes in this region of Orkney. The state of preservation requires, in their 
ease, to be much more perfect than holds good as a rule of the fossils of these rocks. 


The North Isles District. 


If we now continue eastwards our section through Orkney from Evie, through Rousay 
and Egilshay (sect. 1), we find that in Eynhallow the east dips which prevail in Evie are 
repeated, and these beds strike evidently across the narrow Eynhallow Sound into the 
west side of Rousay. In the latter island the east dips which mark this side of the great 
West Mainland anticline may be said to prevail throughout, but are everywhere very 
gentle, and are occasionally subjected to a temporary reversal. The terraced faces of 
the hills, most marked on the west side, show at a glance the simple structure and the 
almost horizontal disposition of the beds. Along the western coast, the dips are gentle and 
frequently changing, being mostly north and north-east in the northern half and south 
and south-west near Westness, but from Hullion along the south coast to Avalshay the dips 
are very persistently east, except for a brief space below Trumland House, where a very 
insignificant anticline occurs. East dips are constant on the shore of Rousay Sound. 
On the north shore the magnificent range of cliffs from Sacquoy Head to the Knee of 
Rousay around the whole shore of Saviskail Bay exposes an ideal section, which shows a 
structure slightly more complicated than that seen on the south side of the island. On 
Sacquoy Head the dips are east, but on Saviskail Head a small anticline, on the south 
shore of Saviskail Bay another, and in Scockness a third, throw the rocks into gently 
undulating folds, whose axis is nearly north and south, without anywhere a dislocation 
of any importance. ' The island is thus a geological plateau, out of which the agents of 
denudation have carved the valleys and modelled the surface features, Its heather-clad 


398 MR JOHN 8S. FLETT ON 


hills are the highest in the North Isles of Orkney, rising to heights of over 800 feet ; and 
if we allow 1000 feet for the total thickness of rock exposed, we have an estimate which 
cannot be far from the truth. Few fossils are yet known from it: Dupterus 
valencienes. (Sedgw. and Murch.), Homosteus Milleri (Traq.), Glyptolepis paucidens 
(Ag.), with the characteristic fossils Thursius pholidotus (Traq.) and Coccosteus minor 
(Miller). These latter occur in what are about the lowest beds of the island, a belt of 
thin blue calcareous flags seen best at Sacquoy Head on the north-west corner, and 
striking southwards through the island, to outcrop again at the Taing of Tratland and 
the adjoining shore. At Sacquoy Head they overlie a bed of conglomeratic sandstone, 
with pebbles up to the size of a walnut, of gneiss and quartzite mostly, and resembling 
thus the rocks of Heclabir, to be subsequently described. In Egilshay the easterly dip 
continues, but here much steeper, with evident crushing and fracture of the rocks ;* and] 
think it likely that through this island passes a line of dislocation, evidence of which 
is to be found in the Galt of Shapinshay to the south, and in the district of Rackwick in 
Westray to the north, in both of which places the appearances point to a similar 
disturbance. This would, in fact, be a north and south fault, skirting the Eday syncline, 
like that already described in the West Mainland anticline, and those also described in 
several places by PeacH and Horne (Sanday, Berstane, Holm). 

If the section be now continued across the Westray Firth to Eday, we find, as 
described by Peacn and Hornez,t a strip of flagstones, with a very steep easterly dip, 
ranging from Ferstness to Sealskerry, and bounding on the west the area of the Hday 
sandstones. These lie in the trough already described by these authors ; and, as they 
showed, the only other flagstone area in the island is one which stretches from Warness 
to the Graand on the south shore, and thence N.N.E. to the Kirk of Skaill and the 
inner corner of Backaland Bay on the east side. As the centre of the syncline runs 


from Zoar in Sealskerry to Calf Sound in the north, these flagstones have a W.N.W. dip | 


of about 15°, and they have been brought up by a small fault against the red sandstones 
which occupy the south-east corner of the island. 

In Sanday the yellow and red sandstones occupy the south-east end, as shown by 
Prof. Heppxz,{ broken by a fault which, running north and south through Spurness Pro- 
montory, brings up again for a brief space the underlying dark grey flags.§ Beyond 
them, to the north and east, the whole island consists of flags which form a well-marked 
anticline, their westerly members dipping to the west like the Eday beds, under which — 
they pass, but arching over on the south shore of Otterswick Bay and near Geramont 
House, so that at Taftsness, Newark, and the Start the prevalent dips are to the east. 
These Sanday flags yielded little of value to my search, Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.), 
Dipterus valencienesu (Sedgw. and Murch.), with a few well preserved fragments of an 
Osteolepid fish being all I noticed. There can be no doubt that they are a repetition of 


* Noted by Jamuson, Scottish Isles, ii. 239. 

+ PracH and Horns, Old Red Sandstone of Orkney, pp. 8 and 9. 
{ Hepp1p, Geognosy of Scotland, part v. p. 101. 

§ Pracn and Horne, Old Red Sandstone of Orkney, p. 7. 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 399 


the Rousay beds on the east side of the Eday syncline, though as yet they have not 
yielded the characteristic fossils. In the same group must also be placed the North 
Ronaldshay flags, which time did not permit me to visit and examine in detail. Pro- 
fessor HeppLE tells us that here the east and west dips are about equally common.* 
The island of Stronsay, which les to the south of Sanday, has on the whole a similar 
structure. It consists for the most part of flags, with one or two areas of John o’ Groats 
sandstones in the south and south-east. The dips along Linga Sound and the north-west 
side generally are to the north-west, while on the south side, near Housebay, they roll 
over to the south-east (sect. 2). The structure is thus an anticline like that of the more 
northern island. I was not able to obtain any data as to the fossils they contain. 

_In Westray, as PEacH and Hornet remarked, the structure again is an anticline, 
though a careful examination showed it was nota simple one (sect. 2). The axis runs from 
Garth in Tuquoy Bay, to the Sneuk on the north shore. To the west of this, the flags 


have a persistent though gentle dip to the westward, only reversed for a short space at 


Noup and Noup Head. To the east of this line the flags form a rolling series, as is well 
seen along the south shore, where two or three small anticlines and synclines succeed one 


Westray. 


Suction 2.—N.E. and S.W. from Noup Head (Westray) to Lamb Head (Stronsay). 3 miles = 1 inch. 


another. On the north shore, the dips are similarly rolling. From the Point of Tafts 


along the west shore of Rackwick runs a line of dislocation already mentioned as 
probably a continuation of that seen in Egilshay, and in Rapness the dips are mostly 
east, though in the extreme south end the flags on the western shore have a west dip. 
If we neglect the fault, the same strata are thus constantly repeated. There is no 
doubt they are the same as those of Rousay and of Sanday, the structure being only a 
continuation northward of that already seen in the northern shore of Rousay. The 
fossils I found there were Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.), Homosteus Milleri (Traq.), 
Dipterus valencienesii (Sedgw. and Murch.), Osteolepis ? Estheria membranacea. 

In Shapinshay we have the two series of rocks—the Rousay beds in the north and 
west, and an area of Eday sandstones in the south and east. On the east side the 
beds have a strong south-east dip, but on the north-west corner, around the Galt and 
in Veantrow Bay, the dips roll greatly, and this is probably the effect of a series of 
faults which disturbs them: one seems torun from the Galt in the north to the Telegraph 
hut near Elswick on the south, while the fault which starts at Howquoy Head and runs 
under the town of Kirkwall must pass just to the west of the shore of the island. As 
has been pointed out by Peacu and Horns,{ the area of sandstones on the south-east 


* HEDDLE, op. cit., p. 122. + PracH and Horne, op. cit., p. 2. { PHAcH and Horne, op. ctt., p. 9. 
VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 13). 3 .P 


400 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


of the island is probably a continuation southward of the rocks which occupy the centre 
of the Eday syncline, and the eastward dipping flags of Shapinshay will then correspond 
to those of Egilshay, Ferstness, and Westray, as the west dipping flags in Stronsay 
correspond with those of Sanday. 

As will be evident from this brief summary, the North Isles of Orkney are compe 
of two members of the Old Red Sandstone—the Rousay beds and the Eday sandstones, 
The chief structural feature is the Eday syncline. The Rousay beds of Rousay and 
Westray, dipping eastwards, pass under the sandstones, and emerge again with a west- 
ward dip in Sanday and Stronsay, only to roll over again before they finally disappear 
beneath the waters of the North Sea. The beds which in Rousay contain the type 
fossils are, in all probability, the lowest of the flags of this area; and although the 
sections are frequently interrupted by the sounds which separate the islands, and by not 
a few important faults, it is quite evident that the entire thickness of rock required to 
explain the geological facts is by no means great. We have already stated 1000 feet as 
the maximum required for the Rousay flags, and in no other island is so great a thick- 
ness exposed. If we add to these the upper half of our estimate for the east side of the 
Birsay and Evie series, we have a total thickness along this section of not more than 
1500 feet. No more than an approximate estimate can possibly be formed in this 
district, as the sections are so broken up by water, and no recognisable subdivisions can 
be established, either lithologically or paleeontologically, with which we might ascertain 
the throw of the respective faults. 


Stromness, 


SrecTion 3.—From Stromness, through Kirkwall, to Roseness (Holm). 


The West Manland District. 


Owing to the prevalent north and south strike, the rocks of Rousay may be 
expected to cross into Evie and Rendall, where they lie in very nearly horizontal 
but slightly rolling folds, and from here to pass southwards into the district between 
Finstown and Kirkwall. A similar conclusion is arrived at by the examination of 
the rocks which stretch eastward from the Bridge of Waithe in Stenness (sect. 3). 
Here we are among the rolling beds which mark the termination to the south of the 
fault which runs along the side of the western anticline. These beds are undoubtedly 
to be placed, with their more northern representatives in Harray, among the upper beds 
of the Stromness series. Further east in Stenness we find the effects of the western 
anticline, though here little marked, and evidently dying out. Through most of 
Stenness and throughout the Ward Hill of Orphir the dips are south-west. The anti- 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS, 401 


clinal axis passes almost through Maeshowe down Summersdale into the Kirbuster 
district of Orphir. In the Heddle Hills of Firth, to the east of this line, the dips are 
mostly east and north-east, very gentle in the flag quarries, now disused, which crown 
the hills on both sides of Finstown. From the latter village to Kirkwall we have a 
rolling succession of gentle anticlines and synclines with axes striking north and south ; 
seen well in the shores of Firth and Kirkwall Bays, where the same beds crop out again 
and again. There are no steep dips and no traces of any important dislocation, but 
from Summersdale to Kirkwall, on the whole, the dip is eastward, and we are ascending 
very gradually in the series. In the quarries to the west of Kirkwall there is a very 
slight north-west dip, while along the shore to the east of Kirkwall Bay the dips are 
strongly east. The change is marked by a line of crushed rock which runs under 
Kirkwall in a N.N.E. direction, and emerges on the shore at Cromwell’s Fort. This 
seems to be the northward continuation of the fault described by Prac and Horye as 
running from Howquoy Head in Holm, northwards along the shore, and forming the 
eastern boundary of the sandstones of Scapa Flow.* This may be possibly a continua- 
tion of that already described as passing through Egilshay into Westray. At any rate it 
is an important feature in the structure of this part of the Mainland of Orkney, for to the 
west of it lie the gently rolling beds described, while to the east the dips are steep as 
a tule, and the rocks thrown into very pronounced folds. In other words, it forms a 
natural geological boundary to the East Mainland of Orkney. 


The. East Mainland District. 


The second area in which it has been proved that the Rousay group of fossils occurs 
in Orkney is that around the town of Kirkwall, in which HucH Miter remarked their 


“presence more than forty years ago. The structure of the East Mainland has not 


that simplicity which characterises the West Mainland. To the south-west it is 
bounded by the fault described by Peacu and Horne, which brings down the sandstones 
of Scapa against the flags. The flags along this fault are probably the lowest rocks 
exposed, for through the whole area there is a constant tendency to a northerly dip, 
varied, of course, by the subsidiary folds, and the highest rocks occur only in the 
northern half of the district. Two series of rocks occur—the Eday sandstones in two 
areas, Berstane Bay and Deerness, the Rousay beds elsewhere. 

The structure is clearly defined, an anticlinal axis occupied by the flags passing up the 
centre of the district in a north-east direction, and forming the Ness of Tankerness, while 
on each side a syncline brings in the overlying rocks, the sandstones (sect. 3). The section 
along the public road from Kirkwall to Dingieshowie, Deerness, affords a very good index 
to the general structure. For a mile or more after we leave Kirkwall, the rocks are 
steeply inclined to the east and north-east, disturbed, no doubt, by the great fault whose 


* PEAcH and Horne, op. ctt., p. 11. 


402 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


outcrop we are crossing, and through the promontory between Kirkwall and Inganess 
Bay the general dip is to the north-east. At the south-west corner of the latter bay 
the fault already described by Peacn and Horne, forming the western boundary of this 
area of John o’ Groats beds, is well seen in the shore, letting down the red sandstones 
sharply against the blue grey flags. These are the flags which in the old quarries at 
the East Hill, Kirkwall, rather over a mile away, contain the Thurso fossils, according 
to the observations of Hucu Mitter.* They form a triangular area between two consider- 
able faults; and though in the land north-east dips prevail, as also along the east shore 
of Kirkwall Bay, along the northern coast from Carness to Meil Bay, a succession of folds 
repeats them. 

Continuing our section eastwards, we find that the sandstones of Inganess dip 
north-west to the fault, and at their eastern edges are bounded by grey flags with a 
similar dip. About five miles from Kirkwall, at Quoyburray, in a quarry near the road, 
the beds lie nearly quite horizontal, and from that point onwards the dips are south- 
east and generally steep. The axis of the anticline runs approximately from Sehay 
Mill to the Ness of Tankerness in an E.N.E. direction, as along this north-west shore of 
Deersound the dips are slight and rolling; and while, to the east of this, at Yinistay 
Head and through Tankerness we have the north-west dips, in Deerness these have 
rolled over to the south-east. At Dingieshowie the yellow sandstones are let down by a 
fault, but maintain the general south-east dip; and from here, along the shore to the 
Castle, they le in a little trough, the dips swinging first to east, then to north-east, 
when they are succeeded by grey flags, which up to Roseness Point have a north dip. 
Along the shore of Holm Sound the north and north-east dips show that here, too, we 
are on the south side of a syncline which runs approximately north-east and south-west, 
but as we pass westwards beyond Graemshall the rocks are much disturbed, and the 
dips are inconstant and frequently changing. 

In spite, then, of their generally steep dips, the flagstones of the Hast Mainland are 
so repeated by these folds that they cannot be regarded as of very considerable thickness, — 
and the disturbance to which they have been subjected renders any estimate exceedingly 
conjectural. Their fossils are few, yet I found in different places Glyptolepis paucidens 
(Ag.), Dipterus valencienesii (Sedgw. and Murch.), Osteolepis macrolepidotus (Ag.), 
Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.), and Diplopterus Agassizi (Traill). 

It is interesting to observe how the section drawn east and west from the Bridge of 
Waithe to Roseness, through Kirkwall, repeats the main features of that drawn from 
Skaill Bay to the Start Point of Sanday (sects. 1 and 3). The Tenston fault passes south 
through Waithe, and the West Mainland anticline is distinctly to be traced in Summers- 
dale, the rolling beds between Finstown and Kirkwall are those of Rendall and Firth, 
the Rousay beds recur at Kirkwall, and the broken dislocated flagstones to the east of 
Kirkwall repeat the structure of the west of Shapinshay and Egilshay. The Eday 
syncline passes south through Shapinshay to Inganess Bay. The anticline of Tanker- 


* Oruise of the Belsy, p, 394. 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 403 


ness is that of Sanday and Stronsay, while the sandstones of Deerness and Holm belong 
to a syncline unrepresented in the northern section, except it be by the limited areas of 
yellow and red sandstones in the island of Stronsay. 


The South Isles District. 


South of the Scapa faults not one of these features reappears, and the South Isles 
of Orkney form a distinct district, with a well-developed structure of its own. It 
consists of a geological basin, in the centre of which lie the higher beds, the sand- 
stones.* They form the shores of Scapa Flow, from the Old Kirk of Orphir to near 
Howquoy Head. They reappear in Hunda, the west of Burray, and the north-west 
of 8. Ronaldshay, here dipping west and north-west, and constitute also the north 
end of Flotta. Around them pass the underlying flags of Orphir, Holm, the east of 
Burray, the south-east of S. Ronaldshay, Swona, and the south of Flotta. In the 
north, the junction is a fault ; and through South Ronaldshay and Burray it is evident 
that several faults run north-east and south-west parallel to the strike of the rocks. Yet 
in some places the succession is an interrupted one, as, for example, to the west of 
Grimness Head and in the island of Flotta. In Burray the flags dip west, in 8. 
Ronaldshay north-west, in Flotta north, the strike thus sweeping gradually round. 


Much broken up as the district is by the sea, it is yet sufficiently clear what the general 
structure of the whole area must be. The Eday syncline is rapidly dying out in 


Inganess Bay, and I could find no proof that the yellow sandstones pass across the 
Hast Mainland near Kirkwall, to unite with those of Scapa Flow. Even should they 
ultimately prove to be continuous, it is clear that the broad basin of the South Isles 
cannot fairly be regarded as a continuation of the Eday syncline, which already at the 
south end of Inganess Bay has narrowed to less than a mile in breadth, and has, further- 
more, to cross the powerful dislocation of the east side of Scapa Bay. In all the features 
of its structure, the South Isles area shows no point of comparison with that around 
Kirkwall, still less with that of the North Isles of Orkney. 

The largest continuous area of these rocks is that of South Ronaldshay, which alone 
Thad time to examine in detail. It consists of two series, the grey flags of the south- 
eastern district, and the yellow and red sandstones of the north-west. The general dip 
throughout is N. to N.W., but the structure is by no means simple, as it is evident from 
the coast sections that powerful dislocations cross the island from N.E. to8.W. On the 
west side the flags extend from Brough Head to Barswick, much disturbed in many 
places ; and from thence to St Margaret’s Hope, and for a mile further east along Water 
Sound, the shore consists of yellow and red sandstones (faulted apparently in two places 
at Barswick, where they are brought down against the flags, and at Sandwick). The 
Hoxa promontory consists of an anticline of blue flags, and is bounded by a fault which 
Tuns across the narrow isthmus. On the east shore, again (sect. 4), the dip is continu- 


* PracH and Horns, op. cit., p. 12. 


404 MR JOHN §,. FLETT ON 4 


ously north, the flagstones stretching from the Old Head to Halerow Head, whence a 
small area of sandstones extends to Windwick. Here a fault brings up the flags with a 
steep north dip, and at Stews Head these again are overlaid by yellow sandstones which 
stretch along the shore to St Peter’s Church, where again the blue flags are faulted up to 
form the promontory of Grimness and the north-eastern corner of the isle, and to pass 
conformably into the yellow sandstones along the shores of Water Sound. 

Of these rocks the lowest are evidently the flags of Brough Head and Old Head in 
the southern shore, and here, at Banks Geo, with remains of Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.) 
and of an undetermined osteolepid, I found numerous plates of Coccostews minor 
(Miller), which have been determined by Dr Traquair. The chief importance of this 
lies in the fact that it establishes the zonal identity of the flags which encircle the sand- 
stones of Scapa Flow with those which accompany the Eday beds of the North Isles. 
Here, however, the horizon is, to all appearance, a higher one, as the distance between 
the Coccosteus minor beds and the sandstones of Halcrow Head is not much over a mile; 
and though there is evidence of faulting in the intervening section, it would seem, as 
stated by Pracu and Horng,* that these faults are not of any great magnitude. 

A further interest is lent to the rocks of South Ronaldshay by the occurrence in 
them of the new species of Asterolepis previously mentioned. Of this I found a plate 
in a flag quarry on Hest Head. The horizon is that which is, so far as at present known, 
characteristic of this fish, being in the grey flags about forty feet beneath the base of the 
Eday sandstones. Another plate of this species was found by Mr Spence of Deerness 
at the Castle of Claisdie, near Stembuster, in St Andrews, and still another, a year before, — 
by him and myself, a short distance north of Sandside in Deerness. In both these places” 
the geological position is precisely the same; and it seems, in consequence, to be a fish — 
of very restricted vertical range, and may ultimately prove to be the type fossil of a sub- 
zone of the Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys at the top of the Rousay series, That 
it is to be united with these rather than with the overlying beds is shown by the 
accompanying fossils, of which the commonest by far is Dipterus valencienesit (Sedew. 
and Murch.), which occurs often in very great numbers in this particular belt of rock. 
Remains of osteolepid fishes also occur, but there is no trace of the distinctive fauna of 
the Eday sandstones. : 


Inthology of the Flagstones. 


When we pass from an examination of their fossil contents to the study of the rocks 
themselves, at first glance we are apt to be greatly impressed by their monotony, and the 
endless repetition of beds in no way differing greatly from one another. The effect on 
Professor JAMESON we have already mentioned : his six weeks’ journey in Orkney proved 
the most uninteresting he had ever made. The geologist who is bent on the search for 
easily recognisable lithological zones which can assist him in the completion of his map 
is sure to suffer a like disappointment. Immense as is the variety in these beds, no 


* PEACH and Horne, op, cit., p. 11. 


— 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 405 


two being in every respect similar, there are yet no recognisable and definite alternations 
which could with certainty be used in dividing up the whole into an established 
succession. ‘This is true of the Orkney flags as a whole, as was pointed out by Messrs 
Pracu and Horne. They vary greatly, the principal types being a sandy flag, a clay 
flag or mudstone, and a brittle calcareous or even bituminous flag. The sandy flags 
never amount to pure sandstones, there being always a certain amount of clay and of 
silky weathered and bleached mica, with very usually a calcareous cement between the 
grains of sand. ‘The clay flag is the purest and most abundant type. They are 
relatively soft, fine-grained, and light grey in colour, except when darkened by organic 
material. On their bedding planes the pale lustrous mica is often to be seen as a 
shimmering film, while the microscope shows that in worn, tattered, and crumpled flakes 
it is an important constituent of their mass. Sand in fine rounded grains and calcite 
in greater or less abundance are constant constituents. Where these softer beds occur 
mixed with harder beds on a cliff face, they weather out rapidly into pale grey hollows, 
and this is the origin of a frequently remarked feature of the Orcadian cliff scenery. 
The calcareous and bituminous flags are the chief receptacles of the fossil remains 
inclosed in these rocks. The fossil collector very soon learns that the best specimens are 
obtained in a brittle, hard, usually slaty and thin-bedded rock, which rings to the 
hammer like a piece of metal. This is in some measure due to the compactness and 
impermeability which is conferred on these rocks by their abundant calcareous matter. 


But there can be no doubt that, in turn, the presence of the organic remains facilitates 


in some way the accumulation of carbonate of lime in the rock, as frequently around the 
fossil is a well marked nodule, compact and hard, and evidently calcareous in nature 
from the rapidity with which it weathers out, leaving the surrounding rock comparatively 
unaffected. These are especially common in the dark flags among the sandstones of the 
Eday series. The prevalent colour of these calcareous flags is dark blue-grey, and they 
are fine-grained, and mostly free from the concretions so abundant in the more argil- 
laceous rocks. In these latter they are so common that hardly a stone could be found 
without some trace of them. Of all sizes, from that of a melon to less than a pea, and 
of aremarkable and often grotesque variety of shapes, they show most clearly in the 
weathered face of an old dry-stone dyke, or on the bare surface at the edge of the high 
cliffs of the coast. From the manner in which they resist the weather, they are in 
most cases probably siliceous—they are certainly harder and more difficult to break 
than the rock surrounding them. Of these concretions the best known example is the 
horse-tooth rock of Yeskenaby, to which Professor Heppite* and other authors have 
devoted some attention. The rock itself occurs in situ at Borwick, near the great trap 
dyke there. But this is merely an interesting variety of a phenomenon of universal 
distribution throughout these flags. Their surfaces are often mottled and pitted with 
innumerable little concretions, which it would be easy to mistake for coprolites or for 
rain pittings. Not uncommonly these consist of pyrites and of marcasite, which on 


* HEDDLE, op. cit., pl. xiv. 


406 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


weathering give a rusty colour to the surrounding rock. When the flagstones weather, 
the siliceous concretions, owing to their greater durability, stand out in high relief upon 
the bedding planes, and give the rock often a curiously fretted and ornamented appear- 
ance, and so numerous are they that frequently they resemble a solid mass of fretwork 
or of repousée ornament upon the surface of the stone. On weathering the flags lose 
also their prevalent pale or dark grey colours. Many of the dark calcareous flags around 


Stromness weather with a creamy yellow crust, which resembles that of certain impure 


carboniferous limestones. Yellow and different shades of brown are the prevalent tints 
of the weathered stone. The changes are principally the removal of the lime in solu- 
tion and the oxidation and hydration of the iron. It is the latter which stains the 
rock, as is seen when we consider the source of the white colour which marks the 
weathered flags in a peat bed, and which is due to the organic acids of the peat having 
removed the iron from the rock. The decomposition gradually proceeding inward from 
the surfaces and cracks, produces sometimes a curious effect on a seashore where a bed 
of calcareous flag is divided up by many joints into polygonal areas, around the out- 
side of which is a soft, rusty, decomposed film, an inch or more in depth, while the 
centre area is hard, grey, and comparatively fresh. The innumerable sun-cracked 
and rippled surfaces were well described by Sir A. Grrkie* in the flags around Thurso, 


In thickness the beds vary from an inch up to perhaps 18 inches. In every district — 


of Orkney, flags of 2 or 3 inches thick and in large flags can be obtained for paving 


purposes. A favourite kind at present is a coarse sandy flag in thick beds (6 inches), 


obtaied from Orphir. Thinner slabs, used formerly for roofing slates, are also of very 


wide distribution. The thick beds are valued for building purposes, especially if the 


bedding planes are smooth and the joints well marked. In the latter case they need no 
dressing, as the builder places the smooth joint face, often covered with a fine layer of 
glancing calcite, to the outside of the wall. In some places a variety of flag occurs, very 


dark in colour and seemingly much crumpled, the minute laminz of which it consists 
being contorted in every conceivable fashion. Such beds are of restricted distribution, 


and usually markedly lenticular, as they thin out abruptly in no great distance. 
They bear a superficial resemblance to certain curly oil shales in the Edinburgh district, 
but when broken open they consist of an ordinary grey flag, the contorted layers bemg 
often covered with a dark film. They are not due to earth movement and crushing, 
as they occur in perfectly undisturbed rocks, and they probably result from peculiar 
conditions of deposit, perhaps the escape of gases or the decomposition of organic matter 
having produced their irregular internal structure. Where the flags are crossed by a 
fault the disturbance is often very great, and quite out of proportion to the magnitude of 
the dislocation. The rocks are bent and twisted, their surfaces slickensided and blackened, 
or a dark breccia produced, in which the flagstone particles glance with organic matter 
till they resemble broken bits of coal. In some cases the fault is marked by a layer of 
crushed rock powder, intensely black in colour, and mixed with calcite and iron pyrites. 


* Sir A, Gergin, “Old Red Sandstone,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxviii. p. 398, 


= 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 407 


The peculiar nature of this flagstone deposit is so strikingly new to the geologist 
accustomed to the study of other districts that it cannot fail to suggest a consideration 
of the question of its origin. Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE* has insisted strongly on the marked 
difference between these and the sandstones which in other parts of Scotland are so 
characteristic of the Old Red. This striking contrast in the nature of the strata points 
to markedly dissimilar conditions of deposit. As we trace upwards the Old Red Sand- 
stone of the Orkneys, we shall see that in process of time this type of sediment was 
replaced by the more familiar one of yellow and red sandstones and red marls. There 
ean be no doubt that this was the result of marked changes in the physical geography 
of the region; and when we remember that at Cromarty beds of yellow sandstone 
contain precisely the fossils of the flagstone beds around Stromness, and, beyond reason- 
able doubt, were being formed at the same time, we see clearly the truth of Sir A. Grrxir’s 
conclusion that the flagstones of Orkney are merely the result of certain peculiar con- 
ditions of deposit. From their rippled and sun-cracked surfaces, they were certainly 
originally laid down in shallow water; and from the extensive area they now occupy, 
they must in many cases have been laid down far from land. That this area was 
tranquil I have shown to be probable, from the way the fine flags lie among the con- 
elomerates of Stromness right against the old granitic shore. A similar mixture of 
deposits is to be found at the present day only in the land-locked areas of our river 
mouths and inland lochs. The other striking feature of these flags is the way in which 
they combine materials in other formations confined to different rocks. All contain 
sand, clay, and carbonate of lime in varied proportions, yet sandstones, limestones, or 
true shales are never typically developed in this peculiar formation. 


Il]. The Eday Sandstones, or John o Groats Series. 


The Rousay beds of Orkney, as described by many previous writers, pass upwards 
conformably into an overlying series of yellow and red sandstones and marls, which 
contain in many places the fossils which characterise the John o’ Groats beds of 
Caithness, and are to be regarded as on the same horizon with them. This is a very 
different series, and much more varied than the Rousay beds of Orkney. An entire 
change in the nature of the sedimentary deposits indicates a complete and comparatively 
rapid change in the physical conditions of the area. The yellow sandstones, with their 
flag beds erading upwards into red sandstones and marls, must have been the formation 
of shallow areas of water, with currents sufficiently strong to introduce now and then 
even layers of coarse gravel. The unvarying and monotonous Rousay beds, the deposit 
of still, though comparatively shallow water, come suddenly to an end. It is interesting 
to observe that these changes were accompanied by the outburst of volcanic action in a 
district which had for ages been the seat of uninterrupted quiet sedimentation. In the 
whole thickness of the Stromness and Rousay beds of Orkney there is no trace of 


* Sir A. Guixtig, “ Old Red Sandstone,” p. 363. 
VOL, XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 13). 3 Q 


408 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


of 


contemporaneous volcanic activity. The same conditions prevailed in the Thurso area, 
as was shown by Sir A. Gerxtn, the first trace of volcanic rocks being the necks on the 
shore at Huna, which pierce the red beds of the John o’ Groats sandstones.* These — 
physical changes heralded also the appearance of a completely new fauna in the district, 
It is long since it was shown by the late C. W. Pracu that at John o’ Groats occurred 
certain fossils nowhere else to be found, viz., Tristichopterus alatus (Egert.) and 
Microbracheus Dicki (Traq.),+ and to these Dipterus macropterus (Traq.) was subse- 
quently added{ by Dr Traquair. The same species occur in Orkney, as I have elsewhere 
shown, and here they form practically the only known fossils of these beds. With the 
single exception of a specimen of Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.) collected in Newark Bay, 
Deerness, by Mr Macnus Spence, and forwarded by him to Dr Traquair, I know of no 
other fossils which have been found in them. How sudden and complete the change 
must have been is shown by the following facts. In Eday, Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.) — 
and Dipterus valencienesri (Sedgw. and Murch.) occur within a few feet of the base of — 
the yellow sandstones. In the Deerness district Asterolepis, sp. nov., Osteolepis macro- 
lepidotus (Ag.), Dipterus valencienesu (Sedgw. and Murch.), Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.), | 
and Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.) occur in the rocks immediately underlying these beds, 
Dipterus valencienesu (Sedgw. and Murch.) in some places in vast numbers and curiously — 
small in size. With the single exception already mentioned, not one recurs in the 
richly fossiliferous flags among the yellow sandstones. It would seem as if these species — 
had been unsuited to the new environment in some manner or other, and their extinction ‘4 
had been rapid and complete. The flags so crowded with remains of Dupterus valen- 
crenesu, only a few of which have attained their full size, irresistibly impress on the 
mind the idea of a sudden extermination. Ata higher level we find the same confused — 
aggregation of fishes in the flagstone belts among the yellow sandstones, but this is on — 
the horizon of the volcanic rocks, and we shall probably be right in regarding it asa 
consequence of the volcanic activity. The rocks of this series, unlike those they overlie, — 
fall perfectly naturally into two main subdivisions, a yellow below and a red above, the — 
latter possibly an index to the change which ensued on a contraction of the area of the 
old lake, and rendered it the seat of chemical operations resulting in a new type of 
deposit. 

In their paper on the Old Red Sandstone of Orkney, Messrs Pracn and Horne 
deseribed with great accuracy the boundaries of these rocks, which they named the 
‘upper sandstone series’ of the lower Old Red. It will be sufficient if I here give merely 
a brief account of their distribution. They occur in the centre of the Hday syncline, 
forming most of the island of Eday and the Red Holm between it and Westray, and 
lying in a gentle syncline, which is broken by a fault bringing up a strip of flags which 
stretches from Warness to the Kirk of Skaill. As described by these authors, the 


* Sir A. Gerxin, Old Red Sandstone, pt. i. p. 405. 
+ British Association Meeting at Aberdeen, 1858. 
+ Earrron, Geological Survey Decade, Traquatr, Geological Magazine, Nov. 1888. Proc. Roy. Phys, Soc. Hdin., 


1896. 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 409 


succession between the lower and the upper series is a perfectly conformable one. An 
extension of this syncline occupies Spurness, the 8.W. corner of Sanday, and the Calf of 
Eday. It stretches southwards into Shapinshay, where it forms the south-east corner of 
the island. These beds have mostly a south-east dip, and belong to the west edge of the 

syncline. Thence it extends into the opposite shores of the Mainland, and occupies an 
area which stretches from Holland Head around the shores of Inganess Bay and in a 
narrow strip to the Skerry of Yinistay in Tankerness. The west boundary of this is 
a considerable fault already described as seen in the south-west corner of the bay, on 
the old Kirkwall road, and running thence along the shore and by Berstane House to 
the centre of the Bay of Meil. On the eastern boundary the sandstones pass perfectly 
conformably downwards into the flags. 

The second area of these rocks is that of Deerness, first described by the present 
writer in a previous paper. It is separated by the Tankerness anticline from the 
Inganess Bay area, and the Rousay flags appear on the west corner of Deerness, near 
Mirkady, and pass up conformably into the John o’ Groats beds. The whole area forms 
a well marked syncline, which includes almost the whole of Deerness, and stretches thence 
into Holm, where a narrow area of these rocks surround the farm of Stembuster. The 
dips throughout the south-east half of the sandstones of Deerness are south and south- 
east. At Stembuster the south-east dips gradually swing round to E.N.E., and finally 
to nearly north, near the Castle of Claisdie. Several faults occur in the area, one at the 
Mull head letting down the red and yellow sandstones against the grey flags, which at 

‘Sandside contain Asterolepis, sp. nov., and Dipterus valencienesii (Sedgw. and Murch.), 
but none of the John o’ Groats fossils. These flags in turn, as we pass southwards, 
graduate upwards into the yellow sandstones. Another fault must run into Newark 

Bay (though not seen, the area being occupied by blown sand), for to the east of it the 

dips are south, while to the west the dips are mostly E.8.E., and the yellow sandstones 
of one side strike at the red beds on the other. Much of this syncline must lie out to 
sea, and possibly, as already suggested, the red rocks of Stronsay are really part of it, 
though it is worth mentioning that the rocks of Copinshay are grey flags, undoubtedly 
belonging to a lower horizon. 

In the south isles of Orkney the sandstones occupy the centre of the basin.* A 
narrow strip of sandstones bound Scapa Bay from Orphir Kirk to near Scapa Distillery 
and thence along the eastern shore to Howquoy Head, in Holm. They form the west 
end of Rousay and the island of Hunda, here dipping west, the north-west corner of 
South Ronaldshay, with a general north-west dip; and on the east side, at Windwick and 
St Peter’s Church, small areas of sandstones are faulted down among the flags of the 
south and east side of the island. In Flotta they occupy principally the northern half 
of the island and the adjacent Calf of Flotta, having here a north dip, and passing down 
conformably into the grey flags of the southern shore.t Lastly, in the island of Hoy 
they are found in that part of Walls to the north of Longhope, around the Burn of Ore, 


* Peace and Horne, op. cit., pp. 11 and 12. + Pzacu and Horne, op. cit., p. 12. 


410 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


and are separated by a fault by the upper Old Red Sandstone, which extends over the 
most of the remainder of the island. | 


The Yellow Sandstones and Flags of the John o Groats Series. 


Starting at the northern extremity of their area in Orkney, we find that in Hday 
these beds occupy a comparatively small area and are of very limited development. — 
At the Kirk of Skaill, on the eastern shore of Eday, a belt of yellow sandstones 
immediately overlies the top flags of the Rousay series. These are followed by 
a thin zone of red mars, which in turn are overlaid by thin-bedded calcareous flags, rich 
in fossil remains, of which Dipterus macropterus was the only one I found in satisfactory 
preservation. Above these we find a series of yellow and red beds (with thin layers of 
conglomerate), which form a gradual transition to the red and brown sandstones and 
marls so largely developed in the centre and north end of the island. The whole 
thickness of this series is not over 100 feet, and it is, in fact, their most insignificant — 
development in any part of Orkney. Were it not for the very convincing sections 
elsewhere obtained, it would be impossible to regard these beds as other than a merely local 
facies of the basal series of the red beds. Messrs Peacu and Horne” give the following 
estimated thickness :— 


Red and yellow sandstones— 
Flagstones, 40 feet. 
Reddest shales, 15 feet. 
Hard white sandstone, 20 feet. 
Gray calcareous flagstones. 


—the last being the underlying Rousay series, as I regard them, as they contain no 
trace of John o’ Groats fossils of the group of flagstones interbedded with the sand. 
stones, while Dzpterus valencienesu and Glyptolepis paucidens are not infrequent 
in them. These yellow beds and flags stretch across London Bay, and emerge again at 
Millbounds, where the section is very similar to that described. 

On the west side of the syncline the same beds crop out again just to the east of Fers- 
ness, where they furnish the chief supply of yellow freestone used for building purposes 
in Kirkwall and throughout the islands. A hundred yards to the east of the pier the 
yellow beds come in gradually below the red, which here dip about E.S.E. Among 
them occur again a belt of thin flags and an insignificant red series. The section, im 
fact, repeats in every respect that to the east, and D. macropterus is found in the flags 
to the west of the pier, but here the thickness must be somewhat greater, as 
average dip is about 20°, and the area of shore occupied is about 400 yards. At 
Warness, again, to the south-west corner of the island, the underlying flags, with h ere 
and there a yellow bed, pass up into a yellow sandstone series, 70 to 80 feet thick, over- 


* PeacH and Horns, op, cit., p. 5. 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 411 


laid by a few feet of red beds, and these by 20 feet of coarse flags (in which I found no 
fossils). Over these flags, which no doubt are the same as those of London Bay, come 
a few yellow beds, which rapidly give place to the red sandstones of Sealskerry Bay. 

In the south end of Sanday these beds recur, and form the western edge of the 
promontory of Spurness, disturbed and set on end by a north and south fault, which 
brings up with them the underlying beds of flagstones in a narrow strip. A. thick 
conglomerate occurs among them at Heclabir, but in other respects they differ little 
from the Eday sandstones, though, from their limited distribution, no very complete 
idea of their features can be formed. After we cross the fault above mentioned, we find 
the red sandstones in great strength, forming the shore to near the Noust of Boloquoy 
on the north coast. Here yellow and red beds, mixed, strike along the shore, and, 
slightly faulted at Grunnavi Head, continue with a dip W.N.W. to Blue Geo, where the 
flags again come in. The thickness here is not great; but owing to the presence of 
several small faults, an exact estimate is not possible. These beds, traced along the 
strike, emerge at Quoyness on the south shore, where, however, they are covered 
by the blown sand of the beach. The yellow sandstones of Sanday show the same 
features as those of Eday, and, like them, are of comparatively small thickness. 

The conglomerates which occur in these rocks of Hday and Sanday have already been 
the subject of discussion by several writers.* Professor HEDDLE noted that at Heclabir, 
in Sanday, occurred a bed of conglomerate about 14 feet in thickness, and that the 
pebbles it contained consisted of “granites, more than one variety, gneisses, often chloritic, 
porphyrys, and seemingly of quartzite,—rocks which are entirely different from the 
primitive rocks near Stromness, and therefore rocks not occurring in the islands.” + He 
states also that both the pebbles and the cementing paste have a highly vitrified aspect, 
and that he had a strong impression this was a volcanic conglomerate. Messrs PEacu and 
Horne state with regard to the beds of Eday, which form very insignificant belts at the 
base of the red series—nowhere over a few inches in thickness—that “‘ the included pebbles 
consist of fragments of mica schist, quartzite, gneiss, granite, and other metamorphic 
rocks, all stained of a reddish colour.” { According to my own observations, all those 
mentioned occur with one exception ; the commonest by far at Heclabir being a creamy 
or white lustrous quartzite, in much rounded and waterworn pebbles, up to 6 inches in 
diameter. At the latter locality I was unable to find any volcanic rocks, but there 
were very numerous pebbles of grey limestone, which microscopic sections showed to 
be entirely holo-crystalline and true marbles, without any trace of organic structure. 
With these were others which at first puzzled me; but on referring to Mr Pracu, he at 
once recognised them as cherts and cherty limestones from the Hillean Dhu series 
of Durness (Cambrian) ; and the microscope showed that, like these, they were of oolitic 
structure, though, so far as my examination went, by no means so perfect as in the 


* Jameson, Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles, vol. ii. p. 257. 
+ HEDDLE, Geognosy of Scotland, v, p. 103. 
{ Pracu and Horns, op. cit., p. 5. 


uy ec 


412 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON i 


sections shown me by Mr Pracu. By his advice I searched carefully, on a subsequent — 
visit to the spot, for traces of the piped quartzites and other Cambrian rocks, but failed 
to observe any. The presence of these pebble beds shows very clearly how great must 
have been the physical changes which the area had undergone, before sediment so coarse 
reached districts which had long been the seat of a deposit of the finest grain and the 
most uniform nature. They are very local in distribution, no trace of the thick beds at 
Heclabir being found among the yellow sandstones in other areas of Sanday, or indeed — 
anywhere in the district, except on the opposite shore of Eday, where their thickness is 
quite trivial in comparison. : 

The yellow beds of Eday and Sanday stretch southward into Shapinshay, where they 
attain a much greater importance, forming, in fact, the whole thickness of the John 0 _ 
Groats series in that island. Here the outcrop forms the south-east corner, and is — 
bounded by a line running N.E. from the angle of the bay below the Established Church "| 
on the south shore to the Bay of Crook on the east. The underlying flags seem to pass — 
up quite conformably and without any important break into a series of yellow current- _ 
bedded sandstones, mixed with numerous thin beds of dark-coloured flags. Along the — 
east side the structure is simplest, the prevalent dips being S.E. and E.S.E., but elsewhere — 
the dips roll greatly, and the beds are evidently being constantly repeated. The yellow 
sandstones overlying these mixed beds are very pure and massive, and cannot, with 
any probability, be estimated at less than 400 to 500 feet. Only very rarely is a red-— 
coloured bed of clay to be seen; but at more than one place there occur belts of flags 
intercalated between yellow sandstones, and in some places 30 feet in thickness. These 
flags may be the counterparts in this area of the flagstones which in Eday occupy a 
similar position, and, like them, they contain the characteristic John o’ Groats fossils, — 
one specimen of Zistichopterus alatus (Kgert.) having been found by me at Store 
Point in a coarse grey flag. It is among them also that the volcanic rocks * occur which — 
Pracu and Horne described as the only evidence of contemporaneous volcanic action in 
the lower Old Red of Orkney. They consist of a single lava flow, which, though much 
weathered, is recognisable as an olivine diabase, and is distinctly vesicular at the top 
surface, while it rests quite conformably on the underlying flag, which is considerably 
baked and altered.j To their observations I have only a few to add. The interbedded 
character of the volcanic rock is shown also by the occurrence at its south-western 
corner of a bed of ash several inches thick immediately overlying it, while in several 
places thin layers of sprinkled ash can be traced in the overlying flags a few inches 
apart, and to a distance of 10 feet above the surface of the lava. This shows that 
though the volcanic activity resulted apparently in only one outflow of lava, it con- 
tinued for a time to produce occasional showers of ashes, which were spread out over the 
sea-bottom, and mixed with the sediment accumulating there. At its base the lava 
contains here and there a bit of an angular baked flag, but its upper surface is vesicular 


* Jameson, Mineralogy of the Scottish Islands, ii, 235. 
+ Pracu and Horns, op. cit., pp. 9 and 13. 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 413 


and very irregular, the sandstone filling up all these irregularities quite unaltered and 
undisturbed in bedding. In several places the lava is 30 feet thick, but in one little 
ereek its top and bottom surfaces were seen in section, and here it was not over 12 feet 
in thickness. Its greatest development is to the south and east, from which direction it 
seems to have flowed from a source now, no doubt, concealed by the sea; and this con- 
elusion is strengthened by the occurrence on the same horizon of similar volcanic rocks 
in the sandstones of Deerness. 

The southern termination of this area of John o’ Groats beds corresponds very 
closely with the shores of Inganess Bay. At more than one place in this district the 
flagstones have yielded Dipterus macropterus (Traq.) and Tristichopterus alatus (Egert.), 
and in it occur both types of sediment characteristic of these rocks ; but so completely is 
it occupied by the sea that little certainty can be attained as to its exact geological 
structure. Along the eastern shores the rocks are yellow sandstones, with many thin 
beds of dark brittle flag, dipping mostly N.W. at gentle angles. On its western side, 
again, the red sandstones and marls of Holland Head are underlain by a fine pure yellow 
sandstone below Berstane House, which at its lower part contains belts of flagstone, and 
even an occasional red bed. The proximity to the great fault which runs out to sea in 
Meil Bay disturbs these rocks somewhat, but there can be no doubt that this is the 
order of the succession, and that, on the whole, these are higher in the series than 
the yellow sandstones, which on the other side of the bay rest on the flags of the 
East Mainland anticline. The area must be somewhat disturbed by faults, for on 
the shore to the southward, at the west corner of Inganess Bay, we find a patch of red 
marls which belong undoubtedly to the overlying red series. The yellow sandstones of 

this area bear a close resemblance to those of Shapinshay, from which they differ chiefly 
in the absence of any interbedded volcanic rocks. They show also that the Shapinshay 
tocks are merely the basal part of the series, and that overlying the yellow beds in 
this area, as in Eday, there is a series of red sandstones and marls of considerable 
thickness. 

In Deerness occurs an area of John o’ Groats beds which in some respects is the most 
varied and interesting of any in Orkney. Separated from the previous series by the 
anticline which brings up the lower flags through the parish of St Andrews, it forms in 
tur a syncline or basin, of which only the northern half is accessible to observation. 
The axis of this syncline runs probably E.N.E. from Stembuster on the shore south of 
Dingieshowie, and on the south side of this axis we have only a very short stretch of 
sandstones along the shore to just south of the Castle of Claisdie, where they pass down 
into the grey flags of the parish of Holm. Northwards along the shore the dips sweep 
tound, till at Dingieshowie they are E.S.E. ; and E.S.E. and §.E. dips, as already remarked, 
are far the most prevalent throughout the parish of Deerness. One of the most com- 
plete and trustworthy sections is that described by me in a previous paper * as stretching 
from Dingieshowie to Newark Bay along the south shore, but this is in so far incom- 


* Trans. Roy. Phys. Soc. Hdin., vol. xiii. 


414 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 1 


plete that the fault which crosses the isthmus at Dingieshowie cuts out the passage beds 
underlying the yellow sandstones. These are seen in the shores farther west, at Stem- 
buster, where they consist of thin courses of yellow sandstone with slaty flags between, 
forming a very gradual transition between the two types of sediment. Above these 
‘passage beds’ lies a series of red marls, with thin yellow and brown sandstones (40 feet) 
between, recalling in some ways the beds described as occupying a similar position in 
KEday. The exact point at which the base of this series should be drawn is a matter of 
some doubt, as among the lowest of them occur beds crowded with Dipterus valen- 
crenesiz (Sedgw. and Murch.), and containing also Asterolepis, sp. nov., but containing no 
other fishes, an observation due to Mr Maenus Spence. Traced upwards, the red beds 
pass gradually into a pure massive yellow sandstone, which forms the high cliff below 
Tornpike, and is, no doubt, the same as that of Delday’s Banks. These lowest beds are | 
exposed also in other parts of the parish, as at Braebuster and the shores to the south of 
it, where thin grey flags pass gradually up into yellow sandstones. In the north shore 
of Deerness a very similar series occurs at Halle, and extend thence to near the Cove- — 
nanters Monument, lying very flat, and forming the extreme N. edge of the syncline; 
and these rocks must again outcrop in Sandside Bay, between the flags which form its _ 
northern side and the yellow sandstones to the south, though here the rock is concealed” 
by the blown sand which occupies the centre of the bay. Just north of the Brough of 
Deerness the presence of a few red beds beneath the yellow sandstones is well seen in a 
lofty cliff, and again the same feature is to be observed in the shore below Horraquoy. 7 
The yellow sandstones recall, in very many respects, those of Shapinshay. They are oft ‘ 
much the same thickness, 400 to 500 feet, and through them lie here and there belts a 
thin grey calcareous flags, which are the chief source of the John o’ Groats fossils of 
Orkney. They contain Dipterus macropterus (Traq.), Tristichopterus alatus (Egert, a 
and Microbrachius Dicki (Traq.), the first especially in great abundance, and often in 
fine preservation ; and it is probable that through the low lying centre of the parish ha 
largely replace the yellow sandstone series. ~ 

A further point of similarity to the yellow sandstones of Shapinshay is furnished by 
the presence in these beds of a zone of contemporaneous volcanic rocks of basic com- 
position. These occur rather above the middle of the yellow series, and, as in the 
district previously described, they are immediately associated with a belt of grey flags 
intercalated among the sandstones. They consist of both ashes and lavas, and m 
addition there are several intrusive sheets which, from their composition and general 
character, are undoubtedly to be ascribed to the same voleanic source. 

At the extreme south-east corner of the parish, at the Point of Ayre, a series of 
voleanic rocks form a narrow belt running W.N.W. in the land, and outcropping on the 
seashore. The general dip in this quarter is S. and S.S.E., and from Horraquoy 
southward along the east shore we pass over a gradually ascending section of the lower 
members of the yellow sandstones. This dip continues to the Point of Ayre, which 
consists of beds of flagstone, and these, though somewhat faulted, evidently are to be 


~~ *e@ 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS, 415 


assigned to the upper part of the yellow beds. From this point westward they strike 
along the shore, which they form up to the Bay of Newark, where they are covered by 
blown sand. On the west side of the bay, beds occur striking N.N.E., and evidently let 
down by means of a dislocation covered by the superficial accumulations in the centre 
of the bay. The principal mass of volcanic rock at the Pomt of Ayre forms a narrow 
area which runs H.S.H. out to sea, and is in breadth about 40 yards. Its base is not 
seen, and its lower member is a thick bed of dark green volcanic ash, with large spherical 
bombs up to 2 feet in diameter, vesicular, especially in the centre, and much decomposed. 
A few bits of baked flag occur in the ash, and it weathers in a markedly spheroidal 
manner, resembling, in fact, very closely many of the basaltic ash beds around the shores of 
the Firth of Forth, as at Kinghorn and Elie. In general it shows no trace of bedding, but 
here and there a few thin irregular lenticles of sand are to be seen, which prove that though 
rapidly accumulated, it is not the product of a single outburst. A curious feature is 
the existence in it of flagstone veins. These are very tortuous and irregular, an inch or 
two in thickness, and filled with a normal, somewhat calcareous flagstone, in which little 
or no trace of any metamorphism is to be found. They are vertical, and show no sign 
of bedding or contortion, and are to be regarded as due to the formation of cracks in the 
thick accumulation of volcanic ash, into which the ordinary sediment of the sea-bottom 
was washed. At first glance, this bed of agglomerate suggests at once that it is a 
-yoleanic neck, and the elongated form of its outcrop would support this explanation. 
But its junction with the flags to the south is a small fault, and these show none of that 
alteration which is to be expected in the walls of a volcanic neck. And, moreover, the 
bed itself is seen in the low cliff to be overlaid by a thin lava, and that again by well- 
bedded flags. Still, it is in every way probable that an accumulation of this sort was 
formed in the immediate proximity of a volcanic orifice. The overlying lava is some 
three feet in greatest thickness, vesicular at its upper surface, the vesicles being large, 
not markedly elongated, and filled with calcite and other secondary minerals. It is 
greatly decomposed, but shows little of the spheroidal weathering of the agglomerate, 
being rather divided by well-marked joints into polygonal vertical columns. Under the 
microscope it turns out to be an olivine basalt, so greatly decomposed that few of the 
original minerals remain. At the western corner of the outcrop this lava is seen to be, 
in turn, overlaid by ordinary flags, which are in nowise altered by the heat of the under- 
Tying rock, and contain little or no fragmental volcanic matter. These rocks are bounded 
to the south, and probably also to the north, by small faults. A few yards to the west 
of them, what seems to be a quite distinct outflow is exposed in the shore. This is the 
edge of a small lava flow, three feet in thickness, and thinning out in a few yards to the 
south, while the flags close over it. It is dark in colour, with large steam cavities in its 
upper surface, and bears a striking resemblance to the volcanic rock at Haco’s Ness, 
Shapinshay. The sea has removed the overlying rocks, except at the thin edge, where a 
layer of dark green ashes mixed with sand is seen to immediately overlie the lava, 
succeeded in turn by a normal unbaked ordinary flag. The lava rests upon a similar 
VOL. XXXIX. PARI II. (NO. 13). oes 


416 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


flagstone, and hence cannot be the same as that already described to overlie the thick 
agelomerate bed, a few yards further to the east. 

Among the yellow sandstones, about two miles further to the west along the shore, 
and about a hundred feet below where they pass into the red sandstones, occurs another 
belt of contemporaneous volcanic rock. It is associated here, also, with a series of flag- 
stones, and no doubt is on the same level as the rocks just described. In a little bay to 
the east of the Castle, a bed of dark green ashy sandstones, mostly fine-grained, but with 
here and there lapilli of a couple of inches in diameter, is to be seen, interbedded with 
yellow sandstones and flags. It is very similar in character to the ash beds in 
Shapinshay which overlie the lava; but while these are mostly of very inconsiderable 
thickness, it is in some places three or four feet thick. No lava is associated with it, 
and in the sandstones above and below I found no trace of any recurrence of the volcanic 
activity. In all probability it is the representative, in this section, of the coarse 
agglomerate already described, which must have greatly thinned out in the intervening 
distance. The striking feature of this volcanic zone is its very diminutive thickness, 
Still, the occurrence in Orkney of such a zone is a remarkable confirmation of the opinion 
expressed by Sir A. GErkr, that the “ancient volcano of John o’ Groats might be one of 
a series which might hopefully be sought for among the Orkney Islands.” * 

Rocks of an intrusive origin occur also in this district, the principal mass being 
exposed in the locality last mentioned, about 50 yards west of the ashy sandstone. It 
forms a mass of about 25 feet in thickness, though its base is not exposed, a dark green 
rock, which is first seen in the shore, and runs out to sea in a series of picturesque stacks 
and reefs. Its intrusive character is shown by the absence of any amygdaloidal upper 
surface, and the evidently unconformable junction with the overlying sandstones. Yet 
these were, so far as I could make out, not markedly altered, though they are so decom- 
posed that this would not be easy to determine. The rock is about 30 feet beneath the | 
ashy sandstone, and in structure is a much weathered diabase, with crystals of plagioclase 
felspar, augite, and probably olivine, almost entirely decomposed into green chloritic 
products, which show traces of ophitic structure. Throughout Deerness, in several 
places, occur masses of volcanic rock so decomposed and so obscured in their geological 
relations by the surface accumulations that it is not easy to form an opinion as to their 
true character. They all occur among the yellow sandstones and the flags associated 
with them. One is seen to the south of the Free Church, and several outcrops are 
known in the vicinity of the Public School. I am greatly indebted to Mr Maenus 
SPENCE for specimens and observations on these outcrops. From their microscopic 
structure and the absence of any accompanying tufts, they are in all probability intrusive 
sheets. The freshest specimen I obtained was a dark green diabase, with well-marked 
ophitie structure and pseudomorphs of serpentine after olivine. It came from a deep 
pit, at one time sunk in a field behind the Public School.t 


* Sir A. Gerxin, “Old Red Sandstone,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxviii. p. 406. 
+ The Black Holm of Copinshay consists of an intrusive sheet of olivine diabase about 30 feet thick, enclosing a large 
mass of baked flag penetrated by numerous veins, This is probably that referred to by Jamuson, Scottish Islands, ii. p. 285. 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. A17 


An outcrop of special interest occurs in a field 400 yards west of Smiddybanks. 
Here, in an old gravel-pit, a face some ten feet high is exposed, now much broken down 
by weathering. The rock is a coarse red sandy ash, with green spots. In it occur very 
numerous sandstone and flagstone fragments, some as large as a man’s head,—the sand- 
stones baked into quartzites ; the flags fused and slagey on their surfaces, and with their 
edges rounded. Materials such as these form a considerable proportion of the whole 
mass. It seems unbedded, or rather the few traces of bedding planes showed a dip dis- 
eordant with that of the surrounding sandstones. No similar bed crops out along the 
shore, and the outcrop seems to be limited in area and rudely circular in outline, though, 
as it occurs in the midst of cultivated land, its exact margins cannot be traced. It is 
difficult to understand what this is, unless it be regarded as a small volcanic neck, the 
mixed nature of its fragments being so different from that of the other ash beds, while 
its position in the centre of the intrusive sheets and lavas and ashes already described 
renders such a hypothesis, to say the least, highly probable. 

There can be no doubt that all these volcanic rocks owe their origin to the same 
period of volcanic activity. Their situation, almost in* the direct line between the Neck 
of Huna and the lava of Haco’s Ness, points to the existence of a north and south 
fracture or line of weakness, which may be ascribed to the earth movements, which, 
at the close of the deposition of the Rousay rocks of Orkney, introduced new types of 
sediment and new forms of life. To the westwards, at any rate, no trace of similar 
structures has been found. At two subsequent periods volcanic rocks rose to the surface 
in this district: one series forms the lavas and ash beds of Hoy, described by Sir A. 
“Guixtz. These, too, are of basaltic character, but they are separated from those we are 
at present considering by a great conformity. The others form the trap dykes, which 
traverse the flagstones mostly in an E.N.E. and W.S.W. direction. But these latter 
are in no place connected with surface outflows, and differ so widely in structure and 
composition from the rocks of Decrness and Shapinshay, as undoubtedly to have proceeded 
from quite distinct sources. They are, in fact, chiefly developed in the West Mainland, 
and are comparatively few in regions occupied by John o’ Groats rocks. 


Old Head. 


SrcTion 4.—N. and S., through South Ronaldshay. 2 miles = 1 inch. 


Watersound. 


The only remaining district of the yellow sandstones is the basin of the South Isles. 
A complete examination of this area I was unable to overtake, but was compelled to 
confine myself to the islands of South Ronaldshay and Burray, in which they occupy 
the largest area of any of the South Isles, and very clear sections are to be obtained. 
Here, also, the underlying yellow series is well developed, and passes down by means 
of a series of flagey passage beds into the grey flags, which at the south end of South 
Ronaldshay contain the Rousay fossils. These passage beds are well seen on the south 


418 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


; 
: 


shore of Watersound, just east of St Margaret’s Hope. At Stews Head they contain a 
few reddish bands. In South Ronaldshay the yellow series is largely developed, and, 
with the exception of the district from Widewall to St Margaret’s Hope, and thence to 
Hoxa, they occupy all the areas marked on the map as belonging to John o’ Groats 
beds. A fine section of massive yellow sandstones, with a few flag-beds, is seen extending 
from Barswick on the west side, north to Herston Head. It is broken by several faults, 
but there can be no doubt that in thickness it is greater than any other section of 
the same rocks elsewhere exposed in Orkney. Among these beds no trace of a volcanic 
zone has yet been discovered, and as yet no John o’ Groats fossils have been obtained 
from any of the South Isles. Their relationships are such, however, as to leave no 
doubt whatever of their position in the series. 

In the district around Melsetter in the island of Hoy, according to Pracu and Hornz, 
bands of yellow sandstone occur, overlying conformably the flags which form the south 
end of the island. These resemble greatly the upper Old Red Sandstones of the west _ 
end of Hoy, which unconformably overlie the flags. Now, at the west side of Hoy, 
opposite Graemsay, the upper sandstones rest on flags which are to be correlated with 
the Orcadian beds of the opposite shores of Stromness. This is clear proof of the great 
erosion which must have preceded the deposition of the upper Old Red series in Orkney, 
as time sufficient for the removal of all the Rousay rocks and all the John o’ Groats 
rocks of Orkney must have elapsed before the upper beds were laid down on the up-_ 
turned edges of the Stromness flags which form the base of the Old Man of Hoy. 


The Red Sandstones of the John o Groats Beds. 


The red sandstones of the John o’ Groats beds of Orkney have their greatest 
development in South Ronaldshay, in the extreme south, and in Eday, at the extreme — 
north of the country, while in the intervening districts their thickness is small. In 
Kday, they form the entire north end of the island, and thence pass down the centre to 
Sealskerry Bay. Some of the highest elevations along this line have a height of 350 
feet, and the least possible estimate of the thickness of the whole series cannot be less 
than 600 feet. The yellow sandstones of this island are, however, of only slight thick- 
ness, and it is possible that the red beds, in fact, replace the yellow, which further south 
have a much ereater development. Red sandstones form also the south-east corner of 
the island around the point of Veness. To the geologist these beds are somewhat 
uninteresting. No fossils have been found in them, and they contain no con- 
temporaneous volcanic rocks. The absence of fossils is perhaps due to the fact that 
there are no beds of close-grained flag suitable for the preservation of organic remains. 
The beds themselves consist of coarse red sandstones, often in thick beds, alternating — 
with red shales and marls, with sometimes a greenish or greyish shale. In Eday the 
sandstones greatly preponderate, and in some places are so coarse as to deserve the title 
of ‘grits.’ No traces of any chemical deposit, such as rock salt or gypsum, occur any- 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 419 


where, and the red matter is uniformly disposed through the rock, except where leached 
out by percolating water, or where aggregated into irregular layers of iron pan. 

In Sanday, along the west shore, the beds have a very similar character, but are more 
friable, owing to the admixture of dark red clay. In Shapinshay red beds practically do 
not occur, the only representatives of the John o’ Groats beds being the yellow sandstones 
and flags; but on Holland Head red beds again appear, with every peculiarity to be found 
in those of Eday. Here, again, the beds are mostly massive sandstones, the red shales 
being of only secondary importance. The total thickness in this section is about 200 
feet. In Deerness, red beds form the western shore of Newark Bay, and stretch west- 
wards nearly to the Castle. Here thick coarse sandstones are mixed with green and red 
marls. The extreme north point of the parish consists of similar rocks, which are let 
down by a fault running east and west just south of the Mull Head. They have little 
of the massive uniformity which characterises the beds of Eday, the alternations in the 
nature of the sediment being comparatively frequent. Red beds form also the cliff above 
the Scapa Pier, but in the South Isles area, their best exposure is that from Widewall 
in South Ronaldshay, by Roeberry, to Hoxa, and thence to St Margaret’s Hope along the 
shore. Here the dip is gentle to north and north-west, and the underlying beds of yellow 
sandstone pass up very gradually into the deep red marls beneath Roeberry House. 
The thickness of these marls—which contain thin beds of red sandstone—is considerable, 
and they resemble closely the beds seen in Calf Sound, in Eday, in every respect, except 
their greater thickness. Similar beds are to be seen below Smiddybanks in St Margaret’s 
Hope. Overlying these there come in massive coarse red sandstones, which occupy the 
rest of the area up to Hoxa, where they are faulted against the flags of Hoxa Head. 
The thickness exposed in this section is about 500 feet, and not greatly less than that of 
Hday, where the yellow sandstones are so insignificant. The whole thickness of the 
John o’ Groats beds of Orkney may thus be put down at about 1000 feet in its greatest 
development. Red beds occur also in Burray and Hunda, but these present no features 
of special interest to merit a separate description. 

With these red sandstones the long history of the Orcadian Old Red of Orkney comes 
toa close. A complete change in the nature of the sediment accompanied what must 
haye been considerable changes in the physical conditions of the area. Yet it is, after 
all, only a reversion to that type of deposit which elsewhere had been the main one for 
vast periods of time. In the nature of its rocks and in the limited development of 
voleanic activity, this area had long been a great contrast to the Old Red of Southern 
Scotland; only at its close do we find a partial resemblance to make its appearance. 
‘The red sandstones are the least important part of the Orkney Old Red. Neither in 
Caithness nor Orkney do we find them conformably overlaid by any other rock. The 
new conditions which supervened were marked by the precursors of a new fauna, of 
which the first example is the Asterolepis, a fish so characteristic of the upper Old Red 
of the southern shores of the Moray Firth. But before that fauna was to attain its 
greatest development great changes in the physical geography of Scotland had to take 


——- | 


420 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


place, and vast periods of time to elapse. Before the deposit of the upper Old Red of 
Hoy, much of the Oreadian Old Red had been stripped from the surface of the Orkneys, 
and very considerable dislocations had modified entirely the old physiography and 
structure of the country. : 


IIIl.—Comparison with the Old Red of other Districts, 


Such being in its main features the structure of the Orkneys, and the subdivisions 
which can be established by the distribution of the fossils, it remains to be considered 
how far these conclusions can be applied to other districts in which rocks of like age and 
similar fossils occur. 


The John 0 Groats Beds and the Eday Sandstones. 


As regards the uppermost beds, the inquiry is a simple one. Rocks containing 
the same fossils occur in only one locality—the north-eastern angle of Caithness; 
and here their lithological characters so strikingly resemble those of the Orkney 
beds that no difficulty whatever can be felt in accepting their zonal identity. The 
John o’ Groats beds of Caithness are, then, to be correlated with the Eday, Deerness, 
and South Ronaldshay sandstones of Orkney. Sir A. GEIKIE gives a list of the fossils 
which have been found in this series in Caithness.* He enumerates, in addition to the 
three type fossils, Acanthodes Peachi (Eg.) and Gilyptolepis leptopterus (Ag.), neither 
of which is known to be present in the similar beds of Orkney. It is remarkable how in 
both counties the fishes characteristic of the lower rocks have been superseded by new 
types so completely that almost no trace of their persistence is to be obtained. The 
uppermost zone of the Orcadian Old Red is thus a well characterised one, and may be 
designated, from the locality in which alone it was known to occur for many years, 
The John o’ Groats Sandstones (zone of Tiristechopterus alatus, Egert.). 7 


The Thurso and Rousay Beds. 


For the representatives elsewhere in Scotland of the lower zones, we must look to” ’ 
two localities, to Cromarty, from which Hueu Minuer and Agassiz early in the century i 
furnished a list of fossils, and to Caithness, where, since the time of Hue Minter ant 
Rosert Dick, much work has been done in the paleontology of the Old Red. The ear 
work has subsequently been subjected to thorough revision, and a wealth of 
material been brought to light by Dr Traquair, to whose papers I am greatly indeb 
and on whose published statements I shall rely in comparing the lists of fossils from 


te 


each locality. In his paper, “ Achanarras Revisited” (1894),+ he has briefly stated th 


{ 


Ve 
io 
le 


* Sir A. Guixtn, Old Red Sandstone, p. 404. 
+ Traquatr, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. xii., 1894. 


| 


| , 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 421 


results of a comparison of lists of fossils from Caithness, Orkney, and Cromarty, and the 
result is a division of the known fossils into three groups. One is that we have already 
considered—the John o’ Groats group. The second contains a series of fossils which 


occur together only in the neighbourhood of Thurso. The list is as follows :— 


Homacanthus borealis (Traq.). 

Rhadinacanthus longispinus (Ag.). 
Mesacanthus Peachi (Kgert.). 

Cheiracanthus, sp. (perhaps 2 sp.). 

Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.). 

Coccosteus minor (H. Miller). 

Homosteus Milleri (Traq.). 

Dipterus valencienesta (Sedgw. and Murch.). 
Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.). 

Thursius macrolepidotus (Sedgw. and Murch.). 
Thursius pholidotus (Traq.). 

Osteolepis microlepidotus (Pander.). 

(Scales, doubtfully resembling those of Gyroptychius). 


Tt will be observed that this list contains the type fossils of the Rousay series of 
Orkney, Coccosteus minor (H. Miller) and Thursius pholidotus (Traq.); and when we 


compare it with the list of the fossils I have found in those rocks, we find that the 
following species occur in both :— 


Coccosteus minor (H. Miller). 

Thursius pholidotus (Traq.). 

Dipterus valencienesu (Sedgw. and Murch.). 
Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.). 

Cheiracanthus, sp. 

Coccosteus decipiens (Ag.). 

Homosteus Milleri (Traq.). 


With the exception of the first two, these are all contained in the list of fossils which 
occur throughout the whole thickness of the Orkney flagstones. In Orkney occurs one 
Species not yet found in Caithness, Asterolepis, sp. nov., which, considering that it is a 
fossil of limited range, and confined to a few beds of rock, is an exception of no great 
importance ; and two others present in Caithness, but not known from the vicinity of 
Thurso, Osteolepis macrolepidotus (Ag.) and Diplopterus Agassiz. Of these, the latter 
is one of the rarest of Caithness species, while in Orkney it is quite common, especially 
in the quarries of Sandwick and Stromness. From the Rousay beds of Orkney I have 
seen only one satisfactory specimen. It is probable that we have here a case of local 
distribution, and that the absence of this fossil from the rocks around Thurso is due, not 
to adverse conditions of preservation, but that rather it was from the first a species 
characteristic of the more northern area, and hence more likely to persist there, and 


occur on a higher horizon. On the other hand, we have a number of forms known 


422 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


to occur near Thurso, but not found as yet in the Rousay beds of Orkney. These 
are :— 

Homacanthus borealis (Traq.). 

Rhadinacanthus longispinus, (Ag.). 

Mesacanthus Peachi (Kgert.). 

Thursius macrolepidotus (Sedgw. and Murch.). 

Osteolepis microlepidotus (Pander.). 


Of these, the first is a rare fossil, and only described for the first time in 
1892.* The second cannot be regarded as very abundant, seeing that the British 
Museum Catalogue (1891) does not enumerate it as a Caithness species. The third has 
not, so far, been mentioned in the literature of Orcadian geology, though Dr Traquair, I 
believe, has obtained a species of Mesacanthus from Orkney this last summer. That 
these three rarities should be known from the carefully examined rocks around Thurso, 
and not as yet from the Rousay beds of Orkney, to which attention has only lately been 
directed, cannot be regarded as a strong argument against the theory that the one 
series is the northern representative of the other. The two remaining fossils are of 
more importance, seeing that they are regarded by Dr Traquair as typical of the Thurso 
rocks, and confined to them. One of these, Osteolepis microlepidotus (Pander.), is very 
characteristic of them, and abundant in some of the beds; but I have, at many different 
times, examined collections of Orcadian fossils, and carefully searched the rocks for this 
species, without ever obtaining a specimen which Dr Traquair would admit belonged to 
it. No doubt it has figured more than once in lists of fossils from Orkney, but the 
identification is at present more than doubtful. It is possible that we have here a case 
of local distribution the converse of that of Diplopterus, but at any rate the discrepaney 
is one which cannot be overlooked, and it is to be hoped that further search in Orkney 
will bring this fish to light. Thursius macrolepidotus (Ag.), it may also be anticipated, — 
will turn up in the Rousay beds, or at any rate its absence is not very remarkable when 
we remember that only one satisfactory specimen of the other species of the same genus 
has yet been discovered. Yet that, in that case, in the same quarry, two species which, 
according to Dr Traquair, are typical of the Thurso rocks, should have been found 
together for the first time in Orkney, is a surprising confirmation of the views he enun- 
ciated in 1894, that they are type species of a special subdivision of the Orcadian Old 
Red ; and that their distribution in Orkney, so far as yet known, is in complete accord- 
ance with this supposition, has already been proved to be the case. They occur 
always on practically the same horizon, and in the lowest beds they have never yet 
been found. 

No other locality for these two fossils is at present known, and from the district in 
which they have been longest and most thoroughly investigated they may be named 
the Thurso Beds, or the Zone of Coccosteus minor (Hugh Miller) and Thursius 
pholidotus (Traq. ). 

* Trans. Geol. Soc, Hdin., 1892. . 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 423 


The Cromarty, Achanarras, and Stromness Beds. 


The third group of fossils CUS by Dr Traavarr is that which Hucu Miter first 


Ss and which was sabia believed to i. the only one resent in the Orkneys. 
following i is a list of the fossils of Cromarty, Achanarras, and the Stromness beds 
ON ae " 

Paleo spondylus Gunmi, . ‘ : : : : : : A. 

_ Diplacanthus striatus (Ag.), 

: Ps tenurstriatus (Traq.), 
Rhadinacanthus longispinus (Traq.), . 
— Mesacanthus pusillus (Traq.), 

,  Cheiracanthus Murchisoni (Ag.), . 

} e: " latus (gert.), ‘ 
% is grandispinus (M‘Coy), 
: Perichthy Milleri (Ag.), 

# productus (Ag. ), 

5 oblongus (Ag.), . 
Dipterus valencienisia, ae and Murch. ), 
~ Coceosteus decipiens (Ag.), 

Homosteus Milleri (Traq.), . 
 Glyptolepis paucidens (Ag.), 

. leptopterus (Ag.), 

iG Gyroptychins microlepidotus (Ag.), 

D iplopterus Agassiz (Traill), 

Osteoepis macrolepidota (Ag.), 
Cheirolepis Trailli (Ag.), 


MECC oue 
> b> 
OofO°D 


OO 9 


Saoece 
PP bb bb 


SQgog oS ooe 


© OFe 25> 
Pbpb ~ 


+ 


lance will show the very complete accordance of these lists. Al] the more 
tly occurring fishes are common to all the localities, except possibly Glyptolepis 
(Ag.), which in the Cromarty district is replaced by the closely allied 
leptopterus (Ag.). Gyroptychius microlepidotus (Ag.) seems to be absent 
aithness area, The other fishes found in one area only are all rare fossils. 

we examine the list to ascertain which fossils are confined to these areas, we 


Paleospondylus Gunni (Traq.) 
Diplacanthus, 2 sp. 
Pterychthys, 3 sp. 

Cheirolepis Traillt (Ag.) | 


Gyroptychius microlepidotus (Ag.) 
t known to occur elsewhere. 


ist has been compiled from—Traquair, “Fossil Vertebrates of the Moray Firth”; Traquatr, “ Achanarras 
A. 8. Woopwarp, British Museum Catalogue of Fossil Fishes. 


. XXXIX. PART IT. (NO. 13). 38 


424 MR JOHN 8S. FLETT ON THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE ORKNEYS. 


To these Dr Traquair adds two—Osteolepis macrolepidotus (Ag.), which certainl 
occurs in the East Mainland of Orkney, and Diplopterus Agassizi (Traill), whiek 
he says, he has not been able to establish with certainty as a member of the Thurgo 
group. If we except the rare Paleospondylus Gunni (Traq.), which is known only 
from Achanarras, we have three genera and six species which, so far as our presen 
knowledge of the distribution of the fossil fishes of the Scottish Old Red Sandstor 
goes, may serve as type fossils for this group of rocks; and these, it will be remembere 
are the genera which I found in Orkney to characterise the Stromness beds; and we ma 
regard it as established that this is a distinct zone of the Orcadian Old Red Sandston 
of which the representatives are the sandstones of Cromarty, Lethen, Gamrie, Clunie 
and Tynet, the flagstones of Achanarras in Caithness, and the Stromness beds of t tk 
Orkneys. 

In conclusion, | wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to those who have assist 
me in this work—to Professor JAMES GEIKIE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., without who 
encouragement and advice it would never have been undertaken ; to Dr R. H. Traguai 
LL.D., F.R.S., who has determined for me all the more important specimens collects 
and has kindly undertaken the description of the new material which turned up in t 
course of the investigation ; to Messrs Bensamin Peracu, F.R.S., and Jonn Horng, F.G. 
of the Geological Survey of Scotland, who have at all times placed at my service th | 
great knowledge of field work, and their intimate acquaintance with the geology 
the district. Mr Jams W. Cursrrsr, F.S.A. Scot., of Kirkwall, kindly placed aiid 
disposal his fine library of books relating to the county, and his collection of Orla 
fossils; Mr THomas M‘Crin, of Kirkwall, allowed me also to examine his collection ; : 
Mr Maenus Spenceg, of Deerness, gave me most valuable assistance in the held work 
that district and elsewhere. 


Vol. XXXIX. 


Mull Head 


MAP OF THE 
OLOGY oF THE ORKNEYS 


by John S.Flett. 


Scale 
ORE 2 IT. oC milas 
linch = 6 miles. 


Hd. of Work. 
al 


ollard Ha. Rerwich Hel. 59 


Shula: 


| Stromness Beds 


eM Fess ex 


Faults f 
Faults not seer a=m-b——— 
Daps <_ > 


A RITCHIE & SOW EDIN" 


( 425 ) 


XIV.—On Torsional Oscillations of Wires. By Dr W. Prppiz. (With Two Plates.) 


(Read 20th June 1898.) 


This paper is in continuation of two others, on the same subject, previously 
communicated to the Society. Inthe First Paper (Philosophical Magazine, July 1894) 
it was shown that the formula 


y"(a +a) =, 


where 7”, a, and b are constants in any one experiment, represents with accuracy 
the relation between y, the range of oscillation, and «, the number of oscillations 
which have taken place since torsion was first applied and the wire was left to itself, 
so that the oscillations gradually diminished. The apparatus employed, and the 
method of observation used, were identical with those described in the Second Paper 
above referred to, The wire which was experimented upon was the same as that used 
on the previous occasions, Its length, as given in the First and Second Papers, was 
891 cm. A measurement made on the date 19.10.1897, in the course of the last 
series of experiments described in the present paper, showed that the length had 
become 89°3 cm, This increase was doubtless due to the fact that the heavy lead 
oscillator had been left attached to the wire during the whole of the intervening 
period. On the date given, it was also found that, with the same oscillator as was 
used in the experiments first described, ten oscillations were performed in 81 seconds, 
when the range was large, while 79 seconds were occupied when the range was small. 
This observation verified the result stated in the First Paper, that the period slightly 
imereases as the range increases. It also showed that the wire was practically in the 
Same condition as it was at first, in so far as elastic qualities are concerned; for the 
corresponding periods were only slightly less in earlier experiments, the difference 
being largely accounted for by the slight increase of length of the wire. 

In the First Paper, the above equation was also deduced as an approximation, from 
the assumption that the defect of the potential energy of the system, at any given 
distortion, from the value which it would have had in accordance with Hooke’s Law, 
was proportional to a power of the distortion. It was pointed out that the value 
of m seemed to approximate to zero when the range of oscillation was very small ; 
and that, when n becomes zero, the equation changes form and becomes the well- 
known exponential equation, which was first proved by Lord Ketvin to hold when 
the oscillations are small. 

An improved method of calculating the values of the quantities n, a, and b was 

VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 14). ea 


426 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


described in the Second Paper. That method was employed in the calculations to be 


given subsequently. Since 
n log y + log (w+ a) =log 4, 


if log (w+a) be plotted against log y, the corresponding points lie on a straight line 
which intersects the axis along which log y is measured at an angle whose tangent 
is m—provided that the proper value of @ is used. The value of b can then be 
obtained. If a wrong value of a be used, the points will not lie on a straight line, 
If too large a value of a is taken, the curve on which they lie is convex towards the 
origin; if too small a value is taken, the curve is concave towards the origin. In 
this way the true values of the constants are obtained in any experiment. Fig. 1 
illustrates the method. 


First Serves of Hupervments. 


Previous attempts to separate the effects of the magnitude of the initial oscilla- 
tion and of fatigue upon the values of the quantities n and b had not been success- 
ful. An attempt was therefore made to eliminate entirely the effect of magnitude 
of range by inducing very great fatigue in the wire. Before this was done a 
single experiment was made on the date 8.6.96, the wire having practically not 
been oscillated since the conclusion, on the date 24.12.95, of the third series of 
experiments described in the Second Paper. After the date 8.6.96, the wire was 
oscillated three or four times per week, by from 20 to 40 complete oscillations of large 
magnitude, until the date 10.7.96, when 150 large oscillations were given. Then, on 
the dates 14.7.96 and 15.7.96, respectively, 40 and 5 large oscillations were given. No 
readings of the decrease of range with increase of number of oscillations, when the 
wire was left to itself so that the oscillations died away, were taken on any of these 
occasions—the object being merely to induce excessive fatigue as a permanent condition 
in the wire. Such readings were taken on ten succeeding occasions. On each occasion 
the wire received 25 complete large oscillations, and was then brought to rest before — 
beimg started anew in oscillation, when the readings were commenced. _ 

Table I. gives the results obtained, the quantities a, n, and b being calculated in 
the manner already referred to. The magnitude of the initial range y, varied oreatly 
in different experiments. The table also includes ‘the results of the experiment made 
on the date 8.6.96. These show that the wire was practically in the same condita 
that it had been left in at the conclusion of the previous experiments. On the other 
hand, the results of the experiments made under conditions of great fatigue of t th g 
wire show a marked change in the state of the wire. The value of the product mi D 
has attained a practically constant value, about equal to one-half of its previous valle 
The values of m and b are practically constant also, though the initial range varies 
greatly. The double sets of results given under two dates ene to shigh tly 
different inclinations of the line in the diagram used to determine n and}. | 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. A27 


. ‘Fig. 2 shows the result of taking 1 =1'02, b=98, and choosing a- for each experi- 
ment, so as to make the points taken from observation in each experiment lie, 
as far as possible, on a single curve. Ordinates (y) represent range of oscillation, 
and abscisse represent number of oscillations (x) plus a The diagram shows that 
‘an improvement might be made by taking n larger, the product nb being still kept 
equal to 100. The result is given in fig. 3, the value of n being 1:03, while that of 
bis 97. It appears from that figure that an increase of b would introduce further 
‘improvement. The result of making n=1°03 and b=100 is shown in fig. 4. The 
closeness with which the points he on ite curve is quite sufficient to justify the adoption 
‘of the general equation 


y 103 (x+a)=100 


‘to represent the results of the whole series of experiments. As a rule, the points 
‘which correspond to the first readings taken after the oscillations were started in 
“each experiment, are those which lie furthest off the curve. If the first readings 
were as accurate as the others we should have 


a= 100 y,2 


where y, is the first reading. It is desirable to determine whether or not a slight 
‘modification of this expression for a will apply when the actually observed values 
of y are used, The data below show that this is the case. The first row gives the 
observed values of y). The second gives the values of a, which were employed in 
order to make the points agree well with the curve shown in fig. 4. The third row 
gives the values of a, calculated by the above expression ; the fourth gives the values 
of the differences between the observed and the calculated values of a; and the fifth 
‘gives the values of a, if we assume 1°4 to be the true value of that difference, and 
-ealeulate a from the expression 


a=14+100 yy” 


The initial reading, 8°05, taken on the date 22.7.96, totally disagrees with the second, 
“third, and subsequent readings, and seems to have been a mistake. A value 7°5 is 
much more in accordance with the others. 


75 16°5 20°3 26'2 29 30 31°5 32°5 35°1 45:2 
14°2 7 6 5 4:5. 44 1 4 4 3:8 
12°6 56 45 37 31 3-0 2°86 277 2:56 2:36 
16 1-4 1-5 1:3 14 1-4 fel 1:2 14 14 
| UO _ oe 51 45 44 4°3 4-2 4:0 3:8 
can tL Se A, a 


428 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


The numbers in the last row agree sufficiently well with those in the second to 
justify the adoption of the general formula 


p> (e+ 4427,.-**) = 100 


for the representation of the results of the whole series of experiments made under 
the condition of equal large fatigue. 

Table II. contains a comparison, in the case of each experiment, of the results of 
observation with those of calculation. The middle column in each case contains the 
observed values of y, when x has successively the values 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, 
30, 35, 40, 45, and 50. The numbers in the left hand column are those calculated 
for the same values of x, with the values of a, n, and b, given in Table I.; those in 
the right hand column are the corresponding values obtained by means of the general 
formula just given. ‘The latter have been kindly calculated for me by Mr W. THomson, 
formerly Donald Fraser bursar in the Physical Laboratory. In practically all cases, 
excepting the one in which the initial range had its largest value, the numbers in the 
third column agree at least as well with those in the second as do those in the first. 


Discussion of the Intial Ranges in Previous Experiments. 


If we take the data for the experiments detailed in Tables IV. and V. of the Second 
Paper (Trans. R.S.E., 1896), and calculate from them, for these experiments, the values 
of p in the expression 

ya p+b yy") =b, 


we get interesting evidence of the effect of magnitude of initial range and of fatigue 


upon the value of p. The results are given in Table III. In the first set, the initial 
range, Yo, 18 fairly constant. The numbers in the column headed N give the number 
of large oscillations to which the wire was subjected before readings were taken, 
These numbers, therefore, to some extent, indicate the amount of fatigue. They do 
not do so entirely, since the effect of previous fatigue persists to some extent from day 
to day. This is indicated by the smaller values of p on succeeding dates, when N had 
a given value. When fatigue is small, p bears a large ratio to a; when fatigue is 
great, p bears a small ratio to a. 

In the second set, fatigue was practically constant while the initial range varied 
between wide limits. As was to be expected, p practially vanishes in comparison with 
a when the initial range is very small, so that the curve y"(~+a)=b is very flat. 


Re-calculation of Data in Table I. of the First Paper. 


The values of n, a, and b, given in Table I. of the First Paper (Philosophical Mag. 


ry 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 429 


azine, July 1894), were obtained by superposing the experimental curves upon sets of 
curves of the required form, and choosing the one which gave best correspondence. 
A re-calculation of the values, by the method now employed, was made, in order to 
get a strict comparison of the earlier results with those more recently obtained. 
Table IV. contains the values so found. The columns headed 7’, a’, b’ contain the 
values of the quantities n, a, and b given in the First Paper. The column headed b” 
contains the values of b, calculated by the present method, with the old unit for y 
(0°364 times the new unit used in the Second Paper and the present paper). The 
columns headed n, a, and b give the values found by the present method in the new 
unit. The values of » and a are independent of the y—unit. Table VI. is, in part, a 
reproduction of Table II. of the First Paper. Values of y are given in the top row, 
and corresponding values of «+q/ are given in sets of three rows, each set correspond- 
ing to one experiment. The middle row of each set gives the experimentally observed 
values of «+a’; the upper row of each gives the values of +a’ calculated by means 
of the values of n’, a’, and b’, given in Table IV.; and the lower row gives the values 
of x+a’ calculated by means of the values of n, a’, and b”, given in that table. The 
new values are, on the whole, just as suitable as the old values, and are accordingly 
used in the subsequent discussion. 


Relations between n and b. 


It was pointed out, in the Second Paper, that, throughout the three series of experi- 
ments therein described, the value of the product nb was, within possible experimental 
errors, constant. The basis for this statement is exhibited graphically in figs. 5, 6, 7. 
In these figures the values of log nb are plotted as ordinates against the values of n 
as abscissee. The average values of log nb was in each case taken to be 2°3. By 
means of the re-calculated values of n and 6 for the series described in the First Paper, 
a similar diagram (fig. 8) was obtained for that series. With the single exception 
of experiment P, all the points group very well about a straight line having a positive 
slope. This implies the existence of a Critical Angle (see Second Paper) throughout 
the series of experiments described in the First Paper; so that, by a proper choice of 
the y-unit, the value of nb might have been made constant in that series also. For 


the equation 
ny"(x + a) =nb 


may be written in the form 


ny'"(x + a) = nd( 2) 


by making hy' =y, w.e., by taking as the unit a quantity k& times greater than the 


430 DR W. PEDDIE ON: 


unit in terms of which y was measured. And, if we denote the age on. i right 
hand side of the equation by B, we get > NO 


log (nb) =log B+ log &, 


which, when £ is constant, is the linear relation above referred to. == =. ss | 
But the value of n is such, throughout each series of experiments, that it. is 
impossible to determine whether that relation, or a linear relation. between log b 
and 7, is the more accurate. If one were strictly accurate in a given series, the 
other cannot be so simultaneously. Yet the possible variations in the determined 
values of n and 6, for any experiment in a given series, are such that eithe er 
relation may be regarded as practically correct. The results for the kha are 
exhibited graphically in figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12. a 
Just as the maintenance of a linear relation between log Le a n, In a giver 
series, implies the existence, throughout that series, of a Critical Angle at which the 
loss of energy per oscillation is independent of n; so the maintenance of a linea: 
relation between log b and 7, in a given series, implies the existence, throughout » it 
series, of an angle at which the loss of energy per oscillation varies inversely as N, 
For the equation . 
y"(x@+a)=b 

may be put into the form 


y"(a@+a)=b a 


by taking as the y—unit a quantity k’ times greater than the unit in terms of - whie 2 
y was measured, And k’ can always be chosen so that the right hand side of gee a , 


tion has a given constant value, B say. We then have : 
aan if 
log b=log B+n log KF’, ‘ 


which, when k’ is constant, is the second linear relation. Also 


Hence, when 2 is unity, ze, when y=’, dy'/dx and y’dy'/dx vary inversely as 
the latter quantity is emevealy proportional to the loss of energy per oscillati 0 
For convenience of reference we may call k’ the Inverse Angle. al a 


Existence of an Oscillation Constant. 


: .. ia 
As we have just seen, we can always choose a unit k”, which will make the relati 
between y and « take the form qj 
y(a+a)=A, 


where A is an absolute constant, We may call this quantity, k”, the Unifying Ang 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 431 


since it gives the value of a y—unit, which, in each case, makes b take the absolutely 
constant value A. Its magnitude is given by the relation 


1 (OV 
iPolay 
If a simple expression such as this, connecting the Unifying Angle with the observed 
quantities n and 6 in each experiment, did not exist, we could not regard that angle as 
a quantity possessing any physical importance whatsoever. Indeed, we could not re- 
gard it as such unless the quantity A is found by experiment to correspond to some 
physical constant. 

A glance at figs. 5-12 makes it apparent that, in each series of experiments, 
the lines representing the linear relations already discussed, pass with great accuracy 
through the point corresponding to n=1, log b=2°3. The value b=200 is therefore 
of distinct physical importance in all the series. By giving A this value, and eliminat- 
ing B and # from the linear equations, we get 


Pe Ne 
v=(s) 


gad 


Thus the Inverse and Critical Angles have also simple expressions in terms of 6 and n. 

The quantity A is an Oscillation Constant which depends essentially upon the 
material of which the wire is made. Further evidence regarding its constancy will be 
given immediately. 


— Second Series of Experiments. 


In order to obtain further evidence on points already referred tv, a second series of 
experiments, commencing on the date 14.10.97, was made. Between that date and 
the date 30.7.96, on which the first series was concluded, the wire had not been 
oscillated except on a few occasions in November 1896, and again in March 1897. 
The results are given in Table V. 

At the end of the first experiment it was found that 36% full oscillations took place 
in 5 minutes when the oscillations were large, while 37 took place in the same time 
when the oscillations were small. At the end of the experiment dated 15.11.97 (1), 
38 half oscillations took place in 24 minutes when the oscillations were small. 

The values of a, n, and b, which are obtained when y, is very small, are extremely 
uncertain; yet there is no doubt that the value of 7 is considerably less than unity 
under that condition, and that the value of b is large. 

In the earlier experiments of this series there is evidence that the wire had 
tecovered to a slight extent from the state of fatigue induced in the first series, But 


432 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


the subjection of the wire to a comparatively small number of full oscillations (given 
in brackets in Table V.) before an experiment was made, reduced n. and b to values 
like those which were obtained in the first series. This was the case even when y, was 
comparatively small—see experiment 12.11.97 (1). 

The most important object of the present series of experiments was to determine 
whether or not, under different initial conditions, points representing simultaneous 
values of log b and x still practically lay upon straight lines passing through the 
point (2°3,1). This was found to be the case. At first the slope of the line was 
found to be positive, as it was in the experiments described in the First Paper. The 
slope of the line increased, under increased fatigue, until it became practically vertical, 
The wire was very sensitive to variations of fatigue, whether due to magnitude of 
initial range or to repeated oscillations. Increased fatigue causes an increase of 7 
and a diminution of b: see, for example, experiments 11.11.97 (1) and (2); experi- 
ments 16.11.97 (1) and (2); and experiments 17.11.97 (1), (2) and (3). 

Fig. 13 represents a number of the results graphically. The group of three points 
marked thus © corresponds to the first three experiments, The group marked x 
corresponds to the next nine experiments; those marked [1] correspond to the next 
ten; those marked v correspond to succeeding experiments in which fatigue was 
large; and those marked by single points correspond to some of the experiments in 
which fatigue was small. It is evident that the various groups throughout each of 
which fatigue was fairly constant are collected in the neighbourhood of straight lines 
passing through the point (2°3,1). Variations may be due to slight differences of 
condition as to fatigue or to the fact that a is always chosen as a whole number, while 
the most suitable value may le between two consecutive whole numbers. If, in any 
case in which a is small, an error of unity were made in the value of a, the correspond- 
ing value of m would change by 0°06 or 0°07, while the value of log b would only 
change by about 0°015 or 0°02. As an error of unity, when «@ is small, is impossible, it 
is evident that the grouping of the points round the lines cannot be regarded as 
accidental. 

It therefore appears that the Oscillation Constant, A, is truly a constant throughout 
all the treatment to which the wire has been subjected. 


Recovery from Fatigue. 


The data given, Table V., show that the wire recovers partially from the effect of 
fatigue with considerable rapidity. Compare, for example, the data for the experiments 
16.11.97 (2) and 25.11.97. This is most marked in the case of small oscillations—see 
12.11.97 (1) and 17.11.97 (1), the former experiment being made immediately after 
heavy fatigue, while the latter was made one day after heavy fatigue. 

There is another fact which may possibly bear on the question. In some of the 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 433 


eurves obtained by plotting log (w«+a) agaist log y, when the initial oscillation is 
small, though a straight line passes with considerable accuracy in the neighbourhood of 
the points, leaving as many points on one side as on the other on the average, yet almost 
absolute accuracy would be obtained by drawing two lines meeting at a very slight 
inclination—the smaller value of m corresponding to the smaller oscillations. The 
crossing point of these lines may possibly indicate an angle of torsion, such that 
molecular groups which break at a less angle have recovered from fatigue, while those 
which break at a greater angle have not yet recovered from fatigue. I first observed 
this in the experiment 17.11.97 (1), but it was found subsequently in other experiments, 
and had also occurred in previous experiments, as detailed below. 

Tt first appeared in the experiment 3.11.97 (2) with y,=12'8, and it appears 
slightly also in the succeeding experiment 4.11.97 (1) with y)=20°7. It occurred also 
im the experiment 9.11.97. In the case of the three experiments of date 10.11.97, it 
appeared markedly in the first, very slightly, if at all, in the second, and not at all in the 
third—each experiment apparently aiding in its obliteration. The initial angles in 
these cases were 13°1, 11-0, and 11:2 respectively. It could not be said to be evident 
in the experiment 11.11.97 (2), y,=9°3, which followed immediately after the experi- 
ment 11.11.97 (1), y,=35°6; and it did not appear in the experiment 12.11.97 (1), 
 Y)=9°4, which was immediately preceded by 40 large oscillations. In the experiment 
15.11.97 (1), y)=8°6, made after the wire had remained at rest for three days, it again 
appeared markedly, the point of junction of the two lines corresponding to an angle 
about one and a half times as large as that indicated in the experiment 10.11.97 (1). 
It could not be observed in the experiment 16.11.97 (1), which followed a large oscilla- 
tion on the preceding day, though it would appear if a smaller value of a were chosen. 

But a smaller value of a would increase the value of , and it is to be noticed that the 
values of n and 6, found for that experiment and the preceding one, are abnormally 
large (see 18.11.97 (1)). As already mentioned, the peculiarity appears in the experi- 
ment 17.11.97 (1), y)=14°3, the wire having been considerably fatigued on the preceding 
day. It did not appear in the subsequent experiments on that date. It was evident in 
the experiment 18.11.97 (1), y)=9'8. In the succeeding experiment on the same date, 
Y= 10, it was also apparent, but the joining point of the lines occurred at a smaller 
angle. It could not be said to appear in any of the succeeding experiments. In these 
the initial range was very small, or very large; or, the initial range being of inter- 
mediate size, the experiments were made when the wire had been only slightly oscillated 
for some days, in which case the joining point might be expected to occur at smaller 
angles than those which were observed. 

The phenomenon, although not very readily observed, occurs with such persistency 
that I scarcely think that it can be due to accidental causes. The facts that the joining 

point occurs at a larger angle when fatigue is small than when it is large, and that 
Tepetition of an experiment with small initial range makes the joining point pass to 
smaller angles, seem to indicate that there is a fairly sharply-marked limiting angle, 

VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO, 14). 3.0 


434 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


below which recovery from fatigue has proceeded to a greater extent thau it has for 
larger angles of distortion. 


. Zero Effect of Period of Oscillation. 


In order to determine whether or not the period of oscillation had any influence on 
the values of and b, on the date 27.10.97, the large oscillator was replaced by the 
oscillator of smaller moment of inertia, which was used in the experiments described in ; 
the first paper. ‘The results are given in fig. 14, A comparison of the results given 
in Table V., for the experiment 27.10.97 (2), with the results for previous experiments 
with the large oscillator, e.g., with the results for the experiment 20.10.97, shows that. 
no change by halving the period. With such speeds of oscillation we must therefore 
regard the results as independent of “ after-action.” 


Law of Oscillation. 


We have already found that the period of a complete oscillation is very nearly 
constant, being slightly greater for large oscillations than for small oscillations 
Some additions were made to the apparatus in order to make possible determinations of 
the times of outward and inward motions over a given range. Fig. 17 shows the 
details. The torsion head, to which the upper end of the vertical wire is attached, is 
seen at the top of the diagram. The horizontal lead ring is seen attached to the lowei 
end of the wire. A Wimshurst machine is seen on the left side of the wire. 
vertical glass tube is seen at one extremity of a diameter of the lead ring. Its lowe 
end is drawn to a fine point, and it is filled with a coloured liquid. A similar tube is 
placed at the other end of the diameter of the ring to secure symmetry in the oscillator. 
The liquid in the tube is placed, by means of a copper wire, visible in the diagram, it 
electric connection with the lead ring ; and a copper wire also connects the torsion head 
(which is insulated by means of blocks of paraffin from the support to which it i 
clamped) to one pole of the Wimshurst machine. When the machine is worked, th 
liquid is driven out of the tube in a fine jet. On the right hand side of the diagram, at 
« lower level than the lead ring, are seen massive iron blocks, between which is clamp ad 
: horizontal steel wire, which is weighted at its outer end in order to give ita suffi 

ciently long period of vibration. This wire supports a horizontal sheet of paper, whid 
vibrates aah the wire. If this paper be at rest while a torsional oscillation is given t 
the vertical wire under test, the jet of liquid will trace a circle on the paper. Buti 
the paper now oscillates on the whole transversely to the motion of the jet, a waved 
curve will be traced, which crosses the circle at each semi-vibration. The interval of 
time between two successive crossings is constant (equal to the period of semi-vibratic 
of the steel wire), and we can thus obtain a comparison of the times of outa ind 
inward motions over a given range. 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 435 


Two of these curves are shown in fig. 16. The part of a curve which corresponds to 
the outward motion can easily be distinguished from that which corresponds to the 
inward motion by its greater amplitude. In the first curve, 20 semi-vibrations take 
place in the range AB in the outward motion, while 20 take place in the range CA in 
the inward motion. The difference BC corresponds (allowing for the slight difference 
at the end A) to about one-third of a semi-vibration. Thus the outward motion over the 
range AC occupies less time than the inward motion over the same range, the difference 
being about 1 in 60. 


Result of Heating the Wire to Redness. 


[Added 18th July 1898.—It is to be expected that the molecular freedom which is 
introduced by heating the wire to redness will undo, to a great extent at least, the 
effect of fatigue. Before testing this point the wire was subjected to greater fatigue 
than on any previous occasion, and an experiment was then made on the date 1.7.98. 
‘The results were 

C—-o ev Ol O—89'6,- 2b 91. 9. 36'1. 


‘Thus by excessive fatigue the value of b was made smaller than it had ever been, while 
%, as formerly under such conditions, approximated to unity. 

On the date 14.7.98 the wire was heated to redness by a Bunsen flame, the lead 
ting being removed to prevent stretching. An experiment was then made, and the 
results were 

G=7, n=1:253, b=680, nb=852, y,=43-4. 


A comparison with the results given in the last column of Table IV. shows that b has 
become much more than twice as large as the greatest previous value. 

_ It is interesting to compare this result with the results of two experiments made on 
the date 19.7.98, but not published in the first paper. In these experiments the wire 
hung inside a long solenoid composed of two similar coils of stout copper wire. In the 
first experiment a heavy current was run, in opposite directions, through the coils, The 
effect was to maintain the wire at a temperature of about 80° C. The results were 


@—2,) w— IAT, (O—030), 2b—936- 


The difference between the conditions now considered and those above described is that 
now the wire is maintained at a comparatively high temperature during the experiment, 
while formerly it was heated to redness and was then experimented upon when cold. 
Though 6 is not quite so large in the latter case as in the former, n is considerably 
greater than formerly—so much so that nb is greater in the case now under discussion 
than in the other. Hence, when the temperature is maintained high, the loss of energy 


—— li i 


4356 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


rye 


per oscillation is much greater at large angles, much less at small angles, than it is when 
the temperature is normal, even after heating to redness. 

In the second of the two experiments, performed immediately after the first, the 
only change made was that the current was sent in the same direction round the two 
coils. ‘Thus, in addition to the maintenance of the wire at a temperature of about 
80° C., a steady state of magnetisation was maintained. The results were 


@=2,, N= 312, G=—2210, nb—SlOe 


The effects just described are, therefore, in all respects greatly intensified. The 
molecular theory of magnetisation would lead one to expect decreased loss of energy at 
small angles, and increased loss at high angles, when the magnetisation is great. | 


Theory of the Oscillations of an Imperfectly-Elastic Solid. j 


The first attempt at a theoretical investigation of the properties of a ductile solid 
was made by James THomson (Camb. and Dub. Math. Journ., 1848) in a paper “On — 
the Strength of Materials, as influenced by the existence or non-existence of certain 
Mutual Strains among the Particles composing them.” In applying his investigation to 
the case of torsion of a wire, he assumed that a certain definite tangential stress per ; 
unit area could be sustained without the production of permanent distortion, while an 
intinitesimal increase of the stress over this value caused continuous sliding until the — 
stress diminished to the given definite value. In this way he explained the existence — 
of elastic limits, and the greater strength of a wire as regards torsion in one direction or 
the opposite. ; 

A mathematical development of MaxweE t's views of the molecular constitution of a — 
material substance is given by J. G. Burcuer (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. viii.) in a 
paper “On Viscous Fluids in Motion.” In it, molecular groups are considered as con- 
sisting of two classes—those in which finite strain can be sustained without rupture, 
and those in which no strain can be sustained; and the properties of substances are 
regarded as depending upon the relative proportions in which those groups are present. 
‘The investigation deals only with those cases in which fluidity is manifest. The 
question of “elastic after-action” is included. 

In the present investigation, the question of an imperfectly-elastic solid is alone 
considered, and elastic after-action is neglected. The case of torsion of a wire is 
explicitly developed. The fact that the period of oscillation had no effect on the 
experimental results obtained in the preceding part of the paper justifies the omission 
of the consideration of after-action in the application of the theory to these cases. 

The time which elapses between the breaking down of a group and its formation 
into a new configuration is regarded as being zero in comparison with the time of 
motion of the wire through any finite range. 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 437 


Consider unit length of the wire. Let & be the relative linear displacement per 
unit length at which a particular group breaks down, and let dé be the number of such 
groups which break in the increment of displacement dé Then, in the element of 
volume 27rdr, the number 27vrdrdé break down in the increment dé. Let @ be the 
angular distortion per unit length of the wire. Then 7 is the shear in the element of 
volume under consideration. Let 


where m is a whole number. If we assume that a group which breaks at the shear € is, 
on the average, formed again into a group which also breaks at the shear €, those 
groups which break at & and é will also break at 70. Now take 


e’=é+p(f-=e1+ 2), 


m—1 
where /p is a proper fraction. 

A group which breaks at €”, has had, when the total shear is 70, m—1 breaks, its 
last being at (m—1)€”=(m—1+>p)é The shear to which it is subjected, when the 
total shear is 7°, is therefore 

(m—-1)(¢-é")=(1-p)é. 


Hence, if we divide the shear &—€ into an infinite number of equal parts dé, the 
average value of p is $, so that the average value of the stretch to which the group 
which breaks at &” is subjected, when the total shear is 70, is 70/2m. 

Now the number 27vrdrdé, when summed over the range corresponding to two con- 
secutive values of m, becomes 


2arvrdr 16 
m(m—1)° * 


So, if the stress to which a group is subjected when it sustains a shear « is, on the 
average, kx, the total stress for the above number of groups is 


awkvr?6?dr 
m?(m —1)° 


And the total stress due to groups which break at shears lying between 0 and 76 is 


2h S 1 < 1 = 1 
abs. + — | 8dr = —rhv6?2at> —__—__ : ; ; : i 
atky aD 4! tak pe eG =)’ (1) 
where @ is the radius of the wire, and v and & are assumed to be constants. 

If N be the total number of groups per unit volume, the number of unbroken groups 
is, in the volume 277rd/,, 


ré 


(x = i vdé)2mrdr 


0 


438 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


and the total stress due to such groups is 


| (N — v7) kr 0 2ardr = amka’( a6 — ee 2 
0 


The total force tending to diminish the torsion is therefore 


2 2 eae 2 7] 6)2 
g7kNa (a0) t aliva 2- 3 amc aa (a6)?. 


ia 
The single force which, acting at the distance a from the axis, would equilibrate this is 


| 
i 2 = 2 pS ain eee: Bo 
ska (a6) — bla |2- aes 5 | 


= SrkNa*(a6) = ealvaS — ¥ (a6)? 2 - "el sy . 
Hence the deviation from Hooke’s Law 1s represented by a negative term involving the 
square of the distortion, provided that the quantity v is constant. 


But v is the rate at which groups break von per unit ie of distortion. 


over on ia ie ranges. 

If v were zero there would be no internal loss of energy in the wire ; and, if the wit 
were once set in oscillation, the oscillations would, so far as this cause is concerned, oil 
tinue for ever without any loss of amplitude. If is very small, the difference between 
the quantities of energy stored up in the wire in two successive maximum twists is 


of oscillations, since Hooke’s Law is nearly obeyed; and we can easily prove (see below 
that the loss of energy in an outward oscillation is proportional to the cube om th 
distortion. Also, since, by our fundamental assumptions, every group which broke do dows 


inward motion, the total loss of energy, in the form of heat, in the inward motion tot h 
zero is equal to that in the outward motion from zero. Hence we get —bdy=yda 
which gives . 


yea) =). 


“ioc © gi tea pone ws to produce avera gely one distribution of breaking rang 
over all possible values. 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. L39 


The apparatus which was used in the experimental investigations was not suitable 
_ for the purpose of testing the expression (3) directly in its application to the torsion of 
wires. Table VII. has been drawn up for me by Mr P. 8. Harpm, formerly Neil 
Arnott scholar in the Physical Laboratory, to test the applicability to the bending of 
bars of the equation 


a. - y =u — be, 
A 


re y represents distorting force and « represents distortion. The data used in the 
ulation are some of those given by HopGKinson and Fairparrn in the Bb. A. Reports, 
7. The columns headed x and y give observed values of these quantities; the 
mns headed 7 give calculated values of y. The correspondence is extremely close, 
ome cases remarkably so, when it is considered that any flaw in the homogeneity 
he material tends to introduce irregularities in the action under stress. Wig. 15 
ts graphically the results in one case. The full curve represents a curve y= ax — ba’, 
he points on or near it are obtained from the experiments. The straight full 
the diagram represents the Hooke’s Law line y=aw. The coordinate, y=a’*/4b, 
vertex of the parabola corresponds theoretically to the breaking stress. The 
ial always, as is to be expected, breaks at a smaller stress. 

We have now to investigate the inward motion. At any stage, all groups which 
ye rise to an inward force in the outward motion give rise to the same inward force 
the inward motion, provided that their last breaking-point has not been repassed. 
e other hand, those groups whose last breaking-point has been repassed do not exert 
ard force, but in general exert an outward force. Hence the inward force at any 
e on the inward motion to zero is less than the inward force at the same stage on 
utward motion. Thus we deduce at once from the theory the observed result that 
ne of outward motion over a given range is less than the time of inward motion 
same range. 

us suppose now that the angular distortion ¢, in the inward motion, has become 
an half the maximum angular distortion 6. Every group which broke down in 
vard motion is now exerting an outward force. In the volume 27rd, since we 
ming that the breaking range of distortion for different groups is, on the 
. uniformly distributed over all possible values, all groups which ce first 
¢ and @ are now exerting on the average an outward force $h7(9—¢). All 
hich broke at a range less than ¢ are now exerting an outward force aa is 
rtional to the distance between r@ and their last breaking-point on the inward 
To. find the total value of this force, consider m&=r,(m—1)é =r. A group 
roke at 


yee sos “(1 + =) 


earest breaking-point outside rp at m&’. Its distortion is therefore mé&" — rp = 
—1). Now, at the fixed point r, when €” ranges over &—£&, p takes all values 
to 1 uniformly, so that its average value is $. Hence we find that the outward 


‘em 


440 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


pull exerted by all groups which broke first in the range &’—€ is 


1 
[ i(é - ae Dara = 5 Miva ad) yy 


Thus the total outward force due to those groups whose breaking-range & is less than 
rp is 
1 


1 2 a 2h2 al 2f 2 2\5 1 
gra (a2g?)= mim —1p2 gma (a°$*)2. —. 


The single force, equivalent to this, acting at a distance a from the axis, is 
1 


amiva(ag?)>. 


= 


The outward force due to groups which broke first between 0 and ¢ is 

s kr(O—$). Inrdr .vr(9 = 6) = prhve?| a°(8 eee 
Referred to a this becomes 

Felva®[ aX - $)]. 
The whole inward force due to unbroken groups is 
i “(N —v06). Qardr . ker) = Qka?(asp) E N- : v(a) 
When referred to distance a this becomes 
amkaag)| tN - (ae) | ee 

The total inward force is therefore 

: akNaXad) — barlivaX(arg) i S 3) = : mhvaX(a2@ 


By comparison of the expressions (3) and (7) we see that when, in the imward moti 
the range is less than half its maximum value, the inward force is less than the anawc 
Jorce at the same stage on the outward motion by an amount which dena only on 
square of the maximum range. ’ 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 44] 


When, in the inward motion, the zero is reached, every group which has broken 
breaks and re-forms into its initial condition, so that the oscillation proceeds, as formerly, 
on the other side of the zero, but with less initial energy,—so giving rise to the lessening 
of amplitude. 

Now, as a given increase of maximum range decreases the inward force at any stage 
of the inward motion more and more as that range is greater, the time of inward motion 
increases when the range increases. But the form of (3) shows that the time of outward 
motion is less when the range of oscillation is small than when it is large. Therefore 
the period of complete oscillation is greater for large oscillations than for small. This 
was shown in the first paper. Kuprrer pointed it out first in 1853. 

The result that the zero of oscillation is a point at which groups re-form into their 
original condition explains the fact of the constancy of that zero which was found to 
obtain as oscillations proceed (see Second Paper). 

The expression (7) vanishes when 


m2 m2 


4 oN \ ( BN ie «6? 
ee ee) eS Shei incse «Ss *, @) 
1 


1 


This is, according to the theory, the relation which connects the angle of set with the 
angle of maximum twist, provided that the former does not exceed half the latter, 
and provided also that v is constant—a condition which seems to hold, as we have 
seen, when the wire is greatly fatigued. This equation represents an ellipse whose 
semi-axes have a ratio of about 13 to 10, and would imply that the wire would flow round 
under the action of continued stress when the set equalled about ten-thirteenths of 
the distortion, if we could apply the equation to sets beyond half distortion (see Note). 

If the inward motion were stopped just short of the zero, and the wire were then 
given an outward motion, the conditions differ from those in the first outward motion. 
When the angle reaches a value v, equation (6) gives the inward force due to unbroken 
groups if > be replaced by LY. With the same substitution, (5) represents the outward 
pull due to groups which broke first between ~ and 0. So also, being substituted 
for 9, (1) gives the inward pull due to groups which broke between 0 and v. Hence, 
the expression in (1) being referred also to distance a from the axis, the total inward 
force in this case is 


Sak Na?(ay) — dakva? (ay?) 3.4, —Inkva? (WM). 6 we 8) 
This differs from the expression (7) in the multiplier of the middle term. The 
value of 263 is very closely 5/3 and that of >.-, is closely 2/3. 

The expressions (3) and (9) have identical values when = 6, after which, the 


angle not being exceeded, the inward motion again obeys the law of force given 
VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 14). 3X 


442 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


by (7); the next outward motion, the in motion being stopped just short of the zero, 


again obeys the law of force given by (9); and soon. By taking =. instead of 5.4 
2 


im 
in equation (8) we get an expression for the angle of set in the first part of the out- 
ward motion under these circumstances. 

We can easily get a simple graphical construction for the two extreme positions 
of set. Plot forces as abscissee and angles as ordinates. Draw the Hooke’s Law line 
as indicated by the first term of (3). Draw also the parabolic curve given by (8), and 
the parabolic curve indicated by the first two terms of (9). ‘Take three-fifths of the 
difference of abscissee of the Hooke’s Law line and the former parabola at the ordinate 
corresponding to the maximum angle 9, and plot it along the line of abscisse. The 
ordinate drawn through the point so found intersects the two parabole at points whose 
ordinates are the extreme angles of set. The method is shown im fig. 15. 

The dotted curve in fig. 15 is the second parabola above referred to, the full curve 
being the first. The position of set being taken as origin, the dotted curve does not 
greatly differ from a straight line, the deviations at the larger forces being in the 
direction of too great distortion. This result explains WiEDEMaNN’s observation (Philo- 
sophical Magazine, vol. ix., 1880) that, after a wire has been twisted a few times im 
opposite directions alternately by a given couple, and is then twisted by increasing 
couples in the direction of the last twist, Hooke’s Law is nearly obeyed, provided the 
original couple is not exceeded, the slight deviations bemg in the direction of too 
great twist. 

In order to deduce the expression 


y"(«#+a)=b 


as the more general relation connecting range of oscillation with number of oscillations, 
we have only to assume that the quantity v, employed in the preceding investigation, 
varies as a power of the strain. Take €=70/(m+>p) where m is a whole number and p 
is a proper fraction ; and, instead of », let us write 


i v6 \p 
1 +p/ 


where v and » are regarded as constants. Each group which breaks at & has, when it 
breaks, potential energy $kE?, which is transformed into heat. Also each such group, 
p varying from 0 to 1, breaks m times. Hence the heat developed in the range 0 to ®, 
is, in the volume 27rdr, 


Pp =) 


ym ( (EN al 2 are coy CO 
1 nf (4) ae d my 2rrdr = rkv 3B+p m*(m+ 1H" 


pal 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 443 
The total loss of energy is therefore 


arhva?(ab)*t* $ m F 
(3+) (5+p) 1 [m(m+ 1)" 


If this loss is a small fraction of the whole energy we may write it proportional to 
6d0/dx, and, by integration, obtain, in the former notation, the result 


ytt(et+ay=b. 


The theory therefore indicates that n 1s greater or less than wnty, according as groups 
breaking at large distortions are more or less numerous than groups breaking at small 
distortions. 

We can easily, as above, determine the more general relation which connects set with 
torsion, but it is sufficient to note that the preceding considerations justify, from the 
point of view of theory, the adoption of the approximate expression used in the first 
paper on this subject, and that they are therefore justified, in turn, by the experimental 
confirmation therein given. 

It is not to be supposed that the agreement of the results of the above theory 
with the results of observation necessarily proves the truth of the particular assump- 
tions therein made. ‘The object of the investigation is rather to show how well a 
theory based upon simple and reasonable assumptions concerning molecular statistics 
can account for general phenomena exhibited by imperfectly elastic solid media. 


Notre. Added 6th October 1898. 


It is of interest to determine the general law of motion at all stages of the inward 
motion. Let 6 and ¢ have the same meanings as formerly, and take 


r= (1 +p)rp 
with the condition 


1 
pm a 


Where «is a whole number and AJ is a proper fraction. Consider the various stages 
rp/(m+1) to rp/m, where m is a whole number. 
A group which breaks at 


a ae 
m+1' m(m+1) 


has its (m+ 1) break at 


444 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


For all values of x from 0° to 1 this point lies between rp and 76, provided that 
we have 

i ° 

P 


When the stage ¢ on the inward motion is reached, all such groups exert outward 
force, and their average stretch is 


Be oe 
21 m DSTA x 


The total outward pull due to them is therefore 


lr ee 
w+ 8. 2evar, Baas m(m +1)’ 


the summation being with one to m. 
When we have 


x= mp . 


fs rp 


Then the number of groups 
rp 
mm+1) "m+ 


vnyp 


break in the range r¢ to 76 with an average stretch 3(r6—rd). Hence their outwa 
pull is 
a qf aera t chemo a 


In the case of the remaining number 


aie rn Soe AE 
WN +1)— | m m+i\\? 


number is 


rp 70 
yn| ~ M+ 1 i 


Hence the total inward pull of these groups is 


att 
S. [ aevar, vokem| Los me | 
m m+. 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 445 


To these expressions we have to add the outward pull of groups which break only 
between rf and 70. This is 


| Qardr.sk(rO— ray? ee ee 8) 
0 


By integration of the expressions (10), (11), (12), and (13), and by supposing, as for- 
merly, that the forces act at a distance a from the axis, we find that the total inward 
force is 


datvat { § S Sm E ai —il- (0-gys_1. $3 - (0-4) | + 2akat| A ‘ had | 


— +1) 
if we take account of the pull (6) due to unbroken groups. This can be put in the 
form 


TENa(Gd) oniva(ord?) = —taa(aeys it’ 2 2. (4) 
2 5 wtim2 5 1m 


which reduces, when we put » =0, to the expression (7) applying to the second half of 
the inward motion. 


The points (1—+)ro are points such that, in the intermediate ranges, the multi- 


pliers of the second and third terms in (14) remain constant. The sudden changes in 
the magnitudes of these terms are equal and opposite. For, when ¢ reaches the value 
wO/(u+1), % having become zero in the expression 1++A, m is to be suddenly 
changed to »—1 in the affixes of the summations, so that the second term is suddenly 
increased by the amount 


1 *(a? 1 var(a2g?)—_ 
gmiva a g= pmhva (a6 fe 


(u+ cap i +1)? 


which is also the decrease of the third term. Thus the force varies continuously. 
The amount by which (14) differs from (3) at any definite value of the angle is 


1 PHL wy 
= deva?| de — ag? | ; 
5 1m 1m 


This is therefore the continuously varying expression for the defect of the inward force 
at a given stage in the inward motion from the inward force at the same stage in the 
outward motion. 

The limiting boundary of the space included by the series of ellipses represented by 
equating (14) to zero indicates the general relation between torsion and set when » is 
constant. These ellipses intersect consecutively at points where 2p=0, 3p=20, 
4p=30, etc. At these points the rate of variation of set with torsion changes suddenly. 


446 


179 
15'1 
13:0 
10°2 
8-4 
67 
50 
4:0 
33 
2°8 
2°5 


Date. 


8.6.96 
16.7.96 
18.7.96 
20.7.96 
21.7.96 
22,7.96 
23.7.96 
23.7.96 
24.7.96 
27.7.96 
27.7.96 
28.7.96 
30.7.96 


16.7.96 


19°8 
155 
13°0 
10-2 
8-4 
6°6 
49 
4:0 
3°3 
2°9 
25 


DR W. PEDDIE ON 


TaBLE I.—Results of the First Series of Experiments. 


a nh b 
5 1-148 178 
4 1-037 100 
4 1-030 99:7 
4 1-040 99 
4 1-045 100 
13 1-033 93:5 
7 1-040 101 
i 1-020 98 
3 1-067 99 
5 1-000 97 
4 1-060 100 
5 1-017 100 
6 1-033 100 


Tasie II.—Test of the Results of the First Series. 


18.7.96 
18°3 18-2 18°5 17°6 176 
153 15-3 14-9 14:9 14:8 
13-2 13-2 12-9 12:9 12:8 
10°3 10°3 10-2 10°1 10:0 
8°5 8°5 8-4 8-4 8°3 
6-7 6-7 6°6 er 6°6 
50 5-0 4-9 50 4°9 
4-0 4:0 4:0 4:0 3-9 
3°3 33 3:3 3:3 3-2 
2°9 2°8 2°8 2°8 2°8 


2°5 2°5 2°5 2°5 25 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 


116 
10°4 
9°4 
78 
6-7 
5°6 
4°3 
3°6 
30 
2°6 
2°3 
21 
19 


Tasie II.—Continued. 


6°3 
5°9 
5°5 
5:0 
4°6 
3°9 
3:2 
27 
2°4 
2°1 
Vy) 
7 
16 


“ANT 


14:8 
1371 
10°3 
8-4 
6°6 
4°9 
3°9 
3°2 
2°8 
2°5 
22 
1-9 
18 


22.7.96 


6°4 
5°9 


24.7.96 


20°3 
155 
13°3 
10°3 
8°5 
6°5 
4:7 
3°9 
3°2 
2°8 
2°5 
2:2 
ge) 
18 


447 
23.7.96 
6-2 11-4 11:8 11-6 
5-9 10°2 10-4 10°4 
5D 9-2 9-4 9-4 
5-0 tl 77 78 
45 6°7 6°6 67 
4:0 55 54 56 
3°3 4°3 4°3 4°3 
2°8 3°6 36 3°6 
2° 3-0 3-0 3-0 
2°2 2°6 oi 2°6 
2-0 2°3 2-4 2-3 
18 o-1 oa 2-1 
ile 19 19 19 
27.7.96 
191” 16-7 168 16-7 
15°9 14:3 14:1 14-2 
13°6 12°5 12°3 12-4 
10°6 10-0 9-7 9°8 
8-7 8°3 8:1 8-2 
68 6-7 6-4 6-5 
51 5-0 4°8 4:9 
4-0 4-0 38 3-9 
33 3°3 3-2 3°3 
2-9 2-9 2°8 2°8 
2°5 2°5 2-5 2-5 
DN) WD) 2-2 2-2 
2-0 2-0 2-0 2-0 
18 18 1:8 1:8 


448 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


TaBLeE II.—Continued. 


27.7.96 28.7.96 
16-7 16:8 16-7 15°9 16-7 151 131 
141 141 14-2 13'1 13-7 13:0 115 
12°2 123 12-4 12-0 11-9 115 10°3 
9°6 9°7 9°8 9°8 9°5 9°3 8°5 
8-0 81 8-2 75 8-2 78 72 
6-4 6-4 6-5 6-4 6:3 6:3 5-9 
4°8 4°8 49 4°9 4°7 4°7 4°5 
3°8 3°8 3°9 4-0 3°8 3°8 3°7 
3-2 3-2 3°3 3-2 3-1 3-2 3+] 
2°8 2°8 2-8 2-8 28 2°8 2-7 
2-4 2-5 2-5 2°5 25 24 2-4 
2-2 22 | 22 ee) 2-2 2-2 21 
20 20 2-0 2-0 2-0 2-0 19 
18 18 18 m e ot 17 


Tasie Ill.—Tests of Initial Deviations from Formule. 


Date Yo N p a Date. Yo 
16.7.95 37°1 1 2°13 6 9.12.95 37°2 
17.7.95 51°3 10 2°06 4 12.12.95 36°8 
18.7.95 44°4 20 2:00 4 17.12.95 14:2 
19.7.95 41:2 30 2°49 5 18.12.95 14:3 
20.7.95 36°6 1 2°09 5 19.12.95 9°6 
20.7.95 48°7 50 158 3 19.12.95 | 7:0 
20.7.95 39°7 1 1°47 4 20.12.95 5:3 
22.7.95 40°0 80 1:29 3 20.12.95 30 
23.7.95 42:0 120 0°73 2 24.12.95 16 
25.7.95 30:2 160 0:23 2 24.12.95 85 
26.7.95 38°7 1 1:98 4 
26.7.95 43°9 200 0°93 2 


to 
~ 
~I 
oo 
or 
_ 
— 
i) 
or 
oO 
Oo 
ite) 
ot 
bo 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 449 


TasLe 1V.—Re-calculated Duta for Table I. in the First Puper. 


nv a b (ay n a b 
1-05 65 BTA 543 1-02 75 196 
118 75 302 723 113 85 231 
1-18 66 802 770 1-16 6-6 238 
L-18 6-4 802 847 1-20 6-4 246 
iy Ge 802 820 1-19 6-4 247 
1-18 73 842 822 117 73 252 
1-18 67 802 781 1-167 6-7 240 
1:32 44 | (1074 1080 1-326 44 283 
118 66 802 820 119 66 247 
1-18 70 802 824 1-19 7-0 248 
1-40 2°6 761 738 1:38 3-0 183 


Taste V.—Data for Second Series of Experiments, 


@ n b mb Y 
7 09 129 116 37-5 
ie 0-89 m7 104 39:0 
if 0°87 107 93 40°3 
6 0:95 119 DUS! a2 33°9 
6 0°92 19,5 103 43°6 
6 0935 A 109 39:2 
6 0917 110 101 , 41-2 
6 0°95 qogn Pom 116 39-0 
6 0-91 107 OF | 410 
6 0:92 111 102 | 39:3 
6 0-912 107 98 40'1 
6 O92 | 111 102 43°7 
5 | 0:96 ios 101 37:1 (N= 5) 


(XIX. PART II. (NO. 14). BY 


450 


Date. 


29.10.97 (1) 
29.10.97 (2) 
1.11.97 (1) 
1.11.97 (2) 
2.11.97 (1) 
2.11.97 (2) 
3.11.97 (1) 
3.11.97 (2) 
4.11.97 (1) 
4.11.97 (2) 
5.11.97 
8.11.97 (1) 
8.11.97 (2) 
9.11.97 
10.11.97 (1) 
10.11.97 (2) 
10.11.97 (3) 
11.11.97 (1) 
11.11.97 (2) 
12.11.97 (1) 
12.11.97 (2) 
15.11.97 (1) 
15.11.97 (2) 
16.11.97 (1) 
16.11.97 (2) 
17.11.97 (1) 
17.11.97 (2) 
17.11.97 (3) 
18.11.97 (1) 
18.11.97 (2) 
19.11.97 
22.11.97 (1) 
22.11.97 (2) 
23.11.97 
24.11.97 
25.11.97 
14.12.97 
15.12.97 
9.2.98 


DR W. PEDDIE ON 


TaBLe V.—Continued. 


a vv 
5 0:957 
5 0:957 
5 0985 
6 0990 
7 0:970 
5 0:975 
5 1-000 
10 0990 
7 0:965 
5 0:968 
4 1:022 
5 1-025 
5 0:985 
12 0992 
12 1:010 
17 0913 
16 0:900 
5 1012 
15 0950 
11 1-008 
4 1-020 
50 0°680 
4 1-042 
17 1:017 
4 1:030 
11 0:953 
10 0:982 
4 1:030 
30 0°857 
18 0°950 
220 0:270 
60 0523 
25 0°695 
20 0:740 
8 0925 
6 0:968 
300 0590 
6 1:010 
220 0363 


100 


118 
123 
102 
114 
123 
115 

97 
102 
119 

98 
147 
167 
139 
132 
117 
119 
102 
101 
145 
132 
175 
104 
128 
134 
109 
129 
152 
152 
164 
114 
118 
125 
119 
386 
145 
218 


9-4 (N= 40) 


365 (N=6C 


38°7 (N=5) | 
38:3 (N=10)| 
39°6 | 
22-9 
28°4 
371 
40°5 
12'8 


40°7 | 
36'1 (N =20)| 
127 4 
131 
11:0 
11-2 
35°6 
9°3 


39-0 
8°6 
39°8 , 
93 — am 


14:3 
12:2 
32°2 
9°8 
10:0 
4:3 
9°6 
15:2 
17:0 
29°9 
58:0 
35 
34:3 
45 


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452 DR W. PEDDIE ON 


Taste VIL— Results for Hodgkinson’s and Fairbairn’s Experiments. 


H. Exp. I,.1. Hi.” Expy 2. H. Exp, 3s 
x y y' x y y' a y y 4 
3:7 3°2 S17 bl 4°6 4°34 3°8 3°2 3°32 | 
5-2 4°6 4°34 67 6:0 5.68 52 4°6 4:52 | 
7:0 6:0 5°83 12°9 112 10°91 7:0 6:0 6:06 | 
13°2 11:2 10-90 26°1 22°4 21°63 13°3 11:2 11-45 
27°1 22°4 21:48 56°1 44:8 44°80 27°6 22°4 22°76 | 
58'8 44°8 45°80 90-0 67:2 68°76 59°8 448 45°47 | 
94°0 67:2 70°02 129°7 89°6 93°99 95°8 67:2 65°95 | 
136°0 89°6 95°60 she 5a ~t 138°8 89°6 83°60 | 
a=0°839 b=0:001 a=0°855 b=0°001 a=0'880 b=0:002 
Hy, Exp, 1,, 4. H.Exp, 1,5, H, Exp. [ee 
x y y' c y x y 
15 2 1°83 2°5 5 3°78 7 8 
3°2 4 3°87 4:5 v5 6°79 11 12 
4°6 6 B:bb 6°5 10 Sars) 15 16 
13-0 16 15°53 13°4 20 20°12 24 24 
273 32 31:07 27°0 40 40°59 33 32 
44-4 48 48°25 58-0 80 81°43 44 40 
61°8 64 63°94 89°5 120 119-98 50 44 
81:3 80 79°36 122°4 160 156°04 53 45 
103-0 96 93°9 158°5 200 189°76 on ae 
a=1:22 6b=0:003 a=152 b=0°002 a=1:14 6=0°005 
Exp. 49) Hi Exp. ts, H. Exp. Ii 
x y ae y y x y 
rf 8 7°88 85 10°82 10°75 3°3 2°2 
10°2 12 11°35 10°6 13°43 13°19 6:2 4:2 
14 16 15°38 13:0 16:05 15°85 12:0 8-0 
22 24 23°43 15°6 18°66 18°62 240 16:0 
31 32 31:90 12° 21:26 23°15 37°0 24:0 
40 40 39°82 21:2 23°88 24:13 51:0 32:0 
51 48 4755 24°3 26°49 26°72 64:9 40:0 
62 56 56°11 27°2 29°10 28°33 798 48:0 
iat Rae 30°7 31°72 32°02 95°3 56:0 
ae 34:0 34°33 34°44 112°0 640 © 
37°8 36°94 36°83 131-0 72:0 73 


a=1:153 b=0-004 a=135 6=0°01 a=0°679 b=0:0009 


a 
- 


TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF WIRES. 4538 


Tasie VII.—Continued. 


i Exp. IT, ¢. SH Exp: If, 8. Jel, Megre OUI se 
y ‘ « y y' w y y' 
4 4:47 7 8 8:04 4 8 78 
6 6:29 105 12 11:96 8 16 15:4 
8 - 8:25 1 14 13°56 12 24 229 
10 10:13 14:5 16 G22 17 32 31°9 
12 11:95 18 20 19°84 22 40 40-7 
14 13°86 oy) 24 23°81 26 48 AT‘5 
16 15°62 26 28 27°65 31 56 56:0 
20 19°81 Bil 32 31°86 36 64 63°8 
24 23°89 41 40 40°65 49 Tz 73:0 
28 27°81 45 44 43°75 47 80 80°4 
32 31°94 51 48 48:10 52 88 875 
36 34:14 56 52 51°47 58 96 95°6 
Bl 34:23 62 56 55°20 64 104 103-4 
it oa at oes 71 112 1119 
79 120 121:0 
85 128 127°4 
96 136 137°9 
ate Are ee ae ANA 105 146 145°6 
oA ape soe oh She ae 116 154 153°6 
a=2205 6=0:0355 ; a=1:188 4b=0:0048 a=1:974 b=0:0056 
mer. Exp. III, 4. EH xp: V, 1 ESExp. Vi, 2: 
y oe co y y “ y y’ 
8:96 9°87 ol 23+1 22°50 E95) oe 30°7 
10:08 . 11:56 68 45-0 45°37 61:0 64 63:9 
10°82 11:12 114 67:0 67°67 100:0 96:2 97:0 
13:06 13°62 141 78:0 77°70 123-0 le 113-7 
15°30 15:26 171 84:6 84:90 149-0 128 129°8 
17°54 16°59 
19:78 20:23 a=0776 b=0:0016 a=117 b=0:002 
2202 2206 
= 24°26 24°19 : : e ; 
96°50 26°50 F. Exp. ie 3. 
28°74 28°50 
30°98 BAOE) > yf es Se ea ee ee ; 
33°22 33:06 x y y 
35-46 35°53 He eixp. Vi, I. U2 8 8°5 
37-70 37°80 12°5 16 14:0 
39-94 39-87 26°9 32 31:0 
42°18 42-17 x y y 42-0 48 473 
44°42 44°41 28:0 32 31:18 58:4 64 64:2 
46°66 46°78 61:2 64 64:11 74:8 80 © 80:4 
48:90 48°82 100:0 96 97:00 92:4 96 96:7 
51:14 52°57 1220 - ae 113:00 110°5 112 112-4 
53°38 53°44 146:0 eek 120°50 131°5 128 129°4 


| n 
a=1517 b=0-0096 a=117 b=0-002 a=1196 b=0-0016 


454 


F. Exp. I, 4 
w y y' 
2°8 4 3°98 
6:0 8 8-11 
9-2 12 12710 
125 16 15:99 
16:2 20 20°46 
20°3 24 24:24 
24:2 28 27°94. 
29-0 32 31°84 
316 34 33°78 
a=1417 6=0-011 
BY Exp. IT, 3. 
© y y' 
30 4 3°62 
6°8 8 8:06 
10:2 12 11-80 
14:0 16 15°96 
178 20 19°88 
21°7 24 23°74 
30:0 33 SylES}2) 
349 37 35°41 
37°7 39 37°62 
40°8 41 40:07 
43°9 43 42°15 
a=1:224 b=0:006 
F. Exp. IV, 4 
v y y' 
ay) 4 3°81 
7-0 8 OU 
108 12 ESI 
14:6 16 15-79 
18°3 20 19°58 
22°0 24 23°41 
26°1 28 27°25 
30°4 32 31°53 
32°8 34 33°69 
35'2 36 35°89 
38:0 38 38°42 
a=1:125 b=0:003 


DR W. PEDDIE ON 


TasLe VII.— Continued. 


FB Expl 3 

x y y 
3h 4 3°66 
7:0 8 8:00 
10°9 12 11:98 
15°2 16 16:04 
20:0 20 20°20 
| 24 24-05 
30°7 28 27°66 
34:3 


a=1:214 6=0:0102 


F. Exp. III, 4. 

x D y' 
31 4 4-11 
6:0 8 7:86 
9:2 12 11:95 
12:2 16 15°75 
15°6 20 20°70 
18:9 24 24°01 
22:1 28 27°86 
30°0 36 3711 
34:0 40 41-64 

a=1:327 6b=0°003 
Em Exps Vine 

aw y y! 
3°2 4 3°97 
66 8 ee) 
10:1 12 11-60 
14:1 16 16°10 
18:1 20 20°04 
22-9 24 24°37 
27°6 28 29-20 
33:0 32 32°11 
35°5 


33 33°75 


a=1:27 b=0°009 


F. Exp. II, 4. 

x y 

3 4 
66 ‘8. 
10°3 12 
14-4 16 
188 20 
23°8 24 
29-0 28 
35°5 32 
39:0 34 


a=1263 b=0-01 


F. Exp. IV, 3. 


8 
= 


erwvasw 
_ 
lor) 


a=1:123 »=0:002 


F. Exp. VL, 4 


8 
_~ 


wwnNnndree 
Brune WO OS Slr AT 9 
SS WiorS Ores SO co 

| 

for) 


a=12 belie 


455 


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XV.—The Strains produced in Iron, Steel, Nickel, and Cobalt Tubes in the Magnetic 
Field. Parrll. By Professor C. G. Knorr, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Plates I. and II.) 


(Read 6th June 1898.) 


CONTENTS. 
PAGE PAGE 
§ 1. Introduction, . : 2 : . 457 § 6. The Bored Iron and Steel Tubes, . : . 464 
§ 2. Methods of Experiment, . : : j 5 . 458 § 7. Curious Behaviour of Iron Tubes, > . 466 
§ 3. The Strain Coefficients, . : : : . 459 § 8. The Dilatations in Iron and Steel, : . 470 
§ 4. The Bored Nickel Tubes, : ; . 461 § 9. The Coiled Iron Tubes, : : : . 471 
§ 5. The Coiled Nickel and Cobalt Tubes, : . 463 § 10. General Conclusions, . : ; : . 472 


§ 1. Lyrropucrion.—The remarkable changes produced by magnetization in the 
internal volumes of hollow cylinders of iron, steel, and nickel have been described in 
Part I. (see Trans. R.S.H., vol. xxxvill. pp. 531-555). As pointed out in the 
closing paragraph, a complete discussion of these changes had to be “deterred until 
direct measurements of elongation had been obtained with the various tubes under the 
same magnetic influences.” It was not possible, of course, to measure the elongations of 
all the tubes that had been experimented with; for of these, eighteen (Nos. L. to VI. 
of each inclusive) were no longer in existence, having been the successive stages 
through which No. VII. was brought from the condition of small bore and thick walls 
to that of wide bore and thin walls. 

As the investigation with the existing tubes proceeded, it became more and more 
matter for regret that the idea of measuring the elongations as well as the volume 
changes of the successive tubes had not occurred to me at an earlier stage. I therefore 
resolved to carry out a complete series of experiments with a new set of iron tubes, all 
successive stages in the life-history of one and the same bar. These are distinguished 
below as Nos. I’. to VIII’. inclusive. The changes of length and the changes of volume 
of bore of each of these tubes were measured, and from these measurements certain 
interesting results were obtained. 

But it now became evident that a much clearer insight into the character of the 
strain accompanying magnetization in iron and nickel tubes would be obtained if the 
cubical dilatation of the material of these tubes could be measured directly. This, 
unfortunately, could not be effected with the tubes in use, which nearly filled the core 
of the magnetizing coil (Part I., § 6). 

Led by these considerations, I proceeded to study the volume and length changes 
of sets of smaller tubes, each of which could be enclosed in a strong brass tube inserted 
in the core of the magnetizing coil. The new nickel tubes, distinguished as the B 
tubes, were formed by successive borings from a nickel bar, 20°2 cm. long and 2'72 cm. 

VOL, XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 15). oe 


458 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


in diameter. Two new sets of iron tubes, distinguished as the A tubes and the B tubes, 
were studied. The B tubes correspond in dimensions with the nickel B tubes ; the A 
tubes are twice as long. Each original iron bar gave in succession seven tubes, the 
internal diameters of which increased from two-eighths of an inch (No. I.) to fully an 
inch (No. VII.). The internal diameters of the nickel tubes range from three-eighths 
(No. IL.) to six-eighths (No. V.) of an inch. A further boring was in this case out of 
the question, since the material had begun to crack, and the tube consequently to leak. 
The dimensions of these and the other new tubes are given in numerical detail in 
Table I. at the end of the paper. 

Having thus briefly sketched the history of the research, I propose in what follows 
(1) to discuss in full the results for the A and B tubes, and (2) to compare with these 
and elucidate by their means, the comparatively incomplete results obtained with i. 
large tubes, both old and new. 

The existing old tubes are No, VIL, 3, 5, 7 of iron and of steel; and No. VIL, 
4, 7 of nickel. 

The iron and steel tubes, No. 9, are the thinnest walled of all the large tubes, and 
differ from the others in having no internal ledge on which a washer could be screwed 
down under the cap. The measurement of the volume changes in these thin tubes 
required a different method of fitting the cap, and, indeed, a different cap altogether 
The results originally obtained with them were not regarded as altogether satisfactory 
and were accordingly omitted in Part I. They are given below, for the sake of com: 
pleteness, along with the elongations. 

Excluding the eighteen temporary tubes which formed the successive stages of the 
iron, steel, and nickel tubes, No. VII., we have in all forty tubes, whose changes of forn 
and eae in various magnetic fields are now to be discussed. q 

§ 2. Murnops or Experment.—With each of the A and B tubes four distine 
Apaiiltnts were made. ‘These were :— 
(1) Measurements in various magnetic fields of the corresponding changes q 
volume of bore. 
(2) Measurements in the same fields of changes of length. 
(3) Measurements in the same fields of changes of volume of the material of the 
tube. 
(4) Measurements in the same fields of apparent external changes of volume, the — 
tube being plugged and treated as a bar. q j 

The first form of experiment was conducted after the manner described in Part 1, — 
§ 7. The metal tube and the connected capillary glass tube were filled with water, ane 
the changes of volume measured by the displacements of the end of the water column 
in the capillary. | 

In the second form of experiment the change of length was measured by means 
a lever and mirror arrangement, similar in essence to the arrangements used by ot ‘he | 
experimenters (JouLn, Barrett, Browe 1, etc.). The tube under investigation rested 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 459 


inside the brass tube already mentioned, which was adjusted within the magnetizing 
coil so that the iron or nickel tube was centrally placed in the coil. The mirror rested 
by two colinear knife-edges on supports firmly attached to a brass cap screwed to the 
top of the brass tube. A glass rod of suitable length rested by its lower end on the 
top of the iron or nickel tube, and supported on its upper end a third knife-edge also 
fixed to the mirror. This knife-edge was parallel to, but lay 1:1 mm. behind, the 
common line of the other two knife-edges. Any change of length in the inner tube 
would prodtice arise or fall of the support of the single knife-edge, while the two 
colinear knife-edges would be unaffected. The consequent tilt given to the mirror, 
which was set approximately vertical, was measured by means of a telescope and 
reflected scale in the usual manner. A simple calculation gave the corresponding 
change of length of the tube, and from that the longitudinal dilatation could at once 
be found. 

Experiments (1) and (2) were made with the large tubes also. In the measurement 
‘of the change of length, however, the method was slightly modified. The brass cap 
supporting the colinear knife-edges was screwed on to the top of the iron, steel, or 
nickel tube, while the glass rod supporting the single knife-edge passed up through 
the hollow core from the base of the tube. 

In the third form of experiment the iron or nickel tube was placed within the brass 
tube, which was otherwise filled with water, and to which the capillary was attached. 
Any change of volume of the material of the immersed tube produced its effect on the 
position of the end of the water column in the capillary. 

In the fourth form of experiment the iron or nickel tube was plugged up (air only 
being inside), and in this condition was dropped into the brass tube, while everything 
else was exactly as in experiment (38). 

Unless the differences in the mechanical constraints to which any tube was sub- 
jected in these various experiments produce really important disturbances, we should 
expect to find the apparent volume change of experiment (4) to be equal to the 
algebraic sum of the volume changes of experiments (1) and (3). 

A glance at the numbers given in Tables II. and VI. below will show how satistac- 
torily the experiments establish this relation. 

§ 3. Toe Srrain Corrricrents.—In these experiments the quantities directly 
measurable are :— 

V, the volume of the material ; 

v, the volume of the bore ; 

v, the volume of the space enclosed by the outer surface and ends—in other 
words, the volume of the original bar from which the tubes were formed ; 

dV, dv, dv’, the changes of these volumes in given fields ; 

X, the longitudinal dilatation of the tube; and 

8, =8V/V, the average cubical dilatation of the material of the tube in these same 


fields, 


460 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN TRON, 


Now we may write 
v/v =A+2Qu.. i : ) ‘ (1) 
where “ represents the transverse dilatation of the core. It may be regarded as 
measuring the elongation at each point of the inner surface of the tube in the direction 
perpendicular to the axial plane passing through the point. If we suppose § to be the 
eubical dilatation at this point, we have the equation 


O=Atutp .. : : , 3 (2) 


where v is the elongation in the direction of the radius. 
Similarly, }(8v’/v’ —A) gives wv’, the “tangential” clongation at the outer surface of 
the tube; and then the radial elongation is given by 


ee a 


In calculating these strain coefficients I make the two assumptions :—First, that 
5, which really measures the average cubical dilatation throughout the metal, also 
measures the cubical dilatations of the elements at the surfaces; and second, that d 
has the same value at every point of the tube. There seems no way of testing the 
truth of the first assumption; but the second was tested by direct experiment, and nm 
indication was found of \ having different values at the outer and inner walls. 

The precise significance of the ratios A, u, v, »’, v’ may be thus indicated. 
a small spherical element of diameter 2e at the inner surface of the tube. 


axes are 2e(1+A) in a direction parallel to the axis of the tube, 2c(1+,) in a radial 
direction, and 2e(1+ ) in a direction at right angles to these—that is, tangential. Th 
ratios 1+A, 1+’, 1+ 4’ have similar meanings for an originally spherical clement at 
the outer surface. 

Again, if 7, R, are the inner and outer radii of the tube, vu and Ry’ represent bh 
outward displacements of the corresponding surfaces. 


further assumption that the cubical dilatations are the same for all tubes of the sam 
metal. Thus, since V+v=v’, we have 8V + 6v =v’ in any given field. Hence © 


or, 


and the volumes v, v’, V are known. Consequently, if 5 be assumed, the value 
A+2p’ at once follows. Hence » and p’ may be calculated. The values of v and ¥ 
are then found from the equations (2) above. 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 461 


This process has been applied to the old iron tubes 1, 3, 5, VII., to the new iron 
tubes I’. to VIII’, and to tube A VII. 

As will be seen immediately, the cubical dilatation in the case of nickel is negligibly 
small compared with the elongations, so that y’ is to be found from the simplified form 
of equation 


r+ Qu! = (d+ Qu) . ee es on 51. (2); 


The ratios v and v’ follow as above. 

The values for the Nickel Tubes 1, 4, 7, and I. to VII. have been obtained in this 
way, the additional assumption being made that the elongation » is the same for the 
non-existent Tubes I. to VI. as for the final existent form VII. A consideration of all 
the measured values of » for the various tubes, large and small, will show that this 
assumption, though not strictly true, does not involve an error of magnitude sufficient 
to modify seriously the final conclusions. 

§ 4. Toe Borep NickeL Tusrs.—These are best considered first, because of the 
comparative simplicity of the results obtained. The volume changes and dilatations 
of the B tubes in various magnetic fields are given in Table II., and are shown graphi- 
cally in the first two rows of Plate I. 

Especially noteworthy is the smallness of the material volume change in comparison 
with the other measured volume changes. So minute is dV, that in calculating the 
strain coefficients we may, without any risk of serious error, put 


A+u+v=0. 


The dv and dv’ curves lie very close together. It is, in fact, hardly possible, on the 
chosen scale, to draw them distinct in the case of BI]. For B V. one curve only is given, 
that, namely, which shows how the apparent external volume change increases with the 
| field. A tiny crack in the wall of the tube prevented any good observation of the 
bore change being made. 

On the whole, there is a tendency for the volume changes dv and 6v’ to differ more 
as the bore increases, that is, as the walls get thinner. This may be referred to the 
different conditions of constraint in the two forms of experiment. When dv was being 
measured, the brass cap, by means of which the capillary was attached to the upper end 
of the tube, was screwed on to the outside surface. On the other hand, in order to per- 
_ mit the tube to slide easily within the brass tube when dv’ was to be measured, the nickel 
tube was in this case closed by a brass plug which screwed on to the inside surface. 
Thus in any lateral expansion of the tube, there would be more constraint with the 
outside fitting cap than with the inside fitting plug. 

Again, the manner in which the cubical dilatation diminishes with the thickness of 
the wall suggests the possibility that part of the measured change of volume 5V 
may be due to empty spaces within the metal—in other words, to its vesicular structure. 

Passing to the consideration of the coefficients of strain, we notice a steady, though 


462 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


small numerical increase in the values of the longitudinal elongations (A) as the bore of 
the tube is increased—that is, as the thickness of the wall is diminished. This is quite 
in accordance with what might be expected if the elongation depends on the induction 
rather than on the field. For, as | found by direct experiment in the case of the large 
tubes, the induction in a given field is smaller in the tube of narrower bore or wider wall, 

The “ tangential” elongations () at the inner surface are all positive and much smaller 
numerically than the longitudinal eclongations. They show a tendency, however, to 
increase with the hore. Because of the comparatively small value (practically zero) of 
the cubical dilatation, the corresponding “radial” clongations (v) are distinctly larger 
than the tangential clongations, but show no marked tendency either to diminish or 
increase as the bore varies. 

On the other hand, the tangential and radial elongations (u’, v’) at the outer surface 
behave somewhat in contrary fashion, »’ increasing, and »’ correspondingly decreasing, as 
the bore increases. For any given field and tube the four ratios ys, u’, v’, v are in order 0 
magnitude, w’ and v’ approximating to equality when the bore is narrow, and gradually 
diverging in value as the bore increases. These relations are well shown in the curves, 

Had it been possible to obtain wider bores without hopelessly damaging the tube 
which already showed signs of cracking, it is highly probable that »’ and v’ woul 
again approximate to equality, just as was found to be the case with the like quantities 
for the iron tube (see below). 4 

By application of equation (3) of last paragraph, the ratio p’ was caleulated for 
the large Nickel Tubes 1, 4, 7, and VII. Similar calculations were also made for Tubes 
I. to VI., the elongation \ being assumed to be the same for these as for their final forn 
VII. Although this assumption is not strictly accurate, it is sufficiently near the trutl 
not to lead to any serious error in the calculations of the other ratios. 

The results for the four existing tubes are given in Table II]., and are representec 
graphically in the third row of Plate I. q 

An epitome of the results for Tubes I. to VII. forms Table IV., and some off the 
features are shown graphically in the fourth row of Plate I. 

The volume changes measured are, of course, much larger for these tubes than for th 
B tubes. Nevertheless, the linear dilatations come out with values practically identical | 
in the two sets. This will appear the more remarkable when the different conditioi 
under which the large and small tubes are magnetized are borne in mind. Lach large — 
tube when inserted in the magnetizing coil extended to within a few inches of each 
end, and could not therefore be magnetized so uniformly as one of the short tubes whi 
lay much more completely within the magnetizing coil. _ 

One interesting point brought out by the large tubes is the negative value of win 
the tubes of narrowest bore under high magnetizing forces. See, for example, t 
p-graphs of No. 1, IL and III. (Plate L.). Also there is an interesting gradation i 
the effect as the bore increases. ‘Thus the values of « for Nos. 1 and I. are positi 
in fields lower than 140 and 180 respectively, and negative in higher. In Tube i 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 463 


the same feature is shown, but the change of sign occurs about Field 270. In Tube IIL. 
the form of the graph is the same, but no negative value is reached. In Tube IV., 
however, this characteristic has disappeared, and the behaviour is, broadly speaking, 
the same as in Tube VII. Notwithstanding this peculiarity in the sign of u in the 
narrow-bored tubes, the calculated values of u’ v’ come out nearly the same for all. 
It will be readily seen, both from the curves and from Table IV., that the comparative 
values of »’ »’ follow the same law of change as in the B tubes, approximating in 
yalue in the tube of narrowest bore, and gradually drawing apart as the bore increases. 

§ 5. THe Comtep NickeL anp Copatr Tusrs.—These are formed from sheets of 
metal, each tube being about 10 inches long and 1 inch diameter. After the long edges 
had been soldered together to form a hollow tube, the changes of length and the 
changes of volume of the material in various fields were measured, as already described. 
The tube was then plugged up with brass discs at both ends, and measurements were 
made of its changes of bulk. 

From these measurements the dilatations A, w’, v’ follow at once. It seemis hardly 
necessary to trouble calculating mw and vy in these cases of very thin-walled tubes. A 
glance at formula (3), § 3, shows that the comparative smallness of V makes the 
quantities , v differ very slightly from w’, v’. 

The three Nickel Tubes C I., C IL, C III. were formed from three sheets of 
different thicknesses. The dimensions are given in Table I. The nickel was obtained 
as pure as possible, and in this respect is better than the nickel of the bored tubes, 
which contains 2} to 3 per cent. of impurities. This may account for the fact that the 
longitudinal contraction is distinctly greater in the C tubes than in any of the others. 

Tt is, however, in the external volume changes that the greatest difference is shown 
between the coiled tubes of very thin wall and the bored tubes of comparatively thick 
wall, With all of the C tubes there is zncrease of external volume except in the lowest 
fields; in every other instance decrease was the characteristic feature. Compare, for 
example, the Curves C I, C II., C III. in the lowest left-hand corner of Plate I. with 
the curves in the first row and with similar curves in the former paper. 

It is interesting to note that the volume increase is greatest in the tube of thinnest 
wall, and falls off as the wall is made thicker. With a still thicker wall the volume 
change might change sign and become negative. It would not be safe, however, 
to institute any strict comparison between tubes formed by coiling sheets and tubes 
formed from solid bars by boring. 

Excepting that the u’ curve lies higher than the v’ curve, there is not any great 
diversity shown in the nature of the linear dilatations in the various types of tube. 
The C I. and C III. curves, occupying the middle of the last row in Plate L, are 
very similar to the A, w’, v’ curves in the third and fourth rows of the same 
plate. It may be mentioned that © II. differs so very little from C LI. as hardly to 
require a separate set of curves. The greater divergence between the values of p’ and 
vin CI. than in either of the others is noteworthy as being somewhat unexpected. 


464 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


But the differences that exist seem of comparatively small importance beside 
the general agreement, even to numerical details, among the dilatations of the different 
types of nickel tube. aa 

The results for the cobalt tube call for little remark. ‘The linear dilatations are 
much smaller than for nickel, as a glance at the curves on Plate I. shows. The cubical 
dilatation of the metal is, however, greater, being appreciable enough to be measured. — 

The broad difference between the two metals is that the molecular groups yield 
more readily to the magnetizing force in nickel than in cobalt, The nickel 
curves all show an approximately saturated condition in the substance; but there is 
no evidence of such a condition being approached in the case of cobalt. 

§ 6. THE Borep [Ron anv STEEL TusBeEs.-—The results for iron are, as compared 
with those for nickel, of a very complex character. 

Consider, first of all, the volume changes of bore in the various sets of tubes as 
given in the column headed 6v in Tables VI, VII, IX. A gradual change in the 
behaviour of the tube as the bore is made larger is very apparent in the case ol 
Tubes A and B (Table VI. and Plate II., first and third rows of graphs). Also 
there is an evident parallelism in the two series A and B. Thus, in I. and II. of both 
sets, the volume of bore diminishes steadily as the field increases. In III., however 
the change of volume passes through a curious minimum distinctly shown in the 
graphs. In IV. and V. this minimum becomes more evident, the negative change 
of volume diminishing markedly in the higher fields. Finally, in VI. and VIL. this 
diminishing negative change becomes an increasing positive change. In the A sé 
a particular peculiarity is associated with a field which is lower than that associate 
with the corresponding peculiarity in the B set. For example, the fields associated 
with the minimum volume change or greatest diminution of volume are :— 


In A TG 105.and “260nme sb tik 
| A Vin 90° ceo 0p. Bp lves 
oul oN 70. 453 fb: abe eee 
oA VL AG: OO be Vile 
5) <A Vile 20 0 isle 


while the change of sign from negative to positive volume change occurs in fields 
70, 35, 140, and 75 


in A VL, A VIL, B VL, and B VII. respectively. 

A similar parallelism is shown in the two sets of results for the changes in external — 
volume of the plugged tubes. Compare, for example, the dv’ curves in the. first and 
third rows of Plate L. ; & 

The same feature is reproduced in the columns headed A, the measuremen 
namely, of the linear dilatation in the direction of the magnetizing fo 
A glance at the curves figured in the second and fourth rows of Plate II, shows 


2 vA 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 465 


that the maximum value of \ in each A tube occurs in a lower field than it does 
in the corresponding B tube. Thus the field of maximum A” is :— 


im AY 1. £65 and 370 in By Tf. 
Mee io. S10. 8 
Pee iie Ag.) 270-,, B 
eA veete5. 9225 5° Db LV. 
Rae yernio .. 190. B 
Pee ee 95 LY OB VI. 


ew Vile ser.) 100"; B-VIT. 


Thus the B tubes reproduce, but in higher fields, the peculiarities shown by 
the A tubes. The reason is not far to seek. It depends on the fact that the 
shorter B tubes have a larger demagnetizing factor than the larger A tubes. Not 
only so, but, in accordance with well-known results, the demagnetizing factor 
diminishes with the area of section of the material, the length being constant. 
This consideration explains at once the gradual shifting of the critical points 
(maximum A, minimum dv and 6v’) into lower fields as the bore of a tube of given 
length is gradually increased. 

The shifting of the crest of the longitudinal elongation curve as we pass through 
the series A I. to. A VII. and BI. to B VII. is also well shown with tubes I’. to VIII’. 
An inspection of Table IX. will bring this out clearly enough; but the feature is 
most distinctly shown in the following table constructed from the curves corre- 
sponding to Table IX., which curves, however, being broadly similar to those in 
Plate II., I have not thought it necessary to publish. 


Fiecps ror Maximum Exnoncation 1n Iron Tuses I’. to VIII’. 


Tube. 


Te EN; IL’. | IN Ve | Wal Vil. | ViELY. 


Field 


230 215 200 180 170 155 140 120 


According to the commonly accepted theory, the demagnetizing factor in a 
cylindrical bar is proportional to the square of the ratio of the diameter to the 
length. In the case of a cylindrical twbe this law requires modification. Perhaps 
the most probable simple hypothesis is to compare the tube, as regards its 
demagnetizing factor, to a bar of the same length and the same cross-section of 
material. How far this applies to the present case is tested immediately by a 
comparison of Tubes A IJ. and B VI., which have their maximum elongations in 
about the same field. Presumably their demagnetizing factors are nearly the same. 
Now the cross-sections of the material of A II. and B VI. are as 5°96 to 1°94. 
Dividing these respectively by 4 and 1, which are as the squares of the lengths of 
the A and B tubes, we get for the ratio of the demagnetizing factors 194 : 144 or 

VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 15). 4A 


: 

if 

466 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, : 
In 


27:20. The hypothesis suggested above requires this ratio to be unity. 
making this comparison, however, we should bear in mind that the B tube is, 
because of its shorter length, more uniformly magnetized throughout, and has 
therefore less leakage of lines of force from the sides than the A tube. This would 
tend to accelerate the shifting of the maximum to lower fields, an effect which in 
less uniform fields would be produced by widening the bore of the tube. . 

The cross-sections of A V. and B VII. are as 3°24 to ‘82; hence their 
demagnetizing factors are as 81 to 82. These tubes should, according to the 
theory, have their maximum elongations in the same field. As a matter of fact, 
the field corresponding to the maximum elongation of A V. is somewhat higher 
than that of B VII. 

A similar comparison of Tubes VII’. and A JII., in both of which the field of 
maximum elongation is 140, brings out 39:32 as the ratio of the demagnetizing 
factors. The deviation of this ratio from unity may also be partly accounted for 
by the greater uniformity of magnetization in the somewhat shorter A tube. 

The steadiness with which in all cases the field of maximum elongation diminishes 
as the bore is widened is particularly noteworthy. 

Contrary to the usual experience, I have had no difficulty in measuring the changes 
of volume of the magnetized material. A glance at the dV columns of Table VL 
shows that these changes in the case of iron are by no means insignificant. The 
corresponding dilatations (6 in Table VIL.) have fairly similar values in the A tuhes 
until A VII. is reached, but vary considerably from tube to tube in the B series. 

The tendency is for the cubical dilatation to diminish as the walls of the tube 
become very thin. Also, both in A VII. and B VII, there is a maximum dilatation 
in a moderate field. The existence of this maximum need in no way surprise us, for 
a like peculiarity appears in the longitudinal dilatation. It is rather matter for 
surprise that there should have been no hint at a maximum cubical dilatation with the 
other tubes. I have already suggested that the cubical dilatation may be appreciably 
affected by a vesicular condition in the material, and it is well known that such 
molecular changes are influenced by the form of the body. Now the thinner the wall, 
the less chance is there of the presence of vesicular cavities ; and it is also conceivable 
that in very thin walled tubes there is increased uniformity of magnetization with 
possibly less leakage of the lines of induction from the sides. Hither or both of these 
considerations seem to vive a sufficient explanation of the phenomenon just described. 

§ 7. Curious Brxaviour or Iron TuBES UNDER CERTAIN ConpiTIons.—In all 
experiments in which the iron tubes were enclosed in the brass tube—that is, in 
experiments of type (3) and (4) of § 2—a curious effect was observed, of which, so far, 
I have been unable to find a satisfactory explanation. I can best indicate its nature 
by transcribing from the experimental note-book the unreduced numbers whieh 
measured the volume changes. These represent the number of divisions on the 
micrometer scale through which the water meniscus in the capillary tube appeared 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 467 


to move at the instant the magnetic field was established or removed. The positive 
sign means that the meniscus moved outwards along the capillary, showing an 
increase of volume of the iron tube contained in the brass tube. The negative sign 
means, of course, a movement in the opposite direction, indicating a decrease in the 
bulk of the contained iron tube. When two numbers are entered side by side in 
the third column, the first (in brackets) gives the greatest excursion in the indicated 
direction made by the meniscus before it comes to its final position of rest after 
removal of the magnetic field. 


Iron Tuse A III., November 12th, 1897. 
APPARENT CHANGE OF EXTERNAL VOLUME; TUBE PLUGGED, 


Field, Field on. Field off. 
531 == 15) | (-—23) +11 
403 =— 29 | (—13) +19 
302 = 31005; (-—11) +22 
202 _ 33 (amy. 4227 
100 49 Cie 38 


A III., November 15th, 1897. 
CHANGE OF VOLUME OF METAL. 


536 +18 ao 
408 ae _ 28 
308 yi _ 24 
100 + 5 8:5 


Thus, taking the very first result given above, we see that, when a field of 531 
was established, the water meniscus in the capillary moved back 25 divisions of the 
micrometer scale, and there came to rest. On removal of the field, the meniscus darted 
back 23 other divisions, then turned and moved forward along the capillary, stopping 
finally +11 divisions from the position it occupied just before the field was removed. 
Its final position was therefore —14(= —25+11) from that originally occupied just 
before the field was established. 

Again, taking the first result of the experiment of November 15th, we see that 
the establishment of Field 536 produced a forward motion of the meniscus through 
18 divisions of the scale, but that, on the removal of the field, the meniscus moved 
back through 34 divisions, occupying a final position —16 from that occupied before 
the field was established. 

The results are the same for both directions of field. In every case the negative 
reading is greater than the positive. In the experiment of November 12th, the 


468 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


phenomenon has a strong resemblance to hysteresis; but, as proved by the other 
experiment, in which the return value is the greater, it is merely a resemblance and 
nothing more. That the phenomenon does not depend only on the iron, but has 
something to do with the brass tube, is proved by the fact that there is not the slightest 
evidence of its existence in the experiment for measuring the change of volume of bore, 
Thus, compare with the foregoing tables the following :— 


A III., November 12th, 1897. 


CHANGE OF VoLUME oF Borg. 


Field. Field on. Field off. 
531 +47 47-5 
403 +47 ~47°8 
302 + 46:5 47 
100 +47 47 
48 +14 aas 


+ 


In this case the capillary was in connection with the interior of the tube, and 
a positive reading means a contraction of the volume. 4 

The complete absence of the peculiar effect in this last case quite disposes of 
any attempt at explanation in terms of hysteresis or possible change of temperature 
The effect is as if at every make and break of the current in the magnetizing coil 
the brass tube containing the iron were permanently increased in internal capacity, o1 
as if a certain quantity of water in the tube were removed from it. It is conceivable 
that a sudden increase of volume of the inclosed iron might push out a small quantity 
of water so that a positive reading might be followed by a greater negative reading, 
as in the experiment of November 15th; but it is altogether inconceivable that a 
contraction of the iron should be accompanied by a like pushing out of water, as 
would have to be the case were the explanation to hold good for the first experiment a 
November 12th. 4 

One early suggestion was that the slight difference of diameter between the iro 
tubes and the bore of the brass tube might produce a certain constraint on the film o 
water between. But it was found on trial that the peculiar effect persisted in the ¢ 
of an iron bar whose diameter was made distinctly smaller than the diameter of bore « 
the brass tube. , 

Thus, by a process of exclusion, we seem to be driven to the view that the brass t : 
must experience, when the field is established, an abrupt change of volume from whicl 
it does not immediately recover, or from which it recovers slowly when the field is 
removed. Care was taken to have the iron tube as nearly as possible centrally p aced 
in the magnetizing coil. But no doubt there was some lack of perfect symmetry, so t hat 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 469 


when the iron tube became magnetized, extra pressures between it and the bottom 
or walls of the brass tube might very easily come into existence; and these might 
reasonably enough be supposed to produce minute but appreciable changes of volume. 
In one experiment the tube was set 2 inches above the usual position in the 
magnetizing coil; but this displacement from the central position did not to any 
decisive extent affect the readings—a point which rather tells against the explanation 
just given. But the most serious difficulty is the magnitude of the strain, which, 
though small, represents stresses of considerable magnitude. The micrometer-reading 
14 means a volume change of 34x10°° cub. cm. The bore of the brass tube was 
46 cms. long and 3 cms. in diameter, giving a cubical dilatation of fully 10~’ within the 


tube. We may get an approximate idea of the pressure required to produce this 
dilatation by solving the equation 


ene Rea 
Sa  k 
where P P’ are the internal and external pressures, a and b the inner and outer 
radii of the tube, and & the reciprocal of the compressibility. In the present case b is 
21 cms., k may be put equal to 10” C.G.S. units, and P’ is the atmospheric pressure, 
say 10°. Thus— 


| Pa? = 10%(4:41 + °22) 

and 
P= 10" x 206. 

Hence it would need an additional pressure within of fully an atmosphere to produce 

the dilatation observed. ‘This seems hardly possible under the conditions, for the 

Interior communicates with the outside through the capillary. 

The extraordinary manner in which the plugged Tube A III. passed through 
its changes when the field was removed was common to the tubes from A I. to 
AIY., and from BI. to BIII. But there was no evidence of it with A V., B IV., and 
the tubes of wider bore than these. In all cases in which it occurred, the effect was 
the same—an increased negative change at the instant the magnetizing current was 
broken, followed immediately by a return to a final positive or diminished negative 
change. The phenomenon may be explained as an effect of the current of self-induction, 
producing a short-lived but intense magnetization in the outer layers of the iron tube, 
for the phenomenon is not observed in the experiments for measuring the change of 
volume of bore—that is, in experiments on the behaviour of the tube at the inner wall. 
If this, however, were the sole cause, it is hardly likely that it would so entirely 
|disappear in A V. and B IV., which still have fairly thick walls. It is conceivable 
that there may also be a tendency for the transverse dilatation u’ to disappear more 
quickly than the longitudinal dilatation A. A slight tendency in A to persist when the 
ield was removed—in other words, an appreciable time-lac—would, in the higher fields, 
ive rise to a momentary increase in the diminution of volume. 


470 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


The quantities tabulated under 6V and 6v’ are the means of the readings obtained 
on application and withdrawal of the magnetizing force. In the majority of cases, the 
sum 6V + dv is not very different from dv’, a result which gives a check on the 
accuracy of the experiment. q 

§ 8. THe Ditarations In [Ron AND STEEL TusEs (BorED).—From the volume and 
length changes, in the manner described in § 3, the dilatations 8, A, , v, p’, v’ were 
calculated, and are entered in the appropriate columns in Table VII. A selection of 
the results is given graphically in the second and fourth rows of Plate II. 

There is a tendency for the dilatations « and v to be of opposite sign from \—that is 
to say, they are, as a rule, negative when A is positive, and positive when d is negative, 
The curves obtained by plotting the dilatations in terms of the magnetic fields are, with 
one exception, remarkably smooth, and in no way reflect the peculiar features of the 
dv and dv’ curves, from which they have been derived by a purely arithmetical process, 
Compare, for example, the groups of curves for A V., A VIL, BV.,and B VL Th 
grouping of the A, “, v curves is broadly the same in all; and yet, at first sight, nothing 
is more striking than the differences between the dv and dv’ curves for V. and VI. The — 
reason for this is not far to seek. The ratios 8v/v and 6v’/v’ become for the thinner 
walled tubes distinctly smaller than A, so that the calculated values of m» and p! are 
more affected by the peculiarities of X than by those of (A + 2u) and (A + 2p’), | 

One interesting feature in regard to the relative magnitudes of » and v is that they 
so to speak, change places in the transition from Tube A V. to A VI., and from B VI. 
to B VII. In other words, we find, on plotting the curves, that the u curves lie beloy 
the corresponding v curves up to A V. and B VI, and that thereafter the curves lie 
above the v curves. In this respect the coiled tubes discussed in next paragraph are 
comparable to A VII. and B VII. This result seems to be one that could hardly have 
been expected. A gradual convergence to equality might more reasonably have been 
looked for, as the tube was taken thinner and thinner. The interchange of » andvin | 
regard to magnitude is, however, characteristic of both the nickel and the iron, and ' 
must have some fundamental significance. % 

The results for the other iron tubes given in Tables VIII. and IX. are very similar | 
to those for the A and B series. In these tables an average value for 6 is assum 
so that the values of v, w’, and v’ are, at the best, tentative. It is, however, notewor' 
that the large Tubes 3, 5, 7, VII., and 9, and I’. to VIII’. should give results, br 
speaking, identical with those obtained from the shorter and narrower tubes of t 
and B series. It is instructive to note how comparatively little the values of t 
transverse and radial dilatations are affected by the sign of the change of volume 
of bore. As already pointed out, the longitudinal dilatation \ has a preponder 
influence upon the character of the other dilatations. To express it otherwise, the ratio 
\+2u, which was the particular object of study in the first paper, is subject to relatively 
great changes of values, simply because it is the difference of two ratios, \ and —2#, 
of which sometimes one and sometimes the other is the greater. Thus, tl 


} 


| 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 471 


measured volume changes of bore of the Iron Tubes I. to VII. (see Plates I. and II. of 
the previous paper) differ markedly from those of the Iron Tubes I’. to VIII’, and 3, 5, 
and 7. Nevertheless, the dilatations of Tube VII., as given in Table VIII. below, do not 
appreciably differ from those of other tubes. 

It is this consideration which fully explains the apparently extraordinary behaviour 
of the steel tubes as described in the first paper (p. 537 and Plates III. and IV., l.c.). 
I have no measurement of the volume change of steel, so that it is not possible to 
calculate even the tentative values of v, u’, andv’. Probably 6 is small compared with A, 
and some idea of the character of the strain in steel might be got by assuming 6 to be 
negligible. The results would not, however, differ essentially from those for iron. I 
have given in Table X. simply the undoubted results for the Steel Tubes, 3, 5, 7, VIL.,, 
VIL, VII.,, and 9. There are three sets of columns of numbers. The first contains the 
ratios X+2~ calculated mainly from the data given in Part I.; the second contains the 
measured values of 4; and the third contains the calculated values of wu. Broadly 
speaking, they are very similar to the corresponding values for iron. 

The history of Steel No. VII., as given in the Appendix to Part I., is very 
extraordinary. In its earliest condition distinguished as VII., after the final boring 
which changed VI. into VII., it behaved, as regards bore dilatation, in a manner 
altogether peculiar. There was great positive dilatation up to Field 280, and negative 
dilatation in higher fields. Two months later, the law of the dilatation was found to be 
| just reversed. This condition is distinguished as VII... The tube was then annealed by 
slow cooling ; and the bore dilatations were found to be greatly diminished in value, 
but otherwise to resemble roughly the corresponding quantities in the second 
condition. The contrasts between these three successive states of the same tube are 
shown in the numbers in Table X. The transverse dilatations » for Steel VII., and 
Steel VIL. are calculated on the assumption that the longitudinal dilatation of each is 
the same as that for VII., A consideration of the three cases shows very plainly the 
effect of comparatively small changes in the values of the tangential dilatations. In 
none of them does 2p differ greatly from—A. Thus the ratio \+2u is comparatively 
small in all. In VII.,, \ has the preponderating influence; in VIL.., 2« preponderates. 
In VIL, 2u still preponderates, but very slightly; so that in this case the bore 
dilatations are very insignificant compared to the linear dilatations. 

§ 9. Tue Cortep Iron Tuses CI., CII. (TaBLE V.)—These were formed of sheet-iron ‘37 
mm. in thickness. They were each about 10 inches long. The diameter of C I. was shorter 
than 1 inch by 4 per cent., and the diameter of C II. longer by about the same fraction. 

No appreciable change of volume of the metal was obtained, but this simply means 

that it was too small to be measured. Under the most favourable conditions of 
experiment half a small division of the micrometer scale was about the limit of certainty. 
This would mean a volume change of about 2 x 10~° cub. cm., giving a cubical dilatation 
of 25x10-° I believe half of this value might have been detected. We may safely 
onclude that the cubical dilatation of this kind of iron, when placed in a magnetic field 


472 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


of 500, does not exceed *2x10°-% In the calculation of the radial dilatations (v’) the 
cubical dilatation has been assumed to be zero. If, as is highly probable, the cubical 
dilatation is positive, the values for v’ will be slightly greater. There is, however, no 
pronounced difference between the values of »’ and v’, such as exists in the case of the 
coiled nickel tubes. : 

For the sake of easy comparison the dv’ curves for C I. and C II. are chow on Plate 
IL, drawn to the same reference point and axes as the curves giving the volume changes 
for A V. They are the dotted curves, and are characterised by a maximum in Field 25, 
followed by a minimum in Field 120 or 130. They thus bear a certain resemblance to 
the dv’ curve for A I., in which, however, the early maximum is not strongly marked. 

The maximum SMueaiten occurs in both cases about Field 60, a distinetly higher 
value than what is usually obtained with wires. 

The broad distinction between the results for the bored and coiled tubes is the 
comparatively large distortion experienced by the latter in strong magnetic fields. 

§ 10. GeNERAL ConcLusions.—It remains to give a general summary of the 
results, with special reference to the characteristics of the strains which accompany the 
magnetization of iron, nickel, and cobalt tubes. In a broad sense, the results for any 
one metal are much the same, whatever the dimensions of the tube may have happer od 
to be. The changes in the values of the various dilatations, cubical or linear, as we 
pass from tube to tube of the same metal, are, for the most part, of secondary importance, 
and seem to belong to the same category of phenomena as the influence of form upot 
the susceptibility. 

Of all the quantities measured, the changes of volume of bore and the changes of 
external volume of the plugged tube obey what, in certain cases, appear to be most 
capricious rules. But as soon as we calculate the strain coefficients, we see at once the 
reason for this apparent capriciousness. The strain coefficients themselves have, as already 
mentioned, very similar values in all the tubes of one metal; but as the longitudin na. 
elongation (A) usually differs in sign from the transverse elongation («), the ratio (\ +2 
is arithmetically a difference of two numbers not very different in value. Sometial n 
the one term predominates, sometimes the other. Thus the A and B tubes Nos. V. 
VI. are very similar as regards their dilatations (Table VII.), but there is at first sig 
a marked dissimilarity as regards their volume changes, dv and dv’ (Table VI.). 

In my former paper I found great difficulty in interpreting the apparen ly 
capricious results obtained there. his difficulty now in great measure disappears, ¢ 
the interest is transferred from the measured volume changes to the dilatations to whi 
they lead. a 

As a general rule, the elongation in the direction of the magnetizing force i 
the most important. Mr Broweti”* has made us familiar with the laws of its variati 
in iron, nickel, and cobalt ; and the values obtained by me are in full accord with his 
The steady manner in which the maximum elongation point shifts into lower fields 

* Phil. Trans., Series A., vol. 179, 1888. a e 


| 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 473 


as the bore of the tube is widened is a new experimental fact; but it is one which 
might almost have been predicted from our previous knowledge of the magnetic 
properties of iron (see above, p. 465). 

In the case of the narrow bored Nickel Tubes 1 and I. the radial elongation is 
greater numerically than the longitudinal dilatation, at least in the higher fields. 
This feature is slightly shown in Tube IL., and is associated with a tangential elongation 
of the same sign as the longitudinal elongation. In these tubes, accordingly, the 
internal radius shortens, and the external radius lengthens, so that we are led to the 
conception of a cylindrical surface within the metal which experiences no displacement 
outwards or inwards. 

A similar feature is characteristic of the narrower bored iron tubes in high fields, 
as a glance down the columns \ and vy in Table VII. will show. 

Now, if we compare the measured quantity \+ 2’ for a nickel tube of very narrow 
bore with the quantity 6 obtained for the bar from which the tube was formed, we 
find that the former quantity is numerically much the greater. This shows that the 
removal of a comparatively small amount of material from the core of a nickel bar 
alters, in a remarkable degree, the character of the strain which accompanies powerful 
magnetization. In the bar, therefore, the molecules must be subject to considerable 
mechanical constraint. ‘The mere formation of a second free surface of small extent 
in the heart of the metal produces, so to speak, a relief, whose effects extend appreciably 
to the outer surface. There is, indeed, more resemblance between the narrowest and the 
widest bored tubes as regards their condition of strain in a magnetic field than between 
the narrowest bored tube and the original bar. 

On the other hand, if we compare the quantity \+2y’ for an iron tube of very 
narrow bore with the quantity 5, we find that the former is the smaller, or, at least, is 
never the larger. A comparison of the quantities 6v’ and dV for A I. and BI. in 
Table VI. or in Plate Il. indicates this clearly enough. That is to say, the removal of 
a small amount of material in the heart of the bar alters, to a comparatively slight 
extent, the displacement of the outer surface under magnetization. The alteration is, 
nevertheless, quite unmistakable, the formation of a second free surface in the heart 
of the metal distinctly modifying its behaviour. The tendency, in both iron and 
nickel, is for dv’ to be algebraically less that SV; but numerically the difference is 
very much less in iron than in nickel. 

Another point of interest is the form of ellipsoid into which a small spherical 
element at either surface is changed; and here again the comparative simplicity of the 
results for nickel is noteworthy. In every case the shortest axis of the magnetic strain 
ellipsoid is in the direction of magnetization, and in the great majority of cases the 
longest is in the direction of the radius. Occasionally in the tubes of narrowest bore 
the third axis, that which corresponds to u, the tangential elongation, is one of contrac- 
tion, but generally it is, like the radial axis, one of elongation. Thus, in all cases of the 
bored tubes, a circular element in any plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder 

VOL. XXXIX. PART II, (NO. 15). 5 


474 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


becomes an ellipse drawn out radially. In the coiled tubes, on the other hand, this 
ellipse is drawn out more in the tangential than in the radial direction, a feature which 
also belongs to the (coiled) cobalt tube. A very similar, indeed almost identical, result 
is obtained with the iron tubes. The central section of the strain ellipsoid in a 
plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder has its greater axis parallel to the radius 
of the cylinder; or, in other words, u is either a greater negative ratio or a smaller 
positive ratio than v. The only exceptions are tubes A VI. and VII., B VI. and Vil 
and the coiled tube C II. 

In general, then, we may draw the following conclusions regarding the behaviour ¥ 
of tubes of the magnetic metals, iron, nickel, and cobalt :— 2 

1. The strain is one in which there is comparatively little change of volume, but 
considerable change of form; in other words, the magnetic stresses, acting on the 
molecular groups, are mainly shearing stresses. This is particularly true of nickel. 

2. Hucept in the case of very thin walls, a circular element in any transverse plane 
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder becomes, when the cylinder is magnetized 
parallel to its axis, an ellipse with its major axis pointing towards the aais of the 
tube. When the walls are thin, the ellipse into which a small circular element is 
changed has its minor axis pointing towards the axis of the tube. The ellipse, im 
both cases, increases in excentricity as the distance from the axis diminishes. 

To obtain similar results with purely mechanical stresses acting on the surface: 
of a tube, we should have to take the normal stress on the external surface greate 
than that on the internal surface for all but the tubes of widest bore; and for the 
wide bored tubes we should have to take the internal normal stress the greater. Fo 
nickel and cobalt in all fields, and for iron in high fields, these surface stresses would 
be tensions ; but for iron in low fields they would be pressures. This oan 
merely intended to illustrate the character of the strain, for there can be no fing a 
mental resemblance between the magneto-elastic problem discussed in this paper ai 
the purely elastic problem hinted at. In the one case we are dealing with the ¢ offe oy 
of surface tractions upon a tube of elastic material; in the other, with the effee et 0! 
magnetic body forces upon a tube of elastic material of high susceptibility. 

One invariable characteristic of the strain ellipsoid in nickel and cobalt is that the 
minimum axis is parallel to the magnetizing force. . This characteristic holds for iro 
when the magnetizing force is distinctly higher than that which corresponds to th 
change of sign of the longitudinal elongation. In other words, when the iron shows 

marked contraction in the direction of magnetization, its behaviour, as determined by 
the strain ellipsoid, is very similar to the behaviour of the other metals. . 

Then, again, when the magnetizing force is such as to produce distinct positive 
elongation in a direction parallel to its line of action, in this direction also lies the maxi- 
mum axis of the strain ellipsoid. It is only during the transition condition, as the 
longitudinal dilatation changes sign, that the corresponding axis of the strain ellipso | 
loses its maximum or minimum characteristic. ae 


a 


: ae pase Aw 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 475 


These broad results are deduced from the numbers contained chiefly in Tables L. 
and VII. To facilitate somewhat the comparison between iron and nickel I have drawn 
up the following table giving for the Tubes B V. (iron and nickel) the dilatations in chosen 
fields at the inner and outer surfaces, thus indicating the ellipsoidal form into which an 
originally spherical element is changed under the action of magnetic force. The chosen 
fields are the fields of maximum elongation and of zero elongation in the Iron Tube 
B Y., and the greatest field reached in the experiments. The ratios A, u, v are one 
millionfold the elongations of three mutually perpendicular unit lines, which when added 
to unity give the principal semi-axes of the ellipsoid into which the unit sphere is changed. 


Principat Exvoncations 1x Iron anp Nickey Tupes B V., ExPRESSED IN MiLLionTHs (10~'). 


Field =190. | Field=310. Field=500. 

Iron, Nickel. Iron. Nickel. Tron, Nickel. 
r +2°1 — 16:2 0 = Ns) =) if) — 24°8 
pp —1°5 + 4:2 — ‘4 + 67 + 8 + 6:9 
v - ‘4 +12°0 +°6 +15°7 + 1:57 +17°9 
rv +2°1 — 16:2 0 = ile) — 2:18 — 24°8 
pe = 1-25 + 6:5 —'l + 84 +1:01 + 9°6 
v — "65 + 97 +°3 +134 + 1°26 + 115-2 


We have no right to assume that these values hold for every point along the 
inner and outer surfaces of the tube. Being calculated from observed total 
changes of length and volume for the whole tube, they are, at best, only average 
values ; and it is highly probable that they vary as we pass from points at the middle 
to points near the ends. Nevertheless, since much longer tubes give very similar 
results, these average values must be fair approximations to the true values at most 
parts of the tube. 

Tt is also a fair presumption that elements in the heart of the metal suffer strains 
intermediate in character to those belonging to the surface elements. 

Taking, then, the mean of the two strains in each case just given, let us calculate the 
Stresses associated with these strains, assumed for the moment to be elastic. 

Let P, Q, R be the principal stresses corresponding to the elongations 4, m, ». Then 
P is of the form MS+N); and the corresponding expressions for Q and R are obtained 
by cyclical permutation of A, «, v. 

Expressed in terms of Youne’s modulus E and the rigidity , the stresses become 


i. + ar), Q = ete, [eo See 


476 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


We may take, for rough estimation, E=2 x 10” and n=°8 x 10” in both metals,* 
giving the following values in kilogrammes per square centimetre for the stresses 
corresponding to the mean strains in the foregoing table, if we consider these strains 
to be purely elastic. 


PrincipaL MEAN Stresses IN IRon anp Nickxet Tuspes B V. in Kens. PER sQ. cM. 


| 
Field =190, Field =310. Field =500. 
2 me | 13.) Sa 
Iron. Nickel. Tron. Nickel. Tron. Nickel, 
+1°8 —13 +08 —18 —1°6 — 20 
Q —1:0 + 4 ='1 + 6 + 8 + 7 
6 + 9 | +3 | +12 +1:2 +13 


From these numbers we may calculate for each state the quantity 
4 (PA + Qu + Rv) = Sn (8° + 2 (V+ 4+ v’)} 


which measures the potential energy stored up in unit volume of an elastic substance 
strained to the extent and in the manner indicated by the ratios \, «,». We find, then 
for the potential energy of strain in the three fields named, the quantities 
5°38, 0°2, and 671 ergs in iron. 

Bat 27 DOD =e ae ab es  ilekels 

These are calculated by taking into account only the final values. But there is ¢ 
fundamental difference between the manner in which the magnetic force of, say, 31 
earries the iron through its intermediate conditions of strain, and the manner in whie 
an application of surface tractions effects the same succession of states. At every 
stage in the process, whether the strain coefficients be increasing or decreasing, th 
magnetizing force is producing a change which we must suppose to be always res 
by the elastic forees—that is to say, between the field corresponding to the maximu 
elongation in iron and the zero elongation, there is no real assisting of the forces whic 
are producing the strain. We have, in short, no warrant in assuming a giving back 
energy by the strained metal during this stage, which, in the purely elastic problem 
answers to a condition of work done by the substance as it recovers. Since the elast 
constants are not appreciably changed by magnetization, we may plausibly enous 
assume the work done during the second half of the positive elongation stage to | 
equal to the work done during the first half. Consequently, instead of 0°2 erg bei 
the amount of work done against the elastie forces in the Field 310, we should tak 
10°6 +0°2 (=10'8) as in all probability the better value. 
* Mr Mitchell, a student in the Physical Laboratory, Edinburgh University, determined for me the value 


Youne’s modulus by flexure experiments on the nickel sheets from which the coiled Tubes C, C3 had been formed. ; 
The values found were respectively 2°1 x lu” and 2°5 x 10” in C.G.S. units. ¥, 


| 3 
f 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC. FIELD. 477 


Assuming then that the applied magnetic force strains the substance at every stage 
against the molecular forces which determine the elasticity of the substance, we find 
that the amounts of work done per unit volume in so straining the two metals in the 
three fields named are respectively :— 

Bo eelO'oand, L677 eres Im iron. 
a 09D. = 42. 766 yay nickel. 


A similar calculation applied to the Iron and Nickel Tubes B II., which are much 
thicker in the walls than B V., gives for the amounts of work done per unit volume in 
straining the substance by the magnetic forces 200, 300, and 500, the quantities 

Go 7, and) °27°2ergs) im iron: 
Boomeva0s 4. 246. 5 nielzel: 


From both these examples, so very different in the details of the strains, we find, by 
taking the ratios of the corresponding pairs, that 60 to 40 times as much work is done in 
straiming nickel as is done in straining iron by means of magnetic forces whose values 
lie between 200 and 500. 

Applying a similar calculation to the coiled Tubes C II., of which the iron tube is, 
however, somewhat thinner in the wall than the nickel tube, we find for the amounts 
of work stored up in unit volume in Fields 60, 180, 300, and 500, 

121, 24°1, 32°3, 66 ergs in iron. 
SoenoGuE Wola. 961 ., .,, nickel. 


These quantities show that in a field’of 250 the work done in straining nickel 
against the elastic stresses is about 27 times the corresponding work done in straining 
the iron. Because of the different thicknesses of the tubes, this comparison has not the 
same claim to attention as the other two. 

The assumptions underlying the calculations that have just been made are, of course, 


open to criticism. 


The magnetic force acts directly on the molecular groupings, which break up to form 
new configurations. The mutual action between every contiguous pair of these new 
configurations is in all probability the effective cause of the strains produced. We 
know nothing definite regarding this mutual action, but it is not an altogether 
unreasonable hypothesis to suppose that the strains are produced against the elastic 
forces which bind the molecules together. It is, at all events, a fact worthy of note, 
that the less susceptible material is the one on which the greater amount of molecular 
work is done. 

I have made no attempt to bring these experimental facts into line with the theories of 
magneto-striction as developed by Hetmuorrz, Kircuuore, J. J. THomson, and others. 
CaNtoNE’s calculation* of KircuHorr’s constants from the results of experiment on 
iron and nickel ovoids can hardly be regarded as a test of the applicability of KircHHoFr’s 


* Atti d. R. Accad. d. Lincet, vi. 1890. 


478 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


theory. Dr Taytor Jones has proved* that only a small part of the longitudinal con 
tractions of magnetized nickel wire can be accounted for by means of KiRcHHOFY’s or 
‘THomson’s theory. Nacaoka and Jonest have shown that KircuHorr’s theory, when 
applied to an anchor ring uniformly magnetized, leads to the conclusion that the cubical 
dilatation should be three times the linear dilatation—a result not borne out by 
BIDWELL’s experiments. { 

Under the influence of strong magnetic forces, iron, nickel, and cobalt are no doubt 
brought into an. xolotropic state, very different from’ the state before the magnetic 
forces were applied. The molecules or molecular groups are thrown into new con 
figurations, which, by their mutual action, give rise to the accompanying strains. To get 
some idea of the nature of these strains under conditions favourable for fairly accurate 
measurement has been the object of this paper. he significance of many of the facts 
described is by no means clear, and no recognised theory of magnetic stress seems able 
to elucidate them. The introduction of terms representing the rotation of molecules 
adds greatly to the complexity of the equations, and it is difficult to see how these 
could be experimentally tested. It is not, however, so much the rotation of the 
individual molecule that we have to consider, as the resultant effect of new configr ra 
tions of molecular groups. 


APPpENDIX—September 1898.—As this paper was passing through the press, 
received from my former pupil and colleague, Professor Nacaoxa, of the Imperial 
University, Japan, an important and masterly discussion || of the applicability of 
KrrouHorr’s theory of magneto-striction to the co-ordination of the inter-relations of 
magnetism and strain. In this paper, Nagaoka and Honpa give measurements of the 
volume changes due to magnetization in iron and nickel, which are fairly concordant 
with the values given here. The nickel rod they used was much smaller in section 
than my nickel B tube, which may, perhaps, account for the greater values of the , 
cubical dilatation obtained by them. They compare their results with my measurements 
of the changes of volume of bore as given in Part I.; but such a comparison cann 
really be made. It is not merely, as they suggest, that their ‘measurements of — 
volumes were external,” while mine “‘ were made on the changes in the eternal capa 
of a nickel tube.” As already pointed out (see above, p. 478), the boring out o 
nickel bar completely changes its behaviour in a magnetic field, the outer sur 
becoming subject to a displacement much greater than what was found with the 
solid throughout. For the same reason their remark that a certain inconvenie 
inseparable from my earlier form of experiment “ will disappear if the change of volum 
Plul. Trans., Series A., vol. 189, pp. 189-200, 1895. 
Phil. Mag., May 1896, p. 454. y 
Proc, Roy. Soc., 1890. < 
See DunEm, American Journal of Mathematics, xvii. p. 117, 1895. 


\| dc Rgdoarches on Magneto-striction.” By Professor NacAoKA and Mr Honpa. Journal of the College fi 
Imperial University, Japan, vol. ix. p. 353 ; also in Phil. Mag. for September 1898. 


rot -- * 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. A79 


‘of the magnet itself be observed” has no real relevancy; for the change of volume 
of the magnet itself was not the subject of inquiry. 

Nacaoka and Honpa’s experimental determination of the very slight effect of 
static pressure on the magnetization is of high interest. It emphasises the view 
essed above that the strain accompanying magnetization is mainly a shear. 
we accept Krrconnorr’s theory or not, we should expect to find small cubical 
n under magnetization to be associated with small magnetic change under 
sed hydrostatic pressure. This result, consequently, can hardly be regarded as a 
ion of Krronnorr’s theory. A similar remark may be made in regard to other 
cal relations ; and before such a theory as KircHHorr’s can be accepted as 
shed, there should be approximate numerical identity between theory and 
t. Mere qualitatiwe agreement in a few particulars between theory and 
t may be largely a matter of chance, and cannot be put in the same category 
erious discrepancy. NaGaoxa and Honpa admit that “ KircnHorr’s theory 
approximation,” but conclude “ that, excepting the theoretical deduction as 
effect of hydrostatic pressure on the magnetization of iron, there are no serious 
neies between theory and experiment.” ‘Their high class experimental work, 
ie to light one serious discrepancy and other discrepancies of a less serious 
‘, seems to me to demonstrate the insufficiency of KircuHorr’s theory. This, 
is important enough; but, in the present state of our knowledge, the new 
tal facts discovered by Nacaoka and Honpa are of much greater importance. 


( 480° 


EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS USED IN THE FOLLOWING TABLES. 


V = volume of material of. tube. “ 
o . bore is : expr 
WS %» bar of same length and breadth as tube. ma 


\ ; : 
dV, dv, dv’ = the measured changes of the volumes; unit, 107° cub. em. 


ipee 


5=8V/V = cubical dilatation. 


\ = elongation parallel to axis of tube. All ex 
wu, # = tangential elongations at inner and outer surfaces. in millionths, 1 
v,v = radial 7 ‘p és 


The value of the magnetic field in every case is the value at the centre o 
magnetizing coil and is expressed in C.G.S. magnetic units. 


Vol. XXXIX. 


MiG ehUuBES anp COBALT TUBE. 


PLADE 1. 


\ 
‘a 
one 
. ; ‘si 


Simian 


Vee aen te 


_—_ oe PA ree 


oo pico coe ame 
i ale EAI DA a ae rer Free he SS 
ph A A i} tN 


| ei ee aes Sie Z 


——f- e 


PRON TUBES, A, B, anp C. 


PEATE, 11; 


Aes ee ii RM se 
Sef RH ee 


a 


aoe 
Pe aa 
Se PSs 


TABLE I.-—Druenstons oF THE Various TUBES. 481 
Tue Nicket Tuses (Boren). 
Diameter. Volume of | Diameter, Volume of 
Tube. | Length. || Tube. | Length. 

External.| Internal. Bore. Metal. || External.| Internal. Bore. | Metal, 
B II. | 20:2 PT *953 | 14:04 103°36 LL. 47 4°2 635 | 17:43 | 633:57 
uw III. ” " 1:270 25°18 92°22 lu, " " "953 | 33:57 | 617°43 
uw IV. " " 1°588 38°80 78°60 ITI. " n 1:270 59-77 | 591-23 
nev. " " 1:905 58 59:4 TAY, " " 1°588 95°81  555°19 

1 47 4°2 635 17°88 633°12 We " " 1:905 136°35 514°65 
4 " " 1588 87°58 | 563°42 | VI. " " 22222 173°72 477°28 
7 " " 2°540 | 224°47 | 426°53 VIL. " " 2°540 228°6 429-4 
Tur CorLeD TUBES. 
Volume of 
Tube. Length. | Diameter. | Thickness, 
Bore, Metal. 
Nickel C I. 25 ) 027 117 5°85 
! Cc Il " " “050 113 9-78 
" C III. " " 105 102°8 20°01 
Cobalt. 25°2 2°42 038 112°4 76 
Tron Co. 25°5 2°63 037 WZ 83 
" Cone 25°6 2°4 " 118:25 8°25 
Iron Tuses A anpD B. 
Diameter. Volume of Diameter. Volume of 
Tube. Length. Tube, | Length. 

External.| Internal. Bore. Metal. || External. Internal. Bore. Metal. 
meet. | 40:6 2°62 635 13°68 | 205°12 2B ea 2 Ors 2°62 635 eae, 101°88 
m 0. n " 953 27:7 191:1 nO " " ‘953 14:44 94:96 
w III. " " 1:270 baa 166°65 uw IIL. " " 1-270 25°78 83°62 
Loe " " 1588 79:18 | 13962 me Oe " " 1°588 39°11 70:29 
te Vv. " " 1°905 112°35 | 106°45 i (WS Wl " 1°905 55°26 54:14 
" VI. " "W DADRA 152°48 66°32 n VIL " " PAPA 76:17 33°23 
u VII. " " 2-420 184°63 34:17 nw VIL. ' tt 2°420 93°59 15°8 

Iron anp Sree Tupes (OricinaL Ser). 
IRon. STEEL. 
Diameter. Volume of Diameter. Volume of 
Length. | Tube. | Length. 
External.| Internal. Bore. Metal. External.| Internal. Bore. Metal. 
46:2 3°84 L270 67°7 470°1 3 45°7 3°84 1:270 61:93 | 467°17 | 
" " 1:905 127°4 410°4 5 "i " 1:905 5 ya) 5) 401°15 | 
" " 2°540 923°4 3144 re "W " 2540 22'7°45 301°65 | 
" " 2:696 252:08 285°72 || VII. " " 27696 243°51 285°59 
" " 319 343°7 194:1 | 9 " " 3°19 343°3 185°8 
Iron Tuses I’. to VIII’. 
Diameter. Volume of 
Tube Length. 
External, | Internal. Bore. Metal. 
Is 46-2 3°84 635 17°4 5 PLIley 
Il’. " " 953 31:96 497°14 
Ill’. " " 1:270 596 469°5 
IV’. " ” 1:588 90°38 438°72 
Wie " " 1905 1288 400 3 
VI’. " " LP) 173°13 355°97 
VII’ " " 2-540 220°82 308°28 
VII " " 2°858 28671 942-39 


482 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


TABGLEMT, 


Nicxe, Tuses B-II, III, IV, V. 


Volume Changes x 10° e.c. Dilatations x 10°. 
Field. b= eee en aa a |r 
éV. dv. bu’. 8. r. p. Vv. p. 
50 — ‘5 0 + 25 | --00 -— 5 +25) + '25) + ‘25 
100 —2°5 - 5 | -— 55 — 02 - 35 +16 + 1:9 + 17 
150 — 54 — 5d -— 57 — 05 - 85 +2°3 + 6:2 + 4:0 
200 -—80 — 102 -1093 | --08 —12°4 +2°6 + 97 + 5:7 
250 -78 - 140 -150 | -:08 — 15:2 +2°6 +12°5 + 7:0 
300 — 6:2 — 167 -1717  -:06 - 169 +2°5 +14°4 + 7:2 
400 —2°8 —192 -1978  —-:03 —19°3 +2°8 +16°5 + 88 
500 +3°3 — 210 — 212°7 +03 —21 +3 +18 + 96 
| | 
50 - 8 0 0 - 01 - 12 + 6 + 6 + ‘6: 
100 —2:7 - 51 - 59 — 03 — 55 +1'8 + 37 + 2°5 
150 —55 -172 — 190 —'06 — 102 +1:7 + 85 + 4:3 
200 -78 — 278 — 294 - ‘09 -14:7 +19 +12°7 + 61 
250 -7°7 — 346 — 362 - 09 —17°4 +1:9 +15°4 + 72 
300 — 6:2 — 387 — 403 — ‘07 —19°4 +2°0 +17°4 + 8 
400 — 2°8 — 435 — 444 - 03 — 21-7 +2°2 +19°5 + 9 
500 +3:1 — 456 — 459 +04 — 23:1 +2°5 + 20°6 + 96 3 
50 0 | + 1} -~ 2 |) <0 | -i6 | 4.8 | 4 +6) 
100 - °5 — 80 - 80 - 01 -— 64 +22 + 4:2 + 2°90 
150 -1 — 208 -217 - 01 —11°4 +3°0 + 84 +48 | +6 
200 —1:3 — 303 — 321 — 02 -—15°5 +3'8 +117 + 64 | + 9 
250 -2 — 364 — 384 - 03 — 18:2 +44 +13°8 + 75 | +10 
300 —2°7 - 401 — 416 —'03 - 20 +47 +153 + 82 | +11 
400 | -2°8 — 436 — 448 — 04 — 22:2 +5°5 +167 + 92 | +k 
500 | +3°7 — 450 — 463 — 05 — 23°8 + 6:1 +17°7 +10 -] 
50 0 -— 80 — 00 - 2 + ‘8 + 1:2 + 9 
100 - 7 — 185 - 01 -— 83 +2°6 + 57 + 34 
150 -] — 331 — 02 —13°3 +3'8 + 95 + 52 
200 - 8 — 481 - ‘01 -17 +44 +12°6 + 65 
250 -1:2 — 527 — 02 —19°8 +5°4 +14°4 + 77 
300 -15 — 583 —'03 —21°7 +59 +158 + 84 
400 —2°5 — 615 — 04 — 24 +68 +17:2 + 94 
500 — 3-4 — 627 — 06 — 24:8 +69 +179 + 96 


483 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 


TABLE IIL 


Nicxet Tusss 1, 4, te Al 


++tt+4¢4¢4 


DAKAR O 


Ci So ee Dlr Kren 


Ce BLES ieee, Ci Cs 


M119 6) 10 CO DO Od H HH P- 10 Seeley S) 19 OOO 0O1019 
antwooosd N19 OD NO bP mano otk Hr 10 19 0 CO OD 
= NI 69 19 DO DAD ANDMDNr~ ODO Pee ie es Bar) 
& MM NNA SO RA ANANAN 
Te eee ie malls 97 [6 ath ea fioe ee A TT Seat Peete eS 
Nas .-——~ = uo —_—-,-_ Ww _-+,-- 

aa 

a + ~ S 
OID AS TNO PMO HIG oo SHAH eROO OP MADHIO 
. moOodonna mrwor-AOnnAsN MAIO O MN cH met OONA CD 
Bas Ss ee oo Set st Se I oe I oo ae 
t+++t4t4++ Sarit am ana mer t+ttt+t+t++ t+t++4++ 
60 C1 NH We) Cee alls ehcp | ls Ge) (RIGS CGN CS) DIK N Ht O19 
oa 1dr DOr mtOoOdoRDOCO | mt HOMO DS mtOoOr-aone 
= ere ial Sol i i! 


5 
Oe i ae ere aoe ae 


PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 
TABLE, TV. 


484 


Nicket Tuses, I.-VII. 


a= 
o 
ae 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 485 
TABLE Y. 
Nicxet C Tupss (Coruzp). 
bu’. Ci. CIl. C Ill. 
jj CL | CIL | Cir r bw. v r pre v’ r. pe Vv’, 
— 54) — 22) - 22) - 4 | + 1:8)+ 2:2)/- 2 |+ 1:0} + 10] - 1:3 6 7 
+ 72} + 30) — 33||- 95) + 5°0/+ 45) - 71) 4+ 37) 4 34) - 53) 2:5 2°8 
+430] +200 + 46] —182)+109| + 7-4) —15°3| + 85/ + 68|-136| 7:0 6°6 
+618) +345 +155 || -22°5| +13°8/ + 87) —201| +115/+ 86) -—188) 10°0 8°8 
+718} +410 4233] —25°4]/ +156) + 9°8) —22°9) +131) + 9:8) -22°3) 12:1 | 10-2 
+737| +483 +4+320|| —28°2) +171} +11:1| -26 | +150) +11°0| -256°5| 14:1 | 114 
+497 +349] —29°3) +17°7| +116) —27°2| +15°6) +116) - 275) 15:2 | 12:3 
+498 +361] -30 | +180} +12°0| — 28:2} +161) +121) -285| 15-7 128 
CopaLtt Tube (CorLED). 
bu’. 5V. 8 r ps v'. 
- 6 - ‘1 - 01 - 2 ia ul ae il 
— 26 - 2 - 03 - 8 + °3. + 5 
- 82 - 9 -'12 —2°3 + ‘8 +1°4 
— 158 -1:3 -17 -4:0 +1°4 +2°4 
— 240 -14 -'18 —5°8 +1:9 +37 
— 320 -14 - 18 -76 +2°5 +4:9 
Iron C Tusess (Corrp). 
dv. Cl. CII. 
cl. C Il. A. pe v Xr. pe. Vv. 
+152 +51 +1°9 - 94 | -— 96 | +21 — 87 — 1:23 
— 15:3 +20 +2:21 | -—117 | -1:04 | +31 —148 | -—1°62 
~ 35 OCH micag die O89 69) | 29°17 | —1:08 | —1-09 
ao? | + 1 Gs) 2-40) 09 “| a -°9 PEAR CAS 
— 32:1 + 8 — 63 + 18 + 45 -— 3 + 18 + ‘12 
—20°7 +24 — 2°92 +1:38 +1:54 — 2°61 +1°39 + 1:22 
— 87 +42 — 4:83 + 2°38 + 2°45 — 4:78 + 2°54 + 2:24 
+ 3:2 +62 — 6°1 +3:07 | +303 -—5°9 +3:18 + 2°72 


486 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


TABLE VI.—Votume Cuances 1n [RON. 


A Tubes. B Tubes. 
Field | 
sv. bv. dv’. sv. dv. 

50 + 3 ~ 22 “+ °3 + 1 - cil + 
100 + 15 — 26°7 — 11°5 + 2°4 - 5) + 
150 + 28°6 - 36 = 9°5 + 4:3 - 22 + 
200 + 387°2 ees Yi) - 1°8 I { + 81 - 6'8 ae 
250 + 45°2 - 3879 + 4°2 ig + 138 — 14'2 + 
800 + 50°5 — 3882 fi, + 18°3 —- 17°9 op = 
400 + 62°7 — 39°3 + 25 + 27°8 — 22°8 ar 
500 + 75°2 - 40°8 + 41°7 + 37'8 — 26°7 + 

50 + 54 - 10 - 5 ( + / - | ab 
100 + 14°8 — 53°56 — 85°b + 3°2 - 2°4 SF 
150. + 29 —- 63 — 80°5 + 7*4 - 7°8 = 
200 + 38°4 -— 64:1 — 23°8 Il + 117 —- 16°3 = 
250 + 46°3 -— 65°'1 — 188 ¥ I + 18°3 —- $82°3 = 
800 + 52°2 — 66°1 — 158 | + 23°7 - 41 = 
400 + 62°3 —- 683 - 9°5 + 32°6 — 43°5 = 
500 + 73°1 = 69 = 8 l + 387°5 —- 47 = 

50 + 43 -— 35 — 30 (f + 1 = 1:2 = 
100 + 16°5 — 115 — 95 + 31 - 5 = 
150 + 29 -— 112 - 81 + 7 = 5 = 
200 + 35°2 —- 118 — 74:8 Ill 4 + 13°2 - 4) = 
250 4+- 40 — 118 — 69°8 d | + 19°9 —- 54 = 
300 + 43 — 113 — 68 | + 25°6 — 51:3 = 
400 + 49°2 — 114 -— 64 + 36°2 — 52°2 = 
500 + 58:2 — 115 — 57°3 + 43°3 — 52:2 a 
50 + 4 -— 52 —- 50 + 5) - 3°5 = 
100 + 12 — 125 — lll + 1°5 — 128 = 
150 + 21 — 122 — 101 + 4:3 | — 384 = 
200 + 26°2 — 122°5 —- 96 IV + 81 — 59:2 = 
250 + 29°7 = 122°5 - 91 2 + 11°3 — 55 = 
300 + 33°5 — 123 — 88 + 13°8 — 517 = 
400 + 41°7 — 124 -— 83 + 16°2 -— 48 = 
500 + 51°2 — 125 - 80 + .17°3 — 48 = 

50 + 3°6 — 100 — 100 + oi - 7 = 
100 + 11°5 — 109 — 93 + 1°8 — 25 = 
150 + 17°8 — 100 - 81 + 4:1 — 51°5 — 
200 + 22°2 - 97 = 178 Vv j (5 — 49°7 = 
250 + 24°7 — 95 —- 67. x 1 + 91 — 43°5 = 
300 + 26 -— 94 -—- 67 | + 97 — 40°8 = 
400 + 32 - 91 — 62 + 99 -— 36°3 = 
500 + 389°7 -— 88 -— 58 L + 10°2 -— 382°2 = 

50 + 4'8 -— 38 —- 33 ) ( + 1 - = 
100 + 8:9 + 32 + 46 | | + 2:7 - S 
150 + 12°6 + 55°5 + 71 + 52 + =f 
200 + 16°2 + 63°5 + 80 \ VI J oe ae + + 
250 + 20 + 68 + 86 i 3 } + 77 + + 
300 + 22 + 71°5 + 91 + 7°8 + ts 
400 + 26 “+ 781 + 98 + 72 + + 
500 + 28°7 + 84°3 + 128 J + 73 + cre 

25 + 2 - 18 (| + 2 - 8 - 

50 + 4 + 42 + °5 -— 13°2 a 
100 + 5°5 + 97 | +. 29 + 12:2 ae 
200 + 65 + 113 observed, : + 27 + 22°5 oP 
300 + 5 + 118 + 85 + 23 + 
400 + 3°2 + 122 | + 852 + 23°5 a 
500 - O15 + 1382 J lk ser 1288 + 26 + 4 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 487 


TABLE VII.—Dtuarations in Iron. 


A Tubes. B Tubes. 
| A B Vv pb’ v’. é. IN mn Vv we v’, 
ef | = 22] - 21-34 - 2p (imeerOT ety. = 08) = :06|.= 07) = -07 
es) 18 | 1-83! + -i¢| — 93] — ‘8 +02 | + 48] — 28; - 18] -— -23| — -23 
+14 | +2°65| -2-64| + -13| -1°35| -1-16 | | oe | A oi! = -¢ | = -o7| = «44 | S ag 
+19 | +2: | -2°62) + -31| -1:25| -1-06/| ; J] +-08 | +146) -118] - 20] - -71] - -67 
tap | si24 —207) ¢ og) = es] = | jl) Sas | tao] Saas) ¢ a2) <15e] 2120 
act Pe ade Se i Se aor aes eee 
om) — 2 | -1-34) +1-35| + 17| + 36] | | +27 | +2:79| -2°91| + -39| -1:35| -1-17 
#38 | -16 | - 69] +271| + ‘90| +1°08 ||) Ui] +°37 | +2°42| -2-99| + -94| -1-15| - -9 
en 6 | — -48| — -o9| - -32| — -26]/y Cao ety | io) 2-002 98 | 21208 
+08 | +22 | -2-07| — -05| -1:18] - -94 2-03) | Seal = -19|].< -25| = 22 
Mon) -2-72| -2°5 | — -o7| -1:48| —1-14 | PrOsn ie eo) | ae 77| = “15 | = “sr | —< 41 
20 | +243 -2°37| + “14| -1-27] - -96|/| py |i) +712] +163] -1°37] - 14] - -84| - 67 
94 | +1°82| -2:09| + 51| - -95| — -63 -4] 4-19 | 42:98; -2:26] + 17] —1-21] - -88 
ore) lel | —1-74| + -91| — -58|/— -28 | +25 | +954] —2-69| + -40| -1°35] - -94 
oan) — -32| -1-08| +1-73| + “15| + “50 +34 | 42°24] —2-66| + -76| -1718] - -72 
88 | -163| - -48| +2-44| + 8 | 41-211) +39 | +13 | -2°28| +137] - -70| - 21 
3) = 9 | - -79| - -o8| - 52) - -351/) eel 2-28 Sera 2 og) k's: -73|- 2.40 
10 | +2:48| -2:35| — 03] -1-46| — -92 idee sabi | = 8>| — 12) =. -27| = 20 
17 | +2:75| -2-45] - 13] -1:56| —1-02 Gee) ee Oe P77! 2-11). = -bs) = 286 
Bl | +2:42) -2:29/ + -o8| -1°38) - -83|/\ yy Ji] +:16 | +145] -152| + -23| - 86] - “43 
24 | +18 | -1:98] + -42] -1-05] — -51|/f Ml4|| 4-24 | 42-28] -219| + -15| -1-29| - -75 
95 | 41-05) -1-01/ + -82| - 67| - 12 | | +30 | +217| —2°08| + -21| —1-20] — -67 
+ - 4 | — 90] +1-60| + -06| + -64 +43 | +1-27| -1°65| + -81| - -69| - “15 
+35 | -1:86| - 17] +2:38| + -80| +1°41|/J Ul] 452 | — 1 | -— 96] +1°58| + -02] + -60 
| t 
rosy) + 95| — 81) = -11| — 39] - -33 11) Gl eecomieee-ie |) eerton, ht | = 07 | Shoe 
+°09'| +255) -2:07/ - -39| -1:53| — -93 [iee-eoe ee 431) Sa-g8)) — -08| — -28| Soas 
+15 | +2°58| -2-06| — -37| -152| — -91 | +06 | +10 | - 94 00| - -66| - 28 
+19 | +2:08| -1:82| - -07| -1-26| - -63|/! Jy +12 | +2°0 | -1-76| - 12] -1-26| - 62 
ete +i4 | 21-48) + 9! — 9 | = agli f IY 4 || 4-16 | +20 | -1-71| — -13! -1-22) - -62 
Bape 2 | -113) + 87] ~ be] + -08 | | S990) 21-5 | Si-ai) 4-11) = -95| = ‘35 
ar = 4 — 44) 41°44) + 17) + °88 +°23 | + °45| - 84] + 62) — +45) + 23 
+37 | -1:97| + 20] 42-14] + -80} +1954] J pga eee = 86 | -ei21 |, + 19 +) 76 
+03 | +1:15| -1-02/ - 1 | — -31] — 31] Gl eeronel) -eccta)) =) -19}| 2-080" = -08| =" -on 
+l | +2°16| -1:57| - -48| -1:30| — -75 SNORE Pe te.) 257565. = 09) — 46) = 21 
47 | +1:95| -1-42| - -36| -1-16| — -62 | +08 | +15 | —1-22| — -20| - -97| — 45 
Bl | +187) -112) ~ -04) - a5] - sill y Ji) +24 | +24 | -1:50) — 46) -125] ~ 71 
Me SL) = 78) + 35) - 4s) + 08 SSS Eats coiiecesiciy |i camecy | ee Oo mae 
eee) — Eaé lee -72| — -10| + i-46 | igs |) S19) Ae) 4-47) = 20) & = 
+30 | -1°66] + -43] +1:53| + -69| +1-27 |] | Wi eesieel Sate ees | atonal « a7] +76 
+87 | -2:7 | + -96| +2-11| +1-23| +1-84|/J (|| +19 | -2:18| + -8 | +1°57| +1-01| +1:26 
fomie+18 | -1:03| — -7 | - 98] — -75//) Gimeecose i ceecoml =. :25,| = -02| — 22! — “05 
+13 | +2°35| -1:07| -1-15| -1-:07| —1-15 mesos iesi-z) |) 0-05) = «57 |. = 97 65 
ee a al | a8) 28 SR 8] oe 
messi: 50). +85)| =. #48 seo | ero) || =. 85. =. ‘98)|.— = 
30] + -22/ + 12] - -o4| + -09| — -01 VI. 4 oe We oieop |) = 44 — bg) — 4a| — “64 
‘83 | — -61| + -54| + -40/ + -52/ 4 49 +04 | + 4 | + -06| - 22| + 1 | - 26 
+°39 | 2°05) +1-28] +1-16| 41:25) +1-19 | | +22 | — 96] + -79| + ‘39| + -76| + “42 
+43 | -31 | +1:83| +1-70/ +1-84| +1-69 ||) | 4-22 | —o1 | +1-40/ + 92] +1:34] + 98 
+06 | +12 | - -65| - -49| - -64| = -50]/) cl) 4:01 | + "15 WW 03 13| - ‘01 
fee 22 | — 99) -1°09) - ‘99/ -1°09 1}} +703 | +1715) — 64) — 48) — °63) — “49 
meet | -. =182] - -99) -1:25 | +06 | +240 | — -94] -1°00] ~ 92) -1:08 
. ea; para = zs 1 SG Je 23 = 
em 2 as| — o6| — us| ea V4| 457 | 46 | — t6| — 27] — 14] — 29 
ceo bb| + GO|] + 1 | + -be| + -14 | ||| 4-22 | -1-42| + 84] + *80| + -86| + °78 
+°09 | -1°63/ +115] + 57] +111] + -61||| | +20 | -2°96| +1:61| +1°55| +1°63| +1°53 
+04 | -2°6 | +1°66| + -98] +1°61| +1-03|[J (|| 4-15 | —4:48| +2°38| +2:25) +2°40| +2-23 
ie ee 


488 


50 
100 
150 
200 
300 
400 
500 


50 
100 
150 
200 
300 
400 
500 


50 
100 
150 
200 
300 
400 
500 


50 
100 
150 
200 
300 
400 
500 


50 
100 
150 
200 
300 
400 
500 


PROFESSOR KNOTT ON THE STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, 


++ttee+ 
Bbw dod 
wWwoannwonw 


t+eeeett 
meowyHdsd 
wow ann © cw 


+++4+4+44+ 
ead wwedsd 
wwonwnnwow 


ee 


+t+4+4+4+4++4+ 
Reowwedd 
owoworn 10 8 


++tt+4++ 
meadwmyedd 
© 09 GO bo “TIO WL 


TABLE? VALE. 


Iron Tusss 3, 5, 7, VII., 9. 


— ‘16 - ‘19 
— °26 — ‘76 
-— 16 — 1:44 
- ‘15 — 1:59 
+ °65 -101 
+1°73 — 32 
+2°76 + 43 
+ ‘07 - ll 
+ °31 — ‘67 
+ ‘06 — 1:09 
— ‘04 — 1:06 
+ ‘57 — 52 
+1:40 + °20 
+ 1°94 + ‘87 
— ‘02 — ‘24 
— °35 — 92 
— 6 — 1:05 
— ‘38 — 82 
+ ‘37 — ‘07 
+1°15 + °70 
+1:95 +1:41 
- ‘17 — 33 
— 1:22 —1:21 
— 1:65 — 1°30 
— 1°45 — 1:00 
-— 83 — ‘34 
— ‘08 + ‘41 
+ ‘73 +1°1¢ 
— ‘34 — 66 
—1:16 — 1:40 
—1:13 -114 
- ‘79 — ‘76 
+ 13 + ‘17 
+1:10 +1:12 
+ 2:04 +1-96 


STEEL, NICKEL, AND COBALT TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 489 
ACB eB 1X. 
Iron Tupzs, I’. to VIII’. 

[a v. [i Vv. dv 
=a eOit = og aris 2 ie |) (| + 5:3 
+ 09 — -80 — -39 2-39 || | [| + 168 
— ‘87 = 76 = 32 =o! | me (ae 
43 — -60 =1-03 ach | Halos 
—1°65 07 — -89 263 | mses 
= Ti +1:33 + 08 + 15 |] L|| - 35-1 
= 24 = iy) ai = 22 llc ae 
— -66 2-35 = gbil — -50 [eee 
— 1:94 253i!) — -98 ees iV — 60 
= 97/5 + ‘15 ara9 —1-04 — 75 
SOY 0 — “88 — 69 ||| ||| - 86 
— 1-36 +229 = 36 + 57 |] | —103 
a2 14 0 = 49-1) ji) ere 
=O —~ 30 ae SoG ai i} ~ 204 
— 2-28 = 03 — 1:28 =103 ||| Soe 
ee OG ie) iis | ¢ 312: 4) 136 
~ 2:39 + 60 — 1:02 SP al ie a aag 
— 1-30 238 eal fa |) J [|| -—190 
ae 29 | =5 2041 | fall = Seb 
— -95 — +39 re ~ 62 | i - 422 
— 2:08 S55 — 1:45 “118 | ty — 124 
530 "241 | L150 Se | Stet 
~ 1:99 + °32 —1:04 yee3t | Lab ales 
- 87 + 2-04 + 34 + $83 | J [|| — 224 
— -28 = +09 a = 16 |] (i ues 
=1-28 = 27 =. 81 See lal ;| - 17 
= 2-96 Ea, = 102 | yj] - 233 
= 97 Sie ~ 147 - 95 |f “: V] -244 
—1-78 + 59 =5 89 — 30 | | ; | —270 
S56 202 + 45 #11 |) [|| —295 
=Seds 2-4 2-98 =eei0% | fae 
= 141 = -i6 =119 - 82 | | 7125 
~ 1:99 78 - 1:59 “118 | yp, 3] —280 
— 1:86 =) 52 Sal SBeSTe | { "yi, 192 
= 128 pero — 8 ~ 30 ||| (i) S218 
Se 75 sel STONE) i eee 
= -44 = "Ge — 38 eer |) ip = 2 
~ 1:64 =, 34 126 Sees il) i | ~ 288 
-1:81 — -49 = 143 =i ; — 254 
Bien oa seg epee = -en a 1 _ 256 
= Nels + £6 oo + 05 | | — 255 
or ids lo 8s | 1-49 ||| [| —254 
— -49 — 03 39 = 9 | Gi 120 
— 1°45 = — 1-28 - 88 | | || —185 
— 1:30 — +63 —1:15 = 78) | ; — 142 
BOS yee | +, :82 — +44 ; ae ~ 139 
= + 51 — -06 234 ||| ||| -130 
+1:19 + 2-04 + 1:39 +184 | J {| —120 

VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 15). 4D 


- 


~ 


490 STRAINS PRODUCED IN IRON, ETC. TUBES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD. 


TABLE X. 


STEEL TuBEs. 


| 
| Field. | 3. | i | 7. VII, | VIL, VI,. 


Bore Dirarations, (A + 24)108, 


50 + 13 + °05 — ‘19 + ‘05 - 29 | — ‘10 a: 

100 + °38 + ‘20 — 30 + 25 — +59 — 02 Be 

150 + +16 + 68 + ‘21 + -40 -— 4 + 07 a 

200 | + ‘33 + 1:25 + ‘52 + ‘31 - ‘19 + ‘10 oye 

300 | + 68 42°14 + ‘76 ="06 + ‘04 | +4 

400 | + ‘53 + 2°64 + 96 — *46 + 16 + 08 + * 

500 + °39 + 2°89 +1:05 — $2 + ‘24 + 04 oF 
LonertupinaL Dinvarations, 2 10°, 

50 + ‘25 + ‘15 seg eae | + °68 

100 + °68 + 85 +1:23 + 2°20 

150 || +1-40 41°75 pacar) gebably Probably 42-00 

200 +151 +1:80 0598 apis pas +140 

300 + ‘40 + 60 745 iL. Vil, Seti 

400 = 1700 =o ~ 1-98 3 3° — 2-00 

500 — 2°40 — 2°40 — 3°30 | — 3°52 
TanGENTIAL Divatations, p 10°. 

50 4) == *06 — 05 — ‘30 — =32 — °49 — ‘39 ~ 

100 -— ‘15 — 33 - 17 — 98 — 1:40 -—111 

150 — 62 — 54 — 63 — 80 — 1:20 — ‘97 

200 |) — ‘59 — ‘28 = -23 — Ooi — ‘61 — °65 

300 | + ‘14 + TT + ‘61 + ‘13 + ‘18 + ‘21 

400 + 77 +1°77 + 1:47 + ‘77 +1-:08 +1:04 

500 | +1°40 + 2°65 +2°18 + 1:35 +1:88 +1°77 


——— ee 
I 


— nas 


(1 491°) 


XVI.—On the Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile. II. 
By Professor Tarr. (With a Plate.) 


(Read 6th and 20th January 1896.) 


The first instalment of this paper was devoted in great part to the general subject 
involved in its title, but many of the illustrations were derived from the special case of 
the flight of a golf-ball. Since it was read I have endeavoured, alike by observation 
and by experiment, to improve my numerical data for this interesting application, 
particularly as regards the important question of the coefficient of resistance of the air. 
As will be seen, [ now find a value intermediate to those derived (by taking average 
estimates of the mass and diameter of a golf-ball) from the results of Ropins and of 
Basurorta. This has been obtained indirectly by means of a considerable improve- 
ment in the apparatus by which [ had attempted to measure the initial speed of a golf- 
ball, I have, still, little doubt that the speed may, occasionally, amount to the 300, 
or perhaps even the 350, foot-seconds which I assumed provisionally in my former 
paper :—but even the first of these is a somewhat extravagant estimate ; and I am now 
of opinion that, even with very good driving, an initial speed of about 240 is not often 
an underestimate, at least in careful play. From this, and the fact that six seconds 
at least are required for a long carry (say 180 yards), I reckon the “ terminal velocity ” 
at about 108, giving v’/360 as the resistance-acceleration. 

I hope to recur to this question towards the end of the present paper :—but I should 
repeat that I naturally preferred the comparatively recent determination to the much 
older one, and that in formerly assuming a resistance even greater than that which 
Basnrorru’s formula assigns, I was to some extent influenced by the consideration of 
the important effects of roughening or hammering a golf-ball. For I fancied that this 
might increase the direct resistance, as well as the effects due to rotation, by the better 
grip of the air which it gives to the ball. [See last sentence of §11. Of course the 
assumption of increased coefficient of resistance required a corresponding increase of 
the estimate of initial speed.] The time of describing 180 yards horizontally, z.e., when 
gravity is not supposed to act, if the initial speed is 240 and the “terminal velocity” 
108, is about 5°2; and this has to be increased by at least 1*, if we allow for the 
curvature of the path and the effect of gravity. I have employed this improved value 
of the coefficient of resistance in all the calculations which have been made since I 
obtained it. But various considerations have led me to the conclusion that the resist- 
ance, towards the end of the path, may be somewhat underrated because of the assump - 
tion that it is, throughout, proportional to the square of the speed. This point, also, 
will be referred to later, as I wish to make at once all the necessary comments and 
improvements on the part already published. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 16). 4E 


492 PROFESSOR TAIT ON 


Though the present communication is thus specially devoted to some curious 
phenomena observed in the game of golf, it contains a great deal which has more 
extended application :—to which its results can easily be adapted by mere numerical 
alterations in the data. Therefore I venture to consider its subject as one suitable for — 
discussion before a scientific Society. 


In my short sketch of the history of the problem I failed to notice either of two 
comparatively recent papers whose contents are at least somewhat closely connected 
with it. These I will now very briefly consider. 

The first is by CLerK-MaxweELL* “ On @ particular Case of the Descent of a Heavy 
Body in a Resisting Medium.” The body is a flat rectangular slip of paper, falling with 
its longer edges horizontal. It is observed to rotate about an axis parallel to these 
edges, and to fall in an oblique direction. The motion soon becomes approximately 
regular ; and the deflection of the path from the vertical is to the side towards which 
the (temporarily) lower edge of the paper slip is being transferred by the rotation. 
[When the rectangle is not very exact, or the longer edges not quite horizontal, or the 
slip slightly curved, the appearance, especially when there is bright sunlight, is often 
like a spiral stair-case.] MaxweELu examines experimentally the distribution of currents, 
and consequently of pressure, about a non-rotating plane upon which a fluid plays 
obliquely ; and shows that when the paper is rotating the consequent modification of 
this distribution of pressure tends to maintain the rotation. The reasoning throughout 
is somewhat difficult to follow, and the circumstances of the slip are very different from 
those of a ball :—but the direction of the deflection from the unresisted path is always 
in agreement with the statement made by Newton. 

Much more intimately connected with our work is a paper by Lord RayLEignt 
“ On the Irregular Flight of a Tennis Ball,” in which the “true explanation” of the — 
curved path is attributed to Prof. Magnus. The author points out that, in general, the 
statement that the pressure is least where the speed is greatest, is true only of perfect 
fluids unacted on by external forces; whereas in the present case the whirlpool motion 
is directly due to friction. But he suggests the idea of short blades projecting from the 
ball, the pressure on each of which is shared by the contiguous portion of the spherical 
surface. Here we have practically Newton’s explanation—.e. the “ pressing and beating 
of the contiguous air.” Lord RayLricn’s paper contains an investigation of the form of 
the stream-lines when a perfect fluid circulates (without molecular rotation) round a 
cylinder, its motion at an infinite distance having uniform velocity in a direction per- 
pendicular to the axis of the cylinder. And it is shown that the resultant pressure, 
perpendicular to the general velocity of the stream, has its magnitude proportional alike 
to that velocity and to the velocity of circulation. [There are some comments on this 
paper, by Prof. GREENHILL, in the ninth volume of the journal referred to. | 


* Oambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, ix. 145 (1854). 
+ Messenger of Mathematics, vii. 14 (1878). 


ae 


THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 493 


In the Beibldtter zu d. Ann. d. Phys. (1895, p. 289) there appears a somewhat 
sarcastic notice of my former paper. The Reviewer, evidently annoyed at my remarks 
on Maenvs’ treatment of Ropins, which he is unable directly to controvert, refers to 
Heim, Traté de Balistique, as containing an anticipation of my own work. I find 
nothing there beyond a very small part of what was perfectly well known to Newton 
and Rosins ; except a few.of the more immediately obvious mathematical consequences, 
deduced from the hypothesis (for which no basis is assigned, save that it is the simplest 
possible) that the transverse deflecting force due to rotation is proportional to the first 
power of the translational speed. 


In the present article I give first a brief account of my recent attempts to determine 
the initial speed of a golf-ball, and consequently to approximate to the coefficient of 
v in the assumed expression for the resistance. 

Next, instead of facing the labour of the second approximation (suggested in § 10) 
to the solution of the differential equations, I have attempted by mere numerical calcu- 
lation to take account of the effect of gravity on the speed of the projectile, and have 
thus been enabled to give improved, though still rough, sketches of the form of the 
trajectory when it is not excessively flat. This process furnishes, incidentally, the 
means of finding the time of passage through any arc of the trajectory. 

Third, I treat of the effects of wind, regarded as a uniform horizontal translation of 
the atmosphere parallel, or perpendicular, to the plane of the path. 

Finally, recurring to the limitation of a very flat trajectory, I have treated briefly 
the effects of gradual diminution of spin during the flight. This loss is shown to be 
inadequate to the explanation of the unexpectedly small inclination of the calculated 
path when the projectile reaches the ground. Hence some other mode of accounting 
for its nearly vertical fall is to be sought, and it is traced to the rapid diminution of the 
resistance (assigned by Rosins’ law) when the speed has been greatly reduced. 


Determination of Initial Speed. 


16. The bob of my new ballistic pendulum was a stout metal tube, some 3 feet 
long, suspended horizontally, near the floor, by two parallel pieces of clock-spring about 
25 feet apart, and 8°63 feet long. On one end of the tube was fixed transversely a 
circular disc, 1 foot in diameter, covered with a thick layer of moist clay into which 
the ball was driven from a distance of 4 feet or so. The whole bob had a mass of about 
33 lbs.; and, in the most favourable circumstances, its horizontal displacement was 
about 3°5 to 4 inches. As the ball’s mass is 0°1 Ib., the average indicated speed was 
thus about 200 foot-seconds.* Though I had the assistance of two long drivers, whose 


* If / be the length (in feet) of the supporting straps, d the (small) horizontal deflection of the bob, its vertical rise 
is Obviously d?/2/, so that its utmost potential energy is 


(M + m)gd?/21, 
where M is its mass and m that of the ball, But, if V was the horizontal speed of the ball, that of bob and ball was 


= 4 


494 PROFESSOR TAIT ON . 


habitual carry is 180 yards or upwards, the circumstances of the trials were somewhat 
unfavourable, for there was great difficulty in hitting the dise of clay centrally. The 
pendulum was suspended in an open door-way; and heavy matting was disposed all 
about the clay so as (in Ropins’ quaint language) “to avoid these dangers, to the 
braving of which in philosophical researches no honour is annexed”; so that the whole 
surroundings were absolutely unlike those of a golf-course. I therefore make an allow- 
ance of 20 per cent., and (as at present advised) regard 240 foot-seconds or something 
like it as a fair average value of the initial speed of a really well-driven ball :—while 
thinking it quite possible that, under exceptionally favourable circumstances, this may 
be increased by 20 or 30 per cent. at least. Now, it is certain that the time of flight 
is usually about six seconds when the range is about 180 yards :—considerably more 
for a very high trajectory, and somewhat less for a very flat one. As we have by §5 
the approximate formula 


= ple"), 


we may take a=360 as a reasonable estimate. This number is possibly some 10 per 
cent. in error, but it is very convenient for calculation, and golf-balls differ considerably 
from one another in density as well as in diameter. With it the “terminal velocity” of 
a golf-ball is about 108 foot-seconds; intermediate to the values deduced from the 
formule of Rosins and of BAsHrortu, which I make out to be 114 and 95 respectively. 
With this value of a, it is easy to see that air-resistance, alone, reduces the speed of a 
golf-ball to half its initial value in a path of 83 yards only. This is the utmost gain of 
range obtainable (other conditions remaining unchanged) by giving four-fold energy of 
propulsion! With the value (282) of a deduced from BasHrortu’s formula, this gain 
would have been 65 yards only! [So far for the higher speeds, but it is obvious from 
all ordinary experience of pendulums (with a golf-ball as bob) that slow moving bodies 
suffer greater resistance than that assigned by this law. | 

In passing, I may mention that, on several occasions, I fastened firmly to the ball a 
long light tape, the further end being fixed (after all twist was removed) to the ground 
so that the whole was perpendicular to the direction of driving. After the 4 foot flight 
of the ball, the diameter at first parallel to the tape preserved its initial direction, while 
the tape was found twisted (in a sense corresponding to underspin) and often through 
one or two full turns, indicating something like 60 or 120 turns per second. This is 
clearly a satisfactory verification of the present theory. 


mV|(M+m). Equating the corresponding kinetic energy to the potential energy into which it is transformed, we find 
at once (M+ m)gd?/2l=m?V?/2(M +m) leading to the very simple expression 


Fe 


m 
With the numerical values given in the text we easily find that this is equivalent to 
D 
V=381751'93=53'2D ; 


where V is, of course, in foot-seconds, but the deflection is now (for convenience) expressed in inches, and called 2), 
Hence the numerical result in the text, 


THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE, 495 


Numerical Approximation to Form of Path. 


17. The differential ‘equations of the trajectory were integrated approximately in 
§ 10 by formally omitting the term in g in the first of them, that is so far as the speed is 
concerned. In other words :—by assuming that ¢ is always very small, or the path nearly 
horizontal throughout. It was pointed out that if the value of ¢, thus obtained from 
the second, were substituted for sin ¢ in the first, equation, we should be able to obtain 
a second approximation to the intrinsic equation of the path, amply sufficient for all 
ordinary applications. But the process, though simple enough in all its stages, is long 
and laborious :—and it is altogether inapplicable to the kinked path, discussed in § 15, 
which furnishes one of the most singular illustrations of the whole question. 

The fact that one of my Laboratory students, Mr James Woop, had shown himself 
to be an extremely rapid and accurate calculator led me to attempt an approximate 
solution of the equations by means of differences :—treating the trajectory as an equi- 
lateral polygon of 6-foot sides, and calculating numerically the inclination of each to 
the horizon, as well as the average speed with which it is described. For we may write 
the differential equations in the form 


ld(v?)  v A 

2 v +2 = ~gsin g, 
dd kg 
ar Le 


and these involve approximately 
29249? 4 asi 14 
y2—y +2(2 +gsing )ds=0, 
, k 
a) —$=(~—S cos os. 
Thus we find, after a six-foot step, the new values 


v2=(1 —=)y2—384 sin ¢, 


, 6% 192cos 

p= ae. 

[If we take account of terms in (0s)’, we find that we ought to write for 12/a 
the more accurate expression 12/a.(1—6/a). But this does not alter the form of 
the expression for v’”. It merely increases by some 2 per cent. the denominator of 
the coefficient of resistance, of which our estimate is, at best, a very rough one; so 
that it may be disregarded. But the successive values of v® are all on this account 
too large; and thus the values of 9, in their turn, are sometimes increased, sometimes 
diminished, but only by trifling amounts. This is due to the fact that the change of 
depends upon terms having opposite signs ; and involving different powers of v, so that 
their relative as well as their actual importance is continually changing. These remarks 


t 


496 PROFESSOR TAIT ON 


require some modification when k is such that ¢ may have large values, as for instance 
in the kinked path treated below. But I do not pretend to treat the question exhaust- 
ively, so that I merely allude to this source of imperfection of the investigation. | 

Let, now, ©=360, k=1/8, and suppose # to be expressed in degrees. We have, to 
a sufficient approximation, 


v? =(v?—400 sin oy(1 — =n) , 


and successive substitutions in these equations, starting from any assigned values of v 
and ¢, will give us the corresponding values for the next side of the polygon, with 
the more recent estimate of the coefficient of resistance. See the two last examples in 
§ 19 below, which lead to the trajectories figured as 5 and 6 in the Plate. 

Unfortunately, many of Mr Woon’s calculations were finished before I had 
arrived at my new estimate of the value of a; but their results are all approximately 
representative of possible trajectories :—the balls being regarded as a little larger, or a 
little less dense, than an ordinary golf-ball; in proportion as the coefficient of resistance 
assumed is somewhat too great. And no difficulty arises from the assumption of too 
great an initial speed; for we may simply omzt the early sides of the polygon, until we 
come to a practically producible rate of motion. 

18. To discover how far this mode of approximation can be trusted, we have only 
to compare its consequences with those of the exact solution. For the intrinsic equation 
can easily be obtained in finite terms when there is no rotation. In fact, by elimination 
of g between the differential equations of § 10, assuming k=0, we have at once the 
complete differential of the equation 


e/*v cos d= V cos y= V, suppose ; 


where it is to be particularly noticed that V, is the speed of the horizontal component 
of the velocity of projection, not the total speed. By means of this the second of the 
equations becomes 

d 

“ =— ren cos *, 


whence 
sec d+ tan gy 


a 
ple 1)=sec ¢, tan ¢,—sec ¢ tan ¢ + log a66 6 tang 


The following fragments show the nature and arrangement of the results in one of 
the earlier of Mr Woop’s calculated tables. Having assumed (for reasons stated in the 
introductory remarks above) that a=240, I supplied him with the following formule -— 


1 
20 
12000 


yy 


v= (1-5, )o*—400 sin ¢(1—0°04), 


¢=o- cos ¢ (1— 0:04), 


THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. A497 


and I took as initial data V=300, $=15°; [whence, of course, V,7=84,000 nearly. 
This is required for comparison with the exact solution. | 
Working from these he obtained a mass of results from which I make a few 


3/6 vw v 1/v 3(1/2) rT sind (sing) cosp X(cos¢) 
1. 90,000 300 003 003 Ny? ‘2588 2588  :9659 “9659 


2. 85,401 29272 -00342 00675 14:876 "2565 5153 9665 = «19324 
3. 81,032 2846 ‘00351 :01026 14°746 2546 [OOS IOs 28995 
* * * * 


extracts :— 
| i 


20. 33,045 181°8 00550 ‘08666 11:028 1914 46102 :9815 19:4569 

feel §=177°0 ( 00565 09231 10°686 1854 47956 -9826 20-4395 
* % # * * 

40. 11,440 1069 00935 ‘23391 - 1:023 --0178 66163 -9998 39-3178 

41. 10,875 1043 00959 24350 - 2030 -—--0355 65808 -9994 40-3172 
* * * * * 


60. 5453 73°8 01354 469385 -—30°748 -°5113 14677 ‘8595 58-3988 
61. 5377 733 01363 «648298 »=—6 — 32°564 Ss — ‘5383 "9294 -8428 59-2416 
* * * 


* * 
This table gives simultaneous values of s, v, and ¢ directly. ¢ is obviously to be 
found by multiplying by 6 feet the numbers in column fifth; while by the same process 


we obtain rectangular céordinates, vertical and horizontal, from the eighth, and the last, 
columns respectively. Thus for instance we have simultaneously 


s v t co) y x 
120 181°8 0°52 11°-028 27°66 116-74 
240 106°9 1 :404 —1 023 39°69 235°9 


(The trajectory is given as fig. 3 in the Plate, and will be further analysed in the 
| next section of the paper.) 
From the complete table we find that, in this case, is positive up to the 38th 
| line inclusive, and then changes sign. It vanishes for s=233 (approximately) after the 
_ lapse of 1°35. The rectangular céordinates of the vertex are about 230 and 40, and 
the speed there is reduced to 110. From the exact equation we find s=2832 for p=0°. 
This single agreement is conclusive, since the earlier tabular values of s for a given 
value of ought to be somewhat in excess of the true values; while the later, and 
especially those for negative values of ¢ greater than 30° or so, should be somewhat too 
small :—z.e. the calculated trajectory hag at first somewhat too little curvature, but 
towards the end of the range it has too much. It is easy to see that this is a necessary 
consequence of the mode of approximation employed :—look, for instance, at the fact 
that the initial speed is taken as constant through the first six feet. See also the 
remarks in § 17. On the whole, therefore, though the carry may possibly be a little 
underrated, the numerical method seems to give a very fair approximation to the truth. 
This admits of easy verification by the help of the value of dd/ds last written, for it 
enables us to calculate the exact value of s for any assigned value of ¢ by a simple 
difference calculated from the result obtained from an assumed value. 
19. Taking the method for what it is worth, the following are a few of the results 


-s 


498 PROFESSOR TAIT ON ‘ 


obtained from it by Mr Woop. I give the numerical data employed, plotting the 
curves from a few of the calculated values of x and y. But I insert, at the side of each 
trajectory, marks indicating the spaces passed over in successive seconds. This would 
have been a work of great difficulty if we had adopted a direct process, even in cases 
where the intrinsic equation can be obtained exactly :—and it must be carried out when 
we desire to find the effects of wind upon the path of the ball. 

Fig.1 represents the path when a=240 (properly 234), V=300, ¢)=0", and k=1/8, 
This will be at once recognised as having a very close resemblance to the path of a 
well-driven low ball. ‘The vertex (at 0°76 of the range) and the point of contrary 
flexure are indicated. This trajectory does not differ very much from that given (for 
the same initial data) by the roughly approximate formula of § 10; which rises a little 
higher, and has a range of some ten yards greater. But the assumed initial speed, and 
consequently the coefficient of resistance, are both considerably too great. 

In fig.2 all the initial data are the same except k, which is now increased to 1/2 :—ie. 
the spin is 50 per cent. greater than in fig.1. We see its effect mainly in the increased 
height of the vertex, and in the introduction of a second point of contrary flexure. A 
further increase of & will bring these points of contrary flexure nearer to one another, 
till they finally meet in the vertex, which will then be a cusp, a point of momentary 
rest, and the path throughout will be concave upwards! This is one of the most curious 
results of the investigation, and I have realized it with an ordinary golf-ball :—using a 
cleek whose face made an angle of about 45° with the shaft and was furnished with 
parallel triangular grooves, biteng downwards, so as to ensure great underspin. [The 
data for this case give extravagant results when employed in the formula of § 10. The 
vertex it assigns is 510 feet from the starting point and at nearly 172 feet of elevation: 
—while the range is increased by 60 or 70 yards, And that formula can never give | 
more than one point of contrary flexure. All this was, however, to be expected; since 
the formula was based on the express assumption that gravity has no direct effect on 
the speed of the projectile. | 

Fig.3 shows the result of dispensing altogether with initial rotation, while 
endeavouring to compensate for its absence by giving an initial elevation of 15°. This 
figure, also, will be recognised as characteristic of a well-known class of drives ; usually 
produced when too high a tee is employed, and the player stands somewhat behind his 
ball. Notice, particularly, how much the carry and the time of flight are reduced, 
though the initial speed is the same. The slight underspin makes an extraordinary 
difference, producing as it were an unbending of the path throughout its whole length, 
and thus greatly increasing the portion above the horizon. But of course the pace of 
the ball, when it reaches the ground, is very much greater than in the preceding cases, 
it usually falls more obliquely, and it has no back-spin. On all these accounts we 
should expect to find that the “run” will in general be very much greater. Still, in 
consequence partly: of the greater coefficient of resistance at low speeds, presently to be 
discussed, over-spin (due to the disgraceful act called “ topping”) is indispensable for 


THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 499 


a really long run. In such a case the carry will, of course, be still further reduced, 
unless the initial elevation be very considerably increased. (Some of Mr Woon’s 
pumerical results, from which fig.3 was drawn, were given in the preceding section.) 

In fig.4, a and V are as in fig.1, but k=1 and ¢,=45°. Here we have the kink, 
of which a provisional sketch (closely resembling the truth) was given in the former 
instalment of the paper. I have not yet obtained it with a golf-ball, though as already 
stated I have got the length of producing the cusp above spoken of. But the kink can 
be obtained in a striking manner when we use as projectile one of the large balloons 
of thin india-rubber which are now so common. We have only to “ slice” the balloon 
sharply downwards (in a nearly vertical plane) with the flat hand. This is a most 
instructive experiment, and its repetition presents no difficulty whatever. It is to be 
specially noticed that, in the particular kink sketched, there is a point of minimum speed 
somewhat beyond the vertex, and a point of maximum speed, both nearly in the same 
vertical with the point of projection. The first (where the speed is reduced to 58°7) is 
reached in a little more than two seconds, the other (where it has risen to 73°8) in rather 
more than four. 

It may be interesting to give a few details of Mr Woonp’s calculations for this case :— 
selecting specially those near the points of maximum and minimum speed, and along 
with them those for closely corresponding elevations on the ascending side. Also near 
the vertex. The equations were 


nt=v'(1- 5p) — 400 sin g (1-004) 


$,=¢ ie = a cos ¢ (1 — 0°04) 
3/6 oy v 1/v 3(1/v) d sin p (sin ¢) cos h =(cos d) 
1. 90000 #300 003 003 45° “7071 ‘7071 ‘7071 ‘7071 
* % % % * 
23. 24582 156°8 "006388 -10693 78°-72 ‘9807 19°6186 -1956 11-3075 
* % * % + 
41, 5583 T4-7 01359 -27640 145°°3 5693 35°8751 — °8221 6°2814 
* % * % % 
44, 4278 65°4 01529 -32038 166°-46 2343 36°9422 — +9722 3°4951 
45, 3974 63:0 01586 :33624 174°:58 "0944 37°0266 — +9955 2°4996 
46, 3739 61:1 01636 -35260 183716 —-0553 36-9813 — 9981 15015 
% % * % * 
48, 3475 59-0 (01697 =©:38630)»=6.: 201°-3.—-§-§-«-s« — +3633 36°4078 — +9317 — +5921 
49, 3441 58-7 701704 «=6-40334 = 210° — 5075 35°9003 — °8616 — 1:4537 
50. 3464 58:9 01700 §=6*420384 «=6—219°°5 = — 6363 35-2640 = oat — 2°9951 
* % % % * 
67. 5434 73°7 01357 =-67179 = 313-1 = — -7302 20°027 4 °6833 = BilGy 
68. 5443 73°8 01355 -68534  316°5 —-—-6880 19-3394 ‘7258 + -4096 
69. 5435 73°7 01357 =-69891 319°9 —-6446 18°6948 -7646 + Le 
* * % % 


The following data belong to the last elements for which the calculations were 


made :— 


80. 4374 6671 01512 85485 352°°9 —°1224 14:6898 "9925 11-2602 
81. 4202 64°8 01542 ‘87027 355°°8 — 0732 14°6166 9973 12°2575 


VOL, XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 16). au 


500 PROFESSOR TAIT ON 


As the last five values of @ have been increasing steadily by nearly 3° for each 
element, it is clear that the direction of motion again rises above-the horizontal; but — 
whether the path has next a point of contrary flexure, or another kink, can only be — 
found by carrying the ‘calculation several steps further. [The second kink is very — 
unlikely, as the speed is so much reduced at the point where the calculations were — 
arrested. Mr Woop has gone to Australia, and I had unfortunately told him to stop 
the numerical work in this particular example as soon as he found that 2(cos), — 
after becoming negative, had recovered its former maximum (positive) value. | 

The trajectories represented in figs.5 and 6 may be taken as fairly representative 
of ordinary good play by the two classes of drivers. For we have in both a=3860, 
V=200. These are the new data, representing (as above explained) the best informa- 
tion I have yet acquired. In fig.5 k=1/8,¢)=10°; but in fig.6 £=0, &=15. ie 
spite of its 50 per cent. greater angle of initial elevation, the carry of the non-rotating 
projectile is little more than half that of the other :—and it takes only one-third of thee 
time spent by the other in the air. But the contrast shows how much more important (so 
far as carry is concerned) is a moderate amount of underspin than large initial elevation, — 
And we can easily see that initial elevation, which is always undesirable (unless there 
is a hazard close to the tee) as it exposes the ball too soon to the action of the wind where 
it is strongest, may be entirely dispensed with. This point is discussed im next section, 

On account of their intimate connection with actual practice, I give a few of the 
numerical results for these two closely allied yet strongly contrasted cases, belonging 
to two different classes of driving :—choosing sides of each polygon passed at intervals 
of about 1, as well as those near the vertices and the point of contrary flexure. The 
formule for these cases are those given at the end of § 17 above :—the second term in 


the expression for ¢’ being omitted for the latter of the two trajectories. . 
For Fig. 5. 
3/6 vw v 1/v =(1/v) b sin Y(sing)  cosd Z(cosp) 


iN anon 200 08500 00500 1g. 1736 es 9848 ‘95h 
25. Lig 124°5 00808 "16549 Bie 3015 eee 9534 25'2200 
39. se 90°6 ee 29869 19°789 3388 10°7988 9410 384586 ; 
42. 7,042 83°9 ee 33353 HDG6b 3366 Pee 9417 410768 


54. 3,511 59°3 01687 50626 13°611 "2354 15°3925 "9719 5272s ; 
* * * 


61. . 2,387 48°9 02046 63904 1:727 0303 16°3078 9996 59°6508 
62. . 2,296 47°9 02088 65992 -— 0675 —--0120 16°2958 9999 60°6507 
* * * 
70. 2,249 47°4 02109 83155 -—21:°807 —--3714 145533 9285 68-4117 q 
# % 


2 
* 
2 
+ + 
(pe Sasi lliair 562 01780 =1:00513  -35°890 — 5862 9°9647 8103 1618s 
# + * * 

3 


89. 4,338 65°9 01519 =: 1'16748 + -40°840 —--6538 3°6521 "7566 83'8830 
* * * 
6633 0°3507 “7484 876381 


94. 4,853 69°7 01436 =61'24081  -41°548 


THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 501 


For Fig. 6. 
1. 40,000 200 —- 00500 ‘00500 15° ‘2588 ‘2588 "9659 9659 
* * * * 


* 


26. 16,035 126°6 ‘00790 ‘16507 3°523 ‘0613 4°5617 9981 25°5497 
* * F * * * 


30. 13,940 1181 ‘00847 19809 0472 0082 4°6769 "9999 29°5476 
31. 13,472 TG 00861 ‘20670 -— 0°360 —-0064 4°6705 BSS 30°5475 
* * 


* * * 


44, 9,147 95°6 01046 33189 —13°854 —:'2393 3°0442 ‘9709 43°4147 
* * * * * 
52. 7,850 88°6 01129 "41952 -—24:208 —-:4099 3650 9121 50°9412 


I regret that Mr Woop was obliged to give up his calculations before he had worked 
out more than about a third of the requisite rows of figures for a trajectory differing 
initially from fig.5 in the sole particular 6=5° instead of 10°. This would have been 
still more illustrative than fig.5 as a contrast with fig.6. But a fairly approximate 
idea of its form is obtained by taking the earlier part of fig.5, regarded as having the 
dotted line for its base. See a remark in § 22 below, which nearly coincides with this. 


Effect of Wind. 


20. So far, we have supposed that there is no wind. But with wind the conditions 
are usually very complex, especially as the speed of the wind is generally much greater 
at a little elevation than close to the ground. Hence I must restrict myself to the case 
of uniform motion of the air in a horizontal direction. We have in such a case merely 
to trace, by the processes already illustrated, the path of the ball relatively to the ar ; 
and thence we easily obtain the path relatively to the earth. Here, of course, it is 
absolutely necessary to calculate the time of passing through each part of the trajectory 
relative to the air. If the wind be in the plane of projection, and its speed U, the 
| relative speed with which the ball starts has horizontal and vertical components 
Vcosa—U, and Vsina, respectively. Thus, relatively to the moving air, the angle of 


elevation is given by 
V sin a 


hie = ——— 
V cosa— U’ 


and the speed is 
V= J V?2—2UV cosat U?. 


The relative trajectory, traced from these data, must now have each of its points 
displaced forwards by the distance, Ut, through which the air has advanced during the 
time, ¢, required to reach that point in the relative path. Of course, for a head-wind, 
U is negative ; and the points of the relative trajectory must be displaced backwards. 

Figs. 7, 8, 9 illustrate in a completely satisfactory manner, though with somewhat 
exaggerated speeds and coefficient of resistance, the results of this process. Mr Woop 
had calculated for me the path in still air, with a=288 (or, rather, 282), V=300, 
$=6,k=1/3. Since the time of reaching each point in this path had been incident- 

ally calculated, it had only to be multiplied by 25, and subtracted from the corre- 


502 PROFESSOR TAIT ON 


sponding abscissa, in order to give the actual path when the speed of the head-wind 
is about 17 miles an hour, and the initial speed about 275. (The exact values of this 
and of the actual angle of projection must be calculated by means of the preceding 
formule :—but they are of little consequence in so rough an illustration as the present, 
especially as ¢) and U/V are both small.) The corresponding trajectory is shown in 
fig.7. If we use the same relative path for wind of 25°5 miles per hour, the actual 
initial speed must be about 262°5, and the true path is fig.8. Finally, fig.9 gives the 
result with actual initial speed 250, and head-wind blowing at 34 miles an hour. Here, 
again, a kink is produced in the actual path, but it is due to a completely different 
cause from that of fig.4. And it is specially to be noted how much the vertex is 
displaced towards (and even beyond) the end of the range. 

21. It is not necessary to figure the result of a following wind, for such a cause merely 
lengthens the abscissz in a steadily increasing ratio, and makes the carry considerably 
longer, while placing the vertex more nearly midway along the path. But it is well to 
call attention to a singularly erroneous notion, very prevalent among golfers, viz., that 
a following wind carries the ball onwards! Such an idea is, of course, altogether 
absurd, except in the extremely improbable case of wind moving faster than the actual 
initial speed of the ball. The true way of regarding matters of this kind is to remember 
that there is always resistance while there is relative motion of the ball and the air, and 
that it is less as that relative motion is smaller; so that it is reduced throughout the 
path when there is a following wind. 

Another erroneous idea, somewhat akin to this, is that a ball rises considerably 
higher when driven against the wind, and lower if with the wind, than it would if there 
were no wind. The difference (whether it is in excess or in defect will depend on the 
circumstances of projection, notably on the spin) is in general very small; the often 
large apparent rise or fall being due mainly to perspective, as the vertex of the path is 
brought considerably nearer to, or further from, the player. 

These approximations to the effect of wind are, as a rule, very rough; because in 
the open field the speed of the wind usually increases in a notable manner up to a con- 
siderable height above the ground, so that the part of the path which is most affected is 
that near the vertex. But the general character of the effect can easily be judged from 
the examples just given. 

When the wind blows directly across the path, the same process is to be applied, 
It is easy to see that the trajectory is no longer a plane curve ; and also that, in every 
case, the carry is increased. But, in general, ‘‘ allowance is made for the wind,” we. the 
ball is struck in such a direction as to make an obtuse angle with that of the wind, more 
obtuse as the wind is stronger. In this case the carry must invariably be shortened. 
But without calculation we can go little beyond general statements like these, 


THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 503 


Effect of Gradual Diminution of Spin. 


22. In my former paper I assumed, throughout, that the spin of the ball remains 
practically unchanged during the whole carry. That this is not far from the truth, is 
pretty obvious from the latter part of the career of a sliced or a heeled ball. If, how- 
ever, in accordance with § 4, we assume 7¢ also to fall off in a geometric ratio with the 
space traversed :—an assumption which is probable rather than merely plausible; so 
long, at least, as we neglect the part of the loss which would occur even if the ball had 
no translatory speed :—the equations of § 10 require but slight modification. For we 
must now write, instead of k, 


Ite #? , 


The time rate at which this falls off is proportional to itself and to v, directly, and to b 
inversely. 

If we confine ourselves to the very low trajectories which are now characteristic of 
much of the best driving, we may neglect (as was provisionally done in § 10) the effect 
of gravity on the speed of the ball, and write simply 


Ver, 
Thus the approximate equation of the path becomes 
OY at (elt —1)— SY (err —1). 


Here 
1 


ii le 
ian i and finally 


Bole, ; ore 
y= an+— (el —1-2/a )- Fe ja_1—22/a) , 
where a is always very small, perhaps even negative; and may, at least for our present 
purpose, be neglected. Its main effect is to elevate, or depress, each point of the path 
by an amount proportional to the distance from the origin; and thus (when positive) 
it enables us to obtain a given range with less underspin than would otherwise be 
required. 
23, For calculation it is very convenient to begin by forming tables of values of the 
functions 
— and Kp = — 


I(p)= = is a 


for values of p at short intervals from 0 to 3 or so. (Note that the same tables are 
adaptable to negative values of , since we have, obviously, 


F(—p)=e?f(p), and F(—p)=e*(f(p)—Fp)). 


504 PROFESSOR TAIT ON 
These we will take for granted. We may now write 


= F(bVMela’)—gF2/a)) 


OY = a Vf(alat)—af 2e]a)), 


dey _ 
ian 


Falls Vert —ge2ein 


The range, and the horizontal distances of the vertex and of the point of contrary 
flexure, respectively, are given by the values of « which make the second factors vanish 
—and it is curious to remark that (to the present rough approximation, of course, anc 
for given values of a and a’) these depend only upon the value of kV/g, 2.e. the initia 
ratio of the upward to the downward acceleration. Thus so far as the range is cox 
cerned, the separate values of k and V are of no consequence, all depends on their 
product. But it is quite otherwise as regards the flatness of the trajectory, for th 
maximum height is inversely as the square of V. Of course we must remember that 
one indispensable condition of the approximation with which we are dealing is that th 
trajectory shall be very flat; and thus, if the range is to be considerable, V cannot b 
small, and (also of course) k cannot be very large. We have already seen how to obtai 
a fairly approximate value of a (say 360), but b presents much greater difficulty. ¥V 
may, therefore, assume for it two moderate, and two extreme values, and compare the 
characteristics of the resulting paths. If b be infinite, we have the case already treatec 
in which the spin does not alter during the ball’s flight ; while, if 6 be less than a, th 
spin dies out faster than does the speed and we approximate (at least in the later part 
the path) to the case of nospin. Hence we may take for the values of b the following = 
co, 900, 360, and 180 :—so that a has the respective values 360, 600, 0, and —36 
Let the carry (%) be, once for all, taken as 180 yards. Then, for y=0, we must hav 
2%/a=3; and the respective values of Z/a’ are 1°5, 0°9, 0, and —1°5. With thes 
- arguments the values of F are, in order, , 

17873; 0:8807, 0°6908, 0:5, and 0°3258 ; 
so that we have the following approximate values of the ratio kV/q 
2:03, 2:59, 357, 5°49. ‘. 
el 
The first two require a moderate amount of spin, only, if we take 240 as the initi 


speed. J 
The approximate position of the vertex (x) of the first of these paths is given by 


J (2% /4) = 2:03 f(a/a), or e7o/*= 3:06, (a /a=1:1184) - 


whence “ = 402°6, or about three-fourths of the carry. 


THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 505 


The corresponding value of y is about 27 feet. 

The point of contrary flexure is at «¢/“=2:03, so that a= 255, and the value of tt 
there has its maximum, about 0°07 only. ie 

In the other three paths above, the maximum ordinate and the maximum inclina- 
tion both increase with the necessarily increased value of k, while the vertex and the 
point of inflexion both occur earlier in the path. The approximate time of flight, in 
all, is a little over five seconds. ‘The paths themselves are shown, much foreshortened, 
in figs. 10, 11, 12, 18, where the unit of the horizontal scale is 3°6 times that of the 
vertical. This is given with the view of comparing and contrasting them. Fig. 14 
| shows the first, and flattest, of these paths in its proper form. It is clearly a fair 

approximation to the actual facts; and when we compare it with the others, as in the 

foreshortened figures, we see that the assumption of constant spin (§ 4) is probably not 

far from the truth. For, in the great majority of cases of drives of this character, there 
| is observed to be very little run :—and this can be accounted for only on the assump- 
tion that there is considerable underspin left at the pitch. But it is also clear that the 
falling off of the spin produces comparatively little increase of the obliquity of impact 
on the ground, even in the exaggerated form in which these paths are drawn. Their 
actual inclinations to the ground have tangents about 0°49, 0°66, 0°78, and 1°08 respec- 
tively. The last, and greatest, of these angles is just over 45°. 

24. It is interesting to compare this set of data, and their consequences, with 
those of §§ 11,14, 15. The latter were in fair agreement with many of the more 
easily observed features of a good drive, but they gave too high a trajectory. The new 
measure of initial speed, and the consequent reduction of the estimated value of the 
coefficient of resistance, have led to results more closely resembling the truth. 


But in all, as we have seen, there is one notable defect. The ball comes down too 
obliquely, and this is the case more especially when the carry is a long one, and the ball’s 
speed therefore much reduced. I was at first inclined to attribute this to my having 
jassumed the spin to remain constant during the whole flight. This was my main reason 
for carrying out the investigations described in §§ 22 sg. But these give little help, as 
_|we have just seen, and I feel now convinced that the defect is due chiefly to the 
assumption that the resistance is throughout proportional to the square of the speed. I 
intend to construct an apparatus on the principle described in § 16 above, but of a much 
lighter type, to measure the resistance for speed of 30 feet-seconds or so, downwards. 
But I shall probably content myself with verifying, if I can, the idea just suggested ; 
leaving to some one who has sufficient time at his disposal the working out of the details 
when the resistance is proportional (towards the end of the path) to the speed directly, 
jor to a combination of this with the second power. The former is considerably more 
troublesome than Rosins’ law ; and a combination of the two may probably be so Jabo- 
ious as to damp the ardour of any but a genuine enthusiast. The possibility that the 
aw of resistance may change its form for low speeds (7.e., towards and beyond the 
ertex of the path) throws some doubt upon the accuracy of the determination of the 


506 PROF. TAIT ON THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 


coefficient of resistance from the range, the time of flight, and the initial speed. 
at present, I have no means of obtaining a more accurate approximation. 

25. The whole of this inquiry has been of a somewhat vague character, but. its 
value is probably enhanced, rather than lessened, in consequence. For the cire im 
stances can never be the same in any two drives, even if they are essentially good ones 
and made by the same player. To give only an instance or two of reasons for this — 
Two balls of equal mass may have considerably different coefficients of resistance it 
consequence of an apparently trifling difference of diameters, or of the amount oj 
character of the hammering :—or they may have very different amounts of resilience, due 
to comparatively slight differences of temperature or pressure during their treatment it 
the mould. The pace which the player can give the club-head at the moment o 
impact depends to a very considerable extent on the relatwe motion of his two hand 
(to which is due the ‘“nip”) during the immediately preceding two-hundredth of a 
second, while the amount of beneficial spin is seriously diminished by even a triflin 
upward concavity of the path of the head during the ten-thousandth of a secon 
occupied by the blow. It is mainly in apparently trivial matters like these, which ar 
placidly spoken of by the mass of golfers under the general title of “ Imnack,” that li 
the very great differences in drives effected, under precisely similar external condition 
by players equal in strength, agility, and (except to an extremely well-trained at 
critical eye) even in style. 

[Oct. 5, 1898.—The printing of this paper has been postponed for nearly thr 
years in the hope, not as yet realised, that I might be able to determine accurately | 
experiment the terminal speed of an average golf-ball, as well as the average value of 
when (as in § 5) kwv represents the transverse acceleration, in terms of the rates of spi 
and translation. Another object has been to measure the effect of rapid rotation up 
the coefficient of resistance to translatory motion. These experiments, in various form 
are still being carried out by means of various modes of propulsion, from a cross-bow t 
a harpoon-gun. I hope also to procure data, for speed and resistance, applicable 
various other projectiles such as cricket-balls, arrows, bird-bolts, ete. | 


PRE“SYTED 


Edin. | Vol. XXXIX. 


oF. TAIT ON THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 


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| TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


x 


VYYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


) VOL. XXXIX. PART II.—FOR THE SESSION 1898-99. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


a On the Further Anatomy and the Budding Processes of Cephalodiscus dodecalophus 
_ (MIntosh). By Arruur T. Masrerman, B.A,, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Lecturer and 
_ Research Fellow in the University of St Andrews. (With Five Plates), . 5 OOK 


, (Issued separately, 10th December 1898.) 


. On Steam and Brines. By J. Y. Bucuanan, F.R.S., - . f 4 . 9 B29 
(Issued separately, 31st December 1898.) 


By Matcotm Lauriz, B.A, D.Sc. (Plates I.-V.), , K . one 
(Issued separately, lst February 1899.) 


On a New Species of Cephalaspis, discovered by the Geological Survey of Scotland, in 

the Old Red Sandstone of Oban. By Ramsay H. Traquair, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., 

x Keeper of the Natural History Collections in the Museum of Science and Art, Edin- 

* burgh. (With a Plate), . . . . ° ° ° ° 591 
(Issued separately, 6th February 1899.) 


nelodus Pagei, Powrie, Sp. from the Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire. By 
ay H. Traquair, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Natural History Collec- 
ns in the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. (With a Plate), s >, BOD 


(Isswed separately, Tth February 1899.) 


e E rblem of the Crab in Relation to the sign Cancer. By D'Arcy WenrwortH 
mson, C.B.,  . 5 : : 5 : 5 . a. 603 
(Issued separately, 7th February 1899.) 
[Continued on Second Page. 


a EDINBURGH: 
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Vil.—On the Further Anatomy and the Budding Processes of Cephalodiscus 
dodecalophus (M‘Intosh). By Anruur T. Masrsrmay, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; 
Lecturer and Research Fellow in the University of St Andrews. (With Five 
‘Plates. ) 

(Read 6th June 1898.) 

| 


former paper (5) on the Anatomy of Cephalodiscus was incomplete in certain 
, which I am now in a position to add. These are mainly in regard to 
limentary canal, the nervous system, and the reproductive organs. To the 
scription of these will be appended an account of the budding processes, 
re a very conspicuous feature of the species. 

as been pointed out that the twelve plumes, which are definitely arranged and 
ut dorsally in front of the head region, have longitudinal grooves running down 
tral side into the mouth region. “One cannot doubt that in Cephalodiscus 
of the ventral surface cause currents down the ventral grooves of the plumes, 
e into the mouth, . . . . carrying food-particles, entangled in slime, into the 
canal, a mode of alimentation analogous to that of Phoronis, and indeed of 
orda” (5). We might add to this, the Lamellibranchiata, Brachiopoda, and 
This characteristic method of ingestion by means of ciliary currents must 
ed as a primitive one, and it is interesting to notice the several methods by 
perfluous water current is got rid of, and the food retained. The primary 
Lslits has been suggested by both Harmer and Brooks as connected with 
. The single pair of pharyngeal clefts in Cephalodiseus certainly appear 
ith such a theory. 

of horizontal longitudinal sections through an adult Cephalodiscus from 
wards cut the front portion of the pharynx transversely and the hind part 
ly. Such a series may be seen in figs. 1 to 9. 

1 it may be noticed that three oral grooves (1, 2, 3) converge from each side 
he mouth, passing downwards from the branchial plumes. They are directly 
with the grooves running down the ventral side of each of the plumes, 
in pairs to form the oral grooves here seen. 

rsal wall of the buccal cavity is quite simple, but on the ventral wall appears 
emi-circular depression: In fig. 2 this depression is observed to have divided 
ooves in the ventral surface of the pharynx, which deepen rapidly. In 
present chordoid walls, and as far back as fig. 4, they can be readily 
‘XXIX. PART ‘III. (NO. 17). 4G 


508 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


recognised as the two pharyngeal clefts (p.c.). In fig. 3 the first pair of oral grooves ‘| 
(3) have bent round so as to lie completely within the pharynx, and in fig. 4 the other — 
two (2, 1) show similar relations. Between the two pharyngeal pouches, in t 
mid-ventral line, a slight depression can be seen in this figure, and it can be followed — 
into the ventral alimentary portion of the pharynx, which is a conspicuous feature in 
the remaining figures. In figs. 5 and 6 the oral grooves may be seen to become 
merged dorsally into a large dorsal hyper-pharyngeal groove, which is at first partially 
divided into two by a median ridge. Further back (fig. 7) this groove extends across | 
the middle line, and forms the median dorsal portion of the pharynx, which receives the © 
duet of the sub-neural gland, sn.gl. (cf plate 24, fig. 13, loc. cit.). This gland is seen 
in figs. 5 and 6. In fig. 7 it has merged into the large dorsal chamber. ; 

In this figure the pharynx presents a symmetrical appearance. Dorsally lies the 
large dorsal chamber, into which opens, from in front backwards, the duct of the 
sub-neural gland, sv.gl. (in the median line), and (laterally) the two grooves which ¢ 
formed by the union of the three oral grooves on each side. 

The two pharyngeal pouches (p.c.) lie laterally and pass towards the ventral surface, 
whilst mid-ventrally is the large alimentary portion of the pharynx. : 

A little dorsal to each pharyngeal pouch has appeared a small groove with chordoid 
walls, which rapidly increases in size (figs. 8 and 9, n.c.), and proves to be the 
commencing pleurochord. In fig. 9 this pleurochord is seen to occupy the dorso-lateral 
part of the pharynx, the pharyngeal pouch being ventro-lateral. After fig. 9 the latte: 
rapidly decreases in size, as seen in sections, and the pharynx then presents the appear- 
ance indicated in plate 25, fig. 17, loc, cit. 

Other important points may be noticed in a series of transverse sections, such as 
those shown in figs. 90-99. ’ 

Fig. 100 is a semi-diagrammatic reconstruction of the pharynx of Cephalodal 
viewed from the left side. The lines cutting it transversely indicate by their numbers 
the approximate level at which each of the sections in figs. 90-99 are cut. - 

Fig. 90 cuts the head (or pre-oral part) of the pharynx, into which falls the 
sub-neural gland (sn.gl.). The lumen of the latter is directly continuous with the four 
grooves here shown, two dorsal grooves (d.g.), and two ventral (v.g.). 

Figs. 91 and 92 show the two pairs of grooves to become more pronounced. 
condition very similar to these sections, especially to fig. 92, is shown in plate % 
fig. 12, of my former paper, though the significance of these grooves had not then 
followed out. 

Fig. 93 cuts through the mouth-opening and through the front part of the n Ls 
bulk of the pharynx. Between the dorsal and the ventral grooves, the nleurogiil | 
diverticulum (7.c.) and the commencing pharyngeal cleft (p.c.) have now be 
conspicuous features on either side of the section, so that the grooves are W 
separated. The dorsal grooves unite more or less in one, and the ventral grooves ru 
down laterally on either side of the mouth (v.g.). They were distinctly figured in thi 


2 BUDDING PROCESSES OF CZEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. 509 
- position in a section (plate 25, fig. 16) of the whole animal (5), and they form a very 
marked peri-pharyngeal band around the buccal chamber. Their position is readily 
rmined, in cross sections, by the fact that they are situated exactly internal to the 
f junction of the mesentery between collar- and trunk-cavities, with the gut wall 
g. 93). 
fig. 94 the pleurochords form the main lateral walls of the pharynx, but the two 
of grooves are still conspicuous. 
ig. 95 is posterior to the mouth-opening and behind the pharyngeal cleft. Here 
0 ventral grooves, forming a peri-pharyngeal band, have united behind the mouth 
1edium ventral groove, with the middle line slightly raised in a ridge. The two 
rooves are still separated by a very characteristic median ridge of thickened cells 
ble to a dorsal lamina. In fie. 96 somewhat the same condition holds, though 
chords are becoming reduced in size. This process of reduction goes on very 
y, till (in fig. 97) the notochordal grooves are of no more importance than the 
grooves, and at the same time the ventral groove has become single and median. 
g. 98 the two dorsal grooves, and the ventral groove alone remain, and in 
hey are reduced to very small calibre and posterior to this they fuse and open 
esophagus. 
thus see that the pharynx of Cephalodiscus has a pair of dorsal grooves 
d by a dorsal lamina, and a ventral hypo-pharyngeal groove, joined at the front 

a peri-pharyngeal groove. At the point where the dorsal grooves join the peri- 
ngeal groove, the sub-neural gland opens. The relation of the peri-pharyngeal 
to the ventral alimentary portion of the gut in Cephalodiscus seems to 
ate the suggestion that the endostyle and thyroid are homologous with this 
he pharynx in Balanoglossus. These grooves are all too small for water-currents 
r arrangement prompts an irresistible comparison with the mucus-grooves in the 
-of Urochorda, and although one can only cautiously apply close homologies 
he already tentative comparison of the sub-neural gland (5 and 6) to that of the 
da, is considerably strengthened by its similar relationship to the dorsal and 
haryngeal grooves. 

g. 100 is seen a lateral view of the whole pharynx. The funnel-shaped mouth 
ws the three oral grooves (0.g.) on each side converging into the opening of the 
. Round this opening is the peri-pharyngeal groove, running down from the 

al gland (sn.gl.), from which also proceeds the dorsal groove. 

m the dorso-lateral region runs the large paired pleurochordal ridge, which, 

gradually from behind, bends over in front, and opens by the pharyngeal cleft 

lownwards and outwards to the exterior. 

n this description of the pharynx and its connected structures, it is not difficult 
‘stand to a great extent the functions performed by each part. 

twelve branchial plumes with their pinne are spread out from behind the 

eal shield, and currents of water and food-particles pass down the ciliated ventral 


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——_—$—$—<—<—<—_ XanX—— 


; 
—- 


510 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


grooves of these which join in pairs to form the three oral grooves on each side. Th ; 
current of water and food-particles then passes through the peri-pharyngeal ring, into 
the main body of the pharynx. It is difficult to conjecture whether the mucoid stream 
passes forwards ventrally up this ring, and backwards dorsally, or whether the mucus, 
emerging from the sub-neural gland, passes backwards both dorsally and ventrally, 
but in either case, the food-particles become entangled in the mucus and are eventually 
earried backwards through the narrow cesophageal opening into the stomach whilst the 
water, flowing up to this opening, in the centre of the pharynx, will return as a back- 
flow along the notochordal grooves. 

In Phoronis, as has been indicated in a preliminary note (7), the water-current is 
eot rid of by means of the epistome, but in Cephalodiscus a large quantity of water 
must be carried into the pharynx, and the pharyngeal slits are admirably situated for 
its removal. Their chordoid walls must serve to keep the clefts permanently open. 
In addition to this, it appears probable that the dorso-lateral grooves which I have 
termed pleurochords will also serve to carry off the superfluous water outwards and 
forwards. The pharynx contracts to a small cesophageal opening at the hind end, and 
the whole structure suggests that, whilst the mucoid strands, laden with food, pass on 
to the stomach, a back current of water passes forwards along the cavities of the 
pleurochords and out by the pharyngeal clefts (fig. 100). If this be so, then the 
chordoid structure, both of the pharyngeal clefts and of the pleurochords may be due 
to the necessity for rigid channels to allow of the escape of cloacal water. Whether as 
paired pleurochords or as a median notochord, this function would persist in the 
early Chordata till pharyngeal clefts were formed at the posterior end of the pharynx, or 
as in Phoronis an extra-stomial means of separating the water from food were evolved. 
The notochord would then persist only in those forms in which it had econ 
acquired a supporting function (Huchorda). 

Thus the loss of pleurochords in Phoronis may be traced to the peculiar adaptation 
of the epistome and the preclusion of a saving secondary function owing to the sedentar 
habitat, whilst the loss of the notochord in the Urochorda is primarily due to the 
removal of the necessity for the secondary supporting function, involved in a : 
manner in the adoption of a sedentary habit. 

Thus one is led to suggest that the notochord of the Chordata primarily owed its 
origin to the necessity for a rigid channel in the endodermal walls of the pharyne, 
intimately connected with the primitive process of ciliary ingestion of food. The 
function of the notochord as an elastic primary axis to the body would thus be @ 
secondary modification. 

This assumption appears to be justified by the fact that the pleurochord of Cophal 
discus, permanently in the condition found in the embryonic Huchorda alone, 1.€., 28 
an endodermic longitudinal groove, most probably fulfils this function. 

All the Chordata except the Vertebrata (or Holochorda) carry on their ingestive 
processes by ciliary action, with the consequent necessity for a separation of the water | 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CHPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. Sila 


and food-currents, hence it is certain that the chordate pharynx and allied organs have 
arisen, and have reached a complexity as high as that of Amphioxwus, under these con- 
ditions. In this category may be included the notochord (or pleurochords), pharyngeal 
clefts, endostyle, sub-neural gland and the hyper-pharyngeal groove of Amphioxus, 
which are intimately connected with the vertebral column, gill-slits, and visceral arches, 
thyroid gland, hypophysis and sub-notochordal rod respectively, in the true Vertebrata. 

Assuming that the pharynx of the earliest archi-chordate was homogeneous, and that 
the return water-current from the cesophagus took a dorsal course along grooves formed 
by the continuity of the current, then the epithelial cells lining these grooves would lose 
their secretory power, and might easily undergo a chordoid degeneration, which, serving 
as an efficient means for keeping open the cloacal grooves, would become permanent, and 
the pleurochords would become established. The paired condition may be primitive or 
secondarily acquired in the Diplochorda. 


The Gonads. 


Both Professor M‘IntosH (4) and Dr Harmer (1) have figured and alluded to the 
ovaries and oviducts of Cephalodiscus and to their descriptions. I have little to add. 
I have been equally unsuccessful with them in the search for male elements. In one 
preparation of part of the coencecium there appears a dense cloud of minute, darkly- 
staining oval bodies, which might possibly be interpreted as free spermatozoa ; but it is 
fairly certain that the colony obtained by the Challenger is “female” throughout. In 
aseries of sections in the horizontal longitudinal plane, the oviducts and ovaries are 
cut nearly transversely, though at an angle. 

Tn fig. 10, the left side shows the opening of the oviduct to the exterior, as a slight 
cup-shaped invagination of the ectodermal cells. On the right side, the oviduct (g.d.) is 
cut rather further back, and the cells are here seen to be longer, with their nuclei more 
irregularly arranged than is the case with the ectoderm. The oviduct is covered on the 
inner side by the wall of the ccelome, which is here rather thicker than elsewhere. In 
fig. 11 the dorsal mesentery is observed to give outa lateral mesentery on each side to 
the base of the oviduct. On the right hand of this figure the oviduct is free from 
the ectoderm, and is seen to be supported by the lateral mesentery. Here the oviduct 
has a fine lumen, with indications of cilia. The epithelial cells show masses of black 
pigment, chiefly at their inner ends. 

Fig. 12 gives two views of the junction of the oviduct (g.d.) with the ovary (ov.). 
| On the left side the cells of the oviduct, with their abundant pigment, can be observed 
almost encircling the lumen of the ovary, whilst, especially on the inner side, the wall 
of the ovary can be recognised. On the right the oviduct is represented by a mere 
segment, whilst the greater part of the section is occupied by the reticular tissue of the 
ovary. 


512 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


specimens. 


In fig. 18, both ovaries are seen in section at their upper ends. ‘The ovary 
appears to consist of a mass of typically mesodermic tissue, consisting of a fine 
protoplasmic meshwork with nuclei scattered throughout it. Here and there are see 
large ego nuclei, with a deeply-staining nucleolus. With progression backwards ool 
nuclei become fewer and more prominent, whilst masses of protoplasm become aggregated 
around them. They then (fig. 14) tend to arrange themselves in three rows, and are 
of so large a size that they constrict the central space into a triangular lumen, which i 4 
fig. 15 is reduced to a mere slit. 

In specimens with nearly ripe ova, the ovaries press outwards upon the rectum a 
other surrounding parts, and as Professor M‘Inrosu (4) has remarked, they appear as. 
large rounded protuberances in the body of the individual. . 

In the mesodermic covering of the ovary is a thin chondroid skeletal layer, which 
becomes greatly thickened at the posterior end. 

The peculiar structure and appearance of the oviducts led them to be at first mis- 
taken, in an external view, for eyes; and later, when their true structure was known, 
Dr Marcus Gunn and Professor M‘Inrosu (4) suggested that they were of the nature of 
phosphorescent organs. Considering the habitat of the animal, this appears to be | 
no means improbable, the light forming a possible attraction to the male element. 
seems also likely that these so-called “ oviducts ”” function solely for the introduction of 
the spermatozoa into the lumen of the ovary, in which fertilisation may be effected, the 
egg being afterwards set free, possibly by the death of the parent. This is rendered 
probable by the following considerations :— ‘2 

Firstly, the eggs ripen from the mouth of the ovary backwards, so that the 
advanced are found at the posterior end, furthest from the oviduct.* 

Secondly, the ripe eggs formed in the ccencecium are enormous in comparison 
the size of the parent, and it is difficult to conceive of their extrusion through the 


oviducts or elsewhere without extensive rupture of the tissues. * 
Thirdly, the very active asexual reproduction would justify the low sexual rou 
implied in this suggestion. * 


In comparing these organs with those of Phoronis, we may note that the oviduets 
lie in a pair of lateral mesenteries, occupying a similar position to those of Phoronis, it 
which are situated the nephridia. The ovaries are evidently proliferations of the 
coelomic wall in each case, and the main distinction appears to consist in the “ closed ’ 
condition of the oviducts in Cephalodiscus as compared with the ‘“ open” nephridia of 
Phoronis, a difference very closely paralleled by that existing between the urogenita 
systems of the Teleoste: and the Elasmobranchii (compare figures 16 and 17). 


* Cf. Remarks upon ovaries of Cribrella oculata, by Professor M. Sars. Fauna litt. Norvegix, Christiania, | A 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. 5138 


On the other hand, the similarity of the gonads of Cephalodiscus to those of 
Balanoglossus is patent. They differ mainly in the fact that, as in the case of the 
pharyngeal clefts, there is only a single pair. 


Nervous System and Pedicle. (Ventral Sucker.) 


In a former paper already referred to, the nervous system was described as 
consisting of a dorsal ganglion over the sub-neural sinus, a pre-oral ring, a post-oral 
ring, and a pair of lateral nerves down the trunk. In addition, there are nerves to each 
of the plumes. 

Fig. 85 is a diagram giving the distribution of the main nervous tracts, though the 
more or less general nervous plexus is not indicated. In the mid-ventral line of the 
trunk, from the trunk backwards, there passes a broad nervous tract which can be 
traced directly into the pedicle. The lateral nerves can be followed into the same organ. 

Fig. 18 shows a transverse section of the pedicle. In the mid-ventral line may be 
seen the ventral nerve (v.n.) cut in section and forming a long ridge, with the chondroid 

layer between it and the ccelome. On each side is a lateral nerve (v.l.n.) similar 
in appearance but not so prominent. In all these nerves there can be discerned a fine 
lumen which is more or less continuous throughout the pedicle. The three nerves 
eradually approach towards each other till at the tips they become indistinguishable. 

Immediately inside the ectoderm is a fairly thick layer of chondroid tissue, and 
internal to it, is a well-defined layer of longitudinal muscles (/.m.). The coelomic space 
in the middle is directly continuous with the trunk-cavities, and the dorsal and ventral 
blood-vessels are direct continuations of the similar vessels in the trunk. : 

The main difference between the structure of the pedicle and that of the trunk is the 
absence of endodermic elements (intestine) in the former. The acknowledged secondary 
character of a reduplicated gut leads one to conclude that the pedicle is morphologically 
the hind end of the body, and that the actual posterior sacculated part of the animal is 
a secondary dorsal protuberance. A basal fixative portion of the body in Phoronis can 
be shown on similar grounds to be the true hind end of the body, and therefore 
homologous with the pedicle of Cephalodiscus. It will be seen later that this interpre- 
tation of the pedicle agrees with its relationships as seen in the buds. 


Sexual Reproduction. 


In going over a series of specimens mounted by the late Professor Busk, and now in 
the possession of Professor M‘Inrosu, I was struck by the appearance of an adult, which 
I have figured here (fig. 86). 

It will be noticed that in the cloacal region there is a group of cyst-like structures 
closely pressed together and having a resemblance to a number of larve enveloped in 
their ege-capsules, 


514 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


After drawing the specimen, it was removed from its mounting and sectioned, but 
its state of preservation has prevented even the determination of the exact position of 
these structures, whether in the rectum or the ovary, though they are more probably in 
the latter. 

The examination of another specimen in the same collection furnished a series of 
eggs free in the coencecium, which were at different developmental phases, and from — 
these I have been enabled to figure at least three stages. 

Fig. 87 shows the egg contained in its capsule with a stalk of attachment, very _ 
much as described by Professor M‘InrosH (4), but of a more elongated outline. Fig. 88 — 
shows a later stage in which the elongation is more pronounced and the egg has — 
assumed a pear-shaped outline. 

In fig. 89 a larval stage is seen, which is of some interest. A constriction has — 
appeared slightly forward of the equator and divides the body into two segments. The — 
resemblance of this larva to the early larval stage of Balanoglossus, as figured by 
Bateson, prior to the external differentiation of the collar-segment, is very striking * 
The presence of these larve indicates that at any rate a certain amount of the 
development takes place in the ccencecium, and that it may be possible to obtai 
a series of eggs and larvee in which the early stages may be successfully followed out. — 


Asexual Reproduction. 


Professor M‘Intosu (4) has already given a general description of the buddit ng 
processes in Cephalodiscus, but a re-investigation of the subject, with plenty of good 
material, has enabled me to work out further details. ; 
The buds are borne upon the pedicle, at the extreme distal extremity and upon the — 
ventral surface. The distal extremity of the pedicle is modified into a sucker, and it — 
is on the ventral border of this sucker that a pair of buds are produced. Occasionally 
three may occur, but, at least in some cases, the presence of a third is accounted for 
by the fact that the pedicle of a bud has commenced to bud in its turn, so that no | ess 8 
than three generations may be in organic continuity with each other. = 
Apart from this phenomenon we may say that two buds, on either side of the mi - 
ventral line, are the rule. This arrangement is comparable to that found in the 
creeping stolon (gymnocaulus) of Rhabdopleura, as already pointed out by Profess | 
LANKESTER (3). 
The pair of buds are rarely at the same stage of development ; one is often ate bh 
stage with three pairs of plumes, whilst the other is a mere knob. " 
The bud first appears as a small rounded protuberance of the ventral body-wall 1, to 
one side of the mid-ventral line. It consists of a single layer of ectoderm and ol : 
mesoderm surrounding a space which is part of the pedicular ccelome. . 7 


* Cf. also the larval Phoronis, as figured by CanpweLt. Quart. Jowrnal Micros. Science, pl. ii. fig. 3, 4 
g 
a 


ry 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CHPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. D115 


This protuberance becomes constricted at the base and then appears as a small 
knob (fig. 19) which presents no external differentiation. 

The internal structure of this bud can be understood from the sections shown in 
figs. 29-32, selected from a series cut transversely to the long axis. 

At the distal extremity (fig. 29) a thick layer of ectoderm, containing a mass of 
nuclei and ill-defined cell-walls, is lined on the inside by a thin layer of mesoderm, in 
which are scattered a few nuclei, Protoplasmic threads of mesoderm interlace across 
the central ccelomic lumen. 

Tn fig. 30 the ccelome is shown to be divided in the middle by a mesentery, running 
as is seen later, dorso-ventrally. Within this mesentery (fig. 31) is formed a blood- 
sinus (m.s.), which may be followed through the pedicle (fig. 32) into the ventral blood- 
vessel and mesentery of the pedicle (see fig. 18). At the level of fig. 30, the median 
blood-sinus has moved dorsalwards and merged into a large dorsal sinus (sv.s.) under- 
lying the ectoderm which proves to be the rudiment of the sub-neural sinus. 

A sagittal longitudinal section through a similar bud is seen in fig. 36. If 
it had been exactly median, it would have shown the median sinus (m.s.) continuous 
with the sub-neural sinus. 

Further development proceeds by a rapid growth of the apical portion of the bud 
resulting in the formation of the pre-oral lobe (protomere or buccal shield), one portion 
of which protrudes dorsally immediately in front of the sub-neural sinus, and grows 
out ventrally to such an extent that the bud assumes the appearance of being bent 
upon itself (fig. 19, left-hand bud). 

A transverse section through the pre-oral lobe (fig. 33) shows a thickened ventral 
wall and a coelomic cavity in continuity with that of the rest of the bud. 

A section at the base of the pre-oral lobe (fig. 34) shows the sub-neural sinus and 
the median mesentery as in fig. 30, but, in addition, the ectoderm is invaginating, 
forming a diverticulum (g.) pushing into the median sinus and gradually downwards 
between the two walls of the mesentery (fig. 35). Below the level of fig. 35 a cross- 
section presents the same character as fig. 32. 

The commencing invagination of ectoderm shown in figure 34 gives rise, as may be 
easily demonstrated in later stages, to the whole of the alimentary canal of the adult, 
the orifice of invagination persisting as the mouth, and the anus being a new formation. 
The endodermal layer of the parent plays no part whatever in the formation of the 
bud, the whole future endoderm being derived from the ectoderm of the bud. 

It is important to notice that the first invagination takes place opposite the sub- 
neural sinus and immediately behind the buccal shield, which is therefore pre-oral in 
| position from the outset. 

In the next stage the buccal shield has grown out laterally as well as in the dorsal 
and yentral line (fig. 20), so that the body now appears to consist of three parts, the 
buccal shield, the body in which is contained the future trunk and collar and the long 
cylindrical pedicle, which has commenced to elongate. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 17). 4H 


516 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


A median sagittal section through this bud (fig. 37) shows but little advance in 
differentiation upon the last stage. The endodermic pouch has become larger and 
reaches further backwards than in earlier stages. At the dorsal lip of the mouth is seen 
a slight depression, which is the first trace of the sub-neural gland (sn.gl., Harmur’s 
notochord). In such a case as this, where the whole endoderm is derived from the 
ectoderm, it is impossible to locate the origin of the sub-neural gland in any special 
embryonic layer, but it may be noted that its first appearance is much further outside 
the pharynx and away from the sub-neural sinus than later. 

Subsequent growth results in a clearer definition of the three areas already referred 
to, and in the appearance of two dorsal rounded knobs immediately behind the buccal | 
shield (figs. 21 and 22). Sections indicate some important changes in the internal 
structure.’ In a horizontal longitudinal section (fig. 38) it is seen that the ectoderm 
has become drawn in behind the buccal shield, and where the pedicle meets the body, 
The rapidly enlarging endodermic sac touches it at these two parts forming two 
circular lines of contact. In this way the single ccelomic space is nipped off into a 
single pre-oral cavity (protoceele), a pair of collar-cavities (mesocceles) still separated by 
the persistent median mesentery and a pair of trunk-cavities (metacceles) which are still 
continuous through the pedicle with the ccelome of the parent. 

A stage very like this was figured by Dr Harmer (1) and led him to compare the 
bud of Cephalodiscus at this stage with the young Balanoglossus. 

The cavities of the two knobs, which are the first pair of plumes, are in direct con- 
tinuity with the two collar-cavities. Fig. 39 is a median sagittal section through the 
bud shown at fig. 22. We may here note that the endodermic sac has increased in 
size and the sub-neural gland has moved backwards towards the sub-neural sinus. The 
dorsal posterior lip of the hind-gut has commenced to move forwards along the mid-dorsal 
line. Between this stage and that shown in fig. 37, the hind apex of the endodermie 
sac touches the dorsal ectodermic wall, and then from this point the intestine grows 
forwards as seen in fig. 39, till it eventually opens to the exterior, a little way behind 
the sub-neural sinus. 

In this manner the dorsal reduplication of the gut is brought about, and it seems 
reasonable to suppose that the spot where the endodermic sac first touches the ectoderm 
represents the primitive posterior position of the anus, the later forward growth of the 
intestine indicating a phyletic forward movement of the anus (cf: Segmental duet of 
Vertebrata). The endodermic sac never comes in contact with the wall of the bud 
between the mouth and the pedicle, so that the pedicle could not be regarded as a | 
dorsal process. 

The next important external change is the separation of the collar-area from that | 
of the trunk (fig. 23), caused by a bulging outwards of the former. At this stage the 
trunk is also more clearly separated from the pedicle and their line of junction is now 
on the under-side. The two plumes have elongated and their distal extremities have 
swollen out to form the compound eyes. | 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CHEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. DLT 


A series of transverse sections of this stage is shown in figs. 40 to 48. 

In fig. 40 is seen the cross-section of the buccal shield. Its ventral wall is greatly 
thickened, and in the deeper part of the dorsal wall can be discovered a differentiation 
of nervous tissue. On the left of the middle line is shown a proboscis-pore (p.p.) in 
process of development as an invagination of ectoderm. In fig. 41 it opens into the pre- 
oral ccelome. Above the buccal shield is seen a cross-section of the plumes. At an 
earlier stage they are circular, but the surface nearest the buccal shield is here depressed to 
form a longitudinal groove. In the mid-dorsal line the mesodermal lining of the ccelome 
is thickened by an accumulation of nuclei with protoplasmic processes; these are 
situated at the anterior end of the sub-neural sinus. In section 41 the pre-oral ccelome 
is still cut ventrally, but dorsally the sub-neural sinus (sn.s.) is seen, covered by the 
central nervous mass, and containing the sub-neural gland (sn.gl.). The cross-section of 
this gland is here closely similar to that already described in the adult. In fig. 43, the 


plumes can be traced into the collar region, and on the right-hand side a second plume 


is indicated. The collar-cavities lie on either side dorsally, and between them is seen the 
dorsal blood sinus (d.s.), the direct continuation of the sub-neural sinus in fig. 41. 

In this series the dorsal sinus can be followed as far as the mouth (fig. 44), but in 
many specimens is seen in the dorsal mesentery shown in figs. 45 and 46. 

From the study of a number of specimens, it is quite clear that the blood system, as 
in fig. 36, consisting of a median mesenteric sinus and a terminal sub-neural sinus, is 
invaded by the endodermic sac from the ventral side in such a way that the median 
sinus is separated by the post-oral part of the sac into a dorsal and ventral blood-sinus, 
and the pre-oral part (sub-neural gland) effects a similar separation at its base, but at its 
distal extremity it rests in the sub-neural sinus. 

These relationships are easy to follow in such a stage as shown in figures 40 to 48, 
and although matters are complicated in the adult by further differentiations, there can, 


| to my mind, be no possible interpretation of the parts other than that given here. 


I emphasise this because my interpretation of the sub-neural sinus and gland was 
ealled in question recently by Dr Harmer (2). He would consider the sub-neural sinus 
as a structure closed on all sides by mesoderm. If such were the case, his suggested 
homology with the “ proboscis-vesicle” of Balanoglossus would have some facts to 
recommend it, but the structure of the sinus, as depicted as accurately as may be in 
figures 40 to 44, and later in figures 78 to 84, seems to me to indicate that at these 
stages (a) there is no trace of a closer mesodermic vesicle; (b) the sub-neural gland, 
arising far out, eventually rests freely in the dorsal sinus and its direct continuation, the 
sub-neural sinus, the dorsal wall of both these sinuses being formed by ectoderm 


alone. I have not been able in any later stage to detect any structure developed in this 


region at all comparable to the “ proboscis-vesicle.” 

So far, therefore, as the study of the buds is concerned, their structure appears 
to corroborate my former interpretation of the parts as re-stated in answer to Dr 
HaRMer’s criticism (6). 


518 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


Returning to figure 43, we see here only the collar-cavities (c.c.) and the dorsa 
sinus, whilst the base of the sub-neural gland is shown to open to the exterior in the 
mouth region. On the right-hand side the oral groove is recognisable. In fig. 44 both 
oral grooves are seen, and in fig. 45 the mouth is freely open ventrally. The collar- 
cavities are divided by a pair of trunk-cavities which le on either side of the median. 
dorsal mesentery. On the right hand appears an oviduct (g.d.) arising as an invagina- 
tion of the ectoderm. The cross-section of the pharynx here shows a pair of lateral 
grooves which are the first trace of the pleurochords. 

In fig. 46 we can note the paired ectodermal oviducts (g.d.) and below them the 
trunk-cavities. Laterally are the collar-cavities, and ventrally are the two collar-pores 
(c.p.) arising in a precisely similar manner to the proboscis-pores and the “ oviducts” 
as pair ectodermal tubes. 

In fig. 47 the stomach (s¢.) presses against the dorsal wall, and the trunk-cavities 
and ventral mesentery complete the section. In the mid-ventral line can be discerned a 
commencing nervous differentiation. 

Fig. 48 is cut at the commencement of the pedicle, and shows the intestine in 
contact with the dorsal wall. 

In this feature the bud is at an earlier stage than that which is shown in a 
39, where the intestine has commenced its forward migration. : 

The mesentery is now incomplete, and the ventral sinus runs down to meet the 
ventral sinus of the parental pedicle. The mesoderm is partially differentiated in the 
ventral area into muscular tissue, which will later become the longitudinal muscles. In 
the ectoderm outside this the ventral nerve-tracts are clearly distinguishable. ‘They 
are continuous with those of the adult. 

On either side of the pedicle is a lateral groove (/.g.) which is of constant 
occurrence, and gives the pedicle at this stage a characteristic cross-section. The basal- 
fixing extremity of Phoronis presents a similar pair of lateral grooves most clearly 
defined immediately after metamorphosis. In the buds of Cephalodiscus they disappear | 
early (see fig. 59), and their meaning is doubtful. 

From this series and the above description can be obtained an idea of the structure 
of a typical bud of Cephalodiscus, with one pair of plumes. ; 

The simple archimeric segmentation into five archicceles, the simple and non- 
reduplicated gut, and the primitive blood-system of sinuses should be emphasised, 
whilst the identity in structure and origin at this stage of the proboscis-pores, the 
collar-pores and the “ oviducts,” is very striking. The proboscis-pores alone appear to 
open into the ccelome. 

Fig, 24 is a dorsal view of a bud intermediate in external character between the bud 
with one pair of plumes, just described, and that with two pairs, shown in figs, 25 | 
and 26. | 

The second pair of plumes are seen to arise near the base of the first, as simple 
horn-like protuberances, whilst the first pair have developed a number of pinnae from | 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. 519 


the apex downwards. The further development of the tentacles will be referred to 
later, though it may be here stated that the stage to which development of the plumes 
has reached is only a rough criterion of the amount of internal differentiation. Thus 
the sections of fig. 24 to be described are of as advanced a stage as those cut through 
figs. 25 and 26, and seem to represent, as far as is possible, the stage indicated externally 
by the presence of two pairs of plumes. 

Figs. 49 to 59 represent this stage in sections. 

In fig. 49 there is shown a considerable advance over fig. 40. The nervous layer is 
well developed, both dorsally and ventrally, in the buccal shield and in the dorsal 
ectoderm of the plumes. ‘The sub-neural sinus has thickened mesodermic walls, prob- 
ably contractile. 

Fig. 50 shows the sub-neural gland in cross-section, now of much less proportionate 
size than in fig. 41. 

In fig. 51 the post-oral lamella and collar-cavities are evident, and a cross-section of 
the pharynx has a very characteristic outline. The median dorsal and median ventral 
grooves are continuous with the aperture of the sub-neural gland. The paired dorso- 
lateral grooves are the commencing pleurochords, and the ventro-lateral grooves are the 

_ paired oral grooves. These latter run in fig. 52 to the exterior. 
The rectum, bounded by the trunk-cavities laterally and the oviducts (g.d.) running 
in lateral mesenteries, are also seen in this figure. 

In figs. 53 and 54 the ovaries (ov.) developing from the ccelomic wall, and the 
post-oral lamella should be noted, whilst the latter figure shows, on the left side of 
the pharynx a pharyngeal pouch, not yet opening to the exterior (p.c.). Its formation 
from an evagination of the pharyngeal wall isin accordance with its structure in the adult. 

The pharynx (ph.) stomach (st.) and rectum (i.) are all cut in fig. 55 behind 
the eut (fig. 58), the dorsal and ventral sinuses merge into one, to again separate 
in the pedicle, in which the mesentery is interrupted (fig. 59). The longitudinal 
muscles, traces of which may be found at the extreme front-end of the pharynx 
(fig. 53), become very prominent, and are of an advanced histological structure 
posteriorly (fig. 57). They extend round the whole ccelome in the pedicle (fig. 59). 
The single ventral nerve-tract in this region spreads out further forwards (fig. 56) 
and can be traced upwards as a pair of lateral cords (fig. 55) and (fig. 54) into the 
post-oral ring. 

The external appearance of the four-plumed stage is indicated in figs. 25 and 26. 

The buccal shield is of enormous size, greater in proportion than in the adult, and 
the median curved line of pigment is distinct. In front view (fig. 26) it is saddle- 
| shaped, and in side view (fig. 25) it shows a thickened rim. 
This figure shows that the pedicle, at first terminal, and in the direct axis of the 
body, becomes apparently ventral by the dorsal protrusion of the trunk and its 
contained structures. Thus the pedicle becomes shifted till it appears, in figs. 27 and 
28, and still more in the adult, to be an appendage of the ventral body-wall. 


520 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


A nearly median longitudinal section through the bud (fig. 26) is illustrated 
in fig. 60. The buccal shield attains at this stage its greatest proportionate size, 
and within it we may notice some important differentiations. The sub-neural gland 
(sn.gl.) has moved backwards to reach the dorsal wall, and has now come at its distal 
end into close relationship with the sub-neural sinus (sz.s.). The postero-ventral 
wall of the latter has become slightly pushed in (at least in the preserved specimen) 
and the mesodermic wall of the invaginated part becomes thickened by a grouping of 
mesodermic nuclei and protoplasmic strands. Certain of these cells protrude into the 
cavity of the sub-neural sinus in a symmetrical radiate manner, the first traces of 
which may be sometimes recognised in the earlier buds with two plumes (pr.s.). 
The anus now opens as a wide aperture to the exterior, in the same dorsal position — 
as in the adult. 

The stage with three pairs of plumes develops from the preceding in quite a 
regular manner by the formation of a third pair, at first in the same straight line as 
the other two, and in the ordinary course the bud becomes detached from its parent 
at this stage. This is effected by a simple construction of the end of the pedicle where 
it is fused with the parental pedicle. The connecting tissue becomes narrower and 
narrower, the ectoderm presses in on all sides upon the coelomic channel, whilst at 
the same time sections through a late stage of the process indicate a certain amount 
of histolysis especially in the longitudinal muscles. Specimens can be obtained in 
which the junction is so narrow that a gentle shake serves to detach the bud from 
its attachment, and sections of the bud show that the ccelome is closed and that the 
ectoderm although thin is continuous over the tip of the pedicle. In these cases one 
might fairly assume that the bud remains in contact with the parent only by virtue 
of the adhesive power of the pedicle. The free buds at this stage are roughly about 
4 the bulk of the adult. No reference up till now has been made to the size of the 
buds which have been described. The reason for this omission is that the size of 
the buds corresponding to any particular degree of differentiation varies within wide 
limits, so that no fast rule can be stated. ES 

The size of the early buds in fig. 19 can be gauged by comparison with the pedicle 
to which they are attached, and the same applies to the four-plumed stage in fig. 25. — 

On the other hand the rest of the figures except fig. 28 are drawn to nearly the same 
scale as fig. 25. Fig. 27 illustrates the appearance of the bud soon after detachment. Tn 
this instance the buccal shield and post-oral lamella have been removed to show the 
arrangement of the plumes, which will be alluded to later. Fig. 28 gives the entire 
bud in side view, at about the same stage. The buccal shield is still of enormous size 
and. partially over-laps the short contracted pedicle. Sections through such a stage 
show that except for the plumes and gonads the bud may be regarded as a small- 
sized adult. = 

Fig. 61 shows that the pharyngeal clefts are now open to the exterior, and that 
their walls are assuming a chordoid character, and fig. 62 indicates very clearly the | 

gg 


e 
— 
2) 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CHEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. 521 


three ventral nerve-tracts which are still very prominent. In the adult they are 
greatly reduced. In some respects they remind one of the large ventral nerve-mass 
in young Sagztta. | 

The muscles are now quite distinct, and in fig. 63, which is through the base of 
the pedicle, they are seen to extend round dorsally. 


Development of the Plumes and Pinne. 


The plumes arise throughout in pairs. They first make their appearance as a 
papilla, which elongates to a finger-shaped process (fig. 69), the distal extremity of 
which becomes slightly swollen (fig. 70), and then bulbous (fig. 71). The epithelium 
of this bulbous extremity then becomes modified to form the eyes. The cuticle of 
certain of the epithelial cells becomes thickened (fig. 75), and soon the thickening 
protrudes into the cavity of the cell as a lens-like body (figs. 76 and 77). Later it is 
detached from the cuticle and lies freely in the protoplasm. Here it becomes rounded 
off to form the lens. 

Immediately below the eye a pair of small processes arise laterally (fig. 72), and 
srow rapidly to form the paired pinne. The other pinne arise as a double row in 
succession downwards (figs. 73 and 74). 

Hach plume is at first circular in outline, but at an early stage the ectoderm of one 
side is pushed in to form a groove (fig. 40), so that the outline in section is horseshoe- 
shaped. 

The order of development of the plumes is peculiar. The first pair arise close to 
the middle line, with their groove facing towards the dorsal surface of the buccal 
shield (figs. 40 and 64). The second pair arise outside these (figs. 49 and 65), and are 
at first in the same relation to the buccal shield. 

In the course of development, however, both pairs commence to rotate upon their 
own axis, and also to move in a posterior direction away from the buccal shield. 

Thus, in fig. 49, the plumes have rotated about 90°, or a little more in the case of 
the first pair. The grooves are not evident at this Jevel, but the nerve tracts are 
always at the opposite side to the grooves. The third pair of plumes arise outside, and 
at the base of the second pair, and they behave subsequently in a similar manner to 
these. Thus the three pairs of plumes come to lie a little way back from the buccal 
shield, and with their grooves and pinne facing away from this organ. Fig. 27 shows 
this arrangement, and also the rudiment on the left side, of one of the fourth pair. 

The three last pairs of plumes are later in development, and differ slightly in their 


| growth from the three first pairs. The fourth arise almost parallel to and nearer the 


bueeal shield than the third, whilst the fifth appear first between the second and the 
buecal shield, and lastly, the sixth arise just in front of the first pair. These points are 
illustrated in figs. 66, 67, and 68. These three pairs develop grooves facing the buccal 
shield, as in the case of the others, but they do not rotate. 


=>. 


522 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


Such is the very peculiar way in which the arrangement described in the adult is 
obtained, and the meaning of their method of origin formed an interesting puzzle. A 
comparison with the mode of origin of the tentacles in Actinotrocha has given a solution 
which has satisfied me, and may, I hope, appear plausible to others. 

In Actinotrocha the tentacles, when stretched above the head as in the adult, are 
arranged, viewed from above, as in fig. 684. The thick epithelium corresponding 
to that of the oral grooves is on the inside of each tentacle. They arise in sue 
cession on each side on the dorsal surface of the collar region, immediately behind 
the pre-oral hood. A stage with only six pairs is figured for simplicity. In 
comparing the arrangement with that of Cephalodiscus, we note that whereas, in 
the former case, the tentacles move round ventrally to surround the mouth and 
epistome, in the latter this is impossible, because the buccal shield (homologous 
with the pre-oral hood or epistome) is used as a sucker. In this case, therefore, the 
plumes, after travelling part of the way towards the ventral surface (fig. 688), turn 
backwards and move up again. To put the process more correctly, the actinotrochan- 
like ancestor of Cephalodiscus adopted an adhesive function for the pre-oral hood, 
immediately upon the assumption of a partially sedentary existence. <A eeneral 
morphological rule for sedentary animals with tentacles is that these organs become 
directed forwards in front of the head, so that in this case the three last pairs, unable to 
move forwards in the ventral line, moved forward and dorsally upward to take up 4 
position found in Cephalodiscus. 

If the ontogeny of the plumes recapitulated the whole of phylogeny, the first three 
pairs of plumes should migrate in procession from the point of origin of the first (which 
corresponds exactly with that of the tentacles of Actinotrocha) down to nearly the 
mid-ventral line, and then upwards and backwards (ab. fig. 688). Such an apparently 
useless migration would not be likely to occur, and we do not find that these plumes 
migrate even as far as (cd. fig. 688). The migration would be gradually shortened till 
the present condition is arrived at, in which each plume moves directly from its point 
of origin to its later position. At the same time, it is evident that the rotation through 
180° of each plume results in the three plumes having their oral grooves facing away 
from the buccal shield, just as would occur in the phyletic migration. On the other 
hand, the last three pairs, occupying a position corresponding with that of the last three 
pairs in Actinotrocha, arise in an equally direct and simple way, as in this larva, and 
undergo no rotation. 


The Development of the Sub-Neural, Gland and the surrounding Organs. 


In the early buds, as already stated, the sub-neural gland by a movement inwards 
comes to le with its distal end in the sub-neural sinus, but as development proceeds, 
the coelomic wall immediately ventral to the tip of the gland becomes thickened and 
tucked in, invading the sub-neural sinus as a short diverticulum of the pre-oral ccelome. 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CHPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. 523 


Such a condition is found in the stage with one pair of plumes, and the series of sections 
here (figs. 78° to 84) described, lie between figs. 40 and 43. They are drawn by 
camera under a Zeiss microscope with obj. F. In fig. 78 the mesodermic cells forming 
a thickening of the anterior wall of the sinus are cut through, whilst the next section 
(79) passes through the sub-neural sinus itself. In fig. 80 a few mesodermic cells are 
eut through, apparently loose in the blood-sinus, but in reality they are of the same 
nature as the cells seen in the next section, but cut obliquely. In fig. 81 is seen the 
pre-oral sac invaginated from the pre-oral ccelome, and it still opens freely into the 
latter. It appears to be filled internally with a homogeneous darkly-staining material, 
which, in later development, thins out to form a uniform layer around the walls of the 
pre-oral sac as in the adult, and then is indistinguishable from the chondroid tissue. 

Attached to the mesodermic wall of the sac are a number of cells (¢.c.) which have 
a characteristic form, being somewhat fusiform with the nucleus near the centre, one end 
free and the other attached. They radiate in all directions except posteriorly, where the 
head of the sub-neural gland lies. A few can be seen in fig. 82 attached to the posterior 
edge of the pre-oral sac, which lies slightly over the sub-neural gland. In fig. 81 the 
dorsal wall of the sinus is seen to consist of ectoderm alone, and the sub-neural sinus 
can be traced without break into the dorsal sinus in figs. 83 and 84. In fig. 82 it is seen 
to be limited on the left by the pre-oral ccelomic wall, and, owing to a slight obliquity, 
on the right by the wall of the collar-ccelome; in the following sections the collar- 
eelome is alone seen. In the latter figure may be noticed the sub-neural gland, free 
in the blood-sinus, which surrounds it on all sides. In the sinus are a few cells, 
either free blood-corpuscles or cells detached from the radiate cells. Such is 
the peculiar morphology of these parts, and their functions are not easy to conjec- 
ture, 

A stage differing little from this is found in fig. 60, in nearly median longitudinal 
section. 

Subsequent development consists in an expansion of the pre-oral sac, which becomes 
of somewhat irregular outline, in a loss of regular arrangement by the radiate cells, and 
in a partial closure of the aperture of the pre-oral sac. The posterior wall of the 
sub-neural sinus grows backwards across the aperture, and comes in contact with the 
pre-oral ccelome immediately covering the head of the sub-neural gland. Thus, in the 
adult, a median longitudinal section through this region gives one the impression that 
the pre-oral sac is closed ventrally and has no communication with the pre-oral ccelome, 
thus seeming to bear out the statement of Dr Harmer (2). The aperture, however, 
secondarily closed on the middle line, is still open on each side. Thus, in the adult, the 
pre-oral sac still communicates with the pre-oral ccelome by a pair of short channels, 
which are easily demonstrable by longitudinal sections a little to either side of the 
median plane. 

On the other hand, I have entirely failed to find any trace of a communication 


between the pre-oral sac and the dorsal blood-sinus, such as should exist if Dr HarmeEr’s 
VOL, XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 17). Al 


524 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


interpretation of this organ as the heart were accepted, and I have every reason to 
believe that such cannot be demonstrated. j 

In the discussion upon these points between this author and myself, we hae been — 
blamed for complicating the points at issue by each using a different nomenclature, so I 
may be excused for giving the following table illustrating the two views :— ; 


é ub-neural gla = Harmer’s a 
1. Sab 1 gland,” Harmer’s “ notochord 
2. “Sub-neural sinus,” = "3 ‘* proboscis-vesicle.” ©\x c 
3. ‘* Pre-oral sac,” * = ** heart.” 
> 9? 


Harmer accepts the presence of my “ dorsal blood-sinus,” and believes that it will be 
proved to communicate with (3) and not with (2); and, on the other hand, he denies the 
communication of (3) with the pre-oral ccelome. 

Whilst denying my interpretation of the “ paired notochords,” HarmEr corroborates 
my description of them, and, apparently, of the other leading anatomical points in my 
work not mentioned above. . a 

It appears to me that the disputed points will have to be settled by a renewe 
investigation of the development of Balanoglossus. Should the proboscis-vesicl 
Balanoglossus be indubitably proved to arise from mesenchyme or from the proboscis: 
ceelome, then it is possible that the pre-oral sac above described may represent 
Cephalodiscus, the more primitive condition of the homologous structure, wher 
should the proboscis-vesicle prove to be developed from ectoderm, it would prob 
have, as formerly suggested (6), to be regarded as the distal extremity of the sub-neura 
gland. B| 

In any case, a rhythmically pulsating organ with an internal cavity, comple 
closed, is so anomalous a structure that more knowledge of its structure and deve 
ment is very essential. It seems possible that the proboscis-vesicle of Balanoglo. 
may yet be proved to communicate with the pre-oral ccelome by minute lateral ape 
in a similar manner to the pre-oral sac in Cephalodiscus. The radiating cells ab 
described would then represent the proboscis gland (cf: larval nephridia of Anneli 
and the resemblance of proboscis-vesicle and pre-oral sac would be very close, | 

functioning as contractile vesicles for the expulsion of excretory fluids into the pre-or 
coelome. 


Summary. "a 

The following is a brief summary of the chief features dealt with im the fore- 
going :— 

(1) The pharynx has special adaptations for the separation of food and 

currents, amongst which may be reckoned hyper- and hypo-pharyngeal 


* Prior to this, the organ here referred to has been unnamed ; the above name may be suggested for adoptio n in i 
it is descriptive without in any way implying a special homology. ‘« 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. 525 


grooves, the peri-pharyngeal groove, sub-neural gland, the pharyngeal clefts, 
and the pleurochords. 

(2) The notochord of the Chordata may be primarily derived from this source as a 
channel for cloacal water from the point of separation to the points of 
exhalation, 7.¢., pharyngeal clefts. 

(3) The gonads are suspended in lateral mesenteries, and surrounded by a blood- 
sinus, communicating with the dorsal sinus. 

(4) The pedicle or ventral sucker has a ventral nerve cord and two ventro-lateral 
cords, a dorsal and a ventral blood-sinus, and complete inner layer of longi- 
tudinal muscles. 

(5) The buds arise usually in pairs ventrally. The ectoderm and mesoderm of the 

} bud are formed directly from those of the pedicle. The endoderm is formed 
by invagination of the ectoderm. 

(6) The pharyngeal clefts arise as endodermal diverticula which break through the 
ectoderm to the exterior. From their structure and relationships to the 
pleurochords in the adult, they would seem to be simply the oral termination 
of the latter. The two primitive chordate characters of notochord and 
pharyngeal cleft would thus appear to have arisen from a common rudiment 
resembling the pleurochord of Cephalodiscus. The anal end of the intestine 
is at first in contact with the ectoderm posteriorly and just above the 
pedicle, but later moves up to the oral end and then opens to the exterior. 

(7) The blood system arises as a system of sinuses between the ccelomic cavities 
and the ectoderm, continuous from the first with those of the adult. 

(8) The sub-neural gland arises far out and moves secondarily into connection with 
the sub-neural sinus. ti fe... 

(9) The first three pairs of plumes arise near their final position, into which they 
move gradually with a rotation through 180°, the last three, forming the 
inner row of the adult, arise in situ. 

(10) The oviducts, proboscis-pores, and collar-pores all arise in a similar manner, as 
paired ectodermal tubes. 

(11) The gonads arise as proliferations of the mesoderm lining the trunk-ccelome. 

(12) The adult characters are assumed when three to four pairs of plumes are 
present ; and separation from the parent is then effected by constriction. 

(13) The lens of the branchial eyes is formed by cuticular hypertrophy and later 
detachment. 

(14) Sexual development commences in the egg-capsule whilst attached to the inner 
wall of the ccencecium, and results in the formation of a larva segmented 
into two parts by an annular constriction. 

{15) The pre-oral sac arises as a diverticular invagination of the posterior wall of 

the pre-oral coelome, and its bounding cells become modified into spindle- 

shaped excretory cells free in the sub-neural sinus. 


526 DR MASTERMAN ON THE FURTHER ANATOMY AND 


LIST OF REFERENCES. 


(1) Harmer, S. F., Appendix to Challenger Report on “ Cephalodiscus.’ 
(2) a Zoologischen Anzeiger, No. 543, 1897. 

(3) Lanxuster, E. R., Quart. Journal Micros. Science, 1884. 

(4) M‘Inrosu, W. C., Challenger Report on “ Cephalodiscus.” 

(5) Mastermayn, A. T., Quart. Journal Micros, Science, August 1897 


(6) 4) Zoologischen Anzeiger, No. 545, 1897. 
(7) - Proc. Royal Soc. Edin., March 1896. 


LIST OF PLATES. 


Prats I. 


Figs. 1-9. Series of coronal longitudinal sections through pharynx of Cephalodiscus (camera). 
Figs. 10-15. Series of nearly transverse sections through gonads of Cephalodiscus. \ : 
Fig. 16. Semi-diagrammatic longitudinal section through the gonad and gonaduct of Cephalodis 
Fig. 17. Semi-diagrammatic longitudinal section through nephridium and gonad of Phoronis, 
Fig. 18, Transverse section through (pedicle) ventral sucker of Cephalodiscus. 


Puave II. 


Fig. 19. View of pedicle of Cephalodiscus with two young buds. 

Fig. 20 Dorsal view of older bud. 

Fig. 21. Lateral view of next stage. 

Fig. 22. Dorsal view of the same stage as fig. 21. 

Fig. 23. Dorsal view of bud with one pair of plumes. 

Fig. 24. Dorsal view of slightly later stage. 

Fig. 25. Lateral view of bud with two pairs of plumes. 

Fig. 26, Ventral * i 

Fig. 27, Ventral view of free bud with three pairs of plumes, with buccal shield, and post 
lamella removed. 

Fig. 28, Lateral view of slightly later stage of free bud. 


Prate III, 


Figs. 29-32. Series of transverse sections through right-hand bud figured in fig. 19. 
Figs, 33-35. i a left-hand bud 5 

Fig. 36. Longitudinal sagittal section through a bud similar to right-hand bud in fig. 19. _ 
Fig. 37. Sagittal section through bud shown in fig, 20. 


Fig. 38. Horizontal i #4 21, 
Fig. 39. Sagittal 3 " 22. 
Figs. 40-48. Series of transverse sections through bud in fig. 23. 
Figs, 49-59, FA 5 24, 


BUDDING PROCESSES OF CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. 527 


Puare LY. 


Fi ig. 60, Sagittal section through bud in fig. 26. 

igs. 61-63. Transverse sections through bud in fig. 28. 

Figs. 64-68. Series of diagrammatic transverse sections through plumes and buccal shield at 
stages of development. 

. 68a. Diagram of arrangement of tentacles and pre-oral lobe of Actinotrocha, but with the 
les projected forward as in Phoronis. 

68d. Diagram of the movement of a plume of Cephalodiscus from its point of origin to its 
ion: ab. is the hypothetical path of the movement of the plume from the position in 
a to that in Cephalodiscus, and ed. is a shortened path, the thick arrow showing the actual 
cen in the bud-development of Cephalodiscus. 

E 69-74. Outline drawings illustrating the development of a plume and its pinnee. 

figs. 75-77. Three stages of development of a single cell-element of the branchial eye. 

78-84. Series of sections through the “sub-neural” region of bud with one pair of plumes. 


Prats VY. 


85. Lateral view of Cephalodiscus with bud showing the principal nerve-tracts. 

a adult Cephalodiscus with peculiar cyst-like bodies in cloacal region. 
87-89. Dorsal view of embryos in the egg-membrane, taken from the canals of the coencecium. 
s. 90-99. Series of transverse sections across the pharynx of Cephalodiscus (camera). 

100. Diagrammatic drawing of the pharynx and connected structures of Cephalodiscus. 


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 


in Plates I. and V.) =oral grooves. p.c. =pharyngeal cleft. 
1 Plate [V.)=plumes in order of develop- ph.  =pharynx. 
pl. =post-oral lamella. 


pn. =pinna. 

p.p. =proboscis pore. 
pr.ce. =pre-oral coelome. 
pr.s. =pre-oral sac. 

r. = rectum. 


sn.gl. =sub-neural gland. 


sm.s. =sub-neural sinus. 
eral blood-sinus. st, = stomach, 
e tc. =trunk-eavity. 
longitudinal muscles. v.g. =ventral groove. 
vm.  =ventral nerve. 


AC v.1.n. =ventro-lateral nerve. 
=notochord (pleurochord). vs.  =ventral sinus. 


(OL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 17). ae 


a Trans. Rey. Soc. Edin® Vol XXXIX 
 D®A.T. MASTERMAN ON CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. M°].— Pyare I, 


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ETE EEEED ELE ie 


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eoelome 
ovary 
(q 
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4 Ovarian sinus { Ww 
<y a 
ay : ovary — 


Ovarian sinus 


M‘Farlans & Erskine, bith. Edin? 


Trans. Roy. Soo. Edin® Vol. XXXIX. 


*A.T. MASTERMAN ON CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. M°]. — Prare ID 


—___ 


48 


si 


MisFarlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin™ 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Fdin® Vol XXXIX. 
_ D*A.T MASTERMAN ON CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. M°] 


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M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin™ 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin® Vol. XXXIX. 
DAT MASTERMAN ON CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. M] — Pyare IV. 


MSParlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin 


Trans. Roy: Soc. Edin’ Vol. XXXIX. 


DAT MASTERMAN- ON CEPHALODISCUS DODECALOPHUS. MS] — Prare V 
”) rte Cot1rt{ ctr 


MsParlane & Erskine, Lith, Edin? 


530 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


steam so proceeding had the same temperature as the boiling solution, because when 
steam is blown into such a solution it is condensed until the solution has been heated to 
its boiling point. If the solution can condense outside steam, it necessarily must be able 
to condense its own steam, for the two substances are identical. If the bulb of a ther- 
mometer is immersed in brine boiling over a flame, it is irregular in its readings. The 
irregularities are due to superheating of the liquid consequent on the adhesion of the 
solution to the glass or metal. The ebullition is never quite regular, and the reading of 
the thermometer varies, showing a fall of temperature when steam is coming off free 
and a rise when there is intermission. It is very difficult in this way to obtain 
exact observations of the boiling temperature of a solution, or indeed of pure water. 
On the other hand, it is very easy to get results of any desired degree of exactitude 
by using an abundant current of saturated steam to boil the water or brine. Over. 
heating is impossible, and bumping equally so. A thermometer of any degree of 
cacy may be used; there is never any room for doubt that its temperature is, to 
minutest fraction of a degree, the same as that of the boiling liquid, and the value 
the observation thus depends only on the trustworthiness of the instrument. In 1 
paper on “‘ Ice and Brines” above referred to, it was pointed out that the melting po 
of ice in brines of determined nature and strength could be used as fixed points on 1 
thermometric scale, in the same way as the melting temperature of ice in pure water 
is habitually used. Similarly the condensing temperature of steam in saline 
solutions forms a ready means of fixing exactly certain points above the ordinary 
boiling point of water. Also the minimum temperature, or cryohydric point, of freezing 
mixtures is very useful, many of them being as well defined as the melting point of 
ice in water. 
Our boiling mixtures occupy a similar position with respect to the boiling point of 
water that the freezing mixtures do to its freezing point. In freezing mixtures the dry 
salt is mixed with pounded ice or snow ; if the mixture is properly made, the tempe 
ture falls at once to the true minimum, and remains quite steady for a great length o 
time. In boiling mixtures the dry salt is placed in a U-tube of special dimensions, to | 
be described presently, and steam is passed into it by one leg, while the other leg can 
the thermometer, and the surplus steam escapes through a side tube. The supply of | 
steam must be abundant, while the exit tube for the steam must be sufficiently wide t | 
make it impossible for the steam, after it has passed through the mixture of salt and 
brine, to have a pressure above that of the atmosphere into which it exhausts. 10 
the time when enough steam has condensed to form a more or less liquid 
through which the steam bubbles, the mass is kept thoroughly well mixed, and the ‘e. 
mometer keeps the temperature with absolute steadiness until so much steam has con- 
densed and so little solid salt remains that it cannot be assumed that every particle of 
steam condensed can immediately find a particle of salt to dissolve. Then the tempera- 
ture begins to fall in the same way as that of a freezing mixture begins to rise. Operat- 


ing in this way it is possible to obtain definite and perfectly constant temperatures with 
- ~ 


STEAM AND BRINES. 531 


most of the ordinary soluble salts of the laboratory. They are, however, not all equally 
good, and there are some that are of no use for boiling mixtures. 

The effect produced when steam meets a salt depends on the properties of the salt, 
especially on its solubility in boiling water and on the thermal effect of its solution. 
Generally speaking, the greater the solubility of the salt the greater is the elevation of 
the condensing point of steam which it produces. At ordinary temperatures salts 
commonly dissolve in water with absorption of heat, which tends to increase the 
condensation of steam. The absorption of heat may be so great that the brine produced 
| by the salt dissolving in the condensed steam is unable to rise to its boiling point until 
all the solid salt has disappeared. 

Amongst anhydrous salts nitrate of ammonium is a good example of this, An 
experiment was made with 60 grammes of the salt. In 24 minutes after the steam 
reached the salt it was all dissolved, and the temperature barely rose to that of boiling 
water. Twelve grammes of steam had been condensed. 

Of salts containing water of crystallisation, acetate of soda is a good example amongst 
those which dissolve with great absorption of heat. Sixty-two grammes of this salt 
treated in the same way as the nitrate of ammonium were completely dissolved in 24 
minutes after the steam reached the salt, and the temperature had only reached 60° C. 
These and similar salts are not suitable for boiling mixtures. 

The following are one or two examples of the solubilities observed at the boiling 
| point of the saturated solution for one-fifth gramme in molecule of each salt :— 


Salt Used. NaCl. KCL. BaCl,, (NH,),SO,. 
Temperature of Condensation ) water, 4 100°44° C. 100°44° 99-95° 99°40° 
of Steam on \ salt, . d 108°98° 108°94° 104:46° 107:03° 
Weight of Steam Condensed for complete 
solution, : : ' 2 erms., 29°9 25:9 64:0 25 


The least soluble of these salts is chloride of barium, requiring 64 germs. of condensed 
| steam for solution, and the most soluble is sulphate of ammonium, which requires only 
25 orms. 

Apparatus and Method of Experimenting.—The apparatus, fig. 1, consists of 
the lamp, A, the steam generator or boiler, b, the U-tube or receiver, D, and the 
jconnecting tube, G. In the laboratory a gas lamp was used, except when it was 
wished to check the results by the fuel consumed, when a spirit lamp was used, 
and it was weighed before and after the experiment. In the experiments at 
high levels, where gas was not available, spirit was used. The lamp employed 
_|was one of a French pattern, and forming a part of the Réchand a double flanme forcée 
of smallest size, which has a large sale for domestic purposes. It is the most 
efficient pattern of spirit lamp with which I am acquainted, and as it is especially con- 
structed for use in travelling, it was very suitable for my high-level work. It holds 
about 250 c.c. of spirit. 


5932 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


The steam generator or boiler, B, used at high levels, was a flask made of spun 
copper and of 500 ¢.c. capacity. A suitable charge is 300 ¢.c. of water. With such a 
charge, and heated by the French lamp, the water boiled in six minutes, with a con- 
sumption of 12 grammes of spirit. While keeping steam at the rate suitable for the 
experiment, the lamp consumed 21 grammes of spirit in fifteen minutes, and evaporated 


92 grammes of water. For experiments in the laboratory I use a large copper flask 
of 2 litres capacity. This is a very convenient laboratory vessel. They are mam 
factured to replace the glass flasks of Napier’s coffee machines for use in restaurants, 
they can be had in larger sizes. A copper flask can always be obtained at short née 


STEAM AND BRINES. 533 


from a plumber, by getting him to fit a neck to one of the copper balls which are used 
as controlling floats for cistern taps. These are to be had of all sizes up to 10 inches 
diameter, and are very cheap. 

The receiver, C, has the appearance and shape shown in the fig. The actual dimen- 
sions are variable, according to the quantity of salt on which it is proposed to operate, 
and according to the length of the thermometer. The working part of the thermometer 
must be entirely within the receiver. The uncertainty caused by the exposure of any 
part of the stem occupied by mercury stultifies the use of very delicate instruments. 
If the whole range of the thermometer is to be utilised, then the length of the receiver 
' must be such as to take the whole thermometer. The two thermometers which I used 
in all my experiments differed slightly in length, and it was convenient to have a 
receiver made for each. Of course the longer thermometer could be used with the 
| shorter receiver, so long as the temperature to be observed was not too high. One 
receiver which I have used much has the following dimensions :—Total length of the 
body of the tube, from the entrance, a, of the steam tube at the bottom to the top, c, 
where the thermometer, F, is retained by a perforated cork, is 30 cm. ; the length, ab, of 
the body for the reception of the salts and brine is 16 cm., and its diameter 42 mm. 
| The length of the neck, bc, is 14 cm. and diameter 13 mm. The steam exit tube, d, 
has a diameter of 7 mm., and the entry or connecting tube, e, has the same or a slightly 
less diameter. The entry tube is bent up parallel to the main body of the instrument, 
}and is connected with the boiler by a tube, G, as shown in the fig. The steam tube, C, 
{on the boiler is important. The straight portion which enters the boiler should have a 
‘diameter of 8 to 9mm. Its upper part, which is fitted with a cork, should have a 
diameter of not more than 7 or 8 mm. Steam is kept constantly in the boiler, and 
connection with the receiver is made or broken instantly by inserting or removing the 
cork. The most convenient support for the receiver, whether it be used in or out of 
the laboratory, is an ordinary tumbler or drinking glass. The tube rests on a piece of 
jcork, grooved to take the bend of the tube, and it is steadied by a ring made of a piece 
of india-rubber tubing. This form of support has many advantages. In the first 
place, the apparatus has great stability ; then the glass is transparent, and it is essential 
_\to be able to see the boiling mixture during the whole course of the experiment ; also, 
while being transparent, the glass protects the receiver from excessive loss of heat. 

In the experiments to be reported, the principal thing to be observed is the differ- 
ence between the temperature of pure saturated steam and the temperature produced 
by the condensation of this steam in the mixture of salt and brine. It is, therefore, of 
equal importance to observe accurately the temperature of pure saturated steam as to 
observe that of the boiling mixture. The same apparatus suffices for both purposes. 
efore charging, and being clean and dry, the receiver is connected with the boiler, and 
team blown through it. Some of it condenses and collects at the bottom of the 
eceiver, forming a pool of distilled water boiled by steam, the steam produced by which 
s perfect for the purpose. As the division marking 100° C. is usually some way down 


534 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


the stem, the thermometer is preferably pulled up, so that the bulb is entirely in the 
steam. The steam so produced in an apparatus of the proportions described, must be | 
truly saturated steam of the tension equal to the actual barometric pressure, and must, 
therefore, have exactly the temperature which corresponds to this pressure. This is” 
the temperature of steam condensing on pure water. a 

The supply of steam is abundant, and the latent heat of steam is very great ; the 
thermometer, therefore, must take, in a very short time, exactly the temperature of the | 
steam with which it is completely surrounded. The thermometer may be construc 
so that a millimetre on the stem corresponds to a hundredth or a thousandth of a degree 
Its indication will be perfectly steady, provided that the conditions remain unchanged. 4 
The slightest change in the barometric pressure makes itself at once apparent, and at " 
all times, especially during unsettled weather, the temperature of saturated steam must — 
be observed at frequent intervals. 

It is convenient to have a separate apparatus for this purpose. If we imagine the | 
receiver, C, with the entry tube at the bottom straight instead of bent, so that it ez an 
take the place of the T tube in the boiler, we have a perfect apparatus for determining 
the temperature of saturated steam and consequently also for fixing the point comespeil 
ing to 100° C. on the scale of the thermometer. It is assumed that the steam tube | 
is large enough to take the whole working part of the thermometer. It is unsuitable 
in itself or to the steam generator used if the steam makes its exit with an audib . 
sound. Tenths of a Centigrade degree are then uncertain. Yet it is essential tha 
there should be an abundant flow of steam through the tube; therefore, the exit full 7 
must be sufficiently wide to allow the steam to issue in a stream of good volume, and 
must not be so wide as to incur any risk of regurgitation of air. Again, the entry 
tube for the steam must not be too narrow. It is not essential, but it is very con- 
venient, that it should be so wide that the steam condensed on the walls and flowing — 
back into the boiler should continue to flow down the sides of the entry tube and — 
not collect at the bottom of the wide part of the tube. When the steam proceed” is 
along a short straight passage from the boiler to the steam tube, it throws about 
water in a violent and inconvenient way. In a tube which I use for this purpose ~ 
entrance tube has a diameter of 9 mm. and the exit tube 10 mm. The entry tube is thus 
wide enough to permit the condensed steam to flow back along its sides; at thes 2 
time, it is smaller than the exit tube, so that, apart from the continual condensatitil of 
a portion of the steam, there is no danger of the tube receiving more steam than it 
can freely get rid of. 

That an apparatus such as that here described does, in fact, exclude the possibility 
of the steam supplied having a tension which differs at all from the pressure of the 
atmosphere with which it exhausts, will be evident from the following experiments. 
The small copper flask, the spirit lamp, and the steam tubes above described were 
used. The thermometer was divided into fiftieths of a degree Centigrade, the length 
of one degree being 35 mm. The atmospheric pressure happened to be pretty high, and 


STEAM AND BRINES. 535 


when the thermometer had taken the temperature of the steam the top of the mercury 

was exactly even with the centre of the line on the scale marking 100°18° C. It 
occupied this position when steam was being generated at its highest rate of 8:4 
grammes per minute. The flame of the lamp was reduced by degrees until it reached 
its lowest point, when steam was being generated at the rate of 2'4 grammes per 
minute. It was then issuing continuously, that is, there was no regurgitation, but it 
partook more of the nature of an exhalation than of a stream; yet the mercury 
remained exactly on the centre of the line of 100718", and it was only when the lamp 
had been reduced to its very lowest that it could be said to have fallen to the lower 
edge of the line. The temperature then indicated by the thermometer was not lower 
than 180°179° C. When the reading of such a thermometer remains unaltered while 
the supply of steam is varied in the proportion of nearly four to one, the efficiency of 
the steam tube may be said to be perfect. 

A further condition affecting the usefulness of these tubes is that they and the 
thermometer shall be perfectly clean. The thermometer is the most liable to contamina- 
tion, and I generally found it convenient to wash it with soap and water before every 
experiment. The steam which condenses on the thermometer and on the inside of the 
fube should do so in a film and not as a dew, and it does so if the surfaces are perfectly 
clean. ‘The inside of the tube is more difficult to deal with than the outside of the 
thermometer. On the other hand, when once cleaned it remains clean much longer. 
Soap is used here also, and the best way of using it is to smear the inside of the 
upper part of the tube with soap, preferably soft soap. Steam is raised, and so soon 
as it reaches the soap it condenses and forms a uniform film of solution which drains 
down back into the boiler and by continuing to boil the steam condensing washes 


ee er Orr 


the inside walls quite clean from everything, and for a considerable time afterwards 
there is no trouble about the steam condensing in the tube as dew. If the boiler has 
been charged for this operation with distilled water, there is the disadvantage that it 
immediately primes, and the steam, instead of washing down the sides of the tube, 
continues to blow soap bubbles at its upper end, without washing the tube. [ 
always use ordinary tap water, which supplies equally pure steam with distilled 
water, but it has this advantage, that when the soap solution drains back into 
it, being in comparatively small quantity, it is immediately precipitated by the 
earthy ingredients of the water, which continues to supply pure steam without 
priming. 

Attention to these small matters is all-important, not only in order to secure 
aceuracy but also comfort in experimenting. 

Thermometers.—Two thermometers were used for these experiments, both made 
especially for me by Mr Hicks, of Hatton Gardens. One of them, A, was intended for 
use at ordinary levels; the scale was in Fabrenheit’s degrees, and ranged from 210° F. 
to 240° F, Each degree was divided into tenths, and had a length of 7°2 mm. The 
length of a Centigrade degree in this thermometer would thus have been 13 mm., and 


536 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 
in order that the single divisions should not be too far apart it would have had toh be 
divided into twentieths of a degree. 

The other thermometer, B, was especially made with a view to experimenting on 
chloride of sodium at all available heights above the sea. It was graduated into Centi- 
grade degrees and tenths, the length of one degree being 10 mm., and the range was 
from 85° C. to 110° C. / 

By the kindness of Dr Bilwiller, director of the Central Meteorological Office of 
Switzerland, | was able to compare the indications of this thermometer in saturated 
steam at different heights with the temperatures which it ought to have shown, on the 
basis of the atmospheric pressure as given by the barometers of the central bureau at 
different stations. For higher temperatures it was verified in terms of the standard 
barometer of the Scottish Meteorological Society in Edinburgh, which was obligingly 
put at my disposal by Dr Buchan. The following are the readings in the order ¢ 
height :— 


Locality. Julier. . Sils. Zurich. 
Height above sea, . : 4 - metres, | 2244 a 
Barometer, at 0° C., 4 ; : mm., | 581°84 616°4 | 7203 76418 
Observed temperatures, . : : : i *92'S6"C: 94:38° 98°62° 100:23° 
Calculated do., i , ‘ : : 92:69° 94:24° 98°51° 100°16° 
Correction, . : : é ‘ : : — 0°17 —014 =)(0)-i11! —0:07 


Thermometer B was compared at Kew, giving corrections amounting in the extreme t 
0:2° F. All the observed temperatures have been corrected accordingly. a 
The General Order of the Expervment.—The temperature of saturated steam w. 
determined in the straight steam tube. The U-shaped receiver being clean and dry, wé 
weighed. The portion of salt, usually one-fifth of a gramme-molecule, was weighed o1 
carefully into the receiver, which was then again weighed for the purpose of afterward 
arriving at the weight of the condensed steam. The weight of the receiver, both empt 
and charged, includes that of the thermometer and its attachment. When steam is issuing 
from the boiler at the top of the T tube, the receiver is connected with it, as shown 
The top of the T tube is now closed with the cork, and the passage of steam through the 
salt begins. The time is noted when the steam reaches the salt, and this is the b 
ning of the experiment, and the time is logged as a part of every entry in the note- 
It is particularly noted when the mass in the receiver forms a liquid magma throt 
which the steam bubbles, when the thermometer attains its maximum, when it bi 
to be unsteady, and when steam is shut off. Before reaching the maximum the 
perature is noted every half-minute, afterwards every minute, and at the end every 
or quarter minute. When it is judged by the fall of temperature and the quantit 
of salt undissolved that these two small quantities compensate each other, the cork 


t 


STEAM AND BRINES. 537 


removed from the IT tube and the operation is interrupted. The receiver is then quickly 
disconnected from the india-rubber tube, and suspended from the scale, which is within 
arm’s reach from the working bench, and the weight ascertained to the nearest deci- 
eramme. The receiver is then immediately reconnected with the boiler, the cork 
inserted, and boiling recommenced. Steam is passed until the temperature has fallen to 
the first attainable whole number of degrees above the temperature of saturated steam, 
when it is interrupted, the weight observed and the receiver reconnected, to be again 
weighed when the next whole degree is reached, and so on until so much water has col- 
lected in the receiver that the steam can no longer be passed through it at a suitable 
rate without risk of throwing out some of its contents. The temperature of saturated 
steam is now again determined with the thermometer used in the experiments. This 
has been determined several times during the experiment in another apparatus and with 
another thermometer. ‘This enables the effect of any change in the barometric pressure 
to be spread correctly over the time occupied by the experiment. This series of obser- 
yations gives the concentration of solutions whose boiling points are higher than that 
of pure water by certain definite amounts. The small uncertainty which attaches to 
the determination of the concentration of the boiling saturated solution does not affect 
that of the less concentrated solution. When the saturated solution has been weighed 
and reconnected with the steam generator, it often happens that, however expeditiously 
the operation may be performed, some of the salt has crystallised out, and this generally 
requires an extra amount of heat, or steam condensed, to redissolve it. Then the boiling 
temperature of the solution when saturated is lowered very much by a small dilution, 
an effect which diminishes rapidly with increasing dilution. 

As result of the series we have the temperature of the saturated boiling solution 


‘and approximately its concentration, also the boiling temperature and exact concentra- 


tion of a series of more dilute solutions. When the boiling tube has been emptied 
and washed, steam is blown through it until the whole tube is heated up to the 
temperature of the steam; it is then quickly disconnected, the water ejected from it, 
and air blown through it from the lungs, which in a few seconds dries the inside of the 
receiver completely. ‘This is the easiest way to dry the inside of all complicated 
glass apparatus. The glass of the apparatus is always sufficiently massive that when it 
has been heated to 100° C. it has more than sufficient immediately available heat to 
evaporate all the water that will adhere to its surface, and still not fall to such a tem- 
perature as to condense moisture from the air of the lungs. 

The receiver is immediately ready for another experiment. As above de- 
scribed, each experiment must be expected to take from an hour and a half to two 


hours. 
Steam Condensed in Heating the Apparatus,—-When the thermometer is in its usual 


experimental position, that is, with its bulb in the middle of the salt and so low down 

that it will be immersed in the brine or water whenever enough steam has condensed to 

make this possible, and the whole of the working part of the stem is in the steam space, 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 18). 4M 


538 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


it arrives at the maximum temperature almost simultaneously with the first exit of 
steam from the apparatus ; but that part of the steam tube situated above the exit tube 
is not yet thoroughly warmed through, and a little time must be allowed during which 
the streneth of the steam current increases until it becomes steady. In ordinary cir- 
cumstances the apparatus cannot be held to be warmed through in less than 90 seconds, 
and, for purposes of heat calculation, we take the initial period of heating to be two 
minutes, during which it may be said always to be complete. Experiments made with 
boiling mixture tube, weighing with thermometer 239°65 grms., showed the following 
results :— 


Steam condensed, . : 3 : grms., 8°53 8:3 85 8:35 
In time, . : ‘ : ; . seconds, 85 90 100 90 


From these we find the mean amount of steam condensed in the first 90 second: 
8°25 germs. When the steam was passed through for exactly two minutes befor 
weighing, the following weights of steam were condensed :—9°1, 8°9, and 9:0 orms., ¢ 
a mean of 9:0 grms. 

For vessels of the same pattern and nearly the same size the quantity of stean 


required to heat them or to keep them hot depends simply on the amount 
glass. 


Thus, our apparatus weighs 239°65 grms., and may be considered to be all glass. 
the specific heat of the glass be 0:2, then the amount of water thermally equivalent t 
itis 48 grms. In order to raise the temperature of 48 grms. water from 15° C. t 
100° C., we require 4080 @° C. (gramme-degrees-Celsius), and this can be supplied 
7°61 grms. steam saturated at 100° C., and condensing at 100° C. But the mean ten 
perature of the apparatus during warming may be taken to be 57°5° C., and the 7* 
grms. water formed would, in cooling from 100° C. to 57°5° C., give out: 323-4 o C,, i 

quantity which is furnished by the condensation of 0°603 grm. steam at 100° 
Deducting this from 7°61, we have 7:007, or 7 grammes as the least amount of stez 
required to raise the temperature of the apparatus instantaneously to 100° CG. | 
practice, the operation takes a minute and a half, during which the apparatus is losi 
heat at an increasing rate. ‘This is supplied by additional steam condensed. We have 
seen that the steam condensed in two minutes is 9°0 grms., and in 14 minutes 8°25 g ms 
giving 0°75 erm. of steam condensed in half a minute, or 1°5 grms. in one minute al 
the whole apparatus has taken the temperature of 100° C. The mean temperat 
during heating has been taken as 57°5° C., so we may take the rate of cooling at 
the above rate, or equivalent to the condensation of 0°9 grm. steam per minutes; 
1°35 orms. for 14 minutes. Adding this to 7 grms., the weight of steam requ 
instantaneous heating, we obtain 8°35 grms. as the shsoreifiadl weight of steam r 
to warm the apparatus under the above conditions. The mean observed amount 
erms., which may therefore be accepted with confidence. Also, we may conhd 


STEAM AND BRINES. 539 


calculate the amount of steam required to warm another apparatus of the same type on 
the basis of its weight. 

In order to determine more carefully the amount of steam required to keep the 
apparatus at a temperature of 100° C. during some time, two experiments were made, 
the apparatus being dry and cold to begin with. In the first, steam was passed through 
for 12 minutes, when 22°2 grms. were condensed ; in the second, the steam was passed 
for 32 minutes, when 50°8 grms. were condensed. Allowing that in each case 9 grms. 
of steam were condensed in the first two minutes, we have 13°2 grms. condensed in 10 
minutes, and 41°8 grms. in 30 minutes. The first is at the rate of 1°32 grms. per 
minute, and the second at the rate of 1°39 grms. per minute, or a mean of 1°35 grms. 
per minute. 

Experiments of a similar kind were made with } NaCl, or 11:7 germs. of this salt in 
the tube to begin with. Two minutes were sufficient for heating up to 100° C. In two 
experiments the amounts of steam condensed were 9°8 and 9°6 respectively, giving a 
mean of 9:7 grms. In a similar experiment, where the passage of steam was not 
stopped until the salt was all dissolved, which took 163 minutes, the steam condensed was 
31°5 erms. Deducting 9:7 grms. we have 21°8 grms. condensed in 14$ minutes, or 1°5 
erms. per minute. The rate of condensation is naturally higher, because salt is being dis- 
solved. With the apparatus empty at the start, 9°0 grms. steam are condensed in the 
first two minutes; with a charge of 11°7 grms. chloride of sodium, 9°7 grms. of steam 
are required ; the excess, or 0°7 grm., may be taken as the steam condensed by the 
NaCl in the two minutes, and as constant for the same amount of NaCl in other 
apparatus. 

The boiling tube used in all the experiments up to 26th October 1897 weighed, 
with thermometer, 157°3 erms. This would require 5°5 germs. of steam in order to raise 
it to 100° C., and the heating would be complete in one minute instead of in one and a half 
minutes as with the apparatus weighing 239 orms. Allowing 1:0 grm. for the amount 
of steam condensed in the next minute, we should have, after two minutes, 6°5 orms. steam 
condensed. Where + NaCl was used, we should have to add 0°7, and the amount thus 
condensed at the end of the first two minutes would be 7:2 grms. The rate of con- 
densation per minute, after the first two minutes, would be 2 1°35 or 0°9 grm., and 
adding 0°15 for the chloride of sodium, we have 1:05 germs. per minute, taking 30:4 
grms. as the amount of steam required to be condensed for + NaCl. 

Localities where Experiments were Made.—The lowest station, and the one 
representing the sea level, was my laboratory in Edinburgh: its elevation is about 
85 metres, or 279 feet, above the sea. Although a large number of experiments 
in this field had been made in the course of previous years, those utilised for this paper 
were all made after my return from Switzerland, with the same apparatus and the 
Same thermometers that were used there, and with the experiments arranged on the 
same plan. Being the last series, it is also the most symmetrical. 


540 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


The stations at higher levels are all in Switzerland, and they are as follows in order 
of elevation :— 


Height | | Height 
above the Sea. | above the Sea. 
Place. | Place. 

Metres. Feet. | Metves, | Feet, 
| Zurich, . ‘ ‘ : 410 1345 St Moritz, ; ; ; 1860 6102 
| Fiesch, . ‘ : : 1054 3458 Eggischorn, . : : 2193 7195 
Andermatt, . ‘ .| 1444 4738 | Julier Hospiz, . ‘ 2244 7362 
| Pontresina, . : . | 11820 5970 feenetbers (Engadine), : 2733 | 8966 

| | 


Of these places Pontresina, with St Moritz, was the most important. The most com- 
plete series of observations on mixtures, as well as on single salts, was made there. A 
corresponding series of observations on single salts was made on the Schafberg, which 
rises immediately behind Pontresina, and about 900 metres above it. Shelter is 
obtained at the top in the chalet which does duty as a restaurant, and it is approached 
by a well made path. Experiments on mixtures of salts could not be made at this 
station, because the weather became so persistently bad that the chalet was closed for bi 
the season early in September. 2 

Of the other places on the list, St Moritz is taken as one with Pontresina, because — | 
the difference of level is less than that corresponding to ordinary fluctuations of the 
barometer, 

Zurich and Julier Hospiz were visited for the purpose of verifying the thermo- 
meters by observing the temperatures of saturated steam, and the barometric pressure | 
by standard barometers at the same time and place. One or two observations with salts” 
were made at the same time, but they have only the value of isolated observations. 
The boiling mixture of chloride of sodium was observed at all the stations, and it was 
the only salt experimented with at Eggischorn, Fiesch, and Andermatt, as at that date 
I intended to confine my observations to chloride of sodium alone. 

The salts used in this research are the chlorides of sodium, potassium, ammonium, 
barium ; the chlorate of potassium ; the nitrates of sodium, barium, strontium, and lead, 
and the sulphates of potassium and ammonium. These salts were used singly, and also 
in mixtures of not more than two salts each. The charge of the apparatus was usually 
one-fifth of a gramme-molecule, but with sparingly soluble salts, such as. nitrate of 
barium or sulphate of potassium, one-tenth and sometimes one-twentieth of a molecule 
were used. A watch, giving minutes and seconds accurately, was observed during all 
the experiments. In the case of simple salts the time was noted when the steam 
reached the salt, when the salt formed a magma, with the steam condensed, when the 
maximum temperature was reached, when it began to fall, and when the passage of 


steam was stopped previous to making the first weighing. These particular epochs 
were always noted, but, as a matter of fact, a complete time-log was kept of every 
experiment. In experiments with mixtures the temperature was noted every minute, 
and often every half-minute, so long as salt remained undissolved, A complete time 
record of this kind often furnishes valuable incidental information, and is often useful 
in detecting and rectifying errors of observation. 

Chloride of Sodiwm.—tThe series with this salt is very complete, including sixteen 
independent experiments ; the atmospheric. pressure varied from 550°4 to 772 mm., and 
the temperature of saturated steam from 91:2° C. to 100°44°C. The corresponding 
temperatures of the boiling mixture ranged from 99°3° C. to 108°98°, so that the elevation 
of boiling point caused by saturation with NaCl ranges from 8°1° ©. to 8°54° C., or 
nearly half a degree Centigrade of increase for a rise of boiling point of the salt solution 
of 968° C. Roughly, it diminishes 0°05” C. for every degree that the boiling tempera- 
ture of the boiling solution falls. The results of the observations in different localities 
are collected in Table I., page 551. 


STEAM AND BRINES. 541 
' 


If we consider the relation between atmospheric pressure and the vapour tension. of 
water at the temperature of the boiling mixture, we see that it is practically constant. 
The mean of the sixteen values is 0°7435. The average deviation from the mean is 
00004, and the maximum deviation 0:0009. The mean of the observations made at 
Edinburgh is 00001 below this. ‘The five observations made at Pontresina and St 
Moritz give a mean of 0:0004 above, and the three observations on the Schafberg a 
mean of 0°0005 below 0:7435. Taking 0°7439 for the value at Pontresina, the value of 
t—T would be 0°015° C. less than when the general mean 0°7435 is used, and on the 
Schafberg, using the factor 0°7430, the value of ¢—'l’ comes out 0°025° C. higher than 
with the general mean. 


Table Il. (page 552) has been constructed on the basis that = 0-7486, and 
0 


therefore m =1°345. The barometric pressure, P, is given for intervals of 10 mm. from 


790 mm. to 550 mm. The temperature of saturated steam at pressure, P, is given under 
T. Under p the vapour tension of water at the temperature of a boiling mixture of 
steam and NaCl at barometric pressure, P, is given, where p=1'345 P. The tempera- 
ture of this boiling mixture is found from Regnault’s tables connecting the temperature 
and pressure of saturated steam, and it is given under ¢. ‘The difference (t—T) gives 
the elevation of the boiling point of saturated NaCl brine above that of pure water at 
barometric pressure P. 

The figures in this table show that a boiling mixture of steam and NaCl at a known 
barometric pressure gives the means of obtaining an independent fixed point on a 
thermemeter about 8 to 8°5° C. above that furnished by the boiling point of pure water 
at the same pressure. In most cases the normal pressure of 760 mm. would be used, 
but as the mean pressure in inhabited countries is less than 760 mm., it is convenient to 


542 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


be able to use directly the values observed at the existing pressure, and our table affords 
the means of doing so, assuming that the readings of our thermometers as corrected are 
exact. 

In Table IIL. are given the saturation values for the simple salts. They are arranged 
in order of the temperature of the boiling mixture (¢,)), and this temperature indicates — 


quite clearly the locality where the observation was made. The second column contains 
the values of ¢;—T, from which, with the first column, the values of T are at once 


obtained. The third column contains the relative reduction of vapour tension (=f) 
0 


produced by saturating the water with the salt at its boiling temperature. - 
The means of the observations at the same heights above the sea are inserted 
between lines. 
The case of NaCl has been already discussed. The observations with KCl show a 
po—-P ; 
0 : 
fall of boiling temperature. This is observed in all the other salts experimented with, 
and depends chiefly, if not wholly, on the diminished solubility of the salt at the lower 


diminution of the value of with a fall of barometric pressure, and consequent 


temperature. Although, in kind, the effect is the same in all the salts, it varies much in 
amount. It is most pronounced in the case of KCIO,, for which the mean values are—_ 


Locality :— Edinburgh. Pontresina. Schafberg. “a 

Pees se! 3:30° C. 3:06" ©. = | 

Poe = A EMR 0-1138 0-1078 = 
Po 


It is also well marked in the case of NH,Cl. This salt also crystallises with great 
promptitude so soon as the temperature falls at all. As is well known, salts differ much 
in this respect. A large number of cooling observations were made with NH,Cl, and 
with some of the other saits, and eutectic points were observed, but they are not of suffi- 
cient importance for the present research to justify their being printed. The salt which 


Oya le ay : a cell 
appears from the value of Po to vary least in solubility at its boiling point is 
0 


(NH,),SO,, and in this respect it closely resembles NaCl. Nitrate of sodium was 
observed only at Pontresina and Schafberg. It could not be observed near sea level with 
either of the thermometers used in the investigation. Nitrate of potassium was 
excluded altogether from boiling mixtures both because of the great elevation of boiling 
point, and on account of the readiness with which it solidifies to a crystalline mass the 
moment the temperature begins to fall. 

The chief part of the research is contained in Table IV. Three columns are devoted 
to each experiment ; namely, (¢‘—T) the elevation of the boiling temperature of the 
mixture or brine above that of pure water at the same time and place ; W the weight of 
steam condensed in the time from the beginning of the experiment until the value of 
t—T has become as tabulated; and W(t—T) the product of the corresponding pairs of 


STEAM AND BRINES. 543 


numbers. The experiments are numbered consecutively in the first headline (N), while 
under 7 each line in the table is numbered consecutively from 0 upwards. In this way 
any entry in the table can be referred to at once by its co-ordinates (N, n). The second 
headline gives the name and quantity of salt taken expressed in gramme-molecules. In 
the third headline will be found the temperature of saturated steam, or that of pure 
water boiling at the same time and place. The temperature of the boiling mixture or 
brine is obtained at once from the values of T and (¢—T). 
The figure 0 is always used as a suffix when the boiling mixture of steam and salt 
or saturated brine is being dealt with. Thus ¢), p,, Wy always represent the tempera- 
ture of the boiling saturated mixture, the steam tension of pure water of that tempera- 
ture and the dilution of the mixture ; that is, the weight of water exactly saturated by 
the amount of salt at temperature ¢. The temperature of the mixture when the steam 
was stopped for the first time, and the first weight of condensed steam, W,, ascertained, 
is always ¢,. It has already been pointed out that it was the custom to stop the steam 
while there were still some particles of solid salt present, and while the temperature of 
the mixture showed that there was also already unsaturated water present. The idea 
was that the moment might be correctly judged when the amount of free salt present 
would be just enough to saturate the amount of free water if time were given. As a 
matter of fact, this was in most cases very nearly attained, as will be seen by comparing 
the observed values of W, with the computed values of W, in the cases where ty — ¢, is not 
more than 0°1° to 0°3° C. When this difference is larger, then the passage of steam has 
not been interrupted until all the salt has disappeared. This is the preferable practice. 
When any solid salt is present, and the temperature has fallen below the maximum, we 
know exactly the temperature of the boiling brine and the weight of water in it, but as 
there is an uncertain proportion of the salt originally taken which has not passed into 
solution, the concentration or dilution of the brine is uncertain. For this reason it has 
been impossible in the majority of cases to use ¢, and W, in the computation of Wp. 
The values of W, have been arrived at in the following way:—The difference 


W.(¢—T),— W.(¢—T), is found, also the differences t,—t, and t)—t,, then we as- 
sume that 


— += ~=s 


a2 2 (W,(t— T),—W,(¢—T)3} +W.(¢—T), 
pinmeg3 


W(é r T) = 


and this value divided by (t,—'T) gives Wy. ‘Thus in experiment No. 1 on 0:2 KCl, 
when T=100°44° C., we have W,(¢—T),=217°6, and W,(¢—T), =212°9, their differ- 
ence bemg 47. _ Also t;—t,=0°81° C., and t,—t,;=1°05°, whence we have 


W,¢—T))= askT +217 6= 220:6 
whence We— 26-50! 


It will be seen that the value of W, is 25-91, and t, —T = 8°28", only 0°11° C. below 
4-1. The passage of steam had therefore been stopped too soon ; there was solid 


544 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


KCl present in greater quantity than could in any length of time be dissolved in the ; 
umount of water present. Again, if we look at experiment No. 4, we find the observed 
value of W,, 27°25, almost identical with the computed value of Wo, 27°21. Here the 
difference, t)—¢,, is 0°2° C. So that, working in the way described, with chloride of 
potassium, when the temperature of condensation of the steam has fallen by 0°2° C., we 
should expect to have the amounts of free water and free salt present in compensating 
amounts. No. 6 represents a case in which the steam was passed until all the salt was — 
dissolved, and until the temperature of condensation had fallen by a whole degree. — 
Here we use W,(¢—T), and W,(¢—T), for finding W,(¢—T), and Wy. If we con- 
sider experiments Nos. 1 to 9, it will be seen that the values of W, in experiments 1 to 
3, which were made in Edinburgh, are lower than those found in Nos. 4 to 9, which 
were made at high levels, and therefore at lower temperatures, in Switzerland. 


It must also be noted that the weight of the salt taken was less exactly ascertained 
in Switzerland than in my laboratory in Edinburgh. The Swiss weighings were made 
with a pair of hand scales, and were exact to the nearest 0°05 grm., that is to say, 
generally to +0°025 grm. In the Edinburgh experiments quoted in Table IV. the 
weights are exact to the nearest 0°01 grm., or to +0°005 orm. The quantity of salt 
usually taken was one-fifth of a molecule in grammes. In the case of KCl, which has a 
medium molecular weight, this represents 14°92 grms., and we see that even the roughest 
of the weighings would be exact to within less than one-half per cent. * 

The earlier experiments in Switzerland were not always made with equivalent . 
weights of the salts; all such cases have been recalculated for this table. While the 
usual quantity taken is one-fifth of a gramme-molecule, on some occasions two-fifths 
have been taken ; and in the case of sparingly soluble salts as little as one-tenth or one- 
twentieth has been taken. The values of W are given for the quantity of salt quoted 
in the headline (M). The products have been all reduced to their value for one-fifth 
of a molecule salt. 3 

The physical meaning of the expression W(t—T) is important. W is a weight of water 
expressed in grammes, and (t—T) is the excess of the boiling temperature in degrees Cel- — 
sius of that water, when it holds in solution a certain amount of a given salt, above its boil- 
ing temperature when in a state of purity; therefore W(t—T) expresses, in gramme- 
degrees (g° C.), the quantity of heat required to be in the water when it is boiling with salt 
dissolved in it above what is required when it is pure. If the values of W(t—T) were 
constant for each salt at all dilutions, then the law connecting the dilution of a saline 
solution and the elevation of its boiling point would be graphically expressed by a hyper- 
bola, like the law connecting the volume and pressure of a gas at constant temperature. 
If we look over Table IV. we see that for some salts, and mixtures of salts, the values 
of W(t—T) are very nearly quite constant, while for the others, some deviate from con- 
stancy in the one sense, and some in the other. In the case of the chlorides of potassium 
and of sodium, the values of W(t—T) diminish very considerably as the value of W 
increases. The case of ammonium chloride is peculiar, because at the sea level W(t-T) 


STEAM AND BRINES. 545 


diminishes as W increases; at a height of 3000 metres it increases with W, and at a 
height of 2000 metres it is sensibly constant. In the case of barium chloride, W(t—T) 
diminishes with dilution ; the same is the case with strontium nitrate and ammonium sul- 
phate. Potassium chlorate, barium nitrate, and lead nitrate show W(t—T) increasing with 
W, while sodium nitrate and potassium sulphate show almost constant values of W(¢—T), 
Mixtures of salts follow the rule of their components. ‘There are several examples in the 
table of pairs of salts which individually differ in the sense in which the values of 
W(t—T) depart from constancy, and in mixture give constant values of W(t—T). 
Examples are Nos. 63, 70, 71, 72, 73, 78, and 79. 

At the begining of an experiment, when the steam reaches the salt, it condenses 
very rapidly owing to abstraction of heat by the glass and by the salt, then it condenses 
at a very regular rate, the salt dissolving in proportion as steam is condensed. After a 
certain time the exact amount of steam has condensed which is necessary to form a boil- 
ing saturated solution of the salt taken ; having observed (t)—'T) and W, we have the 
value of W,(¢)—T). If the elevation of the boiling point were proportional to the 
concentration, this factor W,(t—T) would remain constant while the solution was 
diluted by further condensation of steam. But if we deny thermal importance to the 
salt and consider only the water, then W,(¢,—T) is the heat in the saturated water, 
counting from the temperature of pure boiling water. If we prevent it from losing heat 
externally, and provide for dilution by furnishing water of exactly the temperature of 
pure steam condensing on pure water at the time and place, the saturated water will 
mix with the free water, having a resultant temperature depending on the relative 
quantities of the saturated and the free water. The case, then, of sodium nitrate, for 
imstance, in which the value of W(t—'T) is nearly constant, could be represented by 
imagining the steam to condense at the temperature of the boiling saturated solution of 
the salt so long as solid salt is present, and the condensation temperature of the steam 
remains constantly at the maximum. When the solid salt has all disappeared, then the 
steam condenses at the temperature at which it condenses in pure water. The two por- 
tions of water, the saturated and the free, then mix, giving the resultant temperature, 
depending on the relative quantities and on the assumption that the heat of the satu- 
tated solution is that which the water present in it would have if it had the same tem- 
perature. 

In the cases where W(t—T) is constant, we have Blagden’s law of the lowering of 
freezing point applied to the raising of the boiling point of saline solutions; both vary 
directly with the concentration or inversely with the dilution. But in the case of a 
saline solution following Blagden’s law, when ice is melted in the saturated solution 
already cooled to its freezing point, the solution is diluted and its temperature rises. The 
rise of temperature is thus the same as would have been produced if the quantity of ice 
which has melted had been added as pure water of 0° C. to the saturated solution at the 
initial temperature of its freezing point, and the two had been mixed. 

The same is the case, mutatis mutandis, in the condensation of steam by a saline 
VOL. XXXIX. PART 111. (no, !8), SON 


546 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


solution. If the boiling temperature of the stronger solution be ¢,, and steam be passed 
through it until this temperature has fallen to ¢,, the temperature of steam condensing 
on pure water being T, and if the quantity of water in the stronger solution be W,, and 
in the weaker W,, then we should have 


W,t,+(W,—W,)T=W.t,, 
whence 
Wie, <a 2) = Wie, iT T), 


the values of W(t—T) are constant, which is the characteristic of Blagden’s law, whether 
applied to freezing or boiling. The deviations from Blagden’s law in freezing and in 
boiling solutions may be attributable to some deviation from the law that the capacity 
for heat of a saline solution is the capacity for heat of the water which it contains. It 
is easy to obtain from the values of W(t—T) in Table IV. what must be the specific 
heat of the saturated water which would make W(t—T) constant. 

Table V. gives for dilute solutions what Table IV. gives for strong solutions. As the 
values of (t—T) are not exactly the same for each salt, the relations of t—T and 


W(t—T) were expressed by curves and the values of W(t—T) taken from them 


for the same values of ¢—'I' for every salt. These values are given in Table VI 
In all the experiments of Table V., exactly one-twentieth of a gramme-molecule of salts 


was taken, and the weight was exact to the nearest milligramme, and the experiments — 
were made in every way alike. Table V. contains no mixtures; on the other hand, 
some simple salts are included which are not found in Table [V. They are LiCl, RbCl, 


CsCl, KI, KBr, KNO,, and AgNO,. Both the RbCl and the CsCl were “ spectroscopi- 


cally pure,” and the caesium salt was quite pure. The rubidium salt, however, contained 
sulphate, and it is struck out in Table VI. The detailed discussion of these results, as 
well as of those in Table IV., must stand over to the second part of this paper, but one | 


or two facts may be pointed out. In the case of salts for which the values of W(t—'T) 
diminish as dilution increases, a minimum is reached when t—T is something between 
0°7° and 1:0° C., after which it increases in all so that for values of t—T between 0°5” 
and 1:2° the values of W(t—T) for all these salts is practically constant, and they follow 
Blagden’s law. In the case of nitrates W(¢—T) generally increases with dilution, and a 
minimum, if it exist, would have to be sought in solutions saturated under high pres- 
sure. Strontium nitrate is an exception; it has a minimum at 1:0° C. 

In Table VII. will be found the values of p, the vapour tension of pure water at the 


p—P 
Pp 


temperature (¢) of the boiling brine, the relative reduction of this tension ( 


a 
duced by the salt in solution, and the product of this ratio into the weight of steam 
condensed (W). The discussion of the contents of this table is deferred. 

The discussion of the observations on mixtures is also deferred. It involves a very 
large amount of arithmetical work, which will take some time. The behaviour of mixtures 
is extremely interesting. In Table IV. we have examples of two distinct types. Of the 


i 


STEAM AND BRINES. 547 


one type, mixtures of the chlorides of potassium and sodium may be taken as an example. 


K+Na 
2, 


W,=20°7 erms. The concentration of its boiling mixture is, therefore, 50 per cent. 
greater than that of chloride of sodium alone. In other words, a boiling saturated 
solution of either KCl or NaCl has still plenty of room for the other. 

Mixtures of the nitrates of strontium and lead give an example of another type. 
The amount of steam condensed is exactly the sum of the amounts required by the 
quantities of the respective salts separately. For Sr(NO,). (¢-T)=6°53° C., and for 
Sr. + Pb 

3 
t—-T=5-98" C. is observed for thirteen out of the twenty-five minutes that were 
required to dissolve all the salt. Therefore the saturation temperature of the mixture 
lies between those of the components. A third type is furnished by a mixture of the 
nitrates of strontium and barium. The elevation of boiling point is not as great as 
with Sr(NO;), alone, and the maximum temperature does not remain constant for even 
one minute out of the fifty minutes which were required to dissolve the fifth of a 
molecule used. The water required to dissolve this mixture is about 25 per cent. more 
than is required to dissolve the salts separately. 

The nitrates of strontium, barium, and lead are isomorphous salts, and no doubt are 
capable of forming mixed crystals. The chlorides of potassium and sodium, though 
both erystallising in the same form, do not form mixed crystals, and therefore do not 
eliminate each other from solution. 

These few remarks will show the extent of the subject, and also its great interest. 

In order to provide a standard of comparison between the effect of dissolved salt 
and that of increased pressure upon the boiling temperature of water, we imagine a 
quantity of water in a shallow tank kept boiling by steam. The tank is of uniform depth 
of 1 centimetre, but it can expand laterally to accommodate condensed steam, the depth 
of the enlarged tank remaining uniformly 1 centimetre. In these circumstances the 


For a mixture of equal molecules 0°2 Cl ¢—T is 11°87° C. at sea level, and 


Pb(NO;), (¢—T)=329. In the mixture 0:2 (NO;), a constant value of 


number expressing the weight, in grammes, of the water, expresses also its volume and 
its surface in cubic and square centimetres respectively. Let the initial quantity of 
water be W grammes, and let it be at the boiling temperature corresponding to the 
atmospheric pressure, A, in kilogrammes per square centimetre (k/c’). Ifwe dissolve a 
quantity, say one-fifth, of a molecule in grammes of a salt in this quantity of water, the 
temperature can be raised above the boiling temperature, T, of pure water under the 
atmospheric pressure, A, and if the quantity, W, of water is exactly sufficient to dissolve 
the fifth of a molecule salt at its boiling temperature, which is then the temperature of 
the boiling saturated solution of the salt under atmospheric pressure, A, which we repre- 
sent by ¢,, then the temperature of the boiling water has been raised from T to 6). Now 
this effect could be produced without adding salt by increasing the load pressing upon 
the surface, W, of the water. It is already pressed by the weight of the atmosphere A 


548 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


kilogr. per square centimetre, or a total weight of WA kilogr. In order to confine the 
water so as to admit of its temperature being raised from T to ¢, we must add to WA 
aw certain additional load, b kilogrammes, which is found by consulting Reenault’s tables 
connecting the temperature and tension of saturated steam. In these tables we find 
directly the tension, », of saturated steam of temperature ¢), in millimetres of mercury, 
which is converted into a in k/c’. The excess of this above the atmospheric pressure 
multiplied by the surface, W, gives the extra load required : 


b= W(a,—A), 


and this quantity b kilogrammes is the mechanical equivalent of the fifth of a molecule — 
of salt in so far as the raising of the boiling temperature of water, or the resistance to 
steam pressure, is concerned. 

In the case of the boiling saturated solution of salt when steam is continued to be 
passed through and heat is lost, the solution is diluted by the addition of the condensed steam _ 
to the original quantity, W, of saturated water. This dilution, or addition of pure water 
to the saturated water, is accompanied by a fall of the temperature of ebullition, which 
is very rapid at first, but becomes slower as the quantity of condensed steam increases, 
tending ultimately towards the boiling temperature of pure water at atmospheric pressure. 

The more concentrated the solution is, the more accentuated are the specific proper- 
ties of the dissolved salt, and they are most pronounced in the saturated solution which 
approximates to the condition of the liquefied salt, as the dilute solution approximates to 
that of pure water. The specific nature of the dissolved salt shows itself first in the 
maximum temperature to which the solvent water can be raised under a given pressure, 
and then in the rate of fall of boiling temperature with dilution. Different salts behave 
differently in these respects. 

The uniformity observed in the physical properties of very dilute solutions is due 
in part to our limited powers of perception, and to arithmetical necessity. In propor- 
tion as the number expressing the dilution becomes very great it tends to occupy the 
whole field of view, and, consequently, to obscure or obliterate the specific properties 
of the substance dissolved. 

Similarly, in considering the trigonometrical functions of angles, if we limit our con- 
templation to very small angles, we can perceive no difference between the sine, 
the arc, and the tangent, yet the difference is none the less real on that account. 

In our mechanical experiment the excess of pressure of the water at any moment 


above that of the atmosphere is ts and when this is multiplied by the quantity of water 


present, W,,, the product is constantly b. Now b is the equivalent of the salt dissolved, 
therefore our mechanical experiment represents the case where the increase of steam 
tension, neutralised by the salt, is proportional to the quantity of the salt. 

For convenience in reference, the values of the tension of saturated steam, at tem- 


STEAM AND BRINES, 549 


"peratures from 90° C. to 120° C., expressed in kilogs. per sq. cm., are collected in 

Table VIII., page 572. 
| In Table IX. we have the case of 100 grms. water in the elastic tank. The 
atmospheric pressure is 735°5 mm., or 1 kilogr. per sq. em. The depth of the tank, 
which can be enlarged laterally, is uniformly 1 cm., therefore its volume at the begin- 
ning is 100 cub. cms., and its surface is 100 sq. cms. The boiling temperature of pure 
water at a pressure of 1 k/em? is 99:°09° C. The tank is securely covered, and 
its temperature raised to 119°57° C., at which temperature the tension of saturated steam 
is exactly 2 kilogrs. per sq. cm. Neglecting, or allowing for, any thermal expansion of 
the tank and its contents, the area of it has remained the same, namely, 100 cm?. Let 
the cover be loaded until its fastenings just become slack, then the surface of the water is 
pressed by the loaded cover and by the atmosphere ; the latter on a surface of 100 cm? 
amounts to 100 kilogrs., and the former makes up the difference between this weight 
and 200 kilogrs., because the pressure of the steam at 119°57° C. is 2 k/em?. There- 
fore, our extra load, by, is 100 kilogrs., and it may be looked on as the weight of the cover, 
which, like the tank, is supposed to be capable of lateral extension of its area without 
alteration of weight, keeping pace with the lateral increase of volume and area of the 
tank, while its contents are being increased. by the condensation of steam. 

Let the temperature of the water in the tank be now reduced to 118°03° C., at which 
temperature its vapour tension is 1°9 k/cm?., and let steam of this temperature be con- 
densed in it. The volume of water in the tank increases while its area expands in the 
same ratio, until the weight pressing on its surface is at the rate of 1°9 k/cem*, when 
the steam will lift the cover and escape. The weight of the cover has remained con- 
stant (= 100 kilogs.), but the area exposed to the atmospheric pressure has increased. 
The resulting area and volume of water is given by the equation 1:9W =100+ W, whence 


100 
Ng = AT 


Again, let the temperature of the water in the tank be reduced to 116°29° C., at 
which temperature its vapour tension is 1°8 k/cm’., and let steam of this temperature be 
passed into it. It will be condensed until the volume and surface of the water have 
increased to such an extent that the total pressure on its surface is at the rate of 1°8 
k/em*. As before, we find the value of W, when this point has been reached, to be 


ona 
0:8 = 129. and so on. 


In the principal table the pressure is reduced by 0°1 k/cm’. at a time, from 2°0 to 
11 k/em’., then by 0:01 k/cm’®. down to 1:01 k/cm’., and by 0001 down to 1-001 
k/em?. The value of W is inversely proportional to the difference of pressure, a—A, 
and becomes infinite when a—A=0. On the other hand, it diminishes rapidly at high 
temperatures and pressures, and would become 0 when a—A= o. 

The table is carried upwards to @=10 k/cm?., and downwards to a=1:001 k/cm’. 
In these limits the value of W varies from 11°1 to 100,000. 


550 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


interval. In the following table we have values of W, each of which is the double of | 


W. a—A. t—T. Diff. 
| 
0. C. 

125 08 17°20° 
250 0-4 9°62" 758° 
500 0-2 514 4:48" 
1,000 0-1 266° 248° 
2,000 0:05 1:35° 131° 
4,000 0:025 068° 0°67" 
8,000 0:0125 0:34" 0°34° 
16,000 0:00625 Wg OnTe 


a 


the differences of successive values of (¢ —T). 
tion to the concentration, then each of these differences should be identical with 
values of t—T opposite it, because the temperature interval should be halved. Wh 
the value of ¢—T falls below 0°68° C. the interval is apparently halved, and at temp 
atures within half a degree of that of water boiling at atmospheric pressure, the tens: 
of saturated steam seems to vary proportionately with its temperature; but the dif 
ences which undoubtedly exist occur in places of decimals which are excluded from 
the table. 


STEAM AND BRINES. 551 


Taste [1.—Particulars of Boiling Mixtures of Steam and NaCl at different 
Elevations. 


. |Edinburgh.|Edinburgh.| Edinburgh.| Ziirich. Fiesch. |Andermatt.|Pontresina. |Pontresina. 


,1897,. . .| 2lst Oct. | 19th Oct. | 15th Oct. | 19th Aug. | 16th Aug. | 18th Aug. | 12th Sept. | 12th Sept. 


ation in Metres, . 80 80 80 410 1054 1444 1820 1820 


malt em D. of boiling | 

| fenc., 7 | 10898 | 10856; 107-65 | 107-20) 105:05 | 103°82 | 102°57 | 102-57 
of boiling | 
fer, Ci, . %T| 10044) 100-06 99°21 98°75 96°71 95°58 94°37 94°37 


nee, °C., 4, —T 8°54 8:50 8°44 8°45 8°34 8:24 8°20 8°20 
ion of satu- 


1039°0 | 1024°4 993°1 ST) 908:0 870:0 832°7 832°7 
7720 761°6 738°8 726°7 674:°9 647°6 619°4 619°4 
268°0 262°8 254°3 251°2 233°1 222°4 213°3 213°3 


0°2570 | 0:2565 | 0°2561 | 0°2569 | 0:2567 | 0°2556 | 0:2561 | 02561 


. |Pontresina.| St Moritz. | St Moritz. |Eggischorn.| Julier. | Schafberg. | Schafberg. | Schafberg. 


17th Sept. | 28th Aug. | 23rd Aug. | 15th Aug. | 25th Aug. | 5th Sept. | 31st Aug. | 10th Sept. 


1820 1860 1860 2193 2244 2733 2733 2733 


102°32 | 102-48 | 102:10/ 101°30 | 101-00 99°57 99°54 99°30 
94°13 94°28 94:00 93°12 92°85 91°47 91°46 91-20 


8°19 8°20 8°10 8°18 8°15 8°10 8°08 8105 


825°4 829°9 821:9 796-0 787°6 748°4 7476 | 741-2 
614:0 617°8 611:0 5914 585°5 556°0 555'8 550°4 
211°4 212°1 210°9 204°6 202°1 192°4 1918 190°8 


0°2561 | 0:2556 | 0:2566 | 0°2570 | 02566 | 02571 | 0°2566 02574 


ee 


552 


MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


TaBLE I].—Zemperatures of a Boiling Mixture of Steam and Sodium 
at Barometric Pressures from 550 to 790 Millimetres. 


Atmospheric 
Pressure. 


Ve 


Millimetres. 


790 
780 
770 
760 
750 
740 
730 
720 
710 
700 
690 
680 
670 
660 
650 


Temperature of 
Saturated Steam 
of Tension P. 


Tension of 
Saturated Steam 
of Temperature ¢ 

(1°345 P). 

p 


Temperature of 
Boiling Mixture. 


t 


Millimetres. 


1062°5 
104905 
1035°6 
1022715 
10087 
995°25 
981°8 
968°35 
954°9 
941°45 
928°0 
914°55 
901-1 
887°65 
874°2 
860°75 
847°3 
833°85 
820°4 
806°95 
793°5 
780°05 
766°6 
753°15 
739°7 


“C: 
109-64 


109-27 
108-88 
108-50 
10811 
107°72 
107°32 
106-92 
106°51 | 
106°10 
105-68 | 
105-29 
104°83 
104°39 
103°96 
103°51 
103-07 
102°61 
102715 
101°68 
101:21 
100-73 
100°24 
99°75 
99°24 


Elevation of 
Boiling Point. 


t-T 


OK 
8:55 


854 
8-51 
8°50 
8-48 
8-46 
8-44 
8-43 
8:40. 
8°39 
8-36 
8:37 
8°32 
8-29 
8:28 
8°25 
8-24 
8-21 
8-19 
8°17 
8:15 
8:13, 
S11. 
8-09 
8:06 


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STEAM AND BRINES. 200 


TaBLe IV.—Zemperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 
and in their Brines. 


N 1 a 3 4 5 
. |rM. j 0-2 KCl. 0-4 KC. 0-2 KCl. 0-2KCL. 0-2 KCL. 
Saturated “th 100°44° C. 100°10°-100-12° C. 99-21° C. ‘i 9412°-94-13° C. 9434°-94-35° C. 
j n 17 Ww |Wwet-T|t-T| W |W@-1)|t-T| Ww |We-T)| ait] Vy Meee t-T| W (|wW¢-T) 


0 | 8:39 | 26 30 220°6 | 8°33 | 26°3 | 219-0 | 8°30 | 26°56 | 220°5 | 7°S8| 27-21 | 214-4 | 7:89) 27-09 |-213°7 
1 | 8-28 | 25:91 | 214°5 | 8-22) 26:14 | 214-9 | 8-10) 26-76 | 216°8 | 7-68] 27-25 | 209°3 | 7-66 | 27-76 | 212°6 
2 | 7-58} 28°71 | 217-6 | 7:37 | 29:09 | 214-4 | 7-08 | 30:26 | 214-2 | 5-94] 34:35 | 204-0 | 5-83) 35°22 | 205-3 
3 | 6°53 | 32°61 | 212°9 | 6°85) 30°93 | 212-4 | 6-06 | 34°46 | 208°8 | 4°93 1 40°35 | 198-9 | 4-81 | 41-58 | 200°0 
4 | 6:02 | 34:91 | 210-1 | 6°34 | 33-04 | 209-2 | 5:05} 40°36 | 202°8 | 4:43) 44:25 | 196-0 | 3°80] 50°99 | 193°8 
5 | 5:54 | 37°31 | 206°6 | 5°86 | 35°33 | 206°8 | 4:54] 44:26 | 201-1 | 3:92| 49:25 | 193-1 | 2:79| 67°63 | 188°8 
6 
7 
8 
9 


5:05 | 40°61 | 205-0 | 5°37 | 38°29 | 205-7 | 4:04} 4916 1988 | 3-42) 55°65 | 190°3 | 1°77! 10395 | 184-0 
4°56 | 44°31 | 202:0 | 4°87 | 41°63 | 202-7 | 3°53 | 55°36 | 195°6 | 2°91 | 64:45 | 187-4 


4:06| 48-91] 1985 | . . . 1302! 63°66 | 192-4 |2-41| 76-85 | 185-2 
9356] 54:91 | 195-9]. : . 251! 75-76] 1902! . ; 
10 |3-06| 62:81 | 1922] . ; : 
11 | 2°58| 73:31] 1891] . ; : : : ; 

aw: é ie 8. 9. 10. 
rM. 0-2 KCl. 0-2 KCl. 0-2 KCl. 0-2 NaCl. 0-4 NaCl. 

ted! mp, |  94-37°-94-39° C, 91°18° C. 91-20° 0. 100°44°, 100-06" C. 
m |t-T| W |wet-Dlt-T| w |we-nDt-T| Ww |we-Dt-T| W |We-T)/t-T| W |we-D 
0 |7-87| 26-58 | 209-2 | 7-69] 26-70 | 204:0 | 7-69 27-12 | 208°6 | 8°54) 29°85 | 254-9 | 8-48] 59-88 | 253°8 
1 | 6-82| 30-04 | 204-9 | 7-43] 27-42 | 203-7 | 7-50) 27-08 | 203-1 | 8-36| 30-41 | 254-2 | 8:38] 60:52! 253°6 
2 |5-79| 34-64 | 200-6 | 6-72| 30-11 | 202:3 | 6-69 | 30-41 | 203-4 | 7:53] 33-31 | 250°8 |7-49| 66-92 | 250-6 
3 |4-78| 41-00 | 196-0 | 5-71| 34-74 |-198-4 | 5-67) 34:96 | 198-2 | 6-54] 37-21 | 243°3 | 6-90| 70-92 | 244°6 
4 |3-26| 58-18 | 189°7 | 5-20] 37-75 | 1963 | 4:63| 41°57 | 193-7 | 5-99] 39-91 | 239-0 | 6-41 | 75°32 | 241-4 
5 | 275| 68-43 | 188-2 | 4-69| 41-19 | 193-2 | 3-65 | 51-78 | 189-0 | 5-55| 42°51 | 235°9 | 5-92, 80-22 | 237-4 
6 2-64| 69°50 | 183°5 | 5-06| 45°61 | 230°8 |5-43| 86-52 | 234-9 
7 4-57| 49°51 | 226-3 | 4:93| 98-02 | 229°3 
8 inde, tae . | 407) 54-21 | 220°5 
9 3:58| 60-41 2163| . 
10 3:08 | 68-41 | 210-7 
ll | 2-59 | 79°81 | 206-6 


556 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


TaBLE LV. (continued).—Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 
and in ther Brines. 


INO ae . DaleNe nie 12. 13. 14, 15. 


Balke. 6. yt ne 0:2 NaCl. 0-2 NaCl. 0-2 NaCl. 0-2 NaCl. 0:2 NaCl. 
T sup at eaapetn T. 99-21° ©. 94°13°-94°12° C, 94°37° C, 94°37°-94:34° ©. 91-47°C. 


n |t-T| WwW. |we-Dlt-T| Ww |we-D|t-t] w [we-D|t-2| W |we-Dl/t-T] WwW |wee 


0 | 8:44) 29°84 | 252°4 | 8:19 | 29°50 | 241-6 | 8-21] 29-21 | 239°8 | 8-21] 28°65 | 2385°2 | 8-11 
1 | 8-31} 30°3 | 251-8 | 8:07 | 29-85 | 240-9 | 8-03} 29-84 | 239-6 | 8-04] 29-24 | 235°1 | 8-06] 28-63 | 280°8 | 
2|7:19| 34:4 | 247°3 | 6:96 | 33°65 | 234-2 | 7-13] 33-44 | 238°4 | 7-14) 32°83 | 234°4 | 7-10) 32°88 | 233-4) 
3|618] 38:9 | 240-4 | 5-94) 38-25 | 227-2 | 6-12) 37-93 | 282-1 | 6-14] 37-11 | 227:9 | 6:09) 38:47 | 234-3) 
4|5:16| 44°8 | 231°2 | 4:93) 44:30 | 218-4 | 5-10] 43°72 | 223:0 | 5:12] 43:04 | 220-4 : . F | | 
5 | 4°65} 48°6 | 226-0 | 4-44) 48°35 | 214-7 | 4:09 | 52°34 | 214:1 | 4:12] 5159 | 2125 q 
6 | 4:15) 53-4 | 221°6 | 3:93 | 53°45 | 210-1 | 3:08 66°13 | 203-7 

7 | 3°64] 59°5 | 2166 | 3:43} 60°25 | 206-7 | 2°07] 94:11 | 194:8 
8 
9 


3-14| 67°5 | 212-0 | 2-92] 69:05 | 201-6) . ; 
2:63| 78:5 | 2065 |2-42| 81-35 | 196-9 
10M 
u 
12 | 
Nolan Hee 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 
Salt, .  . . [rM. 0-2 NaCl. 0-2 NH,Cl. 0-4 NH,CL. 0-4 NH,Cl. 0-4 NH,CL 
Te erates T. 91-20° C. 99-33°-99 38° ©. 94-26? C, 94-26" C, 04-40°-94-41° CG, 
m |t-T| W |we-TD]t-T| WwW |we-D|t-T| W |we-D/t-T| WwW |we-)|t-T 
0 | 8-11] 29-33 | 238-0 | 14-46] 13-62 | 197-0 | 13-48] 26°50 | 178-6 |13-48| 26-92 | 181-5 |13-49] 27-08 
1} 7-90] 30-02 | 237-2 |14-12} 13:54 | 191-2 |13-24] 27-24 | 190-3 | 13-24] 27-47 | 181-8 }12-44) 29-66 
2|7-10| 33-04 | 234-6 | 11-75] 16-64 | 195-5 | 12-08] 30-15 | 182-1 |11-47| 32-07 | 183-9 | 10-49] 36-06 
3 |6-09| 37°66 | 229-4 | 9-78] 19-84 194-0 | 11-07] 33-35 | 184-6 | 9-96] 37-30 | 185-7 | 9-41) 40-06 
4 | 5-07} 43-42 | 220-1 | 7-80] 24-84 | 193-7 | 10-06] 37-03 | 186-2 | 8-94] 41-92 | 187-4 | 8-40] 44-90 
5 | 4-06| 52:20 | 211-9 | 6-80] 28-34 | 192-7 | 9-05] 41:34 | 197-0 | 7-93] 47-15 | 186-9 | 7:39] 49-62 
6 |3-05| 66°65 | 203-3 | 5-81] 32-94 | 191-4 | 8-03] 45-37 | 1821 | 6-92] 54-11 | 187-2 | 6-37| 58-88 
7 4-83| 39-04 | 188-6 | 7-02] 53°57 | 188-0 | 5-91 63-04 | 186-3 | 5-35] 69°30 | : 
8 4-33| 43-24 | 187-2] . | 4:90] 75°64 | 185°3 | 4-34) 84°56 | 
9 3°81| 48:54 | 184-9 
10 | 3-33) 54-94 | 182-9 
u 2-83| 63-94 | 181-0 
rp) 2:32| 76-84 | 178-2 


STEAM AND BRINES. 557 
TaBLE LV. (continued).—Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 
and in their Brines. 
21. 22, 23. 24. 25. 
0-4 NH,Cl. 0-1 BaCl;.2H,0. | 0-2 BaCl.2H,0. | 0-1 BaCl,.2H,0. 0-2 KC10;,. 
91-20 C. 99-95° ©. 94-42° C. 91-18° C. 100-30" €. 
mw \ tot | w wet-D)t-T) Ww jwe-plt-T| wo jwe-wlt-r) w lwe-ple-t| w lwe- 
0 |12:96) 13-95 | 180-8 | 4-51| 32-01 | 288°8 | 4°38 73-7 | 322-8 | 4-25) 36-6 | 310-9 |3-78| 40-10] 151-6 
1 |1277| 23-5 | 181-9 |4-48| 32-07 | 287-4 | 4-23] 73-7 | 311-8 | 4-14| 36-7 | 3038 [3-71] 40-43] 150-0 
2 |1093| 338 | 1846 |4-10| 34-97 | 287-0 [362] 85:6 | 309-9 |3-66| 41-4 | 303-0 | 3-45] 44-63 154-0 
8 | 9:92] 37-6 | 1865 |3:59| 39°67 | 284-8 | 3-12) 96-6 | 301-4 |3-16| 46-9 | 296-4 | 3-00] 52-43] 157°3 
4 | 8:90] 420 | 186-9 |3-08| 45-67 | 281-2 |271| 108-5 | 294-0 | 2:65! 54:3. | 287°8 |2:50| 63-73) 159°3 
| 
5 | 7°89] 47-3 | 1866 | 2°58) 53-27 | 274-4 | 2°31] 193-1 | 284-4 2-00| 80-83 | 161-7 
6 | 6-88] 54-2 | 196-4 |2-07| 64-97 | 278-0 | 2-00) 138-7 | 27-4 1-51 | 111-13] 167°8 
7 | 5°87| 631 | 185-2 |1:57| 83-47 | 262-2 |1-70| 159-1 | 2705 
8 | 4°86) 75-9 | 184-4 1-40) 1868 | 2615 : 
9 . | 1-20} 236-6 | 283-9 ; 
N. 26. oy. 28. 29. 30. 
rM.| 0-2 KCI0,. 0-2 KCI0,. 0-2 KCIO,. 0-05 Ba(NO;)s. 0-2 Ba(NOs)>- 
ted. | 98-77°-98-79° C. 94°43° C. 91-20° C. Goole C: 94-42? C. 
m\t-T| Ww \|we-D|t-t| w |we-D/|t-T| W |we-T/)t-T| W |We-D|t-T| W |We-T) 
ee — ee | = eral | =| ———— — 2 
0/361] 42-2 | 1523330) 47:5 | 156-7 |3-04| 503 | 153-4 | 1-28] 37-5 | 1921 |112| 163-5 | 183-2 
1|355| 42-2) 149-813-22| 47-0 | 151-3 /2-93) 50-55) 1486 [1-22] 39°88 | 1946 |1-08| 169°3 | 182°8 
2|3-28| 465 | 1525 |2:81| 54-8 | 154-0 | 2°53 | 59°37] 150-2 | 1-10] 44-88 | 197-5 | 0-98 | 190° | 186-7 
3|2-97| 52:0 | 154-4 |2-41| 64:8 | 156-2 | 2-03) 75-50] 1533 |1-00| 50-08 | 200-3) 9-88) 215-0 | 189°2 
4|2-67| 58-6 | 1565 |200| 78-6 | 157-2 | 1°52 | 102-81 | 156-2 | 0°80] 65-28 | 208-9 | 0-78 | 247-3 | 192-9 
5 |237| 67-0) 158-8 |1-70; 93°8 | 159°5 0-70 | 74:88 | 209-7 | 0-68] 288-9 | 196-5 
6 |2-06| 77:8 | 1603 |1-52| 106-8 | 1623 0-60 | 92-48 | 224-4 | 0-n8| 348-4 | 202-1 
7 |186| 87-1 | 162-0 |1-29| 125-8 | 162-3 0-48| 419-6 | 201-4 
8 |1°65| 99°3| 163-8 |1-09| 149-4 | 162°8 0°38) 5841 | 221-9 
9/143] 1143 | 163-5 


558 


Taste IV. (continued).—-Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 


Salt, . 


‘Temp. of Saturate 
Steam, 


INGssiite 


Salt, . 


MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


and in their Brines. 


Temp. of Saturated T 


Steam, 


N. | 31. 32. 33. 34. 
rM.| 0-2 Sr(NO,)o. 0:2 Pb(NOy)o. 0'1 K,SOu. 0-033 K,80u. 
Q) ip, 100-00° C. 99:60° C. 100:28° ©. 94-42° ©, 
n |t-T WwW W(t -T) eee WwW W(t-T)| ¢-T W |Wet-T)| t-T Ww W(t-T)| t-T 
0/653 42:8 | 279-3 | 3-29) 50-00} 164-6 |1-38] 73:0 | 201°5 | 1-28 1-23 
1/632] 423] 2673 /315| 51-7 | 162:8 |1-33| 75:3 | 2003 |1:18| 25:8 | 182-64 | 1-21 
2/544} 49-7 | 270-4 | 2-94) 56:5 | 166-1 1-21] 84:1 | 2035 | 0-98] 30-5 | 179:3 | 0-81 
34:94] 53-9 | 266-3 | 2°64} 62-9 | 166-1 | 1-00] 102-94] 205-9 | 0-88] 34:7 | 183-2 
414-45! 59:0 | 262°6 | 2:44] 69-0 | 168-4 0:78| 38:4 |179°7 
513-95! 66-0 | 260-7 |224| 75-2 | 168-6 0-68] 43°8 | 178-7 
613-46} 74:6 | 258-1 |2-03| 83-2 | 168-9 0-58| 51:6 | 179°6 
712-96] 86:0 | 2545 | 1:82] 92:9 | 1699 0-48| 64:8 | 186-6 
8 | 2-47| 1023 | 252°7 | 1-62!1061 | 171-9 
9 1-42|126-8 | 180-0 : 
10 
Wil (7 
2 eee | | 
N. | 36. 87. 38. 39. 
rM.| 01 (NHy),S0,. 0-4 (NH,).80,. 0-4 (NH,).S0,. 0:2 (NH,).80,. 
99-40° C, 100-28° C. 94:24° ©. 94:41° C, 
n |t-T W W(t-T) tT | Ww Wt-T) t-T Ww W(t-T) t-T WwW W(t-T)| t-T 
0 | 7°63 | 12-64 | 192°88|7-81  50-7'| 197-9 | 7-46| 51-9 | 193-6 | 7-38} 25°83 | 190-1 | 7-25 
1 |7:39| 13-28 | 196-49]7:52| 51-8 | 194-8 | 7-42] 47-7 | 176-9 |7-17| 24:8 | 177°8 | 716 
2 | 5:97 | 16-18 | 191-14] 6-93! 56-2 | 194-7 |6-94| 55-2 | 191-5! 6-36| 29-5 | 187-6 | 5-91 
3 | 5°06 | 18-79 | 190-00|6-42| 60-1 | 192-9 |5-93] 63-2 | 187-4 | 5°35] 34-6 | 185-1 | 4-90 
4 | 4-05 | 22-94 | 185-81] 5:93| 64-8 | 192-1 4°34] 41-7 | 181°0 | 3°88 
5 |3-54| 25-95 | 183-69|5-44| 69-9 | 190-1 3°33] 53:7 | 178-8] 
6 | 3-04 | 29-68 | 180-44] 4:94| 76:2 | 188-2 9°32] 75:4 | 174-9 
7 | 2°53 | 35-28 | 178-51] 4-45| 83:7 | 186-2 
8 | 2:02} 43-78 | 176'87|3°95| 93-5 | 184-7 | 
9 | 1°82) 48-97 | 17824 | 3-46) 106-2 |. 183-7 
10 | 162} 55°19 | 178-82 
a 1:42 | 64-00 | 181-76 
12 | 1-21} 75-62 | 182-99 | 


—______-es———$—M«——————— 


0:2 (N Hy): S 4s 


91°15°-91:17° C 


36. 
0°05 Ky8O4. 
91°30° C, 


w lwe-2)! 


39°01 
61°56 


188 ke 


40. 


_ 


Ww 


262 | 19 


STEAM AND BRINES. 


and in their Brines. 


559 


Taste LV. (continued).—Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 


N. 41. 42, 43. 44, 45. 
rM.| 02 (NHy),SO,. 0-2 eect O-4 aac Ga oy: 0-2 on 
T. 91:30° C. 100°44° ©, 100-13°-100:15°C. | 9426-9425°C. | 10018", 
m \t-T | W. we-p|t-7 W wwe-mlt-T| wo we-nle) w Se W  wW(t-7) 
0} 7-24 26-4 | 1911 /11-87| 20-7 | 245-7 [11-81 40-06 | 241-3 |1119). jiveil . i 
1/698] 25-2 | 182-7 |1158 20:95 241-6 11-46 41-98 | 240°5 |10-89| 41-9 | 228-2 |1058 23-0 | 2433 
2|617| 304 | 187-5 |10-44| 23:35 | 243-8 1080 44-68 241-2 | 9:87] 46-1 | 2275 | 9:38) 25-9 | 243-0 
3|516| 36-7 | 184-1 | 9-01 26-35 | 237-4 | 9-86 49:38 238-0 | 9-17| 49-2 | 225-6 9-39] 28-6 | 239-0 
4415 43-5 | 180-4 | 8-01) 29-15 | 2535 | 9:88 52-98 235-2 | 817/ 54-4 | 2223) 7-40] 315 233 
53-04) 57-9 | 176-0 | 7-04, 32-25 | 227-0 | 8:38) 55°68 233-4 765 576 | 2203] 6-41) 35:5 927-6 
6 }213| 82-1 | 174-8 | 6-04 36-75 | 229-0 | 7-88 58°58 | 230-9 | 7515, 61-0 | 218-1 | 5-92) 38-0 225-0 
7 5°55. 39°45 | 218-9 7-39, 6178 | 228°3 ra 65-1 | 216-1 | 5-43/ 40-8 221-5 
8 506 42°65 | 215°8 | 6-89 65-78 2267 | 6-14) 69-7 | 214-0 4:93) 44-2 217-9 
BHM ie, 457 46-45 2123 | 639 70-08 223-9 | 562) 752) QB | 444} 48-2 214-0 
10] . 407 51°15 208-2 | 5-90 74-88 220-9 . | 394) 53% 209°8 
u 3-58] 57-25 | 205-0 | 5-41. 80-88 218°8 . | 8-45) 59-7 206-0 
12 3-08 6495 | 200-0 | 4°90 7-48 | 214°3 2-95] 68:3 | 203-5 
| 18 2:59 75°85 1965 | 246 30-5 | 198-0 
46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 
o2 G1, 02 NO, og Sat Nag. or 0201 
100-18? C. 100-23" C. 100:23° U. 100-22" ©. 100:17° C. 
t-T| W Sota t-T) w lwe-pl|t-t; w |we-Dit-T| w |we-nlt-t| w |We-1) 
1184 ‘ i re ‘come “| 1182 ‘/11-80 ; p 
10:80) 22-15 | 239-2 | 9:98) 24°59 | 245-4 |1032| 22-43 | 231-5 | 9-56 25-7 | 245-7 | 9°66] 23-56 | 207-6 
9°38 25°35 | 236-9 | 8:89) 27-49 | 244-4 | 9-39 25-83 | 2425 | 8-40 29-4 | 247-0 | 8-40] 27-06 | 297°3 
8°39| 27°85 233-7 | 7-91) 30-29 | 239°6 | 7-91, 28-63 | 226-5 | 7-41) 32-1 | 237-9] 7°50] 30°16 | 226-2 
7-40| 30-85 | 2283 | 6-92, 33-79 | 233-9 | 6-92, 32-13 | 2223 | 6-87 343 | 235°6 | 6-42] 33-86 | 217-4 
6-41 34-85 | 293-4 | 6-36) 36-29 | 230-9 | 5-93 36°63 | 217-2 | 6-42, 30-4 | 233-7 | 5-93] 36-46 | 216-2 
5-92) 37-25 | 220-5 | 5-93) 38-29 | 227-1 | 5-44) 39°33 | 213-9 | 5-93, 38:6 | 228-9| 5-44) 39°06 | 212-4 
5-43) 40-25 | 2186 | 5°38 41-69 | 224-3 | 4-94 42°63 | 210-4 | 5-44) 41-3 | 224-7 | 4-94] 42-46 | 209-8 
493 43°55 | 214-7 | 4-94) 45-69 225-8 4-451 46-63 | 207-4 | 4:94 44-9 | 221°8 | 4-45] 46°36 | 206-3 
geasl 4755 | O11 4-45 48-49 , 215-8 | 3-95 51-43] 208-0| 4-45 48:8 | 2172| 3-95] 51°36 | 2028 
3-94] 52°65 | 207-4 | 3-95, 53°59) 211-7 | 3-46 58-03 | 200-7 | 3:95, 53-9 | 2129 | 3-46] 57-56 | 2002 
3-45] 5915 | 204-1 | 3-46 60-19 2083 | 2:96 66-43 196°5 | 3-46 59°3 | 205-8 | 2-96] 66-16 | 195-8 
295) 67°85 | 200-2 | 2:96) 63-69 | 203-4 | 2-45) 78-63 | 192-6 | 2:96 68-6 | 203-0 | 2-47) 77°36 | 192°3 
2-46] 80-35 | 197-7 | 2-47| 80-59 | 1991 |. 247, 80-5 | 1989 | 


560 


Taste IV. (continued). 


—Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 


MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


and in their Brines. 


No., N. 51. 52, 53. 54. 55. 
Salt, ru,| 0:2 EN %c, pat, See 02 BtNag | og Kt Nagy 
Temp. of Saturated T. 100-18° C 100-18” C. 94-20° C. 94-20° C. 94-20° C. 
ne 
n a | W iwet-T)/t-T] W |we-Dl{t-T) Ww jwe-Dlt-T| W |we-D/t-T| Ww |weed 
0 | 11:80 11°78 11-19 11:18 117 
1 | 9-21) 26-86 | 247-4 | 9:16 25:0 | 299-0 | 9:63, 24-0 | 231-1 | 9-43) 23-26 | 219-3 | 9-13] 25:35 
2 | 8-38) 29°36 | 246-0 | 8°39] 26:75 | 224-4 | 8-62] 26-2 | 225:8 | 8-42] 25-74 | 216-7) 811l 27-75 
3 | 7-40, 32-46 | 240-2 | 7-40 29:95 | 221°6| 7-60) 29°3 | 292-7 | 7-40] 28-86 | 219-6 | 7-10] 31-05 
4| 6-41) 36-46 | 233-7 | 6-41) 33:95 | 217-6 | 6-59! 33-4 | 218-1 | 6-39] 32°66 | 208-7 | 6-08) 35-25 
mete | 
5 | 5:92 88°86 | 280°0 | 5-92 36-25 | 2146 | 6-08) 35:3 | 2146 | 5°87) 35:00 | 205-5 | 5:57) 37-89 
| 
6 | 5:43 41-86 | 227-2 | 5:43) 39-15 | 212°5 | 5:57| 37-9 | 211-1 | 5:37] 37-94 | 208-7 | 5-07)-41-01 
7| 4:93 44:96 | 221-6 | 4-93 42-45 | 209-2 | 5-07| 41-2 | 208-9 | 4:86] 41-14 | 200°0 | 4:57] 44:85 
8 | 4:44 5026 | 223-2 | 4-44) 46-25 | 2053 | 4°56 44:9 | 204-7 | 4:36] 45:34 | 193-1 | 4-06] 49°35 
9 | 3-94 54:26 | 213°7 | 3:94) 51-25 | 201:9 | 4-06, 49°9 | 202°6 | 3-85] 50°60 | 194:8 | 3°55] 55-35 
| 
10 | 3-45) 60°66 | 209°3 | 3-45] 57-45 | 198-0 3:05) 63°30 
11 | 2-95) 69°66 | 2055 | 2-95 66-15 | 195-2 : 
12 | 2-46 82-16 | 202-1 | 2-46 78-25 | 192:5 ‘ 
Nonwe os 56. 57 58. 59. 60. 
aa ie i a 
Buliencs © rM. 9g Kat Nagy o-g KANAGGy 0.2 Ket Nay pp. org NANE 
nest of Saturated T. 94-17° C 94-16°-94-14° C. 94°14°-94-13° C 94°30° C 94:30° C. 
> a i 
n |t-T Ww we) t-T Ww W(t-T)| t-T WwW Wwt-T)|t-T WwW W(t-T)| ¢-T WwW 
0 | 1119 11-18 1101) 24-00 15°52 15°52}. | 
1 | 8-95) 24°33 | 217-7 | 8°87) 25-90 | 229-7 | 8:27, 24-00 | 198-5 |1060 41-6 | 220°5 |10°57| 40-7 | 2 
2| 7:93) 27-18 | 215-5 | 7-95) 28-44 | 226-1 | 6:95 28°16 | 195°7 | 9°62 45-7 | 219-8 | 9°59] 44-9 | 21 
3 | 6-92, 30°63 | 212-0 | 6-94) 31-16 216-2 | 5-94) 32:16 | 191-0 | 8-63) 50-3 | 217-0] 8-60! 49:3 | 
4| 6-42) 32°52 | 208-8 | 5-92 36°36 | 215-2 | 5-43) 84:72 | 188-5 | 7°64] 56-1 | 214-3] 7°61] 55-1 | 200%] | 
5 | 5-90 35-07 | 206-9 | 5-42) 39-16 | 212-2 | 4-93) 37-76 | 186-1 | 6°65] 63-4 | 210-8 | 6-62) 62°0 | 
6 | 5-40] 37°83 | 204-3 | 4-91) 42:52 | 208-8 | 4-43] 41-36 | 183-2 | 6-16] 67-7 | 208° | 6-18] 66-2 | 20 
7 | 4°89, 41-22 | 201-6 | 4-41) 46-36 | 204-4 | 8°92 46°32 | 181-6 | 5°66, 72*7 | 205°7 | 5-63] 71:2 | 200 
8 | 4:39, 45-27 | 198-7 | 3-91] 51:56 | 201°6 | 3-42 5256 | 179-7 | 5-17] 78°6 | 2082 | 514 77410 
9 | 3-88) 50-28 | 195:1 | 3-41) 57-96 | 196-7 | 2-91] 60-80 | 176-9 
| 10 | 3°38) 57-03 | 192-7 
| 11 
12 


STEAM AND BRINES. 561 


TaBLE IV. (continued).—Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 
and in their Brines. 


N. 61. 62. 63. 64, 
=o Beagenie 0) ee 0-2(KCL+KCIO,). | 0-2 (SE sS0c4 wizca), 
1 100-28" C. 100-28° C. 94-10° ©. 98'86°-93-85° C. 

& t-t | w  |we-v | t-T w | we-T) | ¢-T w | we-1 | ¢-T w | we-7) 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


9°82 7 : 9°87 : - 8:98 : “ 15-4 0 nog 
7:09 26 83 190°2 | 9°34 43°15 201°5 | 515 33°8 1741 | 12°64 21°25 | 179°1 
6°37 29°93 190°6 | 8°39 47-65 1999 | 4:66 37°3 173°8 | 10:98 25°45 | 1863 
5°82 32°63 190°0 | 7°41 53°65 198°8 | 4°16 41°8 173°9 9:99 27°95 | 1861 
5:22 36°23 189°1 | 6°92 57°25 1981 | 3°65 473 1726 9:01 30°95 | 185°9 
41°93 186°6 | 6°42 61°35 197°0 | 315 54°6 1720 8:02 34°75 | 185°8 
3°95 46°93 185°4 | 5:93 66°15 196°1 | 2°64 65:1 1718 7:04 39°55 | 185°6 
3°46 53°03 183°5 | 5°43 71°65 1945 | 2°23 774 172°6 6°56 41°35 | 181-2 
2°96 61°43 181°8 | 4:94 78°55 194:0 3 6:06 45°55 | 184:0 
2°47 72°98 1801 | 4°45 86°25 USMS) 3 > a 5:08 53°85 | 182-4 


Lio} co ns lor) Ou > cw iw) Loa i=) 
i 
5 
Ps 
On 


10 3:95 | 96°85 | 191°3 ; : : 459 | 58:90] 180-2 
| 4 : ; = | é , 4:09 | 65°80 | 179-4 
i} 
65. 66. 67. 68. 
. 01 = +KCl), 01 (7239s4.Nacl). 0:05 Ba(NOs),+0-2NaCl. | 0-05 Ba(NOs))+0-1NaCl. 


aE. 94:12° C. 93°83°-93°80° C. 94°10° C. 93-97°-93°95° C. 


n | t-T w |we-D | t-2 w |we¢-1 | t-T w | we-7) | t-7 w | we-d | 
0 | 7:93 . {1032 . | 975 9-72 

-1{an | 6635] 196-6 | 3-44 | 42-95 | 1969 | 669 | 41-7 | 2232 | 3:59] 4225 | 200-3 
2/201 | 7035! 1885 | 303 | 49-05 | 1941 | 618 | 447 | 221-0 | 3:09] 48°65 | 1999 
3/191 | 7365| 187-6 | 263 | 54-65 | 191-6 | 5:67 | 47-9 | 2173 | 259] 57:95 | 2004 
4} 180 | 77-05| 1849 | 243 | 58-95 | 1906 | 517 | 526 | 2175 | 209] 70-85 | 19755 
5|1-70 | 81-65] 1851 | 203 | 63-85 | 1899 | 4-66 | 57:5 | 2143 

6 2-04 | 69:95 | 1903 | 416 | 64-0 | 213-0 

7 

8 ‘ 

gi, 

0 a 

me) . 


XIX. PART UT. (No. 18), 4 P 


% 


562 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


Taste LV. (continued).—Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 
and in ther Brines. 


Nore at ag 69. | 70. Ae 


72. 


Salt, . . |rM./0-1 2H,0+Ba(NO,),)| 0-4 


=, 


_4BaCl.2H,0 + Ba(NO,)p |, _ 5BaCly,2H,0-+2Ba(NO. 6(NH,),80,+ K,80 
va! (NOs)o 0-1 2 ( 3219 .05(BaCly, (IN H14)o) “t 30 


Temp. of Satu- rane cae Geonelacare a 
rated Steam, . i: 99:90° C. 99:98° C. 93°94°-93 91° C. 100:28° C. 


n | t-3 Ww W(t-T) | t-T Ww Ww(t-T) | t-T Ww W(t-T) 


5:56 . | 559 : . | 5-40 
495 | 25-2 | 250-4 | 5-28 | 299 | 241-8 | 232] 477 | 201-4 
415 | sia | 2582 | 457 | 27-0 | o468 | 212] 52-7 | 293-4 
364 | 35-7 | 2598 | 407 | 306 | 2493 | 191 | 57-7 | 2204 
313 | 411 | 2572 | 356 | 348 | 2478 | 1-72} 662 | 227°8 
485 | 2552 | 306 | 407 | 2491 | 1-61-| 698 | 2268 
a12 | 59-4 | 2518 | 255 | 4-4 | 246-8 

162 | 765 | 247-3 | 204 | 597 | o486 | . 

ru | u03 | 2448 | 154 | 779 | 230-7 |. 


oon ao ot FF WO NY KF OS 
bo 
lon) 
eo 


Now 3) &.c1eN, 73. 74. 75. 76. 
eC ee een ee ca tC ae nM rset SPb-+ Ba, 0 
Salt, . . |rM. 0-1 NH, \30,. 0-408 a NOD), 0-1 2 (NOg)s 0-2 —-F (NO) 
Temp. of Satu- 1190 (7% “an° “e0° ' oo 
Peta Steen) 94°13° C. 100-00° C. 99-60° ©, 99°60° C. 
n | t-T Ww Wt-T) | t-T WwW W(t-T) | t-T Ww W(t-T) 
0| 5:36 : 6°31 : : 5:43 
1] 2:31 | 39-25 | 181-4 | 3-02 79°77 | 287°9 | 2:28 501 | 2224 
2| 211 | 43:35 | 183-0 | 2:74 88:4 | 239°8 | 2:02 560 | 226-2 
3] 1:90 | 47:65 | 1810 | 2-47 99:2 | 2425 | 1:72 661 | 227-4 
4{ 1:70 | 53°55 | 182-0 : : é 1°52 751 | 228-4 
5] 160] 56:95 | 182-2 1:32 882 | 282°8 
6] 1:49 | 60:45 | 180-2 111 | 1063 | 236-0 
7; 139 | 65:15 | 181°0 : 101 | 1198 | 2420 
8| 1:29} 70:35 | 1814 . : 
9} 119 | 77:35 | 1840 . 


STEAM AND BRINES. 


Taste IV. (continued).—Temperature of Condensation of Steam on Salts 
and in ther Brines. 


Mere cy | N. Th. 78, 79. 
2Pb+B 5Sr-+4Pb 
Pe. lem) ‘olny, 0. oe ta NOs). EEO, 
| oa a ee T. 99-62°-99-63° ©. 100-29° ©. 100-29° G, 
nm | t-T Ww wt-T) | t-T Ww Wt-T) | ¢-7 WwW W(t-T) 
0 | 2:89 5:93 5-98 
1 | 2:00 42:2 | 1688 | 4-77 45-7 | 2180 | 5-27 44-0 | 231:9 
2| 1-70 513 | 1744 | 416 523 | 921-7 | 4-46 Bl-4 | 9292 
3 | 1:50 59:7 | 1792 | 3-55 601 | 213-4 | 4-06 561 | 297°8 
4} 1:30 71-4 | 185-6 | 3-05 695 | 2120 | 3-55 63-7 | 226-1 
5 | 1-08 88-2 | 190°6 | 254 838 | 2129 | 3-05 736 | 224-5 
6| 0-98 | 1003 | 1966 | 2:33 | 90-7 | 2113 | 2-54 88:2 | 224-0 
7| 0-88 | 113 | 200-0 | 213 | 1001 | 213-2 | 2-34 956 | 223-7 
8 193 | 1110 , 2142 | 913 | 104-7 | 928-0 
9 1-73 | 1267 | 2192 | 193 | 1165 | 224-8 
10 1-73 | 132-4 | 229-0 
u 
ie, —. .|N 80 81. 82. 
; rM. 0:2 NaNO, 0°5 NaNO, 0-5 NaNO. 
| 
‘| === a 
4 Sea of pair T. 94:41° ©, 91-18° C. 91:30° C. 
wy 2° 
i. age 
isp n | t-T Ww Wwt-T) | t-T w Wwt-T) | t-T Ww W(t-T) 
0 | 17:93 8:90 | 1595 | 1691| 21-9 | 1486 | 1689] 24:50) 164-7 
1|17-60| 9884] 1556 | 1630]! 22:00] 143-4 | 1629| 24-98] 162:8 
2| 1496} 10°80| 161-6 | 1421| 267 | 151-8 | 13°92] 30°83 | 171°5 
3| 12:99] 12:54] 163-0 | 19:56] 305 | 1532 | 11-39] 38:9 | 1772 
4|11-01| 1497] 1648 | 1091| 35-4 | 1545 | 1025] 419 | 171-7 
5 | 10-02| 1664] 1667 9:42] 45:8 | 1728 
6| 877] 19-:02| 166-8 : 8-43} 51:0 | 172-0 
7| 7:50} 2248| 168-6 750) 57:5 | 17255 
8| 648] 2613] 169°3 
9| 5-49] 30:86 | 169-4 
10| 447] 3827| 171-0 
11| 3:83 | 44:84] 171:7 


563 


564 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 
Taste V.—Temperature of Condensation of Steam in diluted Brines. 
No.,. N. 83. 84. 85. 86. 
ok = ES ate z 
Salt, . iM. 0:05 LiCl. 0-05 KCl. 0°05 NaCl. 0-05 Na+" o1, 
SS 3 eee - i: pate : i} 
road Steen | T.|  99°88°-99°87° C. 99°75° C. 99°75° C. | -99-49°-99-45° C, 
nf ev | w lween| eo | wo lwe-m| ee | ow len) er | ow leon 
o| 397 | 161 | 639 | 359 | 142 | 512 | 5:82 | 107 | 623 | 5:54 | 105 | 592 
1] 295 | 198 | 584 | 258 | 19:0 | 490 | 3-79 | 150 | 568 | 403 | 184 | 540 | 
| 2} 245 | 23:0 | 56:8 | 2-07 | 230 | 47-6 | 2:58 | 20:7 | 53-4 | 3:02 | 172 | 520 | 
3| 194 | 27-4 | 53:2 | 157 | 299 | 470 | 207 | 247 | 51a | 251 | 201 | 505 
4] 174 | 303 | 527 | 1:37 | 340 | 466 | 157 | 317 | 500 | 200 | 242 | aga | 
5| 154 | 336 | ‘51-7 | 116 | 399 | 463 | 137 | 361 | 495 | 1-70 | 282 | 480 | 
6| 134 | 879 | 50:8 | 096 | 479 | 460 | 116 | 422 | 490 | 149 | 317 | 47a | 
7| 113 | 43:8 | 495 | 0-76 | 603 | 45:3 | 0-96 | 514 | 493 | 129 | 368 | 468 } 
8| 0:93 | 52:8 | 491 | 066 | 69-7 | 460 | 0-76 | 65:6 | 49:3 | 1:08 | 427 | 464 
9} 0-84 | 592 | 49-7 | o56 | 83:0 | 465 | 0-66 | 779 | 514 | 098 | 468 | 459 | 
10| 074 | 66:9 | 495 | 0-46 | 1066 | 49:0 | 0-56 | 922 | 516 | oss | sa7 | 46-4 
11] 0-64 | 77-2 | 49-4 0-46 | 113-7 | 523 | 0-78 | 593 | 463 
12] 054 | 90:8 | 49:0 0-68 | 686 | 467 
13] o-44 | 1126 | 49:5 058 | 818 | 47-5 
4 ; 0-47 | 1019 | 479 | 
15 0°36 | 141-1 | 508 
No.,. N. 87. 88. 89, 90. 
Salt, . . |M. 0-05 NH,Cl. 0-05 RbCl. 0-05 CsCl. 0-05 BaCl,.2H,0. | 
Temp. of Satu- +4R°_9Q+47° +5 1°_99+R9° “FV . Cot Y1-7) oe 
eae ane 99-46°-99°47°C. 99-51°-99°52" C. 99°51° C. 99-49"-99°50°C. 
n| ¢-T | W |we-)| ¢-T | w- fwe-1| ¢-T | w lwe-D/ @2 
0} 449 | 91 | 409 | 5:05 | 101.| 510 | 555 | 95 | 527 | 2-54 
1} 409 | 11:8 | 483 | 404 | 124 | 502 | 404 | 125 | 50:5 | 2-08 
2} 308 | 15:3 | 472 | 308 | 158 | 47:9 | 303 | 158 | 47:9 | 1:88 
3| 257 | 179 | 460 | 2:52 | 186 | 469 | 202 | 227 | 459 | 1:63 
4] 206 | 218 | 449 | 201 | 22-7 | 45-6 | 161 | 282 | 45-4 | 148 
5| 166 | 269 | 446 | 181 | 252 | 45-4 | 141 | 329 | 45-4 | 1:28 
6| 146 | 303 | 442 | 1-61 | 280 | 451 | 1:20 | 372 | 446 | 1-02 - 
7| 1:25 | 35:3 | 441 | 1-417] 32:0 | 452 | 1:00 | 45:0 | 45:0 | 0:92 
8} 105 | 422 | 443 | 1-20 | 373°] 448 | 0-90 | 498 | 448 | 0-82 
9| 085 | 514 | 437 ) 100 | 457 | 457 | 0-80 | 565 | 452 | 0-72 
10; 074 | 648 | . | 090 | 499 | 449 | 0-70 | 63:9 | 44-7 | 0-62 
11] 0-64 | 696 | 446 | 080 | 561 | 449 | 0-60 | 781 | 469 | OBI 
12| 054 | 820 | 443 | 0-70 | 644 | 45-1 | 0:50 | 968 | 48-4 
13] 0-44 | 101-4 | 446 | 060 | 779 | 46-7 | 0-40 | 1203 | 481 
uu 0-49 | 951 | 46-6 
15 0°39 | 124-1 | 48-4 ‘ 


STEAM AND BRINES. 


565 


TaBLE V. (contenued)—Temperature of Condensation of Steam im diluted Brines. 


N. 91. 92. 93. 94. 
a. rM. 0:05 KI. 0-05 KBr. 0:05 KC103. 0:05 KNOs. 
a faen T. 99-59° C. 99-59°C, 99-31°-99-29° OC. 99-57°-99°55° C. 
m| ¢-T | W |we-T)| ¢-T | Ww |we-1| ¢-T | WwW [we-t| ¢-T | W lwEe-D 
0| 608 | 102 | 620 | 507 | 11:0 | 55-8 | 3:02 | 132 | 39-9 | 3:27 6:8 | 22-2 
1| 456 | 12:8 | 544 | 3:55 | 148 | 525 | 2:52 | 162 | 40-8 | 256 | 148 | 37:9 
2| 355 | 15-7 | 55-7 | 2:54 | 197 | 50:0 | 2:01 | 203 | 40:8 | 2:04 | 185 | 37-7 
3| 254 | 207 | 526 | 203 | 242 | 491 | 1-71 | 244 | 41-7 | 154 | 25:2 | 37:8 
4| 2:03 | 251 | 51:0 | 1°63 | 292 | 476 | 1:51 | 276 | 417 | 1:34 | 29-4 | 30-4 
5| 153 | 324 | 496 | 1:43 | 330 | 47-2 | 131 | 32:3 | 423 | 113 | 35:0 | 39-6 
6| 143 | 349 | 50:0 | 1-22 | 384 | 468 | 110 | 381 | 41:9 | 1:02 | 388 | 396 
7| 1:22 | 39:7 | 484 | 102 | 45:6 | 465 | 1:00 ( 41-7 | 417 | 0:92 | 426, | 39-2 
8| 102 | 469 | 47: | 092 | 50-7 | 466 | 0-90 | 45:9 | 41:3 | 0:82 | 483 | 39-6 
9| 0-92 | 516 | 47:5 | 082 | 565 | 463 | ogo | 516 | 41:3 | 0-72 | 556 | 40-0 
10| 0-32 | 57-7 | 473 | 0-72 | 647 | 466 | 0-70 | 593 | 41-9 | 0-62 | 63-9 | 39-6 
11| 0-72 | 65:2 | 464 | 0-62 | 751 | 466 | Ol | 69:6 | 42:5 | 0-53 | 78-4 | 41-6 
12| 0-62 | 75:83 | 47:0 | 052 | 89-4 | 465 | oz | 91:5 | 47° | 0-48 | 95:2 ) 40-9 
13| 052 | 90:3 | 47-2 | 0-42 | 1161 | 48:8 | 0-42 | 108-9 | 45-7 | 0-35 | 187-4 | 48-1 
14] 0-42 | 1160 | 48-7 
N. 95, 96. 97. 98. 
rM. 0:05 NaNO. 0:05 Sr(NO5)>. 0:05 Pb(NOs)>. 0:05 AgNOs, 
a T. 99:87°C. 99-30°-99°31°-99-30° C. 99-29° GC, 99-87° C. 
m\| ¢-T | W |we-T)| ¢-T | w |we-t| ¢-T | W |we-T| ¢-T | W lwe-t 
0] 408 | 114 | 464 | 506 | 147 | 744 | 2:34 | 181 | 42-4 | 3°06 | 101 | 30-9 
1| 3:06 | 149 | 456 | 3:54 | 194 | 6512 | 203 | 208 | 422 |. 256 | 12:7 | 325 
2| 256 | 179 | 453 | 3-04 | 211 | 641, | 1:83 | 23:5 | 43:0 | 2°05 | 166 | 34-0 
3] 205 | 221 | 453 | 258 | 24-7 | 625 | 1:63 | 265 | 43:2 | 185 | 190, | 352 
4) 1:5 | 245 | 45:3 | 902 | 30:5 | 616 | 1-43 | 30:6 | 43:7 | 1°65 | 216 | 356 
5| 1:65 | 27:3 | 45:0 | 1-82 | 340 | 619 | 1:22 | 363 | 44:3 | 1:45 | 24-7 | 358 
6] 1:45 | 310 | 449 | 1-61 | 37:9 | 61:0 | 1:02 | 442 | 451 | 1:24 | 29:7 | 368 
7| 1:24 | 364 | 451 | 1-41 | 429 | 605 | 0-92 | 49-4 | 45-4 | 1:04 | 363°) 387°8 
8] 1:04 | 43-4 | 451 | 1:20 | 49:9 | 59:9 | 0-82 | 57-0 | 46-7 | 0°94 | 405°] 88-1 
9| 0-94 | 47:3 | 445 | 1-00 | 595 | 595 | O72 | 65:6 | 472 | 0-84 | 463 | 38-9 
10| 0-84 , 541 | 45:4 | 0:90 | 66-0 | 59-4 | 0-62 | 796 | 49-4 | 0°74 | 527 | 39-0 
11| 0-74 | 61-0 | 451 | 0-80 | 75-0 | 60:0 | 052 | 96:5 | 502 | 0-64 | 626 | 401 
12} 0°64 70°4 45-0 0-71 84:4 59-9 0-54 761 41-1 
13| 054 | 835 | 45:7 | 0-61 | 99:8 | 60-9 0-44 | 98-2 | 43-2 
14] 0-44 | 106-1 | 46:7 


ep 


BUCHANAN ON 


Way 


MR J's 


566 


LGV 8-aP v-69 1-09 ay GP €-0F | §-9F | 6CF | G9OF | 8-9F | GFF | 8-9F | 6-9F GLP I-1¢ 


0-67 9-7F 6-LF 6-09 G-Gq I-SP 8-68 | 8Gr | 6IP | $-9F | L9F | OFF | GF | 6-SP L-9F 0-0¢ 
¥1F 6-87 1-99 8-64 0.64 1-97 9:6¢ | LG) | FIP | &-9F | 1-47 | 0-77 | O-GF | 8-87 6-9F G-6F 
Te €-&P L-GP 9-69 61g 0-7 G6 | 8-Gh | 1h | 9F | LP | 68h | 6-77 | 6-S7 1-97 6-87 
L-1¥ 8-6F 0-SF F-6G 6-0 0: cP G.6€ 6h | F-1h | G97 | LLP | 6-87 | 8-FF 0-9F 0-9F 8-87 


G-GF L-L¥ &-FP 6-64 1-89 0-cF G.6g | ¢-9F | 0O-2F | 89F | BF | GFF | GPP | &-9F | £-97 0-67 


G-GP 0-1F L-&9 G-09 7 0-GP 0-6€ | 9-9F | 06h | LL | 0-6F | &-FF | SSF | 2-97 0-LF c.67 
L1¥ 1-0F €-&9 0-19 te 0-47 L-8¢ | 6-9F | 6-1F | OL | 6h | V-FF | VSP | LLP 9-17 0-04 
GIP €-0F 6:GF P19 aa L-GP 6-28 | GLb | 9-1F | L-8Pr | §-0G | 9-77 | 9-Gh | €-LF L-8F ¥-0G 
6-0F T-6€ V-GP 8-19 par €-G7 9-28 | LL | GIP | GSP | 6-0G | 8-FF | BaF | GLP 9-87 6-06 
G.OF oe ‘sa G69 . G.GP 6-18 | 88h | 8-OF | 0-0G | 9-6G | 6-SF | 6-9F | 8-8P 6-0¢ 6-6¢ 
a a 0-49 a G-GP vi 6-6F | 0-0F | &-1G | L-7E | 0-247 | BLH | 0-0 0-6¢ 8-FE 
“(p-)m | (o-am | WG-2 | ona | oa | 2) Pan daa C= 9) 00) 2) CL 2) an CL 2) (a-nalo-M (L-DM |(L- PM L-7M 


‘SOYCLTIN ‘s]]Bg Whissejog *sepllo[yO 


*OIOM “onsy | %on)aa | “ons | *foned | *ontn | “ONM | TOM | “OIDM |) “aH ‘Ta | l'HN] ‘1080 | ‘OM TOSe ‘TORN 


‘sawing wolf uayn? soungouedwmay wana of (L,—1)M fO sanjog~A— TA TIAV, 


STEAM AND BRINES. 567 


Taste VII.—Relations between relatwe Reduction of Vapour Tension 
and Dilution. 


A N. 1. 2 3 
rM. 0-2 KCl. 0:4 KOI. 0-2 KCl. 
es 772°0 mam. 762°7-763°3 mm. 7388 mm. 
1 ; p-P p-P p-P p-P bit eee p-P 
i ; vi ee P —. | W— P —— | We 
f ‘ mm. — p P mm. P P mm. , P P 
0 | 1087-6 | 0:2560 6°733 -1019°9 0:2522 | 6633 988°4 0:2525 6:756 
1 : ; : A 
2 | 10056 | 0:2393 6669 987°3 | 0:2272 | 6:609 947°6 0:2205 | 6-672 
3 970:2 02043 6662 969-8 0:2132 | 6:592 9150 0:1926 | 6°635 
4 953-4 | 01903 | 6-643 953°4 0:1994 | 6:588 883°5 0:1637 | 6°606 
5 937-7 | 0:1767 6:593 937°7 0:1860 | 6-571 867°9 01488 | 6°584 
6 9220 | 0:1628 | 6111 925°2 | 01750 | 6-701 852°8 01337 | 6571 
7 906-4 | 01483 6571 90671 01576 | 6:56] 837°6 01180 | 6529 
8 8909 | 01384 | 6:525 ‘ ; F 8227 01020 | 6-493 
9 8754 | 01181 6°485 : ; - 808:0 0:0857 | 6:493 
10 860°4 | 01027 | 6-451 
ll 8459 00874 6:407 | 


4 5. 7i 
0-2 KCl. 0:2 KCl. 0-2 KCL. 
P. 613°7-614:0 mm. 618:7 mm. 549-8 mm. 
p-P p-P p-P p-P p-P p-P 
n. Pp —— w— p ae V= P — v— 
mm. ip i mm, 12 io mm. P iv 
0 816-0 | 0:2479 6732 822-5 0:2478 | 6-772 729°6 0:2464 6611 
1 
2 761°9 071941 6666 764°6 01909 6:722 7045 0:2196 | 6-611 
3 734°8 071644 6'633 737°5 01611 6-697 | 679-0 09-1903 | 6°610 
4 721°7 01492 | 6-601 7111 01299 6:630 666°6 0°1752 6612 
5 708°6 01335 6578 685°6 | 0:0976 6601 6543 01597 6:576 
6 695°9 01177 6548 660°6 | 0:0635 6600 
il 683°1 01011 6515 
8 670°8 0:0846 6501 
9 5 , 5 


ll 


568 


TaB.E VII. (continued).—Relations between relative Reduction 


MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


Tension and Dilution. 


of Vapour 


12. 


0°2 NaCl. 


614:0-613°7 mm. | 


p=P. 
Pp 


0:2561 


0°2229 
0°1941 
0°1644 
01496 
0°1839 
01181 
0'1016 
0:0851 


19. 


0-4 NH,Cl. 


619°9 mm, 


0°3807 
0:3364 
03007 
0:2758 
0°2491 
0-2217 
0°1932 


0°1635 


De 
Waa 


| 


7555 


7'500 
7-424 
7°188- 
7-233 
7-157 
7116 | 
T7015 
6-923 | 


INo;; 6 . ; Sa leeaNs 8. 9. 
Sat “ies bs) oe: 0-2 KCl. 0-2 NaCl. 
P. 550°4 mm. 772:0 mm. 
poe. p—P (gese p-P 
, Pp Be | WW Pp BSS \ wee Pp 
Tam, iv P mn. 1 9 mm 
o | 7303 | 0-2463 | 6680 | 10389 | 02569 | 7-668 | 825-4 
2 | 7045 | 0-2187 | 6-650 | 1003-9 | 0-2309 | 7-725 | 7904 
3 | 6789 | o-1894 | 6-619 970-4 | 0-2045 | 7-609 | 761-9 
4 | 6548 | 01588 | 6-599 952-4 | o-1god | 7:565 | 734:8 
5 | 6305 |! o-1270 | 6-574 938-0 | 01769 | 7520 | 721-7 
6 | 607-4 | 00938 | 6518 922-4 | o-le31 | 7-439 | 708-6 
7 906-7 | 01485 | 7-352 | 695-9 
8 go1-2 | 0-1388 | 7-253 | 683-1 
9 876-0 , 01187 | 7-171 | 670° 
10 Ni 360:9 | 010383 7-067 : 
u Je Whee ; 8463 | 0-0878 | 7-007 : 
Worf on oe hen 16. 17. 
eit. 2 | 0-2 NaCl. 0-2 NH,Cl. 
P. 550-4 mm. 742-0-743°3 mm. 
p-P |. p-P p-P we= 12 
tt, Pp eee aN ee Be es p 
mm. ~P yy mm, P 5 mm. 
o | 741-5 | 0-2577 | 7558 | 12201 | 0:3018 ; 996-13 
1 c : ; A 
2 | 715-0 | 02302 | 7-606 | 11151 | 03346 | 5:558 | 929-70 
3 | 6893 | 0-2015 | 7588 | 10436 | 0:2890 | 5-734 | 882-28 
4 | 6642 | 01713 | 7-488 9759 | 0-2304 | 5937 | 851°31 
5 | 6401 | o-v401 | 7313 9429 | 0-2197 | 6028 | 821-57 
6 | 616-7 | o-1075 | 7-165 911-2 | o-1858 | 6114 | 79264 
7 880-7 | 01571 | 6133 | 764-63 
8 8658 | 01493 | 6153 | 737-47 
9 | ' 850-4 | 0-1264 | 6-135 ; 
10 : 8362 | O-1116 | 6-131 
1 ; 821-6 | 00955 | 6-106 : 
12 807-4 | 0-0794 | 6-101 


STEAM AND BRINKS. 569 


‘Taste VIL. (continued)—Relations between relative Reduction of Vapour 
Tension and Dilution. 


N. bil JDPiaes t- 23, 
rM. 0-4 NH,Cl. - 0°1 BaCl,.2H.0. 0°2 BaCl,.2H,0. 
P. 550-35 mm, 758-64 mm. 620°56 mm. 
i p-P p-P p-P p-P p-P 
Mm P Oe ee p a ay P eee | Wis 
mm. Ly . hv mm. a te mm. hy 
o | sso4 | 03782 ; 889-7 | o1473 | 7280 | 01475 
2 819°8 | 0°3287 5°55 876-9 | 01349 | 9-435 708-3 0°1238 
3 790°9 | 0°3042 | 5-719 8615 | 01194, | 9-473 | 695°6 0°1078 
4 762-7 | 02784 | 5:846 | 846-2 | 0-1035 | 9-454 685°3 0-0944 
5 735°6 | 0-2519 5-957 881°5 | 0:0877 | 9:348 675°4 0-0811 
i. . i : 
6 | | 7093 | 0-2241 6-073 | » 816% | 0-0710 | 9-226 667°8 0:0708 
7 683-8 | 0°1966 6-203 8023 | 00545 | 9-103 660°6 0-0605 
8 659°1 | 0°1650 6-261 ? : e 653°3 0-0502 
9 | 646-2 0°0396 
Ny | 24, 125, Pe 
mM. 0°1 BaCl,.2H,0. 0-2 KCIO,. 0-2 KCIO,. 
| — = * 
} : j ‘ fae : 
1) | 549-94 mm. — 768°2 mm. ~ 620°8 mm. 
— : ! 
; p=P p-P f fel fie p-P p—t 
n p . WwW p — i WwW 
5 mm De oe: 2 mm. We He mm. M 
) | LUI ; 879-4 01264 hacks 700°4 071136 
vt 2 | 630:25 | 01274 | 10-549 867-9 | 01149 | 5128 688-1 | 0-0979 
: 3 | 61873 | o112 | 10-431 8543 | 0°1008 | 5-285 678"1, | 00845 
4 4 | 607-17 | 0-0942 | 10-230 839°4 | 0-0848 | 5:404 668°1 | 0-0708 
5 ie aad ; 824°8 | 0-0686 5545 660°8 | 0°0605 
“ 6 : .- |  .- | 8it-d | 0-0529 | 5:879 | , 6565 | 0-0544 
“al nec A sa ; 5 fe aes a4 650°9 | 0-0463 
a bis a ; | aaao Bs . | 6462 | 0-0393 
. Me . meee 
IX. PART III. (NO. 18). 4Q 


ay 


570 


Taste VII. (continued).—Relations between relative Reduction of Vapour 


MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


Tension and Dilution. 


No., . N. 28. 29, 30. 
Salt, . rM. 0-2 KC1Os. 0:05 Ba(NO,)>. 0-2 Ba(NOs)». 
Pp. | 550°35 mm. 75756 mm. .620°6 mm, 
| 
| p-P | vp-P | gas ode gee p-P 
N p — | Ww Pp a w—— p i <== 
| mm. v P in| P mm. | # 
0 | e164 | o-nore 7929 00445 646-7 0-0403 
1 | | ni 
2 6049 | 0:0902 | 5355 787°9 0-0385 6911 643-4 | 0-0355 
| . 
3 593°8 | 0:0732 | 5527 735°1 0+0350 7-011 641:0 | 0-0318 
4 582°6 | 0°0584 | 5696 779°5 00281 7°337 638°6 | 0-0283 
5 | 7167 00246 7'368 636°3. 0°0247 
6 7740 0-0212 7:927 63400-0211 
| 
7 6316 | 00175 
8 | z | 6293. | 0°0138 
No., . N. 31. 32. 36. 
Salt, . rM. 0-2 Sr(NO,)». 0:2 Pb(NOs)>. 0:1 (NHy).S0,. 
ips 760°00 mm. 749:°2 mm, 743°9 mm. 
n. yp =P weit yp pak wert p 
mm. B ie mm. ie 12 mm, | 
0 955°7 | 0-2048 8°376 842-0 | 0-1102 5*510 972-2 
il : 
2 920° | 01743 8-663 831'8 | 0-0993 5°610 918-2 
3 904°6 | 01598 8-613 822°8 | 0°0895 5-629 889°7 
4 889°4 | 01455 8°584 8172 | 0:0832 5°741 858°8 
5 873°9 | 01203 8-600 811-4 | 0-0766 5-760 843°5 
6 859°1 | 0-1154 8610 305:4 | 0:0698 5-807 828-9 
7 844°1 | 0:0996 8°514 799°4 | 0:0628 5834 814-0 
8 823°7 | 00773 7-910 7938 | 0-0562 5-963 799°4 
9 788:1 | 0°0498 6-251 793°8 
10 | 788'1 
11 | ry | 782°6 
| 12 | | 7767 


STEAM AND BRINES. SA 


TasLe VII. (continued).—Relations between relative Reduction of Vapour 
Tension and Dilution. 


N. 39. 4. 42, 
1M. 0-2 (NH,),80,. 0-2 (NH,).$0, 0-2 = aa 
12) 620°33 mm. 552°43 mm. 772°0 mm. 
2 p EE 2 a | seg he idee 
min. ie PP mm. d L mn. iv ue 


_810°0 02342 a 7212 02345 : 1161°9 0°3356 6°947 


] 


753°5 071769 6-121 668°8 0°1740 6°212 1055°7 0:2686 7:038 
726°7 0°1464 6105 644°5 071429 6316 1020°6 0:2436 7101 
5 700°6 0°1146 6-154 618-7 0:1071 6201 987°3 0:2181 7034 
6 675°4 0:0816 6:153 598-2 00765 6:281 954°0 01908 | 7012 


0 

i , ; 

2 781°2 0-2059 6074 693°8 02088 | 6196 1107-7 03031 7077 
3 

4 


7 938-0 | 01770 6:983 
8 | | 922-4 | 0:1631 6-956 
9 906°7 | 0°1485 6'898 
10 891-2 | 0-1337 6'839 
ll ia ; é ' 876-0 | 0-1187 6-795 
12 | : 2 ; 860-9 01032 6°702 
13 | 846-2 | 0:0877 | 6-652 
N. 44, 80. 82, 
1M. 0-4 ot eh 0-2 NaNO. 0:5 NaNO., 
P. 616:9-616°68 mm. 620:°3 mm. 552-43 mm. 
ee 7 
p-P p-P p-P p-P p-P p-P 
n yp ae W== | WwW p We 
mm. ie PL fom, | ue wv mm. wy v 
0 | gaia | 03302 | . | 11630 
it if ; : : P 
2 879:4 | 02985 6880 | 1052°9 | 0:4109 4-438 913'4 | 03952 4°869 
858-2 | 0-2812 6-917 984-6 | 0:3700 4-640 8362 | 0-3394 5-281 
8283 | 0:2554 6:947 919:8 | 03256 4-874 8031 | 0-3122 5-232 
8132 | 0:2416 6-958 888-7 | 03020 5-025 7798 | 0-2916 5342 


784'5 0°2139 6962 813°4 02374 5337 728-0 0°2412 5548 
7107 01998 6-963 7848 0:2096 5:477 
756'5 0°1848 6:948 757°3 01809 5'582 

10 * 3 . 730°1 0°1504 5°756 


3 

| 
2 

6 798°9 0-2281 6957 850°7 0-2708 
7 

8 

9 


11 , : ' 713-4 


572 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON 


Taste VILL—Vapour Tension of Water in Kilogrammes per Square Centimetre 
Jor whole Degrees Centigrade. | 


20 Kilogrammes per 


Square Centimetre. | Se | 2nd Difference. 
120 | 2-275 A. 
119° = 4 1:9639 0:0636 rs 
118 1:9020 1} 1070619 0:0017 
117 18417 , ~~ 0:0603 0-0016 
116 1:7830 0-0587 | 0-0016 
io) 1-7258 00572, 0-0015 
114 1:6702 0:0556 00016 
113 1-6160 0:0542 | 00014 
12 156330 0:0527 0-0015 
lll 15120 0:0513 0-0014 
110 1-4620 0-0500 0:0013 
109 =f |° -rais5 00485 0-0015 
108 13662 00473 | 00012 
107 1:3203 | 0°0459 0-0014 
106 1-2757 0:04.46 | 0:0013. 
105 12323 0-0434 | 0-0012 
104 1:1902 00421 | | 0-0013 
103 “11492 _ 00410 | 0-0011 
102 11094 / 010398 | 0-012 
101 1:0708 0-0386 be: 0-0012 
100 : 1:0333 0:0375 | 0:0011 
99° Fe. 0-9970 il .0:0363 . 0:0012 
98 0:9616 0-0354 | 0-0009 
97 0:9273 00343 > 0-0011 
96 0:8940 0:0333 0-0010 
95 0°8617 0-0323 0-0010 
/ 94 0:8303 | 0-0314 ~ 00009 
93 08000 0:0303 - 0-0011 
92 07705 | “ozs |S 0:0008 
91 4 2 oreo. | 00285 | 0-0010 
| 00276 ~  0-0009 


Ye O7144 


STEAM AND BRINES. 573 


Tas._e [X.—Kaample of Use of Elastic Tank. 


gr. 
T=99-09° C. A=1-000 k/e2. w,=100 | ssf dy =2°000 k/e2.  t,=119-57° C. 


2, 
b= 100 Kilogrammes. Ee a are 
a f (a— A) 
am | 

k/e? 6. by W W(t—T) 

10-0 178-88 9-0 iW 886 

2 9-0 174-38 8-0 125 941 
0 169°46 7-0 143s 1006 

7-0 164-03 6-0 16-7 1084 

6-0 157-94 5-0 20-0 1177 

50 151-00 4-0 25:0 1298 

7 4-0 142-82 3-0 33°3 1456 
3-0 13280 2-0 50-0 1686 

2-5 126-72 15 66°7 1843 

2-0 119-57 _ 1-0 100:0 2048 

1-9 118-03 0-9 111-0 2102 

2 1s 116-29 0-8 125 2150 
7 11453 0-7 143 2208 

16 270 + ~~ (06 167 9272 

67 15 110-76 05 6 |_~—s 200 2334 

2, | 1-4 108-71 0-4 250 2405 

45 13. | 10654 0°3 333 2481 
514 12 104-23 0-2 500 2570 
2-66 1 101-75 Ol 1000 2660 
2-40 1-09 101-49 0-09 1110 2664 
214 1-08 10123 0-08 1250 2675 
Mies | 1:07 100-97 0-07 1430 2688 
162 1-06 100771 0:06 1670 2705 
1:35 1-05 100-44 0-05 2000 2700 
10s | 1-04 10017 0-04 2500 2700 
082 103 | 9991 | 0:03 | 3330 2730 
me 054 | 1-02 99°63 | 0-02 5000 2700 
0-27 1-01 99-36 0-01 10000 2700 


VOL, XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 18). 4k 


~~ 


( 575 ) 


XIX.—On a Silurian Scorpion and some additional Eurypterid Remains from the 
Pentland Hills. By Matcoum Lauris, B.A., D.Sc. (Plates I—V.) 


(Read 6th June 1898.) 


In 1892 I communicated to this Society an account of a collection of Eurypterids 
from the Upper Silurian rocks of the Pentland Hills, in which I described new species 
and a new genus. Since that time I have had the opportunity of examining two other 
collections from the same locality. One of these was formed with the aid of a grant 
from the British Association. The fossiliferous bed—for these remains occur in a single 
thin bed of rock—was laid bare, and a considerable amount of it removed and split up. 
In this latter work I was fortunate to get the assistance of Mr JoHn Henperson, the 
original discoverer of the locality, and I am glad to have this opportunity of recording 
my indebtedness to him. A fair number of specimens was thus procured, which not 
only threw considerable light on the structure of some of the already described forms, but 
gave evidence of some species as yet undescribed. More important than this collection, 
however, was the one formed by the late Mr Harpies of Bavelaw Castle, who had for 
Many years collected among the Pentland Silurians. His collection was, on his death, 
acquired by the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art, and Dr Traquair kindly put the 
| collection in my hands for examination. From the size of the collection I expected 
| some new and interesting results, and have been far from being disappointed. Seven 
| new species of Eurypterids have come to light and one Scorpion. These, and the new 
facts about the already described species, form the subject of this paper. Some frag- 
ments of Ceratiocaris have also been found, but they do not seem to me sufficient to 
| determine the species. 

The horizon of the beds is Wenlock, so far as can be ascertained from the other 
| fossils contained in it, and from the very scanty fauna of the neighbouring rocks. I 
| had come to this conclusion from my own investigations, and am glad to find that the 
position assigned to it in the forthcoming memoir of the Geological Survey corresponds 
| to my own idea on the subject. 

The discovery of so many forms (10 in all) puts this locality far ahead of any other for 
| Hurypterids. The total number hitherto described from the Silurian of Great Britain, 
| apart from this deposit, is about 16. The only deposit approaching this for the richness of 
its Kurypterid fauna is the Water Lime in America, from which about 15 species have been 
} described. Some five or six of these, however, are of very doubtful specific rank, being 
| based either on small fragments or on slight differences in proportion. The latter is for 
| Palzeozoic fossils, very unsatisfactory when one considers how much compression and 
| distortion they have undergone. The reason for the extraordinary abundance of these 
| -VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 19), 23 


576 DR MALCOLM LAURIE ON 


forms in this particular bed along with masses of “ Dictyocaris”” and layers of structure- _ 
less black matter must remain obscure. They must have existed both before and after — 
the period marked by this particular bed, but so far as is known have with one excep- 
tion left no trace in the surrounding rocks. The variety of forms—4 genera being 
represented—suggest that even in this bed we are far from the time when this group~ 
came into existence. On the other hand, no one, I think, will deny that Drepanopterus 
bembicoides is the least differentiated form known, ‘The presence of a Scorpion indi- 
cates that the origin of that group is earlier than had been supposed, a conclusion which 
agrees quite well with the views I have published elsewhere as to the relation of the — 
Scorpions and Eurypterids. That this Scorpion was an air-breather does not necessarily | 
follow. The characters which mark it as a Scorpion may well have been crea 
before the terrestrial mode of life and consequent modification of the respiratory orga 
took place. Unfortunately, these respiratory organs are necessarily so delicate in tex- 
ture that we know very little of their structure and arrangement in any of the fossil 
orthropoda, and, as in respect of many other interesting points in Paleontology, ct 
wait for further evidence before we can pronounce an opinion. 

I cannot let this opportunity pass without expressing the gratitude I owe to Dr 
Traquair for the opportunity of examining the Hardie Collection, and for the sympathy 
and encouragement which has helped me to surmount many dithculties. I am also in- 
debted to Mr B. N. Peacu for much assistance in the more difficult points which have 
arisen ; assistance which only those who have worked with him can appreciate the | 
value of. 

The forms to be described come under six genera :—Paleophonus, Simon 
Stylonurus, Drepanopterus, Eurypterus, and Bembicosoma (n. g.), and are dealt with 
in the above order. The new species are Paleophonus loudonensis, Slumoma dubia, / 
Stylonurus elegans, Drepanopterus lobatus, Drepanopterus bembicoides, tury 
scoticus, H. minor, and Bembicosoma pomphicus. | 


Paleophonus loudonensis, nu. sp. (Pl. L, fig. 1.) 


Carapace long and narrow, median eyes on a double papilla very far forward; 
mesosomatic sclerites band-like ; tail long; chelicerze comparatively long and narrow. — 

The single specimen on which this species is founded is very obscure—so much so 
that it was long before I realised that it was anything more than a crushed Eurypterus. 
It had also been carelessly developed, so that the limbs for the most part are destroyed, 
and the tail entirely loses itself among some of the black layers which are so frequent 
in this Gutterford bed. The specimen shows the dorsal surface. 4 

The carapace is 10 mm. long and 7 mm. wide, a very different proportiolls fio 
Palawophonus nuncius (9), in which the carapace is 7°5 mm. long and 8 mm. 
wide. he anterior margin is distinctly concave, and the sides almost parallel, but 
slightly convex. The posterior margin appears fairly straight. Situated about 1 mi 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. WEA 


from the anterior border is a double depression, which I take to mark the position of 
the median eyes. If they corresponded in size to these depressions they must have 
been very large. Their position far forward on the carapace corresponds to what is 
found in P. nuncius and Proscorpius osborni (Whitfield). In the middle line behind 
the eyes and some 3 mm. from the anterior margin is a small depression, the significance 
of which is unknown to me. There is a slight roughness at the left anterior corner of 
the carapace, which probably marks the position of the lateral eyes. 

The six mesosomatic segments are wider than the carapace, 7.e., about 11 mm., 
but the lateral boundaries of this part of the body are very indistinct. In striking 
contrast to the length of the carapace is the shortness of these seoments. The first 
measures only 2 mm., the next two 3 mm. each, and the remainiug ones 4 mm. They 
are thus considerably shorter and wider than the corresponding sclerites in P. nuncius. 
Some obscure markings occur on them and seem to have some meaning. 

The first segment is cut across at the corners by the basal joints of the last pair of 
legs. On the fifth segment is clearly seen a curved ridge cutting off the anterior right- 
hhand corner. Indications of a similar structure are visible on the three preceding seg- 
| ments. That on segment two, one may take as the impression of the outline of the 
| pectines, but the succeeding segments in recent scorpions bear no free appendages, but 
only the respiratory organs or “lung books.” If this curved ridge is an indication, as 
. q think probable, of the breathing organs, they must have been of a very different type 
' to those in the modern Scorpions. ‘The lung books are generally regarded as modifica- 
tions of plate-like appendages, bearing gill lamellae on their posterior surface. It does 
not follow that because this form agrees with the recent ones in respect of the body 
form and the arrangement of the prosomatic appendages that it had reached the same 
point of specialisation in respect of its respiratory organs. The terrestrial mode of life 
and consequent adaptation to air breathing may have come later. It is thus just pos- 
sible that this curved ridge on the mesosomatic segments is the outline of a plate-like 
gill bearing appendage. It is interesting to compare this structure with fig. 1a, which 
isa reproduction of a figure of an embryo Scorpio fulvipes, published some years since 
)). The mesosomatic segments in this are seen to be marked with a curved 
ie corresponding more or less closely to that in P. loudonensis. At the time, I 
regarded this ridge as indicating the line of fusion of the edge of the abdominal ap- 
adage with the body, and I see no reason to change my view. 

‘The first metasomatic segment is as usual a truncated cone. The breadth at the 
| posterior Margin is just equal to the length, ze, 4°55 mm. This segment is marked off 
: from the sixth, as the sixth is from the fifth, by a well-defined ridge. This ridge marks 
_| the overlap of the two sclerites. The last five segments are even more obscure than 
Sit of the specimen. ‘The tail, which they constitute, appears to have been narrow 
; (25 5 mm.) and long, though the few seements remaining vary so much in length that 
1 itis difficult to estimate the length of the whole. The first seement (No. 8 of the body) 
1 measures 4mm. in length, the next 6 mm. Beyond this the tail can be traced for 


578 DR MALCOLM LAURIE ON 


some distance, but finally gets itself lost in one of the black layers so common in this 
bed, and the details of the posterior segments and the telson cannot be made out. The 
tail segments appear to have been ornamented with longitudinal ridges possibly com-— 

posed of a series of knobs. 4 

The limbs are, as mentioned above, very imperfectly preserved. Careful following 
out of what was left has however yielded some results. r 

The cheliceree are well shown and are remarkable for the large size of the pincers” 
and the length of the basal portion. They project 4°5 mm. beyond the front of the | 
carapace and the movable limb of the pincers measures 3 mm. The inner border of the 
fixed limb is crenulated, and probably the corresponding border of the movable limb was — 
also. Compared with Palwophonus nuncius, the basal part of this limb is longer, while — 
the width both of the basal part and the two limbs of the pincers is considerably less. 
They seem to agree more closely with the Palwophonus from Lesmahagow (7). : 

The second pair of appendages—Chelee—are partially preserved on the left side—the — 
right side showing only the barest traces of them. The segments agree in form with 
recent Scorpions so far as their outline can be ascertained. The fourth segment is much 
longer than in P. nuncius, and the hand seems to have been stouter. This last, how- 
ever, is so badly preserved that it would be unwise to say anything definite about its 
form. Part of one of the walking legs is preserved. The proximal part is very indis- 
tinct, but the last three segments are visible. Unfortunately the extreme end is gone, 
so it is impossible to say whether these limbs ended in a single spine as in the other 
species of Paleophonus. 

This specimen is the fourth scorpion from Silurian strata. The other three are 
Paleophonus nuncius of Thorell (Q) from Gothland; a Palwophonus described by 
Pracn (7) from the collection of the late Dr Hunter, Selkirk; and Proscorpius 
osborni of Whitfield (11) from the Lower Helderberg rocks of America. This pre- | 
sent form is probably the oldest of the four, and this makes it the more to be regret , 
that so few details can be made out. 


SLIMONIA. 


Slumonia dubia, nu. sp. Pl. L, figs. 2-3. 


Carapace quadrangular; eyes at the anterior corners; body tapering gradually; 
telson oval, terminating in a long sharp spine. 

The type of this species is a very badly preserved carapace (fig. 2), with parts of 
the first eleven segments attached. Enough can, however, be made out to place it as 
a Slimonia, as no other genus possesses the quadrangular carapace with eyes at the 
corners. ‘lhe other specimen I have relegated to this species shows the body segments 
and telson of a somewhat larger individual than the type. ‘The telson has a more 
elongated form than in S. acuminata, and the broadest part is not so far back. The 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. See) 


shape of the body differs from S. acwminata in tapering evenly the whole way down, 
instead of narrowing suddenly at the seventh segment into a cylindrical tail. This 
difference of body form is so marked that at first I was disposed to place these body 
segments and telson under Pterygotus, to which Simona is closely allied. Slimonva 
acuminata comes from the Lesmahagow beds, and belongs to a higher horizon than the 
Pentland beds. A telson indistinguishable from S. acuminata has also been found in 
the Pentlands in beds belonging to a higher horizon in the Esk Valley. 


STYLONURUS. 
Stylonurus macrophthalmus. (Pl. L., figs. 4-7.) 


Of this form the general shape is better shown in fig. 4 than in the type specimens 
deseribed in my former paper. The median appendage of the genital operculum is 
characterised by extreme length, reaching down across four segments. It appears to 
have terminated in a point. The hind segments of the body are very characteristically 
furnished with epimera (figs. 5-6). These are not mere backward prolongations of the 
posterior angles of the segments, but project from the sides of each segment, being 
attached by a narrower peduncle, and expanding into a thin oval plate. The only 
form with epimera approaching these is Sé. scoticus, but in it they are not so well 
marked or so large in proportion. 

Appendage III. (fig. 4) is moderately long and very stout, ending in a curved spine. 
| The other joints probably bore spines also, as in St. ornatus (7). 

Appendage IV. (fig. 7) is about twice the length of III., but not so broad. The 
distal joints are furnished with strong, curved spines—probably a pair to each segment, 
and the limb terminates in a spine. 

Appendages V. and VI. do not differ much from the typical Stylonwrus form. 
V. seems to have a small spine arising from the anterior side of the joint, between 
segments 4 and 5, while VI. shows the narrowing and elongation characteristic of 
_| Stylonurus to a marked degree. 


Stylonurus ornatus. (Pl. I., fig. 8. Pl. IL, figs. 10-12.) 


A great deal has been added to our knowledge of this species. Only the general 
body form the metastoma, and portions of the last appendage and telson were described 
jin my former paper. The greater part of the structure of all the six appendages has 
_|now been made out and the telson completed. In many specimens, the characteristic 
ornamentation is quite invisible, but I regard this as merely due to difference in the 
_|details of preservation. 

‘Appendage I. (Pl. L., fig. 8).—The most anterior appendages are a small pair of 
chelicerze well shown in the figure. Only the two end joints forming the pincers are pre- 
jserved, and the bases of the first somewhat broken. The proximal joint, probably the 
_ 2nd of the limb, is 10 mm. long, with an articular surface for the terminal joint half way 


580 : DR MALCOLM LAURIE ON 


up on the outer side. Beyond this articular surface the joint continues as a triangular — 
process which forms the inner ramus of the pincers. The outer margin of this—i.e, 
that against which the terminal joint bites—is straight, and shows no sign of denticula- q 
tion. It ends in a sharp point. The terminal joint forming the outer movable ramus — 


vexity being toward the outer side. It also appears quite smooth on the margin. The { 
basal joint of this appendage probably passed upwards at a sharp angle (or may even 
have been directed backwards) to its point of attachment. From their structure it 
would seem as though the chelicerse could only bite by a single point. 

Appendage II.—Slanting inwards and backwards from outside the chelicere 
overlapping each other just behind their apices lie the ends of the 2nd pair of eel 
ages. The form is somewhat indefinite, and they had probably a thin cuticle that 
the right side shows two conical spines, while on the left side there are indications 
spines and a considerable number of sete. These appendages were probably tactile like © 
the corresponding pair in Slimonia. _ 

Appendage III. (fig. 10).—The gnathobase of this, I have not made out; in fact, 
only the four distal jomts are known. They are all short and tapering, and the two 
proximal ones furnished each with a stout spine. Markings on the sides of these joints: 
seem to be the points of attachment of other spines. his limb is very short when com- 
pared with the corresponding one in S¢. elegans. “4 

Appendage IV. (fig. 11).—This is a reproduction of Appendage III. on a larger 
scale. The spines are longer and more delicate, and the terminal segment appears to 
bear several. A spine is seen arising from the side of the antepenultimate segment. 

Appendage V.—The five distal seements of this limb are shown im fig. 12. They 
are less elongated and slightly broader than the corresponding segments in Appendage 
VI. 4 

Appendage VI. (fig. 12) shows the great elongation of all the segments, especially 
the two proximal ones (2nd and 3rd). The length and narrowness of the 2nd jou ot 
is in marked contrast both to Sé. macrophthalmus and St. elegans. 

The metastoma was incorrectly figured in my former paper (oc. cit., Pl. L., fig. :: 
the front margin being shown much too deeply cleft and simple. Fig. 8 shows ne 
it ought to be, and shows further that the front margin is crenulated. 


fa. 


St. elegans, n. sp. (Pl. IL, figs. 13-15. Pl. IIL, fig. 19.) P 


Carapace long and narrow, tapering towards the front. Metastoma comparatively 
wide ; 3rd and 4th appendages long and furnished with backwardly directed longitudi- 
nally ridged spines ; 5th and 6th appendages with 2nd joint comparatively short, broad, 
and subconical ; tail segments probably narrow and with sharply pointed epimera, and 
telson wide in proportion to last seement. 

Five specimens certainly, and two probably, belong to this species. 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. 581 


specimen (Pl. II., fig. 13) shows about half the carapace, the metastoma, fragments 
of five body segments, and portions of appendages III. to VI. of the left side. Another 
specimen (PI. III., fig. 19), mounted in the same slab of plaster of paris, shows append- 
ages II]., IV., V., and VI., and is probably the other side of the same animal as fig. 18, 
a portion of the carapace being gone. T'wo other specimens (one the very fragmentary 
reverse of the other) show parts of the carapace, and appendages IIL-VI. of a much 
smaller individual. These two specimens have been useful in confirming certain points, 
but have added nothing to the information derived from the specimens, figured. The 
other two specimens show the posterior body segments, and I have ascribed them to 
this species, as they show certain differences from the corresponding portions of Sz. 
ornatus. Their place must be considered as only probable, however, till the discovery 
of fresh material. A somewhat broken carapace (fig. 14) belonging to a small indi- 
vidual is valuable as giving the anterior margin and the position of the eyes. 

The carapace (PI. II., fig. 13) is widest about one-third from the hind margin. In 
front of this it narrows, the anterior one-third being concave in outline. There is a 
narrow but well-marked border in the anterior third which narrows as it approaches the 
| level of Appendage IV. Whether it continues beyond that point is doubtful, the cutline 
| of the carapace being rather indicated than preserved behind this point. The anterior 

margin (fig. 14) is crenulated. 
| The metastoma is proportionately broad and short and slightly concave on its 
anterior and posterior margins. The ratio of width to length is 5 to 7, a marked con- 
trast to St. ornatus in which the ratio is 5 to 11. The proportionate width of meta- 
stoma and carapace also differs markedly from St. ornatus, being in St. elegans as 5 to 
115, and in St. ornatus as 1 to 8. The surface of the metastoma was covered with 
scattered projections. 

The only appendages known are parts of IIL, IV., V., and VI., lying beyond the 
| carapace. The gnathobases have left no impressions. 

The third and fourth appendages are well furnished with spines along the posterior 
‘margin of the four distal joints. These spines are slightly curved and longitudinally 
striated and were probably arranged in a double row. Those towards the end of the 
{limb are larger than those towards the base. 

Appendage III.—Presuming that this appendage consisted of the typical number of 
joints (z.e. 7), portions of 3 and 4 are shown on the left side (fig. 13), and 3, 4, 5, 6, and 
probably the beginning of 7, on the right side along with a small fraction of 2 (fig. 19). 
\Joint 3 is short, the length being only one-third greater than the width. There are appar- 
jently no spines on the posterior margin, but the distal end of the anterior margin is pro- 
_ |duced into a short spine (fig. 13). Joint 4 is twice the length of joint 3, and appears to 
\expand at the distal end owing to the presence of spines on both anterior and posterior 
margins. The posterior margin bears a number of spines. Joint 5 tapers slightly and 
{is three-fourths the length of joint 4. It is furnished with spines on the posterior surface. 
_ Joint 6 is nearly the same length and is well furnished with spines along the posterior 


582 DR MALCOLM LAURIE ON 


margin—at least two of these being considerably larger than the rest. Of the last joint 
almost nothing remains. Half a spine lying along the edge of the slab and a short 
process arising at its base are all that are left. , 

Appendage [V.—This limb (figs. 13 and 19) is somewhat longer and stouter than III. 
Joint 3 is longer in proportion than in the foregoing appendage, and seems free from 
spines. Joint 4 is the longest, and jomt 5 the shortest in this leg, both being furnished 
with well-developed spines. Joint 6 is long and tapering, and bears a remarkably 
powerful spine at its distal extremity. The last joint is narrow and runs out into | 
three spines, that near the base being the stoutest. 

The 5th and 6th appendages have the elongated form characteristic of Stylonurus, 
each joimt being somewhat narrower than the last. The proximal joints of them are, 
however, much wider and shorter in proportion than in St. ornatus. : 

The points of difference between this form and St. ornatus are very marked. The 
narrow carapace and wide metastoma would alone serve to distinguish the two forms, 
while the greater length of the 3rd and 4th appendages, especially the 3rd, afford | 
equally good diagnostic characters. The proportion of the joints of the two posterior 
limbs, and especially the shortness and width of the proximal joints, also offer a point 
of difference. The only form I am acquainted with which resembles this species in the 
form of the carapace is St. excelsior (8) from the Upper Devonian (Catskill group) of 
New York. The appendages of this form do not, unfortunately, admit of comparison 
with those of St. elegans. 


DREPANOPTERUS. 


Two new species come under this genus, and the point of chief generic importance 
in the light of these new forms would seem to be a negative one :—‘ Last pair of | 
appendages neither expanded, as in Hurypterus, etc., nor excessively elongated, as m 
Stylonurus.” 

The genus unquestionably comes very near Stylonurus in some respects. The form 
of the carapace and the comparatively elongated last appendages in D. Pentlandicus are 
suggestive of stylonuroid aftinities, but D. bembicoides is a very well marked form, 
easily separated from Stylonurus, and quite justifies the existence of the genus. 


Drepanopterus lobatus, n. sp. (Pl. IL, fig. 16. Pl. IIL, figs. 17, 18.) 


Carapace almost semi-circular ; body without marked differentiation of meso- and 
metasoma ; last segment with posterior angles produced into ovate lobes ; telson long. 
I have ventured to found this species for the reception of three or four specimens, 
which are most definitely characterised by the form of the last segment. ‘ 
The carapace (PI. [I., fig. 16) has a length of 15 mm. and a breadth at its widest 
point of 25 mm, ‘The proportion in this specimen is probably not quite correct, as ‘the 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. 583 


| animal seems to have been squeezed out laterally and slightly telescoped into itself. 
The greatest width of the carapace is about one-third from the posterior margin. The 
_ position of the eyes is unfortunately not shown. 

| The body segments become progressively narrower and longer from before back- 
ards. The last six at least have the posterior angles produced into processes. These 
large on the 11th segment, and on the 12th form a pair of ovate lobes about the 
length as the segment itself. The telson is long, and in one specimen (PI. IIL, 
fig. 17) curved, but this is probably accidental. The end of the telson is not shown. 
Some fragments of a carapace and body segments with the two last limbs attached 
Pl. Ill., fig. 18), 1 am inclined for the present to regard as belonging to this species, 
|it is this specimen which has decided the generic position of the species. Apart 
the limbs here shown, the general body shape of D. lobatus is more suggestive of 
i Stylonurus. The carapace shows little of the shape, but is covered with a scattered 
punctate marking. The body segments, portions of six of which are shown, are covered 
especially the anterior part of each segment, with flattened scale markings. The 
treater part of appendages V. and VI. is shown, and these undoubtedly belong to a 
epanopterus though approaching the Stylonwrus form more closely than D, bemby- 
s. The fifth appendage appears to have had a long spine arising from probably 
th segment. The sixth appendage has the second and third joints considerably 
ated, while the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh joints might belong to D. bembi- 
des. The measurements of the limbs are :-— 


Appendage V. Appendage VI. 
Segment. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. 
RS 2 9 mm. 19 mm. 6 mm. 
4 12 mm. 6 mm. 7 mm. 6 mm. 
, 5 \ Teen { 4°5 mm. 9 mm. 5 mm. 
i 6 ; ) 2 mm. 6 mm. 3 mm. 
_ 7 5 mm, 1:2 mm. 6 mm. 2 mm. 


This specimen, whether belonging to D. Jobatus or not, is interesting as giving us 
an intermediate form between D. bembicoides and Stylonurus. 


Drepanopterus bembycoides, un. sp. (Pl. IIL, figs. 20-21). 


Surface smooth ; carapace with comparatively straight anterior margin and sides, 
=one-half breadth ; body tapering regularly and ending in a stout conical tail 
segments increasing in length towards posterior end ; eyes inside a well-marked 
al band ; limbs increasing in length from before backwards, last pair neither 
ed as in Hurypterus nor elongated as in Stylonurus, ending in a slightly sickle- 
ed subconical joint; spines wanting on the limbs; metastoma oval ; genital plate 
b broad oval median process hardly extending beyond lateral portions. 

The arapace, which, as stated above, is twice as broad as it is long, has a well-marked 
bout 5 mm. wide. This border is ornamented with fine reticulating lines. 
YOL. XXXIX. PART IIT. (No. 19). AT 


584 DR MALCOLM LAURIE ON 


Immediately inside the border and just behind the antero-lateral angle of the carapace | 
are the comparatively small oval eyes. The metastoma (PI. IIL, fig. 20) is oval, narrow- 
ing slightly towards the front, and with a small but deeply-cut notch in the anterio 
border. ' 

The limbs are short and stout, formed of a series of sub-cylindrical joints of approxi- 
mately the same length. Each joint is narrower than the one before it, and the distal 
end of each expands slightly. The last jomt is subconical and slightly concave on the | 
post. marg. & 

No spines have been observed on any of the appendages. The most marked feature 
of these limbs is the close resemblance of one to another and the absence of any marked 
specialisation. ‘The increase in size from before backwards is an increase in both longi 
and breadth, so that the proportions of the limbs remain unaltered. 

The body segments are short, increasing slightly in length towards the posterior end 
as far as the 11th. The 12th is very much longer than any of the preceding ones, and 
has the shape of a truncated cone, from the posterior end of which arises the short conical 
telson. ‘The tapering of the body is almost uniform from the hind margin of the cara 
pace to the end of the telson. The tergites of the segments have their posterior angles 
produced into short spines. 

The genital plate is short and the median process oval and scarcely projecting beyond 
the posterior margin of the plate. 

This form is easily distinguished from D. pentlandicus by the smooth body surf 
the less central position of the eyes, the markediy conical form of the body. The pro- 
portions of the carapace and indeed of the whole animal show a greater breadth in propor- 
tion to the length. It resembles #. conicus in general form, but is usually easily dis- 
tinguished by the large submarginal eyes of conicus and the absence in it of the well- 
matked border to the carapace. ‘The telson in Conzcus is also much longer and slighter. 

Taken as a whole, this form appears to me the most primitive Eurypterid known, 
The absence of differentiation of the body into meso- and metasomatic regions is shared 
by it with several Eurypterus forms, but to this must be added the comparatively slight 
development of the genital plate, and above all the legs. The almost entire absence 
(much more marked than in D. pentlandicus) of differentiation of the posterior pair, either 
as flattened paddles as in the majority of the Eurypterids, or as enormously elongated 
walking legs as in Stylonurus, is a very striking feature. It is unfortunate that in this, 
as in so many of these Pentland specimens, the form of the gnathobases cannot be made 
out. 

I have termed it bembycoides from Béuf.Eé, a peg-top. 


Drepanopterus pentlandicus. (Pl. IV., fig. 22.) 


Some good specimens of this species have come to light. The most instructiv @ is 
the small individual figured in fig. 22. It is less distorted than the type specimen, 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. 585 


| ely approximates closely to the true form. The form of the carapace reminds one 
| Stylonurus, being distinctly horse-shoe shaped, with a well-marked marginal band. 
The eyes are situated rather far back, and show only a narrow semi-circular band. This, 
wever, is probably merely the outer margin, and does not represent the size of the 
ole visual area. The body expands slightly down to the fourth segment, and then 
tracts regularly to the tail. The last segment is very long and conical like the corre- 
mding one in D. bembycoides. The telson is remarkably large, being nearly half 
long as the body, and is covered with the granular markings characteristic of this 


orm. 

_ Of the Appendages, No. IV. is comparatively short, stout, and sub-conical. V. is 
mewhat elongated, the 3rd joint being most markedly modified. The last joint is 
- eonical and slightly concave on the posterior margin. This form of terminal joint seems 
to occur in all the members of this genus. 

The last pair of appendages are considerably elongated, without, however, reaching 
_ the specialisation shown in Stylonwrus. They appear longer in proportion in this speci- 
men than in the type, a difference which may be due to the different stage of growth of 
the two. None of the segments are particularly elongated, and the chief point of 
est is the presence of short, coarse spines on the third and fourth joints. Spines 
ot common on this pair of limbs in the EKurypteride. A very large number of 
specimens of this species in the Hardie Collection have not yielded any further information 
of importance. 


Hurypterus scoticus. (PL. 1V., figs. 23-25. Pl. Y., fig. 26.) 


-Carapace conical, broadest at hind margin and narrowing forwards. Body progres- 
ely wider to the third segment, narrowing abruptly at the 7th; last five segments 
st equal in width ; dorsal surface with finely punctate markings. Appendages.— 
ir short, provided with spines ; 3rd, 4th, and 5th pairs long, the four distal joints 
d with a double series of long, curved spines directed forwards; 6th with last seg- 
paddle) much narrower than penultimate. Gnathobases and metastoma un- 


my former paper | provisionally referred two fragments belonging to this 
to EL. scorpioides (Woodward), as there was not evidence enough to justify the 
n of a new species. A large number of fragments in the Hardie Collection 
wever, enabled me to found a new species with some certainty. 

apace.—The carapace (Pl. V., fig. 26) has a curved posterior margin and 
yhat rounded posterior angles. Its width in this specimen at this, the broadest 
5, 1s about 100 mm. ‘The lateral margin is concave, and narrows rapidly for the 
one-third of its length, for the other two-thirds it is convex, the two sides sloping 
that the anterior margin is scarcely one-third the width of the posterior. Nothing 
1 be ascertained as to the organs lying below the carapace, or as to the presence or 
ence of eyes. 


586 DR MALCOLM LAURIE ON 


Body Segments.—The type specimen shows the inside of the tergites of the first 
four segments. The specimen does not, however, extend far enough to show the mar. 
gins of any of these segments except the first. This segment is only half the length of 
the succeeding ones (7.e., 9 mm.), and extends laterally some 15 mm. beyond the angles | 
of the carapace, which would make the total width of the segment more than 130 mm, 
Of the other segments in this specimen nothing can be made out except that they are 
band like selerites, measuring some 18 mm. from front to back. A small portion of the 
ventral surface is shown on a small island towards the right side. One of the specimens 
referred to in my former paper shows the ventral surface of all the body segments of a_ 
specimen, the total length of which, without the telson, must have been between 5 0 
and 600 mm. (PI. IV., fig. 24.) "] 


APPENDAGES. 


Ist pair. (Pl. V., fig. 26.)—The position of the chelicerze can be made out on each _ 
side, the middle line commencing 10 mm. behind the anterior margin, and having a 
length of 12 mm., and a breadth of about 5 mm. at the base. They are somewhé 
conical in form, the apex of the cone being directed backwards. They agree in all 
essentials with the corresponding appendages in /. scorpioides and other forms. 7 

2nd parr.—This appendage projects some 22 mm. beyond the anterior margin of the 
carapace on the right side. The number of joints cannot be ascertained. The last joint 
ends in a powerful pair of curved spines very broad in proportion to their length. TI 
penultimate joint carries a spine on the inner side, and another rather doubtful spine 
hes immediately in front of the carapace. : =. 

3rd-5th pairs. (PI. IV., fig. 23. Pl. V., fig. 26.)--The next three limbs resemble one — 
another in being powerful, curved organs armed with a double series of curved spines | 
along the anterior margin of the four distal joints. The terminal (7th) segment bears 
pair of particularly powerful spines, and the strongest spines on the 5th and 6th joints 
appear always to arise from the distal angle ; indeed, it is doubtful if these joints bear 
any spines beyond the one pair. The 4th joint bears, at all events, in the 3rd pair | a 
appendages, three or four moderate sized spines. The spines themselves are smooth 
except when occasionally an extra large one shows signs of longitudinal striz. The 
portion of the joints to one another seems to be slightly different in the different pairs 
but I have not been able to get any certainty as to which is which. 


It probably belonged to an individual slightly larger than the type. The last two jo 
only are preserved, and of these the penultimate is a good deal broken. It (the penult 
mate joint) is very broad (40 mm.) and comparatively short (45 mm.), but presents no 
points of special interest. The terminal joint is oval in shape, comparatively long 
(63 mm.) and narrow (25 mm.). It narrows towards its point of articulation. 1 E 
posterior border is marked along the distal third of its length by a series of four oblique 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. 587 


incisions. Of these the one nearest the apex is the best developed and marks off a dis- 
tinct lobe. The other three are much smaller. 

The triangular plate, arising as usual from the posterior portion of the distal end of 
the penultimate joint, is very large in this form. Its breadth at the base is 27 mm., and 
the length must have been about 35 mm. It is larger in proportion to the last joint 
than in any other Eurypterus with which | am acquainted. 

I have ascribed a fragment of tail spine (Pl. IV., fig. 25) to this form. The chief 

reason for placing it here is that it does not seem to belong to either of the large species 

of Stylonurus. It had a triangular ridge running down the middle and occupying one 
third of the width. 

In comparison with other species, Hurypterus scoticus seems most nearly allied to 
EE. scorproides (Woodward) ; EL. punctatus (Salter) ; HL. (Husarcus) scorpionis, Grote ; F. 
(Echinognathus) cleveland: (Walcott) ; EH. acrocephalus (Semper). The last two may be 
disposed of in a few words. . clevelandi was founded on a single limb, which in struc- 
ture shows a close resemblance to the Kurypterids of this type, beg furnished with 
} long, curved spines. The number of spines is greater than in any of the usual forms, 
and it is possible that more than one limb may be present. Of #. acrocephala only 
| the general shape of the carapace and body segments is known. These agree fairly well 
with H. scoticus, the carapace being conical, and the body widening in the first few 
segments and suddenly narrowing in the seventh. The remains of appendages in this 
| Bohemian form are too slight and indistinct to admit of comparison. 

EL, punctatus of Salter resembles our form closely in some respects. The spine bear- 
img legs are, on the whole, similar, but the spines are, according to the description, 
markedly striated. Further, the form of the swimming foot differs in the much greater 
leneth in proportion to breadth of the terminal joint, and in the greater breadth of the 
| terminal joint in proportion to the penultimate one. . scorprordes can be distinguished 
by the proportionately shorter spines on the 3rd—5th appendages, and by the less-marked 
width of the swimming foot as a whole. The terminal joint of this foot in EF. scor- 
poides is also of the same width as the penultimate, while the triangular plate on the 
posterior side is very small. Hurypterus obesus resembles EH. scoticus in the general 
body form, but the anterior appendages do not seem to be furnished with spines, while 

he last pair have a form more like H. remipes, the terminal joints being much ex- 


» Eurypterus minor (Pl. V., figs. 27-29). 


A Carapace subquadrate, breadth slightly greater than length ; eyes oval; body taper- 
ing ; telson strong, triangular in section about equal in length to the last three segments ; 


_ This is a small form, the type specimen (fig. 27) measuring only 74 mm. in length. 
The specimen from which fig. 29 was drawn is somewhat larger, but wants the carapace. 
The carapace is widest at the posterior margin which is slightly concave. ‘The sides 


588 DR MALCOLM LAURIE ON 


converge shghtly towards the front and the anterior margin is comparatively straight. | 
The eyes are well marked and oval in form, placed about equidistant from the later 1 
and anterior margins. There is a curious curved line arising from the posterior end of 
the eye (fig. 28). The body segments increase in length and decrease in breadth from 
before backwards, and are not marked by any special characters except the fine and 
sharply-cut granular markings. There appears to be no prolongation back of the pow 
terior angles of any of the segments. 

The telson is powerful in proportion to the animal, with a triangular section. The 
ridge which is on the dorsal surface is expanded at the proximal end (fig. 29) and forms 
a triangular, flattened area. a 

Only traces of the appendages are preserved, but the last pair seem to have been 
expanded. 4 

This form differs from H. lanceolatus in the shape of the carapace and eyes and 
the squareness of the posterior segments which are conical in Janceolatus. The form of | 
carapace and position of the eyes recall the arrangement in #. Fischers (13) and its 
allies, but the eyes are more oval in form and the last body segment is not lobed. 


Bembycosoma, gen. nov. 


Carapace shaped like the ace of clubs, breadth greater than length, body conical 
short ; telson stout. 

It is with much hesitation that J create this genus for the reception of an obacti 
form of which a number of mostly fragmentary specimens have come to light. My hesita- 
tion 1s not so much due to any doubt of the generic value of the form, but to the absence 
of sufficient information to supply a satisfactory diagnosis. Insufficiently described genera 
are the greatest curse of systematic zoology, and I should be sorry to add to their num- 
ber. The one species known is :— 


B. pomphicus, n. sp. (Pl. V., figs. 31 and 32.) 


Characters, those of the genus and in addition a warty texture of skin. The cuticle 
was from its state of preservation thin and delicate, and the exact outlines are difficult 
to make out in many parts. The trilobed form of the carapace is only shown im one 
specimen (fig. 31), the others having a well-defined semi-circular form (fig. 32). The 
semi-circular outline of the carapace can be seen in the type specimen, and I am inclined 
to think that this is the true shape of the edge ; and that the lateral lobes are due to the 
flattening of dorso-lateral protuberances of the carapace. No trace of eyes has been made 
out, and though some obscure markings in some specimens probably indicate the gnatho- 
bases, I have not been able to interpret them. Any sign of limbs beyond the carte 
is wanting. 

The body tapers evenly down to the ap way and the telson continues the same 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. 589 


slope, being as wide at its base as the posterior margin of the last segment. The number 
ements is not certain. I have never been able to count more than nine, but in fig. 
he second segment is so large that it may represent two, and the posterior end is 
uplete. The telson is 7 mm. wide at its base and seems to have been about 12 mm. 
The whole surface of the body is covered with the pimply structure from which — 
pecific name has been derived, but the telson seems to have been smooth. 
‘the number of segments is really less than 12 this form would have to be removed 
the Hurypterida and placed along with Bellonurus and Prestwichia among the 
sura. There is a resemblance in texture between this species and Hurypterella 
described by Matruew (6) from the Lower Devonian of New Brunswick. 
ding to his description, however, the carapace is triangular and segmented. It is 
ssible that his specimen showed only the body segments (he only figures 9 includ- 
he seemented carapace) and these broken away in front. I have not, unfortunately, 
ad an opportunity of seeing the original specimen. 


LIST OF PAPERS REFERRED TO. 


Grote anp Pirt, ‘‘ New Crustacea from the Water Lime,” Bull. Buffalo Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. iii. 

‘LL, “ Natural History of New York,” Paleontology, vol. ii. 

iL AND CuaRKE, “‘ Natural History of New York,” Palwontology, vol. vii. 

Rig, ‘‘Some Eurypterid Remains from the Upper Silurian Rocks of the Pentland Hills,” 7. &. S. H., 
vol. XXXVii. 

n, “‘Some points in the cevelapment of Scorpio fulvipes,” Q. J. M. S., vol. xxxii. 

EW, “Remarkable Organisms of the Silurian and Devonian in 8. New Brunswick,” 7. R. S., 
Janada, vol. vi. 

aon, “ Ancient air breathers,” Watwre, 1885. 

MANN, ‘‘ Additional notes on the Fauna of the Water Lime,” Bull. Buffalo, Nat. Hist. Soc., vols. 
and v. 

ELL AND Linpsrrow, ‘‘ A Silurian Scorpion from Gothland,” Kongl. Svensk. Vetinck. Acad. Handl., 


ELD, “‘ An American Scorpion,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. i. 

ARD, ‘“‘ Monograph of the British fossil Crustacea, belonging to the order Merostomata,” Palwon- 
raphical Society. 

w, Mem. de VAcad Imp. de St Pétersbourgh, vol. xxxi. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
(Except where otherwise stated, the figures are natural size.) 


Puate I. 


Palzophonus loudonensis, n. sp. x 2 

Embryo of Scorpio fulvipes. Magnified. 

Slimonea dubia, n. sp. Carapace and body segments. 
Slimonea dubia. Body segments and telson, 

_ Stylonurus macrophthalmus, 


fu 


590 


Fig. 5. Stylonurus macrophthalmus, Posterior segments showing epimera. r 
6. Stylonurus macrophthalmus. Last two segments. ( 

7. Stylonurus macrophthalmus. Fourth appendage. a 
8. Stylonurus ornatus. First and second appendages. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


being No. 32. The figs. numbered 16, 21, and 25 appear in Plates IIL, IV., and V. 


respectively. 


. Stylonurus ornatus. Appendage 3. 

. Stylonurus ornatus. Appendage 4. 

. Stylonurus ornatus. Appendages 5 and 6. 
. Stylonurus elegans, n. sp. Left side. = 
. Stylonurus elegans. Portion of carapace of a small specimen to show nature of margin. 
. Stylonurus elegans. Posterior segments presumably belonging to this form. 
. Drepanopterus lobatus, n. sp. 

. Drepanopterus lobatus, 


. Drepanopterus lobatus. Fragment of specimen showing appendages and ornamentation, 
. Stylonurus elegans. Right side. 
. Drepanopterus bembycoides, n. sp. 
. Drepanopterus bembycoides. 

. Drepanopterus pentlandicus. 


. Lurypterus scoticus, n. sp. Last two appendages, 
. Eurypterus scoticus, Body segments x 4, 

. Hurypterus scoticus. 'Telson. 

. Eurypterus scoticus. Type specimen. 


. Hurypterus minor, u. sp. 

. Eurypterus minor. Carapace. 
. 28, 
. Hurypterus conicus. Last segments and telson. 
. Bembicosoma pomphicus, n. gen. and sp, 

. Bembicosoma pomphicus. 


EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE PENTLAND HILLS. 


Puare IT. 


Puate ITI. 


H 
Puate IV. 


Prater VY. 


Eurypterus minor. Posterior segments and telson of a somewhat larger specimen. 


CORRIGENDA. 


On p. 590, Fig. 9 should be numbered Fig. 10, and so on throughout, the last fig. 


P. 583, lines 17 and 31, for “ bembycoides” read “ bembicotdes.” 


P. 588, for ‘ Bembycosoma” read “ Bembicosoma.” 


rf. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXIX. 
SDF LAURIE ON A SILURIAN SCORPION Etc. — Prater | 


MiParlane & Erskine, Lith. Bdint 


Trans. Roy: Soe: Edin® Vol. XXXIX. 


== IPN iL 


D® LAURIE ON A SILURIAN SCORPION Erc 


M‘Farlane & Erskine [ath Edin? 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin® Vol 


XXXIX. 
DEAGRIE ON A SILURIAN SCORPION Frc. — Prats II, 


= 


} 
. 
j 
t 


Ee 


MWFarlane & Erskine, Lith., Edin? 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol XXXIX, 
Meee TAURIE oN A StmuURIAN SCORPION Ere. — Prare IV 


MSFarlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin? 


lirams hoy, Doc. dim, Vol nl, 
D& LAURIE ON A SILURIAN SCORPION Etc.— Puate V. 


M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith Edin® 


(1591 *) 


—On a New Species of Cephalaspis, discovered by the Geological Survey of 
otland, im the Old Red Sandstone of Oban. By Ramsay H. Traquarr, M.D., 
.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Natural History Collections in the Museum of Science 
ee d Art, Edinburgh. (With a Plate.) 


/ 


(Read 4th July 1898.) ‘ 

autumn of last year Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, F.R.S., Director-General of the 
Survey of the United Kingdom, kindly placed in my hands for determination 
of specimens of Cephalaspis, collected by his officers in the. Lower Old Red 
tone of the neighbourhood of Oban. On examining them, I found“that they ia 
i d to one species, which was, however, new to science. 

rdingly I drew up a brief diagnosis of this new form, which was included” . 
HIBALD in his Summury of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1897, and it 
y privilege, with his sanction, to offer to this Society a more detailed deserip- 
1 of the species, accompanied with figures. 


Class, PISCES. 
Sub-class, OSTRACODERMI. 
Order, OSTEOSTRACTI. 
Family, CEPHALASPIDZ. 
Genus, CEPHALASPIS, Agassiz, 1835. 


Cephalaspis Lornensis, ‘Traquair. 
s Lornensis, Traq. In the Director-General’s Summ. Progr. Geol. Survey for 1897 (1898), p. 83. 


nosis.—Shield bluntly rounded in front; cornua short, considerably shorter 
e occipital projection ; eyes placed considerably in front of the middle point 
1 the anterior margin and the posterior extremity of the shield. 

tinctive marks of this species are the short cornua, together with the anterior 
the orbits. This is illustrated by the accompanying restored outlines of the 
ield in C. Lornensis (fig. 2) and in the common C. Lyelli of the Lower Old 
Forfarshire and Herefordshire (fig. 1). 

regards the cornua, the known species which most closely approaches C. Lor- 
C. Murchisoni, Egerton (fig. 3), from the Passage Beds (Downtonian) of 
/OL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 20). ripe 


592 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON A NEW SPECIES OF CEPHALASPIS 


Herefordshire. Here, however, the cornua may be said to be obsolete (or undeveloped), 
while these projections in the Argyllshire species, though short, are yet quite distinct. 
Description.—Fig. 1 in Plate represents a head nearly perfect in its contour, and | 
more than usually uncompressed. It measures 1% inch in length, by about the same in 
greatest breadth, allowing for a slight deficiency of the cornual region of the right id 
The upper aspect of the shield shows a flat margin, about + inch in breadth, =i 


; 


“7 
bd 
<a 
_ Fic. 1, —Outline of the cranial Fic, 2.—Of C. Lornensis, Traq. Fic. 3.—Of C. Murchisoni, Kg. . 
shield of Cephalaspis Lyclli, Ag. ‘ 
or., orbit ; p.0.v., post-orbital valley; c., cornu; p.s., posterior spine ; p.m., posterior margin ; p.a@., posterior angle. = 


from cornu to cornu round the front, within which the surface is convexly arched. 
Anteriorly the contour of the head is bluntly rounded ; posteriorly the left cornu, which 
is completely shown, is short and bluntly pointed, and does not extend as far back as | 
the posterior median point of the shield, nor even as far back as the posterior lateral 
angle.* The eyes are placed considerably in front of the middle of the shield, for the 
distance from the prominence of the posterior margin to a point midway between the 
orbits exceeds that from the same point to the front by 7%; of an inch, or about one-sixth 
part of the entire length of the head. Each of the oval orbits measures 4%; inch in 
length, and the two are rather less than the same distance apart. The antorbital 
prominences and valley are well marked, as is likewise the post-orbital valley, the latter 
being succeeded by a ridge ending in the posterior spine, which is, however, not 
prominent, and forms rather an obtusely angular point. 

The substance of the test is present pretty nearly all over, and in front of the orbits 
indications of the external ornament are seen, apparently consisting of a very minute 
eae ee 

Fig. 2 in Plate represents another nearly perfect cephalic shield, which is, however, 
compressed into a condition of nearly absolute flatness. In size, in proportion, and in 
eontour, it closely agrees with the one just described. But the greater part of the bony 
substance being removed, the impressions of the radiating blood-vessels of the lower 
aspect are very distinctly exhibited. 


* In some specimens the cornu extends back as far as the posterior lateral angle, but in none does it go as far as 
posterior median point of the shield. 


IN THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF OBAN. 593 


Fig. 3 in Plate presents us with a specimen in which not only the head but 
also a portion of the body is seen, though in both cases only in impression. The 
contour of the shield is well exhibited, and its proportions agree in all essentials with 
those of the specimens described above. The impressions of the inner surface of the 
lateral body scutes show a sort of corrugated appearance, which does not, however, in 
my opinion, indicate that these inner surfaces were not smooth as usual. 

In fig. 4 of the same Plate we have an entire specimen lying on its side, but, unfor- 
tunately, not very well preserved. Only a portion of the impression of the cephalic 
| shield, not including the orbits, is here seen, but it shows the peculiar short cornu (c.) on 
left side. We have also in this specimen, on the left side, the impression of the peculiar 
obtuse flap-like organ (c.o.) which passes back from the head between the cornu and the 
posterior angle of the shield in all the species of this genus where the specimens are 
sufficiently entire to show it. Of the body scutes, only the inner surfaces of some, and 
the impressions of the outer surfaces of others, are seen, whence it appears that they 
were smooth inside and minutely granulated outside. Some remains of the dorsal fin 
are exhibited opposite the point marked d. in the figure, and as regards the caudal it is 
present but not expanded. 

An imperfect cranial shield, not figured, must, judging from its proportions, have 
been originally 4 inches in length, and its dimensions must have consequently exceeded 
those of any other British species except C. Salweyi, Eo., and C. magnifica, Traq. 
This specimen, consisting only of part of the right side of a shield, is interesting as. 
showing the tesselation of the middle layer, and also the impression of that strange 
marginal strap-like internal space which lies close to and parallel with the outer rim, 
beginning close to the cornu behind and extending nearly to the middle line in front. 
This space has long been known in Eukeraspis pustuliferas,* in which it is subdivided 
into six loculi; but I had not observed it in Cephalaspis until some time ago Mr Smita 
Woopwarb pointed it out to me in specimens of C. Murchison: in the British Museum. 
Geological Position and Locality.—All the specimens as yet known were collected 
by the Geological Survey of Scotland in the Lower Old Red Sandstone of the neighbour- 
hood of Oban. One specimen has also turned up in the island of Kerrera. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 


Fig. 1. Detached cranial shield of Cephalaspis Lornensis, Traq., from a cliff on the roadside near Carrick 
Villa, Oban. 

a Fig. 2. A similar shield, much compressed, from the railway cutting near Dalintart, about one mile from 
en. 


‘Fig. 3. A specimen, showing the head and a portion of the body, from the same locality as that repre- 
sented in fig. 1. 


Fig. 4. A specimen, nearly entire, lying on its side, showing the cornu (¢.); cornual flap (¢.0.); and re- 
mains of the dorsal fin (d.). From the shore 100 yards west of Gallanach Lodge, 3 miles south-west of Oban. 


* Lanxester, Brit, Cephalaspideans, Pal. Soc., 1870, p. 58 ; Suir Woopwarp, Cat. Foss. Fishes Brit. Mus., pt. 
i. p. 193. 


D?R.H.TRAQUAIR ON CEPHALASPIS LORNENSIS. 


bi Sec. Edin’ Vol. AXXIX. 


Mintern Bros .imp.London. 


( 595 ) 


.—On Thelodus Pagei, Powrie, sp. from the Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire. 
By Ramsay H. Traqvarr, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Natural History 
Collections in the Museum of a Ge dog Art, Hiliabareh: (With a Plate.) 


(Read 4th July 1898.) 


The remarkable fossil fish which forms the subject of the present communication 
ed originally to the late Mr Powrts of Reswallie, and was acquired, along with the 


he specimen was obtained by Mr Powkrig in a quarry of the Lower Old Red Sand- 
.at Turin Hill, near Forfar. 


RIE in Forfarshire, in beds which es mae Cephalaspis. As I have not been 
to assign it to Cephalaspidian fishes, though it may possibly be connected with 
I only allude to it here. It consists of a surface covered with minute spinous tuber- 


r less that of a Cephalaspid, with head and body. The spinous tubercles on some 
of Cephalaspis suggested the idea that this might belong to the lower surface 
e of these fishes, covering in the ventral aspect of the head and the ventral series 
les ; being detached, as it were, in this part of the animal, but adhering closely to 
eeper aponeurotic layers of the exoskeleton in the superior parts, and forming the 
cteristic tuberculated surface of the shield and scales. There is, however, no proof 
; connection with these fishes, and it seems more probable that it belongs to some 
Tepresentative of the Sharks and Rays (representative, perhaps, only in the 
ster of its dermal ossifications) than that it is the ventral surface of a 
laspid.” 

the same year, however, Mr Powrtz himself published a paper in which he named 
h in question Cephalopterus Paget, and gave likewise a rough pen and ink 
@ of it.* His description of the species is as follows :— 

dead and anterior portion of body very depressed, sub-elliptical, and truncated 
rly ; pectoral fins forming its outer posterior angles, which are rounded ; posterior 
m the Harliest Known Vestiges of Vertebrate Life; being a Description of the Fish Remains of the Old Red 
of Forfarshire,” Trans. Geol. Soc. Edin., vol. i. pp. 284-301. Paper read 16th April 1869, published 1870. 

. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 21). 4x 


596 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUATR ON THELODUS PAGEI. 


portion of body short, narrow, triangular, scarcely half the width of anterior portion, 
rapidly narrowing to tail, which is long and linear; fins membranous, covered with very _ 
small scales in parallel rows; no demarcation between body and commencement of — 
pectorals ; caudal fin large, entirely below; scales small, somewhat elliptical in form, — 
umbonate, smooth, inner surface having an elliptical indentation in centre. Branchia, — 
consisting of exposed arches, arranged seven or eight on each side of, and at right angles 
to, a ridge running longitudinally along the centre of the under side of the disk, and — 
occupying about one-half its length. Length about fourteen inches.” . 
Regarding its affinities, Mr Powrie thus expressed himself :— 
“The peculiar form of the anterior portion of the body and pectoral fin, the long — 
linear tail, and, if I am correct in considering the peculiar markings on the under side of — 
the head as the branchial apparatus, it would appear decidedly placoid, and strangely — 
allied to modern Rays; but at the same time the scales, although small, and somew! 
like those of the Acanthodian fishes, are more ganoid in character than those of the 
latter family.” : 
In the second part of Mr A. Smita Woopwarn’s Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes in the 
British Museum, published in 1895, p. 200, the fish is simply mentioned as “ Another 
supposed ally of the Cephalaspide,” there beg no remains of it in the London 
collection. 2 
In 1894 I myself made a brief allusion to the so-called Cephalopterus, in treating of 
the remarkable plates from the Old Red Sandstone, known as Psammosteus, which 
now usually considered to have belonged to some sort of “armoured Sharks.” Spea 
of the external sculpture of these Psammosteus plates, | remarked :— | King 


shagreen-bodies, which have coalesced, as very similarly shaped bodies, still disunited 
may be seen to form the dermal covermg in Powritk’s Cephalopterus Pager from 
the Lower Old Red of Forfarshire, the subjacent thickness of the plate being 
formed in a deeper layer of the skin.” And as the name Cephalopterus had been pre- “7 
occupied as early as 1809, I proposed, in a footnote, to re-name the genus Jura, from 
the locality whence the specimen was derived.* “ 

It was not, however, till I became acquainted with a remarkable series of Upper 
Silurian fishes discovered in Lanarkshire by the Geological Survey of Scotland, - 
which, having been placed in my hands for description by Sir ARcHTBALD GEIKIE, 
form the subject of a subsequent paper, that I discovered the special importance of # 
hitherto problematic fish from the Forfarshire Old Red, as well as the fact that the 
name Turinia, which I had given to it, must share the same fate as Opholnial 
though for a different reason. 

From their squamation, it became clear that some of these Silurian fishes & 
referable to Thelodus of Acassiz, a genus previously known only by detached se 


“The minute stellate tubercles which form the ornament of the outer layer are a 


* “The Extinct Vertebrate Animals of the Moray Firth Area,” published in Harvie Brown and Bucky ; a 
“ Vertebrate Fauna of the Moray Basin,’ vol. ii., Edinburgh, 1896, p. 262, i 


DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON THELODUS PAGEI. | 297 


from the Silurian of England and of Russia,* and, on more perfect examples being found, 
it turned out that their contour of body was identical with that of the Cephalopterus or 
Turia. This led to a critical re-examination of the Forfarshire specimen, which, first 
convincing me of its close alliance with Thelodus, left me finally no choice but to merge 
it in the same genus. 

Thelodus parvidens was the name given by Agassiz in 1839 to certain minute 
bodies, which are abundant in the well-known Ludlow “ Bone Bed,” on the supposition 
- that they were fish-teeth resembling those of Lepidotus. These bodies, “small as grains 
of fine sand,” are of a somewhat stud-like form, that is to say, constricted below the top, 
which is smooth and flat, or slightly convex, while in the centre of the under surface of 
the base is seen the opening of an internal pulp-cavity.t 

That these bodies were not, however, teeth, but scales, or “the earthy grains or 
shagreen of the skin of large cartilaginous fishes,” was maintained by M‘Coy, not only 
because of the abundance with which they sometimes occur over patches of rock, but 
also on account of their microscopic structure. He suggested that they were in all 
probability the shagreen granules of the same fish as bore the spines known as 
Onchus tenmistriatus, Ag., fragments of which are common in the same “ Bone Bed.”{ 
Mourcuison, in his Siluria (1854, p. 238), adopted M‘Coy’s views as to the correla- 
tion of Onchus and Thelodus in the following words :— 

“Onchus tenwstriatus and Murchisoni are the bony fish iene such as were 
possessed by many placoid fishes of the old rocks. . . . The small cushion-like bodies, 
called formerly Thelodus parvidens by AGassiz, and which occur in myriads in the 
stratum, often forming large portions of its thin layers, are certainly the granules of the 
| skin, or shagreen of one or other of these two common species.” 

Tn his well-known work on the Silurian Fishes of Russia,§ PANDER instituted the 
family Ceelolepide for various minute scales, or shagreen-bodies, from the limestones of 
Oesel, and of which he made three genera,—viz., Calolepis, Pachylepis, and Nostolepis, 
| which were to be distinguished by the relative size, or, in the last case, by the absence, 
| of the opening on the under surface of the base of the scale. Recognising the close 
| resemblance of his Pachylepis to Thelodus of Acasstz, PaNDER stated his readiness to 
withdraw the former name, if the identity of the two should afterwards come to be 
, fully proved ; though in that case he proposed to change Thelodus into Thelolepis. 1 
| do not find any indication of Panpmr having believed in the correlation of the Onchus 
| spines with the minute scales which he included under the term Coelolepidee. 

However, Prof. von ZirreL, writing in 1887, placed Thelodus in the sub-order 


. * Detached scales have also occurred in the Upper Devonian of Russia, and have been described and figured by 

Rohon as Thelolepis (= Thelodus) Tulensis. 

+ In Murcutson’s Silurian System, vol. ii., 1839, p. 606, pl. iv., figs. 34-36. 

—F Qu. Jowrn. Geol. Soc,, vol. ix. (1853), p. lA, British Palaeozore Fossils, p. 576. 

Z. $C.H. PANDER, anegraphie der Fossilen HRiache des Silurischen Systems der Russesch-baltischen Gouvernements, St 
| Petersburg, 1856. 


5398 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON THELODUS PAGEI. 


Squalide or Sharks, and says of it and of Panper’s Pachylepis, that they “ wahrschein- 
lich zu Onchus gehoren.”* . 
Mr Surrx Woopwarp in his Catalogue, part ii. (1891), p. 156, places the Ceelo- 
lepidee as “ Incertee sedis” at the end of the Elasmobranchii. Like Panprr, Mr Woop- 
WARD makes no remark as to these scales having belonged to the same fishes which 
bore the Onchus spines. ; . 
Professor J. V. Rowon, in his second paper on the “ Upper Silurian Fishes of Oesel,” | 
published in 1893, adopts PanprEr’s Ceelolepidee, which he places in the sub-class 
Selachii, order Plagiostomi, and sub-order Squaloidei. They are, he says, “ ausgestor- 
bene Selachier, deren Haut mit Placoidschuppen bedeckt war,” adding also that “zu | 
diesen Schuppen gehéren wahrscheinlich auch Zaihne und Flossenstacheln (Monopleu- 
rodus, Onchus).” Rowon, in fact, adopts M‘Coy’s opinion, that the Zhelodus scales 
and Onchus spines belonged together, adding also the small teeth named Monopleurodus 
by PanbER, as probably appertaining to the same group of fishes. He also deseribes | 
minutely the microscopic structure of the Ceelolepid scales, comparing them in this 
respect with those of the extinct Acanthodei, and of the living Selachu. His conelu- | 
sion is that the Ccelolepid scales are genuine “ Placoidschuppen,” but, as they in many | 
respects show a simpler condition of histological structure, they must be regarded as | 
placoid scales in a lower stage of development. 
We have seen that Zrrret, in 1887, placed the Ccelolepide among the Squalide, | 
but in 1895 he is more disposed to refer them to the Acanthodei. ‘Treating of the last- 
named group, he says :— 
“Die grosse Uebereinstimmung der Climatius-stacheln mit gewissen als Onchus he- | 
zeichneten Ichthyodorulithen lasst es iiberaus wahrscheinlich erscheinen dass wenigstens ein | 
Theil der letztgenannten im oberen Silur und Devon verbreiteten Reste von Acanthodiden | 
herrithren. Hochst wahrscheinlich gehéren auch die vierseitigen Chagrinschuppen 
welche von Agassiz unter dem Namen Thelodus aus dem obern Silur von England, von | 
Panper unter der Bezeichnung Ca@lolepis, Thelolepis, Pachylepis, und Nostolepis aus 
dem oberen Silur von Oesel beschrieben wurden.” { L| 
To sum up, then, the current opinions concerning the Ccelolepidee, it would seem } 
that these scales are now looked upon either as 7ncerte sedis, or as having belonged to | 
true Squali or to Acanthodei, and that the notion is also entertained by many that the | 
defensive spines known as Onchus formed part of the dermal armature of the same} 
creatures. 
Itis the object of this paper to show, by means of a re-examination of the Lower Old} 
Red Fish called by Powr1e Cephalopterus Paget, that, though probably of Elasmobranch | 
ancestry, the Coelolepide cannot be classed either as Squali or as Acanthodei, and that it) 
is not among them that the ancient possessors of the Onchus spines must be locked for. | 


* Handbuch der Paleontologie (Paleeozoologie), vol. iii, p. 64. a 
+ Die Obersilurischen Fische von Oesel, ii. Theil ; Mem. Acad. Imp. Sc. de St Petersbourg, t. xli., No. 5, 1893, 
t Grundzige der Paleontologic, Munich and Leipzig, 1895, p. 530. ’ 


DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON THELODUS PAGEI. 299 


Fig. 1 on the accompanying Plate represents the specimen in question, one-fourth 
smaller than the natural size. The entire length is 12 inches, the breadth at the 
widest part, namely, between the two lateral fin-like expansions, is 6 inches. 

The fish, as it hes before us, may be described as consisting of two divisions, anterior 
and posterior. The former of these, broad and expanded, may be said to be approxi- 
mately trapezoidal in shape, the narrow side, which is also convex anteriorly, being 
in front, the broad one behind, while the opposite lateral margins diverge as they pass 
backwards ; and we note further that the angles are rounded off. Or, in other words, 
the anterior vertically compressed and laterally expanded portion forms at each posterior 
rounded angle a fin-like flap, the contour of which is sharply marked off behind from 
the tail, but is continuous anteriorly with the outline of the head, which is also rounded 
in front. 

_ These flap-like expansions were by Powrix considered to be pectoral fins comparable 
with those of the Rays, and for my own part I cannot see how we can interpret them 
otherwise than as lateral fin-folds. If that interpretation is correct, we have here a 
very interesting point in connection with the much discussed question of the mor- 
phology of the paired limbs in vertebrates. 

The surface contained within the boundaries of this expanded anterior part of the 
fish is gently convex. About the middle, however, there is a slight longitudinal depres- 
sion about 24 inches in length, and reaching to 14 inch from the front, at the bottom 
of which, and extending for its whole length, there is a feeble bar-lke elevation or 
rounded ridge. From this central longitudinal ridge there pass out on each side eight 
transverse bar-like elevations of a similar character, the more posterior of which tend 
more and more to a backward direction, so that the last pair show a contour like that 
of a V widely open and reversed in position. 

I have not the slightest doubt that Powriez was right in interpreting this arrange- 
ment of ridges and intervening grooves as indications of a branchial apparatus, but it is 
quite another thing to describe the “‘ branchiz ” as “ consisting of exposed arches,” or to 
deduce from the presence of those markings that we have the ventral aspect of the fish 
before us. We see neither branchize nor branchial openings in the specimen, and the 
ridges and grooves alluded to are, to my mind, simply indications of the presence of 
a cartilaginous branchial skeleton in the living fish, but which of course is lost in the 
fossil. That the exposed aspect of the specimen is dorsal and not ventral, is, as we shall 
see further on, conclusively shown by the position of the lower lobe of the heterocercal 
caudal fin. 

It seems, therefore, certain that this expanded anterior part contains much more 
than the head,—namely, the anterior portion of the body as well,—and in this manner the 
lappet-like expansions which form its right and left posterior angles may well be inter- 
preted as lateral fin-folds. Their general appearance also suggests an analogy with the 
cornual flaps of Cephalaspis, which were originally considered by LAaNKESTER as the 
equivalents of pectoral fins. . 


600 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON THELODUS PAGEI. 


At this stage we may take notice of the fact that the head affords us no traces what- 
ever of teeth or of jaws. Where the mouth was is not evident, and we are as little 
informed as to the position of the eyes. 

The tail is 24 inches broad at its origin, and becoming rapidly narrower, ex- 
tends back for 63 inches where it is broken off. Unlike the anterior part of the 
animal the tail appears laterally compressed, but nothing can be seen in its structure 
but a mass of the shagreen-bodies to be presently described. Before this tail is eut | 
off by the edge of the stone, part of a median fin is seen passing off obliquely on 
the aspect opposite to that from which we view the fish as a whole. As there can 
be no doubt that this is the lower lobe of a heterocercal caudal, it follows that 
the aspect of the hody, which is exposed in the fossil, is the dorsal, and not the ventral 
as supposed by PowRriE. 

There is no evidence in this specimen of the presence of ventral, dorsal, or anal fing 

The only actual structures which are preserved in the specimen, are the scales or 
shagreen-bodies with which the entire surface of the fossil is closely covered, from 
the front of the head to the broken off extremity of the tail. They are mostly of 
an oval form, as seen in figs. 2-4, though they are more nearly round at the anterior 
margin. Their size is also pretty uniform, the long diameter measuring '; to 3'5 inch, 
but on the lateral fin-expansions they are considerably smaller. The outer surface 
(fic. 2) is brilliantly ganoid, slightly convex, and distinctly nicked or crenulated 
round the margin; the lower surface (fig. 3) is also convex, and shows in the middle — 
a comparatively large hole or opening passing into the interior. Most of the scales 
in this specimen are, however, broken through horizontally, as seen in fig. 4, and here 
the internal cavity, into which the hole in the base passes, is very obvious and of 
considerable size. 

To complete our knowledge of the configuration of these scales, it 1s, however, 
necessary to turn to a second specimen, from Canterland, Kincardineshire, consisting 
only of a mass of the shagreen about 2 inches square, referable, I believe, to the same 
species but to a larger and older individual. ‘The scales are larger, their long diameters 
often measuring 7); inch, and their form is frequently more irregular as seen in 
figs. 5-8. 

In fig. 5 three scales are represented, magnified eight diameters, one of which, of 
a peculiarly narrow shape, is seen from below, while the other two are seen from the 
side. Here we see that the smooth rounded basal portion is separated by a slight 
constriction from the upper part or crown, and that the crenulations of the margin 
of the latter are continued down the “neck” as a sort of vertical fluting as far 
as the upper boundary of the base. Fig. 8 represents the lower surface of a scale 
similarly magnified from which we see that it is strongly convex and provided 
with a very small opening leading into the interior, but in many cases this hole is 
quite imperceptible as in the two lower scales of the group of four shown in fig, 6; 
in this figure we also see that the convexity of the base may be in places obtusely | 


DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON THELODUS PAGEI. 601 


angulated instead of being regularly curved. In this specimen it is also to be noted 
that where the scales are broken horizontally the internal cavity is reduced to a 
mere narrow cleft as seen in fig. 7. 

The extreme softness of the scales in both of these specimens renders it impossible 
to extract or isolate any one of them as they crumble away at once if any attempt 
is made to develop them with a needle or other sharp instrument; nevertheless, the 
examples which I have figured just as they lie in the stone afford us a very good idea of 
their configuration. Their friable condition is also adverse to their being examined 
microscopically. Seen with a powerful platyscopic hand lens, the substance of the scales, 
where broken across, is white pearly and homogeneous in texture, some traces of con- 
centric lines being occasionally observable as in the fractured example shown in fig. 4. 
A consideration, however, of the macroscopic character of these dermal appendages 
leaves no doubt that the fish before us belongs to the family Ccelolepidee of Panpmr, 
and that it throws a startling light upon the bodily configuration of fishes, of which, 
as aforesaid, we have hitherto known nothing but the detached scales. This is 
clearly shown by the general form of the scales, by the internal pulp cavity, as well 
as by the opening in the lower surface of the base, which in those of the entire 
specimen is pretty large (fig. 3), while in those of the shagreen-fragment it is very 
small as in fig. 8, or even apparently absent as in figs. 5 and 6. 

There is also as little doubt that the genus Thelodus itself (Thelolepis, PanpEr, 
Rowon) is the one to which this species from the Forfarshire Old Red is referable. 
Rowon’s suppression of Nostolepis, PanpmR, is here clearly justified by the scales of 
the shagreen-fragment to which I have just alluded, in many of which no basal 
opening can be seen, while in others it is present. And if I am right in referring 
this fragment to the same species as the entire fish represented in fig. 1, then a 
question comes up as to the validity of the genus Ce@lolepis. 

For the essential difference between Celolepis and Thelodus is the larger size of 
the pulp cavity and basal opening with a feebler development of the base in the 
former, while in the latter the case is reversed. To quote RoHon’s words :— 


“Placoidschuppen mit weiter Pulpahdhle und rudimentiirer Basalplatte . : Ceelolepis. 
Placoidschuppen mit kleiner oder rudimentiirer Pulpahdhle und wohl 
entwickelter Basalplatte . : : ; : : : : : ‘ Thelolepis.” 


It is to be observed, however, that in the scales of the entire and presumably 
younger specimen of Th. Pagei (figs. 1-4) the pulp cavity and basal opening are 
proportionally larger than in the scale of the shagreen-fragment (figs. 5-8) which 
evidently belonged to an older and larger fish. Here the pulp cavity and basal open- 
ing have been evidently reduced by the progress of calcification advancing with 
ge; and it may well be asked—may not the supposed distinction between Celolepis 
and Thelodus be entirely of this nature? I, for my part, am inclined to reply in 
the affirmative. 


602 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON THELODUS PAGET. 


The recognition of Powrtr’s “ Cephalopterus” Pager as a veritable species of the 
genus ZThelodus does indeed throw quite a new light upon the ancient family of © 
Ceelolepidee. | 

In the first place it absolutely disposes of the supposition that the fin-spines 


teeth nor fin-spines, and in these particulars the Ccelolepide, to be described in my | 
forthcoming “Report” on the Upper Silurian fishes collected by the Geological Survey — 
of Scotland in Lanarkshire, perfectly agree. The general form of the body likewi : | 
as well as the absence of recognisable jaws and teeth are features decidedly against — 
the retention of Thelodus in the order Selachii at all. . 

In the second place, these specimens render it equally certain that Thelodus 
not referable to the Acanthodei. 

In my next paper I shall endeavour to show that a series of forms connects Thelo 
with the Heterostracous division of the Ostracodermi, and that the Ccelolepide in 
fact belong to that order. Nevertheless, the nature of their dermal covering clearly 
points to an Elasmobranch affinity, and to the idea that through them the Hetero 
straci have had a common origin with the primitive Elasmobranchs.* 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 


Figs. 2-8 enlarged eight diameters. 


Fig. 1. Thelodus Paget (Powrin) ; reduced one-third, From the Lower Old Red Sandstone, Turin 7: 
Forfarshire. (Powrie Collection, Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art.) . 
Fig. 2. Outer surface of scales from near the front ; magnified eight diameters. 
Fig. 3. Under surface of a scale, from a wax impression, showing a basal opening of considerable size, 
Fig. 4. A scale broken through horizontally, showing the internal pulp cavity. 
Fig. 5. Three scales from a patch of shagreen belonging to Thelodus Paget but from Canterland, Kin. 
cardineshire. The two lower scales seen from the side; the upper one, from below. (Powrie Collection.) 
Fig. 6. Four scales from the same patch seen fem below ; in two the basal opening is very small ; in 
two it is apparently absent. 
Fig. 7. Scale from the same patch, broken through horizontally, showing the pulp cavity reduced to a 
narrow chink. 
Fig. 8. Scale from the same patch, seen from below, showing a small basal opens 


* It may, however, here be noted that Dr O, M. Ruts of Munich has already expressed the opinion regarding the 
Pteraspidie, the only family hitherto by common consent included in the Heterostraci, that they, along with the 
Psammosteide, “eine einheitliche Degenerationsgruppe der Elasmobranchier bilden,” Geognostische Jalreshefte, vi. p. 64, | 
See also the same author in Scawawpn’s Morphologische Arbeiten, vi. p. 213. 


ins. Roy. Soc.Edin® Vol. XXXIX. 
D? R.H.TRAQUAIR ON THELODUS PAGE]. 


J.Green inlap. 
Mintern Bros imp. London. 


( 603) 


XXII.—The Emblem of the Crab in Relation to the sign Cancer. 
By D’Arcy Wentworth THompson, C.B. 


(Read 16th May 1898.) 


ae 


This paper deals with a leisure-time study of mine, from which I once before 
the subject of an essay for this Society. The representations of animal form 
Ancient Art interest me chiefly in so far as they present to us a problem in- 
olving an unsolved question as to the whole spirit and motive with which such 
esentations were designed. We may see expressed in them merely a tendency 
ortray familiar objects in appropriate associations, to use the fish, or the crab, 


ish i caren ci ime 
, . 


mn 


employ those creatures and others—the ox, the sheep, and the goat, the lion, 
If, and the eagle—as the more fanciful appanage of divinities whose imaginary 
es were the attributes of the sea, the plain, the mountain or the sky. But 
rr, iM my opinion, if we fail to recognise in this antiquated symbolism a deeper 
ion, whose spirit is rather Oriental than Western, archaic than modern. [ 
these representations for the most part to have been associated with specific 
or beliefs of astronomical or astrological science, of religion or superstition. 
though the origin of such ideas may be hidden from us, and the meaning of 
mbols often obscure, yet I think we may discern that the emblems were 
Im a very artificial and curious way, that these conventional but much varied 
zations correspond in a singular and precise degree with natural groupings of 
ations that are similarly figured and designated, and that the divinities with 
he emblems are associated had themselves a corresponding relation to the Signs 
en, where they had their places according to the doctrines of astrology, or which 
their festivals in the astronomic system of the sacred calendar. I have 
the Crab for the subject of this essay; how are we to decide whether this 
as portrayed merely as a familiar object to the fisherman, a valued product 
settlement, a natural emblem of the ocean, a symbol of the symbolised 
goddess of the sea, or whether, on the other hand, it recalled and recorded 
s to the celestial Crab, in whose sign astrology taught that one deity was 
ied and another domiciled, and whose conjunction with the Sun marked a great 
h in the year? We may reasonably regard it as proved that the Crab which 


ee 


“VOL. XXXIX. PART Ill. (NO. 22). 4¥ 


604 D’ARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON ON THE 


i 


artists fashioned or story-tellers told of was indeed the stellar one, if we can show 
to be, for instance, associated on coins and in story with the Moon that was domic 
with Jupiter * that was “exalted,” and with Mercury, that in the scheme of dig 
tribution of the twelve greater gods was located, in the same sign; with the Hydra, 
the Crow and the Cup, that lie under or near it in the heavens, the Lion and the 
Virgin that stand beside it, and next again, the Dog that rises with it, the Hagle, 
the Fish, and the Sea-monster that set as it rises, or the Horse and the Altar that 
rise as it sets. I propose, in this paper, to set forth what we know of the Cra 
in relation to the sign Cancer, as it is presented to us in classical myth and 
emblem, and to deal with the references made by classical authors to the sign, both 
such as are descriptive merely, and such as are symbolical or mythological in thei 
interpretation. 

The sign Cancer was in classical times, as it no longer is, though we still spea 
of it as if it were, the sign of the summer solstice: aestus erat, mediusque die 
solisque vapore Concava littorei fervebant brachia Cancri (Ovi, Met. x. 126). Tt 
was the goal of the Sun’s yearly journey,—Cancer ad ardentem fulgens in cardine 
metam, Quum Phoebus summis revocatus curribus ambit, Articulum mundi reti ne . 
lucesque reflectit (MANIL., iv. 162), and a bye-word for the heats of summer, ausus 
ardentem ripas attollere Cancrum (Lucan, x. 287), nam quis ad exustam Cancro tor | 
Syenen, [bit (Lucan, vii. 851). According to the Calendar of the Fasti, the Sun en d- 
Cancer on June 17th or 19th (xv.—xiu. Kal. Jul.) and a week later is marked as 
date of the solstitvwm, Sol abit e geminis et Cancri signa rubescunt (F,, iti. 727). 
former of the two dates is that used by Pliny, solstitium peragi in octava pe 
Cancri, et octavo Kalendas Juli diximus. Magnus hic anni cardo, magna res mundi | 
(N.H., xviii. 68 +). Avienus tells us that Meron reckoned Cancer the first of mont 
Sed primaeva Meton exordia sumsit ab anno Torreret rutilo cum Pheebus s 
Cancrum (Aratea, v. 46). 

The sign Cancer was the “domicile” of the Moon, and though we need not p 
fess to explain thereby this location of her domicile, yet we may remember 
the full Moon stood in Cancer, opposite to the Sun, at the time of the win 
solstice, of the longest nights. I think that she stood here, at the northern boun al 
of her course, and overpowering the winter darkness and the lesser lights of th 
brightest stars (all of them stars surrounding her in her position there) in the opening 
passage of Claudian’s Ode to the new Consuls of the year :— 


* 1 am favoured by Dr Buragss with the following note :—Pushya, the Hindu Asterism corresponding toa 
portion of Cancer (or long. 93° 20’ to 106° 40’ in A.p. 500), from the root pash, “nourish, thrive,” is also called 
“auspicious” and sidhya “prosperous.” Its divinity is Brihaspati (Jupiter), the priest and teacher of the g 
three principal stars are 6 Cancri (108° 42’) and +, 8, Cancri, with the nebulous cluster Priesepe between. It is 
as an arrow and also as a crescent. 

+ In the Calendar of Constantine (Uranol. Prrav., p. 112) the Sun enters Cancer on June 15 (xvii. Kal 
and the solstice is placed on the 25th. Pronmmy fixes the Sun’s entry into the sign on June 18th, and the solsti 
the 26th. 


’ 


EMBLEM OF THE CRAB IN RELATION TO THE SIGN CANCER. 605 


Haud secus ac tacitam Luna regnante per Arcton 
Siderez cedunt acies, cum fratre retuso 

Aemulus adversis flagraverit ignibus orbis. 

Tune jubar Arcturi languet, tunc fulva Leonis 
Tra perit. Plaustro jam raro intermicat Arctos 
Indignata tegi, jam caligantibus armis 

Debilis Orion dextram miratur inermem. 


: The Crab is associated with the Lunar crescent on various coins, eg., of Consentia 
and Terina, both towns of the Bruttii, and with the head of Selene in the zodiacal 
series of Antoninus Pius. It figures more conspicuously in the symbolism of the 
Ephesian Diana, on whose images it is frequently seen as the pendant or centre- 
piece of a necklace, lying on the bosom of the goddess (cf Cy. MEnerretus, Symb. 
Dian. Ephes., Rome, 1657), where it not only figures (with its horns curved crescent- 
wise) as a lunar emblem of a lunar goddess and in suggestion of the goddess’s 
astrological house, but may perhaps remind us also that Cancer, in the astrological 
distribution of the body, was guardian of the breast, pectusque locatum Sub Cancro 
est (Maniz., 11. 459). According to Menurretus (p. 26), apud Bruttios peculiari et in- 
signi coronamento Diane caput Cancri testa ornatum, ut in eorum nummis palam 
est; and precisely such a headdress is figured on a Bruttian coin by Imhoof-Blumer 
and Keller (pl. viii. 5), though the goddess is there wrongly identified with Amphi- 
trite ;—a similar headdress occurs on a female figure (identified as Thalassa) on coins 
of Corycus, etc. (ibid. p. 51, Heap, Hist. Numm., p. 602). The crab also occurs to- 
gether with the head of Artemis on coins of Massilia (SaussaYE, pl. 1. 6-10; Heap, 
p.7; of. also Macros., S. Sc.,i. 17, 21). MEnerretus suggests also, I think with reason, 
that it was not without allusion to lunar influences over generation and birth that 
PLatTo, and those whom he followed or who followed him, made Cancer the celestial 
gateway by which the souls of men enter the world (cf Macros., S. Sc.,i. 12; Porpu., 
de Antro N., vi.; CiEm. ALEX., Strom., v. p. 675). 
It was at Ephesus that the marvellous cavern of serpents was that the crabs slew, 7 
TavTWs av aToA@AACLY of Tept TOV X@pov ek TOANOD, Et yy PTE TIL ATOPPITH TepLEeLAnPoTes ot 
Tpoetpnp.evor KapKuvol THs Nims TE XeAn, Kal avelpyovTes, (Ta elonvata amepatvov Ta &v TO 
tom® wayra (AnL., V.H., xvi. 38). We find similar myths alluded to in Puiny (N.Z., 
xxx. 19), Thrasyllus auctor est, nihil aeque adversari serpentibus quam cancros, suesque 
pereussas hoc pabulo sibi mederi. Quum sol sit in cancro, torqueri serpentes. It is an 
old and common legend that crabs are in better condition or worse as the Moon waxes 
and wanes. 
_ It is not as a zodiacal sign, but simply as a constellation that the Crab figures in the 
second labour of Hercules. In the more ancient period to which the legend appertains, 
Leo was (or was still thought of as) the sign of the summer solstice, and it was with the 
slaying of the Nemzean Lion that the hero’s task began. It was while Hercules fought 
the Hydra, in the second of his labours, that the Crab, coming to the aid of the monster, 
| bit the hero in the foot (Panyasis of Halicarnassus, ap. Apollodor. iv. 2) :—hic dicitur 


606 D’ARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON ON THE 


Junonis beneficio inter astra collocatus, quod cum Herculem contra Hydram lernaeam | con 
stitisset, ex palude pedem ejus pre arripuisset ; qua de re Herculem permotum, — 
eum interfecisse (Hyern., P.A., ii. 23; cf. ScHon., in C. German. Aratea, Cataster,, q 
p. 245; Maniz., ii. 33). This was Sp the Sun was in his second zodiacal sign, the sign 3 
Virgo, which is placed in part over the long body of the constellation Hydra, and 
latter, indeed, rises together with the sign, as far as that portion of its body on w 
1s placed the Cup, avreAAe 0 "Y dpn meev €7l WA€ov ax pu Tap QauTov Kpytiipa (ARAT., 602, 
Hyern., iii. 24). The sign Virgo was identified by some with Ceres (Hyatn., ii. 25, 
C.L.G., vii. 759, ete., etc.*), and was represented as the seat of Ceres in the Roman p: 
tition of the signs among the twelve greater godst; and we find another indication of — 
the link between Virgo and Demeter on the one hand, and the fabled Hydra on the 
other, in the celebration of the mysteries of Demeter at Lerna, cai TeAerhy Aco ia 
ayouot evrav0a Arjpyynrpe (PAvS., i. 36, 7). 

We can trace an association with the Crab in the case, also, of the Babylonian 
Hercules, Gilgames, the T'iAyauos of ABELIAN. (xii. 21); on a certain cylinder (Layar 
Culte de Mithra, pl. xxxiv. 7), he “appears triumphantly bearing a crab (Cancer) at 
the end of a stick over his left shoulder, whilst his right hand holds two fishes ” { 
Brown, jun., “The Celest. Eq. of Aratos,” Tr. ix. Brit. Or. Congr., 1892, p. 461). 
Rosert Brown has told us also how, in the Euphratean epic, Gilgames slays, under t 
sign of the Crab, the tyrant Khumbaba, the KvuBaSos of Lucian (de Syr. D., xix., R. 
Brown, jun., Semitic Influences, p. 178). 

In the classical sequence of the story, which begins with Leo, the sign Cane 
corresponds to the last of the Hero’s labours, though in the legend the Crab itself 
not figure in the twelfth scene; but the great epic had many variants, and we need not 
assume that the Crab on the cylinder of Gilgames refers to the same episode as th 
the second labour, in which Cancer appears as a paranatellon and not as the domi 
sign. On coins of Croton, of Cos, and in the later coinage of Agrigentum, Hercules ai 
the Crab figure on opposite sides of coins that depict for us no details of a story: t 
allusion may possibly be simply to the circumstance that as Cancer rises, Engonasis, the 
kneeling Hercules, sets, ‘‘ Cancer exoriens obscurat . . . caput cum reliquo corpore ad 
umbilicum ejus qui Engonasis vocatur” (Hyern., Poet. Astr., iv. 12). 

For the understanding of most of the other representations of the Crab on coins, and 
of the emblems that are shown in conjunction with it, it is necessary to know the rela- 
tive positions, not only of the constellations adjacent to Cancer, but also of those that 
rise or set in conjunction with or in opposition to it. 

According to Martianus Cappia (viii. 283 G), Oriente cancro, occidunt Co 
Ariadnes et austrini Piscis pars dimidia: Ophiuchus 4 pedibus ad usque humeros, 
Serpensque quem detinet, praeter fauces caputque totum: Bodtis etiam medietas. 


* See also BGraRD, Cultes Arcadiens, p. 180. 
+ Of. MantL., ii, 442 ; also, int. al., Perersen, Das Zwolfyottersystem der Gr, wnd K., Hamburg, 1853; B 
1870. ) 


EMBLEM OF THE CRAB IN RELATION TO THE SIGN CANCER. 607 


Oriuntur vero Orion totus, Eridanique principium, et in lingua Caniculee lucida Stella. 
The table given by Hyginus is nearly identical, save that he speaks of Orionis corpus ad 
zonam, et Eridanus totus (Poet. Astr., iv. 12). 

In such tables there is often a certain measure of discrepancy, which may be in 
many cases explained by the different domiciles of the writers, or the different dates at 
which they, or those from whom they took their statement, made their observations. 
' There is, for example, much conflict of statement over the relation of the Dog-star to the 
rab : in this case the difficulty arises partly from the uncertain meaning of the word 
— Cameula, which some would interpret as meaning Sirius itself, and some as Procyon, 
the lesser Dog; and, secondly, from confusion between the so-called cosmical and 
helacal risings of the star, in other words, between the point of the ecliptic together 
with which it actually rises, and the point at which the sun rises when the star is 
} first seen on the eastern horizon in the morning twilight. Servius (ad G. i. 218) is 
right when he says: Canis paranatellon est Cancri, id est cum eo oritur; but the 
| “heliacal” rising of Sirius was not with Cancer but with Leo: and in the table of 
| Manirtus (v. 206), it is with the Lion and not with the Crab that the Dog-star is said to 
rise. The matter is elaborately discussed by Prravius(Uvranol., var. diss., vii., capp. 1.—i. ). 
Of all the combinations of coin-emblems in which the Crab takes part, the most 
striking is that afforded by the coinage of Agrigentum, where it is in the main asso- 
aated with, or rather opposed to, the Hagle (for it is very seldom, indeed, that both 
appear on the same side of the coin), each with various other configurated emblems. 

As the Crab rises, the Eagle is visible on the extreme verge of the western sky. I have 
elsewhere argued (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxxviii. p. 187,1895; Gloss. of Gk. Birds, p. 8) 
that itis this fact, or the solstitial date coincident with it, that is symbolised or depicted 
by the association of the Crab and the Hagle on the Agrigentine coins. But there is 
another circumstance that must also be borne in mind, namely, that Cancer was the 
| “house” of the “ exaltation” of Jupiter (cf, Saumas., Ann. Clim,, p. 620, and Maneruo, 
u. 370, ed. Dinor, yn90t 0’ dv BacOwy év Kapkivy, ovvecev avrov ixovra), and that probably 
the two facts were together present to the mind, and together depicted in allegory by 
the skill, of the designer of the coins. On certain coins of the same city, of somewhat 
| later date, the Crab is absent, and the Eagle is opposed to the head of Zeus. The Eagle 
| and Crab are opposed in the same fashion on coins of Motya, a hint, if further hint be 
| needed, that there was more than a local allusion in the symbolism of the Agrigentine 
_ The imagery of the Agrigentine coins deserves to be dealt with more fully under the 
ead of the constellation Aquila, but we may note that on these coins we also find the 
| Crab associated with a Horse, a sea-monster or “ Pistrix,’ with Scylla and her Dogs, and 
‘ with a Fish If the horse be Pegasus, that constellation is in truth setting with the Hagle 
. agtincer rises: if the Pistrix be the great constellation of the sea-monster or Cetus, for 
which, indeed, Pistriz was but another name (Hyctn., iii. 30), that constellation also is 
setting or beginning to set as Cancer rises, haec cadit ex orto cancro et leone (Hyamn., 


608 D’ARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON ON THE 


l.c.): Seylla is but a variant phase of the Moon, as the watery goddess, and the two 
Dogs, Procyon and Sirius, are rising as Cancer rises. The Fish is not rare in association 
on coms with Cancer. Sometimes, but rarely, there are two fishes, usually there is but 
one ; and that one is, as a rule, large and depicted as a Tunny : we have it on coins of 
Agrigentum, but most typically on those of Cyzicus. The Tunny is in all probability 
the Piscis Australis, the “ great fish” of EraTosTHENES (xxxviil.) and of GERMANICUS | 
(xxxvili.), which contains the brilliant star Fomalhaut, “the mouth of the fish,” and | 
which, as we have already seen, sets at the rismg of Cancer,—hic occidit oriente canero, F 
exoritur autem cum piscibus (Hycin., ii. 40). On the coins of Cyzicus, the Tunny is | 
associated with many other emblems, all or nearly all of them being, as I believe, 
capable of interpretation as constellations obviously related to that of the Southern Fish; 
we may merely note here that one of these associated emblems is the Ram, together 
with which sign THEON expressly states that the latter part of the constellation rises, — 
We have now discussed, very briefly and imperfectly, the Crab in connection with its re- | 
lated constellations, and, also, as a zodiacal sign, in connection with Luna, of which it is the 
domicile, and of Jupiter, of whom it is the exaltation.. It comes also into relation with | 
Mercury, of whom it is the seat in the order of distribution among the signs of the | 
twelve gods: and we have the Crab as a symbol associated with the head of Hermes on 
a coin of Anus (Heap, op. cit., p. 213). Iam more than tempted to see in this colloca- 
tion, a connection with that coincident rising of Sirius, the Star of Thoth or Hermes, 
with which we have already dealt : and Mercury is also the patron of the middle Decan | 
of the sign, as Sirius was the middle Decan* or Dynast { in the corresponding table 
of Eratosthenes (cf Marsa, Can. Chron., p. 18; Dupuis, op. cit., x. p. 186), who } 
calls it filius gene, a paraphrase, plainly oriental, of the simpler description, splen- 
dida Stella, que in mawilld Canis cernitur. It was in relation to the same god, the | 
patron of traffic and gain, that Cancer was said by the astrologers to confer an aptitude 
for commerce, merce peregrina fortunam ferre per urbes (MANIL., iv. 167, cf 2b., 381, ete.). 
The dog-headed Mercury or Thoth or Anubis is familiar to us, but we may pause to note | 
that the Lunar Hecate was sometimes also Dog-headed (cf: Hesycu. in voc. ‘Exarys 
wyaXpa). The sun’s entry into Cancer was the signal for a festival of Pallas, sol abit e} 
Geminis et Cancri signa rubescunt : Coepit Aventina Pallas in arce coli (Ovip, /, vi. 
727); and on coins of Cumae, Pallas is again associated with the Crab. | 
The sign Cancer is a dark and inconspicuous sign, with no brilliant stars, “lumina} 
desunt Cancro” (MANIL., ii. 259); the horoscope of Cancer was gloomy or vepeAoedys, | 
and those born under it were prone to blindness, “lumina deficient partus, geminamque} 
creatis mortem fata dabunt” (MANnIL., iv. 584). 
Of particular stars in the constellation Cancer, the most important are those known 
as the dv or aselli (y. 0), of which the southern one stands on the ecliptic, and the) 
star-cluster known as Patvy or Praesepe. They are first mentioned by ARATUS (VY. =) 


* Fivmicus Maternus Math., i. 4; Salmasii Plin. Ex., p. 460 f. 


+ Cf. Anscu., Ag., Aaumpods duvdoras, gumpémovras adept, a 


EMBLEM OF THE CRAB IN RELATION TO THE SIGN CANCER. 609 


>» , \ , e , TaN a 
KeTTC) Kat Patvyy. 1 wev T OAUYY etKviC 
nd Tow , ¢ \ , 
axdvi Boppain v0 Kapkivw jyndaker- 
y) A , , ‘s , 
ape O€ ply OVO AeTTA Pacivopevor HopéovTat 
? , y A ? , oF /\~) 2 , 
aoTEPES, OUTE TL TOANOY ATHOpaL OUTE MAN’ eyyus, 
> Dine, r , 7 
arr’ occov Te “aAITTA TVYyOUVGLOY ojoacOa, 
in} A A , , 3 la 
eis wev Trap Bopéao: voTw 0 émiéxAtTaL GAXos. 

‘ \ A ? w , , , 
Kal Tot wev KaAEovTat “Ovo, meoon Sé TE Par, 
ov AyD) , , \ ) , 
yre Kat e€atrivyns tavtn Aros évdcowyTos 

, ay ee ‘ aD) , 
ywer’ adaytos 0AN- 701 0 audorépwOev Loves 
> , > 2 \ 
agTepes GAARAwY avTOTXEdoV tvOaANovT at: 


° > , A l4 , A 
OUK OALYw XEYULOvE TOTE KAVCOVTaL Apovpat : 


of. Piin., xviii. 55, “Sunt in signo Cancri due stelle parve, Aselli appellate, exiguum 
inter illas spatium obtinente nubecula, quam Preesepia appellant.” As ARATUs speaks of 
Preesepe as axAvs, so HRATOSTHENES calls it vepéAcov, and ProLEMY vepeAoedys svetpody 
(ef. IputER, Sternnamen, p. 161). There isa difficult passage in Mantutus (v. 174), “Nune 
Cancro vicina canam, cui parte sinistra Consurgunt Lugule,’ where, according to 
Scaliger and others, Iugule stand for Aselli. But, according to IpELER, there is no 
basis for this assumption, and we must interpret [ugulz or [ugula, here as elsewhere, to 
mean Orion, which constellation, as we have already seen, rises with Cancer: cf. VaRRo 
(Z. L., vi. 3), “Tugula signum est quod Accius appellat Oriona.” The same name 
oceurs in PLautus (Ampiut., I. 1. 119), “nec Iugulee, neque Vesperugo,* neque Vergiliz 
occidunt.” 

Hyeinus (II. 23), Turon, Lacranrivs (I. 21), and others, relate various fables in 
connection with these Aselli. They were set in the Heavens by Bacchus, whom they 
had transported to the temple of Zeus at Dodona, across the Thesprotian marsh,{ when, 
rendered mad by Juno, he was fleeing for sanctuary and cure; while, according to 
ERATOsTHENES (ap. Hyetn., l.c.), these were two of the asses that carried Bacchus, 
Vulean, Silenus (cf Ovip, F., iii. 748, etc.) and the Satyrs, and that by their braying 
put to flight the giants with whom Jupiter was at war. We observe that Jupiter, 
whom we have seen to be intimately associated with the sign Cancer, figures in both 
versions of the legend, and that the defeat of the giants and the triumph of Bacchus 
alike correspond to the midsummer turning-point of the Sun: the Aselli marked the 
precise point of the tropic about the time of the Building of the City. Priapus (cf 
Ovin, F., vi. 320, etc.) figures in another version of the story (Hyetn,, l.c.).t 

The Ass is represented on coins sometimes in association with emblems that we 
haye seen depicted with the Crab, and sometimes with others that we have not hitherto 
met with, but that stand, like the rest, in close relation to the sign Cancer. 


_ * Vesperugo is the planet Venus, Hesperus, or Vespertinus: of. ViTRuv., ix. 4, “Veneris stella, post occasum 
solis apparens in Caelo, Vesperugo vocitatur, aliis autem temporibus eum antecurrens, et oriens ante lucem, Lucifer 
appellatur. 

_ ¢ Of. Avimn., Arat., 383, “qua duro concava dorso Tegmina curvantur, geminos micat ardor in aures ; Hos dixere 
-asinos ortos Thesprotide terra, Et sidus, Lernee, tuum.” 

{ For other references to the mythology of the Ass in relation to the sign Cancer, see Dupuis, Orig. de tous les cultes, 
i. p. 377, v. p. 104, ed. 1835, and other authorities there quoted. 


610 DARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON ON THE 


It is opposed to the Tunny on certain coins of Cyzicus, as is the Crab on others; on 
certain coins of Mende it comes in relation with the lunar Crescent and with the Do 
It is also figured with an Altar and Cup on coins of Timea, and with the Crow on those 
of Mende. The Crow and Cup lie near by, on the folds of Hydra, } 


, A ‘ , Ul Vik) U 
pweooy Oe o7reipy Kpntyp, tumaty & émixerta 
ctOwrov Kopaxos omelpyy KOTTOVTL €OLKOS 


(Arat., 448); and the Altar, which rises with Capricorn (Hyé., iii. 38), is there ore 
rising as Cancer sets. On the coins of Mende the Ass is often in relation to the Vine, — 
recalling the legends of Bacchus that have been related above. It is important to n ote 
that the comage of Mende, in which the Ass is especially conspicuous, was very ni i 
curca B.C. 500, and that at this early period the Aselli were very important stars, being 
still very near indeed, and much nearer than any other conspicuous stars, to the prec ise 
point of the tropic. 

In the Calendar of the Fasti, the 8th June (vi Id.:Jun.) is marked “ Asinus coron- 
atur, Ara Priapi” (cf Ovip, F., vi. 345). This was, as near as may be, in the time of 
Ovid, the precise date of the cosmical rising of the Aselli, the date, that is to say, when 
the Sun crossed them on the ecliptic. . 

Preesepe is mentioned by Cicero (Prognost. ap. Priscian.), “ Ast autem tenui quae 
candent lumina Phatne.” It tells us for the present no mythological story, but the 
identification of it with the Indian ‘Pushya,’ «.e., ‘foam,’ and with the Pers. ‘ Avr. 
(2 appes), by Mr R. Brown (Euphrat. Stellar Researches, v. p. 22) may open a 
field of conjecture. The same writer quotes from the Bundalis (vii. 1), “The sta 
Tistar [Sirius] was in Cancer..... in the subdivision they call Avrak”; that is to 
say, we have here in the Persian a relation noted between the Dog-star and the Crab, — 
as paranatellons of one another, just as we have found it already in the verses of 
MaNILIUs. 


We may abbreviate and summarise, as follows, the chief coincidences that have been | 
related above :— 
1. Cancer was domus Lune, and the Crab is associated with the Moon on coins of 
Consentia, Terina, etc., with the lunar Diana of the Ephesians, and with 
various other images of the lunar goddess. * 

2. Cancer was exaltatio Jovis, and the Crab is peculiarly associated with the Bird 
of Jove in the coinage of Agrigentum, while the Aselli, individual stars of t the 

same constellation, are mythologically associated with the same god. , 

3, Cancer was sedes Mercurii, and the Crab is figured with the head of Hermes on 
coins of Aenus. . 

4. Cancer rose with Sirius, and there are dog-headed pe nag of both Mera ur 
Anubis and Luna-Heeate. 


EMBLEM OF THE CRAB IN RELATION TO THE SIGN CANCER. 611 


5. Cancer marked the date of a festival of Pallas, and the Crab is figured with Pallas 
on coins of Cume. 

6. Cancer is constellated with Hydra, simultaneously with part of which Virgo rose, 
and the Crab is associated with Hydra in the legend of Hercules, and hence 
with Lerna when the rites of the Virgo ccelestis were performed. 

7. Cancer is in the neighbourhood of Corvus and Crater, and on coins of Mende the 
Ass 1s figured with the Raven and Cup. 

8. Cancer rose opposite to Aquila and Delphinus which set soon afterwards, and 
moreover set precisely as the Dolphin rose; the Crab or the Ass is associated 
with the Eagle on coins of Agrigentum and Motya, and with the Dolphin on 
coins of Motya and Argolis. 

9. Cancer rose as Pegasus set, and the Crab is figured with the Horse on coins of 
Agrigentum. 

10. Cancer rose as Cetus or Pistrix set, and the Crab is figured with the Sea-monster 
on coins of Agrigentum. 

11. Cancer rose as the Southern Fish set, and the Crab and Ass are figured with the 
Fish on coins of Agrigentum and Cyzicus. 


Very few indeed of the numismatic emblems and symbols that are found associated 
with the Crab have been omitted from the foregoing discussion. Of the few others that 
occur the most remarkable is the Toad, on coins of Venusia. It would be a very 
beautiful coincidence of emblem and appellation if we could show this Toad to be the 
symbol of that lunar Hecate that in an ancient vocation or incantation is addressed as 
ppow}, the ‘she-toad, * and that some would identify with the Egyptian Hek-t, the 
frog-headed Heka, the frog-eoddess Hiquit or Hequit, the goddess of maternity and the 
divine watcher over the birth of the Sun.t 


* Vide ¥. Luaer, “ A Coptic Spell of the Second Century,” Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archwol., May 1897. 
+ Cf. R. Brown, jun., Senvitic Influence in Hellenic Mythology, 1898, p. 158. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 22). LE 


a 


( 613 ) 


XXIIL— The Development of the Miillerian Ducts of Reptiles. By Greace Witson, D.Sc. 
Communicated by Professor J. C. Ewart, F.R.S. (With Two Plates.) 


(Read 5th July 1897.) 


We have already accounts of the development of the Miillerian ducts of reptiles from 
Braon (1), Minarxovics (2), HorrMANN (3), and WriepErsueErM (4). All of these 
writers agree in saying that the Miillerian ducts arise quite independently of the seg- 
mental ducts ; but in view of recent attempts to show that in the other groups of verte- 
brates there are forms in which the Miillerian ducts are derived from the segmental 
ducts, it seemed expedient to reconsider this conclusion,* and I have accordingly 
examined the development of the ducts in Crocodilus biporcatus, Chelone viridis, and 
Lacerta agilis. 

| As regards the derivation of the Miillerian ducts from coelomic epithelium, I can only 
| confirm the above-mentioned authorities ; but I am able to supplement what they say as 
' to the first foundation and the formation of the anterior end. I find that the anterior 
| end is formed in reptiles, very much as in amphibians, by a modification of the ccelomic 
epithelium in the region of the pronephros. Backward growth proceeds independently 
alike of the segmental duct and of the epithelium of the body-cavity posterior to the 
ostium abdominale. 

Braun examined all stages of the development of the ducts in Lacerta agilis, Angus 
} fragilis, and Tropidonotus natrix, and controlled his results by observations on Coronella 
_ levis. He found essential uniformity in all. 

| dn Angus fragilis he described two anterior diverticula of the coelom, separated by 
a bridge of connective tissue. These are, of course, lined by peritoneal epithelium, and 
_ Braun remarked that this, at one place on the plewra costalis, near its transition to the 
| pleura visceralis, shows an incomprehensible thickening—eine mir vollig unverstdnd- 
liche Verdickung. Braun made no suggestion as to the significance of this thickening, 

' and did not attempt to connect it with the origination of the Miillerian duct. He 
| described the first Anlage of this as further back, where the diverticula open into the 
coelom proper, and the mesonephros projects freely into the body-cavity. Here he de- 
seribed the peritoneal epithelium as being thickened and raised on a longitudinal ridge 
_ that has appeared on the excretory organ. Most anteriorly this ridge is almost quite 
Ventral, but it passes gradually in a spiral till it comes to lie dorsal to the mesonephros. 
~ It then accompanies the Wolffian duct to the posterior end of the ccelom. In the 
thickened epithelium at the anterior end of this ridge an invagination appears, and the 
| funnel so formed grows back along the ridge. Braun is emphatic as to the independent 


. | * * BURGER (5) suggests that probably the Miillerian ducts of reptiles are derived from the segmental ducts. He even 
| makes the statement ‘that there is no evidence of independent origin. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 23). oA 


614 DR GREGG WILSON ON 


backward growth of the foundation. He had apparently expected to find some such 
origin of the Miillerian ducts as Semprr had described in the Elasmobranchs; for he | 
says his results, though so simple, had cost him much trouble, inasmuch as he had 
expected them to be quite different. He also mentions that he carefully examined the 
tip of the foundation to determine if it showed any communication with the peritoneal 
epithelium such as WaLpEYeErR had previously found in the chick; but he saw no evidence 
of this. The peritoneal epithelium and the growing duct appeared sharply marked off | 
from one another, except in some specimens that had been cut obliquely, or that had 
suffered otherwise in the course of preparation. 
Minatkovics confirmed the observations of Braun. He examined the adder and 
lizard, and found that at the proximal end of the Wolffian body, and lateral to it, the | 
ccelomic epithelium becomes cylindric over a triangular area. The edges of the distal | 
end of this area rise till they meet, and form a closed tube or funnel. This runs toa | 
fine point, which grows back in a previously formed Tubenfalte. Mina.Kovics com- | 
pared the early foundation to a slipper set on end: the elongated oval opening repre- | 
senting the mouth, while the closed part of the shoe corresponds to the part of the duet 
formed by the union of the lateral edges of the foundation. Mratxovics denied that | 
the development of the Miillerian ducts of reptiles was at all dependent on the meso- | 
nephric duct. He believed that growth backwards was effected by increase of the cells | 
at the tip of the foundation. 
HorrMann’s general concurrence in the views of Braun and Mrimaxxovics is the 
more remarkable because of his published work on the ducts of Rana and Triton, in | 
both of which he described at least partial derivation of the Miillerian ducts from the | 
segmental ducts. In the lizards he mentions a relatively high cylinder-epithelium, lying | 
ventral to the ccelom in the region of the pronephros. Further on he describes the 
epithelium ventral to the pronephros, as distinguished from that of the lateral and median 
parts by the high form of its cells; and he adds that it is this patch of epithelium that 
forms the foundation of the Miillerian duct. The heightened epithelium passes laterally 
till it comes into close proximity to the segmental duct, and can be followed back along 
this duct to the cloaca—at least, in female specimens. It is by invagination of the high | 
cylindric epithelium of the pronephros that the ostiwm abdonunale of the Miillerian duct 
is formed. Horrmann concludes that in the case of the lizards further development is | 
independent of the segmental duct; but, at the same time, he says he is unable to deter- 
mine whether the growth backwards of the Miillerian duct is also independent of the} 
thickened band of epithelium that lies immediately external to it. 


Chelone. He agrees, in the main, with previous workers on the reptiles, but finds that in 
Chelone the backward growth of the Miillerian duct foundation is dependent on prolifera- 
tion of the cells of the thickened epithelium outside the duct. 


THE DEVELOPMEN' OF THE MULLERIAN DUCTS OF REPTILES. 615 


THE MULLERIaAN Ducts oF THE CROCODILE. 


I shall now describe the various stages examined by me in Crocodilus biporcatus. 
The first of these (A) is found in a specimen of 10 mm. in extreme length. In this 
the eccelom is simple in the region of the pronephros.* There are, however, lateral 
ridges along the alimentary canal, indicating the line of the usual secondary connec- 
tionwith the somatopleure (fig. 1, /.7.). These ridges gradually become lower as we 
follow them towards the posterior end, and finally are lost in the mesentery. 

The first section through the pronephros shows a nephrostome, one tubule, and the 
anterior end of the glomus. The nephrostome has already lost connection with the prone- 
phros, so that the funnel is quite isolated ; while, posterior to the nephrostome, the 
pronephros has degenerated so far that through several sections it ceases to appear. It 
is noteworthy, however, that the heightened epithelium of the nephrostome extends out 
on all sides, and passes back towards the posterior end as a distinct thickened band. 
This unites the anterior nephrostomes, and passes gradually into the ordinary epithelium 
of the ecelom. 

The next stage that I have is got in a specimen (B) 12 mm. long. Anterior to the 
excretory organ and the glomus, we see in transverse section three divisions of the 
ccelom ; and in the dorsal diverticula formed by secondary fusion of the alimentary canal 
with the body-wall, we find again distinct thickenings of the epithelium. ‘These, at first, 
are ventral in position (fig. 2, m.d.); but, anterior to the beginning of the glomus, they 
lie on the lateral and dorsal walls of the diverticula (fig. 3). The lateral anterior part of 
the embryonic excretory organ found in A has disappeared, and with it its nephrostomes ; 
but a few sections further back than the anterior of the glomus, the remainder of the 
embryonic excretory organ is met with, and just external to this the above-mentioned 
thickening runs along the lateral wall of the ccelom. It is not, however, only on the 
lateral wall immediately external to the pronephros that the thickening is found passing 
back, for, opposite the anterior end of the mesonephros, the thickening, which is at first 
‘simple, passes back as two distinct bands, one of which lies close to the mesonephros, 
while the other is quite ventral to the diverticulum (fig. 4). The lateral wall shows an 
intermediate area of ordinary ccelomic epithelium. A little further back, where the 
dorsal diverticulum opens into the ccelom proper, the ventral thickening is altogether 
Separated from the dorsal one (fig. 5). It gradually becomes less conspicuous, and 
passes into the ordinary epithelium of the ccelom. 

The occurrence of this band recalls the ventral extension of the Miillerian ducts in 
elasmobranchs, and the temporary ventral growth of the Miillerian duct foundation in 
Rana. 

The more dorsal backward prolongation of the lateral plate narrows gradually as it 
passes back. It comes to lie on a bridge of tissue that is between the cardinal vein and 
the mesonephros ; and at the same time it becomes grooved. External to the thickening, 


* Identified by WIEDERSHEIM. 


616 DR GREGG WILSON ON 


a second furrow appears, indenting the lateral wall of the ccelom, and as it gets deeper, — 
cutting off the Miillerian duct foundation from the lateral wall (fig. 6). Further back, 
the band of thickened epithelium passes on to the mesonephros. Some twenty-five 
sections—about 150 «—posterior to the passing over of the Anlage to the excretory 
organ, the grooved thickening closes to form a tube. Through thirty sections more this 
remains open ; then the Miillerian duct foundation abruptly ends, and its tip or growing- 
point appears, independent alike of the contiguous coelomic epithelium and of the seg- 
mental duct that lies just internal to the Miillerian duct. The segmental duct, it is true, 
shows an obliquity in a few of the sections near the termination of the Miillerian duet, 
and the obliquely cut side nearest to the Miillerian duct Anlage might, at first sight, be 
supposed to show a process of budding; but careful examination makes it clear that the 
Miillerian and seemental ducts are well marked off from one another, and the staining 
differences emphasise this distinction. The obliquity of the sections of the segmental 
duct in the neighbourhood of the growing point of the Miillerian duct is to be explained 
by the intrusion of the Miillerian duct causing the segmental duct to deviate from its 


first position close to the ccelomic epithelium. 

Outside the Miillerian duct there is a distinct thickening of the ccelomic epithelium, 
and this is specially noticeable in the region immediately posterior to the growing tip of 
the duct ; but the thickening does not appear to take part in the formation of the duet 
proper, though it may contribute to the formation of sheathing tissue. 

It thus appears that the simple epithelial thickening found in the region of the prone- 
phros in specimen A is represented in B by a similar lateral plate with two posterior 
continuations, the one ventral, and passing into the ordinary ccelomic epithelium, the 
other dorsal, passing into the already tubular Miillerian duct. It is, of course, open to 
anyone to assert that there may be a missing intermediate stage between A and B, show- 
ing trace of the derivation of some of the cells of the Miillerian duct from the segmental 
duct. I can only say that the anterior of the Miillerian duct is clearly derived from the 
coelomic epithelium, and that at such an early stage as is represented in B there is no 
evidence of any other derivation ; while growth backwards is distinctly not dependent 
on any budding from the segmental duct. 

The two new facts that I am able to add from my examination of stages A and B to 
what WIEDERSHEIM has written on the subject are :—(1) That the anterior and first 
foundations of the Miillerian ducts are thickened areas of the coelomic epithelium in the 
region of the pronephros; and (2) that there is a distinct ventral development of this 
foundation, comparable to the temporary ventral development of the Miillerian duct in 
Rana. 

Both of these facts are made clearer by the study of longitudinal horizontal sections. 
Fig. 7 represents such a section through an embryo that is somewhat further advanced 
than B, The open ostiwm abdominale is seen, and stretching away in front of it, and 
anterior to the mesonephros, is the thickened plate of epithelium that has already been 
described as the first foundation of the Miillerian duct. Fig. 8 shows a more ventral — 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MULLERIAN DUCTS OF REPTILES. 617 


section of the same series. In it the thickened plate is seen yet further forward in the 
lateral diverticulum of the ccelom. Figs. 9 and 10, which represent still more ventral 
sections, show the ventral extension of the plate: in the former, the thickening appears 
still dorsal and internal, but projecting towards the lateral wall of the coelom; in the 
latter, the seventy-fourth section more ventral than fig. 9, the end of the ventral 
extension of the anterior plate is seen raised on a more prominent ridge, just anterior 
to the liver. 

My third stage (C), found in a specimen of probably less than 20 mm. in length, 
shows a modification of the anterior thickened epithelial plate, that is interesting as 
being similar to what is found in amphibia (6). The plate is undermined by a diver- 
ticulum of the cclom; and by the splitting of the plate the foundation is partly 
divided into two areas, the one of which is connected with the ventral extension of the 
plate, while the other leads directly back to the Miillerian duct. 

The pronephros of C has degenerated completely, but along the anterior ccelomic 
diverticulum there is still a distinct band of thickened epithelium. This spreads out to 
form a broad plate in the region just in front of the mesonephros. Under this plate a 
slight diverticulum of the ccelom is seen (d., fig. 11), and examination of the posterior 
margin of the plate reveals the fact that the plate has been partially divided by the 
breaking down of the slight partition between the old diverticulum and the new one. 
The inner end of the plate remains projecting laterally between the united diverticula, 
while the outer end projects slightly from the lateral wall (7., fig. 11). From the fact 
that the external remnant of the plate continues to extend into the body-cavity through 
a considerable number of sections, it is evident that the anterior plate formerly extended 
much further. 

My next specimen (D) is 19 mm. in length, and illustrates even better seu the 
last one the division of the anterior foundation. 

The anterior diverticula expand posteriorly, and along the lateral epithelium, but 
nearly dorsal, there appears a distinct narrow band of thickened epithelium. Where 
the glomus first appears, projecting slightly forwards into the diverticula, the ridge 
spreads out to form a plate, and at the same time the diverticula open into the main 
division of the ccelom. The anterior part of the plate has apparently been largely 
obliterated by the secondary attachment of the radix mesenterii to the lateral body-wall. 
The plate is at this stage divided at the anterior end of the mesonephros, and, as in C, 
the two posterior (ventral and dorsal) continuations of the thickened plate pass back, 
separated by a deep channel. The dorsal division hangs free into the ccelom, which has 
undermined it from its ventral edge; and it only gradually passes into connection with 
the mesonephros. ‘The ventral division is found to pass the base of the lung, and ends 
just anterior to the beginning of the liver. 

I have examined specimens up to 75 mm. in length, and all of them show similar 
relations of parts. In all, there is the anterior lateral plate. It is usually slightly 
undermined, and is divided posteriorly to form two bands, one of which leads to the 


618 DR GREGG WILSON ON 


Miillerian duct, while the other ends close to the anterior attachment of the liver. It : 
is noteworthy that the ventral extension of the anterior plate passes posteriorly across” 
the secondary bridge, connecting the alimentary tract and the lateral body-wall, and 
comes to project freely into the coelom from near the base of the lung. = 


THE MULiteERIAN Ducts oF CHELONE. 


As | mentioned above, the development of the Miillerian ducts of Chelone has been — 
investigated by Professor WigpERSHEIM. He describes, in a 13 mm. embryo, a well- 
marked proliferation of the peritoneal epithelium on the side of the anterior region of © 
the mesonephros. This extends to the parietal peritoneum. The formerly smooth 
surface has become rough and uneven, and in numerous places involution of the epi- 
thelium is visible, and proliferation inwards. In an embryo of 21 mm. the inequalities 
have, for the most part, disappeared, and in their place there is a rapidly increasing fold 
hanging into the body-cavity. This fold, according to WIEDERSHEIM, hangs down the 
side of the mesonephros, is applied to it, and fuses with it; and so the ostvwm ab- 
dominale is tormed. Three sections further towards the posterior the duct stops, and 
is followed by a solid pointed rod, such as occurs at the growing tip of the foundation 
in the crocodile. As in the case of the crocodile, this solid rod lies in the immediate 
neighbourhood of the mesonephric duct and of the Tubenfalte. In the rod, a few 
sections posterior to the ostium, a slight lumen appears. 

As to backward growth, WIEDERSHEIM asserts that there is not merely appositional 
growth, such as is generally described for Amniota. He figures two sections, showing 
proliferation inwards of the thickened epithelium of the Tubenfalte ; and he believes that 
the coelomic epithelium thus contributes directly to the backward growth of the foundation. 

By the kindness of Professor WIEDERSHEIM, in whose laboratory much of the work 
recorded in this paper was done, I have had an opportunity of examining a number of series 
of sections of embryos of Chelone ; and I shall now state the facts that I have observed. 

In an embryo (A) of 13 mm. in length, there is a lateral thickening of the ccelomic 
epithelium lining the anterior diverticulum, and extending on to the excretory organ, 
along which it passes, as described by WIEDERSHEIM. 

A specimen (B), 21 mm. long, shows the lateral thickening to be undermined 
anteriorly (fig. 12). Further back, the plate is divided, as in the case of the crocodile, 
by the breaking down of the partition between the two diverticula (fig. 13). One 
remnant of the thickening projects into the ccelom from the ventral body-wall; another 
is intimately connected with the mesonephros (fig. 14). In the posterior extension of 
the plate that passes along the mesonephros there is a funnel-like pit (fig. 15). This 
conical funnel is the ostiwn abdominale tube. It is quite distinct from the meso- 
nephric duct, and its inner pointed end, which extends a very short distance towards the 
posterior, is quite independent of the epithelial thickening that continues back external 
to the mesonephric duct. -j 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MULLERIAN DUCTS OF REPTILES. 619 


The next stage is found in an embryo (C) of 25 mm. In this, as in B, the lateral 
thickened area of the ccelomic epithelium is undermined ; and ventral and dorsal exten- 
sions of it pass towards the posterior. Here, also, the ostium lies into the side of the 
mesonephros. The funnel turns towards the posterior, and its lumen may be followed 
back through several sections. Further back there is a solid rod of cells in direct con- 
tinuation of the tube, but this extends only through a few sections. On the right side 
the tip of the rod is quite distinct from the segmental duct, beside which, however, it 
lies. On the other side I had, at first, difficulty in distinguishing the tip of the Miillerian 
duct from the obliquely cut segmental duct, which, from being somewhat remote from 
the ecelomic epithelium, passes close up to it, just behind the Miillerian duct. Fig. 16 
shows the blunt point of the latter lying close to the segmental duct. Fig. 17 shows 
the next section with no remainder of the Miillerian duct, but with the segmental duct 
filling the space immediately posterior to the end of the Miillerian duct. Here, as in 
other cases, we must assume that the growing tip of the Miillerian duct thrusts itself 
between the segmental duct and the ccelomic epithelium, and causes a shifting of the 
position of the former. Fig. 18 bears out this view by showing the altered position of 
the seemental duct in the second section, posterior to the end of the Miillerian duct. It 
shows, at the same time, the inward proliferation of the epithelial cells in this neighbour- 
hood, described by Professor WiepERsHEIM; but I would point out that these are 
probably destined to take part in the formation of the sheath of the Miillerian duct, 
rather than the duct itself; for the posterior end of the duct is absolutely distinct from 
the thickened epithelial band (fig. 16). 

A further stage is met with in an embryo (D) of 23 mm., in which the Miillerian 
ducts are considerably better developed. The relations of parts at the anterior end of 
the foundation are similar to those described in C. The ostiwm abdominale lies, as in 
other specimens, on the side of the mesonephros, at its anterior end; the open funnel 
passes inwards and back towards the posterior through five or six sections; then a rod- 
like continuation is met with in several sections, behind which a lumen is again met 
with ; and after a few sections the foundation ends. In this specimen, again, the tip of 
the Millerian duct lies on the mesonephric duct. 

The last specimen (E) that I have to describe is of unknown length. It is consider- 
ably larger than D, and shows the relations of the various parts more distinctly than any 
other stage that I have. 

A few sections after the beginning of the excretory organ, the lateral diverticulum is 
met with. Projecting into this from the side of the excretory organ is the thickened 
epithelial plate, in which, further back, the ostiwm abdominale appears. Just outside the 
excretory organ, on the lateral wall of the ccelom, there is a remnant of the original 
anterior plate, and it projects towards the thickening on the excretory organ. In more 
posterior sections the ventral thickening may be traced passing back, and extending far 
round ventralwards. 

The ostium abdominale leads to a solid foundation, which is found through many 


620 DR GREGG WILSON ON 


sections before a part is reached in which a lumen occurs. The lumen is distinct till : 
within a few sections of the end of the foundation. The solid rod that forms the tip of 
the foundation lies external to the segmental duct, touching it, but independent of it, 
and remote from the ccelomic epithelium. In the section immediately posterior to that 
which contains the last cells of the rod-like apex there is no appearance of budding of 
the cells of the mesonephric duct, such as one would expect if growth backwards of the 
Miillerian duct were dependent on it; and there is no indication of any contribution of 
cells from the ecelomic epithelium to add to the growing tip. 

It thus appears clear that in this specimen growth backwards is by apical prolifera- 
tion ; and I conclude that, as in the formation of the anterior end, so in the manner of 
growth backwards there is essential agreement between Chelone and Crocodilus. 


LIST OF WORKS QUOTED IN THIS PAPER. 


(1) Braun, “ Das Urogenitalsystem der einheimischen Reptilien,” Ard. a. d. Zool. zoot. Institut., Wiirz- 
burg., Bd. iv. Hft. ii, 1877. . 

(2) Mimanxkovies, ‘f Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelung des Harn- und Geschlechtsapparates der 
Amnioten,” Jntern. Monatssch. fiir Anat. und Hist., Bd, ii. 

(3) Horrmann, “ Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Urogenitalorgane bei den Reptilien,” Zert. 7. wiss. Zool., 
Bd. xlviii., 1889. 

(4) WrepersHeEr, ‘ Ueb. die Entwickelung des Urogenitalapparates bei Crocodilen und Schildkroten,” 
Arch. f. mikr. Anat., Bd. xxxvi. 

(5) Burcsr, ‘‘ De Ontwikkeling van de Miiller’sche Gang bij de Eend en de Bergeend,” 72jdsch. d. Med. 
Dierl:, Vereen. (2), iv. 

(6) Greae Wixsoy, ‘‘ The Development of the Miill. Ducts of Amphibia,” Trans. Roy. Soe. Ed., 1896. 


DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES. 


Fig. 1. Transverse section through the pronephrie region of crocodile of 10 mm. in length. 17. is the 
lateral ridge that in older stages forms the secondary connection between the alimentary canal and the body- 
wall. i 
Fig. 2. Section across crocodile 12 mm. in length, showing thickened epithelium (7.d.) on the ventral 
wall of the ecelomic diverticulum, anterior to the glomus. 

Fig. 3. Section through the same embryo further back, and showing an extensive lateral epithelial 
thickening on a level with the anterior end of the glomus, 

Figs. 4 and 5. Sections through the same embryo further back, showing the two posterior extensions 
of the pronephriec thickened plate. 

Fig. 6. Section through the same embryo, showing the grooved Miillerian duct foundation in relation to 
the mesonephros. 

Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10. Sections from a series through an embryo further advanced than stage B, and showing 
the lateral and ventral extension of the Miillerian duct foundation. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MULLERIAN DUCTS OF REPTILES. 621 


Fig. 11. Transverse section through a crocodile embryo of about 20 mm., showing undermining of the 
lateral plate of thickened epithelium. 

ys. 12, 13, and 14. Sections through embryo of Chelone of 21 mm., showing undermining of anterior 
sral plate. 

15. Section through the same embryo, showing the ostiwm abdominale. 

16. Section through Chelone embryo of 25 mm., showing the end of the Miillerian duct in close 
‘to the segmental duct. 

17. Next section posterior to that shown in fig. 16, to show the segmental duct passing obliquely 
iillerian duct. 

Next section to that illustrated in fig. 17. The segmental duct is seen in the position occupied 


d by the Miillerian duct. 


=alimentary canal. lu.  =lung. 

= aorta. m.d. = Miillerian duct or its foundation. 
= bronchus. _| mes. =mesonephros. 

=coelom. nm. =nephrostome. 

= notochord. 0.  =ostium abd. tub. 

= cardinal vein. pr. =pronephros. 

= diverticulum. r =remnant of lateral plate. 

= glomus. sd. =segmental duct. 

= liver. tr. =trachea. 


-XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 28). 5B 


iS 


Vol. AAXL 


dg 
; 


Trans: Koy. Soc: Edit 


MULLERIAN Ducts oF RE TiLe S—— ae 


GREGG WILSON: 


R 


M‘Parlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin? 


Trans. Hoy Ooc cin’ alee. 


pD* GREGG WILSON: MULLERIAN Ducts or REPTILES.—— Prat IL. 


M'Ferlane &frskine, Lith. Edin® 


” 


‘ 
wits 
BuieAL al 


fis 


(623 ) 


XXIV.—On a Development of a Determinant of the mn Order. 
By Txomas Morr, LL.D. 


Sgn SF — +5 oe 


(Read 20th March 1899.) 


be yage cat a 


‘The theorem in question concerns the finding of an expression for a determinant 
osite order in terms of compound determinants or permanents of lower order ; 


Ee 


ale aa [| @,0, | «| es, | — | 16 | ° | b5e, | se ae | | Ones | 
d, d, ds d,| FH [bie || ages | — | b,d, | - | ase, | 
+ fed, | ~ | 2,5; \\- 


sum of the first and last terms here is clearly equal to the permanent 


+ “ 
a,b, | | a3, | | 
| 7 | | esc, | 


of the second and fifth equal to 


+ 
| £5 | | a0, | | 
LAA 


sum of the third and fourth equal to 

| + aes + 
| a, | | a5, | | 

| be, | | bse, ] 4; 


; + + + + + + 
boed, = |I ab, | | ed, \| = [| acy | | bse, \| a0 | (aya, | | bye, I. 
XXIX. PART LI. (NO, 24.) ae 


624 DR THOMAS, MUIR ON: 


(3) The next case, viz., where the given determinant is of the 6th order, admits of 
two forms of development, the compound determinants in the one being of the 8r 
order with elements of the 2nd order, and in the other of the 2nd order with elements 
of the 3rd order. 

Taking the latter first, we have, as before 


r 


| a,b,¢,4,e,f5 | = | @,5,¢3 | * | des hea abet, || Cos | - | aybye5 | * | cd fe | 


— | a,b, fq | °-| Cqdlgeg | Fe |-mjegds | | Bee 741 — | ayeoe, | ~ | Gide 
ar : Ayer fg|* | Odseg | + | aysey 1° | Byes eg| — | ade! | bseseg | 
H+ | yen fg | yest | — | Begg ll ages fg] + | Oye | * | tsts.Soll 
— | dyea fg | * | agdseg | — | bydsey|* | ages fg| + | Oda fs! | ayesee | 

= | dey fz | >| a5, | + | qdles |” ae ste | Ss | edo fg | ° | ybs@q | - 
+ | 653 | ° % bd, | — | dita f| * | asc, | 5 


and as s the sum of the first and last terms of this development i 1s equal to 


| AyDots | | 44506 | 
| d,e5 | | des F¢ | 


the sum of the second from the beginning and the second from the end equal to 


? 


[eats ee a arson | | oh + 
| Cos | eeetaul sy 


and so on, there results the identity Fest 


{ ie \ 


ie | | | a,b C1. fe | =| » | |a,6,¢,| defo | le 


i Cexten 
there being ten terms on the right included under the sign of summation, and the 
preceding each being the same as the sign of that particular term of the original deter- — 
minant which is brought into prominence by the notation employed. 

Taking next the expansion of | ¢,b.¢3d,e;f; | in; terms of minors of the 2nd order, 
we should obtain 90 terms of the form | 


| a,b, 1+ | eg, |*| 57615 


and these we should find capable of being collected into 15 sets of 6, with each set 
expressible as a permanent of the 3rd order, the identity reached being ' 
+ + 

| 25 | | 30, | | 50g | 

| ayb,cy,¢,f¢| = >, | lee | end, | | esl, | 

|aFa | fal | | es7¢ | 


(4) Towards the establishment of the theorem in all its generality the first step 
necessary 1s to prove the following :— ‘i 
If the rows of a determinant of the ( mn)" order be separated by horizontal lines int 
n sets of m rows each, and the columns be similar ly divided, the result ma be views 


A DEVELOPMENT OF A DETERMINANT OF THE yw"! ORDER. §25 


th 


oughly representing a compound. determinant of the u' order, each of whose 
nts is a determinant of the m” order and @ minor of the original determinant, 
each term of the compound deternunant thus arising will produce (m!)" terms, 
ving at most only in sign from terms of the original determinant. 


“| 


The original determinant being denoted by 
| ayy sy Oa see Cmnymn ’ 


1e compound determinant referred to will be 


1 Geo +--+ | bm bymt1 %Gme2 +++ Gam 
| 27 My 2 ges bam by 41 be mn 42 aeRO ys on 
i we I et ee ee we Se ee 


DOMCMicMistiists ces « e) 0 % e | © || @ wis we © 0 ee 6 8 6 Sele 0 ev fe a 


, ‘ On On» sa ta* “nm ? Omm-+1 On m+2 ya 'stye Gm 2m ? 


On411 Omn+1,2 cgtn'e On+iym Gn+ijm+1 Am+1ym-+-2 so ece Bin +1,2m 
On 421 Un +22 Oo Ge An+2m On42m+1 On+2n4+2 GS) An+2,2m 


chert O. ty O SO AO pte BOs a 


REECEROEstbelishelie sivas ere 6 ¢) | 8 || ae = 8 © @ @ we es we ee we th eet he 


Mam) om,2 a’ Comm Com m-+1 Boemm-+2 CY Com,2m 


» 
. 


Mir May M,. se ee 


is 


two of the Ms, by the definition of a determinant, belong to the same. set of 

8 or m columns of the original. Now, each term of the development of the minor 
‘in this way the product of m elements taken from m rows and m ‘columns 
ginal determinant, and each term of the development of the minor M,, being 
uct of m elements taken from m other rows and m other columns, and ‘each 
the development of the minor M,, being the product of m elements taken from 
t of m rows and a third set of m columns, and so on, it follows that each term 
1 ultiplying together a term of each of the nm minors M),, Myo FV . will 
n element from each of the mn rows and mn columns, and therefore by defini- 
term of that determinant. Further, since the number of terms in each minor 
e number: of terms of the original determinant which arise from the term 
es of the. ‘compound determinant is (m !y’, and therefore the number 


which arise from all the terms of the compound determinant is 7! (m!)": 


626 DR THOMAS MUIR ON 


(5) In the preceding the mn rows of the original determinant were separated in tl 
simplest way into n sets of m rows each, but it is clear that if they had been 
separated in a different way into n sets of m rows each, the same mode of reasoning 
would have led to the same result. Now the number of different ways of breaking a 
mn things into n sets of m each is 3 


x 1 
mam” ~mn=-mym* ~mn=-2mym * tet tt mm 


n! 


: , : r 
or (what is the same thing, since C,,= —C,_,,-1), 
Ss ’ 


Care, 0) @> |W 19) (0) = 


mG) : 
mn—1m -1 nin —~ m= Lym= 1 mn—2m-1m=1 


(mn)! (mn—m) ! (mn—2m)! m 
Ubu mi(mn—m)! — m'(mn—2m)!  m\(mn—3Bm)! m!0 
mn! 
, ! 
1.0, oe) oa 
(m!)" a! 


If, therefore, we form this number of different compound determinants, the total — 
number of terms of the original determinant which we shall thus obtain is ; 


(mn)! ; ‘ 
(myn! X Mm: (m 1) 


ae. (mn)! 


which is exactly the full number of terms in the original determinant. It is conse- 
quently manifest that the terms of the original determinant can be represented, so far 
as magnitude is concerned, by a sum of compound determinants obtainable in the 
manner indicated. | 


| 

(6) As the consideration of the question of sign necessitates the use of a theorem 
regarding inverted-pairs, it is desirable to digress for a moment in order to enunciate 
and prove this theorem. It is to the following effect :— | 
Lf, in the natural series of integers 1, 2,3,..... a group of m consecutive members, 
taken in any order, be passed backwards over x groups of s consecutive members each, 
the members of each group being arranged in any order, the number of additional 
mvoerted-pairs im the permutation thus obtained is mrs. 
This is self-evident, for the number of members passed over is clearly 7s, and each 

of the m members to which precedence has been given will thus give rise to 7's inverted- 
pairs, making mrs inverted-pairs in all. 
When the number of members in the group moved is the same as the number in 
each of the groups passed over,—that is, when s=m,—the number of additional inverted- 
pairs is, of course, rm”. Consequently, when m is even, the number of additional inverted-— 


A DEVELOPMENT OF A DETERMINANT OF THE MN'" ORDER. 627 


pairs will be always even whatever + may be; and, when m is odd, the number of 
additional inverted-pairs will be odd or even according as r is odd or even. From this 
there is immediately deduced the following theorem :— 

Tf the first mn integers be separated into n groups of m each, say the growps Ay, 
Meas. ..., A,, so that 


A, stands for any permutation OT eA er} Beers arith 


wee eee eee FTF eee eee eee eee ees. SH FHS HE SHEE EEET HEH OSH OE H Es OH OEE HEE EEE OED 


A, as hee a mn—m+1, mn—m+z2,..., mn, 


then, when m is even, any one of the nu! permutations of A,A,A, ... A, has an even 
number of imverted-pairs of the mun integers more than the standard permutation 
A,ALA,... A, has; and, when m is odd, has an odd or even number of inverted-pairs 
more, according as the suffixes of the A’s have an odd or even number of inverted-parrs. 


(7) Returning now to the consideration of the terms of the original determinant of 
the (mn)" order, which are obtainable from the term M,,M,,M,,.... of the compound 
determinant, we see that, in order to tell the sign in any case, we have to take into 
| account the sign of each of the contributing terms in its own minor, and, in addition to 
| this, the sign which ought to precede M,,M,,M,,... Now, we have just seen that when 
m is even, this sion must be a + in every case, and that when m is odd its sign must be 
the sien which it bears in the compound determinant to which it belongs. This is 
equivalent to saying that when m is even the compound determinants with which we 
started should be all viewed as permanents, and that this change is not necessary when 
m is odd. 


(8) When the given determinant of the (mn) order is an alternant, interesting 
changes are possible in connection with each term of the development. 
Thus in the case of the simplest form of alternant of the 4th order we have 


+ + 
[aX | | 020? | 


OH12q3 | — 
| a®brerd? | | ed! | | ead | 


4- 
eee | wiles 1 a’d' | | ad? | 
| 


| Bd! | | Ba [B%t | | Be | 


+ + 
| b-a a?b?—al? | 


d—c edPb—ecd? 


+ 


(b—a) (d—c). 


which agrees with a result obtained by Jacosr in his paper, “ De functionibus alter- 
nantibus” (Crelle’s Journ., xxii. p. 363). 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 24). 3D 


. la- 


628 DR MUIR ON A DEVELOPMENT OF A DETERMINANT OF THE mMN* 


In the case of the simplest alternant of the 6th order we have— 


| abi | | aebte® | 


| aera f | = ZY aoe ge | | diet f5 | 


> 


os | ab'e2 || det f2|- [1 a3 
1 @ef3 


Di | aXe | def? | + | (abey? (def)? |, 


where it should be noted that each term of the development consists of three factors, | 
each of which is a simple alternant, and each of which is, therefore, expressible as a 
product of binomial factors. Thus the specimen term here given after > is equal to 


(c—b) (c—a) (b—4) (f—¢) (F—4) (¢— 4) Petf? — a%b%c*). 
Similarly we have 
| anbreraieap eg | = S| abe] | elf? | | gh | | (abey? (def (ghiy |, 


where each term under the sign of summation is expressible as a product of twelve 
binomial factors, the first, for example, being equal to | 


(c—b) (c—a) (ba) (f-¢) (f-4) ¢—4) (hh) (1-9) (hg) 
x (PHF Bf?) (P1FF— CVE) (Bef? —aV'e), 


~4G 


( 629 ) 


XXV.—On the Rimes in the Authentic Poems of William Dunbar. 
By Henry Betiyse Bartpon, M.A. Cantab., F.R.S.E. 


(Read April 3, 1899.) 


INTRODUCTION. 


It may well be thought that, in a field that has been so carefully reaped and 
garnered and gleaned by so many learned workers as have the works of the great 
Scottish poet, William Dunbar, there remained nothing still to be accomplished. Where 
such erudite students of Scottish literature as Lainc, SMALL, GREGoR, and AUNEAS 
Mackay, and such an illustrious scholar as Professor ScHIpPER have laboured, and 
where even the poet’s metrical forms have been the subject of careful investigation by 
Mr M‘Ner1t, it might be thought alike vain and presumptuous to attempt to follow. 
Yet it so happens, nevertheless, that there has never been a thorough investigation made 
of Dunbar’s rimes with a view of throwing light on the phonology or, in more popular 
phrase, the pronunciation of his day. And yet, perhaps, no more suitable, interesting, 
and instructive subject could be found for such treatment than just this same William 
Dunbar. 

In the first place, Dunbar is nothing if not a conscientious artist,—a man with a 
thorough appreciation of the value of technique, and with an excellent ear both for metric 
and phonetic effects. Without such an ear a man cannot be a poetic artist of the first 
rank, and it is marvellous how these gifts secure a man immortality, even when his 
thought is neither important nor original. And, on the other hand, the want of, or the 
occasional neglect to use, these gifts threaten the immortality of some of the greatest 
names. In Worpsworty, for instance, how often are we jarred by the toneless, musicless 
quality of his lines! and in Byron’s dramas how are we repelled by the harsh, dry tumbre 
of his blank verse! Even the least cultured are sensitive on this point, as we gather 
from the felicitous cadence and clang of popular proverbs and sayings, and other 
evidences of the sensuous pleasure given to the young and uneducated by song and 
verse. At any rate, no one can read Dunbar at all without feeling convinced that he 
took a real pleasure,—perhaps the purest pleasure he had in his grumbling, mendicant 
existence (even as perhaps did his predecessor and model, the seamp V1LLon)—in the 
thythm and sonorous melody of his verses; and, at a time in his disreputable early 
career, when he would have unscrupulously robbed hen-roosts or pocketed spoons, or 
used the pulpit, like Chaucer’s Pardoner, for the most sordid ends, he was in his art a 
purist of the first water. This quality is naturally an invaluable one for our purpose ; 
and, if we except his very latest verse, where the instruction of his flock and not the 
production of poetry is his main object, one may safely rely on the conscientious work 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 25), DE 


630 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


manship of Dunbar. So that, when we find a really bad rhyme in his poems, we may 
be well-nigh certain that the text is corrupt and that Dunbar never uttered the poem 
for complete in such a form. 

If one is asked for absolute proof of this conviction, it is not easy to produce one, 
except on general grounds. So I would put the matter in the form of two propositions, 
neither of which can reasonably be doubted. The first is that Dunbar’s technical 
accomplishments as a verse-writer were such, as witness his mastery of a great variety 
of metrical forms and his marvellous command of rimes (as shown, for instance, in the 
two concluding stanzas of his part of the “ Flyting,” where he has no less than thirty- 
two rimes, some of them dissyllabic, in each stanza), that he could never really haye 
been at a loss to find a correct rime; and so, if he used them, must have done so from 
pure carelessness, which is clearly not his characteristic. In the second place, we are 
really not able to convict Dunbar of a palpably bad rime, because, in the instances 
where he is apparently guilty, there are usually indications of corruption in the text. 
I do not, of course, maintain that all Dunbar’s rimes are exact and perfect, a statement 
which would probably be true of no poet that ever wrote. Indeed, anyone who has 
given any attention to verse-effects must know that an occasional imperfection gives 
a curious charm in the hands of a master. But it must be slight, and cannot extend 
to discord in consonantal sound. I cite just two cases of apparently false rimes. The 
first is in Dunbar’s “ Dirge to the King at Stirling,” in the couplet (41. 9, 10) :— 

“O Ze eremeitis and hankersaidilis 
That takis your pennance at your tablis.” 

Even if my conjecture of hanker saiblis=black anchorites be not correct, saidlis=cells, 
hermitages makes no sense, and it would be too unjust to Dunbar to suppose that he 
wrote both a bad rime and nonsense at the same time. 

The second instance is perhaps not quite so conclusive : still there is every appear- 
ance of some error having crept into the text. It occurs in the courtly and beautiful 
poem, ‘‘To the Princess Margaret on her arrival at Holyrood” in the following 
couplet :— 

* Rejoysing from the sone beme 
Welcum of Scotland to be Quene.” 

On this it may be said (see Professor Scuipper’s note, p. 92) that there is some corrup- 
tion of the text here, so that if we are not convinced that beme is wrong, we have no 
certainty that it is might; and I venture the conjecture that the original word was 
schene, which gives a rather better sense, as though the queen came from the sunshine 
of the sunny south—sunny as compared with Scotland. Further, even supposing the 
reading “‘beme” to be correct, the poem is not provably Dunbar’s, so that in any 
case he cannot be clearly convicted of a false rime in this instance. 

And, apart even from these arguments, I must really claim the right of an empert 
in poetry, in poetical technique, and in literary criticism generally [being a critic and 
verse-writer myself of at least twenty-five years standing] to speak with authority on 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 631 


the literary and technical qualities of Dunbar’s verse ; and when it is borne in mind 
that my own high opinion of Dunbar’s technical excellence and conscientious workman- 
ship, if independently formed, coincides with that of such unimpeachable authorities as 
Sheriff Mackay, Professor Scurpper, and others, it would surely be a reductio ad 
absurdum of scientific scepticism to ask for further proof. 

If we only had a fair copy of Dunbar’s original MS. a mass of uncertainties would 
disappear. For we can seldom be quite certain whether the spelling is (1) Dunbar’s 
own, or (2) that of his own time, or (3) the Scotch and not the (4) English spelling. 
These uncertainties are introduced in the case of MSS, by the scribe, or in that of print 
_ by the compositor. Now in those times those persons do not seem to have been either 
very careful or conscientious or skilful ; and that in the chaotic state of ME. spelling 
complicated with the almost as chaotic MSc. spelling, and possibly also with attempts 
at compromise between the two, creates elements of difficulty enough. 

There is fortunately one other reliable and, within certain limits, fixed foothold 
for us in this examination, considered as an independent investigation, and that is the 
pronunciation of modern Scotch (NSc.), with which, owing to my long residence in 
Scotland, I may claim some familiarity. And the Scotch with which | am most 
familiar is, fortunately, locally Dunbar's Scotch, not Burns’s west country Scotch, but 
the Lowland, one may almost say Lothian Scotch of Scorr and Srevenson, who is held 
by those competent to judge to write particularly good Scotch, and who makes the 
attempt to write phonetically, especially in the volume entitled ‘‘ Underwoods,” where 
he gives a “Table of Common Scottish Vowel Sounds,” which appears to me easily 
intellicible and quite accurate. For more scientific and historic treatment of these 
sounds one must naturally have recourse to the works of Swxxt, Exiis, and Murray in 
English, and to such modern investigators as Professor Luick in Germany, and the 
Dissertations of Dr Curtis, ‘On the Middle Scotch Romana Clariodus ” (Anglia, vols. 
XVi, Xvi), and of Dr GxRKEN, on ‘‘ Die Sprache des Bishofs Douglas von Dunkeld ” 
(Strassburg, Karl J. Triibner, 1898). 

While one can know how a Scottish word is pronounced to-day in the very district 
_|and city where Dunbar wrote and spoke, there remain still two elements to be supplied 
before the problem of fixing the phonology of Dunbar and his time can be attempted. 
The first is a knowledge of the original sounds of the words, z.e., the pronunciation of 
the vowels, diphthongs, and consonants in the language from which his vocabulary is 
derived, viz., Anglo-Saxon (Old English, OE.), Old French (OF.), Old Norse (ON.), 
Latin (Lat.), Old Irish (OI.), Dutch (Du.), ete., and the second that of the correspond- 
jing sounds in contemporary Middle English (ME.). Now the former, thanks to the 
labours of such scholars as Srevers, Kiuce, Sweet, Skat and others, are fortunately 
fairly well established, and affords us in this inquiry our first point of attachment so to 
speak. If we then, so to speak, make fast one end of our line to the original sound and 
lead the other to the corresponding modern Scotch sound, we know then that the path 
of this sound through its successive changes must pass through these two points, and 


— 


632 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


we know also that it will not usually deviate very far from what we may call the “lin 
of least resistance ” between the two positions, so that, if we suppose this to be repre- 
sented by a straight line joining the two points, we may, to continue the metaphor, 
draw our line tight, and have thus approximately fixed the path of the sound change, 
Then it becomes the function of phonetics to show what this “line of least resistance” 
really is. And the principle on which this is to be determined is obviously one of the 
place and mouth-position in which the two sounds are formed and uttered, together 
with the postulate that sounds not only do not suddenly travel from a certain mouth- 
place or mouth-position to another far removed or widely different, but must of neces- 
sity, when these have become far separated, have passed through some, if not all, the 
intermediate stages. Such changes, for example, as now distinguish the English pro- 
nunciation of vowels from the Germanic, Italian, or Continental sounds for the same 
vowels, cannot have taken place per saltum, but must have passed through intermediate 
stages. Our use of the vowel z, for instance, as equivalent to Ger. ai, cannot have come 
in suddenly, because it involves too great a change in the mouth-place in which the 
sound is formed. And the same is true of the other principal changes in our vowel 
and consonantal sounds. Still it is not to be assumed that because a sound does not 
change suddenly it may not change quickly, for the intermediate position may be one 
of, so to speak, unstable equilibrium ; it may be more difficult or less agreeable than 
the two positions between which it mediates. 

These, of course, are the commonplaces of phonetics, of which, however, it is useful 
to be reminded in connection with this investigation. 

The other element of which I have spoken, viz., the contemporary pronunciation 
of the corresponding words in ME., does not unfortunately rest on so secure a basis, 
there being still room, in spite of all the labours of the eminent scholars already 
mentioned and of such recent investigators as Lurck, for doubt, not so much perhaps 
as to the path taken by sound-changes, as to the time they took place and especially 
the moment of their complete transmutation to the present accepted pronunciation. 
Hence arises the possibility that this inquiry, taken together with such an admirable 
and thorough investigation as that of Dr F. J. Curtis “On the Rimes of the Middle 
Scotch Romance Clariodus” (Anglia, vols. xvi and xvii), to which I am infinitely 
indebted for its excellent method, not to speak of its valuable results, may reflect some 
light on the Middle English of Dunbar’s time. All the more, naturally, is this the ease, 
in that Dunbar often writes what must be called ME. and not MS&c., just as Burws 
wrote in standard eighteenth century English, as well as in the Ayrshire dialect of 
that time. 

As Dr Curtts’s article ‘‘ On the Rimes of the Middle Scottish Romance Clariodus ” 
treats that work exactly on the same lines as I propose to treat Dunbar, and treats 
also of much the same period, it will not be necessary to handle the results with the 
same elaboration as Dr Curtis has done. My results must of necessity either agree or 
disagree with his, and in neither case is it likely that any elaborate argument will be 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 633 


necessary. I did not, indeed, undertake the investigation with this idea of making 
any important discoveries, but, firstly, with the modest ambition of rounding off the 
work done on Dunbar by the Scottish Text Society and by the edition of Professor 
Scurprer, by the compilation of a Rime-Index, which had not before been exhaustively 
made. I have used Professor ScHIPpER’s edition, as embodying the results of previous 
workers, along with his own, and my references are to page and line of his work. I 
have confined myself strictly to poems which seem undoubtedly authentic, because I 
thought it possible that this might furnish a criterion by which some of the doubtful 
poems might ultimately be tested. But as that involves a separate rime-index for 
these doubtful poems, which I have not been able yet to prepare, this criterion cannot 
at present be easily applied, except to quite short pieces. I do not propose in the 
present instance to apply it, but the index will be essential to whoever wishes to 
employ such a criterion. Another use of the index will be to assist in clearing up 
doubtful readings where rimes are involved, for, as I have already said, Dunbar is so 
conscientious an artist that we can rely on the purity of his rimes to an even unusual 
extent, certainly more than in Clariodus, who has a formidable number of false rimes 
(Curtis, § 554) and very probably more than in Douglas. And on this account I have 
reckoned all words riming with the same refrain-word as riming with each other. 

The plan of the index, following that of Dr Curtis, is to classify the rimes under 
the original vowel sounds in OH. or ON. so that OF. and Latin and other words of 
non-Germanic origin only appear in so far as they rime with these Germanic words. 

I wish to take this opportunity of very cordially thanking Professor Karu Luick of 
the University of Graz for his kind assistance in seeing this work through the press, 
and in making many very valuable suggestions. At the same time, I take the full 
responsibility for any faults the work may still possess. 


[ Rime-INDEx. 


634 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


RIME-INDEX ACCORDING TO GERMANIC VOWEL-SOUNDS. 


AG 
§ 1. Not followed by g or w, rimes with 
a) itself. | gaip : chaip : 84, 76. 
forsaik : taik, 83, 52, 253, 1. baik : saik, 72, 35. |  gaittis : debaittis : estaittis : 85, 8. 
schaik ; quaik, 150, 9. tail (OE. talu) : nychtin- »  :Stait, 316, 28. 
gale, 347, 29. schame : fame, 85, 4. 
gaip : laip, 132, 100. name : fame, 85, 7. 
gaittis : schaittis, 85, 8. lakkis : takkis, 77, 5. schame : clame, 86, 32. 
undertaker : balletmaker, 246, 87. »» : proclaime, 87, 67, etc. 
name : schame, 85, 5, etc., lame : schame, 87, 53. name : lame : proclaime : 87, 53. 
schame : came (s) 86, 39. », : Shame : blame, 87, 60. 
same : lame, 126, 17. sam : gam, 202, 11. » 2 5,  : defame, 85, 11. 
cravis : wavis, 281, 56. crave : forgaif, 365, 145. fare (s) : repair, 111, 223. 
b) OE. &. spair : foreclair, 301, 67. 
mak : bak, 202, 17. brak, 377, 79. spak. 79, 1. » : preclair, 301, 67. 
nychtingail : small, 350, 114. nychtingaile : vaill, 347, 28. 
gait : lait, 316, 26. crave, graif, 365, 145. f) OF, al or au, Lat.—al. 
said : maid, 125, 46. pak : bak, 269, 58. haif : saiff, 214, 90. 
c) OE. e+. knaiff : saiff, 205, 43. 
fare (=mien) : fair (adj.) 111, 225. have : saiff, 266, 98. 
phane : brain : fane, 266, 83. nychtingaile : oriental, 370, 26. 
d) OE. a. 3 : scale, 370, 28. 
have : laif, 214, 90., etc., gaip : raip, 84, 75. 83, 61. | g) OF. ai. 
aip : graip : saip : 206, 6. cair ;: rair, 225, 114. nychtingaille : travaill, 347, 31. 370, 34. 
nychtingale : hale : 370, 34. 3 : faill, 348, 35. 
lame : schame : hame, 87, 53. i : awail, 351, 17. 
name : hame, 86, 18. schame : hame, 86, 17. a : battale, 370, 34. 
fair (v) : sair : thair, 71, 19. wair (s) lair, 194, 76. | h) OF. ei. 
» (v): mair, 71, 17. fare (s) : mair, 100, 222. phane : pane, 266, 95. 
cair : mair, 308, 44. rair, 225, 114. haif : persaif, 279, 17. 
e) OF. or Lat. a. 
haif : raif : 214, 90. 


§ 2. It is, I think, impossible to gainsay Dr Curris’s conclusion that a in open 
syllables was im most instances already lengthened, or in some more strictly speaking 
half-long, in the usage of Dunbar; and in these instances had already an §-sound, and 
that this lengthening and change of sound is usually indicated by the spelling a 
instead of the ME. a+cons+e which Dunbar or his scribes and printers also use. 
There are, however, apparent exceptions, and particularly when a is followed by &. 
Thus such rimes as lakkis : takkis, mak : bak, brak : spak, taken together with their 
NSc. pronunciation, which is undoubtedly @ in the modern Lothian and most other 
Scotch dialects, point to the survival of the a-sound in these words. But again the 
rimes and spelling forsatk : taik, baik : saik, show taik to have sometimes the e-sound, 
as was probably also the case with mak when spelt mazk (see Curtis, § 5). It seems as 
though the & had a tendency to check the lengthening (see Curtis, § 6) [GurKen, § L 4], 
and thus to prevent the change to e, it being, of course, almost an axiom that a long 
vowel changes much more readily than a short one. The other consonants, especially — 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 635 


the liquids, encourage lengthening and vowel-change, so that we find no such instances 
in their case. I am inclined also to think that Dunbar still distinguished between 
a and %, though probably only in quantity, the latter being probably only half-long 
with him. 
a and %, and that most even of these are before 7, a consonant which has an undoubted 
tendency to give length to a syllable. So that fair, fare, car, etc. may be regarded 
as full long and thus form perfect rimes for saz, mazr, ete.* 

On the whole, the evidence seems in consonance with the view of Professor 
Kuuce (P.G. 1. 877), that the change from a to e was completed early in Scotland, 
as it appears to be well established in Dunbar’s time. 

According to Professor Luicx (Archiv fiir das Studium der neueren Sprachen und 
Titteraturen, Band ci. Heft 1-2, pp. 52 and 63) the originally short vowels had begun 
to lengthen to a sort of half-long quantity in the Northumbrian dialect as early as the 
second half of the tenth century. But how long this would take to spread to the 
Lothians, if it spread in this manner at all, it is impossible to say. 


§ 3. A+G rimes with 


I gather this from the fact of the comparative infrequency of rimes between 


a) itself. draw : waw, 166, 228. 
_lawis : sawis, 317, 36. » 2aw (NE. all), 166, 226. 
(2) flawis (OF. fla3u) : lawis, 317, 39. law : waw, 317, 38. 
b) OE. 4+ w. sawis : wawis, 317, 39. 
draw : knaw, 276, 32. d) Lat. au. 
» «: blaw, 166, 226. lawis : cawis, 317, 37. 
ce) OF. a or ea +l. RaWiS 4). olienou. 
draw : staw, 276, 32. 


The rimes in b) confirm the lengthening of du (from OE. ag) in MSc. (Curtis, 
§ 27). 
§4. A+W 


a) with OE. a+g (see § 3). b) with OE. eall. 


staw : knaw : 276, 33. 
Although, as we shall have reason to observe later on, the influence of the Scotch 
w on a following vowel seems to be different from that of the English w, its influence 
on a preceding is the same, 7.¢., just the same as an u, giving an au-sound (see § 46). 
A: 


1. Followed by Nasals. 
§ 5. (a) followed by -nd rimes with 


a) itself. upaland : garland, 203, 19. 
landis ; bandis : strandis, 104, 57. strandis, » :variand, 328, 41. 
271, 14. handis : gyandis (OF. geant), 126, 21. 


land : stand : hand, 191, 5. 
landit : blandit (NE. flattered) : handit, 262, 76. 
band ; hand : strand : stand, 376, 34. 
brand : understand, 351, 1. 
brand : land, 203, 9. 
b) OF, and & ant. 
stand : garland, 193, 45, 


c) Sc pres : part : in—and. 
understand : brand : kindilland, 351, 1. 
hand : serwand, 239, 4. etc. 

d) ON. ond. 
landis : wandis (ON. vondr), 104, 63. 


* IT am inclined to maintain this position in the face of Dr GrrKen’s remark which seems to bear on it [§ 6. 3], 
to the effect that one must not ascribe any influence to r in preserving the quantity of the @. It is quite possible that 
Dr Gzrxen has ample materials to prove his point, but he does not produce them in his thesis. 


636 MR HENRY RELLYSE BAILDON ON 


There is here no sign of the dropping of the d, as is so common in NSe. in certai 
words, especially ee) and stand, as in the phrase to “ stan’ yer han’” =ston yar hon 
=to pay your share of the reckoning. In other words, such as strand, band, bland, 
and even dand, the d is often pronounced. Nor am I so clear as Dr GERKEN appears — 
to be as to the length of the vowel. The syllable is doubtless to be reckoned long 
but that is due rather to the consonants than the vowel. 


§ 6. (8) atnt. rimes with 
a) Fr. ant. stant : novaunt, 88, 9. | b) wantoun : dantoun : pantoun, 124, 24. 
§ 7. (y) a+ng rimes with 


a) itself. amang : dang : (praet. of ding, ON. dengja) : ow 
gang : wrang : lang: rang, 71, 29. sprang, 225, 111. wrang, 256, 3 


» © amang: hang: strang, 170, 274. wrang : lang : gang : rang, 71, on 
lang : amang, 305, 32. » + amang : fang (v) (OE. ‘fon) : sang : helena 


: strang : stang (s) (NE. sting) : fang (s) wrang, 257, 3. 
(OE. fang), 380, 10. 


ee 
Dunbar,* like Douglas [GERKEN, § 1. 3)], writes these rimes consistently with an a 
(and not, like Clariodus, with 0), just as Burns and modern writers of Scotch dialect do. 


§ 8. (8) a+n or nn rimes 


‘ 
a) with itself, man : swan, 235, 19. 
man : wan : 132, 106. », iran, 236, 23. 347, 27. 

», : dirry dan (?) : 40, 60. » 2s, An, 236, 31, 

>» 2 than 78, 27. ;, : Clan, 261, 32. 

» : gan: 197, 164, began, 235, 11. than : wan, 235, 15. 

5 2 Kans) 197,, 173. » + began, 235, 11. 

», 2 can, 230, 29. 235, 3. Ay) Calle OOe os 

§ 9. (ec) a+nk 
a) with self or OE., etc., 0: | ronk : bonk ; donk : thonk, 106, 99. 


This spelling with o appears also in ronk, donk, and slonk in Douglas [GERKEN, 


§ 1. 3)]. 


§ 10. (y) a+m or mb rimes 


a) with itself. lam : dam (?) 202, 15. dram + (2) 202, 23. 
lam (lamb) : rame, 126, 17. 35, 3. am, 201, 3. came (OE. camb) : schame : name, 86, 39, 
sam, 202, 11. 


As remarked by Dr GERKEN in regard to Douglas, the vowel in an (=lamb) 
remains short in spite of the combination mb, which has a lengthening influeuce. But 
this is not surprising, considering how readily, especially in Scotland, the b was 
dropped. 4 


* When I say Dunbar I mean, of course, his scribe or printer, and so in the case of the others. 
+ This word dram (cf. Curtis, § 16) seems also connected with drumlie (NSc.=turbid, dark) and very po b 
with doldrums through Icel. draums, Gen. from drawmr=melancholy, a dream (OE. dream) with which dram m 
directly connected. “The connection is not difficult to trace, as a person in a dreamy mood or deeply sunk in thou, 
has usually a serious, even melancholy, expression, 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 637 


§ 11. 2. A: Followed by other consonants rimes with 


a) itself. ass : vanitas, 387, 8. 
clappit : happit, 276, 19. last (OE. latost) : past, 43, 79. 
b) OF. e: e) OE. ea & eo. 
agast : fast, 136, 34. at : zet, 114, 17. 
gather : father, 264, 37. rax (OE. raxan=to reach) : wax : 377, 66. 
» + hadder, 266, 85. my 8 SEs Oa (Ak 
clappit : trappit, 276, 19. f) Latin e. 
ce) ME. a: wrack : frack, 282, 76. last (Jatost) : est, 368, 46. 


d) OF. or Lat. a. 
ass: pass: 331, 5. terge : lerge : berge : chairge, 
108, 183. 


§ 12. There seems little to be observed on the &@ in closed syllables in addition to 
what Dr Curtis has already said. 

The word man, which in NSc. has usually the pronunciation mon, appears in 
Dunbar’s time to be still man, and I have noticed a curious distinction in the Lothian 
dialect, in that any one using the word man for husband says “man” (Ger. mann), 
but in using the word generally=NE. man, says mon. The spelling of the rimes 
ronk : bonk : donk : thonk suggest, although they cannot be said to prove, the presence 
of an open o-sound in these words, and this is rather supported by the fact that a 
similar spelling occurs in Douglas (see above, § 9). If it be maintained that terge : 
lerge : etc. is an instance of the northern er+cons=ar+cons, it can be replied that 
this is not the case in Scottish, when the following consonant is palatal, and indeed is 
only clearly provable in the case of e+, as surviving in the modern clark for clerk. 
The NSc. pronunciation of /arge and charge=lérge, chérge, also bears out my view 
(see also § 30). 

ae 
Final 4 or 4+h. 
§ 13. 1. (a) written with a, rimes with 


a) itself. b) Lat. a. Maria : bla, 373, 30. fra, 373, 22. fa, 373, 
Sua : twa, 205, 45. therfra, 263, 9. ga : sla, (ON.a) 38. 
195, 106. c) ap. 
gais : tais, 269, 54. gais : strais, (ON.a) 176, 342. clais : gais, 140, 21. 


§ 14. (8) written with o, rimes with 


a) itself. | b) Lat. o. 
ago : wo, 264, 21. also: ro, 96, 78. fo: wo, | Apollo: sepulchro: go: so: wo: fo: mo, 382, 2 
42, 34. 280, 4. fo : tuo, 118, 1. mo, 280, 2. | ete. 
fro : wo : go, 197, 166. 


The spelling with o is with Dunbar, as with Clariodus, commoner than with a, 
though not to the same degree, judging from what Dr Curtis says in his article (§ 38), 
and is consistently carried out. 


§ 15. 1. 4+n, rimes with 
(a) (spelt with a) 


a) itself, allane : gane, 38, 26. tane (NE. taken) 290, b) OF. ain, Lat. an. stane : soverayne, 371, 64. 
93, ane, 38, 26. ane : nane, 37, 5. trayne, 371, 66. suffragane, 371, 68. 
ce) OF. ei. pane : flane, 265, 59. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 25). oF 


638 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


§ 16. (8) (spelt with 0) rimes 


a) with itself. b) Latin on 
stone : allone, 42, 17. allone : none, 348, 46. tone stone : dispone, 42, 49. 
(NE. taken), 350, 102. annone : postpone, 240, 28. 


bone : allone, 350, 110. allone : gone, 244, 63. 


2. 4+m rimes with 


a) OF. aand ai. hame: clame, 229. 1. 


There is here also a clear distinction kept up between o and a spellings. The 
rimes with Fr. ezn and ain, together with the spelling of trayne, grayne, etc., and the 
fact that suffragane is sometimes spelt -ene in the rime syllable, point, I think, to the - 
fact that @+m or n is already @, or some intermediate sound that comes very near it. 
Tane= taken occurs once as tone, riming with allone, and this, along with its appear- 
ance in Clariodus and in Douglas, clearly shows it was an accepted form of the word, 
however derived. Dr Curtis explains it as formed on a false analogy from apparently 
similar forms in which ME. 6 corresponded to MSc. @ [see Curtis, § 23. Gurxen, § 20, 
2)|. The occurrence of tone here seems quite to dispose of BRANDL’s arguaie 
(Anzid) AL, 10; 333). 


§ 17. 3. i+w rimes with 


a) itself. d) a— +g (see § 3). 
thrawis : crawis, 176, 345. e) eall. 
blawis : 295, 89. raw (s) : aw (NE. all), 173, 309. 
raw (NE. row (s)) : haw (OE, haga), 173, 309. blaw : waw, 166, 229, 
b) OE, &@+w raw : gaw (OE. gealla) : aw : haw, 173, 306. 
crawis ; mawis, 225, 89. sawlis . (OE. sawol) rimes with Pawlis (Paul’s) 
c) OE. caw, knawin : schawin (sc@awian), 355, 13. and brawlis (brawls). 


This form schawin from scédwian has been treated at great length by Dr Curtis 
(§ 288, etc.); but the simple explanation of Swrer (HES., § 680) that the e-element 
was absorbed by the preceding consonantal sound commends itself more to me, 
especially when we remember that this preceding sound was palatalised by the in- 
fluence of the e. It is even possible that, by a reversal of the process by which we 
get tone, the Scottish scribes have written schaw to represent ME. schow. 

There seems little to notice here, unless it be the marked tendency in Scottish to 
go ahead of English in the dropping of the consonantal /-sound. I do not know 
whether this has been fully accounted for, but it may have been encouraged by French 
influence, which was strong in Scotland about this time. 


§ 18. 4. 4 before r or r+ consonant rimes with 


a) itself. c) OE. deg. 
mair : sair: 71, 17. etc. ar (=oar) : fare (adj.) (NE. fair) 89, 28. 
more : sore, 370, 49. hore (NE. old age), 371, 59. fair : mair : 74, 5. 
mair : swair (NE. swore), 84, 86. d) OE. ae+r. 

b) OE. & (see § 1). mair : hair ; 193, 48. 


»» + war (v) (NE. were), 256, 10. 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 


mair : thair (daer), 71, 15. 194, 68. 
e) OE. er. 
mair : demair (NE. deemer), 308, 42. 
» 7 Lhesaurair, 230, 20. 
f) OF. o. soir (OE. sar) : befoir, 43, 86. lord : scorde, 
376, 55. 
evermoir : befoir, 118, 20. 
moir : befoir, 370, 49. 
forelore ; moir : befoir, 370, 49. 
g) OF. air or ar and Lat. ar. 
air ; mair, 193, 36. are : compare, 89, 87. preclare, 
89, 26. 


639 


9 


ae 


mair ; compair, 84, 87. repair, 74, 
squair, 193, 48. 

hair (OK. har, NE. old age) : squair, 106, 111. 

193, 44. 

h) OF. or Lat. o. 

lordis (OE. hlaford) : discordis 
Ite 

lord : remord, 269, 42. 

: accord, 315, 22. 

: corde, 376, 52. 

: deforde, 376, 53. 


111, 223. 


: recordis, 227, 


The MSc. quhar and thair do not come from the forms hwér and pér, but from 
hwar and par [GErKEN, § 6. 6)]. The modern Scotch is not only often whér and thér, 


but even whir and thir. 
have been influenced in turn by it. 


Whir may be due to preceding w (see § 46), and thir may 
On the other hand, we have whaur, whar, and 


whare (Burns), showing, in the first instance at least, the English w-influence, as we 


may call it (see § 46). 
There can, I think, be no doubt that 
(Luicx, Untersuchungen, §§ 235, 260). 


a+r=arr is already sounded in MSc. er 


For the spelling az =e see Morsbach Gr., § 136, 


Anm. 3 f., and Lutcx, Untersuch., §§ 359-61. 
§ 19. Fora+ht=OE. awiht, nawiht see oht (§ 93). 


§ 20. a+st rimes with 
a) OE. eo almoist : loist, 76, 61. | 


b) OF. o and Lat. o. almoist : indoist ; coist, 76, 61. 


I take the syllable most in almoist to come from OE. mast, as neither this nor the 


Scottish mazst can come from OE. mest. 


LZE- 
§ 21. 1. Not followed by g, rimes with 
a) itself, satt : fatt : that, 73, 6. 
AB : 
: § 22. rimes with 
a) itself, gaif : haif, 359, 25. blek : fek : sek (NE. | h) OF. or Lat, @. 


sack), 116, 85. 
b) OE, &. 
mast : blast, 136, 27. edder : ledder, 177, 368. | 
c) OE. a (see § 18). | 
mad : sad, 304, 11. gaif : laif, 287, 46. weir : beir, | 
129, 33. 
d) OE. a-(see § 1). 
e) OF. ei. haif : persaif, 279, 17. dais : prais, 205, 46. 
f) OF. au, haif : saiff, 214, 90. 235, 18. 
g) OF. é. bak : quhattrak (NE. what reck), 140, 30. 
feddir (OE. &) : eddir (OE. ae), 283, 8. | 
brak : frak, 111, 241. | 
neck ; blek : 82, 34. hed (had) : sted (s) 126, 11. 


| 
| 
| 


blek : effek, 82, 31. weir (NE. war) : prisoneir, 
116; 110: 
k) OF. air—ar. 
bair (adj.) : repair, 171, 281. 
1) OE. eo war (OE. (ge) waer) : far, 36, 50. ar, 
350, 93. 


| m) OK. a : (see § 11). 


n) OF. a. 

past : fast, 81, 2. 118, 18. 
o) OE. eaht, ON. atr. 

rawehtir : lawchtir : slawchtir, 
p) OE. x +g, (see § 23). 


292 


aan, 


37. 


. This is a very curious instance in which rafter (OE. refter) has been confused 


with words from OE. eaht, and where the 


scribe or printer has conformed it to the 


spelling of the other words, while it seems more likely that lawchter and slawchter had 
the f-sound, like NE. laughter, than that rafter had a guttural spirant sound. 


640 


§ 23, Al+G rimes with 


a) itself and xg. 
day : lay, 93, 8. 104, 48. snaill : taill, 70, 10. 
lay : clay (OE. w), 242, 5. 
b) with eg. or ecg, 
day : tway : say, 73, 1. 
day : play, 126, 32. 


lay : away, 100, 186. 
c) OF. ei and ai 
lay : affray : 100, 184. 


lay : pray (prey), 104, 54. 
lay : array, 242, 2. 
day : pray, 104, 54. 126, 34. 
day : abbay, 314, 9. 
day : may, 347, 20. 
: array, 347, 23. 
they (or ON, ei) pray : display : 109, 177. 


For discussion of @+g see under e+g, § 32; Curtis, § 135; and GERKEN, § 6. 5 


E- sounds in ME, and MSe. 


§ 24. E- sounds in MSc. 


a) (1) OE. e eg. read=NE. red. 
2) OE e-—lengthened in ME. e.g. stede. 
(3) ON. x, e.g. saete (NE. seat). 


§ 25. 


B) (1) WS. ae Angl. @ Grme. ae. WGrme 4 e.g. 
daed Angl. déd, NE. deed. 
(2) OE. ae (i- mutation of 4) maénan (to mean). 


§ 26. 


y) (1) WGrme. (including @ final which was 

lengthened), e.g., slep (prt =slept), hé, (prn). 

(2) OE. €+1d, etce., e.g., feld (field). 

(3) OE. € Northmb. ie (i mut. of 6), eg., swéte 
(sweet). 

(4) Angl. € WS. ie. y (i mut. G@ @0), e.g., héran, 
hieran, hyran (hear). 

(5) OE. eo=(I.) Grme. eu, eg., déop, (II.) con- 
tracted from é i ¥+a, u, eg. seon (to see) from 


Table of a, 8, y rimes. 


§ 26a. a and f rimes. 


heidis : beidis : leidis, 79, 17. deid : leid, 131, 84. 
steidis : deidis (daed), 246, 93 reid (red), leid, 131, 
87. 


deid (ea) : deid (daed), 363, 103. speiche : streiche, 
leiche, 308, 31. 


§ 27. a and y rimes. 


speiris : weiris : effeiris : 98, 126. 
leif (OE. 1éaf) : cleif, 232, 7. mischief ; 259, 10. 
leif : breif, 232, 6. mischief : beleif, 262, 83. 
: reif, 260, 33. 
weill : quheill, 218, 13. skeillis : quheillis, 176, 


359. 


* leik, ek from late Anglian léc, éc (Sievers, § 163). 


MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


See also Lutcx, Untersuch., §§ 356 and 358. a 


fair : air, 106, 115. 368, 33, 
d) OE, a or a, +r. 
fair : hair, 106, 14. 
Sa ONO salle 
e) OE. ae (not followed by g). 
fair : bair, 376, 23. 
f) OE, a —(see § 1). 
g) OE. a (see § 18), 2 
h) OF, or Lat, a fair : repair, 74, 1. 111) 22300 
», : preclare, 89, 26. 92, 2. 
5, : compair, 89, 31. 
» : declair, 283, 10, 
: etce., ote, 
k) with OE. ae or ON. ei. 
haill : taill : snaill, 70, 10. 


. (4) OF, e=(1) Lat. a+1 or+n, eg., natural (2) 
Lat. &, 1, 2 or Grme. in position. 7 
(5) OF, ei, ai. 


(3) AF. e=OF. ee +ch, ¢.9., preechier (to preac! h). 
(4) Lat. e Greek 7. 


sehan, (III.) eo before (Grme. e or i) lengthening 
consonants, ¢.g., leornian (to learn), 
(6) OF. e=(L) Lat. a, ¢.g., cler (clear), (II.) Lat. 
é or Gk. n Lat. ae and Gk. ai, Lat oe, G 
and Lat. in open syllables, e.g., ME. pr 
tragedie, repete. 
(7) AF. e=(L.) OF. ie., eg., grief, (II.) OF, ue= | 
Lat. o in open syllables, e.g-, buef (beef). — 


leill (OF. leal) : deill : heill : 
42, 60. 


speir : feir (fear), 194, 96. 


37, Gs weill ‘ee ill, 


* leik oe @a) : breik (OL. é), 167, 240. eik : meik, 
271, 3 

+ Zeir: pie 33, 4. 246, 110. and cleir, 231, 5 
» i neir: compeir, 96, 72. 

speir : deir, 99, 165. 

steir : deir, 119, 48. 137, 52. 


+ Angl. 3ér, for WS. Jer. 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 641 


§ 28. Band y. 


deid (daed) forbid (€0), 118, 11. deidis : neidis, 250, 4. deid : dreid, 245, 82. 

feir (fear) : cheir, 97, 94. feir : cheir, 97, 96. 246, »» : procedis, 281, 41, leidis : remeid, 131, 90. 
101. », : briedis, 281, 42. meidis : reidis, 104, 55. 

sweir (adj : cheir, 34, 19. feir : presoneir : 115, 46. », : posseid, 296, 15. weidis : ;, 104, 58: 

freiris : leiris, 80, 46. upspreidis:,, 104, 59. 

deid : speid, 245, 81. and remeid, 363, 101. shreidis: ,, 104, 62. 
», :meid, 250, 2. weid : neid, 237, 12. 315, 13. seid : speid, 221, 24. 


§ 29. a, B and y. 
steid ; reid (raedan) : remeid : pleid, 75, 38, etc. | weill : deill : feill : 75, 26. 


This table amply proves that Dunbar rimed these three classes of sounds fre- 
quently together, so that they must to his ear have been very similar, and this can 
hardly mean anything else than that é had in M&c. already become 7, at least before 
certain consonants. ‘This is an important distinction, especially as we notice that in 
Dunbar there are only six consonantal in the final letters of these rimes, viz., d, ch, f, k, 
l,and7. In Clariodus there are also v, m, st, t, s, and p. The most striking point 
here is the complete absence from both of the nasal n, and the frequency of d and r. 
One is almost driven to the conclusion that, while before these last two consonants at 
least e had already the 7 quality, it had still before 1 and possibly before m an e-sound. 


E- 
§ 30. 1. Not before g rimes with 
a) itself. e) OE. WS. ae Angl. é. 
heris (v) : deris (hurts) 270, 73. meir (NE. mare) : weir (NE. war), 79, 3. eit : 
beir (v) : speir, 194, 84. bleit (v) (NE. bleat) : quheit (NE. wheat), 
» (s) (NE. bear) : spear, 194, 92. Nias Bae 
b) OF. ea (see § 55 and following). speiris : weiris, 98, 130. 
ce) OF, ea. speir : feir, 194, 88. beir (bear), 194, 92. 
beir : eir, 115, 41. £) ‘OF. e: 
mere : eir, 79, 6. speiris : effeiris 98, 130. 137, 64. smellis : ex- 
forbeir : eir, 251, 34 and 32. cellis, 358, 12. 
meit (OE. mete) : threit, 251, 11. g) OE. ae (see § 50). 
d) OE. é, J, te, and eo=y rimes. eit : sweit (NE. sweat) : 175, 330. 
speir : heir : deir, 99, 163. 107, 132. 


The e in beir (v) beir (s)= (bear), sperr and deir and also in mei and et appears 
to be lencthened and to have in these cases an i-sound (see Curtis, § 131), with whom I 
am inclined to agree in spite of all said by Dr Gurken, § 10. 4). We must again, 
however, notice that with the exception of wert : threit, and eit : swert, all these rimes 
end in 7, a confirmation, it would seem, of the lightening effect of the Scotch r already 
noticed in § 29, and confirmed, to my thinking, by such cases as whir and thir (where 
and there), awir for aware, which occur as often in N&c. In this connection it must 
be borne in mind that there are in England and Scotland at least three different vs, the 
South English trilled v, with up-turned point of the tongue, the North English burr or 
slurred guttural vr, and the Scotch rolled r, made, like the German, with down-turned 


642 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


tongue-tip. The first tends to lose its trill and become almost a mere breathing, as 
in London and South England _ generally, the second a the North a f 


sound. 


§ 31. 2. E+G or CG rimes with 


a) self, pley : assay, 110, 205 etc, forwayit : assayit, 110, 
way : play, 196, 132. 222, 25. 204. J 
say : away, 114, 21. f) OF. ei. 

b) ae+g. (see § 23). Pla: ‘Pray, 126, 34. pley : array, 196, 136. 107, 

c) +g. say : tway, 73, 2. | 127 

d) ON, ei. ; pley : ee. 196, 147. pley : deray, 234, 14, 
wey (weigh) : suey (sway), 246, 104. away : affrey, 100, 187. 
aye : play, 196, 146. g) OF. e or ee. 

e) OF, ai. pley : lufraye (livery), 196, 140. 


way : verey, 82, 7. pley : gay, 75, 39. 


§ 32. An extremely interesting and difficult question demands discussion here, viz. 
the history of the three sounds, OK. #+g and e+g and ON. e. Dr Curtis has treated 
the question at great length and very thoroughly, and has arrived at a conclusion 
different from that formerly accepted. Dr GERKEN [§ 6. 5) |, while admitting some force 
in Dr Curtis’s arguments, states the objections which can be raised against his view, and 
appears to lean to the earlier theory. What we may call the received doctrine repre- 
sents the line of development thus :— 


OE. 2+ g><ai 
OE. e+g -al>a>e 
ON. ei j 

Dr Curtis represents it thus :-— 


OE. 2+ g>ai 
Oma ela 
At the first glance Dr Curtis’s theory has the advantage of greater simplicity, and, 
what is more, it is from the phonetic stand-point much more credible, as it follows what 
I have called ‘‘the line of least resistance.” The other theory labours under the disad- 
vantage of being circuitous and not following this line, for the change from a to @ is 
not from the back towards the front, but from front to back, z.e., in the reverse direc- 
tion to that which it takes in the subsequent stage in passing from @ to @ (Curtis, § 150). 
Indeed, the direct transition from @ to @ seems in itself improbable, so that we should 
have to insert an intermediate diphthong, ai, which would be very like a reductio ad 
absurdum of the theory. But we must now examine the objections to Dr Curtis's 
view as collected together by Dr Gurxen (§ 6, 5). See also Luick, Untersuch., 
§ 282, ete. 
The first is “that ai and ed are often, especially in the North, interchanged in ville 
ing, and that mostly in favour of az (see SweEt, HES., § 706; Ten Brink, Cha 
Sprache, § 40).” “ According to Dr Curtis’s hypothesis,” continues Dr GERKEN, “ 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 643 


? 


should expect the contrary.” ‘The reply to this is, I think, perfectly simple, 2.e., that ez 
was already used to express a different sound, viz. 7, and hence a was written to avoid 
confusion. His second point, that the transition from ez to az occurs in South England, 
though seemingly a point in favour of the received view, is not necessarily hostile, still 
less fatal to Curris’s theory. Indeed, one might almost agree, from the very different 
fortunes of sounds in the north and south, that the probabilities are rather in favour of 
a difference than of a similarity. Much the same is true of Dr Grrxen’s third argument 
from the occurrence of the change from es to @; and, moreover, the instances given do not 
seem to indicate a general law. His fourth objection would only be a serious one if we 
were certain that the other sounds riming with az could not possibly have also come to 
the ¢ stage so early, a position in so difficult a question rather dangerous to assert. 
Nor does his fifth objection, somewhat loosely stated as it is, appear very formidable, 
especially when we remember that poets are often scrupulous that their rimes should 
appear correct to the eye as well as to the ear, and also that the stringency with which 
purity of riming is maintained differs very much from time to time, and also with the in- 
dividuality of the writer. ‘l'o say the least of it, one would have to know exactly who 
the poets referred to in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries respectively were, and to 
what extent the one employed rimes which the other did not, before a serious argument 
could be grounded on these lines. His sixth objection also cannot be called very 
weighty, being of what one may call a negative character, as there may be some other 
reason than pronunciation that withheld the Scottish scribes from conforming to the 
English fashion of spelling. Still we must give Dr GerxkeEN all credit for having mar- 
shalled a number of ingenious objections to Dr Curtis's theory, objections which it is to 
be hoped hey Dr Curtis, will himself find occasion to deal with a fulness not possible in 
the present instance. 

It must also be borne in mind that to all theories in all subjects, not capable of 
exact demonstration, there will always be many possible, often seemingly formidable, ob- 
jections. It is here a question between two rival theories, for both of which there is 
much to be said, and against which much can also be said. ‘There seems to me more fun- 
damental objections to the elder theory than to Dr Curtis's, and therefore, so far as I 
can judge, Dr Curtis’s theory “holds the field,” just as the Darwinian theory and the 
Wave-theory of light hold the field in their respective sciences. 


E: 
=WS., ze., after palatal. 
§ 83. 1. Before ld rimes with 


a) itself. c) OE. @o. 
scheld : feld, 134, 7. 195, 114. field : beheld, 98, 127. 
feild : scheld, 195, 115. adyOR ee. 
weld : feld : scheld, 207, 19. feild : peiled, 276, 37. 
h) OE y. 


scheld : beild, 294, 61. 


_ The vowel here seems already lengthened. 


7 


644 


§ 34. 2. Before n and n+cons. rimes with 


a) OE. or ON. e. 
end : wend : kend : spend, 75, 44. etc., strenth : 
lenth, 377, 65. 
henis : menis, 171, 284. schrenkit : blenkit. 136, 
28. 
went : bent : schent, 107, 145. 
hen : pen : men, 171, 284. 
b) OE. é@ shortened. 
ken : ten, 75, 10. 
den : ten : 36, 66. 
ten : fen, 166, 220. 
yesnen: 165, 218. 
c) OE. eo. 
? gend (3eond) : kend : end : wend, 70, 1. 
d) OF. or Lat. e. 
defend : end, 75, 43. 
pen : den, 36, 69, men : pen, 165, 218e 171 282; 
fen, 166, 221, 


§ 35. Before other consonants, rimes with 


a) itself, 
webbis : ebbis, 135, 16. derne, terne, 369, 7. 
bellis : dwellis, 89, 44. 196, 127. 
gekkis : neckis, 128, 17. dwell : well, 70, 8. 
sell, dwell, 352, 25. » : hell, 386, 4. and 
many such and all words in -nes. 
fed : bed : wed, 77, 13. 
rest : nest : 86, 42. best : rest : 113, 2. 235, 10. 
mirthfullest : nest: rest, 101,3. nett : gett, 257, 17. 
sett : forget, 357, 63. 
b) with OE. u dialectically e. 
ferry : Canterberry, 241, 38. 
c) OE, y ori. 
bred : fed : gled, 177, 365. dwell : kell (NE. kiln), 
70, 4. dwell : well : kell (OE. cyln), 70. 2. 
sped : bled: gled, 224, 78. sark : clerk, 176, 351, 
315, 19. 
clerk : merk (NE. darkness), 176, 349. 315, 19. 
rest : list, 326, 1. 
d) with OE. eo and ON. ja. 
hell : befell, 138, 106. dwell : fell, 42, 50. 43, 64. 
fell (ON. fjall), 70, 2. 
tell : fell, 356, 37. fell : well, 372, 5. 
e) OF. and Lat. e. 
bellis : excellis, 89, 45. dwell : Gabriell, 43, 74. 
dwellis: ,, , 89, 45, etc. 
», +: mellis, 208, 6. and many more. 
dress : heaviness, etc., 111, 226. 
distress : merriness, 41, 5. 196, 50. 
incres : lustiness, 345, 40. 
drest : rest : nest, 86, 42. 
» 2 west : 136, 37. 
weir (NE. war) : beir (v), 138, 96. forsweir, 138, 
90. 


aa rah an originally long vowel, it points to a ie of the long vowel, as im 
termination -less, and not to a lengthening of the short one. 


MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


defend : kend, 75, 43. and 317, 42. 
amend ; send, 139, 40. and 317, 44. 
» +: wend, 317, 44. 
: spend, 317, 43. 


wrennis ; pennis, 98, 121. 
schent : went : instrument : omnipotent : 
107, 145. 


bendit : descendit, 150, 6. 
blent (blinded) : omnipotent, 294, 75. 
», (blended) : hardiment, 135, 19. 
content : went, 130, 57. 
»  :schent, 334, 8, 
» ‘lent, 334, 28, and many more. 


e) OE. ae. 
ken : quhen, 75, 10. 
HOON yeu ls LTON 
f) OK.a 


wrennis : crennis (OE. cran, NE. crane), 98, 113. 


molest : rest : nest, 86, 42. 

revest : rest : mirthfullest : ness : 86, 42. 

best : test : 147, 7. and many more. 

nett : gett : dett, 257, 16. 

sett : pet : 179, 375. 

nek : effek, 82, 32, and suspect, correct, ete. 

derne : superne, etc., numerous similar words, was 

tern : ” ” ” ” 369,7. 
f) OF. a. — 

purchass : largeness, etc., 349, 82. 


dwellis > bellis.: kellis (Fe clea head-dress), 
89, 42. = 
g) OE. ea. 


clarkis : sparkis, 315, 18, 102, 21. * 
h) OE. awe, contracted to a before rk. 
clarkis : larkis, 102, 25. 
i) ON. 6. 
clarkis : 
k) ON, a. 
rest : kest, 378, 108 
1) OE, @a. 
mercyless : 
m) OE. ae. 
best : lest, 336, 13, and 28. 
bedding : spredding, 175, 334. 
n) OF. ae. 
neck : blek : fek : 
ip | B25 ods 
sted : hed, 126, 1a 
feddir : eddir, 283, 8. 
0) ON. ja, e. 
well : fell (mountain), 70, 2. 


barkis, 102, 27. 


gentilnes, 117, 1. 


sek, 315, 82. 


Peculiar to the No th 0 


= | 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 645 


England and South of Scotland is the pronunciation of erk =ark, which survives in the 
modern pronunciation of clerk=clark. But er before other consonants has not in Scct- 

land the tendency, as in some parts of England, to become ar. What seems most 
probable is that clerk then, as now, and as was the case with so many words in Dunbar’s 
time, had two pronunciations, of which the poet took advantage, just as in modern 
English poetry no one hesitates to avail oneself of the two pronunciations of again = agen 
or agen. 

§ 37. The rimes nek : effek : etc., instance a looseness of speech, a tendency to speak 
with as little trouble as possible, which is a correlative indication of that tendency to 
rapid change we have already noted in MSc. We have it exemplified in the loss of the 
consonantal 7, and in the loss of d and b after m and m respectively, as in hinner for 
hinder, wunner for wonder, lam for lamb, etc. How far such a tendency can go is 
shown in the case of some Polynesian languages which have almost or entirely lost their 
consonantal sounds ; and how far this might have gone in Scotland, but for the invention 
of printing and consequent spread of education, it is impossible to say. But the fact 
that these conservative factors were already in Dunbar’s time beginning to work is to 
me a valid argument that we should not expect the same rate of change which had 
brought MSc. ahead of ME. to continue. And when we consider that not long after, 
in the time of Knox, education became more general and of better quality in Scotland 

| than in England, and continued so, to a marked extent, up to the time of the adoption of 
the School-Board system in England, and indeed even later, if not up to the present 
day, we clearly have the reason why Scotch, which at one time ran ahead of English, 
should soon after the time of Dunbar begin to lag, and should, at the present day, be 
behind English in the sense of not yet having adopted such innovations of the present 
century as the lengthening of the @ in pass, grass, etc. These factors, together with the 
retention of the guttural spirant in Scotch, have tended to keep / in its original place, 
while in nearly every other dialect of English it became and remains unstable, a con- 
dition it was tending towards in Dunbar’s time, as witness such spelling as hable, 
habound, etc. 

_§ 38. We have here no instance of what Dr GerKEN finds in Douglas of the riming of 
énd with éond (GrRKEN, § 8, 1). In modern Scotch the word friend (fréond) is nearly 
always friin, which is Burns’ pronunciation when he writes it as a Scotch word “frien,” 
as he rimes it with green, e’en, seen (Epistle to John Lapraik, verse 1). When he writes 
it friend, he appears to use it as an English word, and rimes it with, for example, end 
(Epistle to R. Graham); so I think we must regard the pronunciation frend as an 
Anglicism. 

E, mutation of 6, rimes with 
§ 39. 


a) itself. | quene : wene, 352, 46. 

“Sweit : feit, 35, 9. 358, 7. | » 2 gtene, 105, 76, 353, 88, etc., cte. 
_ Speid : meid, 352, 33. | grene : kene, 107, 137, 119, 199. 

quene : kene, 284, 17. 117, 11. | » 2 wene, 213, 62. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 25). DG 


646 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


demiss : semiss, 308, 37. 
b) Angl. é= WS. ie later y. 
meid ; neid, 250, 2. speid : neid, 255, 39. 


demiss : temiss, 308, 37. quene : schene, 92, 7, etc., 


etc. 


demiss : temiss, 308, 37. kene : __,, 107, 140. 


110, 200. 
flemit : 3emit, 381, 39. grene: _,, 
etc., etc. 


c) OE. eo. 


breid (OE. brédan) : leid (NE. lied praet. of OE 


ledgan), 169, 266. 
quene : fyftene, 352, 28. 
5, : betwene, 352, 34. 370, 47. 
»» 1: besene : sene, 95, 43, etc., etc. 
kene : sene, 97, 88. 107, 143. 
», : bene, 117, 15. 352, 11. 
quhein:,, 316, 28. 
quene: ,, 92, 4. 105, 73. 
grene : sene, 103, 43. etc., etc. 
» +: bene, 105, 77. 
quene : teyne, 307, 47. 
beseik : meik, 42, 23. 
breikis (s) : cheikis, 268. 23. 
d) ON. &. 
flemit : temit, 381. 36. 
e) Angl, é= WS. e and Grme. 4. (see § 47). 
g) OE. & mut. of a=Grme. ai, 


103, 45, 


quene : ene (eyes), 353, 58. 370, 39, ete. 
grene: ,, 110, 203. 
kene: ,, 110, 203. 367, 47. 

i) OE. &-see § 30. 
speid : leid, 221, 16. 
steid (place), meid, 250, 2. 
beit : meit, 87, 65. 
feill (NE. feel) : weill, 75, 25. 

k) OE. i. 

(?) bedene : quene, 370, 41. 

1) OE. @ : feill (OK. 6) : weill, 75,. 25. 

m) OF. e and ie. 
breiding : posseding : exceding, 364, 122, 
quene ; sustene, 352, 28. 

», :contene, 352, 40. 
»» : prevene : obtene, 353, 70, and 82. 
», : Splene, 351, 6, etc., ete. 
grene : 4, 94,12. LOG d0a 
» 1 serene, 106, 108. 
» i sustene, 110, 202, 376, 45. 
ei AS 294, 66. 
quene : serene, 92, 11. and 370, 37. 
» jamene,o10;, ov 
beit : discret, 87, 66. 
flemit : redemit, 381, 36. 
feir : maneir, 106, 95. 
», : chevallier, 105, 153. 
breid : excede, 377, 73. 


kene : mene, 117, 12. kene : sustene, 110, 202. 376, 45. 
breid : weid, 170, 271. » © serene, 292, 3. 
speid : meid : dreid, 352, 31. » :- Splene, 352, 12. 
» seid, 221, 24. feir (company) : cheir, 106, 94. 108, 150, 
» 1 weid, 221, 24. », : Cleir, 106, 98. etc. 
5, : deid (deed), 245, 81. n) OF. ai. 
quene : clene, 352, 16. beit : treit, 87, 64. 
» :mene, 353, 64. 370, 47. o) OF. 1. 
wene : ene (evening), 70, 9. feir : pleseir, 105, 92. 
shene : clene, 225, 106. p) OE. ea. speid : breid (NE. bread), 254, 36.* 
h) OE. ea + gutt. 


§ 40. These rimes seem to confirm the view already stated that @ had already im 
certain positions, i.e., before v and d, and, probably, before ¢, k, ll, v, and f become ¢ (or 
something very close to it), as we may judge from Dunbar’s rhyming the three classes 
of sounds a, B, y frequently together before these consonants (see § 29). But as 
already remarked, the absence of such rhymes before n and their rarity before m may 
give us just pause before ascribing to @ before n (and perhaps m) an 7 sound at this 
early period. One reason for this is the almost universal avoidance of the ez spelling, 
and observance of the ene form. This by itself might be accounted for on graphic 
grounds, but there is another reason for supposing that the spelling ene could not 
always mean an 7 sound, viz., the spelling and rimes of a word like suffragene = suffra- 
gane (NE. suffragan), which rimes with ‘twane, 100, 173, and with meridiane, 
souerayne, trayne, etc,, 371, 68. Now, if our supposition that dne has already an @ 
sound be correct, in order to make suffragene a good rime for the other words, or a 
correct spelling of the word at all, we must suppose ene to indicate at anyrate an ¢ 


* T follow Professor Scurprer in taking breid to mean bread, but it may mean breadth (OE, briedu), 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 647 


sound of some kind, and not anz-sound, It is not, indeed, at all necessary to suppose 

that ene and ame indicated identical sounds, for there is always, even in good modern 

yerse, a tendency to a certain licence with such terminal syllables, which have only a 

secondary accent. Thus a modern poet will rime a word like infinite with light, or 
with it, and expect the reader to pronounce the word accordingly. But if ene already 
meant an 2-sound, it could not be used as anything like equivalent to ane. My 
position then is this, that before n, and probably me, the OE. é had, so to speak, lagged 
behind e+7, ete., and thus had still in all probability an e-sound, and that later, through 
the influence of the other words from OE. e-sound, it was brought into line with them. 
A confirmation of this view is to be found in the fact that Dunbar rimes words like ' 
quene, grene, etc., ete. with sustene and contene, from OF. e, which never acquire the 7 
sound at all. My position is then to some extent intermediate between that of Dr 
Curtis (§ 129) and Dr Gerken (§ X. 1). 

§ 41. We have 92, 15, a false rime between beme and quene, which shows that the 
passage is corrupt (see Introduction). 


General OE. or ON. €= WGrme. 6, and 6, (lengthened). 


§ 42. Not before g, rimes with 


a) itself. the : kne, 97, 100. 

he : me, 82, 8. etc. e) Ang €= WS. ea + gutt (see § 49). 

me : 3¢, 233, 33. he : E (NE. eye), 214, 79. 

» : we, 290, 100. f) Ang é=WS. ae WGrme. 4 (see § 47), 
b) @mut. of o. See § 39. g) ON. c (see § 95). 
c) Ang. 6.= WS, @ (see § 47). 3e : slie, ON. sleegr, 140, 31. 
d) OK. co. - he: ,, 204, 27. 

Ze : fle, 139, 15. me: ,, 285, 8. 288, 40. 

», : se, 140, 23. h) OF. e, 

mene, 139, 3. Se : dignitie : agilitie, 139, 7. 

» : thre, 140, 27. », : Supple : cumtre, 140, 39. 

he : see, 125, 49. heir : prisoneir, 114, 16. 115, 64, and numerous 

wire, 214, 73. others. 

me : tre, 82, 13. heir : cleir, 140, 38. 

he : fe, 214, 77. » :cheir, 33, 3. 196, 131, and others. 

me : le, 82, 23. me ;: cuntrie, 83, 48. 287, 55. . 

» : ire, 82, 28. leir ; frere, 80, 46. 

heir : steir, 34, 15. seir : speir (sphere), 368, 12. 

meee, 77, 20. feir (OE. gefér) : cheir, 97, 94. 

me : thre, 83, 63. etc., etc. j) ON, eyja. 

» + Se, 121, 21, etc., ete. de; we, 77, 7. 

Beetie, 233, 232. 87, 35. the : de, 295, 79. 


she ; se (see) : 97, 103. 


Such rimes as Ze : hie, Ze : slie, dignitie, agilitie, me : countrie, seem also to point 
| to an7 sound for final e, but not conclusively. 


§ 43. 2) Before g, rimes with 


a) =OE, ecg, | say : sway, 73, 2. 


648 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


Ang]. é= WS. ie. 
N 44, Rimes with 


a) itself, f) Ang. ¢= WS, @a+ gutt (see § 49). 
heir (v) : deir, 99, 163, 107, 132. g) OE, e. 
steiris ; heiris, 267, 4. ten : ken, 75, 10. 
b) general OE. and W. Ger. @. Sy aaneyoly (ee (a 
steill ; weill, 75, 25. 137, 78. fen, 166, 220. 
heir : deir, 77, 20. h) OE, y- steir (NE. stir) : deir, 119, 49. 137, 53. 
c) OE. ¢=mut, of 6 (see § 39), i) OF. ei. 
skeilis (NSe. skeel, OFris. skeel) : heillis, 176, steir (steer) : heir, 34, 11, 
356. k) OF. e and ie. 
d) OE. @o. steir (v) (NE, steer): cheir, 33, 3. 217, 11. 
skeilis ; quheillis (NE. wheel), 176, 356. 45 : perseveir, 33, ie 
e) OE, de. a : maneir, 217, 12, 
ten : quhen, 75, 11. 


It is evident that ten had already undergone shortening, perhaps from the frequent 
use of tenfold. : « 
The word steir (NE. stir, OE. styrian) is in Dunbar’s time already long, and that is 
another indication of the lengthening influence of the Scotch r. i 


Angl. é= WS. ae WGrme. a. 
§ 45. 1) followed by r, rimes with 


a) itself, thair ; mair: sair, 71, 15, etc. 
3eir : sweir (OE. sw&r=heavy, 34, 19. 5 plain, 104.076: 
3eir : feir (NE. fear), 246, 105. 5 2 evirmair, 221, 18. 
b) OE. ea. i) ON. ae, Zeir : feir (ON, faerr=sound), 244, 51. 
geir : eir, 251, 32. k) OK. e+g. See above § 3. 
c) OE.e. See § 33, ete. }) QE", te: 
d) General OE. or ON. and W.Gmme. é (see § 42). zeir : perseveir, 33, 7. sweir : cheir : perseveir, 34, 
e) OF. ea, feir (NE, fear) : geir (OE. gearae), 254, Ne 
Sill »» : presoneir, 113, 1. 114, 8. 
f) Angl. é= WS. ie. oe : cleir, 231, 2. 
zeir: steir, 34, 15. sweir : steir (v) (NE. steer), : appeir, 244, 52. 
34, 19. m) OF, a. 
zeir : heir (v), 231, 1. thair : repair, 74, 2. 
g) OE. a. o) OF. ai. 
thair : fair (OE. faran), 71, 19. hair : air, 106, 114, 193, 48, 
h) OE. 4, thair : air, 96, 66. 
war (were) : mair : sair, 256, 10. p) OF. ei. 
hair : mair, 193, 40. zeir : heir, 34, 11. 


§ 46. Following Dr Curtis, I have taken thair as derived from paer, but it seems 
more likely that, like mar, sair, ete., it represents an original @ in the form pdr, as is 
well recorded in OE. I think, however, with Dr Curtis, that thair has probably a 
double sound, viz. @ and 7, as I have often heard the latter sound in modern Scotch 
dialect, and my impression is that the two pronunciations may be heard in the same 
individual according to the position of the word. This second form, thir, is another 
instance of the influence of 7 on the preceding vowel, an influence Dr GERKEN so per- 
sistently denies, but which must, I say, be very obvious to anyone who has heard much 
Scotch spoken. The word aware, for example, is often pronounced in Scotch cawir. 
This may also be influenced by the w, as I have pointed out, in words like ‘ swie’ (: 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR, 649 


sway, ME. sweye)=swing. There seems, indeed, to be a difference between the English 
and Scotch w; as the latter has not the same influence on a following a as the English. 
It would thus seem as though the Scotch w lacked the vowel element, or had a different 


(lighter) vowel element from the English.* 


§ 47, 2. not before r rimes with 


<) itself. 
weidis : meidis, 104, 55. deid (OE. ® 
dreid, 245, 82. 296, 13. 
upspreidis : meidis, 104, 59. threidis : meidis, 104, | 
59, deid : weid, 221, 4. 
sweit (NE. sweat): bleit (bleat), quheit (OE. 
hwaete), 117, 330. 
weid : dreid, 239, 11. reid : seid : weid (OE. wed), | 
221, 12. gredy : dredy, 372, 57. 
red : cled (see NED.), 269, 43. | 
speiche : leiche (OK. laece), 308, 34, ever : never, | 
118, 4. | 
b) OE. ae, mut. of a (see § 50). | 
e) OE. ea. 
weid (OE. waed) : neid, 170, 268. leidis : 
(NE. head), 79, 17. 
dreid : neid, 239, 15. deid (NE. deed) : deid (NE. 
dead), 363, 103. 
d) OE, é, mut. of 6 (see § 47). | 
meit (adj.) : feit, 149, 14. 
speid : weid : reed : leid: Zeid : seid, 221, 4. dreid : 
speid, 352, 31. meit (OH. gemete) : feit, 139, | 
13. sueit, 353, 75. 
e) OE. eo. 
meidis (OE. &) : reidis (OK. hreod) : weidis : up- 
spreidis, 104, 55. 
ever : levir, 138, 95. deid : forbid, 118, 12. 
f) OF. e: 
spredding : bedding, 175, 334. 
leist : beste, 96, 7 if speiche : streiche (OE. sites), 
308, 31. 


= NE. deed) : 


heidis | 


deill (a) : weill, 75, 25, seill (OE. &sl) : weill, 42, 
61. 


| 2) OE. ae: 
agast : mast, 136, 27. 


| h) Fr. or Lat. e, 


meter : discreter, 202, 9. 

unhelit : conselit (N. E. conceal), 355, 23, glemis : 
breimis (OF. bresme), 103, 32. 

leid : remeid, 131, 8. reid (reedan) : pleid ; remede ; 
(CEH 

ever : dissever, 118, 5. 

NOVEL 55 211, 22. 

deid : remeid, 363, 101. posseid, 296, 15. proceid, 
281, 41. 

lene (NE, adj. =lean) : refrene, 73, 20, 

leist : beist, 96, 71. 

leve : escheve : greve, 244, 45, 


| i) Fr. a, 


agast : trespast, 36, 31. past, 81, 1, 118, 18. 
last : past, 43, 79. 
k) OK. e-. 
bleit : eit, 175, 330. 
reid ; steid, 75, 41. leidis : beidis (OE. (ge)bedu= 
NE, bead), 79, 17. deidis : steidis (OE. stede), 
246, 93, reid (OE. redan) : steidis, 75, 41, 
1) Gen. OE., etc., é. 
deidis : meidis (OK. méd), 250, 4. 
m) OE, a. 
deid : manheid, 296, 12. womanheid, 118, 11, 
n) OF, i. 


evin (OE. efen) : schrevin, 128, 7. 


- Angl, é=WS. ea, 


§ 48, before gutturals, rimes with 


a) OE. eo. 
bene ; ene (eyes), 353, 58. 
ene : sene, 352, 52. 314, 8. 
» fyftene, 352, 34. 
» + between, 352, 34. 
hie : be, 295, 95. 
e (eye) : be, 171, 290. 
» + he, 214, 75. the, 395, 79. 
»: ble, 171, 293. 
Bee, 214, 79, 
b) OE. mut, of 6. 
ene : grene, 93, 9. 110, 206, 
eyne : quene, 37 0, 39, 43. ene: shene, 110, 203, 
225, 107. 


ene : kene, 110, 203, 
c) Gen, OE. &. 
hie ; 3e, 139, 3. E: me, 83, 43, 
» : me, 84, 83. 289, 75. 
d) O. Fr. or Lat. e. 
E : degree, 96, 87. nativite, 294, 74. 
hie : strenuite, 295, 94. E. ene; splene, 94, 12. 
» : qualitie, 84, 88. 
e) OE. ae - 
ene : ee 
f) ON. ¢ 
de : e, v7, 292. 295, 7. 


225, 106. 


* When one forms the lips into the position for pronouncing w (or wh), and then blows or whistles, one produces 
either an u-sound, as in the exclamation “ Whew !” or an 7- sound, as in whistling a high note, and this may be the differ- 
ence between the English w, which gives from a, au, and the Scotch, which gives from ¢ an 7-sound, 


650 


§ 49. There is nothing in this or the foregoing lists of OE. e sounds to gainsay the 
contention that e was already, in certain positions, in MSc=i%, and the spelling je, zg 


qualitie, etc., bear out this view. 


AE, (mut. of OE, a, Grme. ai). 


N 50. 1, not followed by r or w, rimes with 


a) itself. 
heill ; deill (v), 37, 2. 
sweit (sweat) : bleit : quheit, 175, 332. 
b) Angl. é=WS. %, WGrme. 4. 
breid : weid, 315, 12. 
reid : leid (OE, Iden = Latin = learning), 221, 16. 
c) OE. @. 
glemis : stremis 
288, 61. 
d) OE. gen. é, ene (aefen) : wene (é), 70, 9. 
deill : feill (6) 75, 26. 
e) OF. é mut. of 6, 
mene (v) (NE. mean): kene, 117, 12. 
meyne (v= moan, lament) : mene : schene : greyne, 
122, 39, quene, 370, 47. 
f) Angl. é—WS. fe.’ 
deill : steill, 75, 28. 
g) OE, @. 
mene (moan): bene, 353, 64. meyne (=moan), 
TOs Te b> 
glemis : lemis, 102, 29. lene, bene, 73, 23, 


: bemis, 102, 28. levit : berevit, 


§ 51. 2) before r, rimes with 


a) OF. e and ie, 
leiris : Cordilleris freiris, 80, 45. 
feir : cheir, 246, 101. 

b) OE. ea. 
fear : geir, 254, 31. 


There is nothing in these lists but what confirms the conclusions of § 40. 


§ 52. 3, before w, rimes with 
a) OE, t+w. 


ON. & 


§ 53. rimes with 


a) OE. ea. thrall : all, 359, 28. 
ON. EI 
§ 54. rimes with 
a) OE, e+g (see § 32). c) OF. ei, 
ay : say, 114, 20. away, 114, 21. play, 196, 146. ay : affrey, 196, 145. thoy pray, 109, 180, 


b) OE. we +g (see § 32). 
ay : lay, 114, 23. day, 212 Oats 


EA - 
after sc, and g. 
§ 55. 1, after se, g, in open syllables not followed by g, rimes with 


a) OE, a—schame : name, 85, 5. ete, ete, (see § 1), 


MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


'g@) Fr, a and ea, 


ind) OR, et. 


| sweir ; heir, 34, 11. 


mene : bene, 117, 15. mene: sene, 315, 13. 123, 
36, 
- seis ; theis, 194, 69. kneis, 194, 86. 
see ; thre, 194, 85. 
f) OF, and Lat, e. 
les : progress : posses : incres, 87, 51. 
», : dress, excess, 131, 93. 
5, : express, 75, 45. 
teiche : preiche, 239, 13. 240, 26. 
» i fleiche, 240, 26. 
maist.: haist, 356, 46. 
deill : leill, 37, 4. 
belles onenos 
h) Fr. ei. 
lene : fene, 73, 8, 245, 68. 
» : disdene, 73, 13. 
» : Strene, 74, 28. 
5) ens ale 
lene : complene, 73, 5. 


c) Gen. OH, é. 
leir : heir, 325, 21. 


slewth ; rewth ; trewth, 237, 16 (see Curtis, 
>... 


350, GERKEN, R TX) 


d) OF, ai. 
ay : assay, 349, 82. they : array, 109, 180. 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 651 


N 56. 2, before g, schaw (OE. sceaga), rimes with a+g schawis : lawis, 97, 104. 


§ 57. WS. ea+r+cons. a) before palatal cons. rimes with 


a) OE. e. | ¢) ON. o. 
sparkis : clarkis : 102, 24. sark, 315, 19. | sparkis ; barkis, (s), 102, 24. 
merkis : sparkis, 315, 18. d) OE. — awe. 

b) OE. eo. sparkis : larkis, 102, 25 (see § 35.) 


sparkis, werkis, 315, 17. 
§ 58. £) before other consonants does not occur, 


WS. eal + cons. 
§ 59. a) eal or eall - rimes with 


a) itself. aw : waw, 44, 11. haw, 173, 309. gaw, 173, Fr. or Lat. al. All: celestiall : terrestrial : 112, 
all. 257, 
all : fall, 89, 20. 334, 9. all : sall, 281, 54. », stall : cardinall, 265, 50. 
» 2 wall, 115, 59. 37), 73. fall : hall : 371, wall : cardinall, 361; 75. imperiall, 
83. etc. ete. 
peeballs atl, 77. g) Fr. ail. 
b) ON. all. all : call, 281, 52. h) OE, aw and eaw. 
c) OE. cel. all : small, 35, 18. 89, 46. raw : aw, 173, 308. 
i falls ,, 35, 20, 334, 27. knaw : staw (stall), 276, 31. 
alles ;, 41, 13. : waw : blaw, 166, 229. 
d) ON. ell. thrall : all, 359, 28. k) ON. oll. 
e) OE. a+g, waw : draw, 166, 226. wall : ball, 371, 79. 
f) Fr. or Lat, al. All : clericall : naturall : imperiall : alls? See eee 
», royal : victoriall : orygnal, 88, 
8, ete. 


§ 60. 8) WS. eal+d., rimes with 


a) itself. c) OF. au, fawd (OE. feald = — fold) : hawd (healdan) 


awld : bawld, 352, 9. cawld, 352, 7. : frawd, 209, 37. 
fawd : hawd, 209, 37. d) ON, ald: tald : zald : scald : cald : bald ; 275, 6. 
b) OE. o. cawld : bawld : fold (OE. folde=ground), | zald : stald, 276, 28. 


96, 65. e) OE. a +g. gnawd : tald, 277, 58. 


§ 61. In modern Scotch the vocalisation of JJ is complete, and it is quite possible that 
in Dunbar’s time it was optional, as is shown by the inconsequence of the spelling. But 
the vocalisation of J in /d in N&Sc. is not complete, and seems to remain very much as 
in Dunbar’s time, 7.¢., it may be pronounced either way. 

_ Dr Gerken [§ 3, 2)] says that Douglas sounded the / before t as a consonant, and 
cites the rime salt (OE. sealt) : exalt. But this seems to me no proof, as exalt might 
also be pronounced then, as now, with vocalised J. 


KA 
§ 62. =Grme. au. not followed by w or gutt., rimes 
a) with itself. | f) OE. e : merciless : gentilness : lustiness, 117, 1. 
deid (dead) reid (red) 131, 84. heid, 243, 21. _g) Gen. OF. ete. é. heir : neir (NE. near), 330, 35. 
reid : heid : 95, 50. h) OF. e. deid : remeid, 131, 84. 363, 10. Est : est 
b) OE. e- see § 30. | (Lat.) 367, 6. 
deid (death) : steid (place), 379, 136. grete (great) : reid : » 181, 90. les : expres, 175, 45. 
ete., 310, 21. les: ineres, 87, 50. 132, 96. progres : posses, 87, 
c) ON. ae. see § 53 a. | 55. dress, 131, 93. excess, 131, 96. 


d) Angl. € WS. ae see § 47. _ 2) OF, ei. deid (NE. death) : feid (NE. feud), 363, 100. 
e) OE. ® mut. of a (see § 50). | 


652 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


§ 63, EA. +w., rimes with ; 
a) itself. shewis : schrewis : few is, 252, 51. | b) OE, 4+w. Schawin : knawin, 355, 13. 


EO- 
§ 64. rimes with 
a) self. ellevin : hevin, 139, 1. e) OE. ea+ g (see § 56). 
hevin ; sevin, 43, 65. 71. 26, ete. fee 1, ALL ish. 
b) OE. e—hevin : uneven, 246, 96. f) OF. or Lat. u. schute : refute, 109, 181. 
sevin:  ,, a ys g) OF. ou. 
», + Stevyne, 371, 54. schute : rebute, 109, 181. 
c) Angl. ¢ WS. i and y. h) OF. ui. 
hevin ; allevin (?), 240, 1. schute : pursuite, 109, 182, 
Saye gs (1h ign 5 2 j) ON. 6 
d) ON. e: delniten: rute, 109, 184. 


sevin : nevyne, 371, 58. 


§ 65. Allevin, 240,1 is derived by Jamison from OE. aléfan, but there is the diffi. 
culty that it is a weak verb; but it is not impossible that it was formed on analogy, by 
once the form occurred, the fact that it is one of the very few rimes to hevin, sevin an 
elevin, would encourage the use of it, and the form might thus become fixed. A possible 
derivation from the OF. allever, which might give a similar sense of allow or admit, has 
somewhat the same objection ; but perhaps a loan word admits more readily of false 
inflexion, if, indeed, it can be called false, than a native word. It might be a form of 
ellevin (eleven), but that it makes absolutely no sense in this passage. 


EO: 
§ 66. 1. before r+cons. rimes with 
a) itself. carvit : starvit, 222, 21. _| d) OF. or ON. e 
b) OE. ea. Angl. a (r+cons.) (see § 57). werkis : sarkis, 315, 19. 
c) OK. ior y. | &) OF. or Lat. e 
werkis : merkis, 315, 19. dirk : kirk : mirk, 86, 15. carvit : starvit : desarvit, 222, 21. 
AK 555 » 96, 20. 4) OF. or Lat. a. 


§ 67. It seems more probable that carvit, starvit, desarvit were pronounced with e 
sound, as is usual in NSc., than that they had the North E. @ sound. > 


§ 68. 2. not before r+con., rimes with 
a) with itself, wilk : milk : silk, 86, 22. | b) with OF. i. milk : wilk : silk : ilk, 86, 22. * 


Ko 

(1)=Gme. eu. (2) contraction from é. i. ¥., with following a or u through dropping of 
intermediate h or j. 

§ 69. 1. not followed by w or g, rimes with i, 

a) itself. theis : kneis, 194, 70. fle : se, 196, 128. is ‘ 


he : see : 124, 35, etc., etc. bee, 248, 8. kne, 261, | c) general OE. or ON. é (see § 42). 
61. be : he, 251, 23. se : the, 97, 103. 
, :.ble, 171, 293. kne : se, 97, 100, etc., etc. kne : the, 97, 103. se : me, 124, 19, etc., ate. , 
threis : kneis, 173, 300. fre : he, 214, 75. tre : me, 82, 13, etc., ete. e 
fe : fre, 214, 73. d) OE. @, Angl. é, mut of 0 (see § 39). » 
kne : thre, 194, 85. e) Angl. e WS. ae (see § 45). 
b) OE. eo + gutt (see § § 71). f) OE. ae mut of a (see § 50). 


be : hie, 295, 90. he : dre, 354, 2, g) Angl. é=WS. ac (see § 45), 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS VF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 653 


i) OE. a. See § 20. OF. ieu. se : parde, 195, 120. 
k) OE. a+ g. fe : E. (NE. eye), 214, 79. s) OF. i. be : supple, 250, 8. 
]) OE. or ON. é (see § 42). tyred (OE. téorian) : requyred : expyred, 251, 17. 
m) ON. See § 96. tyre : inspyre, 266, 93. 
n) OE. ik or ON. ig. t) OE. ae (see § 50). 
sie (see) : bysselye, 124, 40. seis : kneis : 194, 69, and 86. 
0) OF. or Lat. e., or earlier ie. u) ON. eyj. 
t) be : petie, 119, 41. scurrilite, 154, 58. de : be; 172; 295. 251, 83: 
», : Importunitie, 245, 76. 249, 23 and others. », : Se, 195, 128. 
se : gree, 123, 5. quantite, 196, 153. v) ON. c (see § 95). 


This list, taken along with some of the foregoing, seems to confirm the idea that 
MSc. final e was already an 7 sound. 


§ 70.—E0. + W. =Grme. iuj, iw. 


a) with itself. d) OF. and Lat. u. trow : Jesu, 361, 59. 
blew : new : hew, 94, 16. new : flew (praet.), 251, e) OF. ti, hew : vertew, 345, 34. 
37. f) Fr. eu, ieu, hew : persew, 117, 6. 347, 12. 
tnew : hew : rew, 117, 10. 345, 37. hew : grew, trew : rew : » 262, 82. 
135, 24 (see under uw, § 103). g) Fr. ive. new : eschew (OF. eschever, eschiver), 
b) OE. i (see § 104). 221, 9. 
c) OE. aew (see § 53). h) OE. all. zow : fow, 38, 18. 


§ 70a.—E0. +g or h, rimes with 
a) OE. 0, without guttural. 


c) OF. and gen. 6, le (ledgan) : me, 82, 23. fe : he, 


dre (dreogan) : be, 354, 2. fe (feoh) : fre, 214, 214, 75. hie : me, 84, 83. 289, 75. 3e, 139, 3. 
73. d) OF: e: 
theis : kneis, 194, 70. hie (h@ch) : he, 295, 95. hie : strennite, 295, 94. le (ledgan) : gre, 204, 33. 
b) OL. &, seis : theis, 194, 69. e) OF. ea+g. fe : E (NE. eye), 214, 77. 
Ile 


| § 71. not followed by ¢ or g, rimes with 


a) itself. schittin : wittin, 174, 323. 
b) OF. or Lat. i, hidder : consider, 43, 84. 


Into the interesting controversy over the fortunes of OE. 7 and y in open syllables 
so elaborately treated by Dr Curtis (§ 361, etc.), and by Professor Luick (§ 381, ete., 
§§ 515 and 530), and carefully summed up by Dr Grrxen, I do not propose to enter at 
any length, especially as Dunbar’s meagre rime-list above throws no fresh light on the 
subject. As to the quality of the OE. i-sound, is not Dr Curtis (following ELuis, 
EEP., p. 105) going rather far in asserting that this sound is wm all cases not a pure 
7-sound, but partakes of the e quality, as in NE? Is it not more likely that the case in 
Anglo-Saxon was, as in modern German, that the sound varied according to the adjacent 
consonants? I found this remark on what I have observed in teaching German students 
English, viz., on a tendency they have to introduce the pure 7-sound in certain words, but 
notin others. I have often had to correct them for introducing it into a word like with, 
but have never noticed it in words like in, sin, wind, ete. I have unfortunately made 
no notes on this point, but I think there is no doubt that this sound tends to vary 
according to the following consonant. In modern English we have practically no pure 
round, but in Scotch we have it in words like wi (with), pity, city, etc., though the 
last two words have often along vowel. Better examples would be the forms pitiful, 


= 


VOL, XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 25). oe 


ce) OE. e. beschittin, sittin, 137, 70. 


654 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


citizen, which a Scotchman will usually pronounce with a pure %-sound in the first 
syllable. 


i 
§ 72. not followed by ld, nd, ng, ht, g or c, rimes with 
a) itself. unblist : brist (NE. pun) 138, 99. 
is : miss, 75, 23. this, 75, 22. d) ON. y (shortened) (see § 111). 
his : iwis, 335, 32. e) Fr. or Latin e. 
is : bliss, 42, 36, win : gin, 317, 34. 
is : his, 335, 32. stink : ink, 150, 10. 
widdy : smydy, 223, 56. f) Fr. or Lat. i. 
will : still, 115, 45. grippis : ecclippis, 151, 14. 
bit : spit, 137, 54. upsit, 137, 51. mist : solist,.75, 27. 
it : wit, 283, 4, 249, 28. clippis : lippis, 193, 55. 206, 5. 
billie : illwillie : quhillylillie, 39, 31. unblist : resist, 138, 99. 
chitterlilling : rilling : schilling, 178, 371. bit : spit : quit, 137, 54. 
win : skin, 36, 60. 233, 21. wit : it : unquit, 249, 41. 
» : within, 233, 22. g) Fr. or Lat. u. 
y Hts oO, 9. widdy (NE. halter) : smydy : study, 223, 48. 
» : pin, $17, 34. will : still : bill (Lat. Bulla), 115,42. 
drink : wink, 211, 16. h) OE. eo (see § 66). | 
innys : schinnis, 202, 13. i) ON. i. 
begin : in, 43, 89. still : will : till, 115, 44. 
drink : sink, 279, 13. will : ill, 239, 17. 325, 12: 
grippis : lippis, 207, 18. will : till, Ps 
schippis : lippis, 206, 3. still : ill, 325, 15. 
kirk : stirk, 261, 66. k) Du. i, 
will : thrill, 325, 12. stink : clink, 151, 16. 
b) OE. y (later i i or ii) (see § 105, $$ 107 and 109). skippis : lippis, 206, 8. . 
c) OE. e. (2) flint : hint (NE. hent), 224, 80. ad ; 


There is not much calling for remark in this rime-list. That there is a tendeney, 
however, as shown still in NSc. for @ and i to be assimilated or interchanged, cannot be 
doubted, and before n+consonant the 7 prevails, especially before ng and nk, as in NE. 
in the words English, engine, ete., and inink, It seems most probable that in Dunbar’s 
time the pronunciation varied, as in modern Scotch dialect. The Irish dialect of to-day 
leans strongly to the 7, as in stringth for strength. Study had probably a short % sound 
=NS8e. wi as in guid, a sound, when quickly spoken, not easily distinguished from 1%. 
The words bit and grip I have classed according to the Anglian forms bit and grip, 
and not the WS. bite and gripe. . We have in NE. the corresponding forms bit, grip, 
bite, gripe. (See Archiv., ci. 78.) — ; 

§ 73. 2.1: before nd rimes with 
a) itself. behind : un, 174, 324. wind, 194, 67. 

behind : fynd : bind : blind, 87, 72. Som SoS : bind : find, 192, 12, 

§ 74. It is remarkable how sharply Dunbar discriminates between 7+nd and y +nd. 
The reason seems to be that y+nd had been lengthened to a diphthong, since it rimes 
with 7+nd; and 7+nd was not generally lengthened as in ME. The lengthening of 
behind for Scotch ahint, the only word in the list that has a long sound in NSe., must 
have taken place later through English influence (see under Y.). This view is accepted 
and, I think, rendered still more probable, in spite of all that is said on the other side 
by Heuser (Anglia, XIX. 404) and by, Dr Gurxen [§ 13, 2)].. (See also§ 108.) 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR, 655 


§ 75, 3. i+c rimes with 


a) ON. y. d) OK. or ON. i. 
1: sky, 192, 15. I: by, 279, 24. 
b) OF. i or ie. purspyk : lyk, 177, 366. 307, 12. tyk (ON. tik), 
iecry, 118, 7. 192, 27. 177, 366. 
I: bellamy, 192, 26. e) OE. y+g. 
I: Lombardy, 195, 102. I: dry, 96, 70. 
c) OF. e. f) ON.i+k. 
I: army, 195, 101. flicker ; sicker : wicker : bickarr, 212, 41. 
§ 76. 4. itg rimes with 
a) itself. c) OE. e= WS fe. 
dughty : worthy, 292, 20. wry (?) 172, 303. worthy : nye, 90, 52. 
b) OF. iand ie. d) ON. i+g. 
dughty : worthy : cry, 292, 20. worthy : prudently, 90, 50. 
style (stile) : vyll, 86, 38. e) OF. i. 
purspyk : heretyk : lunatyk, 179, 375. styll (NE. stile) : wyll, 86, 38. 


-nyne : devyne, 42, 31. 


§ 77. itld. rimes with 


a) OE. y. begyled : wyld, 167, 237. 
wyld : fyld, 167, 237 c) Gk. v. 
b) OF. i. styled : wyld, 167, 237. 


It is difficult to say whether the long 2 and y in MX&c. represented a diphthongal 
sound at this time, or merely a longi sound. But the occasional use of such rimes as 
styll, which is now and was, probably, on account of the absorbed g, also then long, with 
the undoubted short wyll (unless wyll be also long, being NE. wile, device, and not NE. 
| will), might incline us to the idea that the sound was not yet diphthongal, because in 
| that case the rime would be a bad one, and not merely an imperfect one, like in quality, 
| but differing in quantity. Before /d we have the usual lengthening of the vowel. 


§ 78. ON. i+g. (terminations ly and lie) rimes with 


a) OE. ig. (see 76). womanly : cry, 279, 27. malady : veraly : hestely, 
womanly : ly, 243, 29. 261, 59. 
S| (by OF, i. h) OF. iue? or Spanish guia. 
: hairtfully : by, 72, 36. |  guye: prudently, 90, 53. 
lustily ae, 104, 53. gy : womanly, 279, 11. 
wretchitly : ,, 251, 21. DOIN a. 
c) OF. i+c. airly : harbry, 71, 14. 
I; womanly, 279, 23. k) OE. y+g. 
d) OK. ©0. (see 69). airly : dry, 71, 16. 
besalie : mischeifaislie : see, 118, 17. hairtfully : dry, 72, 37. 
e) OE. zx. (see § 21.) Wr ONe y. 
f) OF. i and ie. lustely : sky, 104, 50. 
Justely ; fantesy, 104, 49. m) OE. i+g. wy (OE. wiga) : womanly, 279, 11. 
wretchitly : fy, 251, 24, n) OE. y. 
womanly : ky (NE. cattle), 279, 11. 


§ 79. i+ng. 


a) with itself in all participles and verbal nouns, | c) O.Nhumb. i—WS. eo. 
which also rime with Fr. ign andring: sing, | ing: spring, 99, 151. 108, 154. 
_ 94, 30. 215, 105. Zing : sing, 111, 245. thing, 370, 17. thring, 370, 17. 
Ting : thing, 215, 113. bring, 215, 111. d) OE. e+ng. 
Spring : nothing : inbring, 108, 161. ring : sprynge (dance), 215, 19. 
b) Fr. ign. e) OF. egn. 
bening : sing : thing, 368, 28. inbring : ryng (reign), 390, 19. 


Ting, 94, 33. sing, 94, 30, etc., etc. 


656 MR HENRY BELLYSE BATILDON ON 


Words in ight : icht : yght : ycht. 


N 80. The vowel spelt i or ¥ has in these words various origins. 


1. OE. ie, i,<eo=Grmce. i, é : knight, right, bright, 
wight (person), sight, plight, fight. 

2. OE. i<ea. (Northmb., 2). 
night : might (sb and vb). 

3. OE. i= Lat. i. 
dight. 

4, OE. eo (with later palatalisation):=Grme. 1. 
light (adj. and adv.). 


§ 81. Dunbar rimes these sounds only among themselves, with one remarkable excep- 
In the poem ‘ In Honour of the City of London” he rimes (89, 35) knyght and ~ 
white, and this seems to me to point to the fact that in England, or at least in London, 
these words had already (1501) like sounds. 
disappeared in England, but not in Scotland. 
given by Dr Curtis as occurring in Clariodus, is plicht and quhyte (white). 
whate can have had no exceptional pronunciation, seeing how consistently and freq” 


tion. 


it rimes with pure 7 sounds. 


§ 82. Present participles and verbal nouns in zng rime only among themselves vill 
OE. words in ing, and with the Fr. zgn adjectival endings as benign and malign (see 


§ 79). 
§ 83. Pres : part in and (see § 5). 


OE. or ON. I. (including 7+ 4) 


§ 84. rimes with 
a) itself. 

rydand : bydand, 218, 33. 

abyde : besyde, 196, 159. 

byd : besyde, 126, 29. 330, 37. 

betyd : syd, 177, 365, 

wyd : besyde, 330, 36. 

glyde : syde, 137, 67. 

blyth : wryth, 196, 121. 
» © swyth, 304, 9. 

syne (sippen) : myne, 214, 81. 

beschitten : sitten, 137, 70. 

bakbytting : flytting, 151, 22 

swyne : myne, 214, 85. 

Ryne : wyne, 42, 53. 

wyiss (adj.) : wpryse, 234, 11. 

wyiss (sb.) syss, 106, 101. 

syss : ryp, 106, 101. 

gryss (NE. grice, ON. griss) : unwyse, 319, 59. 

dryfer : ryver : 3adswyver, 178, 374. 

smyle (NE. smile, deriv. uncertain) (?) : quhyle, 
94, 36. 

yle : (7) quhyle, 265, 61. 

wyd : byd, 330, 36. 

ryd : slyd : abyd, 125, 4. 

stryd : syd, 194, 75. 

Fyf (Fifeshire) : lyf 

lyfe : swyfe, 83, 67. 
» 2 wyf, 223, 43. 


Wty long) Oil. 


’ 

5. OK, i. 
alight vb. 
6. OE. é: Ang. é mut, of & ea : light (vb.), hight, 
7. OE. @ (with later palatisation) = Grme. iu ; light, 
(sb.). : 

8. OE. y mut. of u : flight. 
9. ONthmb, e in reduplic. pret. hight. = 


10. ON. i. wight (adv. ON. vigr). 


That is to say, the guttural spirant has 
But it is curious that the one exception 


Yet 


thryff : fyve : belyff, 246, 95. 
smyle : (?) wyle : quhyle : myle, 110, 224, 
glyde : wyde, 225, 112. besyde, 225, 116. 
»  ityde: ryd, 226, 128. 
dryf : lyve, 385, 47. 
fyve : schryve, 358, 9. 359, 18. 
knyfe : lyfe, 83, 74. 
lyfe : ryfe, 83, 66. 377, 91. 
henwyfe : lyfe, 71, 24. 
lyfe : schryve, 1359, 23. 
» ifyve, 359, 21. 
tyfe : swyve, 83, 67. 
friendlyk : tyk, 200, 13. 
lyk : shryke : stryke, 225, 87. 
ryne (NE, fountain, source) : schyne, 370, 12. 
b) OE. i+g or c (see § 75, 76). 
c) OE. or ON. ¥ (see § 112). 
abyde : haya 196, 158. 
besyd : bryde, 198, 157. 
schyne : ryne, 370, 12. 
wy (man) : sky, 219, 43. 
myne : tyne, 82, 22. 
wynis : tynis, 80, 31. 
d) Fr. i, ie, or Lat. i. 
abyde : provide, 44. 6. 
ryce (NE. brushwood) : pryce : cuvatyce, ete, 310, 
31. 
belyve : discryve, 43, 71. . 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 


wrytting : indytting, 227, 15. 
wynis : dynis, 80, 32. 
gryce (see above) : nyce, 273, 65. 
paradyis : wyiss (sb), 41, 3. 
service ; 5 255, 2. 
wyiss (sb) : benefice : deviss, 106, 104. 304, 2 
syss (OK. si ) : ryss : cryis, suppryis, 366, 2. 
ryiss (v) : benefyiss, 280, 24. 
» :cryis : suppryis, 367, 5. 
abydit : decydit : devydit, 383, 29. 
syd : wyd : crucifyed, 377, 95. 
henwyfe : stryfe (OF. estrif), TED: 
knyfe : lyfe : stryfe, 83, 72. 
Reeeastryte, 129, 31. 
wylis : ilis, 208, 17. 
Syne (NE. since) : inclyne, 375, 6. 
wyne : ingyne : BEOey ne fyne, 301, 63. 
byd : homicyd, 222, 33. 
», : provyd, 266, 81. 
depryf : dryf, 138, 91. 
arryve : fyve, 385, 47. 
lyve : wyve : laxatyve, 223, 41. 
 : stryfe, 83, 69. 71, 23. 
myne : fyne, 82, 21. 


657 


schyne : devyne : regyne : rosyne : femynyne, 
369, 2. 
» : Lucyne : matutyne : crystalyne : fine, 
LOL 
wyiss (adj.) : devyiss : suppryiss, 76, 67. 
» 1: Survyiss : cryis, 249, 24. 
- : cuvatyce, 311, 40. ryss : dispyss (NE. 
despise), 269, 63. 280, 22 
tyne (ON. rin) : devyne : regyne : rosyne : femi- 
nyne, 370, 12. 
abydit : gydit, 383, 3]. 


wylis : begylis, 208, 16. 
tyd : gyd, 326, 6. 327, 30. 
gyis : wyiss (sb), 106, 103. 
wyd : gyd, 252, 56. 
Sole 5, Swi, ish 
ryd: ,, 344, 13. 
e) Fr. ei. 
wyiss (adj.) : pryis (v), 76, 68. 
f) OF. e. 
syle (OF. celer), 


wyle : quhyle : myle : 110, 217. 


grysse : unwyse : dyce : pryce, 319, 56. 
g) Gk. v. 
wyle : style, 241, 41. 


§ 85. There seems to be no reason for treating the endings -ine, -vte, -we, -ce, etc., 


separately. Dunbar uses them sparingly, probably despising, good artist as he was, 


this cheap method of finding rhymes. 


But when he does use them, he seems to make 


no distinction between them and the other long 7 or 7 sounds. 
With respect to the pronunciation of the 7 and 7 at this time, it is, as I have already 


said, difficult to determine it. 


thong was ever quite the same in South English and Scottish. 


But in this connection one may ask whether the diph- 


In South NE., and in 


the American pronunciation, the diphthong is a distinct az, the first element being like 


the a in father. 
perhaps almost ev. 


In the NSc., the a-element is not so marked, and the diphthong is 
In Irish brogue the first element has more the o quality and 


approximates to ov, which appears to have been the pronunciation of Drypen’s time, 


from the riming of jovn, shine, etc., ete. 


N 86. rimes with 
a) itself. 
befoir : thairfoir, 259, 4. forloir, 259, 2. score, 135, 
14. 


beforne : borne, 269, 46. __,, 
» :forlorne, 382, 16. 
schorne: __,, 194, 82. 
mainsworne : worne, 319, 64. 
borne : forlorne, 381, 6. 
mOIMe : ,, 382, 22. 
DOE. o: 
mainssworne : corne, 319, 61. 
forborne : horn, 94, 35. 


§ 87. 1. before ld. 


a) OF. ea. gold : behold : old : told, 89, 34. 


: forschoir, 329, 8. 


()- 


toforrow : morrow, 100, 189. 

forlorne : thorne, 383, 30. 
c) OE. a sowp : howp, 74, 27. 
d) OE. a (see § 18). 
e) Lat. o. 

before : decore : : memore : aurore = 


glore : restore 


implore : adore : indeflore : desore, 370, 49. 
f) OF. a. 
borne : worne : scorne, 176, 343. 


mainsworne : a 319, 64. 
g) OF. o rose : inclois, 99, 156. suppois, 236, 22 


658 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


§ 88. This rime, like knyght : white, is from the poem “In Honour of the City of 
London” (see above), and is clearly meant to be read in English fashion, as in the 
characteristic Scotch pronunciation, the J in gold is dropped and the word pronounced — 
ow (gowd, goud), and is so written by Burns in 16 out of 36 times he uses the noun or — 
adjective. 3 


§ 89. 2. Before r+cons. 


a) OE. o, | b) OF. and Lat. o. 
morrow : borrow : sorrow, 73, 160. forthir, 137, 55. 
3 : sorrow, 94, 29. hornis : unicornis, 97, 109. 
morn : thorne, 383, 38. @) OR: ja. 
corse (=cross) : horse, 175, 337. hornis : skornis, 97, 107. 
corne : morne, 319, 62. horne : scorne, 176, 343. 
corss (=corpse) : horss, 131, 80. Gorm: |,’ ol9ied: 


§ 90. O+ht rimes with 
a) itself. | b) 6+ht (see § 93). 
For o+nk see § 9. 


O before other consonants rimes in all cases with 


a) itself, and with cok : dok, 179, 376. 
OF. and Lat. o. god : od, 82, 39. 
croce : force : voce : indoce, 379, 2. c) OE. 6. 
fox : mokkis, 209, 45. oft : soft, 217, 8. 
cot : note, 260, 16, d) OE. eo. 
throti;,, 260) 1/9: thrott : schot, 130, 64. 
b) ON. o. e) OF. ou. 
rockis : fox, 209, 47. word : bourde, 202, 5. 245, 84. 


god : tod, 36, 41. 80, 37. 


The rimes rokkis : mokkis : fox, 209, 45, is a good proof, if one were required, of 
silence of the 7 in plurals and in the third person singular in 7s, when it suits the po 
purpose. In the interior of his lines, Dunbar avails himself perpetually of this licence — 
of either treating this as a distinct syllable or eliding the 7, just as in modern English © 
verse most poets make free with the termination -ed, and pronounce or elide the e — 
suits them, with certain exceptions, of course. 


O- 
§ 91, 1. not followed by ht or g rimes with 
a) itself. woid a) : gud, 272, 48. 

ado : to, 75, 36. 356, 51. 5 2 blude- ‘ganestude, 377, 60. 
don : mone : sone : soon, 211, 10. 219, 47. do: to, 73, 22. 340, 37. 
bruke : shuke : luke : tuke, 111, 228. sone (sun) : undone, 116, 89. 
kuke : tuke : bruke, 223, 60. wouke : schuke : luke : buke, 114, 34. 
uder : muder : tuder, 73, 14, tuke : nuke : ruke, 132, 111. 
udder : fudder, 130, 61. blude : gud, 121, in 
gud : vud (mad), 45, 16. 196, 142. ete. > guid, 276; 10: 

» 2» eudes, 196, 141. b) OE. 6 

» »vude, 197, 170. toc : eels (OE. smoca), 241, 43. 
dois : (?) russ (praise), 260, 37. nuke : tuke : ruke ; smoke, 133, 120. 


vud ; hude, 196, 141. c) OE, t (see § 97). q 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 659 

d) OE. i (see § 104). gud : blude : pulchritud, 92, 5. 
eer, i. cuill : muill, 277, 61. stud : mansuetude, 94, 15. 

uther (OE. Sper) : consydder, 356, 35. russ (ON. hrosa, NE. praise) : dois : refuss, 260, 
f) Fr. oe, ue, ete. 36. 

scules : dulis (OFr. doel, duel, deul, duil), 316, 23. dukis : ruikis, 226, 119. 

Fr. or Lat. o. gud : conclude, 279, 22. 

sculis : fullis, 316, 24. bosum : ebriosum, 212, 33. », : Selsitude, 121, 7. 
h) OF. or Lat. u, Fr. ii. j) OF. oi. 

moune : Joun (NE. June), 86, 30. tone, 86, 29. | ois : rejoiss, 99, 158. 

none : tone, 233, 19. k) OF. oui. 

gud : blude : pulchritud, 121, 2. sculis : trulis (7), 315, 22. 


§ 92. The numerous rimes of 6 with itself, the spelling with oi and u as though 
identical in sound, point to the change of 6 to an di-sound = NSc. wi in gud, bluid, &e. 
The spelling o: no doubt indicates a modification (Umlaut) of the vowel, 2.e., of the 
disrounded (entrundet) 6, which—not giving a pure w-sound, still converging towards 
it—may, without straining, be held to give us approximately an d-sound. The whole 
history of the passage of the OE. 6 into a sound which eventually coincided with Fr. ii, 
and is represented by the NSc. w, is one of great interest and difficulty. Dr Curtis 
has treated it with great learning, and at great length, in his Dissertation on Clariodus 
(§ 459, etc., and §§ 468-482), and in the main his conclusions are to be accepted. But 
at once the most concise and the clearest treatment of the point seems to me to be that 
of Professor LuicK ( Untersuch., § 123, ete.). Dr GerKeEn prefers the purely phonetic 
explanation of Professor Lurck to Dr Curtis’s suggestion of French influence, and no 
doubt it is the more satisfactory, but still it is necessarily of the nature of an hypothesis, 
while French influence was an historical fact, probably traceable in other phenomena of 
the kind, as I have suggested in the matter of the Scotch dropping of the /-sound. 
But, I ask, is there any reason to suppose the factors in this problem mutually exclusive ? 
may they not both be valid? Professor LuicK derives smowk from OE. smuca 
(Untersuch., § 469). 


§ 93. 2. 6+ht rimes with 


a) itself. b) OE. oht. 
thocht : brocht, 115, 58. 248, 2. thocht : wrocht, 138, 101. 248, 2. 
thocht, 330, 5. 335, 4. ocht : nocht, 115, 58. » + tlocht (7), 335, 2. 


After the very thorough manner in which Dr Curtis has treated the development of 
0+ht and a+ht in Scotland, there remains little to be said. But it is interesting to 
note that my table of rimes gives almost the same results as the list of Clariodus, in 
that only dht-sounds are rimed together. I obtain this result, as does Dr Curtis, by 
deriving ocht and nocht from the forms dwrht, nd-wiht, and this, of course, goes to 
confirm Dr Curtis’s position that oht developed no parasitical u in MSc. The vowel 
in MSc. seems to be short, otherwise it would surely have shown more tendency to get 
mixed up with words in aucht from Zht and aht, for the difference in the quality is not 
very great. This difference persists in NSc. where words like bocht, thocht, etc., and 
aucht (eight), straught (straight), etc., are chiefly distinguished by longer quantity of 


660 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


iste en iiehean dalter, 


§ 94. 3. 6+g rimes with Ht 2 
a) OE. i. | swownes : rownes, 45, 13. + 
ON. & q 
§ 95. rimes with 
a) OE. gen. @. c) OF. e-. 
slie : he, 204, 27. slie : scurrilite, 154, 58. 
me, 285, 8. 288, 40. 3e, 140, 31. 5, : supple : cuntre, 140, 31, ete. 
b) OE. @. d) ea + ht. - | 
slie : be, 154, 63. slicht : micht : wicht : sicht, 122, 18. a 
ONOW 
§ 96. rimes with 
a) OE. gen. &. de: we, 77, 7. c) OE. &. de : be, 171, 90. = 
the : de, 295, 79. de ;: ble, 171, 293. 1 
b) OF. ie and e. petie : de, 119, 28. d) OE. ei+g. de : e (@age), 171, 292. 295, 77. 
nativite: ,, 294, 74. e) Lat. e. de : me (Lat.), 285, 12. 
Us 
§ 97. 1) not followed by g, rimes with 
a) itself. bruik : rebuik, cluik, 225, 86. 
spur : dure (NE. door), 281, 38. d) Fr. 0, Lat. u= ME. i. 
thunnir : scunnir (OE. scunian), 136, 34. abone : redoun, 243, 17. 
b) OE. and ON. u:. e) Fr. ti or Lat. i. 
owk (NE. week) : bowk (NE. bulk, origin uncer- dure : assure : demure : future : obscure : azur, 
tain), 38, 25. 218, 48. 
cum : dum, 249, 26. 136, 31. abone : toun, 2438, 20. 
ce) OE. 6. spur : pure : injure, etc., etc., 280, 13. 
abone : sone, 239, 9. f) OE. a. (see § 103, etc.). 
Iufe_ : behufe, 348, 56. g) Lat u. 
dure : fure, 282, 78. cum : sum (Lat.), 249, 27. 
spur : ,, 280, 13. » : tuum, 282, 84. 
duke (NE. duck) : luke, 257, 6. 272, 46. h) ? 
dukis : cluikis : ruikis, 226, 119. somer : skomer (NE. micturate (of a dog) ), 168, 251. 
2) followed by g, rimes with 
a) with OE. i. |  cowll : oule, 208, 12. 
fowlis : owlis, 98, 22. b) Dan.  (?) 
cowll : fowle (adj.), 268, 28. fowlis : scowlis, 226, 121. 


§ 98. It is clear that % in open syllables was lengthened, and also that it already 
coalesced with 6 in the same position. I have followed Dr Curtis in using the sign ¥ 
for the sound of the ME. uw, which differs from the pure u-sound, as in German gut, ete. ; 
but I cannot agree with his definition of the sound, as mid-back-wide-round, as it 
appears to me not to be a back sound, but mixed, i.e. high-mixed-wide-round, or even 
high-mixed narrow-round, that is to say, the U or uh of Prof. Lurck’s Table (Unter- 
such., § 21). This view seems to me to have the advantage of making the mixture of 
this sound with o (Lurck oh), or their coincidence in an intermediate sound highly 
probable, as oh is mid-mixed, and thus immediately below either wu or wh in the mouth- 
position. It is also consistent with the general tendency in English to throw forward 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 661 


the mouth-position of sounds generally. I throw out this suggestion for what it may be 
worth, but into the general question of the history of the u-sound, as also the 2-sound, as 
treated so fully by Prof. Luicx (‘‘ Untersuchungen,” § 381, and following) and by Dr 
Curtis (§ 361, etc.), I shall not at present enter further, as I could not hope to add 
anything to their results without an examination of a mass of material outside of 
Dunbar, which is impossible in the time at my disposal. Professor Lutck calls this 
sound #-artig, that is, a kind of ii-sound, and I have merely suggested identifying it 
with the wu or wh of his table (Untersuch., § 19), whose mouth-position lies immediately 
behind the regular zi-sound. As for ci#m, see Arch., cil. 57. 


§ 99. 1.U: +nd, u+nd, rimes with 


a) itself. | woundit : soundit, 380, 26. 
under : hunder, 204, 23. sounder, 247, 13. dround : sound, 171, 286. 
stound : dround : wound, 378, 103. found : pound, 245, 75. 

b) Fr. and Lat. o. | 


One is inclined here to agree with Dr GERKEN that Dr Curris’s attempt to establish 
two classes of rimes here is not successful. The simplest explanation is, and that is 
borne out by the spelling sounder, that under and hunder have still an u-sound, if shorter 
in quantity than dround, stownd, etc., which retain their @-sound in NSc. Pound, 
again in NSc., is usually pan, and this shortening is probably connected with the loss of 
the final d, and consequent shortening before final n. 


§ 100. 2. u+ng 
a) with itself, | tung : sung, 325, 17. Zoung, 357, 64. 


§ 101. 3. +m or mb, rimes with 


a) itself. 
dum : sum, 249, 26. 


b) with u—(see § 97). 
c) OE, i (see § 104). 


§ 102. 4. before Il, rimes with | 


a) OF. 0+ w. at ea |'2) with itself. pursis : cursis, 80, 39. 
fow : 3ow, 38, 17. ij b) OF. ou. 
b) OF. i+w. pursis : cursis ; tursis, 80, 38. 
fow : trow, 38, 20. PUISIS) 2,5) Zool, we: 
5. before other consonants. c) ON. i (see § 104). 


U- (OE. and ON.) 
§ 103. 1.) followed by w, rimes with 
a) OK. e+ w. trow : Z0w, 38, 17. 


§ 104. 2. not followed by w, rimes with 


a) itself. sowp : cowp (NE. cask), 300, 45. 
hous : mowss, 36. 53. crowss (NSc. crouse), 36.52. | _ bouris : schowris, 102, 14. ‘ 
i rim =rent, property) : thoumbes, | b) OE. ul : growf (ON. agrafu) : wowf (OF. wulf), 
» 0. 36, 57. 
lowd : prowd : schroud, 274, 3. c) OE. ti+g (see § 97). 
oule : defowll, 177, 364. d) OE. 6+ (see § 94). 
fowle, 208, 8. 224, 73. . f) OK. i: 
brown : toun, 310, 25. | ws : thuss, 42, 27. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 25). ee 


662 MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


sowk : owk, 38, 24, roun : goun, 281, 36. 
g) Lat, 6 Fr. ou. GOUT e es eOlesos 
us : marvelluss, 77, 15. 42, 27. schouris : devouris, 367, 5, 
bouris ; houris : cullouris ; flouris, 102, 11. crownis : bownis, 34, 17. 
boure : doure, 200, 1. toun : soun, 42, 21. 192, 28. 
schouris : flouris : houris, 93, 2. 102, 14. » 1? Tenoun, 85, 1. 192, 20, 
Fe : cullouris, 102, 13. » 1 crowne, 191, 3o2. roun (round), 281, 37. 
o : touris, 376, 7. : reformatioun : regioun, etc., 85, 2. 
cowhuby (?) : ruby, 154, 62. h) ON. & a 
toun : doun, 294, 52. sowk ; bowk, 38, 35. 
sour : hour, 71, 28. toun : boun, 42, 44. 87, 59. 
schow : Jow, 375, 9. j) ON. au. 
how : Jesu, 378, 102. sowp : stowp, 74, 26. 
roumes : thoumbes : soumes (Lat. summa, Fr. | k) ON. 3d, 
somme), 231, 10. 311, 37. sour ; clour (ON. klor), 71, 30. 


That the words in the foregoing list have still in NSc. the same sound, viz. @, and 
have never, as in NE., had an ow sound, is another instance of the similarity in 
pronunciation between the Scotch of Dunbar’s time and modern broad Scotch. 


ie 
N 105. 1. not before g, rimes with 
a) OF. or ON. i. king : ding, 296, 8. 370, 15. making, 370, 17. 
king : thing, 245, 66, 368, 31. ring, 78, 29. » :syng, 370, 15 and 23, bening, 368, 28. 
rimes also with participles and verbal subs. in—ing. | d) Angl. é: WS. ie, steir (NE. stir) : deir, ie 49. 
b) ONrthmb :i= WS. eo. 137, 53. 


king : zing, 370, 19. 
c) OF. or Lat, i-. 


e) OF. e ‘and i ie, steir (stir) : presoneir, 115, 80. 
f) OF. ei. steir : heir, 378, 123. 


§ 106. 2, before g. 


a) OE, or ON, y — (see § 112). b) ON. lig. OE. lik. 
y 
by (buy) : hairtfully : humly, 368, 21. 


§ 107. 1. Y: (OE, and ON.) before nd. 


a) itself, kynd : strynd, 192, 29. 
kynd : mynd, 153, 50, 239, 18. ce) OF. or Lat. i. 


b) OE. J. kynd : mynd : dyned, 153, 50, 239, 18. 
kynd : mynd : strynd, 154, 56. kynd : Ynd, 192, 31. 265, 66. 


§ 108. In M&c. the history of the y-sound + nd is distinguished from that of i in that 
y is lengthened, but 2 is not. In ME. both are lengthened. Dunbar, as we see, never 
rimes these two sounds together. In NSc. the 2 remains short in all the words that 
occur as rimes in Dunbar except behind, which is an English form of the Scotch ahint 
(see above, § 74, and GERKEN, § 18). 


§ 109. 2. Y:—before other consonants, rimes with 


a) itself. | thin : kin, 254, 17. 
fill : kill (kiln), 83, 59. sm: ,;, olovou, 
dynt : stynt, 224, 76. mirry : wirry, 237, 24, 
myrtle : girtle, 194, 79. mynting : stynting, 150, 5. 
(?) gorge-millaris : cartfillaris, 268, 25. b) OF. i: or ON. i: or ON. i shortened. 


millaris : pudding-fillaris, 321, 79. lift (heaven, sky) : rift, 193, 50. _ 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 


fyll: ill : still, 126, 7. 

kill : ill, 83, 56. 

hill ; averill (2), 173, 313. 

will : thrill, 1325, 12. 

din : skin : win, 36, 59. 

thin : kin : win, 254, 17. 

think ; stink, 150, 10. 
_ giddy : widdy : smydy, 223, 44. 
. thin : within : skin, 277, 56. 

synnis : begynnis, 128, 19. 

hippis : lippis, 193, 53, etc. ete. 

list : unblist, 138, 99. 

dynt : flynt, 224, 80. 

stynt: ,, 224, 80. 

win ; tin, 316, 33. 

mirk : kirk, 86, 16. 

kiss : is : miss, 75, 20. 

», :miss, 365, 145. 
hippis : slippis, 124, 41. 


663 


ce) OFK.e: 
dynt : stynt : hint, 224, 88. 
mynting (OE. myntan) : stynting : hynting (OF. 
hentan), 150, 4. 
list : brist, 138, 102. 
d) OF. or Lat. é or ie. 
list : resist, 138, 105. 
by (buy) : mercy, 368, 22. 
millaris : pudding-fillaris : 
321, 76. 
e) OF. or Lat. e. 
sin : gin, 317, 34. 
think : ynk, 150, 12. 
mirry ; wirry : chirry, 237, 21. 
f) OE. y. (see § 112). 
g) OE. eo. 
lift : clift, 193, 49. 
mirk : dirk (dark), 86, 15. 
h) ON. io. 
myrth : girth : firth, 194, 79. 


gillaris : tutivillaris, 


§ 110. Averill is given by JAMIESON as a diminutive from aver=an old cart-horse, 
a meaning which fits admirably the passage in which it stands, but as averill in this 
sense does not occur elsewhere, it has been suggested that the word is haverel (from 
haver, to talk nonsense), and that it means here simply a worthless, foolish person. 1 
incline, on literary grounds, to the first supposition, especially as Dunbar was quite 
capable of cozng such a word for himself, as in the “ Brash of Wooing” and “The 
Flyting,” where words occur which are nowhere else to be found. 

In the c) rimes we have again, as in the case of 7+ nt, rimes with e+ nt (see § 72), 


but in neither case are they quite conclusive. 


ON, 3: 


N 111. rimes with 
a) with ON. 7: 


ve 


§ 112. (OE. and ON.) rimes with 


a) itself. 
mya: bryd, 173, 317. 
myce : lyce, 310, 23. 
b) OE. or ON. i. 
Ky : by, 278, 3. 
hyde (v), glyde, 226, 128. 
pryd : wyd : besyd, 82, 11. 
lyte : wryt : quhyte, 105, 4. 
pryd : syd, 128, 22. 
mee betyd, 177, 362. 
skyiss : wyiss, 106, 107. 
hyd : glyde, 136, 44. 
feeesyd, 174, 319. 377, 57. 
» :ibyd, 222, 34. 
myce : lyce : ryce, 310, 23. 
he : wyice, 311, 39. 
yce : unwyse, 319, 59. gryss (young pig, ON.), 
rr ny yss (young pig ) 


lift : thrift, 219, 48. 


dry : by, 72, 38, harbry, 71, 14. 
kyth : blyth : wryth, 196, 121. 
blyth : kyth : swyth, 304, 7. 
hiddill : riddill (NE. sieve), 213, 53. 
c) OE. ij andi+g. 
fyld : wyld, 166, 236. 
fyll (NE. defile) : styll (NE. stile) : wyll, 86, 37. 
d) Fr. i. or ie. 
hyd : homecyd, 222, 35. gyd, 344, 12. 
myce : lyce : myce, 311, 35. gyd : pryd, 328, 38. 
lyce : pryce, 319, 58. 
firit : atyrit : desyrit : inspirit, 122, 31. 
fyre : impyre : desyr, 219, 36. 
e) OF. y+. 
sky : dry, 96, 70. 
f) OH. i+e. 
sky : I, 192. 13. dry : I, 174, 326. 


664 , MR HENRY BELLYSE BAILDON ON 


i) Fr. ui. gyiss : skiyss, 128, 11. 1) OF. e. 

fyld : begyld, 167, 236. lyce : dyce, 319, 56. 
k) OE. lik : ON. lig. m) Gk. 3. 

dry : airly : prevely : hairtfully, 72, 38. fyld : styled, 167, 239. 


§ 113. In the rimes fyld : wyld, 166, 236, we have a long vowel, owing to the 
lengthening of 7 in wilde before /d. With regard to the pronunciation of 7 at this time, 
see under % That the two sounds were regarded as identical is amply proved in this 
rime-list. 


LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND WORKS CONSULTED. 


The New English Dictionary, edited by Dr Murray and Dr Bradley. 

Grieb’s Dictionary of the English and German Languages, 10th edition, re-arranged, revised, and enlarged by 
Arnold Schroer, Ph.D., Professor of English Philology in the University of Freiburg i/Baden. 

The Poems of William Dunbar, edited by J. Schipper, Ph.D., LL.D., Edinburgh, Professor of English 
Philology in the University of Vienna. Vienna Imperial Academy of Science, 1894. 

Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Bosworth-Toller. 

Students’ Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon, Sweet. 

Stratmann’s Middle-English Dictionary, edited by Dr Bradley. 

Concise Dictionary of Middle English, Mayhew and Skeat. 

Dictionary of the Scottish Language, Jamieson. ; 

Complete Concordance to the Poems and Songs of Robert Burns. By J. B. Reid, M.A. Kerr and Richard- 
son, Glasgow, 1889. : 

History of English Sounds, Sweet. 

Early English Pronunciation, Ellis. 

Professor F. Kluge (Freiburg i/B) in Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen Philologie. 

A Primer of Spoken English, Sweet. 

Chaucers Sprache und Verskunst, Professor ten Brink 

History of the English Language, Professor F. Kluge. 

English Etymology, Professor F. Kluge and Professor Lutz. 

Untersuchungen zur englischen Lautgeschichte von Dr Karl Luick, Professor der englischen Sprache und 
Literatur an der Universitat Graz. 

Archiv fiir das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Litteraturen, Band cii. Heft 1-2, Professor Luick. 

An Investigation of the Rimes and Phonology of the Middle-Scotch Romance Clariodus, Doctor’s Dissertation, 
University of Heidelberg. By Dr F. J. Curtis. Halle, 1894, and Anglia, vols. xvi. and xvii. 

Die Sprache des Bischofs Douglas von Dunkeld von Dr Heinrich Gerken. Strassburg, 1898. 


= Old English (Anglo-Saxon). 

= Old French. 

_ = Latin, 

= Paul’s Grundriss. 

= New English. 

- =Old Frisian. — 
= Middle Scottish. 

- =Old Norse. 

= Middle English. 


= Modern German. 


= History of English Sounds (Sweet). 
= Swedish. 


Schipper’s edition of Dunbar. 


. XXXIX. PART III. (NO, 25). 


AF, 
NED. 
WS. 
Ang. 


Northmb. 


Gen. 


Prn. 
S. or SO. 


V. or VO.~ 


Adj. 
Adv, 
EEP. 
Cons, 
Gutt. 
Palat. 
Mut. 


- after the letter =in open syllables; a colon (:)=in closed syllables. 
eans they rime together. In the figures the first number gives the page and the second the line 


THE RIMES IN THE AUTHENTIC POEMS OF WILLIAM DUNBAR. 665 


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 


= Anglo-French. 

= New English Dictionary. 
= West Saxon. 

= Anglian. 

= Northumbrian. 

= General. 

= Greek. 

= Grammar. 

= Preterite. 

= Pronoun. 

= Substantive. 
= Verb. 

= Adjective. 

= Adverb. 

= Early English Pronunciation, Ellis. 
= Consonant. 

= Guttural. 

= Palatal. 
= Mutation. 


A colon between words 


( 667 ) 


XXVI.—On the Eliminant of a Set of General Ternary Quadrics. 
By Tsomas Morr, LL.D. 


(Read June 19, 1899.) 


(1) The process of dialytic elimination was first applied to a set of general ternary 
ics by SYLVESTER in 1841,* his method being to form from the three quadries 
Us, Us ten cubics, viz. :-— 


Uy, YU, By} LUy, YU, Wy} Ly, YUlg, Zz; I(U,,Uy,Us), 
ind then eliminate dialytically the ten quantities 
GPa LY, Ye, SLY", Yes ea? 5 Bye, 


actual work of obtaining the eliminant as a determinant of the 10th order he 
1 not perform ; and, indeed, with the notation which he used the labour would 
- been very irksome. 


(2) In the same paper he also dealt with three simple special cases of the problem, 
roceeded in a totally different way, the eliminant in each case being obtained 
determinant of the 6th order. Here his aim was to obtain from the three 
ics other three, and then eliminate dialytically the six quantities 


L,Y", 25 Ye, 20, LY. 


‘mode of obtaining the three subsidiary quadrics varied in each case, and the 
lity of finding such a triad in every case was not discussed. 


ra came to be published, SyLvEsTER’s general method was not given, but another 


nnounced in the following wordst :— 


We can now express as a determinant the eliminant of three equations, each 
second degree. For their Jacobian is of the third degree, and therefore its 
tials are of the second. We have thus three new equations of the second 
which will be also satisfied by any system of values common to the given 
1s. From the six equations, then, u, v, w, oJ/ax, aJ/ay, aJ/oz, we can eliminate 
quantities x, y*, 2, yz, zx, xy, and so form the determinant required.” 

\VESTER, J, J., “Examples of the Dialytic Method of Elimination as applied to Ternary Systems of 
ns,” Cambridge Math. Jowrn., ii, pp. 232-236. 


LMON, G., Lessons introductory to the Modern Higher Algebra (1859), p. 38, § 55. [The paragraph appears 
d in all the subsequent editions. ] 


YL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 26). 5 L 


668 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


(4) At first sight this might appear to be a generalisation of SyLVESTER’s three 
special cases, but a little closer inspection suffices to show that the subsidiary quadries 
obtained by differentiating the Jacobian are quite different in form from those to 
which SyLvEsTER was led. Thus, to take the simplest of the special cases, when 


2 s 
| ll 


; B2— 2A’yz+ Cy? 


: Ay? — 2C’ay + Ba* 
Ca? — 2B’zr+ Az” 


= 
wo 
lI 


we readily find 
= (Br—Cy) (Cy—A’z) (Az—B’ax) + (Be—A’y) (Cx—B’z) (Ay—C), 


and 
a = ((CB’—AA’)y? + B(BO’— AA’? 
+ 2XABC—A'BO yz + 2B(A'B’—CO’)zxw + 2C(C’A’—BB’)ay, 
od = “(Vv 7 2 
By => A(A’C — BB’)z + ore 
a = BBA-COp? + 


Now instead of these lengthy and complicated subsidiary quadrics those whi i 
SYLVESTER used were 


A’a? + Ayz— Bay — C22, 

and two others like it.* , 
An equally marked discrepancy is observed when the like examination is made 

of the two other special cases, the advantage in all three being on SYLVESTER’S side, 
An inquiry is thus suggested as to whether there be not a general method, simp. 


than that given by Satmon, and leading in the special cases mentioned to SYLVESTER’ 
results. 


(5) The probability of this question being answerable in the affirmative seemed to 
be increased by a consideration of the results obtained in a recent investigation t of — 
the first two cases; for it was then found that not only was there a considerable 
variety of suitable sansdinty quadrics available, but that in the second case those used - 
by SyLvusTer, comparatively simple though they were, were far from being he 4 
simplest possible. 

The main object of the present paper is to settle the point thus raised. Lal 


* The connection between 0J/dw and the corresponding quadric used by SYLVESTER is 
a oy CA’u, — B’C'u,+ A'Bu,=2BC { A’a?+ Ayz — Blay — C’za}. 
+ Moir, T., “A ae of Sylvester’s in Elimination,” Proc, Roy. Soc. Edin., xx. pp. 300-305 ; ‘Cava 
“ Note on Dr Muir’s paper, ‘A Problem, etc.,’” ibid., xx. pp. 306-308 ; Murr, T., “Further Note on‘ A Proble 
ibid., xx. pp. 371-882 ; Murr, T., “On the Eliminant of a Set of Ternary Quadrics,” abid., xxi. pp. 220-234, 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS. 669 


_ (6) The first step necessary for the purpose in view is to go through the work of 
the two methods—Sy.tvesteEr’s and Saumon’s—as applied to a triad of perfectly general 
ternary quadrics, so as to have the resulting eliminants actually before us. 


Let then 


a mam) ila _ es ae ee a in ye 
q a, ty Gy | # a h, Iz | # a: hs 93 

: 4 hb & fly h, db, fy hs 0b; fe 

e 92 hh al? 9, Jn % \% 93 Jz % | 


0 hat 
ig 


J(Uy, My, Uy) = | Gethytgz hatbytfz Qethy +e2 
AB + Ney +992 hot boy +foz Jot + Hoy + Cf 
a0 + egy +952 hyo bsy + fe Ist HI oy + Cs2 | ; 


[a,ho9,|2 + [hyd faly? + loi hres|% 

+ {lay fg|+| 100951 }a?y + {1hyb.93 1+] 415275 | bay? 
+ {|h,:¢5| +1 9.22f5|}y2 + {lores | +] Ar Soes | }y2 
+ {la foes] +1 grroeg| Je + {| alge3| +10, fo93| }20? 
+ { [a by¢3| +2 lAgars| sayz, 


J 
an oe 3] ayhog3|-@ + {labofglt|Mbogsl}y? + {lefeesl+1Ialoes I} 


+ {| a 0563 |+2 |fAgolrs ye + 2{la,fo93|+| aho% |} + 2a 
+ 2{|a,2.95|+]a oy [} + ay. 


ing SYLVESTER’S method we thus have the eliminant in the form 


“a Qh, Cy b 2g, of, 
: aby 2f, : 2h, @ ; 29, 

Gy : b, 29, : af, ay 2h, 

2h, ; G b, : 29 he 

: Ay: 2ho : 2h, Cr, : 290 

&% : b, 29 . 2hr ay 2h, 

2h : Ce bs : 295 2f, 

: a Of : 2h, Cs : 29s 

C3 : bs 295 : 2f5 Ge 2he 
| a hoFs | | A, b9¢ | | ay foes | | Py bogs | 91 263 | | a hag0s | + | a1» ¢ | 

31 IiF2°| a5 


|, 6.93 | |912o7 | gy hoes | | 205,73 | [A Foe | la fo9s1 21 AG's! 


re by or of, 29, 2h, 
b, 2) 2h) 295, 2h, 
bs Cy 2f; 29 2hs 
7 Ia,d, fal + ly2o95) (ey Foeal + loses layb.03\+ 21 A Gols]  2la.fo95|+ Yay higes| a dogs] + Zeyh, 
| 3| h,b, fs! \9 A oe hf; 203 | 2\hb,¢5) ae 2l9,0./: al |at,b,¢5) cg AG ales} 2h, bog 3] + 2\a,b.7 


\ Sed: | |h4b,¢5|+19,5,,7'3) 3 Foes Dg ybaee| + Why foes] let Foes + 2\gyh20s| [a,B,c4| + 21 AGa/rs\ | - 


LA 


670 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


(7) Now, as has been already explained, it is the introduction of the differential 
coefficients of the Jacobian which seems to give unnecessary complexity to SaLMON’s- 
form, and what we have therefore to seek for is three quadrics of a simpler character 
to take their place. The further suggestion then arises that in a similar manner 
SYLVESTER’s form may be more complicated than is necessary, and that possibly there 
is a cubic more suitable than the Jacobian to complete our set of ten. 

Success has attended both quests, there having been obtained an eliminant of the 
6th order simpler than Satmon’s, an eliminant of the 10th order simpler than SyLvzs- 
TER’S, a new eliminant of the 7th order, and a full elucidation of the relationships 
connecting them all. * 


(8) The three quadrics for the simplification of Satmon’s form have been obtained 
as follows :— 
Multiplying the first given quadric 
aja? + by? + o2? + Aye + Agen + Way 
by |b,c,|, the second by —|b,c,|, and the third by |b,c,|, and adding, we have 
|a,bqc,|-a? + 2|f,b.c.|-ye + 2|G,d cg lee + 2|h,bQc, |-wy. 
Acting similarly with the multipliers | f,c3|, —|Ae3|, | Aco |, we have 
[A Sotg ha? + [By foes hy? + 2 |g Sors bee + 2 Ay Secs hay. 


Now in each of these two deduced quadrics there is only one term free of a, and it so 
happens that the coefficient of this term in the one case is exactly —2 times what it is 
in the other. We are thus easily able to eliminate the two terms. In fact, multiplying — 
the former of the deduced quadrics by y and the latter by 2z, and adding, we have, 
after division by «, the new quadric 


0.0? + 2|hbesly? + 41 9,foCs 2" 
a {2 | 9,265 | + 4h, fics |}-ye + 2a, focg|-2@ + |ayb,¢5 xy. 


Proceeding with the given quadrics w, ws, u, as we have just dealt with 1, Mp, “- we 
obtain in like manner 


A | hygoag |? + 0-4? + 2| fects |-2? 
+ [byes hye + {2 | Ayeyas| +41 fgets |}2x + 21 dygom, bay ; 


and similarly from ws, 4, 


2|G1%qb,|'0? + Al fh ds |-y? + 0-2 
+ leads yz + |aybcy ex + {2|feagds| + 4|9hob,|}-ay- 


These new quadrics, from their mode of formation, are seen to be not mere aggre- 


iad 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS, 671 


gates of multiples of the given quadrics : consequently they can be used along with the 
latter for the purposes of dialytic elimination. The simplified eliminant of the 6th order 
thus obtained is therefore 


a, b, Cy 2h, 29, 2h, 
a, b, oe 2h, 290 2h, 
Se bs C3 2fs 29 2h, 
2|d,ch,| —4le,fo93| 210931 +4] ohoSs| 2 ean Ts | | a,b,05 | 
—4|a,gyhs | . 2 | Cy Fo | | 2,530, | 2 | ea,hs| +4| a, F295 | 2| a,5,95 | 
Q\abng,! —41b,h.f3| . 2 | b,c,h,| | 6,04 | 2| a,b. f3| +4| Pigs | 


(9) The cubic required, in place of the Jacobian, for the simplification of SyLvzs- 
TER’S eliminant of the 10th order, has been obtained as follows :— 


Multiplying the three given quadrics by |f493!, —|Ags|, |Age| respectively, and 
adding, we have ; 


Lay fogst@ — lOgofshy + la tgshe + 2lfgehslay- 
Comparing this with the first of the three quadrics derived in the preceding section, viz., 
2| dye hghy? — Ale fogghe + {2|bc.9.|+4lehofel}-ye + 2eafgler + |a bye, |-ay, 


we readily see that if we multiply the latter by z and the former by 42, and add, we 
shall obtain a cubic free of terms in x’, y?, 2°, xy, xy’, viz., the cubic 


{2|b,c,5| -41Ogofal}-y'e + 2 |e Aefs |x 
+ {2|2,¢.95| +4 |chofsl}-y2 + 4 | ay Fogg |-2a + {| 2,050 | +8 | fJohs |} eye. 


This is exceedingly simple as compared with the Jacobian, but it fails in the matter of 
symmetry. Proceeding therefore again to the original triad of quadrics, and multiply- 


ing them by |b,93|, —|b,93|, |b,g.| respectively, we obtain after addition a quadric 
with no term in y?, viz., 


|Qybo9g |? — |be95/22 + 2d gfglye + 2| bg9h5 zy. 


The multiple of this by 2y, if added to the cubic just obtained, gives us all that can be 
desired, viz., the cubic 


2|a1b.95|:2’y + 2|dychgly?2 + 2| cayfy |x 
+ 4 bghglay? + 4lehafsly2 + 4) fogs 2x 
+ {\a, b,¢5| +8 |Agols |}-xyz. 


From the mode of obtaining it we see that if we call it M,, and denote the first of 
the three derived quadrics of § 8 by M,, we have 


M,2z + 2|u,b.93\y + 4|u,f.93|2 = M,. 


672 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


Now as M,z is not an aggregate of multiples of the given quadrics, and ag 
2|u,beg3| -y + 4|u4fo93| 2 is such an aggregate, it follows that the new cubic is in this - 
respect similar to the new quadric. The simplified eliminant of the 10th order thus 
obtained is therefore 4 


ay : 5 2h, ; Cy b, 5 29, 2f, 
‘ b, ; aby 2h, 5 2h, G : 29, 
: : C, ; b, 29, ‘ 2h; aby 2h, 
Ay ; : 2h, : C, by : 29 2h, 
5 by “ Uy 2ho 5 2h, * C ; 29. 
; : Ce : by 29 2 2h, Ay 2h, 
as : 2h, ; Ce b, ‘ 295 2f 
; bs : as 2h : 2h, es : 29 

Ce : bs 293 : 2h; As 2h, 

fable | 


2|ayb295| 2|hyb.e3| 21a, foes] 4] Aybogs| 4| hy Sees] 41 o.So9s | 8 
Aas | 1 

(10) This is not all, however, for the simplified form thus reached immediatel , 
suggests a further simplification by reason of the absence of terms in 2’, y?, 2° from the 
cubic which has been used to replace the Jacobian. | 
Multiplying each element of the 9th row by c, and subtracting c, times the corre-_ 
sponding element of the 6th row, and operating similarly in five other instances, we ean 
transform the determinant into one of the 7th order, viz., 3 


2|hja, | , | cnc, | | boa, | : 2| 95, | 2 | Foa | 

| 20, | 2 | fo, | . 2| 1,20; | | Cb, | . 2| Job | 

| Bye, | 2190, | . 2 | foes | | Ae, | 2 | hae, | 

dnbol, 2| Aga, | . [e505 | | bya, | . 2 | Jxo | 2 | eM | 
| asd | 2 | 20. | : 2 | hsb, | | C30, | . 2 | Ja | 

| Byes | 2 | J3Co | . 2 | Fxeo | | 3Co | 2 | hyd | 


2|a1b93| 2 Rydberg]  2layfoe3| 4] 16.95 | Al hy fols| Ala fo93| | A 0ee3| +8 |figohs| Pe 


which may be found useful in obtaining an expression for the eliminant, it is desival ble 
to note that, as the given quadrics are obtainable one from another by performing | 
simultaneously the cyclical changes, 


q ay ‘A 


any single derived equation not symmetrical with respect to this system of cyelical 
changes will readily give rise to two others. Thus, when the quadric M, was ob 
in § 8, the two still awanting necessitated no additional work. On the other hand, 
cubic M, of § 9 is unique, being simply twice reproduced by the cyclical change. 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS. 673 


Tn the case of expressions of the latter kind, a great saving of trouble is effected by 


using the symbol of cyclical summation, >). Thus M, may be written in the form 


22) | %bo95|-0*y + 4D | bgohrs|-ay? + {| abst |+8 | Agars boyz, 


d the Jacobian in the form 


=> | a,9,%5|-2% + Do {| 412293 |—| 4 fobs |} o?y 


ine. + Dal Asda fs |+| Gohs [fay + {| %,¢5|+2 | Agahs |}-yz. 


z 


Further, as the twenty determinants of the 3rd order formed by taking every 
set of three columns out of the six, 


a Of, oy hy 
M by Cy fo G2 Ne 
az b3 es fz 93 hs; 


ften in evidence, it will be convenient to have temporarily a short notation for 
and as they, like all other expressions connected with the investigation, appear 
i three (when not cyclically Larrea it is desirable that this should not 


| ayb,¢5 | , 
|a2.fg1, | 2160931, | adehs |, 
* | 415.93 |, | bes |, | dfs | 
/ | dybohs|, | Cfo1, | 4%29s |» 


1% fo93l, | PGohgl, | ehots |, 
ly fors|, | b9oc31, | Ghegs |, 
| &9ohgl, | %rofgl, 1aheg3 |, 
IFigahs |, 


herefore be fitly denoted as follows :— 


| a,b,¢5 | by [0] 
i AGalrs | by [0'] 
lagers |, | Ohofs1, |ato93| by [11, [2], [3] 
145,93 |, | erg |, | %%fg! by [4], [5], [6] 

[a fors|, | 9of3l, |e%o931 by [4'] [5 [6] 

| | @ybof3 1, | 22093 |, | 4%] by [7], (81, [9] 
| By Gohtg|, | Ghats}, 1a fo93) by [7 (8) [9] 
[abs |, | Oyeots |, |.¢%93| by [10] [11], [12]: 


Lhe reason for repeating the numbers [4},[5], [6], [7], [8], [9], with an added dash, 


674 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


will appear later. Meanwhile it should be noted that the passing from one determinant 
to another by means of six of the cycles above given, say from 


& oH by by hy fy 
a 95 Me to b, h, ip 
a; 93 Ns bh f, eB 


is, on account of the identity of | b.A3f,| and |b,h, f;|, much more readily effected by 
using only two cycles, viz., 


the subscripts 1, 2, 3 being considered invariable. The notation employed for the 
members of the six derived cycles of determinants enables us to remember them as one, 
viz., 


(13) With these preliminaries, let us now return to the consideration of the sub- 
sidiary quadrics necessary for obtaining the eliminant of the 6th order. 
The process employed in § 8 for obtaining M, is given by the equation 


| wboe3|y + 2] moc, |2 w-M 


2? 


from which we deduce 


1%, dy+2fz ¢,| = 


| 
8 
= 

nw 


or, what is the same thing, 


a0? + by? + e+ Wfyzt 2g,2e+ 2h avy by+2fe ag 
Chit” + boy? + C2" + 2fya+ Qgze+ 2h wy bythe ey 
Obst? + bay? + c,27 + Zfyyzt+ 2gaza+ AhFny byt 2fye Cy 


Simplifying the determinant by diminishing each element of the first column by 4 
times the corresponding element of the second column, and by 2’ times the corresponding 
element of the third column, we have 


Aye + Qgye+ Qhyoy byte cy 
Aye + Qgo2u+ Qhewy byt 2Afze Cy 
age? + Wggze+ hry byt 2fye Cy 


= «M, 


and therefore 
a,2+ 2g,2+2hy bythe ce, 
M, = | a+ 292+ 2hyy by+2fe Cy 
Ue+ 292+ 2hey bey +2fx2 C3 


Now this determinant is what is got by writing the three given quadrics in the 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS. 675 
form — 


(e+ 292+ ihye + by +2fey + eg? = 0 


(a,2+29,2+2h,y)x + (byt+2fiz\y + ¢2? = 0 
(a+ 2g.2+ Qhey)m + (by +2fyz)ly + 02? = 0 


| and eliminating dialytically x, y, 2%. Consequently we have the following simple 
rule for finding M, and its fellow subsidiary quadrics :— 


Separate each of the given quadrics into three parts, viz., (1) a part containing all 
the terms which have x for a factor, (2) a part containing all the remaining terms 
which have y for a factor, (3) the part having 2 for a factor: and then eliminate 

—dialytically x, y, 2’. 


(14) From this it is also suggested to obtain other subsidiary quadrics by varying 
the mode of partitioning the three originals preparatory to eliminating 2, y, 2. Doing 
this it will be found that the possible modes are three in number, viz., 

(a,@+ 29,2+ 2hy)e + (byt 2f2 yy + 2 
{ (ay@+ 29,2 ya + (yt 2fet2hyz)y + 62 
(mer ager hye + yt Afetheyy + eye 


} 


The first of these, as we have seen, gives 
5}y — 4[3}2 + {2[8]+4[8]}-ye + 26]ee + [O]zy, 
the second gives 
A9]}-a? — 4[3]2? + 2Sye + {2[6]—4[6]} ew + [O}ay, 
and the third gives 
A9}ar + [5]}y? — 4[8}2? + {2[8]+2[8]}-ye + {2[6]—2[6]}-o + [0}2y. 


Of these the last may be left out of account, as being half the sum of the two 
others. The other new form, however, is as simple and as useful as that previously 
obtained ; and, taking the two others derived from it by the cyclical change, we have 
an alternative form of the eliminant of the 6th order, viz., 


——E————S 


oA b, a 2f; 29, 2h, 

dt, b, Cy iy 29. Qe 

Os b, Cs oF. 29s 2hs 

—4[2] 18] 215]—4[57] [0] 2[7] 

2[9] 43] 2[8] 2[6]—4[6'] [9] 
al 2[7] : [0] 219] 2[4]—4[4] 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 26), a 


676 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


On looking back it will be seen that this is what would be obtained on changing the 
rule of $13 so as to read ‘y’ for ‘x’ and ‘a’ for‘y.’ Indeed, as there is no reason 
for treating « differently from y, an alternative form of the eliminant might thus have 
been ose Both forms are secured by putting ‘ax or y’ for ‘x, and ‘y or x! 
for ‘y’ in the said rule. 


(15) It might be expected that by subtracting the second derived quadric from the 
first, we should obtain a better form than either. It will be found, however, th at 
though the quadric so deduced is simpler, it is absolutely useless for the purpose in 
view. The result in fact is 


— [9]}a + []y + 2[8'}y2 + 2[6'}en, 
or 


— |eahg|-a® + |dBehg)y? + Zaha felye + 2)e hogs 2a, 


which is easily seen to be an aggregate of multiples of the original quadrics, viz., the 
agoregate representable by 


Uy Cy hg|. 


It thus appears that only one independent triad of derived quadrics is in this way 
obtainable, but that two of the interdependent triads seem equally advantageous for 
the purpose in view. 


(16) The question now arises as to the connection of the differential-quotients of the 
Jacobian with either of the triads here proposed to displace them. . 
From § 6 we have 


= — alot + (Cr+ (7a? + {16]-10}# 


+ {[0]+2[0]}-ye + 2{[9]+[9]}-2@ + 2{[4]—[4]} ay, 
and the second member of the first of the said two triads is 
— A[l}a? + 2[6)}2? + [0] ye + {2[9]+4[9]}-2@ + 2[4]-2y; 
so that the difference between them is 


[T}2 + {(7+(71}-¥ — {[6]+[6T}-2 
+ 0’ bye — 29" der — 24’ ay. 


the original quadrics. In fact, taking the aggregates 


[mgahs| ie, [1] + [7]y? — [6'}e + 2[0'ly2, 4 
|watefy| ive, — [T]y + [6] + 2[9"}ew + 24 }ay 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS. 677 


we see that their difference is identical with the previous difference. The result arrived 
at thus is 


/ 


CH 
= M, + | Uy Jolrs | = | Uy fs | » 


Oa 


t being understood, of course, that M, here stands for a particular member of a triad of 
quadrics, one of which has been so denoted. 


ER 


Se ———— 


(17) Tf we do not discriminate as to form, the number of aggregates of multiples of 
€ original quadrics is infinite. Keeping, however, to the form which has turned up 
tedly in what precedes we have only fifteen to reckon with, this being the number 
irs of letters choosable from the six, a, b,c, f, g, h. The fifteen must, of course, 
parable into five triads, and it is best so to arrange them. They may therefore 
iveniently tabulated as follows :— 


Te | y? | ee | Yy2 | 2a xy 
| wb5Cz | [0] | 2[11] | 2[8] 2[5] 
| 20,09 | [0] 2[6] 2[12] 2[9] 
| 420s | [0] 2[7] 2[ 4] 2[10] 
| wy bof | [7] - [11] -2[5'] | -2[2] 
| U4C595 | - [12] [8] - 2[3] — 2[6’] 
| |u| -(10)} 9] | 2047 | - 200 
i 
| | 214295 | (4) - [8] 2[5"] 2[7'] 
| lets! |) -f91 | 081 ais] | 216] 
| | 22 | =[7] | [6] 297] )  2[4] 
| %bas | [10] - [5] 22} | -2[7] 
| Hots | - [6] [11] 2(3] | -2[8'] 
| 4095 | =e] [12] | -2(9'] 2[1] 
| F095 | foley =e] [3] 2[0'] 
| wJohrs | (1] ie) Sa 2[0'] 
|whofz| | -[4'] [2] [8] 2(0'] 


Unlike these, which cannot be taken along with 1%, wu, us for purposes 
mination, we have, as above pointed out, the single triad— 


678 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


| x | y? a Ye eae | ay ; 
|u, by + Ife cy| + @ [5] | -4[3] |2[8]+4[8]|  2[6] [0] : 
[% ce +2g,e ag] + y |} -4[1] 2[6] [0] | 2[9]+4[9"]| 2[4] 
|u, ae+2hy by| + z 94] | -4[2] 2[5] [0] | 2[7]+4[7]\ =a 


If, however, from the eighteen quadrics here tabulated two or more be taken, one at — 

' least being taken from the second table, and an aggregate of multiples of these be formed, — 

the resulting quadric, if not symmetrical with regard to the cyclical change, will be 

one of a triad which also may be used along with w%, %, uz for the purpose of dialytically 

eliminating x”, y”, 2°, yz, zw, cy. In this way, as has been seen, the triad of quadries 
which are differential-quotients of the Jacobian may be found, and the triad of § 14. 

Notwithstanding the large number of possible aggregates of the kind here referred 

to, it does not appear that anything simpler than the triads of §§ 8 and 14 can be found. 


(18) As an illustrative example, let us take SYLVESTER’S special case, where 


Uy, = My?+lyz +mze+nay 


U, = Aa +ayz+bex + cay 
Us = Re +pyz +qze +raey } 


In accordance with the rule of § 13 we write the equations in the form 


(Axv+ bz+ cy) + aay = 0. 
(ma+ny)« + (My+lz)y = of 
(qztry)« + py + Re = 07; 


and eliminating a, y, 2° we obtain 


Au+bz+cy Az 
mz+ny My+lz 


or 
cM-y? + (bl—am)2 + (cl—an+6M)-yz — Alza + AM-ay = 0. 
Instead of this SyLvEsTER obtained * 


(ra —cp—cM).y? — (bR+bl—am)-2 
+ (ag—bM—bp—cR—cl+an)-yz — (AR+Al)za — (Ap+AM)-ay; 


and Nanson, following Satmon’s method, obtains + something still more forbidding, viz.:— 
— 3A(mr—gn)a? + M(2Ap+ge—br)y? + R(2Al+bn—me)-2 

ja 6b ¢ 

+ | lL mn 

eee i 


* SyivesTeEr, J. J., “Examples of the Dialytic Method, etc.” Cambridge Math. Journ., ii. p. 233, ™ 
+ Nason, E. J.,“On the Eliminant of a Set of Quadrics, Ternary or Quaternary,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. fae 


sant by + 2A(2Rn+lg—pm)2x + 2A(2Mg+pe—lr)ay. 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS. 679 


(19) Leaving now the eliminant of the 6th order let us return to the problem of 
finding the cubic, M;, to be used in place of the Jacobian in forming the eliminant of 
the 10th order. 

As we have seen 


M, = Myz + 2|u%bgshy + 4| u fogs |2- 
Now the sum of the last two terms on the right is 


= |u, by 293) + |u, ye 29s|, 
[u, dy+2fz 295 |5 


and from § 13 


Moz = |u, by+2f2 6 = 
= |u, by+2fz cen]. 
Consequently we have 
M, = |u, byt2fz cyza-+ 295 |. 


Now diminishing each element of the first column by y times the corresponding 
element of the second column and by zw times the corresponding element of the third 
column we obtain 


M, = | a,%?+ 2h,cy boy + 2f,2 c,20-1 + 2g, | , 
| and thence 
. M, = | a,0+2hy by t+2fz 2+ 29, 
| a,%+ 2hoy boy + 2foz C+ 295% 
| a,e+ 2hey boy + 2f,2 C2 + 29,0 | . 


But this determinant is what is got by writing the three given equations in the form 


(qet2hy)e + (yt fay + Get 2nn)2 = 0 
(ae+ 2hoy)-% + (byy+ 2fz)-y + (C%+29,%)2 = 0 
(a,0+ 2hsy)-% + (dsy+ 2f32)'Y + (Cx2+2952)2 = 0 


and eliminating dialytically x, y, z. Consequently we have the following simple rule 
_ for finding M, :— 

Separate each of the given quadrics into three parts, viz., (1) a part containing the 
terms which have x for a factor and do not involve z, (2) a part containing the terms 
which have y for a factor and do not involve x, (3) a part containing the terms which 
hawe z for a factor and do not involve y: and then eliminate dialytically x, y, 2. 


e A 
———— SSS ss = 


(20) It is thus seen that M, and J resemble each other in being both obtainable by 
dialytically eliminating the first powers of x, y, 2 from the three given quadrics, just as 
M, and its fellow resemble each other in being obtainable by the elimination of a, y, 2. 

The other cubics of the family to which M, and J belong arise from different modes 
of partitioning a general quadric into three terms having x, y, 2 respectively for factors ; 
and on trial it will be found that these modes are eighteen in number, viz., 


680 DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


three of the form 

(42+ 2gy2+2hy)e + bytheyy + (e+ hy)?: 
three of the form 

(at 2gyethy)yec + bytfethyr)y + Getfhye: 
three of the form 

(aztget+2hy)x + bytfe)y + (Gqethyt2)2: 
three of the form 

(ayet+2g2ethye + (y+thwe)y + (q2+ 2fy)2: 
three of the form 

(azt+get2hy)ya + (by+2fz)y + (Ge+g,%)-2: 
one of the form 

(qe+2hye + (byt %Aayy — (e+ 2g0)#: 
one of the form 

(a,2+ 2hyy)-x + (y+ 2f2)-y + (G24 29,0)-2: 
and one of the form 


(a,2+hy+9,2)-% + Oytfeths)y + (e+gietfy)2. 


It is the last of all which gives rise to the Jacobian; and this, strange to say, is 
lengthiest cubic in the whole series, as many as 17 of the 20 determinants of § 12 
appearing in it. 

The second from the end gives rise to M,. The third from the end origina’ 


6th order, we have two alternative forms. On turning to the rule of § 19, it will be 
that from the three parts of each of the given quadrics we excluded z, w, y respecti 
when we might equally reasonably have excluded y, z, «: it is this exclusion of Y, % 0 
from the three parts respectively which gives rise to the alternative form. 


(21) Out of the 18 partitions there arise only 8 cubics which are invariant to'the 
cyclical change ; for, in five different instances, it is necessary to use three of the a 
tions to secure one such result. 

Thus the first partition 


(a,@+ 2g2+2hy)e + bythey + (ethy) 
gives the irregular cubic 
~ 2[2}y — 23}% + {2[5]—2[5']}-y% + [6] 2% 


+ [T]}xy? + {2[8]-+2[8']}-y2’ 
+ [0] aye; 


yx 8 xe7y 
— 4/2] | — 4[3] | 3[4] - 2[4] 
'~ 3[2]|- 3[3] | 2[4]- 54] 
|-3[2]}-3[3] |4[4]- [4’] 
-9[2]|-2[3]} [4]-8[4] 

— 2[2] | - 2[3] | 5[4] 
~4[4'] 

24] 
= [1] /- [2)|- (3]| (41- (47 


h ageregates are necessary, 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS. 


The eight cubics of this kind are— 


yz | wae | xy? 
3[5] — 2[5']| 3[6] — 2[6’] | 3[7] + 2[77] 
2[5]— 5[5']} 2[6] - 5[6'} | 4[7]+ [7] 
4[5]— [5'}/4[6] - [6°}/2[7]+5[77] 
[5]-8[5']| [6]—8[6']| 5[7] 
5[5] 5[6] [7] +87] 
-4[5})  — 4[6)]) 2[7] 
2[5] 2[6] 4(7'] 


Sel tel fe}; tele bey 


p(n 8 =e 840. 34.0) 
me) (23), 925, 24-1" 446) 
Eye G2oe 4 = 1s 245. 63.456) 
C=? fs), 5-0 , 3412) 
C= 2 50, 1478 3 412) 
M, *€ 0,0 —4, 240,148) 
Mem 0. 2E0, 044, 1-28) 
sll (2) Lente Ree We ea ee 


vizZ., 


UGohs|-2% + |whofgly + |%4So93l% 


which will be found to be equal to 


681 


but, on performing on this the cyclical changes and adding, we obtain a cubic which, 
J and M,, is cyclically symmetrical, viz., 


= Safi) + D5(3[4]- 2147} -2%y + DYABLT+ 27} ay? + 30] -aye. 


ye xyz 


3[8] + 2[8']| 3[9] + 2[9'] | 3[0] 
4[8]+ [8']/4[9]+ [9']| 3[0]+6[0'] 
2[8] + 5[8']| 2[9] + 5[9']| 3[0] + 6[0'] 
5(8] 5[9] 3[0] + 12[0'] 
[8]+8[8']) [9]+8[9']|3[0] + 12[07] 
2[8] 2[9] [0] +8[0] 

4[8'] 4[9']} [0] +8[0'] 
[8]+ [8']} [9]+ [9]} [0] +2[0] 


) OF course, any seven of these are derivable from the remaining one with the 


eregates of multiples of the original quadrics. As a matter of fact, only two 


Slt — Deda + Dl] + 20} aye, 


682 Wid DR THOMAS MUIR ON THE 


or, in the abridged notation just explained, 


(1, 0-1, 0+1, 0+6); 


and 
| wytofgie + |Wbgsly + |wWyehs be 


which will be found to be equal to 
(0, 1+2, —1+2, 0+0). 
Calling these two aggregates o and o’, so that 


eae Sb rae a, 0a) 


we have 
B'—2¢ = B, A+a—o = B, C+2c—o0’ = 3M,; 
C—4e’ = C, B+to-o = C, 
M’',—20 = M,, J+oa—oc = M,, 


and consequently, if it were desired to have all the cubics expressed in terms of Ms, we 
should have 7 
TN Berit, 28 ge? 
Be =. 3ue rae, 
Bele 
C = 3M,+ oa — 2c, 
G Sil 2oae? So 
i oe 

J = M,+ o — a. 


iy 


(23) As an illustrative example, let us again take SyLvEsTER’s second case, where, as } 


we have seen, : 
U, = Ax? +ayz+ bex+ cay, 
Uy = My? +lyz+mzn+ nay, 
Us, = Re+pyz+qer+ray. 


Following closely the rule of § 19 we write the equations in the form 


(Av+ey).« + aay + baz = 0 
nye + (My+lz)-y + mez = 0 
rye + pay + (Re+qz)z2 = 0 
and eliminating x, y, z we obtain 
Ax+cy Az bx 
ny My+/z mx 
Ty pe Re+qu 


or 
AMga’*y + MRe: T + RAl2x 
+ M(ge—br)-ay? + R(el—na)y2 + A(lg—pm): ae + ( A+ AMR)aye. 


ELIMINANT OF A SET OF GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS, 683 


Instead of this, Professor Nanson, following SyLvestER’s method, obtains 


— A(mr—qn).a — M(ra—ep)y? — R(am—lb).2 

+ A(2Mq+pn—Ir).x2y + M(2Re+bp— qa)-y’z2 + R(2Al+nb—em).2x 

+ M(2Ap +ge—br).xy? + R(2Mb+cl—na)-y2 + A(2Rn +1lq— pn).az* 

+ (A+4AMR) ayz. 

Simple, however, though M; in this case is as compared with J, there is still a 
simpler cubic obtainable by subtracting 


Mgy-u, + Ree-u, + Alx-u, 


— Alra?y — Mqay’z — Rem2x 
— Mbr-ay? — Rnay? — Apm-a2? + (A+A’—amr—AMR).xyz 


Meso 


b 
M 
q 


ire whether any one of the other cubics of § 20 is such that a differential-quotient 
will vanish for the same set of values as the original quadrics. 

The answer to this may be formulated as follows :— 

any one of the derived cubics which vanish for the same set of values as the 
al quadrics have in its determinant form one column composed of the halved 
ential-quotients of the said quadrics, the differential-quotient of the cubic with 
to the sume variable will also vanish for that set of values. 

the column be the first, thus implying differentiation with respect to «; and let 
ubic in question be 


7 ee 
ne iy Ol Ke Saye 


Az Mg 


a RRS a TARR nS TE a A RT SRE Gi SSA GT UT Ain SN 
Ly 
_ 

— 
= 
jer 
(a2) 
[oF 
>) 
ac} 
ee 
4 
(q>} 
Qu 

+O 
S 
a) 
jos} 
ahs 
ie) 
nm 
= 
{q>) 
oO 
[oF 
iq2} 
oO) 
S 
5S 
TR) 
i 
Si 
Ss 
(S) 
4. 
M 
(q2) 
=r 
B 
ee 
=) 
pee) 
=) 
ct 
= 
(qr) 
=r 
=) 

oe 
(oF 
i=" 
e 
ee} 
D 
=) 
= 
et) 
La 

fle) 
(<7 
ie) 
Se 
ie) 
=) 
ct 
Mm 


en, from the mode in which such cubics are obtained, we have 


OU. ; 
baw te ACY re — ey 


oa Ac CE 


Ou, 
det + Ag + Moe = Us 


oe 
aa + ANgY + My = Us 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 26). DN 


a 


684 DR THOMAS MUIR ON GENERAL TERNARY QUADRICS. 


and therefore 
My Ay My | 
Uz Ag Mg 
Us Az Ms 


and therefore, by the theorem regarding the differentiation of a determinant, 


| Ow Or, Ou 
/ oat Ay My Cong yerae gi | wm A ae 
aK au ON | a 
Ou. on Ou. 
= Ag Ms ie oe Mg ts Ng aaa 
ON OU. 
= 2K +] % 5? Bs | “i | t ry x | 


from which it is manifest that any set of values which causes u, Us, Us, K to vanish will 
cause 0K /¢x to vanish also. 

Had the chosen column been the second, the same mode of reasoning would ha 
sufficed to show that the differential-quotient with respect to y would have vanished ; 


and similarly in the case of the third column. The theorem is thus established. > 


(25) There are seven such cubics among the eighteen of § 20, those of the second and 
third triads, and the last one of all—the Jacobian, in the case of which the theorem is. | 
triply applicable. | 

As an example, the first of the third triad may be taken. In its determinant. 
form it is 

ae+get hy bytfe aethy tne | 
AL+G A+ Ay byYyASe Co&+>SY +Io® | 
asetgget hey dy the eetty tose | 


and arranged according to powers of the variables it is 

— 2[2}y° — [8] 

+ [4}a?y + {2[5]—[5]}-y’2 + [6]}2% 

+ {[7]+2[7]}-ay? + {[8]+2[8]}-y2? + [9’} <0” 

+ {[0]+2[0’]}-ayz. 
Differentiating with respect to z, on account of the fact that it is the third column of the 
determinant which is composed of differential-quotients, we have 


[9}o? + {2[5]-[S]}y? — 3[3}22 } 
+ {[8]+4[8']}-ye + 26]}er + {[0]4+2[0']}-2y, 


—a quadric which, with the two others obtained from it by the cyclical change, might 
be used to form an eliminant of the 6th order. In practice, however, it would not be 


multiples of the onal quadrics, viz., the aggregate | /.gs|. 


a 


( 685 ) 


XXVIL.—On the Restoration of Co-ordinated Movements after Nerve Section. By 
Ropert Kennepy, M.A., D.Sc, M.D., Glasgow. [From the University of 
Glasgow and the Glasgow Veterinary College.] (Communicated by Professor 
M‘Kewpricx.) (With Three Plates.) 


(Read April 3, 1899.) 


From the point of view of its function, a nerve fibre is a conductor of nervous 
impulses, and as such is the path of communication between two structures, the one 
situated in the central nervous system, and the other in the periphery. In the mixed 
nerve, such as the sciatic, the nerve fibres are distinguished as afferent or as efferent, 
according as they conduct impulses originating at the periphery, and received by a cell 
in the central nervous system, or vice versd. It has long since been shown that nerve 
fibres are capable of conducting impulses in either direction, but normally, from their 
anatomical connections, the individual nerve fibres are conductors for impulses only in 
the one or in the other direction. This is proved by the Wallerian method of investiga- 


| tion, as on severance of the posterior spinal root distal to the ganglion only certain fibres 


degenerate and the conductivity of the nerve only for afferent impulses is lost, while the 
severance of the anterior root is followed by the degeneration of the remainder with loss 
of functions depending on efferent impulses. 

But the conception of nerve fibre and its terminals carries us further, and leads to 
the view that a particular nerve fibre is concerned only with the conduction of impulses 
from a particular point, e.g., from a particular sensory area of the skin, or, on the other 
hand, that it is concerned with the passage of impulses from a particular central cell to 
particular end-organs. The individual nerve fibres are thus viewed not as common con- 


ductors for impulses originating from different points, but each as a specific conductor 


for impulses starting in a particular cell, and received at the other end also in a particular 
cell, Thus a transverse section of a mixed nerve with its innumerable nerve fibres 
might, if knowledge were sufficiently exact, have each of the latter named according to 
its origin or distribution. 

It is true that the passage of the nerve fibres between the peripheral organ and the 
brain is not necessarily continuous, but may be interrupted by the intervention of cells ; 
but in the modern conception of say the motor neuron the cell body situated in the 
cornua of the cord connects directly with the peripheral organ by means of its neuraxon, 
while the cell body receives its stimuli from another definite cell, situated it may be in 
the cortex, by means of the neuraxon of the latter. The individual nerve fibres in a 
nerve must, however, be regarded as paths for the conduction of impulses each from a 
definite point to a definite point. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO.27). 50 


686 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


A nerve is thus, both from the point of view of its morphology and of its physiology, 
a highly specialised structure, and it is, therefore, not surprising that the study of its 
repair after division should lead to problems of great difficulty. 

Two methods of repair after division have been described, namely, that by first 
intention, and that by regeneration of the peripheral segment. In the former case, i 
supposed that after the division of the fibre the two ends speedily become connected 
again, so as to restore the fibre as before the division. After such a process of reunion, | 
the peripheral segment is still the same structure which before the division conducted 
the impulses. This view, then, carries with it the supposition that when the nerye 
fibres heal by this process, the Wallerian degeneration does not take place, that after the 
section the peripheral end becomes again connected with its trophic centres before the 
advent of degeneration, so that by the early restoration of the influence of the centres 
the degeneration is avoided. The evidence which is advanced by those who regard : 
as a possibility is the early return of function, but before such a process can be accep 
as possible, it would be necessary to have anatomical proof from microscopic preparations 
of the peripheral end of a recently divided and reunited nerve, that the peripheral 
segments of the fibres present the normal characters of adult medullated fibres, and that 
degeneration remains are absent. This is what I have been unable to find satisfactorily 
in the papers of those authors who claim that healing by first intention is possible, the 
evidence relied on being chiefly that of early return of function. « 

In the other process of repair of a nerve, after destruction of the peripheral segment 
by Wallerian degeneration, that segment is regenerated, and the continuity of the nerve 
to its end-organs thus restored. On the process by which this is effected there has been 
much difference of opmion. That described by Ranvier of outgrowth from the central 
segment of processes from the old axis-cylinders, which continue their growth till they 
reach the end-organs, is the view which has been most widely accepted, while the other 
view is that simultaneously with the degeneration, new fibres are formed in the peri- 
pheral segment independently of the central seoment, and that these become connected 
with the old fibres of the central segment. The process described in the former view 
necessarily requires for its accomplishment a considerable period of time, a period which 
must be longer the farther the section is from the peripheral terminations of the nerve. 
It is the acceptance of this view which gave origin and support to the view of healin 
by first intention, as something had to be supposed to explain cases of early return of 
function after nerve section. On this view, and on the view of development of the 
nerve fibres advanced by KOLiLIKER and by His, is founded the modern conception of the 
‘neuron.’ According to the second view, it is not necessary to suppose a lengthened 
period of time, or a different period of time, according as the section is made near or far 
removed from the peripheral terminals, until the nerve becomes again a functional 
structure. 

Both from clinical and from experimental experience, it is established that 
return of function can take place, but there are certain fallacies which should be 


RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 687 


against in judging of the value of early return or of late return of function after section. 
Thus, where early return of function occurs after nerve section, it is necessary to 


remember the possibility of a vicarious nerve supply, and where late recovery takes 
3¢ this is not conclusive evidence in favour of the view of RANVIER, as the reunion of 
nerve at first may be inadequate to permit of function being carried on through the 
ment of reunion. ‘Thus failure of the wound to heal without suppuration will lead to 
ay or even to failure of reunion. Delay of returning function may, therefore, mean 
only inadequate reunion of the nerve, and early return may mean vicarious nerve supply. 
But there are certain cases in which very early return of function occurs after suture, 
hich preclude the possibility of vicarious nerve supply, and which cannot be explained 
ases of healing by first intention without degeneration. I refer to cases in which 
nion has failed after the section, and in which, after a period of time more or less 
longed, an operation is undertaken for the secondary reunion of the central and 
eripheral ends. In such cases no vicarious return of function has taken place, and yet, 
reunion at the secondary operation, the function, which for a long period of time 
been in abeyance, speedily returns. Such return of function can only be explained 
s due to the restoration by the secondary operation of the conductivity of the nerve, 
_the speed with which function returns implies the view that the peripheral segment, 
h separated from its centres, has in the interval formed new fibres in a condition, 
united to the central segments, to conduct impulses. But what is remarkable 
such cases is that not only does sensation return in the parts which were 
merly insensitive, but, though at first indefinite, within a remarkably short period 
ime localisation becomes perfect. Thus, in cases which I have published * in which 
tves had been completely divided, and had not reunited, and in which a secondary 
tion was followed by return of sensation in a few days, localisation was found by re- 
ted examination to be well established by a month. It is easy to understand, on the 
sition of independent regeneration of the peripheral segment, how function might 
n in a very short time after reunion; but the speedy or even remote perfection 
isation is not what we should expect from our conception of the functional 
tiation of the nerve fibres. How is it possible, immediately after division of 
, Or more so in a secondary operation for repair of a non-united nerve, in 
g the ends together by suture, that the central ends of the individual nerve fibres 
brought to lie opposite their proper peripheral ends? We should certainly expect 
onsiderable confusion of localisation of sensation and of co-ordination of move- 
should result from unavoidable imperfect coaptation. This difficulty is common 
the views of repair of divided nerves. In healing by first intention, if it exists, 
healing by regeneration of nerve fibres by independent formation in the peri- 
Segment, it is scarcely possible that the nerve ends will be so accurately coapted 
all the corresponding nerve fibre segments will be brought into apposition. In the 
v of Ranvier the position is no better, for there the sheaths of ScHwaNwn of the old 
* Phil. Trams., Series B., vol. clxxxviii. (1897), p. 257. 


688 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


fibres, which are to act as the guides for the growth of the new fibres to the terminal — 
organs, can scarcely be supposed to be brought by the suture into line with their proper 
central segments. Also, if we take the view held by Vanuarr and others, that the new 
sprouting fibres simply run in the endoneurial spaces, how can the new fibres be guided 
to their appropriate terminal organs ? 

From these considerations I have been led to inquire if a difference in the resulting 
return of function will obtain between reunion with the most accurate coaptation, and 
reunion with the most extreme displacement of the one segment with reference to the 
other. In two dogs I divided the sciatic nerve at the level of the trochanter, and after 
rotating the peripheral segment to the extent of a semicircle, reunited it to the central 
end.* To insure that this displacement was accurately carried out, the suture was 
placed before the division of the nerve. The nerve having been raised from its bed on 
the point of the finger, was transfixed by the needle threaded with chromicised catgut. 
The needle was then carried through below the nerve, and the nerve again transfixed | 
at a lower level in the same direction as before. Next, the nerve was divided between 
the two points of transfixion, and the suture tied, the result being that the peripheral 
segment was rotated with reference to the central seoment through a semicircle. Thus 
the two segments were coapted so that the fibres of one side in the central segment 
were brought into line with those of the opposite side in the peripheral segment, only 
the fibres in the centre of the nerve being approximately correctly coapted. In a third 
experiment, to serve as a control to the first two, the same nerve was divided at the 
same point and accurately coapted, the suture being placed before the division, so as to 
insure accuracy of coaptation in the normal position. 

Experiment I—On 19th January 1898, a collie bitch, aged 15 months, having 
been aneesthetised by means of a subcutaneous injection of 0°5 gram. sulphate of 
morphia followed by inhalation of ether, the hair was shaved from a considerable 
area around the trochanter and tuber ischii of the left side. The skin was then 
thoroughly scrubbed with soap and warm water, next with turpentine, then with 
alcohol, and finally with 5 per cent. carbolic lotion. The precaution taken to prevent 
contamination of the wound during the operation was to fix round the body a jaconette 
sheet with an oval aperture in its centre, sufficiently large to expose only the field of 
operation. The instruments, dressings, ligatures, etc., to be used had all been previously 
sterilised. he sciatic nerve was exposed as it passes between the trochanter and the | 
tuber ischii. The nerve held up on the point of the finger, was transfixed by a flat | 
needle threaded with chromicised catgut. The needle having been drawn through, was i 
passed underneath the nerve, and the nerve again transfixed parallel to the first trams- i 
fixion and in the same direction, but about 0°5 em. lower down, and drawn through, i 
leaving the suture in place. The nerve was then transversely divided between the | 
two points of transfixion, and the suture tied. The result of the two ends having | 


* T am indebted to Professor M‘Kendrick for suggesting to me this form of experiment. 


RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 689 


been thus transfixed by the catgut in the same direction was, of course, that on tying 
the knot the two ends of the nerve could be brought into apposition only after rotation 
on their long axes with reference to each other through a semicircle. Thus the fibres 
running down the external side of the central segment were brought into apposition with 
the fibres on the internal side of the peripheral segment, and wice versd, the displace- 
ment of the ends of the fibres being thus made as extreme as compatible with coaptation 
of the two ends. 

The subcutaneous tissue and the skin were then separately united by sutures, 
dressings applied, and the whole limb fixed by plaster of Paris bandages, commencing 
above the claws, passing up the limb and round the body, a thick double copper wire 
moulded to the parts being incorporated in the bandages. The effect of the morphia 
was to keep the dog in narcosis sufficiently long to allow of complete drying of the 
plaster of Paris without breakage. 

At the end of the second day the animal was able to stand on the splint. There was 
no sensation on pricking the foot with a needle, except over the region on the inner side 
of the paw supplied by the internal saphenous nerve. 

By the end of the third day the dog was walking freely about, using the splint as a 
support, but dragging the paw along the ground with the dorsal surface down. ‘The 
foot was, therefore, bandaged so as to keep the plantar surface down in order to prevent 
further excoriation of the dorsal surface. 


ee 


At the end of the seventh day, on removing the supporting bandage from the paw, 
the dog was able to walk across the room, placing its paw with the plantar surface 
down. On passing a projecting board on the floor the foot was turned back, and the 
animal rested on the dorsal surface, but at the next step the foot was restored to the 
normal position, with the plantar surface down. On pricking the skin with a needle 
the animal gave no sign of pain, although it turned round and commenced vigorously to 
lick the paw. 

The first undoubted sign of returning sensation was obtained on the tenth day ; for 
on pricking the formerly insensitive part of the foot, the animal at once withdrew the 
limb with signs of pain. 

At the end of the fourteenth day the splint was removed, and the wound was found 
healed, and the stitches were removed. The animal then walked well on the un- 
supported leg, always placing the plantar surface of the paw correctly, although it threw 
the lee a little outwards in a movement of circumduction at each step, but it was not 
markedly lame. Occasionally it missed a step, carrying the leg forward with a hop. 

On the following day the sound leg was held up without supporting the weight of 
the body, and it was found that the animal was able to walk, supporting the hind part 
of its body entirely on the affected leg. Occasionally the foot was placed with the 
dorsal surface down, and to give it support a figure-of-eight bandage was again applied 
to the paw to hold it in the extended position. 

At the nineteenth day the dog was running about without any trace of limping, 


690 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


and while running about, only once or twice the paw was observed to be turned ove 
on the dorsal surface by the toes scraping the ground, but on these few occasions 4] 
normal position was regained at the next step. The position of the lee in standing 
walking, and running, was the same for the affected as for the other leg, and the degree 
of voluntary extension and flexion at the tibio-tarsal articulation appeared to be th 
same in the two legs. Only slight atrophy was noted in the muscles, no hair had falle 
out, the claws were normal, and two small erosions on the dorsum of the paw, caused ’ 
by scraping along the floor during the first day that the animal was walking about, — 
were now healed. = 
The animal distinctly now felt the prick of a needle in the paw, as, when this w 
done, it always looked sharply round, and occasionally tried to withdraw the limb, at 
times attempted to bite, and always turned and licked the paw. In testing the 
sensation of the paw, sensation on the inside was not taken as evidence of returning } 
function, as this part, as already mentioned, was sensitive from the earliest examination, 
being innervated by twigs of the saphenous nerve. The difficulty of ascertaining the 
return of sensation is illustrated by the fact that when pricked on the sound leg or paw — 
the animal often gave no sign. 
On the twenty-first day sensation was considerably improved, as during the exami- 
nation of the paw the animal’s head had to be held, as it frequently snapped when the 
foot was pricked. 3 
An attempt was made to ascertain the state of localisation of sensation by blind- 
folding the animal and attaching a bulldog forceps to the limb, but it. was futile, as the — 
animal’s first endeavours were always to remove the bandage from its eyes. ; 
On the thirty-second day the animal was photographed in the standing posture 
assumed by itself (Plate I. fig. 1). a 
On the fifty-fourth day, the dog having been again anzesthetised by chloroform and 
ether, after having a subcutaneous injection of morphia sulphate, the skull w 
trephined over the region of the crucial sulcus on both sides, and this region of t the ‘ 
brain exposed. Stimulation of the centre for the hind limb on the post-erueial 
by a faradic current just to be felt on the tip of the tongue gave no reaction, but when 
the current was slightly increased, the normal reaction was induced, being the sam 
movement which obtained in the right leg by stimulation of the centre on the ‘ 
hemisphere. The movement induced was advancement of the leg as in walking, and 
no other movement could be obtained until the current was further increased, when 
general convulsions of the body ensued. 
The seat of suture of the nerve was next exposed, and the nerve was found uni ted 
there being a neuroma at the seat of reunion. ‘The torsion of the nerve produced 
the operation was clearly maintained. The peripheral segment showed this torsio 
commencing about 3°5 cm. from the seat of reunion. F 
Stimulation with a very weak interrupted current induced contractions, when the 
electrodes were placed above the seat of reunion, on the neuroma, and distal to the 


> 


RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 691 
neuroma. The animal was then killed while still under the influence of the anesthetic, 
. z various portions of the reunited nerve removed for microscopic examination. 
On excising a segment, including the seat of reunion, the proximal and distal 
amsverse sections exposed showed that the nerve at this level consisted mainly of two 
iculi, one large and the other small. On comparing the proximal and distal ends of 
seoment, it was ascertained that the position of the large fasciculus exposed at the 
ie end corresponded with the position of the small bundle exposed at the other end, 
wice versd, thus proving that the nerve had reunited in the position which was given 
it at the operation. 
Experiment LI. —On 13th April 1898, a collie bitch, aged 1 year, having been 
hetised by means of a hypodermic injection of 0°5 gram. sulphate of morphia, 
ed by inhalation of ether and chloroform, and the same antiseptic precautions 
mg been taken as before, the same operative procedure was carried out as in the 
of Experiment I[., z.¢., the left sciatic nerve was divided at the level of the 
hanter, and the ends sutured together with carbolised catgut, with the central and 
pheral segments rotated on their long axes in opposite directions, with reference to 
| other to the extent of a semicircle. The fascia and skin were separately sutured, 
jand the hip, knee, and ankle joints immobilised by means of plaster of Paris 
| bandages. 
On the following day the animal was making no attempt to walk on the splint. 
was no sign given of sensation on pricking the paw with a needle, except over 
small area on the inner aspect of the paw from twigs of the saphenous nerve. The 
was now fixed with a figure-of-eight bandage to keep the foot from being turned 
with the dorsal surface down, and thus becoming abraded in the event of the 
nal making attempts to walk, 

At the end of the second day the dog was sitting up resting on the splint. When 
ed along by its collar it walked on the splint, but dragged the paw along the ground 
al surface down. 

On the following day the animal was walking freely about, but when the foot was 
supported by the bandage, it always was dragged dorsal surface down. 

This state lasted till the end of the seventh day, when it was found that, while no 
lence of returning sensation could be obtained, the animal had now regained some 
he leg, as it walked well, and with the paw left unsupported, placed it correctly 
surface down on the ground. Occasionally, the toes catching on the ground, the 
turned over and rested on the dorsal surface, but after being scraped along the 
in this position for two or three steps, was again voluntarily replaced in the 
position. | 

At the eighth day the plaster of Paris splint was removed, and the wound was 
dd completely healed, and the stitches were removed. The leg was somewhat 
ued, but there was no other trophic change. The animal used the leg in walking, 
not, however, resting its whole weight on the limb, but as a rule it placed the paw 


692 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


correctly plantar surface down, readjusting it when it turned over, as it occasionally 
did, by the toes scraping the ground. 

Improvement in walking advanced day by day, the foot turning over on to the dorsal 
surface less and less, until, when examined at the end of the twenty-first day, the 
animal constantly walked on the leg, always placing the plantar surface down, and 
supporting the entire weight of the hind part of the body on the affected leg, when the 
sound hind leg was held up. Sensation was now returning, as, when the portion of | 
the paw formerly insensitive was pricked with a needle, the animal withdrew the limb, 

At the thirtieth day the complete recovery of the use of the leg was maintained, 
and the muscles were much increased in bulk. The dog was therefore killed, and the 
seat of section exposed. The nerve was found reunited, the seat of reunion presenting 
a slight swelling on the central and peripheral ends, united by a short segment having 
the diameter of the normal nerve. ‘The torsion given at the operation was clearly 
visible, and stimulation of the nerve above and below the seat of reunion caused 


q } 


contractions of the muscles. 

Experiment III.—On 138th April 1898, a collie bitch, aged 6 months, was 
aneesthetised by a hypodermic injection of 0°4 gram. sulphate of morphia, followed by 
inhalation of chloroform. The same antiseptic precautions as before having been taken, 
the left sciatic nerve was exposed at the level of the trochanter, divided, and accurately 
reunited in the normal position with carbolised catgut. The accuracy of adjustment 
was secured by placing the suture before the division, the suture having been carried 
through the nerve at two points, 0°5 cm. apart, passing in opposite directions. After 
section, therefore, the tying of the catgut suture brought the two ends together as 
nearly as possible in their normal relationship to each other. The limb was then 
immobilised in the same manner as in the other experiments. 

On the following day sensation tested in the paw was found to be absent, except 
over the area supplied by the saphenous nerve. 

On the third day the animal was walking on the splint, but dragging the paw 
along dorsal surface down. 

This condition lasted till the seventh day, when the animal was found to walk with 
the plantar surface down. The paw, however, frequently turned over with the dorsal 
surface down, and was then dragged, and did so till the foot was passively again 
placed in the normal position, the animal apparently having no voluntary power to | 
readjust it. | 

On the eighth day the plaster of Paris splint was removed, and the animal was | 
found to be able to use the leg for walking, not, however, resting its full weight on it. | 
It walked with the plantar surface down, but frequently the paw turned back on the 
dorsal surface, but now the animal had regained sufficient power to enable it to | 
voluntarily readjust the abnormal position. The wound was found quite healed, and | 
the stitches were removed. There was no return of sensation as far as could be | 
ascertained. 


RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 693 


Improvement in the muscular power and control advanced, and on the eleventh day 
the dog was able to run about freely on the leg, only occasionally getting on to the 
dorsal surface of the paw, and then voluntarily readjusting the position after one or two 
steps. ‘There was distinct evidence of returning sensation, as, when pricked over the 
formerly anesthetic region of the paw and leg, the animal whined and withdrew the 
limb. When pricked on the paw, while standing, it at once withdrew the leg with 
flexion at the tibio-tarsal joint. 

The dog by the fourteenth day was running about apparently quite recovered, and 
never treading on the dorsal surface of the paw. ‘The only differences to be found in 
the two legs were the less keen sensation and the slight atrophy of the muscles. 

On the forty-ninth day, all improvement having been maintained, the animal was 
killed, and the seat of section having been exposed, the nerve was found united, a 
neuroma having been developed at the seat of section. Stimulation with a weak 
eurrent above, below, and on the seat of section caused muscular contraction. The 
muscles were apparently normal, though somewhat less bulky than those of the 
opposite limb. 


CoMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTS. 


The conditions of these three experiments coincided so closely that a comparison 
between them is justifiable. All the dogs were of the same kind, and all were young. 
The same nerve in all was divided at the same point, and the healing of the wound in 
all was satisfactory, in no case becoming septic. In Experiments I. and II., however, 
the peripheral was sutured to the central segment after having been rotated on its long 
axis to the extent of a semicircle, while in Experiment III. the reunion was made in the 
normal position. The last was thus a control experiment, intended to ascertain if any 
important differences could be detected in the course of recovery of function in the two 
eases, viz.: in the case in which the corresponding central and peripheral segments of 
each of the nerve fibres were brought to lie as closely as possible opposite each other, 
and in that in which these two segments were displaced from each other as far as 
compatible with suture of the nerve stem. 

During the first six days the course was the same in all three. ‘Thus, after a day 
or two, the dogs were up and walking about on their splints, but with no return of 
function, the paw being simply dragged along the ground dorsal surface down, 

In all three the seventh day brought the first improvement; for on this day all 
were able to walk with the plantar surface down. In all the dogs the paw was on 
this day frequently turned over while walking, bringing the dorsal surface into contact 
with the ground; but in Exp. I. and II. the animal had the power voluntarily to 
readjust the abnormal position of the paw, and again place it plantar surface down, 
while in Exp. IIL. no voluntary power in this respect was shown, and the foot 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 27). oP 


694 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


had to be passively replaced in the normal position. No sign as yet of returning — 
sensation could be got by pricking the affected parts with a needle. 4 

On the eighth day the plaster of Paris splint was removed in the case of Exp. 
II. and III., and in both cases the animal was able to use the leg for walking 
without any Eapiert, flexing and extending the leg at the tibio-tarsal joint, and placing 
the plantar surface of the paw correctly ; and now voluntary power to readjust the paw | 
when it turned over, had been regained in the case of Exp. III. - 

The first sign of returning sensation, viz., withdrawal of the limb on pricking the — 
paw with a needle, was shown in Exp. I. at the tenth day, and in Exp. III. at 
the eleventh day, while Exp. II. showed no sign till the twenty-first day; but 
the evidence as to the date of return of sensation was very unsatisfactory, as the 
animals were of such a docile nature that they often allowed the sound leg to be pricked 
without making any sign. There is, therefore, no doubt that during the early days of 
returning function, the animals would not be likely to show signs of sensation if this 
was less keen than normally. : 

At the fourteenth day the splint was removed in the case of Exp. I., and the 
animal used the leg perfectly in walking and in running, always placing the plantar 
surface down; and in Exp. II. the foot very seldom turned over on the dorsal 
surface, and was then quickly readjusted, and in Exp. III. the same progress was 
made. 

By the twenty-first day all had recovered not only the use, but also the power, of 
the leg so perfectly that the animals appeared to be perfectly normal, only close 
inspection showing that the affected limb was somewhat less bulky than that of the 
opposite side. 


Microscopic EXAMINATION. 
Methods. 


Immediately after the death of the animals portions of the nerves were removed for | 
histological examination. The portions removed were—a portion including the seat 
of reunion, portions from the central segment, various portions from the peripheral 
segment and its branches, muscular and cutaneous, and a portion from the opposite | 
sciatic at the level of the section. A number of glass rods with the two ends | 
bent over in the form of rings were at hand, and the portions removed were | 
each stretched between the two rings of one of these glass rods. The glass rod is, | 
I think, preferable to wood or cork for stretching, as by its use there is no possibility | 
of contamination of the fixing agent. The portions of nerve fixed to the glass rods | 
were then placed in Miiller’s fluid, in which, with frequent renewals of the fluid, they 
remained for eight or ten weeks. They were then prepared for paraffin, imbedded, and | 
longitudinal sections of the seat of reunion, and longitudinal and transverse sections | 


RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 695 


of the remaining portions prepared with the rocking microtome. The sections were 
mounted in series. 

The chief method of staining employed was that recommended by Srrozpe ;* but, as 
I had formerly some difficulty in getting adequate staining of the axis-cylinder by this 
method, although closely following the directions given in Srroxrze’s paper, I give here 
the steps of the process which I have followed, and by which fairly good differentiation 
of the axis-eylinder has been obtained. The deviations from the method are principally 
_ those of the time allowed for each step. 

1, After removal of the paraffin, the slide bearing the series of sections is washed 
for a few minutes in running water, so as to displace the alcohol, and then placed in a 
tube containing freshly-prepared saturated aqueous solution of anilin blue (GRUBLER’s 
for STROEBE’S stain), in which it remains for twenty-four hours. 

2. It is then washed in running water for some minutes. 

3. It is next placed in a dish containing a solution prepared by adding 15 drops 
of a 1 per cent. solution of caustic potash in absolute alcohol to 12 c.c. absolute alcchol. 
The dish is rocked from side to side, and the blue stain is extracted from the sections, 
and this process is continued until the sections have a blanched blue appearance, usually 
about one minute or less. Formerly I allowed the sections to remain in this destaining 
liquid too long, waiting for the appearance of the clear brown-red colour described by 
STroeBe. That tint never appeared, and the sections, when examined, were found to be 
over destained, and the axis-cylinders therefore badly differentiated. I found after- 
wards that with thicker sections cut in celloidin, the sections did assume a brownish-red 
tint in the destain, while the stain was removed in brownish-red clouds; but with the 
extremely thin sections cut by the rocking microtome, it is only at the moment that the 
sections are placed in the liquid that a slight brownish-red cloud appears, after which 
the blue of the section simply continues to fade. The obvious explanation of the 
difference is that with the thicker sections the brownish-red altered stain is not so 
easily washed out by the alcohol, and, remaining entangled in the tissue, gives the 
section the brownish-red tint, while with thinner sections the altered stain is at once 
washed out by the alcohol, leaving the bluish tint unaffected. 

4. The slide is then washed in running water for some minutes, when the intensity 
of the blue is somewhat restored. 

5. It is then placed in a tube containing anilin-water-safranin solution, in which it 
remains for half an hour. 

6. It is next rinsed in water, dehydrated rapidly in absolute alcohol, and treated 
: with oil of cloves. This is allowed to remain on till the red colour begins to fade, but 
before the bluish colour reappears, when the oil is drained off. 

7. The clove oil is then washed off with xylol, and the sections mounted in 
balsam. 

Much depends on stopping the extraction of the safranin by the oil of cloves at 


* Ziegler’s Bertrdége, 1893, vol. xiii. p. 160. 


696 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


the right moment, as if allowed to act too short, the axis-cylinders appear red, and if 
too long, the colour is extracted from the myelin. if 

An addition to the method, which gives very beautiful results in some cases, is that 
of rinsing the slide after removal from the safranin solution for a few seconds in a very 
dilute aqueous solution of eosin. With this addition all parts of the section are stained 
red, except the axis-cylinders, which stand out in blue, and the clear differentiation thus — 
obtained between the young axis-cylinder and connective tissue fibres is of much | 
advantage. The objection, however, is that the eosin is apt to stain also the axis- 
cylinders so intensely as to be incapable of removal by the oil of cloves, unless the 
immersion in eosin is very short, and possibly in all cases some of the finer axis- 
cylinders are so stained. 


HIsToLoGIcCAL CHARACTERS. 


Central Segments (Plate III. fig. 4).—The central segments of all three, down to | 
about 5 mm. from the seat of reunion, present the characters of a normal sciatic nerve, | 
Comparison with sections made from the opposite sciatic, brings out only one difference, 
namely, that the nerve is thicker than the normal sciatic, and that this increase in bulk 
is due not to any numerical increase of nerve fibres, not to any hypertrophy of the 
fibres themselves, nor to overgrowth of connective tissue, but to the fact that the 
individual nerve fibres are separated by wider spaces than in the normal nerve. The | 
increase in thickness is thus due to distension of the lymphatic spaces surrounding the 
nerve fibres. At a distance of about 5 mm. from the termination of the central 
segments, the alteration in character of the nerve commences; for here many of the 
medullated nerve fibres are seen to cease abruptly, often in bulbous ends, and their | 
place to be occupied by a bundle of young nerve fibres. As the termination of the 
segment is further approached, this replacement of old fibres by new becomes more and 
more complete, until, finally, no adult medullated fibres are present, and the entire 
fasciculus is composed of new-formed nerve fibres. The only difference between the | 
three central segments is that of the stage of development; for, while in Exp. I. no 
distinct traces of degeneration products remain, in Exp. II. there are distinct remains | 
of the old myelin situated between the young nerve fibres, and the same is also the | 
case, but to a much less extent, in the central seement from Exp. IIL. | 

Peripheral Segments (Plate II. fig. 5).—The peripheral segments of all three agree | 
in presenting full regeneration of young nerve fibres, and this is the case throughout the | 
entire nerve and its branches, muscular and cutaneous. All were examined, both close 
to the seat of reunion and far removed from it, without showing any adult nerve fibres. | 
In Exp. IL. the nerve close to the seat of reunion presents many young fibres, which are | 
well developed, each presenting a clearly defined axis-cylinder, traceable for considerable 
distances in the section, a well-marked but thin medullated sheath, and a delicate | 


RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 697 


sheath of ScHwaNn, having at intervals spindle-shaped nuclei encroaching on the 
medullated sheath. Such fibres are, however, very much smaller than the medullated 
nerve fibres of the central segment. Many other fibres are present, which show less 
distinct characters, and are finer, but in which the axis-cylinder is equally distinct, but 
with less prominent medullated sheath; while in other cases the axis-cylinder is so 
indistinct as to be recognisable with difficulty, and only so in parts of the fibre, the 
parts in which it is not recognisable looking very like connective tissue fibres. At this 
level of the segment there are a few bulky leucocytes present, but no distinct remains 
of the degenerated old fibres. In portions of the branches of this nerve from the 
middle of the leg the most striking difference is that there are present remains of the 
degenerated old fibres—balls of myelin arranged in columns one behind the other, 
together with many leucocytes loaded with degeneration products. But between these 
degeneration remains are present abundant young nerve fibres, either singly or in 
bundles. 

In Exp. Il. the peripheral segment presents also an abundant supply of young nerve 
fibres, but being at the thirtieth day of development, the stage is not the same as in 
Exp. I., which is at the fifty-fourth day of development. The essential differences are 
that the young nerve fibres do not show the medullated sheath so distinctly as do the 
furthest advanced fibres in Exp. I., and that degeneration remains are still present close 
to the seat of reunion, lying between the young fibres, while in the sections prepared 
from the terminal divisions of the nerve the degeneration remains are still more 
abundantly present, with the young fibres still finer and less distinct. 

In Exp. III., at the forty-ninth day of development, the young nerve fibres are 
not quite so far advanced as in Exp. I, and some distinct remains of old degenerated 
fibres are still present, not only in the terminal divisions of the nerve, but also close to 
the seat of reunion. 

The Nerve Cicatrices (Plate II. figs. 2 and 3),—The appearances presented in each 
of the three cases show no important differences. The fasciculi of the central and 
peripheral segments pass into the cicatrix, the nerve fibres diverging to some extent, 
the fibres of the central segment being, as in the peripheral segment, in every case new- 
formed fibres. The continuity of these fibres across the cicatrix is not traceable, although 
at some points, especially in the sections from Exp. I., it is clear that the fibres do in 
reality pass right across, but that they are not traceable simply from the fact that they 
pass out of the plane of the section. This is shown in the middle line of the section, in 
which fibres may be traced for a considerable distance, until they suddenly terminate, 


| their further course being contained in other sections of the series. But fibres which 


for some distance have run parallel, but which drop out of the section when traced 
centralwards, continue their course into the peripheral segment. In the greater part of 
the cicatrix the fibres evidently run a very tortuous course, as they are seen in the 
Sections cut in all directions, some showing for short distances in longitudinal section, 
while others appear as small] clusters of transversely cut fibres. The entire cicatrix has 


6938 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


a fairly dense appearance, being made up of a tangle of fibres. Much of this tangle is 
composed of undoubted young nerve fibres, the stain bringing out the axis-cylinders, 
but in addition there are present undoubted connective tissue fibres, and also fibres of 
which it is doubtful to which category they belong. The appearances presented are, 
in short, those of a neuroma, and this description may be applied to all three cases. _ 


DEDUCTIONS FROM EXPERIMENTS. 


The results of these experiments show that in the dog there is, in the case of section 
of the sciatic nerve, no important differences in the return of function whether the two 
ends of the nerve are sutured so as to bring the corresponding segments of the fibres 
into accurate apposition, or whether, by rotation of the peripheral segment, the ends of 
nerve fibres which do not correspond are brought into apposition. Provided that. the 
two ends of the divided nerve are brought into apposition, whether in the old relation- 
ship or in a new, reunion of the nerve follows, and the normal function returns. This 
return of function, also, not only is qualitatively the same in the two cases, but the 
time taken for the first evidence of restoration is also the same, namely, seven days, 
and the further improvement, which rapidly follows, runs essentially the same course 
in both cases. Thus voluntary co-ordinated movements of the hind limb were regained 
as soon in Exp. I. and II. as in Exp. III. This is the more striking in a nerve like the 
sciatic, which not only is distributed to so many different structures, but which is 
composed of nerve fibres which supply antergic muscles, or muscles with opposing 
functions. Thus, when the animals commenced to walk on their splints, the paw was 
always dragged along the ground with the dorsal surface down, but on the seventh day, 
the foot being placed with the plantar surface down indicated a return of function in the 
extensor muscles; and it is noteworthy that in the cases of Exp. I. and II. there was 
more control over the extensor muscles than in the case of Exp. III. at the seventh day, 
as in the former cases the animals had the power voluntarily to readjust the paw when 
it turned over, a power not shown in the latter case till the day following. 

Such early return of function suggests the probability of the nerve having united by 
first intention, but as stated above such a view implies that Wallerian degeneration had 
not taken place, having been prevented by the early reunion of the peripheral 
segment to its trophic centres, and that the nerve fibres of the peripheral segment in 
the reunited nerve are the identical fibres which existed before the section. That this 
was not the case is proved by the microscopic examination ; for not only are no adult 
nerve fibres found in the peripheral segment, their place being taken by young nerve 
fibres (Plate III. fig. 5), but in all cases evidence of degeneration of the old fibres is 
abundantly present. 

Vicarious nerve supply has often been suggested as an explanation of early return of 
function, but in the experiments this possibility is quite excluded from the extensive 
distribution of the sciatic. Thus the section of the sciatic at the level of the trochamter — 


RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 699 


certainly paralysed all the muscles below the knee-joint, and the recovery of voluntary 
flexion and extension of the paw, and at the tibio-tarsal articulation, implies regained 
eonductivity of the sciatic, as there is no other nerve entering the leg which could 
possibly have taken up its function. The prompt muscular responses elicited by 
stimulation of the nerve above, below, and on the cicatrix, also prove that the muscles 
were still innervated through this nerve. 

The early return of function is adequately explained by the view of regeneration of 
nerves which [ have already elsewhere * advocated, namely, that the young nerve fibres 
are formed in the peripheral segment simultaneously with the degeneration process, and 
that they become connected with those of the central segment by means of young fibres 
formed in the cicatrix from cellular elements which have migrated into the cicatrix from 
both ends of the nerve, the cellular elements in question having been derived by 
| proliferation from those of the sheath of Scuwann. 

The uniform time at which function commenced to return, and the uniform rate 
with which improvement advanced are, I think, explained by the fact that in all cases 
the wounds healed without becoming septic, a result due not only to the strictest anti- 
septic precautions, but also to the complete immobilisation of the entire limb while the 
process of healing was in progress. A nerve may certainly unite, and conductivity 
ultimately be restored, even although the wound becomes septic, a fact of which I have 
recently obtained clinical proof, but the return of conductivity is in such cases un- 
certain; it may never return, but if it does so, is much delayed. But if the wound 
Tus an aseptic course, the experiments would seem to show that return of function 
takes place uniformly, and equally so whether the two ends are united in their old 
relationship or not. 

The uniform manner in which return of co-ordinated function was established in the 
experiments might be hypothetically explained im different ways. Thus it might be 
supposed that in the cicatrix in Exp. I. and IL., which formed between the two 
divided ends of the nerve, crossings of the young nerve fibres were effected so as to 
| place the corresponding nerve fibre segments in connection. This view need not imply 
| such an improbable thing as inherent faculty or instinct in the nerve fibres to grow 
| towards their appropriate peripheral segments, but might possibly be brought about in 
| away more in accord with natural processes. Thus, at the earliest stage of develop- 
ment of nerve fibres in the cicatrix, when the spindle-cells derived from the immigrated 
| neuroblasts were making connections one with the other, it is conceivable that the 
| Dervous impulses would at first pass into the network of spindles in the cicatrix, and 
| be communicated to the fibres of the peripheral segment diffusely, the impulse passing 
along a single central fibre being diffused through many or all of the nerve fibres in the 
peripheral end. On such a supposition it is possible that the old path in the peripheral 
segment would be the easiest for the passage of the impulses, and that the connections 
in the cicatrix which established the passage between the corresponding ends of the 


* Loc. cit. 


700 DR ROBERT KENNEDY ON THE 


fibres would, therefore, from being the most selected route, become more rapidly 
developed, structural development thus following on functional activity. Thus in the 
cicatrix paths of connection between corresponding nerve fibre segments would he 
established. On such a supposition, it would be expected that the microscopic 
appearances would be different, according as the two nerve segments were accurately 
coapted or not, as in the former case the connecting nerve fibres might be expected to 
follow an approximately direct course in the cicatrix, and in the latter to follow a 
crossed course—to show, in other words, a decussation. But the microscopic ap- 
pearances in the three cicatrices examined, as stated above, presented no very marked 
differences, in each case showing throughout its greater part much convolution of the — 
young nerve fibres. The microscopic appearances, however, though they do not prove 
that corresponding nerve fibre segments become connected, do not disprove it, as in 
Exp. III. the convoluted course exhibited by the nerve fibres does not necessarily pre- 
clude the possibility of the corresponding fibres connecting, although by a tortuous 
path. It is, therefore, impossible to state from the above experiments whether or not 
the return of co-ordinated movements was the result of the re-establishment of the old 
paths for nervous impulses, although the histological appearances render the possibility 
extremely doubtful. 

The restoration of function might be explained in a different way. Thus it is possible, 
owing to the intimate admixture of the nerve fibres in the nerve stem, that, despite the 
altered relationship of the two segments, yet fibres were brought into juxtaposition 
which innervated muscular fibres’in close proximity, 7.e., muscular fibres belonging to 
the same muscle or group of muscles, and that therefore the resulting inco-ordination 
was so slight as to be without functional importance. Such a supposition would of 
necessity leave much to the operation of chance, and would mean in a nerve like 
the sciatic, with its extensive distribution to antergic muscles, that the functional result 
would be the balance between the number of fibres distributed to flexor muscles and the 
number to extensor muscles which happened to be brought into apposition. It is not 
probable that the admixture of nerve fibres in the nerve stem, and the relationship in 
which the two segments are placed in different cases of suture, are so uniform that this 
balance would be identical in different cases, and consequently on such a view a differ- | 
ence of development of restoration of function would be expected, not only in different | 
cases of experiments such as I. and II., but a marked difference in development of function | 
would be expected between cases of accurate and of inaccurate coaptation. The supposi- 
tion is therefore an unlikely one, as not only did Exp. I. and II. agree in the dates of | 
returning co-ordination and in following a practically identical course, but the same also 
occurred as between Exp. I. and II. and Exp. III. 

The third hypothesis which may be brought forward to explain the results is, that 
although non-corresponding segments of the nerve fibres were made to connect by the 
mode of suturing the nerve, the nerve centres, brought by the altered paths into 
connection with new peripheral endings, were capable of speedily altering their 


| RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION. 701 


characters, and of supplying the required nervous impulses in perfect co-ordination. 
This hypothesis implies a capacity of the organism to undergo a profound change in the 
functions of the central nervous system. It implies that the centres controlling 
different groups of muscles can interchange their functions, and carry on co-ordinated 
movements as before. This question has frequently been tested by means of nerve 
erossing, or the division of two neighbouring nerves and cross union of the ends by 
suture, to ascertain if under the new conditions the animal would regain its lost functions. 
A review of the literature of this subject shows that opinions as to the possibility differ. 
‘Thus, of the more recent contributors to this subject, Rawa,* Srerani,t and 
| CUNNINGHAM,| the first two affirm the possibility, while the last named denies it. I 
have conducted some experiments of this kind, and the results, although not yet ready 
for publication, lead me to adopt the views of Rawa and of Srerani. The microscopic 
: appearances, as already mentioned, from the extreme degree of convolution of the fibres 
jin the nerve cicatrix, do not give a satisfactory answer to this question, all that can be 
jtaken as evidence being that the appearances are much the same, whether accurate union 
j}was effected or union after twisting of the peripheral segment. Seeing that function 
}was restored as soon in the one case as in the other, whatever the explanation may be, 
it may be taken as a practical result of the experiments that in reuniting a divided nerve, 
it is not necessary to take care that the two segments are brought together in their old 
‘relationship, but only to see that the two segments are brought into apposition, no 
‘matter in what relationship. 

I conclude from the results recorded :— 


ist. That after section and immediate coaptation of a nerve, restoration of con- 
ductivity and of voluntary function may be effected in a few days. 
2nd. That this early restoration of conductivity need not be the result of 
‘reunion of the old nerve fibres, 7.¢e., reunion by so-called first intention or without 
Wallerian degeneration, but may be the result of regeneration of young nerve fibres in 
the peripheral segment. 


3rd. That voluntary co-ordinated movements are regained equally soon, whether 
the two ends of the divided nerve are united as accurately as possible, so as to bring the 
corresponding ends of the nerve fibres into contact as nearly as possible, or whether 
previous to reunion the peripheral segment is twisted so that, when united to the 
‘\central segment, non-corresponding ends of the nerve fibres are brought into contact. 
4th. That in the latter case the microscopic examination of the seat of reunion 
leaves it doubtful whether the restoration of function is due to the re-establishment of 
the old paths by decussation in the nerve cicatrix, or to the reunion of ends of nerve 
fibres which do not correspond, but which happen to be brought into apposition. 

5th. That in suturing a divided nerve no trouble need be taken to secure that 


* Archiv fiir Physiologie, 1885, 8. 296. 
+ Archiv fiir Physiologie, 1886, S. 488. 
{American Journal of Physiology, vol. i., 1898, p, 239. 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO, 27). 5 Q 


‘702 RESTORATION OF CO-ORDINATED MOVEMENTS AFTER NERVE SECTION 


coaptation of the two segments is effected in the old relationship, the simple approx 
tion of the two ends, no matter in what relationship, being all that is required, 

In conclusion, I have to express my thanks to Professor M‘KEnprick and 
Professor Youne, in whose laboratory the histological work was done, for much valu 
counsel in connection with this research, and to Principal M‘Cat1, of the Glasgow 
Veterinary College, who granted every facility for conducting experiments. 4 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
Puate I. 


Fig. 1. aperiment I. Division of left Sciatic Nerve, rotation through a semicircle of pe ‘ip 
‘segment, and suture in that abnormal relationship of the two segments. Shows the dog thirty-one days 
the operation, The left hind leg is in the position in which the dog itself placed it. The normal posi 
the paw and at the tibio-tarsal articulation are exhibited. The cicatrix of the operation wound is indicated 
the area which was shaved before operation, and on which, when the photograph was taken, the hair had 
yet grown. 


Puate II. 


Fig. 2. Experiment I. Longitudinal Section of the nerve cicatrix fifty-four days after sectio 
fasciculus of nerve fibres of the central segment is shown at the upper part, and the correspondin 
of the peripheral segment on the opposite side at the lower part of the section. In the middle 
section the fibres are almost traceable across the cicatrix, but in other parts the structure is that of 
and the course of the nerve fibres, therefore, not traceable. 

12 


Zeiss, Obj. a. 7 


Fig. 3. Experiment I. Portion of same longitudinal section from which fig. 2 was prepared 
the neuromatous structure displayed in a large part of the cicatrix, in which the continuity of the 
across the cicatrix is not traceable. Shows some fibres longitudinally, but not traceable for any § 
distance, and others cut transversely. 7 

Zeiss, Obj. D. a 


Puate III. 


Fig. 4. Experiment I. Longitudinal section of central segment of reunited sciatic close to the zt tri 
Shows adult medullated nerve fibres. i ‘a 

Zeiss, Obj. D. = 

Fig. 5. Experiment I. Longitudinal section of peripheral segment of reunited sciatic close to cicatri 
Shows young nerve fibres, and no adult medullated fibres, demonstrating that restoration of conduc 5 
the nerve was the result not of union by “first intention,” but of regeneration of the peripheral segt nt. 
‘The same structure is exhibited also in the terminal divisions of the nerve. ‘ 

300 


Zeiss, Obj. D. TT 


Frans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. Vou. XXXIX. 


Dr R. Kennepy on the Restoration of Co-ordinated Movements after Nerve Section.—Ptates I. 


Vou. XXXIX. 


| Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. 


Dr R. Kewnnepy on the Restoration of Co-ordinated Movements after Nerve Section.—Puate II. 


1hike, 2 


Ric. 3. 


Stes 
Gee 3 a*. 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. Von. XX XIX. 


Dr R. Kennepy on the Restoration of Co-ordinated Movements after Nerve Section.—Puate ITI. 


eS 


f 


+ 


ee ee = a ee el a at 


TII.—Contributions to the Craniology of the People of the Empire of India. 
Part I. The Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier and the People of 
"Burma. By Professor Sir Wma. Turner, M.B, D.C.L., FBS. (With 


Three Plates.) 
7 (Read July 3, 1899.) 


‘For a number of years I have been collecting specimens and conducting an investiga- 
into the craniological characters of the native inhabitants of our great Indian 
pire, and several hundred skulls have now been under examination, and almost 
ave been measured. The sources to which I have been indebted for material are in 
the collection of crania belonging to the Henderson Trustees, long known as the 
linburgh Phrenological Museum, and now deposited by the Trustees in the Anatomical 
iseum of the University; in part, a few specimens belonging to the University 
d by my predecessors in office; in part, the valuable series of Indian crania 
ing to the Indian Museum, Calcutta, which through the intercession of Dr Jonn 
RSON, F'.R.S., the former Director, the Trustees of that Museum, with great liberality, 
courteously permitted me to have the loan of for purposes of study; and lastly, a 
of crania which have been forwarded to me by friends and former pupils, 
din the public service in India, to whom I take this opportunity of expressing 
lebtedness for the valuable material which I have received from them. 

ing to the number of specimens and the wide range of country from which they 
een derived, I have thought it advisable to depart from my original intention of 
no in one memoir my observations on the whole series of crania, and in preference, 
ange and publish them in groups, based on the geographical distribution of the 


The skulls described in this, the first part of my memoir, are sixty-four in number, 
nd include specimens from the hill tribes of the North-east frontier of India and from 
For purposes of comparison I have also given tables of measurements of skulls 


1 China and Siam. 


Hizt TRIBES: 


Before I commence the description of the skulls of the Hillmen, it may be well to 
e the anatomical details with some reference to the localities from which the 
were obtained, as well as the names which have been given to the places and to 
ople who dwell in them. 

In entering on the consideration of the savage and barbarous tribes who inhabit 
the wide range of mountainous country which lies south and east of the river Brahma- 
a and Assam on the one hand, and north and west of Burma on the other, we are 
nted by differences in the nomenclature employed by those who have explored 
VOL. XXXIX. PART IIT. (NO. 28) DR 


704 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


this extensive region, and have written descriptions of its inhabitants. Travellers who 
have approached the hills from the side of India have applied to the places and people such 
names as the natives of Bengal have been in the habit of using, whilst those who haye 
entered from the Burmese frontier have employed Burmese names to designate the 
same tribes and localities. As regards the Hillmen themselves, as they usually neither 
recognise nor pay allegiance to any central authority, they do not apparently possess race 
or tribal names, but call themselves after the village, or group of villages, in which they 
live; or after the petty chief who for the time being exercises authority over them. | 
In some villages no chief appears to be recognised, and the government is a democracy 
in which all the men are on an equality. The want of a common tribal name is also 
accentuated by the fact that in adjoining hill ranges the language in use possesses such 
dialectic differences that the words employed are often mutually unintelligible—a con- 
dition which is probably due to the state of constant feud in which the people live, so 
that they have had but little intereommunication with each other, except as enemies. 

The name by which the Hillmen on the north-east frontier first became known to 
Europeans was that of Kookie, which is a Bengalee word for highlander, and is also 
written Kuki or Ctici. As Kookie it appears in a letter addressed in 1777 by the 
Chief of Chittagong to Warren Hastings.* In 1778 the Honourable Robert Lindsay, 
who was Collector at Sythet, speaks of the hill people as Kukis.t He describes them as 
living more in the style of the brute creation than other savages that he had seen. 
Their habitations were on spreading trees to defend them from beasts of prey; their 
food was wild honey and the fruits of the forest. The form Ciici was used by Mr Jonn 
Rawttns{ in 1790 in his description of the mountaineers of Tipra (Tipperah), to the east 
of Bengal, and it was also employed by Mr J. Rennet in 1800 to designate the same 
people. § 

Mr Joun Macrag, surgeon at Chittagong, writing in 1801, || states that the Kookies 
or Lunctas, who live in the mountains north-east of Chittagong, are active mountaineers, 
but not tall. The face, he says, is like that of eastern Asiatics, broad and round; the 
nose is flat, the eye small. The men go naked, hence the term Luncta, though the chiefs 
wear a black loin cloth, and the women an apron. The chiefs bring the hair forward 
and tie it in a bunch to overshade the forehead, whilst the other Kookies wear it loose 
over the shoulders. 

Colonel Lewin, who acted for many years as Deputy Commissioner in the Chitta- 
gong district, and who also accompanied the Lushai Expedition of 1871-72, uses the term 
Lhoosai or Lushai as equivalent to Kookie, and states that it is derived from “ Lu,” 
signifying head, and “sha,” to cut, from the practice of decapitating their enemies. In 


* Quoted in the Report on the Hill Tracts of Chittagong, by Deputy Commissioner T. H. Lewin. Caleutta, 1869. 
+ The Thackerays in India, by Sir W. W. Hunter. London, 1897, 

{ Asiatic Researches, 1790, vol. ii. p. 187. 

§ Quoted in Deputy Commissioner Lewin’s Report, p. 109. 

|| Asiatic Researches, 1801, vol. vii. p. 188. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 705 


one passage he says that these people are named Lankhé by the Burmese.* He arranges 
the people occupying these hill tracts, into the Khyoungtha, children of the river, and 
the Toungtha, or children of the hills. These words, he says, are both Arracanese. 
The Khyoungtha conform to Buddhist customs, and he considers them to be of pure 
Arracanese origin. The Toungtha are, he believes, the aboriginal people, and under this 
name he includes the Tipperah tribes, the Kumi, Mroos, Khyengs, Bungees, Pankhos, 
Shendoos, and the Lushais or Kookies with their offshoots. In his introductory remarks 
Lewin states (p. 33) that the general physique of the hill tribes is strongly Mongolian : 
broad faces, flat nose with no perceptible bridge; eyes narrow and set obliquely; high 
cheek bones, no beard or moustache, stature about 5 ft. 6 in. In his special description 
of the Lushais he says, however, that they differ entirely from the other hill tribes of 
Burman or Arracanese origin, in that their faces bear no marks of Tartar or Mongolian 
descent ; their complexion is swarthy ; the height of the men is about 5 ft. 8 in., that of 
the women 5 ft. 4 in. In his subsequent book, The Fly on the Wheel, written after he 
had penetrated some distance amongst the Lushai hill tracts, as a member of the military 
expedition of 1871-72, he repeats the statement that the features did not have the 
Mongolian type, but were more like Portuguese half-castes. The hair, he says, is black, 
and fastened in a knot on the nape of the neck. 

Colonel WooptHorrz, R.E., who was also a member of the Lushai expedition of 
1871-72, gives an account of the people.t He states that they were of three tribes— 
Lushais, Paités or Soktés, and Pois. Both sexes were well made and muscular; the aver- 
age stature of the men was 5 ft. 6 in., that of the women 5 ft. 4in. The colour of the 
skin was every shade of brown, but the Pois were fairer than is usual with hillmen. 
The cheek bones were high and prominent, the face broad, the lips thick, the nose usually 
retroussé, with wide nostrils; though in the higher classes the nose was sometimes thin 
and aquiline and with small nostrils, and the lips were thin. The eyes were small and 
almond shaped ; the beard and moustache were scanty. The tribes differed in their mode 
of wearing the hair. The Lushai men part it in the middle, smooth it on each side, 
bind it in a knot at the nape of the neck, and secure it by a copper or steel pin. The 
Sokté men do not part it, but wear it short and standing out around the fore- 
head; sometimes the hair is twisted into a tail behind. The Poi men part the hair 


across the head from ear to ear; that in front of the parting is drawn forwards 


into a high double knot on the forehead and fastened by a comb; that behind 
the parting hangs in wavy curls over the back and shoulders. The dress is a long 
sheet of cotton cloth. The women sometimes dilate the lobe of the ear with a disc 
of baked clay. 

In MrE. A. Garr’s Report on the Census of Assam { it is said that the tribes variously 


: 


* See his Report on the Hill Tribes of Chittagong, 1869, already quoted, and his book, A Fly on the Wheel, 
London, 1884, Possibly Lankhé is a modified form of the word Luncta used by Mr John Macrae. 

+ “The Lushai Expedition,” 1871-72, in United Service Institution Journal 

t Census of Assam, 1891. 


706 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 
| 

known as Kuki, Lushai, Poi, etc., are closely allied. They are all of the Mongolian type, 
being a short, squat, muscular people, but effeminate in appearance. Mr Baxgr gives 
in the Report the height of a Kuki measured by him as 4 ft. 114 in. The return made 
in the census of Assam, 1891, of the tribes designated as Kukis and Lushais was 60, oe 
of both sexes. 
In 1828 Lieut. T. A. TRanT gave an account * of the Khyen tribe inhabiting the 
Yuma Mountains between Ava and Arracan. He states that they differed in several 
respects from the Burmese: their faces were flatter and not so regular, and the girls” 
tattooed the face. The men wore a black cloth, striped red and white, over the 
shoulders, a black cloth round the loins, and occasionally a black jacket; the women 
wore a black petticoat reaching to the knees, 
Major G. E. Fryer describes by the name of Khyengst tribes extensively distribu 

in the western mountains of Burma from 18° to 21° N. lat. The people who came under 
his observation belonged to the Sandoway district, Arracan. The Khyengs, he says, regard 
the Shendoos (Chins), Khumis and Lunekhes (Lunctas) as of the same race as themselves, 
and the tradition is that they came from the sources of the Kyendweng (Chendwin) 
river. Major Fryer gives some interesting facts on their physical characteristics, 
The average height of twenty-five men was 65°2 inches, and their weight was 
110 Ibs. ; the average height of twenty-five women was 57°4 inches, and their weight 
94 lbs. The colour of the skin corresponded with No. 28, and that of the eyes with 
No. 1 of Broca’s Tables; the hair was black, though some women had reddish-brown 
patches on the crown of the head. The faces of the women were tattooed. ‘The heads 
of a number of men and women were measured, and the mean length in the men is” 
given as 7°5 inches, the mean parietal breadth 5°5 inches; interzygomatic breadth 
5°3 inches. The corresponding dimensions in the women were 6°8, 5'0, and 52 
inches. The length-breadth index of the head, calculated from these data, gave 
73°3 for the men, and 73°5 for the women; so that both sexes were distinctly 
dolichocephalic. As to clothing, the men wear a loin-cloth, passed between the thighs 
with an end hanging down in front and behind, whilst the women wear a loose blouse 
reaching to the knee. As regards the practice of wearing the breech-cloth tucked be- 
tween the legs like a dog’s tail, LEWIN states that the Kumi are called by the Arracanese, 
Khivé mi, dog-men, though he thinks that the name may also refer to the practice of 
eating dog for food. 
Lewin, Fryer, and other writers make reference to tribes situated to the east of 

the Lushai hill-tracts by the name of Shendoos or Shendts. Little that was definite 
was known about them until the annexation of Upper Burma brought our Government | 
officials into contact with the wild mountain tribes living to the east of the Koladyne 
river. These tribes were known to the Burmese as Chins. The Chin hill-tracts lie 
between the Koladyne river and the Chinduri river, and the ranges extend northwards | 


* Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi. p. 261. 
+ Journal Asiatic Soc., Bengal, 1875, vol. xliv. part i. p. 39. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 707 


beyond latitude 24°. Owing to depredations committed by the Chins it was found 
necessary to organise an expedition against them in 1889-90. 

Surgeon - Lieut.-Col. A. S. Rerp has published an interesting account of the 
expedition, along with maps of the Lushai and Chin hill-tracts.* He regards the 
Koladyne river as separating the Lushais on the west from the Chins to the east, and 
he considers that the Burmese word Chin should replace the name Shendu given to 
these people by those who approached their hills from the Indian frontier. 

Whilst exhibiting differences in dialect and dress, Dr Rerp regards the Lushais and 
Chins as practically one race. The men, he says, are well built, with strong limbs 
and good figures. The average height is about 5 ft. 6 in., though individuals approach 
6 ft. Like the Lushais, the northern Chins gather the hair in a knot on the nape of 
the neck, but the tribe of Baungshes wear it on the forehead. The Soktés, again, have 
it short, and outstanding like the tresses of Medusa. The mode of dressing the hair 
accords with Colonel WooprHorpr’s description. The Chinmen have a small loin-cloth, 
and a large shawl or blanket thrown loosely over the shoulders; the clothes of the 
chiefs are in coloured patterns. A haversack of hairy skin is worn on the right side, 
suspended by a strap from the left shoulder. The women wear a dark cloth jacket and 
skirt; the latter is sometimes woven in coloured patterns. 

The tribes which inhabit the Kachin Hills on the borders of Upper Burma and 
Yunnan are often called Kachins or Kakhyens, though a more appropriate name is 
Chingpaw or Singpho. They have been described both by Dr Jonn ANpERsoN*t and Mr 
H.C.S. Gzorcr. { Their ancestral home was apparently the head waters of the Irrawaddy, 
and they are probably offshoots of the same race as gave origin to the Chins. The men 
are said to average 5 ft. 4 in. in height, and the women are three or four inches shorter. 
The oblique eyes widely separated, high cheek-bones, colour of skin from a brunette 
almost to black, point to their Mongolian affinities. The nose, however, varies from 
aquiline to a broad, squat projection on the face. The hair varies between black and 
brown ; the eyes between dark and light brown. 

South-east of Assam and north-west of Burma, and in proximity to the state of 
Manipur, are ranges of hills which lie between 25° and 28° latitude and 93° to 97° 
longitude. Our knowledge of the tribes inhabiting them is largely due to Captain 
Borier, § Colonel Woopvrnorer,|| Mr G. H. Damant, Dr Brown,** and General Sir 


James Jounstonz.tt The principal tribes inhabiting these mountains are called Ndgds, 


* Chin-Lushai Land. Calcutta, 1893. 
+ Expedition to Western Yunnan, Calcutta, 1871. 
{ Appendix to Census of Burma, 1892. 
§ Journal Asiatic Soc., Bengal, 1875, vol. xliv. part i. p. 307. 
_ || Journal Anthropol. Inst., 1882, vol. xi. pp. 56, 196. 
| Journal Royal Asiatic Soc., 1880, vol. xii. 
_ ** Statistical Account of the Native State of Manipur, 1878, 
t+ Experiences in Manipur and the Naga Hills. London, 1896. 
An excellent account of the social structure, religion, myths, dances and songs, cultivation, trade and war of the 
Nagas has been compiled by Miss Gertrude M. Godden from the above and other authorities. It is published in the 
Journal Anthropological Inst., vol. xxvi., Nov. 1896, and vol, xxvii., Nov. 1897. 


708 .PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON Fi 


or naked, from their scanty clothing.* This name is said by WooprHorpPE to be foreign, 
and not recognised by the natives themselves. The Nigds are divided into two groups, 
the kilted Nagas or Angamis, and the non-kilted or Kutcha Nigds. General JoHNSTONE 
states that Cacharees—people resembling those settled in Cachar—and Kukis are also 
found in the Négd Hills. The Kukis came from the south, and are doubtless the same 
as the Lushais already referred to in the earlier part of this chapter. JOHNSTONE states 
that they are readily distinguished from the Nigds. The Kuki men are mostly copper- 
coloured, often with good features; the women are frequently fair, and wear the has : 
in a long, thick plait down the back. 

WooptHorPeE describes the Lhota tribe of the non-kilted Néeds as of square build; 
eyes small, oblique ; face flat; cheek-bones high; complexion dirty sallow; countenance 
sullen. The hair is cut short or shaved, except a large basin-shaped patch on the crown, 
where it is two or three inches long and combed down. The tribes living in the hills 
bordering the Sibsagor district are fair as to colour; the men shave the head except a 
long tuft from crown to forehead. The tribes in the Jaipur district show every shade 
of brown in the complexion ; the hair is shaved just above the ears, the remainder being 
drawn back from the forehead and tied behind in a knot, through which strips of horn 
are passed ; some have a small moustache, but few a beard. The Rengmahs wear a 
wooden tail, 1} foot long, attached to the small of the back. The non-kilted Nagas go 
either quite naked, or the men wear a waist-cloth drawn tightly between the legs, and 
the women a waist-cloth or short petticoat; some tribes also wear a long bright blue 
cloth. Tattooing is commonly practised. 

The Angamis, or kilted Nagas, are taller than the non-kilted tribes, their average 
height is from 5 ft. 8in. to 6 ft. They are also more muscular and more courageous. 
They have small features ; in some cases aquiline, in others flat noses ; high cheek-bones; 
colour in different shades of brown, seldom very dark, and the eastern tribes are fairer 
than the west; eyes set slightly obliquely. Hair is generally straight, but never frizzly. 
In youth it is cut short or shaven, except one long tuft from the crown; in adolescence 
it is about three inches long, brushed down all round, but with the long lock at the back 
usually worn in a knot bound round with cotton. The lobes of the ears are pierced 
and decorated. The men wear kilts of cotton cloth, decorated with cowries when 
on the warpath, and long blue and yellow cloths across the breast and shoulders. 
General JoHNSTONE says that they wear tails of wood, decorated with goats’ hair 
dyed red. The women are tall for the sex, comparatively fair, with a ruddy glow in 
the cheeks, well-made, and active. They wear a petticoat, and a cloth around the 
shoulders. 

Mr A. W. Davis, Deputy Commissioner of the Néga Hills district, has also given an 
account of the Angami and some of the other tribes of N&gds in the Report on the 


* These people are not to be confounded with a sect of religious mendicants also called Nagas ; or with totemistic 
sections of several castes in Bengal named after Nag, snake. See Mr H. H. Risley’s The Tribes and Oastes of Bengal, 


Ethnographic Glossary, vol. ii. p. 120, Calcutta, 1891. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 709 


Census of Assam, 1891. As many as 102,857 Nagas belonging to different tribes were 
living in that year in the province of Assam. 

The skulls from the Naga Hills, which Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. Wricur has presented 
me with, belonged to the Tonkal tribe, about seventy miles north-east of Manipur. 
General JOHNSTONE speaks of visits which he paid to the Tankhool village of Chingsow, 
to the north-east of Manipur, which is probably of the same tribe as that named Tonkal 
by Colonel Wricur. Both of these authorities speak of Naga villages in this district as 
having been raided by Kukis. Sir James JoHNSTONE describes the people as having a 
fine physique, equal to that of the Angami; but they went mostly naked. 


Tushar Hillmen. Tasue I.* 


In 1890, my former assistant and pupil, now Surgeon-Captain D. Macsera Morr, 
who was engaged in a military expedition against the Lushais, forwarded to me a skull 
(H in Table) which was dug up in the process of constructing Fort Tregear, built in the 
loop made by the Koladyne river in the South Lushai hill-tracts, afew miles to the north 
of the Blue Mountain. The country visited by the expedition lies between 92° and 94° 
longitude and 22° and 24° latitude, and consists of a succession of steep hills and 
deep narrow ravines. Some of the hills attain a height of 9000 feet, and many of the 
villages are from 4000 to 5000 feet above the sea-level. In the following year Dr Moir 
sent me a skull (I in Table) which had been found in the bed of the Koladyne river, 
immediately to the north of Fort Tregear. He believed it to be the skull of a Lushai 
who, when returning to a village on the Don Mountain, from a village on the Aitur 
Mountain, was drowned in crossing the river. The two skulls were found within fifteen 
miles from each other. Dr Morr states that the Lushais place the severed heads of 
their enemies on posts, but do not impale the skull. 

In 1891 I received from a former pupil, Surgeon-Captain H. B. Metvitte, at that 
time civil surgeon stationed at Fort Aijal in the North Lushai Hills, the skull of a 
Lushai warrior who had sustained a sword-cut in the left temporal region during a 
skirmish. The edges of the cut were sharp and somewhat splintered, and the injury 
had doubtless been the cause of death (G in Table). 

Through the kindness of my friend Professor CunnincHam of Trinity College, 
Dublin, I have had the opportunity of examining two Lushai skulls in his museum. 
One was procured in 1892 by Dr Matcoum Moore. It was dug up in the floor of a hut 
in Poi Boi, a village of the North Lushai people, situated a little to the north-east of 
Fort Aijal. The dead are said to be buried in the huts of their relatives. The other 
specimen was obtained in the village of Ramree in the South Lushai Hills, by Assistant- 


* In this and the succeeding Tables the letters E. U. A. M. mean Edinburgh University Anatomical Museum ; 
H. T. the Museum of the Henderson Trust ; T. C. D. the Museum of Trinity College, Dublin. The cubic capacity 
has been taken by the method which I described in my Challenger Report on Human Crania, part xxix., 1884, to which 
I may also refer for an explanation of the greater number of the measurements employed in the Tables. The terms 
chaméprosopic (low faced) and leptoprosopic (high faced) are adopted from Professor Kollmann’s memoirs. 


710 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Surgeon V. L. Warts, who was quartered at Fort Lungley, about fifteen miles to the — 
west of Fort Tregear. In digging it up the left side of the face was injured. i 

The skulls had all reached adult life, but one was aged. Four were presumably 
men and one a woman. The North Lushai skull, from the Poi Boi village, was 
metopic. 

Three of the crania were elongated and ovoid, though the metopic skull was broader 
in proportion to the length than the two others. H was somewhat ridged and roof-like 
in the sagitto-parietal region, whilst the others were more flattened. G and H were 
dolichocephalic, but the metopic skull was mesaticephalic. In G and in the metopie 
skull the height was less than the breadth, but in H the reverse was seen. None 
of the skulls was akrocephalic. In G, immediately behind the coronal suture, a shallow 
transverse constriction, such as is produced by wearing a head-band during infancy, was : 
seen ; this skull was cryptozygous, the two others were phenozygous. In these sku 
the glabella and supra-orbital ridges were feeble, and the forehead was almost vertical; 
the cranial vault was fairly arched in the fronto-parietal region. In H the curve in the - 
parieto-occipital region was gradual, and ended in a remarkably elongated inion, whicl 
formed the projecting occipital pole of the cranium. In the other two skulls # 
parieto-occipital slope was shorter and more abrupt, and the occipital squama projected — 
behind the inion. In these skulls the parietal bones, from the obelion to the lambda, 
were flattened. The mastoid processes and temporal curved lines were moderate in two | 
skulls, but in H the temporal lines were strongly marked behind, and approached to ~ 
within 34 mm. of the sagittal suture. Owing to the occipital squama in H being 
* remarkably small both vertically and transversely, it measured only 43 mm. from | 
lambda to inion, and was only 55 mm. wide. As the temporal lines joined the 
lambdoidal suture only 84 mm. from the inion, three definite areas were marked in 
this region, viz., a mesial, between the two temporal ridges, and a right and left lateral, 
extending from the temporal ridge to the mastoid-temporal. The nuchal impressions 
in the occipital bone were strongly marked. . a 

In these crania, the occipital are was the shortest, the frontal was the longest im | 
G and H, but in the metopic skull the parietal was much the longest. All three | 
specimens rested behind on the cerebellar part of the occiput. The mean interzygoma 
diameter was 127°6. j 

In all three the bridge of the nose was faintly concave, and the nasal bones p 
jected so slightly that the face was flattened in the nasal region, and in H the na 
were short and narrow. The fronto-nasal suture was not depressed ; the nasal spin 
the superior maxillee was moderate, and the incisive surface of the upper jaw was mal 
off from the floor of the nose by a definite ridge. In the metopic skull the nasal it 
was leptorhine, in the others mesorhine. Jn G the upper jaw was slightly progn 
in H and in the metopie skull, orthognathic ; in all, the incisive and canine fosse Wi 
moderate in depth. The orbits, though wider than high, were megaseme in G an 
the metopic skull, but mesoseme in H. The palate was much broader than long im these 


| 


es SEATS AES RR eter Sone 


rieto - squamous 


en magnum, . 


Ig th, : 


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of ascending 


% 


VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 28). 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. wk 
Tasie I. 
Chin and Lushai Skulls. ' 
LUSHAIS. 
CHINS. 
South 
AT North | South . 
noe Lushai Lushai ee ; eeu 
Edinburgh University Anatomical Museum | es, Pont for Kola- | Hills, 
2 i PouBOl.! Aijal.. |Tregear.| 27° |Ramree 
Jiddim. Klungroa. —_|Metopic. 
T.C.D. |B.U.A.M.|E.U.A.M,| B.U.A.M.| C.D. 
AG B. C. D. 18). F. oe H. J, 
Ad. Ad. Ad. Ad. Ad. Ad, Ad. Ad. Ad, Ad. | Aged 
M. M. M. M. M. 18, M. M. M. M. In 
LZ TOM SOM mas ON L290 ss Loita 200 1405 | 1390 | 148 1330 | 1285 
174 181 177 ies 183 173 176 181 188 169 170 
131 128 127 136 131 126 132 128 136 132 NT 
TONE OM A ES \| VSO GlcOe 72:8 TD) GOHAN. GBR orth || Yai 
95 95 84 85 94 87 90 91 88 91 90 
104 106 108 105 110 107 107 116 105 109 107 
104 100 105 99 104 105 107 103 113 107 109 
131s. | 129s. | 137s. | 1384p. | 130s. | 134s. 136s. | 135p.| 131s. | 136s. | 145 
DS\) TIES) GEN GRD) (AEGON “Go Vi'3\| 74:6) 69°7 80°5| 853 
490 505 496 480 518 490 506 510 512 490 504 
121 122 126 128 137 115) 12 140 135 123 119 | 
117 132 114 120 119 105 133 129 134 125 118}; 
107 120 123 Wily 115 122 109 114 121 104 WO | 
345 374 363 365 Bal 342 363 383 390 352 347 |! 
282 281 297 295 286 286 295 305 300 299 282 
36 31 35 32 31 34 32 30 35 i 34 
99 98 93 93 98 94 94 91 106 100 95 
94 91 99 94 96 87 88 95 103 101 89 
94:9\ 92:9| 106°5.\ 101:1| 98: 92°6 938-6) 1OL4| 97:2) 101: OBe7 
139 130 124, | 119 133 Wy Ti WAT 129 132 
126 121 112 109 124 106 113 118 120 118 
109 111 110 107 169 105 114 118 1 112 
TONSIL! | SOR S979) SLED S97 89:7) 92:9) 937| 848 
67 62 64 62 66 63 68 69 74 63 Tlap. 
Salar Oneal Olle O21 9: ON naorS Sa || DLLs OCR SE 
49 48 46 47 51 45 52 50 53 45 53 
Sy 25 25 25 UT 24 23 26 PAL 5) 26 
469| 521| 543) 538:'2\ 52:9) 53:3 4 2| 82 HOD) OIG || LSP 
42 4] 36 36 40 35 37 oil 40 36 40 
38 32 35 34 om 31 36 33 34 32 35 
90:'5| 78: 97:2| 944) 925| 886 QS | SRB cre8 88°9| 87:5 
BS IL 48 51 52 52 45 50 54 55 55 
64 64 60 57 62 58 63 63 70 65 
125:4| 1838°3| 117-6) 109:-6| 119:2| 128°8 1L26> | 116.6) 127-2 LIS= 
oll 31 25 7 30 Alf 31 33 32 3133 
70 63 51 66 58 51 56 64 60 60 
69 68 60 69 61 54 59 65 62 61 
86 86 84 90 82 80 sl 88 &8 91 
105 94 88 91 100 88 it sd 98 99 
32 36 29 88 31 30 35 35 36 36 
oS 


712 - PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


skulls, and the index was brachyuranic. The teeth were not decayed ; they were not 
stained, and were partially flattened on the crowns from use. The mean nasio-mental 
length was 117°7, which is high for that diameter ; the mean complete facial index was 
92°1, and the mean upper facial index was 55:0; both indices were leptoprosopie, and 
the face was high in relation to the width. In their cubic capacity all three crania were | 
mesocephalic, Each skull had small Wormian bones in the lambdoidal suture. G had 
a small left epipteric bone, and each orbit showed the rare variety of the superior 
maxilla, giving rise from its orbital plate to a broad process, which joined the frontal 
and separated the os planum of the ethmoid from the lachrymal.* The metopic skull 
had a large epipteric bone on each side and broad ecto-pterygoid plates. € 
The Ramree skull and I, both of which came from the South Lushai Hills, were in 
absolute length much shorter than those above described, and as I was about equal to 
and the other much exceeded them in breadth, they were distinctly brachycephalie, | 
The outline in the norma verticalis was not elongated, but was broadly ovoid. The 
vertex sloped downwards to the parietal eminences, which were prominent. The 
vertical index was less than the cephalic. Both crania were pheenozygous. 
The glabella and supra-orbital ridges were scarcely marked ; the forehead was near 
vertical and full; the nasal bridge was flattened, and the nasal bones in one were sh rt 
and narrow, in the other longer and broader. The occipito-parietal slope was steep in J, 
in which this region was not symmetrical and was twisted to the left, probably from 
artificial pressure in infancy. The occipital are was the shortest in each skull; in r. 
the parietal arc, in the other the frontal arc was somewhat the longer. In the male | 
the interzygomatic diameter was 132 mm. he 
The upper jaw was moderately projecting, mesognathic in I, but orthognathie 
in the other ; the nose was platyrhine in I, mesorhine in the other; the orbital index 
was high up in the mesoseme group. The face in I was chameeprosopic in both its: 
complete and its maxillary index. In capacity both crania were microcephalic, and the 
one with the smaller capacity was that of a woman. In I a small Wormian bone was in 
the lambdoidal and another in the left parieto-mastoid suture, whilst the parieto-sphenoid 
suture was broad. In the other specimen, both parieto-mastoid sutures contained sutural 
bones, and the right pterion had an epipteric bone. There were no unusual ossifica-_ 
tions at the base of the cranium, and the sutures of the vault were comparatively simple. 
Two skulls of Lushais, obtained during the expedition of 1871-72, have been cata- 
logued by Dr Barnarp Davis in the Supplement to his Thesawrus Craniorum. In 
one the length-breadth index was 73, in the other 76; in both the height exceeded 
the breadth, and the mean interzygomatic diameter was 127 mm, Data are not given 
for determining the proportions of the height and width of the nose and the degree of 
projection of the upper jaw. Obviously these skulls had a dolichocephalic character. Ih 
* Some years ago I described and figured an example of this rare variety in the skull of a Bushman (Chal ie 


Reports, part xxix. p. 12, pl. 1, fig. 4, 1884), and I have recently seen it in the skull of a Papuan from New @ 
(Proc, Roy. Soc. Edin., 8rd July 1899). 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 7138 


the tables of anthropological measurements published by Mr H. H. Ristey,* seventeen 
Kukis, natives of Rangamati in the Chittagong Hills, showed in their head measure- 
ments a mean cephalic index 76°2, and a mean nasal index 85. In the living person 
ose is mesorhine. The customary deduction of two units from the cephalic index 
e living head would place the same index in the skull at 74:2, z.e., in the dolicho- 
phalic group. The average stature of the people measured was 5 ft. 14 in. (1566 mm.). 


| ae | Chin Hillmen. Taxsue I, 


In 1891 1 received from Surgeon-Captain C. L. WittraMs a skull which, whilst acting 
surveying expedition, he had picked up in a graveyard within a quarter of a mile of 
dim, the former capital of the Kankow country.t He states that it is the custom to 
ry a recent corpse over a fire for some days and afterwards in the sun for many months 
ore it is buried beneath a stone. The skull cannot be that of a captive Burman, as 
‘ankows impale all captive heads on poles, and the skulls consequently have a large 
in the vertex. The Kankows are a wild tribe living in the mountains north of 
rma, reaching almost as far north as lat, 24°, and westwards to the Lushai Hills. Dr 
IAMS writes that, as compared with the Burmese, the forehead is higher, the nose 
, sunken, the malar bones less prominent, the lips less thick, and the chin more 
ed. They are a brave, hardy race of warriors and hunters, with good muscular 
eV opment. 

Tn 1894 Surgeon-Captain D. H. Graves sent me some skulls, which he had collected 
in the village graveyard at Jiddim, now the chief post for a regiment in the North Chin 
Hills, Up to three years prior to his visit it had been the largest village of a tribe 

ch he names Nwengal. Dr Gravus writes that he understands it is the custom when 
mber of the tribe dies to expose the body to the weather until it is decomposed. 
the skull is then placed along with others in an earthenware pot, which is buried. Dr 
Es found two of these pots containing six skulls, four of which he was so good as 
d me. In 1893 I also received a woman’s skull collected by Surgeon-Captain 
RAVES in the village of Klungyroa, situated in the South Chin Hills, about sixteen miles. 
the south-west of Haka, between lat. 22° and 23°, She is said to have been killed 
ng into a tiger trap. 

e measurements of these skulls are given in Table I. E is the specimen collected 
C. L. Wri1ams, the others are from Surgeon-Captain Graves. They were all 
Five were presumably men, and one, F, a woman. 

Norma Verticalis,—In this aspect two skulls, viz., B and E, were seen to be elongated 
void, so that in their proportions they were dened dolichocephalic, whilst A 
ightly exceeded the dolichocephalic index. The three others were relatively 


* Tribes and Castes of Bengal, vol. i. p. 204, Calcutta, 1891. 

+ See for an account of the Kankow campaign, Chin Lushai Land, by Surgeon-Lieutenant-Colonel Reid, I.M.S., 
alcutta, 1893. Inthe large map in this work the name apparently of this village, some miles to the north_ of 
White, is printed Tiddim. 


714 - PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


wider in the parietal region, and had a somewhat higher Jength-breadth index, which 
placed them in the lower term of the mesaticephalic group. In these three, C, D, and 
I, the parietal tubera projected, so that the outline of the skull approached the pen- 
tagonal or coffin shape. There was only a slight tendency to the formation of a sagittal _ 
ridge, and the slope outwards from it to the parietal eminences was not steep. One 
cranium was pheenozygous; the rest were cryptozygous. | 
Norma Peer itinNOae of the skulls had a very prominent glabella or supra- 
orbital ridge, though in A they were more distinct than in the other crania; in A the 
frontal bone also showed a somewhat shelf-like projection immediately above the external 
orbital process ; in this skull also the forehead was more receding than in the other speci- 
mens, in which indeed it approached to the vertical. The vault of the cranium was 
fairly well arched in the parieto-frontal region, and sloped backwards and downwards in 
the parieto-occipital region, somewhat more gently in B than in the other specimens. 
The occipital squama projected behind the inion; there was no appearance of parieto- 
occipital flattening, though D showed a want of symmetry in that region. The skulls 
rested behind on the cerebellar part of the occiput. The nasal bones had a concave 
bridge, and projected so slightly that the face was flattened in the nasal region; the 
fronto-nasal suture was not depressed. The nasal spine of the superior maxille was 
feeble in some specimens, and in no case strong; a moderate ridge marked the separation 
of the incisive part of the upper jaw from the oo of the nose. The incisive and canine 
fossee were moderate in depth. C and D were more prognathic than the other skulls. As 
a rule the orbits were high in proportion to their width, but B had a low orbital index. 
In C, D, and F the nasal index was moderately platyrhine, in A leptorhine, in the rest 
mesorhine. The teeth had to a large extent been lost, and of those that remained many 
were worn down and stained. The palate showed no unusual arching. The mastoid 
processes, temporal and occipital ridges, were moderate. The sutures were not obliterated 
in any of the crania, though in some, fusion of the bones had begun. Small Wormian 
‘bones were present in the lambdoidal suture in three skulls, and in D the suprainial part 
of the occipital squama had ossified as a distinct inter-parietal bone. All the skulls, with 
one exception, had an epipteric bone either on the one or on both sides ; the parieto-sphenoid 
suture, when present, was usually narrow. The upper part of the coronal suture and the 
anterior end of the sagittal suture were almost devoid of denticulations. No skull had | 
an exostosis in the auditory meatus, neither was a third condyle or paramastoid process 
present. No skull was metopic. The skull D showed a hole in the coronal suture | 
25 mm. to the right side of the sagittal suture. The hole measured 6 mm. by 4 mm., | 
and the bone around it had a smooth bevelled margin, whilst the surface of the parietal | 
bone behind it was abraded ; the appearance led one to think that during life the skull | 
had been injured, probably by the cut of a sword. > | 
The six skulls from the Chin Hills form a homogeneous group, and in their dimen- | 
sions and relative proportions may appropriately be classed together. 
In the glabello-occipital length the crania ranged from a maximum of 183 mm. to a 


e A 
— 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 715 


minimum of 173, and the mean length of the series was 176°8 mm. In their parieto- 
squamous” breadth the maximum was 137 mm., the minimum was 129, and the mean 
was 132°5 mm. The mean length-breadth ides of the group was 75°0. Three skulls 
had the index either 77°5 or 77°4, which placed them in that division of the mesati- 
cephalic group which approached closer to the dolichocephalic than the brachycephalic 
standard. No skull was brachycephalic. Both in numerical proportion and in general 
shape these Chin crania may be regarded either as distinctly dolichocephalic or as 
approximating to that) group. 

In basi-bregmatic height the crania ranged from a maximum 136 mm. to a minimum 
126, and the mean was 129'°8 mm. The mean length-height (vertical) index was 73°4, 
so that the skulls belong to the group with a moderate vertical index, which I have 
named metriocephalic.* In D and E the height slightly exceeded the breadth; in A 
they were equal ; in the remaining three the breadth was more than the height. 

The mean stephanic diameter, 106°6 mm., exceeded the mean asterionic diameter, 
102°8 mm., and the mean minimum frontal diameter was 90 mm. ‘The bizygomatic 
diameter, with a mean 127 mm., ranged from 117 to 139 mm., and invariably exceeded 
the intermalar diameter. ; 

The occipital longitudinal are in four skulls was less than either the frontal or parietal, 
but in F it was greater than either of these, and in C it was greater than the. parietal. 
In five crania the frontal are exceeded the parietal, and in B the parietal was the 
longer of the two. 

The nasio-mental length of the entire face ranged from 105 to 111 mm., with a mean 
of 108°5 mm. ‘The complete facial index ranged from 78°4 to 89°9, and gave a mean of 
85°6, so that the skulls fall into the chameprosopic or low-faced group, not a single 
Specimen was leptoprosopic.. As regards the maxillary facial index the range was from 
47°6 to 53°8, and the mean was 50°4; they were therefore leptoprosopic in the propor- 

tions of the upper face. 

In four of the six skulls the basi-nasal diameter exceeded the basi-alveolar. The 
gnathic index ranged from 92°6 to 106°5, and the mean was 97°6; the majority were 
orthognathous or mesognathous, though C was prognathous. 

The nasal index ranged from 46°9 to 54:3, and the mean of the series was 52'1, z.e., 
mesorhine ; individually, however, A was leptorhine, C, D, and F were platyrhine, and 
only two were mesorhine. The orbital index ranged from 78 to 97:2, and the mean 
was 90°2; the orbits therefore were generally megaseme, B only being microseme. 
The palato-maxillary index ranged from 109°6 to 133°3, and only one specimen was 
below 115 ; the mean was 122°3, which placed the palate well into the brachyuranic group. 

The cubic capacity of the cranium in the five men ranged from 1270. to 1875 «ec. ; 
thus there was only a small range of variation amongst them, and the mean, 1315 c.c., 

was distinctly microcephalic. The capacity of the skull in the specimen which I aes 
regarded as a woman was 1200 c.c. 


* Challenger Reports, part xxix. p. 5, 1884. 


716 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Although I have described the crania from the Lushai hill-tracts as a group separate 
from those collected in the hills occupied by the Chins, yet as the peoples known by 
these names, if not one race, have close affinities with each other, it will be instructive 
to look at the two series together. 

Of the eleven skulls under observation four had a length-breadth index below 75, 
five were between 75 and 77°5, and two from the South Lushai hill-tracts were above 
80; the mean of the series was 76'1. If the two brachycephalic crania are excluded 
the mean of the rest is 74°6, so that the skulls are in the main dolichocephalic, or 
approximating thereto in their numerical index as well as in their general form. In three — 
of the skulls the length-height index was slightly above the cephalic, in one they were 
equal, but the mean vertical index of the series was 73°78 ; on the whole, therefore, in 
these skulls the breadth exceeded the height. The mean stephanic diameter was 107° 6, | 
whilst the mean minimum frontal breadth was only 90. Pi 

If we take the figures suggested by Sir Witt1am H. Fitower™* as limiting the thre¢ 
divisions of the gnathic index, two skulls were prognathous, three were mesognathous, 
the rest orthognathous ; and as the mean of the eleven crania was 97:8, orthognathisr 
is apparently a preponderating character. a 

As the lower jaw was present in ten specimens the complete facial index was — 
obtained. In only one skull was it below 80, in seven between 80 and 90, in two 
above 90; the mean of the series was 87°5, which places them in the chameeprosopi¢ 
or low-faced group of Kollman. The upper facial or maxillary index is on the 
average 51°5, kd 

The width of the anterior nares was moderate in relation to the height of the nose, 
the nasal index was leptorhine in only two specimens, in four it was platyrhine, in be 
others mesorhine; the mean of the eleven crania was 51°3, i.c., mesorhine; the bridge | 
of the nose was concave and feeble above and tilted forward below, but the face a | 
have been flattened in this region. The height of the orbit was considerable in relation 
to the. breadth, and the mean index was 89°9, 1.e., megaseme. The palato-maxillary 
breadth was great in relation to the length, and the mean index was 122, so that the 
skulls were in the brachyuranic group ; no specimen was dolichuranie. 7 

The mean cubic capacity of the crania of nine men was 1358 ¢.¢., which places shame 
on the confines of the microcephalic and mesocephalic groups. 

To summarise the characters of the crania of the natives of the Lushai-Chin bills, 
one may say that in the main they are dolichocephalic: as a rule the breadth of the 
cranium exceeds the height; the upper jaw is orthognathic; the face is low, chame- 
prosopic; the nasal width is cagdaate in relation to the height, mesorhine ; the height 
of the orbit approximates to the breadth, and the index is megaseme; the palato- 
maxillary breadth is wide in relation to the length, brachyuranic; and the cranial 
capacity is moderate. 


* Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, p. 252. 1879, 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. Ye Wy 


Tonkal Nagas. Yasue II. 


In 1893 a box reached me from Surgeon-Lieutenant-Colonel F. W. Wricut, D.S.0., 
containing eight skulls which he had collected in the house of a Tonkal Naga, in the 
upper village of Hwining, situated about 6000 feet above the sea-level in the hills some 
forty miles north-east of Manipur. The occasion which led to an expedition being sent 
into the hills was a raid by the “ Kukis” on the Naga village of Swemi, situated some 
7000 feet above sea-level, and about 70 miles north-east of Manipur. The people of 
Hwining, although themselves Nagas, had joined the Kukis in the raid on villages of 
their own tribe. 

Dr Wricut also wrote a most interesting letter, in which he informed me that there 
are two villages at Hwining, an upper and a lower, built on the crest of a spur running 
from about south-west to north-east, and at the south-west end is the upper village. 
The villages are separated by about half a mile of uneven ground, and their inhabitants 
used to fight with each other, and take each other’s heads. As it is not the custom of 
the Tonkal Nagas to preserve the heads of friends and relatives, but to bury their dead 
close to their houses, the skulls collected had evidently been those of persons murdered 
or killed in battle, and afterwards preserved. Dr Wricur found these skulls fixed as 
trophies to a board on the wall of the front room facing the entrance to a house. He 
believes them to be the skuils of Tonkal N&eds, as Hwining is surrounded by Tonkal 
villages, with which it was, and indeed in some instances is, still at feud; possibly 
they are skulls of the Nagds of the lower village of Hwining. The head of a woman is 
as much prized as that of a man, for as women do not go far away from their homes, 
the captor requires to approach close to the hostile village, and puts himself therefore 
into greater danger in order to secure the head. 

_ From the very instructive account of the Ndgds with which Dr Wricur has 
favoured me [ make the following extract :— 

_ “The hills north-east of Manipur range in height from 3000 to 7000 feet. They 
are clothed with forests, and abound in game. The human inhabitants are Négds and 
‘Kukis. Both are savage tribes, and go about nearly naked, but the women are more 
clothed than the men. They make clearings in the forests and grow crops of rice, 
Indian corn, ete., and from the rice they make a fermented liquor called ‘ Zoo,’ which is 
not unlike a rough kind of cider. The Nagas are the indigenous natives, and reside 
permanently in one place, and live in huts on the tops of the hills, where they can 
command a view of the approach of their enemies. The Kukis have immigrated from 
‘the south from the hills between Manipur and Burma. They are not settled in their 
habits, but make from time to time new clearings, so that they are very destructive to 
the forests, and raid the Nae villages and kill the inhabitants. Both Ndgds and Kukis 
eat the flesh of pigs and other animals, It is said that a Ndgd gives a good meal of 
tice to a dog, then kills and roasts it, and makes a meal of dog, stomach and rice. 


718 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Neither Négis nor Kukis drink milk, which they look upon as an excrement.* The 
native weapons are bows, spears and poisoned arrows ; the poison is said to be aconite, 
They are now using guns, and employ urine and feces in the manufacture of gun 
powder. They are demon worshippers. They seem to have slaves, and in both the 
Nagd and Kuki villages there are head-men or village elders, though in theory all the 
men are equal. Both Nagas and Kukis make very good coolies, but the Ndgd is 
preferred, as he is both cheerful and enduring.” 
“In the Nagd houses the wall of the front room facing the entrance is decorated — 
with the heads and bones of the animals killed for food and in the chase. Heads 
or horns of the Sambre deer, mithan buffalo, pig, barking deer, bear, dog, porcupine, 
and capricorn were recognised. Outside the entrance of the house of a head- “man 
a small grove of dead trees is sometimes seen. Each tree signifies a big feast, the trees 
being set up as monuments of the head-man’s hospitality. They are also used 
incidentally for the growth of orchids. The Kukis do not set up monuments of dead 
trees, but they fix trophies of the skulls and horns of animals at the entrance to te 
houses.t A Kuki warrior therefore can point to the human skulls in his house as 
evidence of his cunning and bravery as a head hunter, and to the crania of the large 
mammals as testifying to his success in the chase and to his hospitality.” 
“The Nagas shave the head, but leave a crest of hair in the middle of the crown 
from front to back, which ends in a lock hanging down behind. The Kukis do not 
shave the head. Neither they nor the Nagas have hair on the face. The Tonkal Nagas 
wear a ring made of bone, or ivory, or porcelain, around the wee of the penny and it 
appears to be a mark of bad manners to appear without the ring.’ ‘, 
When the expedition occupied the Kuki village of Mougham some recent ‘scalps 
were noticed on a tree near the chief’s house in the highest part of the village. > 
examining them more closely they were seen to consist not only of the scalp but of part 
of the skull, the top of which had been cut off and the bone pierced with a ae 
They were trophies of the raid on the Ndgd village of Swemi. The Political Agent 
told Dr Wricur that in the Nagd villages the young men sleep together in a house of 
their own, but he is not sure if a similar arrangement is provided for the young women, 
though he thinks that it is so.{ 
The skulls of the Tonkal Nagds were all from adults, though one was aged, 
and in two specimens the upper wisdoms were not erupted, Six were without 


* Miss Mary H. Kingsley (Travels in West Africa, p. 451, London, 1897) states that the West Coast Africans have 
a horror of the idea of drinking milk, and hold it as a filthy habit. 

+ In some of the Pacific Islands, as in the Solomon group, human skulls and those of pigs, dogs, and dugongs are 
preserved in and around the Tambu house, and the practice of preserving and decorating the skulls of relatives and 
enemies alongside of the skulls of animals prevails extensively in New Guinea. 

t The custom of providing a separate sleeping house in each village for all the unmarried girls and another for all 
the young men prevails generally amongst the races to the north-east and south of Assam (S. E. Peal in Jowrnal Asiati 
Soc., Bengal, vol. lii. part ii., 1883). A similar practice also exists amongst the Khonds, a hill tribe in the Indian — 
peninsula (R. W. Frazer, Silent Gods and Sun-Steeped Lands, London, 1895). It is also the custom with some of the 
tribes in New Guinea and other islands in Polynesia. = 


‘gf 


Ai ert Se 8 


“a 


o 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 719 


doubt those of men, one a woman, and one was more doubtful, though most 
probably a man. 

Each of these skulls was enclosed in an open basket-work frame of split cane. In 
the greater number two parallel bands of cane were bent antero-posteriorly and mesially 
around the base of the skull to the occiput, vertex, forehead and face, including the 
lower jaw. These longitudinal bands were intersected and knotted to a band which 
passed around the skull in its vertical transverse circumference. A vertical transverse 
band of cane had been passed below the angles of the lower jaw and was secured to the 
zygomata. A decorative feature in each orbit consisted of a strip of cane rolled once or 
twice around the interior of the chamber near the facial orifice; so as, when seen at a 
short distance, to simulate an eye. The skulls had been dried with the scalp on, but 
the hair had been removed. In three specimens the base of the skull had been 


‘partially broken away, doubtless to assist in the extraction of the brain, so that the 


determination of the capacity of these crania was only approximative. The heads had 
been exposed to smoke, and were more or less blackened. The scalp and the basket- 
work had to be removed in order to examine the crania and take the measurements ; 
but the basket-work was subsequently replaced. 

Norma Verticalis.—From this aspect the series of skulls did not present a uniform 
appearance. ‘The woman’s and four men’s, D, HE, F, G, were elongated and more or 
less ovoid, with vertical sides and a tendency to a sagittal ridge, from which the skull 
sloped rapidly downwards and outwards to the parietal eminences; in H, F, and H the 
erania had an “‘ill-filled” character. In the other three male skulls, A, B, C, the breadth 
was proportionately greater in relation to the length, so that the form was not so 
elongated an ovoid as in the other specimens; the vertex also had not the same 
tendency to be ridged, and the slope outwards to the parietal eminences was not so 
steep. One skull was phenozygous, but in the majority the zygomata were concealed 
in the vertex view ; the condition in G could not be ascertained, owing to the zygomata 
bemg broken, but from the wide stephanic diameter it would probably have been 
eryptozygous. 

Norma Lateralis.—In none of the skulls were the glabella and supra-orbital ridges 
very prominent, and they were best marked in the skull A, which was metopic. The 


forehead was almost vertical; the arch of the vault was moderate, and the slope back- 


wards into the occipital region was as a rule gentle, and in A, B, and OC, that is, in 
the more brachycephalic crania, the occipital squama projected in all behind the inion; 
there was no sign of parieto-occipital flattening. As a rule the skull rested behind on 
the cerebellar part of the occiput, and in five of the skulls the parietal arc was somewhat 
longer than the frontal. In all, the occipital are was less than the frontal, and in only 
one specimen did it exceed the parietal. The face was flattened in the nasal region, 
and the osseous bridge of the nose was slightly concave and not projecting. The nasal 
bones were relatively narrow, the fronto-nasal suture was not depressed. The nasal 
Spine of the superior maxillee was faint; a fairly-defined ridge demarcated the incisive 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 28). oon 


~I 
tw 
Oo 


PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Tase II. 
Tonkal Ndgdés, Hwining. Nepal. 


EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY ANATOMICAL MusEUM. 


Metopic. 
Collection, . : : he B; Cc 1D; E. 18 G. lek § 
Age, . : : 5 - |) Ad, | Ad: Ad, Ad. Ad, Ad, Ad. Ad, 
Sex, é : ell ai M. M. M. M. M. M. Fy 
Cubic capacity, : . | 1565 | 1455 | 1520 1520ap.| 1395ap.| 1455 | 1600ap.| 1250 
Glabello-occipital length, a) LES: 7 leave 177 182 180 183 | 186 174 
Basi-bregmatic height, : let ieGe Wi S6 Sie Le 137 | 138 132ap. 
Vertical Indes, : : | 729) FOS) 7638. me ee eM el 759 
Minimum frontal diameter, . | 103 93 98 97 88 97 97 85 
Stephanic diameter, . wall QL, sie eI ellOS 110 110 LOF> 20 102 
Asterionic __,, 110 ST |, 109 107 115 106 | 120 108 
Greatest —_parieto - squamous 
breadth, . : ‘ .| 145 | 140 | 145 132 135 134 | 140 130 
Cephalic Index, : : al, Cal. Sade Sieg 72°5 75° 73:2| 753 TET 
Horizontal circumference, .| 535 | 500 | 516 510 505 514 | 528 488 
Frontal longitudinal are, . | 1384 | 120 | 125 122 134 133 | 134 120 
Parietal 3 5 61 ZO a Onn eis 127 133 131 | 138 121 
Occipital 3 5 3 | L257 LOPS Os 121 115 116 Me Me 
Total ve As - | 379 | 360 | 362 370 382 380 sas wid 
Vertical transverse arc, 5 || ak0e) |) BxOks) || aol 301 302 298 | 306 291 
Length of foramen magnum,. | 35 31 ot Sos Aa 32 ae oe 
Basi-nasal length, . , | 106 96) elon ash vas 102 | 100 
Basi-alveolar length, . 5 ees 93 87 sac ae 100 93 
Gnathic Index, . ‘ 93°'4| 96°9| 86-1 ase Ss 98° 93° onc 
Interzygomatic breadth, -| 146 | 131 | 187 ii 127 140> | 13! 122 
Intermalar | 82 | 12a | 1238 120ap. | 116 124 | 114 115 
Nasio-mental length, : LVS) LES.) disaps a Or 115 LT 9 eda 115 
Nasio-mental complete facial 
Index, . ; -| 825| 90: 831 ae 90'5 83°5| 847 942 
Nasio-alveolar length, : a 72 72 67 67 70 66 68 
Maxillary upper facial Inter, 48'6| 549| 55 ate 62:7 50° | 508 557 
Nasal height, : : 53 53 57 58 50 54 50 50 
Nasal width, ‘ : Be es} 26 25 27 26 29 26 24 
Nasal Index, : ; -| O88) J97)| WSs 4O5 52: 68:7) bg: 48" 
Orbital width, . ; ee oe. 37 49 40 36 37 38 - 33 
Orbital height, . ; .| 36 35 38 37 35 34 36 30 
Orbital Index, . : -| 857) 946) 90°65 92°5 97:2 91'9| 947 90:9 
Palato-maxillary length, Sal! RB 55 46ap. 52 48 56 46 52 
Palato-maxillary breadth, .| 67 66 59ap. 63 65 67 66 69 
Palato-mazxillary Index, . | 281°3| 120: | 1282 122°1 1354 119°6| 1434 | 1826 
Symphysial height, Sees 28 33 30 30 31 28 32 
= | Coronoid 3 5 | 02 66 67 57 60 61 57ap. | 56 
| Condyloid __,, 64 68 65 65 58 64 59 58 
= 4 Gonio-symphysial length, 84 74 89 88 92 92 82 88 
Es | Inter-gonial width, st\) ON 90 | 105 a 107 102 ee 100 
° i J 
4 | Breadth of ascending 
[| emi Ps ; ei, 36 36 35 36 40° 9. (86 30 33 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. Tok 


part of the upper jaw from the floor of the nose; the canine and incisor fossee were 
moderate in depth, though in the aged skull they were deeper. The jaws were not 
prognathic ; the orbits were high in proportion to their width. The teeth were deeply 
stained, and as a rule free from decay, though in the older skulls they showed evidence 
of wear, and in the aged specimen they had almost all been shed and the sockets 
absorbed. The sutures in the aged skull were almost obliterated, and in some of the | 
other crania they were also disappearing. The mastoid processes were moderate, the 
temporal and occipital ridges were fairly marked. The palate was arched and horseshoe 
shaped. The external meatus was free from exostoses. No third condyle or para- 
mastoid process was seen, but in one specimen each external pterygoid plate sent a 
spur-hke process backwards which did not reach the spine of the sphenoid. In one 
skull the infra-orbital suture was seen. 

In three specimens small Wormian bones were in the lambdoidal suture. ‘The 
breadth of the parieto-sphenoid suture varied from 3 to 12 mm. In the right pterion 
of two specimens, F and G, an epipteric bone was seen, and in the left pterion of both 
of these skulls a tongue-shaped process of the squamous temporal articulated with the 
frontal; in the skull F this process was so broad as to separate the ali-sphenoid from 
the parietal by an interval of 17 mm. 

The eight skulls of the Tonkal Nagas varied in maximum length from 171 to 188 
mm., with a mean of 180 mm. In their greatest breadth the range was from 130 
| in the woman to 145 mm. in the broadest-headed man, and the mean was 137°6. 
The mean cephalic index of the series was 76°4, 2.e., mesaticephalic; two of the crania 
were brachycephalic, four were dolichocephalic, and the remaining two were in the 
lower half of the mesaticephalic group. 

The crania ranged in basi-bregmatic height from 132 to 138 mm., with the mean 
136 mm., and the mean vertical index was 75°7, which is moderately high. In two 
specimens the vertical index was slightly above the cephalic, but the opposite condition 
was the rule. 

The mean stephanic diameter, 110 mm., slightly exceeded the mean asterionic, 
109 mm., and both were considerably higher than the mean minimum frontal diameter 
947 mm. The bizygomatic diameter, with a mean of 133°4 mm., ranged from 122 to 
146mm. In each skull it invariably exceeded the intermalar diameter. 

The mean complete facial index was 86°7, 2.¢., chamzeprosopic, whilst the pro- 
portions of the upper face gave an index 52, or leptoprosopic. In the five skulls in 
which the dimensions could be taken the basi-nasal diameter exceeded the basi-alveolar, 
and the mean relative index, 93°5, was orthognathous. 

In the nasal index two skulls were leptorhine, five were mesorhine, and only one 
was platyrhine; the mean index of the series was 49°7, or mesorhine. The mean 
orbital index was 92°2; the orbit, except in one skull, was megaseme, and with no 
great difference between the breadth and height. The mean palato-maxillary index was 
_| 128°9, and every skull was brachyuranic. 


PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON . - 


“J 
to 
bo 


The seven male skulls had a mean internal capacity 1501 cc., whilst the single 
woman’s skull was only 1250 ce. 

Up to this time very few examples of the skulls of the natives of the Néed Hills 
have been deposited in Museums. The specimens sent home by Surgeon-Lieutenant- 
Colonel Wricut form therefore an important addition to the material collected for the | 
investigation of their cranial characters. In the Barnard Davis collection, now in the 
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, are three Naga crania;* and a 
fourth specimen from Ninu, in the Patkoi Mountains, has subsequently been acquired by | 
the College. These, together with a fifth specimen, collected by Colonel WooprHoreE 
in the Patkoi Mountains, have been described by Professor G. D. THang,} who looks 
upon three as those of men and two those of women. They are all adult, but not aged. 
Two were decorated : one with wire passed through the orbits and zygomata, which sup- 
ported fragments of shell as well as some small bells; the other having rings of thi 
wire placed through the zygomatic arches, orbits and nasal cavities. 

Both in Professor THANE’s series and in mine the skulls had a certain smoothness of | 
surface, owing to the muscular ridges and processes possessing no special prominence, | 
and the forehead was almost vertical. His specimens were, however, shorter than mine, 
for though the mean height and breadth were almost identical in the two series, the 
mean length of THANE’s specimens was 4 mm. less than in mine. In both sets the mean 
cephalic index was mesaticephalic; but in THaNE’s series owing to the diminished 
length it was 781, being 1:7 higher than in mine; taking both series together the 
mean cephalic index in the thirteen Nagd skulls was 77. The mean vertical index in 
THANE’S specimens was 78°4, which was appreciably higher than in mine, and the 
mean of both series was 76°9, so that the mean breadth very slightly exceeded the 
mean height in the two groups. The crania may be regarded as hypsicephalie. 

In Professor THANz’s series the mean gnathic index was 98°6, but in mine it was 
much lower, 93°5: the mean of both series was 96, 7.e., orthognathous. In his specimens 
the mean nasal index was 53°3, in mine 49°7, but the mean of the two was 51°l, 1é, 
mesorhine : the anterior nares therefore are moderately wide in relation to the height. 
In his crania the mean orbital index was 88°5, in the higher term of the mesoseme 
series ; but in mine they were definitely megaseme, so that in the people generally we 
may say that the height of the orbit approaches its width. In both series of skulls the 
palate was wide in relation to its length, and the index was brachyuranic. 

In THane’s specimens the mean interzygomatic diameter was 129°7, but in mine it 
was 133°4, and as five of my skulls exceeded in this dimension the mean of his 
collection, it follows that they had greater breadth in the facio-zygomatic region. 

The three male skulls in Professor THANE’s series ranged in their cubic capacity 
from 1300 to 1400 c.c., with a mean of 1377 ¢.c., whilst the mean capacity of the two | 
women was 1237 ¢c.c. In my series, only one skull apparently was that of a woman | 


* Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 173; and Supplement, p. 88. 
+ Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xi, p. 215, 1882. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 723 


with a capacity of 1250 c.c., whilst the mean of the seven men was 1501 c.c., which is 
much above the average of savage or barbarous people, corresponding indeed to the 
European mean. If THane’s males are, however, computed along with my series of 
males, the mean capacity is reduced to 1464 c.c., a measurement which is also high for 
a tribe of savages. 

In the preceding narrative it will have been noticed that explorers in the hill 
ranges occupied by the Lushais (Kukis) and Nagas have recognised differences in the 
physical characters of these people. Sir James Jonnsrone, for example, definitely states 
that they are readily distinguishable from each other, There is, however, a general 
consensus that their narrow oblique eyes, flat broad faces, high cheek bones, flat noses, 
skin of various shades of brown, inclining sometimes to copper colour, long straight 
black hair, and scanty beard and moustache, are Mongolian characters. Colonel Lewny, 
however, in both his works asserts that the Lushais do not exhibit the Mongolian type 
of feature, and he compares them with Portuguese half-castes. WooprHoRPE speaks 
of some of the Angami Nagas as having aquiline features and a complexion so fair that 
the cheeks show a ruddy glow. 

It would seem, therefore, whilst the Mongolian type of feature prevails, that depar- 
tures from that type do occur with sufficient frequency to be noticeable. The study 
of the skulls proves that they also possess some diversities of character. Though the 
majority of specimens in the Chin-Lushai group and in the Nagas were dolichocephalic 
or approximated thereto, in both the Lushais and Nagas two distinctly brachycephalic 
‘¢rania were met with, though in the series of Chins 77°5.was the highest index of 
breadth. Both groups, however, were alike in the absence of a marked projection of the 
upper jaw: in both, the face was wide in relation to its height, and the complete index 
was chamzeprosopic; the nose was not prominent, and the mean nasal index in both 
groups was mesorhine and the orbital index was megaseme. ‘Their facial characters were 
therefore closely allied, and testify to a corresponding physiognomy. As regards the 
breadth of the face, the mean interzygomatic diameter of ten Lushai-Chin skulls was 
127-7 mm., and that of seven Ndgds was 133 mm., as compared with 180°6, the mean 
of the same diameter in thirteen Chinese crania in the collection, and 131'5, the mean 
of four Siamese skulls. The Nagas, therefore, in absolute width of face surpassed the 
Chinese and Siamese which I have measured. In the Nagds the mean capacity of the 
ania was distinctly higher than in the Chin-Lushai series. 

_ As the best marked Mongolian races are either definitely brachycephalic or in the 
higher terms of the mesaticephalic group, it is interesting to note that these hill tribes, 
| with a prevailing type of Mongolian feature, possessed crania in which brachycephalism 
is the exception, and where the customary form of skull is dolichocephalic or approxi- 
mating thereto. It would seem, therefore, that the Mongolian character of face is 
not necessarily associated with only one type of cranium. 


724 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Nepal. Tasre II. 


More than thirty years ago the late Sir Jonn Brown, of the Indian Medical Serviee, | 
presented to the Anatomical Museum of the University, a skull without the lower jaw, | 
which he had found in the valley of Nepal. He believed it to be that of a Gurung { 
or Magar, and it is marked, apparently in his own handwriting, Parbuttia, which signifies | 
hillman. Surgeon-Lieut.-Colonel Retp states* that the Gurungs and Magars occupy | 
the country to the west of the Nepal valley. They are, he says, short and powerful 
men of Mongolian cast of features, with broad flat faces and oblique eyes. They form | 
the Gurkha regiments in the British army in India. 


squamous-temporals were small, but the ali-sphenoids were wide, and each had a broad | 
articulation with the parietal at the pterion. The mastoids and the temporal and 
occipital ridges were feeble, and there were no unusual ossifications. 

In the norma verticalis the breadth of the cranium approximated to the length. | 
The parieto-occipital region was almost vertical, flattened and unsymmetrical, the | 
flattened surface being directed to the right. Sir Jonn Brown ascribed the shape of 
the skull behind to the mother, as she carried her infant, having kept this aspect of the 
head pressed against some part of her person. The vertex was not ridge-like, the 
parietal and frontal eminences were distinct, the parieto-squamous region bulged 
laterally. The length-breadth index was 90°5, and the skull was hyper-brachycephalie. 
The height was materially less than the breadth, notwithstanding that the basi-bregmatie 
diameter was as high as 144 mm. ‘The skull was eryptozygous. 

In the norma lateralis the glahella and supra-orbital ridges were seen to be feeble, 
the forehead was lofty and not very receding. The frontal longitudinal are was much 
the longest and the occipital the shortest. The bridge of the nose was almost straight, 
sharp, and moderately projecting, and there was scarcely any fronto-nasal depression. 
The nasal spine of the superior maxillee was distinct, and a sharp ridge separated the 
floor of the nose from the incisive region. The nasal index was markedly leptorhine. 
The interzygomatic diameter was 141 mm., so that the face was unusually wide. The 
orbital index was strongly megaseme. ‘lhe upper jaw was not prognathic. The palate 
was not highly arched, and as its breadth materially exceeded the length it was highly 
brachyuranic. The internal capacity was 1655 c.c. and the skull was megacephalic. 
In its brachycephalic form and proportions, in the breadth being less than the 
height, the flattened nasal region, the broad face, the slight forward projection of the | 
upper jaw, megaseme orbit, and brachyuranic palate, the cranium exhibited well defined | 
Mongolian characters. 

Sir R. Owen has given the measurement of a skull of an adult male Gurungf im | 


* Ohin-Lushai Land, p. 72. 1893, 
+t Owen, Rep. Brit, Assoc., 1859, p. 100. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 725 


the British Museum, the length of which was 7 inches and the breadth 5 in. 8 lines: 

the length-breadth mdex may be regarded as 81°4. Other crania from Nepal 

had different proportions. From the measurements which he has recorded of two 

Magar skulls it is probable that in this race the crania are dolichocephalic. A skull 

from Nepal, figured by MM. pe Quarreracrs and Hamy,* plate lxii., is elongated 
in form, and with a length-breadth index 75°5. Dr Barnarp Davis catalogues, 

Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 158, seven crania from Nepal, which he names Khas. 
The length-breadth index varied in them from 73 to 78, and gave a mean 75°7. 
The skulls were either dolichocephalic or mesaticephalic. In the anthropological 
tables compiled by Mr H. H. Risteyt the mean cephalic index in 28 living Gurungs 
is stated to be 81°6, and the nasal index in the same persons was 78°5. The heads 
were brachycephalic, and the nose was mesorhine. The average stature was 5 ft. 22 in. 
(1598 mm.). It would appear, therefore, that the people of Nepal are not a homo- 
geneous race. A strong Mongolian element, however, exists in that country, as is 
shown both in the skulls and heads of the Gurungs which have been measured. 


BurRMA. 


| The inhabitants of Burma consist in the main of the people termed Burmese, but 
intermingled with them are representatives, sometimes in considerable numbers, of 
| other tribes and races. The Burmese proper are in all probability of the same stock 
|} as the Himalaya-Tibetan people, offshoots of which race migrated, it is believed, in a 
| south-easterly direction until they reached Burma. How far the country was populated 
| by aborigines, prior to and at the time of the invasion, it is impossible to say. It is, 
| however, thought that the district forming the delta of the Irrawaddy was occupied 
| by a people named Mons or Talaings, whose descendants remain more or less commingled 
With the Tibeto-Burmese stock. The Burmese proper, according to the census return 
' for 1891, were 9,000,000, whilst the Talaings were not quite 1,000,000 in number. 
Partly on the confines of and partly within the Burmese territory are other races, 
| which in their respective districts modify the population. To the east are the Shan 
* to the northward are Manipur and the Naga hills; to the north-west the Lushai- 
Chin hill ranges, the people of which were described in an earlier chapter of this memoir ; 
and to the east of Lower Burma are the Karens, who constitute an important element 
t in 3 . 


* Crania Ethnica, p. 416. 

t Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Calcutta, vol. i. pp. 232 and 220. 1891. 

t The above figures are compiled from the Census of 1891, Report on Burma, prepared by Mr H. L. Eales, the 
' Provincial Superintendent, Rangoon, 1892. 


726 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


The Karens numbered about 1,000,000. In addition to these races, natives of India, — 
Malays, Chinese and Europeans were also represented. ip 
The Burmese proper are people of moderate stature. In the lists which accompanied 
the valuable series of crania of prisoners who had died in the jail at Insein, for which T 
am indebted to Surgeon-Major BELL, the stature of each person is given in feet and 
inches. They were all men. The mean stature was 5 ft. 2? in. The tallest man, 
Nga Aung Myat, a native of Yebouk, was 5 ft. 7 in., and the shortest, Nga Pe, a 
native of Sharsayboo, was 4 ft. 94 in. ; whilst another, We Pu, born at Aungmyingain, 
was 4 ft. 11in. Seven measured aes 5 ft. 5 in. to 5 ft. 6 in., and the others were 
between 5 ft. and 5 ft. 4in. The Burmese men are thick-set, muscu and active. 
The skin in the higher classes is a light olive-brown, but a darker brown in those people 
who are much exposed to the sun. The hair is black and straight, abundant on t 
head, but scanty on the face. The face itself is broad and flattish, the nostrils are usua 
spread out laterally and the nose is short. The eyes are wide asunder and inclined 
to be oblique and almond-shaped. The lips are not thick and projecting as in the ne 0. 
The Karens consist of three divisions,* the Pghos (Pwos), who are found along 
the sea-board of Tenasserim from Moulmein to Tavoy and Mergin ; the Chehay 
(Sgau), who occupy the hills and jungles of the lower part of the Irrawaddy river, in q 
district of Henzada on the right bank, and those of Prome and Shwegyin on the left 
bank, as far east as the Salween river. The Behai (Bwi) division are found in the 
Toungoo hill-tracts which lie to the east of Prome. Mr Smuaton says that the a ! 
are short in stature, but broad and muscular. A Karen man from the Toungoo distri 
who died in the jail at Insein, and whose skull was presented to me by Major But, ¥ 
5 ft. 12 in. high. The skin is naturally fair, like that of the Chinese, and the features 
of those of pure blood are, according to Mr Smeaton, Caucasian in type. The hair 
is black and straight ; the eyes are black, though in the north brownish hair and haz 4 
eyes are sometimes found. It is difficult to give the original home of the Karens. \¢ 
prevailing opinion, however, is that they left the borders of Tibet and passed thro oh . 
Western China on their way to Burma. 


The Shans (Htai or Tai, to employ their own name), on the eastern frontier of Burma, 
are divided into the Chinese Shans, the Salween Shans and the Siamese Shans, They 
form a number of tribes, which occupy the hill-ranges, elevated plateaus and valleys of 
the extensive tract of country in which they dwell.t They present differences in their 
physical characters in different districts. Dr ANDERSON states that the Shans dwelling 
in the valleys have the sallow tint of the Chinese, usually with red cheeks, dark brown 
eyes, black hair, face generally rather short, broad and flat, cheek bones prominent, a 
faint obliquity and contraction of the outer angle of the eyelids as in the Chinese. The 


* The Loyal Karens of Burma, by D, M‘Kenzie Smeaton. London, 1887. 
+ The Shan country has been visited by many travellers. The works that I have consulted are Dr John 
Anderson’s Expedition to Western Yunan, 1871; Report on Administration of Shan States for 1889-90 and 1892-98, by 
J. G. Scott ; Census of Burma, 1891; Colonel Woodthorpe i in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. August 1896, vol. XxVi. 
From Tortdn to India, by Bene Henri dOrleans, 1898. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 727 


nose is well formed, not so broad and depressed as in the Burmese, and the bridge is 
usually prominent, almost aquiline. In the higher ranks the features are, he says, 
decidedly Tartar. The Hill Shans (Poloungs) have darker skins and are shorter than the 
Shans of the valleys, the average height of the valley men being 5 ft. 8 in. or less. The 
Chinese Shans are described as resembling Laplanders in their squat figures, broad, short, 
round, flat faces, and prominent cheek bones. Like the Nagas, they do not drink milk. 

Mr Scorr, in his account of the Keing Tung Shans, says that in stature and com- 
plexion they do not differ materially from the Western Shans. The nose, though 
small, is straight and not flattened out or button-shaped, and without a bridge, as im 
the people west of the Salween river. Of the hill races the Kwi are short in stature, 
and grow the hair to its full length. The Leu tribe, again, cut the hair short except a 
short tail. He speaks of a tribe as the wild Was, who treat the hair like the Leus ; 
whose skins are as dark as negroes or negrittos, and who go naked or nearly naked. 
They decorate their villages with the skulls of animals, as well as with human skulls, 
for the people are head-hunters. The wild Wa country is a little to the south of 23° 
lat., and a little to the east of 19° long. 

As a rule the Shans are civilised. They are Buddhists, and although not so 
prominent a political power as they were some centuries ago, they are organised into 
principalities. They are agriculturists and traders, weavers, dyers and expert workers 
in metals. They are properly clothed, and construct houses, monasteries and temples. 
Notwithstanding the differences observed amongst the tribes, it is obvious that the 
Mongolian cast of features is the prevailing type. They have Chinese affinities in 
both physical characters and language, and it seems probable that they have migrated 
from Western China. 

The Southern or Siamese Shans have both a political and philological aftinity to the 
kinedom of Siam. The form Siam is a corruption of the French method of writing 
Shan or Scian, and the original monosyllabic term has been converted by them into a 
word of two syllables.* 

I have had the opportunity of examining forty-four skulls collected in different parts 
of Burma, almost the whole of which are in the University Museum. 

In 1889 my friend and former assistant, Surgeon-Major Wm. B. Bannerman, who 
Was attached to the military expedition to Upper Burma, presented me with the skulls 
of two Dacoits.t The one, an old man, was the leader of a band in the Ye-U district, 
and was shot by the military police at Mugan ; his head was brought into the village of 
Ye-U for identification in August 1888. The other, named Pau-dun, was hanged for 
murder at Ye-U in June of the same year. Dr BANNERMAN states that the people in the 
Ye-U district have, as a rule, the bridge of the nose flattened with the point turned up, 
and with wide nostrils. The eyes have the Mongolian cast, the cheeks are broad, the 
hair is black, long and straight, the skin yellow, and with scarcely any hair on the face 

* Report on Census of Burma, 1891, p. 201. Rangoon, 1892. 

+ The Dacoits were the disbanded troops of King Thebaw’s army. They were not hillmen, but Burmese. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO, 28). 5U 


728 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


except a lanky moustache. They are muscular, active, and under the average height of 
Europeans. The religion is Buddhist. From personal observations on infants and 
young children, Dr Bannerman has seen no evidence of modification from artificial 
pressure of the skull. - 
Another skull from Upper Burma, obtained at Mahlaing, Meiktila district, and said ; 
to be that of a Dacoit, was presented by Dr Grorrrey H. Prance. 7 
In the summer of 1895 I received from my friend and former assistant, Surgeon- 
Major G. J. H. Bex, a box containing the crania of sixteen men who had died in the — 
central jail, of which he is the superintendent, at Insein, in Lower Burma. In 1897 
the same gentleman forwarded to me a series of twenty skulls from this prison. The 
skulls were accompanied by explanatory lists, from which it appeared that thirty-two 
were Burmese, one was a Karen, one a Shan, and one a Mohammedan from Ralum, 
Akyab. Another, a Hindoo from the Coromandel coast, is not included in the follow- 
ing description. The name, jail number, sex, age, height, birthplace, crime for whic! . 
imprisoned, and cause of death were given in the lists. To each specimen was appended 
a metal plate stamped with the jail number, the period of imprisonment, ete., which, I _ 
understand, it is customary for each criminal to wear suspended with a string — 
the neck. All the Burmese names have the prefix Nga,* a term employed by a superior 
when addressing one of much inferior social status. In more than one instance the — 
cranial and dental characters did not correspond with the age of the person having the _ 
jail number specified in the lists, so that either the criminal had mis-stated his age, or 
the attendant employed to clean the specimens had not been sufficiently careful to i 
attach the proper metal plate to the skull. 
Early in 1896 I received from Surgeon-Captain J. M. Crawrorp the skull of Nga 
Pota, et. 32, a Burmese prisoner who had died in 1895 of phthisis in the jail at 
Benares when under Dr CRAWFORD’S charge. 


which had been dug up in an old senieners in Upper Burma. They had the appea 4 
ance of buried bones which had lost much of their organic matter. One, an adult, had 
female characters; the other was a male somewhat advanced in life. | 

In the collection of the Henderson Trust, now in the University Museum, is a skal, 
No. 158, presented in 1827 by Mr Groras Lyon, who procured it from Ava proper i 
Upper Burma. A second specimen, No. 159 in the same collection, is also said to be 


from Burma, but the precise locality is not stated. > 
Through the courtesy of Professor D. J. CunnincHam I have been able to examine 
the skull in the museum under his charge of a Shan, Nga To, from the Insein jail. 


In the following description I have arranged and compared with each other in 
Part I. thirty-seven skulls which were marked Burmese by the collectors. oI 


* In the Abor Miri group of the Tibeto-Assam languages, Ngd is the personal pronoun (see Report on Census = 
Assam, 1891, p. 183). 

t Shan Gy and San Min from the Insein jail were both catalogued as Burmese ; their measurements are given ! 
Table VI. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 729 


Burmese crania from the prison of Insein are those of men. They are mostly in the 
prime of life, although three present marks of age, and one is said to be only eighteen 
years old. The other Burmese crania are also of the male sex; one is an old man, 
one is said to be twenty-one years of age, the other three are adults. 


Horta Lapis I11., 1V., V.,V 1. 


The skulls in this series gave, without doubt, a fair representation of the type met 
with amongst the male natives of Burma. 

Norma Verticalis.—When arranged side by side on a table and examined from the 
norma verticalis, this series of skulls from Burma could be arranged in two more or 
less clearly defined groups. The one, which I shall designate Group A, included skulls, 
generally of a rounded form, and usually unsymmetrical in the parieto-occipital region, 
which, both from this character and from the steep vertical direction of the region in 
some of the specimens, gave evidence of the production of parieto-occipital flattening by 
artificial pressure applied during infancy. The unsymmetrical flattened surface in some 
specimens was directed obliquely to the right, in others obliquely to the left. In this 
group were a large proportion of the crania from the Insein jail, and five skulls not 
from that prison. All of these crania were brachycephalic, and several of them, as may 
be seen from the Tables, were hyper-brachycephalic. With three exceptions the vertex 
was not ridged in the sagittal region, nor did the vault slope rapidly downwards and 
outwards from the mesial suture to the parietal eminences. The curve of the vault in 
the vertical transverse direction from one parietal eminence to the other was not steep, 
and the skulls had generally a well-filled character. 

The other Group, B, consisted of the remainder of the skulls from the jail at Insein. 
These had a more elongated form than those in Group A when examined from the 
norma verticalis. They did not show a definite want of symmetry in the parieto- 
occipital region, which, with one or two exceptions, was not so flattened and steep as in 
Group A, but sloped more gradually downwards and backwards into the occipital 
squama. As arule these skulls did not reach the brachycephalic index, and they were 
usually longer than those in Group A. ‘Two were dolichocephalic and elongated: one 
of these, San Min, with a length-breadth index 74, was said to be from the Southern 
Shan States, though marked Burman in the list sent along with the Insein skulls; the 
| other, San Kun, with an index 74:9, was from the district of Monyo. In ten crania the 
cephalic index ranged from 75°3 to 79°5. In several the parietal eminences were 
prominent. Except in five crania there was no definite ridge in the sagittal line, and 
the slope outwards from it, as well as the curvature of the vault to the parietal 
eminences, was much the same asin Group A. As arule the crania were cryptozygous 
both in A and B, but in some specimens in Group B the zygomatic arches could be 
distinctly seen from the norma verticalis. 

Norma Lateralis.—In a few of the crania in both Groups A and B the glabella and 
| Supra-orbital ridges were moderately projecting ; in others these ridges were so slight 


730 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


as to be scarcely noticeable; but in none was the projection very strong. In one from 
the Insein jail an old depressed fracture was seen in the left frontal region just above 
the orbit ; in two others from the same prison the frontal bone had been broken, and in 
a fourth the frontal and parietals had been extensively fractured during life. As a rule 
the forehead receded no more than one is accustomed to see in well-formed male skulls, 
The cranial vault was usually fairly well arched, and the parieto-occipital region showed 
the characters already described. In thirteen specimens the skulls rested behind on the 
tips of the mastoids, in the remainder on the cerebellar part of the occiput. In all the © 
crania, with three exceptions, the occipital longitudinal arc was the shortest, and in 
most instances it was considerably below either the frontal or parietal. In twelve 
crania the parietal are exceeded the frontal, and in three they were equal. The osseous 
bridge of the nose was often elongated, moderately projecting at its tip, and its outline 
was slightly concave. In the specimens with the projecting glabella the fronto-nasal 
suture was somewhat depressed, but the face did not show a marked flattening in the 
nasal region. The nasal spine of the superior maxille was, as a rule, only moderate, 
but in some skulls it was more strongly marked. A distinct ridge of demarcation: 
separated the incisive region from the floor of the nose. In many of the crania the 
incisive region of the upper jaw was almost vertical, in others it projected slightly 
forward ; it was exceptional to see a marked amount of alveolar prognathism. In some 
specimens the incisive and canine fossee were deep. The orbits showed much variation 
in the relations of height and width. 
In many of the crania the crowns of the teeth were flattened and much stained with 
betel-chewing. The palate was moderately arched ; the mastoid processes, temporal and 
occipital ridges were not strong, as a rule, but in only a few specimens was the inion 
projecting. In a few of the crania the sutures were in process of obliteration, two 
skulls were metopic, the lambdoidal suture was usually free from Wormian bones, and 
in only two specimens were they numerous. The parieto-sphenoid articulation in the 
pterion was, as a rule, broad. Three skulls had an epipteric bone on one side, in one 
on both sides, and in two crania the squamous temporal articulated with the frontal on 
one side. No skull had an exostosis in the auditory meatus, but the left tympanic 
plate in one was much thickened at its free outer edge. In two skulls the external 
pterygoid plate was broadened backwards, but did not quite reach the spine of the 
sphenoid, so that the osseous boundary of a pterygo-spinous foramen was not 
completed. No skull had a third condyle, and in none was a para-mastoid process 
present, although in a few specimens the jugal process was tuberculated ; an infra- 
orbital suture was occasionally seen. Variations from the normal ossification in this 
series of crania were therefore not common. As arule the sutures of the cranial vault 
were simple in their denticulations. | 
The examination of the series of thirty-seven male skulls, and the study of their 


absolute and relative dimensions in certain diameters, as expressed in the tables of |— 


measurement, have given the following results. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 


TaBLeE III. 


Burmese, from Insein Prison. 


BP re 
= ‘9 
= es 
23 | Aged. 
¢ WG |) site 
‘ abs 1460 
occipital length, | 177 | 166 
reomatic height, .| 141 | 142 
al Index, ml 7937 ||) Soro: 
um frontal dia- 
aL! 94 
aaG 113 
105 97 
143 150s. 
meindex, . -.| 80'8| 90°4 
circumference,) ... | 503 
i 134 129 
140 123 
111 109 
385 361 
317 | 323 
34 32 
96 103 
97 102 
dex, 0 - 6 || OHO) || EK)? 
omatic breadth, | 187 | 141 
e 123 | 124 
ental length, .| 117 | 122 
ental complete 
al Index, 854 | 865 
é Oe le 12 
52°5| 51° 
55 54 
22 26 
40'0| 48:1 
43 42 
33 37 
76°7 | 881 
56 57 
63 70 
112°2 | 122°8 
34 385 
63 64 
” 65 64 
) - symphysial 
mgih,. . .| 86 89 
gonial width, 97 97 
sh of ascend- 
35 37 


Prome. 


Shwe Hman. 


107° 


Shwe Htun. 


> 
oO 


120° 
3l 
64 
63 


89 
95 


36 


65 
120°3 
36 
65 
68 


93 
105 


36 


Tharrawaddy. 


ie || 
Veer esl 


78°2 


oo 
Nj 


109 


i 
i=) 
oo 


142 


~ 
ive} 
Ee 
a 


129 
120 
iat 
360 
294 


385 
95 
88 
92°6 
130 
115 
118 


90°7 
74 


56'9 
53 
21 

39°6 
37 
36 

973 
52 
66 

126°9 

32 
62 
65 


86 
104 


29 


Kwe Yoe. 


i) 
oo 


949 
127 
112 
113 


88'3 
67 


62°7 
53 
22 
4L'5 
40 
38 
95°0 
49 
55 
112°2 
29 
55 
60 


92 
94 


35 


| Shwe Noe. 


| Ngwe Thee. 


731 
Hanthawaddy. 

S| 43 

ay ZS 


732 


Name, with Place 
or Province. 


DET sc oe 
SGX, es : 
Cubic capacity, 
Glabello-occipital length, 
Basi-bregmatic height, 
Vertical Index, ° 
Minimum frontal dia- 
meter, . . 
Stephanic diameter, 
Asterionic An 
Greatest parieto- squam- 
ous breadth, 4 
Cephalic Index, as 


Horizontal circumference, 


Frontal longitudinal are, 
Parietal en A 
Occipital a ci 
Total 


Vertical transverse are, 
_ Length of foramen Poy 


num, 

Basi-nasal length, 

| Basi-alveolar length, 

| Gnathie Index, : 

Interzygomatic breadth, 

Intermalar 

Nasio-mental length, 

Nasio-mental complete 
Sacial Index, 

Nasio-alveolar length, 

Maxillary wpper eg 
Indez, . . 

Nasal height, 

Nasal width, 

Nasal Index, . . 

Orbital width,. . 

Orbital height, 

Orbital Index, ¢ 

Palato- maxillary length, 


Palato-maxillary breadth, 


Palato-maxillary Index, 
( Symphysial height, 
Coronoid AB 
Al Condyloid As 
Gonio - apepayaial: 
length, 
Inter- sania width, 
| Breadth of ascend- 
Ling ramus, 


Lower jaw. 


PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Taste LY. 


Burmese, from Insein Prison. 


mee th pe ra) 
8a aS 3 
PEEP] oe 
a A BR] Ae 
ao =I 
as|48] 2 
7) 
61 85 Ad. 
M. M. M. 
1240 | 1235 | 1480 
173 | 168 | 167 
8p) |) ages || apy 
763 | 79:2) 78:4 
93 94 91 
105 | 108 | 112 
106 | 105 | 104 
136s. | 138s. | 147s. 
786 | 79:2) 88° 
493 | 478 | 502 
121 129 126 
127 | 118 | 127 
107 99 109 
355 | 3846 | 362 
290 | 291 | 311 
35 36 35. 
96 94 89 
92 95 | 108 
95°8 | 101°1 | 121°3 
125 130 133 
lye |) apa |) aleXo) 
108 | 106 | 116 
86'4| 81:5 | 87'2 
66 63 68 
§2'8| 48:4) S11 
52 49 48 
29 26 24 
§5°8| 58:1| 50: 
38 36 40 
34 32 85 
89'S | 88:°9| 875 
50 53 50 
59 60 64 
LIS” \\1859) 1238 
28 28 36 
63 55 61 
66 64 64 
90 86 83 
93 | 105 | 103 
38 87 82 


Lu Gyi, 
Monyo. 


San Kun, 
Monyo. 


Ad, 
M. 
1240 

“179 
130 
72°6 


91 
102 
107 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


. =] 
eck lies 
gE ge | FE 
22) | 23 
= ms | Aa 
a 
52 56 57 
M. M. M. 
1670 | 13850 =. 
UG) |) al) |) ake) 
139 | 141 | 145 
77-7 | 98:8) 8-4 
98 95 98 
121 | 108 | 118 
112 | 119 | 114 
151s. | 139s. | 140 
BHA) 77 | 757 
527 | 510 | 518 
135 | 129 | 187 
140 | 121 | 126 
tye) | dle, 28 
888 | 365 | 387 
3825 | 301 3ll 
39 33 37 
98 | 106 | 101 
96 | 106 93 
98° | 100° 92°1 
137 | 188 | 137 
127 | 126 126 
122 | 118 | 122ap 
89° | 85'°5| 89:0 
75 69 74 
54°7| 50° | 54:0 
56 53 53 
27 27 27 
48°2| 60°9| 50°9 
40 39 43 
37 Be |. -82 
92°5| 87'2| VA4 
a 55 50 
70 68 
ie 6 | 1272 | 186°0 
32 36 38 
Gil 70. | 462 
64 73 66 
90 94 80 
115 | 106 98 
32 44 37 


Shwe In, 
Sagaing. 


8b Ales 
Siac <3 
ag 183 | Be 
bid | Ae | ag 
eos) r=] 5 on 
o4 | 58/46 
BS = = were 
a o|e 
Metopic. 
44 29 Ad. 
M. M. M. 
1480 | 1340 | 1830 
179 161 168 
136 136 131 
76'0| 84°5| 78 
94 95 91 
111 110 101 
111 111 105 
142 146s. | 132s. 
79°3| 90°'7| 786 
516 484 485 
129 129 125 
129 103 127 
113 106 99 
371 338 351 
301 306 291 
36 35 33 
102 99 95 
102 96 98 
100° 97° | 103°2 
139 142 130 
126 131 118 
120 113 109 
86°3| 79°5 | 83'8 
74 68 64 
538'2) 47°8| 49:2 
55 51 49 
25 26 23 
45'5 | 51° 46°9 
39 40 38 
33 35 31 
846 | 87'°5| 81'6 
62 54 53 
68 67 64 
109°6 | 124 
35 30 40 
71 63 62 
74 68 67 
91 94 89 
97 110 83 
33 40 40 


Tun U, Myan- 
aung. 


120°7 | 123°6 | 118° 
32 33 


60 
69 


79 
88 


34 


Yebouk. 


Aung Myat, 


66 | 
67° 


93 | 99 


Ih 


Name or Native Place. 


= <0 ay ooo. a i 
J soll Oo © | 


n frontal diameter, . 
diameter, 


arieto-squamous breadth, 


circumference, 
gitudinal are, 


” bb) 
a ” ” 
] transverse arc, 
foramen magnum, 


r length, . : 
upper facial Index, 


oer : 

lary length, 

axillary breadth, 

cillary Index, 

hysial height, 
d 


TABLE VY. 
Burmese. 
Vever 
Ava Saun rise 
Proper: aves reed : 
District, 
H.T.158 | Insein. | E.U.A.M. 
Ad. 53 Ad. 
M. M. M. 
1248 1330 1300 
158 172 Wis 
Teil 139 132 
829 80°8 76°3 
92 92 96 
112 109 110 
106 109 104 
141s. 139 139s. 
89'2 80°8 50°3 
481 486 500 
118 123 129 
112 Ae) 117 
100 106 107 
330 344 353 
305 298 297 
37 38 33 
97 102 99 
98 103 100 
101° 101°0 HOT 
135 139 134 
123 125 125 
ate 116 110 
~ 834 82° 
71 69 63 
52S) 49°6 47° 
52 52 49 
26 24 26 
50: 46°0 631 
40 39 41 
31 33 31 
CSS 846 75°6 
53 56 55 
68 63 66 
128°3 172°2 120: 
me 29 31 
63 74 
64 64 
88 93 
104 100 
492 38. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 


733 


Paudun. 
Ye-U. 


Mugan. Nga 
Ye-U. Pota, 


E.U.A.M. | E.U.A.M. | E.U.A.M. 


21 Aged. 32 
M. M. M. 
1405 1160 1600 
178 163 176 
131 127 140 
73-6 77-9 79°5 
92 93 97 
109 105 114 
108 105 111 
143s, 140s, 147s. 
80°83 85-9 835 
B15 482 515 
130 124 132 
125 iy 129 
108 102 107 
363 343 368 
306 293 314 
36 33 38 
100 91 102 
95 3 96 
95° Ee 941 
131 130 138 
119 121 123 
130 “0 1s 
99°2 * on 
74 ty. 70 
564 a 50°7 
53 46 56 
22 25 28 
415 548 50: 
40 36 40 
33 34 33 
82-5 94-4 82:5 
53 * 61 
61 in 64 
115: 125°5 
37 Ws a 
60 54 

62 61 

88 82 

86 94 

40 35 


734 . PROFESSOR SIR. W. TURNER ON 


In the glabello-occipital length the crania ranged from a maximum 186 mm. toa 
minimum 158 mm., and the mean of the series was 172°8 mm. In their parieto- 
squamous breadth the maximum was 153 mm., the minimum 132 mm., and the mean 
141°7 mm. The mean length-breadth (cephalic) index was 82:1, which placed the series 
well into the brachycephalic group. In only two crania was this index below 75, and | 
of the ten specimens which were mesaticephalic eight were above 77°5, 2.¢., nearer to 
the brachycephalic than to the dolichocephalic standard. On the other hand eight 
specimens had a cephalic index of 85 or upwards, and two of these were above 90, so. 
that a sensible proportion were hyper-brachycephalic. Both as regards the numerical 
index and the configuration of the cranium generally, there can be no doubt that the 
customary form of the Burmese skull is brachycephalic. The few exceptional specimens | 
which had an elongated shape and an index either dolichocephalic or approximating | 
thereto, are probably to be regarded as affiliated to the people with Coa 
skulls described in the earlier paragraphs in Part II. . 

In the basi-bregematic height the crania ranged from a maximum of 145 mm. ide 
minimum of 127 mm., and the mean was 135°1 mm. The mean length-height (vertical) 
index was 78'2, which placed the series in the group of skulls termed akrocephalie or 
hypsicephalic, z.e., with a high vertical index. But notwithstanding this relatively high 
index, in only oe specimens did the vertical index slightly exceed the cephalic, and — 
in two others they were equal. That the breadth of the skull is greater than the height 
is therefore a character which prevails in the Burmese skull. ts 

The mean stephanic diameter, 109°2 mm., slightly exceeded the mean asterionic 
diameter, 106°8 mm., and the mean minimum frontal diameter was 93°1 mm. The 
bizygomatic aimee with a mean of 133°7 mm. ranged from 125 to 144 mm., ana in 
each skull it invariably exceeded the intermalar. P 

The measurements made for the purpose of determining the length and breadth of 
the face gave the following results :—In thirty-five skulls the lower jaw was present, 
and the complete nasio-mental diameter, which ranged from 103 to 130 mm., had a 
mean length of 115°7 mm. ; in its relation to the bizygomatic diameter the resulting index 
was in the mean 86°3, which places the crania in the chameeprosopic or low-faced group — 
of Kollmann. In only six specimens did the index exceed 90, so as to bring these 
crania into the leptoprosopic division. ‘In these skulls the upper facial index gave a 
different result, for although it had a range from 47 to 57, the mean was 52, which 
places the face generally in the leptoprosopic or high upper face group, and no fewer 
than twenty-six of these crania came into this category. The vertical diameter 
of the lower jaw in the mental region does not therefore contribute proportionally | 
to the length of the face in the same measure as the vertical diameter of the superior | 

maxilla. | 

In eighteen skulls the basi-nasal diameter was greater than the basi-alveolar, m 
thirteen it was slightly less, in one materially less, and in two they were equal. The 
mean gnathic index, calculated on the relations of these two diameters, was 98°9, which 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 735 


shows how nearly equal they were in their mean relative proportions, so that they fall 
into the mesognathic group. It was exceptional to see a marked degree of alveolar 
prognathism. 

The mean nasal index was 48°6, thus on the average the nasal height was some- 
thing more than twice the width; though in the individual specimens the index ranged 
from 40°0 to 59:1. They came collectively just within the mesorhine group, but five 
specimens had the index above 53, v.e., were platyrhine, and fourteen were leptorhine. 
The mean orbital index was 85:0, though in individual orbits it ranged from 73'2 to 97°3 ; 
the skulls collectively came within the mesoseme group, though ten were megaseme and 
fourteen were microseme. The mean palato-maxillary index was 119°7, and the range 
was from 106°8 to 136-0. In twenty-four specimens the index was 115 and upwards ; they 
were brachyuranic, and showed a wide palato-alveolar diameter in relation to the length. 

As regards the cubic capacity it must be remembered that all the skulls were males. 
The mean of twenty-eight specimens capable of being measured was 1388 c.c., which 
places them in the mesocephalic group. One skull had a capacity of only 1160 «ec. ; 
two were 1600 and 1670 c.c. respectively, and one had the remarkably high capacity 
1820 c.c.; but these were exceptional, and the usual capacity ranged from 1240 to 
1450 c.c. 

To sum up, the Burmese proper are brachycephalic ; as a rule the cranial breadth is 
ereater than the height; the face is low, chamzprosopic; the upper jaw is moderately 
projecting, mesognathic ; the nasal width is moderate in relation to the height; the 
orbits vary in their dimensions, but the mean is mesoseme ; the palato-alveolar arch 
is wide in relation to the length; the cranial capacity is moderate. 


Part IT. TasuE VI. 


In this part are included the description of some skulls from Burma, which appa- 
rently belonged to tribes that form distinct elements in the population, and which may 
_ very properly be considered apart from those which belonged to the customary type of 
the people. With one exception, they were all apparently men. 

H. T., No. 159 (Table VI.), referred to on page 728, though catalogued by the 
Henderson Trust as a Burmese skull, is not associated with any definite locality, and 
on this account and from its special character it has not been included in the preceding 
description. In the proportion of length and breadth it was distinctly dolichocephalic 
(72°2), and its outline in the norma verticalis was so elongated that it presented a 
striking contrast to the usual brachycephalic Burmese cranium. It was keeled in the 
anterior half of the sagittal region, from which the parietals sloped downwards to their 
eminences, below which the side walls of the skull were almost vertical. It 
differed also from the customary type of the Burmese skulls in having its basi- 
bregmatic height and vertical index considerably higher than its greatest breadth 
and cephalic index. The skull was pheenozygous. The forehead was narrow, but was 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 28). D2 


736 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


7 


almost vertical. The glabella and supra-orbital ridges were feeble. The nasal bridge 
was concave, depressed above and slightly projecting below; the anterior nares were 
wide, and the nasal index was distinctly platyrhine. The nasal spine of the superior 
maxillze was moderate, and an imperfect ridge separated the incisive region from the 
floor of the nose. The absence of the lower jaw prevented the proportions of the entire 
face from being taken, but the upper face was leptoprosopic. Some small Wormian | 
bones were in the lambdoidal suture, and there was a large left epipteric bone. The 
prognathism of the upper jaw was well marked; the breadth of the orbit was materially 
greater than the height, and the index was microseme. ‘The combination of the most 
important of these characters caused the skull to differ from the type described in Part 
I., so that it does not possess the customary features of a Burmese skull. 

The two skulls obtained from an old cemetery in upper Burma also differed 
materially in character from the brachycephalic crania sent to me from the Insein 
jail. They were both distinctly dolichocephalic both in form and measurements, and | 
in each specimen the height exceeded the breadth. In this respect they corresponded 
with the skull 159 above described in the collection of the Henderson Trust. They did 
not, however, possess the prognathic condition of the upper jaw, which was a feature 
in that specimen. Although the nasal bones were not projecting, the proportions of 
the nose were not platyrhine. As the two dimensions of the orbit were more nearly 
on an equality, the orbital index was higher than in 159. The breadth of the palato- 
maxillary arch, in relation to the length, was not so great. In the male skull there was 
a small inter-parietal bone, and in the female, Wormian bones were in the lambdoidal 
suture. In one pterion in the female the ali-sphenoid had a very slight articulation with 
the parietal, in the other they were separated by a process continuous with the squamous 
temporal. 

It is obvious that a certain admixture with the brachycephalic Burmese of a race or 
races with dolichocephalic proportions of the skull is to be found in Burma. It is 
possible that they may be the descendants of the aboriginal people, or be those of 
persons, or the descendants of persons, who had migrated into Burma from the hill dis- 
tricts at present inhabited by a dolichocephalic race. . 

One of the skulls from Insein, marked Erinia, was from Ralum, Akyab, in the 
northern part of Burma, south of Chittagong, where the people are for the most part 
Mahommedans. It was that of a man, said to be seventy years of age, whose height 
was 5 ft. 6 in. The condition of the sutures and the state of the teeth proved it to be 
that of a person who had passed middle life. The skull was hyper-brachycephalie, with 
a vertical parieto-occipital region, which pointed to artificial flattening during infaney. | 
The height of the cranium was considerably less than the breadth. The skull was | 
eryptozygous. The glabella and supra-orbital ridges were well marked, and the fore- 
head sloped gently backwards and upwards. The nasal bridge was moderate in length, | 
slightly concave, and somewhat depressed at the root; the nasal index was platyrhine. 
The upper jaw was not prognathous, the incisive region was short, but separated from 


| 


Burma, 
no 


3 Here. 
tive Place or Province. 


i Locality. | Karen. 
- |H.T. 159) Insein. 
é Ad. 23 
; ; - | 1345 | 1420 
ipital length, . | 180 175 
atic height, . 136 134 
dex, . : 70560) 766: 
ontal diameter, 91 85 
meter, 101 106 
—_ : - | 103 105 
_ parieto - squamous 
: 130p. | 141 
: 72:2 | 806 
cumference, 504 498 
udinal arc, 132 128 
- - | 120 118 
7 . | 124 116 
5 pales (0 362 
verse arc, 302 300 
amen magnum, . 35 32 
length, . 97 97 
r length, 105 97 
. 108°2 | 100: 
ic breadth, 130 121 
a Seat 109 
ength, . : Ane 109 
complete facial 
= : ape 90: 
length, . 5 70 67 
per facial Index,! 53:8 | 55:3 
: : : 52 53 
29 26 
55°8 | 49-1 
38 36 
28 30 
ew, c 73:7 | 83:8 
illary length, 59 50 
ary breadth, 68 61 
ary Index, 1152 | 122: 
sial height, So 24 
” 54 
” 57 
physial length, 80 
mial width, 96 


Toungoo, 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 


Tasie VI. 


Karen, Shan, ete. 


ae Ko To, 
ete LS epeae| See 
y Shan. Yunnan. 
Insein. Insein.|T.C.D. 
70 40 27 
1410 ane 1510 
167 186 178 
136 147 146 
81h 79-0| 82:0 
92 96 94 
116 110 107 
115 113 109 
150 150 140 
89:8 80:6) 78:7 
501 5388 | 505 
MW 2/ 133 117 
118 140 135 
110 124 Qe 
355 397 374 
Bil? 320 | 306 
32 35 34 
106 102 107 
104 101 100 
98-1 99:0| 93:5 
140 140 141 
125 123 118 
113 129 113 
80°7 92: 80-1 
65 74 67 
464 52:8) 47-5 
52 55 54 
29 24 26 
55°8 486 | 481 
38 38 4] 
33 Bil 34 
86'8 816|\ 82:9 
52 58 53 
zee 68 oe 
be HHP ON ace 
31 38 30 
60 65 65 
66 68 63 
90 85 88 
107 105 95 
43 38 36 


737 


Shan | San Min, Old 
Gyi, | Southern) Cemetery, 
Tharra-| Shan Upper 
waddy. | States. | Burma, © 
Insein.| Insein. |E.U.A.M. 
55 24 Aged. 
1360 | 1380 BAG 
175 181 185 
135 133 138 
joa 736 7L6 
96 89 89 
108 107 108 
101 106 105 
135 
140 134 
80:0; 740 73° 
506 502 518 
120 122 123 
140 124 
Tomales Lass 
370 360 376 
301 292 308 
31 36 33 
103 102 103 
109ap| 105 96 
105°8| 102°9 93°2 
138 125 50n 
129 112 
120 115 
87° 92:0 
72 69 72 
52: 55'2 one 
52 53 56 
25 24 28 
48°2| 453 50: 
4] 38 4] 
30 33 34 
73:2| 86:8 2:9 
58ap| 58 300 
65 62 
112° | 106°8 S00 
37 35 30 
68 71 63 
71 69 68 
99 95 83 
105 88 98 
47 40 35 


Old 
Cemetery, 
Upper 
Burma. 


EU.AM. 
Ad. 
F. 
1270 
181 
135 
746 
93 
109 
102 
129 


71:3 
502 
121 
120 
125 
366 
296 

34 
100 

99 

99:0 


114 


738 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


the floor of the nose by a long ridge; the nasal spine was moderate. The orbital index 
was mesoseme. The interzygomatic breadth, 140 mm., was a feature in the face, and 
both the entire facial and upper facial indices were chameeprosopic. The cranial 
capacity was moderate, 1410 cc Owing to the extensive senile obliteration of the 
sutures, nothing can be said as to. Wormian or epipteric bones. 

The skull shows no material difference from the Burmese type, so that although a 
Mahommedan in religion he was probably of the Burmese race. 

The skull marked Karen from the jail at Insein was that of a man named Here, aged 
twenty-three, 5 ft. 12 in. in height. In the relation of length to breadth it was 
brachycephalic, and the vertical index was distinctly below the length-breadth index. 
The outline in the norma verticalis was broadly ovoid, and the parieto-occipital slope 
was not so steep as to suggest artificial Hattening in that region. The cranium was 
moderately capacious, and contained 1420 cc. The skull was cryptozygous. The 
forehead was full, sloping moderately backwards, and the glabella and supra-orbital 
ridges projected very slightly. The nasal bridge was elongated, concave, not depressed 
at the root, and slightly projecting below ; the nose in its proportions was mesorhine. 
The nasal spine of the superior maxillze was small, and the incisive region was continued 
into the floor of the nose by a smooth surface. The basi-nasal and basi-alveolar 
diameters were equal and the upper jaw was mesognathous. In its dimensions the 
orbit was microseme. The entire face in the relations of length and breadth was 
chameeprosopic, but the upper face was leptoprosopic. The interzygomatic breadth, 
121 mm., was relatively smal]. The ossification of the cranium was normal. tL 

So far as a single skull can enable one to express an opinion on the cranial characters _ 
of a people, it would appear that the Karens are a brachycephalic race. This view of 
the proportion of the breadth to the length of the cranium is borne out by two male — 
skulls marked Karen, the measurements of which are recorded in Sir Wm. F LOWER'S” | 
Catalogue of the Museum of the College of Surgeons. In one the length-breadth index 
was 82°9, in the other 79°2. It should be stated that in both of these the height of 
the cranium exceeded the breadth. The mean gnathic index was 98°5. 

The collection from Insein contained the skull of a man marked Shan, named Ko 
Nanda, whose height is given as 5 ft. 5 in. His death was caused by a fracture of 
the skull. I have also had the opportunity of examining the skull of another Shan 
named Nga To, said to be twenty-seven years of age, a native of Yunnan, now in 
Professor Cunningham’s Museum. ‘These skulls differed from each other in some 
particulars. Nanda was brachycephalic, 80°6, without artificial parieto-occipital 
flattening ; Nga To, again, was in the higher term of the mesaticephalic series. In 
Nanda the height of the cranium was less than the breadth, but in To the height 
materially exceeded the breadth. In both skulls the basi-nasal length exceeded the 
basi-alveolar, and there was no prognathism. In Nanda the glabella and supra-orbital 
ridges were feeble, and in To moderately projecting; the nasal bridge was concave, 
elongated, not depressed at the root, and projecting slightly forward below. The nasal 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 739 


region was generally flattened. In neither specimen was the nose platyrhine. In 
Nanda the nasal spine of the superior maxille was strong, the incisive fossa was deep 
and was separated from the floor of the nose by a ridge. In Nanda the index of the 

entire face was leptoprosopic ; in To it was chameeprosopic, and a similar proportion was 
seen in the upper facial index; but both specimens had great interzygomatic diameter. 
In both crania the orbital index was mesoseme. As regards the cubic capacity of the 
erania, Nanda was so much injured that the cubage of the skull could not be taken, but 
the capacity of To was 1510 c.c.* 

From the relations of length to breadth in the two Shan crania there can be little 
doubt that these people are in the main brachycephalic, as might have been expected 
from their Siamese and Chinese affinities. 

For purposes of comparison I may refer to four adult male skulls in the Anatomical 
Museum of the University, which belong to the collection formed by Dr R. Broom. 
They are from Bangkok ; three are undoubted Siamese, whilst the one lettered A in 
Table VII. is said to be probably a cross between a Malay and a Siamese.t Their 
measurements are given in the Table. 

All the crania were brachycephalic, both in their general form and numerical propor- 
tion; and in three the flattened parieto-occipital region showed evidence of artificial 
pressure applied during infancy. In each specimen the height was not equal to the 
breadth. In three specimens the frontal longitudinal are was longer than either the 
parietal or occipital. The glabella and supra-orbital ridges were not prominent, and the 
forehead only slightly receded. The nasal bones had so small a degree of projection 
that the face was flattened in that region, and the nasal index was mesorhine. The 
nasal spine of the superior maxille was well marked, and the incisive region of the 
upper jaw was differentiated from the floor of the nose by a ridge. In one specimen the 
jaw was orthognathic ; the others showed to the eye a degree of alveolar prognathism 
| greater than was indicated by the gnathic index. Although in one specimen the 
complete facial index was 92°8, in the others the face was low, chamzprosopic, a con- 
dition which was obviously due to the breadth between the zygomata. The orbital 
index was variable, and in only two crania the orbits could be regarded as round or 
| megaseme. The palato-alveolar region was either mesuranic or brachyuranic. The 
Mean cubic capacity of the four skulls was 1332 cc. The teeth were stained with 
betel-chewing. In two specimens an epipteric bone was present, in one there were two 
small Wormian bones. One had flat occipital condyles, which were not associated with 
athird condyle. The palate was highly arched, and the lower jaw was well developed. 
_ In the Barnard Davis Collection, now in the Museum of the Royal College of 


* From the name, Shan Gyi, of one of the men from the jail at Insein (Table VI.), it is possible that he may have 
been a Shan. It is to be observed that his skull was also brachycephalic. Another skull, that of San Min (Table VI.), 
described as from the Southern Shan States, was distinctly dolichocephalic, index 74, so that it differed from both the 
Burmese and Shan type of cranium, and probably belonged to a foreign race. 

+ A fifth adult specimen is in the collection, but as it has been deformed, apparently from hydrocephalus, the 
| Measurements have not been given. Its internal capacity was 1930 c.c. 


PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Collection vai R: wie 

Age, 

Sex, 

Cubic capacity, : 

Glabello-occipital length, 

Basi-bregmatic height, 

Vertical Index, 

Minimum frontal diameter, 

Stephanic diameter, 

Asterionic " 

Greatest parieto - squamous 
breadth, d 

Cephalic Index, 

Horizontal circumference, 

Frontal longitudinal are, 

Parietal ‘ - 

Occipital 3 3 

Total 55 - 

Vertical transverse arc, : 

Length of foramen magnum, . 

Basi-nasal length, . 

Basi-alveolar length, 

Gnathic Index, 

Interzygomatic breadth, 

Intermalar 

Nasio-mental length, ‘ 5 

Nasio-mental complete facial 
Index, 

Nasio-alveolar length, 

Maxillary upper aes Index, 

Nasal height, : 

Nasal width, 

Nasal Inden, 

Orbital width, 

Orbital height, 

Orbital Index, 

Palato-maxillary length, 

Palato-maxillary breadth, 

Palato-maxillary Index, 

Symphysial height, 

Coronoid % 

Condyloid : 

Gonio-symphysial length, 

Inter-gonial width, : 

Breadth of ascending 
ramus, 3 ; 


Lower jaw. 


TABLE -VII. 
Siamese. 
: aaa 
ross between 
Sete Warng. 
Malay. 
A. B. 
Ad, 31 
M M. 
1330 1270 
168 162 
138 131 
82:1 80'9 
88 92 
113 114 
108 100 
139 137s 
827 846 
494 484 
135 127 
116 123 
114 98 
365 348 
305 305 
30 35 
98 94 
92 93 
939 989 
128 126 
118 117 
113 117 
882 92:8 
67 67 
623 531 
53 52 
26 25 
49:1 48°2 
37 40 
34 33 
91:9 82:5 
53 52 
62 62 
116°9 119:2 
26 28 
63 68 
67 68 
88 89 
91 104 
39 40 


D. 
Ad. 
M. 
1400 
173 
138 
79'8 
95 
115 
105 


144s. 
832 
502 


Metopic 
Hydro- 
cephalic. 


Ad. 

M. 
1930 
Size and 
proportions 
abnormal, 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 741 


—~ wii 


Surgeons of England, are several skulls from Siam, which are catalogued by the name 
‘hai.* Six of the crania ranged in their length-breadth index from 80 to 89, and the 
m was 85; they were distinctly brachycephalic. A seventh specimen was dolicho- 
halic, index 73, which Dr Davis ascribes to the sides of the coronal suture having 
n obliterated: an explanation which does not appear to me to be satisfactory. There 
can be no doubt that the normal shape of the Siamese skull is brachycephalic. 

The University Museum also contains a collection of crania ascribed to natives of 
China. With the greater number the history supports the view that they are undoubted 
Jhinese, but two or three specimens are uncertain. They are all adults; eleven are male, 
two female. Their measurements are given in Table VIII. 

I do not intend to give a detailed description of this series of skulls. I may, 
however, state that one skull obtained at Chusan was dolichocephalic (index 74°3), 
were brachycephalic, five were mesaticephalic. Of the latter three had the cephalic 
ex above 77'5; the remaining two, with the index 76:9, had a doubtful history, 
, as well as one from Chusan, were possibly not true Chinese. Even if we include 
the specimens the cephalic index works out with a mean 81°2, and if the doubtful 
naens be excluded, it is a little higher, and the mean of the entire series is brachy- 
ephalic. The breadth of the cranium exceeded the height in all but three specimens. 

t s the lower jaw had not been preserved in the majority of the crania, the 
mplete facial index could only be obtained in three skulls, which were low-faced, 
eeprosopic. I have compared these crania, as regards their interzygomatic breadth, 
the corresponding dimension in neighbouring Mongolian people, whose skulls 
ximate in general magnitude, and also with the Esquimaux. From the appended 
t will be seen that in this diameter the Chinese face has a less transverse 
ster than the Burmese, Shans, Nagds and Esquimaux, though somewhat greater 
han in the small number of Siamese under examination. 


ee 


- ———— 


Number of Skulls. Sex. Mean Interzyg. Diam. 
Chinese, : : f 11 M. 132°5 
Siamese, : : : 4 M. Teles) 
Burmese, : : : 38 M. 133-7 
Shans, . ‘ f : 2 M. 140°5 
Chin-Lushais, . . 5 9 M. 128°8 
Nagas, . oe eee ‘ 6 M. 135°3 
Esquimaux, ; : : 18 M. 138-0 


So far as the degree of prognathism can be determined by the measurements from 
he gnathic index is computed the skulls generally were orthognathous, but three 
esoonathous. The only prognathic skull was the one found at Chusan with a 
sth-breadth index of 74°3, an additional reason therefore for regarding it as not a 
mine Chinaman. As a rule the nose was either mesorhine or leptorhine. Four 
imens were platyrhine, and the Chusan skull was in this category. In six crania 


* Thesaurus Craniorum, p.174. The mean interzygomatic diameter of these crania was 132 mm. 


742 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


Taste VILL. 3 


Chinese. 
* 
“ 
E.U.A.M, | H.T. | B.D: | ED.) E00.) | Ete ter 
Collection, . . E.U.A.M.*| E.U.A.M.+] E.U.A.M. |E.U.A.M.3) Hong 161 | 163 | 165 | 169 | 170 | 494 
Kong. Chusan. 
Age, « ie ees Ad. Ad. Ad, Ad, a Aged.| ‘Ad. | Ad, |Aged.| Ad. | Ad. 
Sex, . spay M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. 
Cubic capacity, 1320 As 1870 1400 a 1835 | 1590 | 1540 | 1800 | 13830 | 1840 
Glabello-occipital length, 175 170 182 175 166 167 179 168 170 179 | 168 
Basi-bregmatic height, 129 136ap. 129 141 134 186 | 144 | 141 | 187 |) 126 | Toi 
Vertical height, WS'7 80° 70°9 806 80°7 81'4| 80°4| 83:9) 80°6| 7O'4) 80-4) 
Minimum frontal dia. ’ 
meter, . R 94 100 95 90 90 93 92 91 92 86 95 
Stephanie diameter, 109 116 105 107 100 105 119 113 112 112 116 
Asterionic oo 114 108 108 111 100 107 WO fall 116 | 108 | 104 
Greatest parieto- squam- Na 
ous breadth, . 143 148 140 138 133 143 142 | 150s.| 148s.) 1383 | 1389 
Cephalic Index, : 817 87-1 76°9 789 80-1 86'6| 793) 893| BL1| 743\ 82-7) 
Horizontal cireumference,| 505 is 510 500 479 490 | 512 | 503 | 500 | 498 | 495 
Frontal longitudinal are, 122 128 127 130 117 118 133 128 | 183 115 | 122 
Parietal __,, ia 123 130 131 130 127 120 | 134 | 130 | 118 | 114 | 199 
ae as an 121 114 109 117 104 102 115 110 124 130 113 | Il 
Total 366 372 367 377 348 3840 | 382 868 | 870 | 859 | 857 | B4 
Vertical transverse arc, : 297 aos 289 313 295 300 | 815 | 317 | 3810 | 295 | 20855 
Length of foramen mag- 
num, . Jue 30 32 36 82 35 37 36 30 36 85 
Basi-nasal length, mie ite 93 aN 99 93 98 106 99 94 95 96 94 
Basi-alveolar length, 90 ike 100 84 91 98 94 93 96 | 1038 90 | 86 
Qnathic Index, 4 96°8 ape 101° 90°3 92°9 92:°5| 94:9| 98:9 | 101:-1| 107'3| 957) 92% 
Interzygomatic breadth, | 132 139 134 128 126 141 | 134 | 182 | 124 | 182 | 136 11 
Intermalar 117 126 122 118 116 129 120 115 118 | 117 | 120 o 
Nasio-mental length, 116 113 a ee 114 re . 3 ‘ sg: Pree ee 
Nasio- mental complete ‘ 
facial Index, .| 878 812 90'4 a ¥ * 
Nasio-alveolar length, 73 66 71 70 70 72 66 66 70 of roe 
Maxillary vane oe 
Index, . 55°83 4T 4 554 $55 496 | 53°7| 50 53'2| 58 492) 50°4 
Nasal height, 51 50 47 51 52 56 56 53 49 52 54 
Nasal width, 24 24 26 24 25 26 24 28 26 28 26 24 
Nasal Index, 471 48 55:3 471 48:2 46'4| 428| 528| 58:1) 685| 48-1) 60 
Orbital width, 38 38 43 36 40 41 37 35 37 37 36 33 
Orbital height, 34 29 33 33 3183 85 33 385 35 81 81 | 82 
Orbital Index, 5 89°5 763 76°7 91:7 82:5 85'4| 89:2) 100 94:6 | 838| 861| 97° 
Palato- -maxillary length, 52 53 52ap 48 47 50 56 52 8 57 52 | 45 
Palato-maxillary breadth, 67 67 57 62 60 65 64 63 67 66 59 
Palato-mazillary Index, 1288 126'4 1096 129° 1276 =| 180° | 1142 | 122° ut 3 | 1175 | 1269 es 
Symphysial height, 39 37 se et 31 
Ccronoid ee 64 65 59 
= |Condyloid ,, 55 75 ‘ 56 
™ | Gonio - sparse) : 
S length, . 89 92 86 
z Inter- gonial width, 92 95 97 
| Breadth of ascend- ia 
ing ramus, . 33 87 Mes A 34 


: A 
* With skeleton—presented by G. D. Hutchison, Esq. _ + Presented by Dr More Reid. + Presented by Professor Greenfijt. 


* 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 743 


the orbit was rounded (megaseme), but in four the transverse diameter so much 
exceeded the vertical as to place them in the microseme group. In nine specimens the 
palato-alveolar arch was horseshoe-shaped, brachyuranic; in only two skulls it was 
elongated so as to be dolichuranic. 

In the Chinese the mean cranial capacity of the males was 1376°5 cc. They 
approximate closely, therefore, to the Burmese and Siamese in the volume of the cranial 
cavity. 


Since I began, about thirty-five years ago, to collect human crania for purposes 
of anthropological study, I have endeavoured, as far as possible, to obtain for each 
skull or group of skulls, a statement of the locality where the specimen was obtained, 
and of the conditions under which it was got. In a large majority I have found 
it possible to acquire these particulars, and ‘to speak therefore with some precision 
of the specimens. When I have resorted to the older collections to which I have 
had access, not unfrequently | have found a skull catalooued under some general 
designation, such as from Australia, from India, or from Ceylon, without any attempt 
being made to specify the exact locality. Such specimens, of course, have not the 


same value in determining the distribution of the two great groups of dolichocephali 


and brachycephali. 

In all cases, however, the conservator of a museum is dependent on the accuracy of 
the original collector, and the care with which the specimens have been marked. The 
series of crania described in this memoir have, with few exceptions, been gathered by 
members of the medical profession, who have carefully labelled them and given me an 
account of the locality, and the conditions under which they were collected. We may 
tely therefore on the specimens as representing, so far as they go, the crania of the 
people inhabiting the regions in which they were obtained. 

It will have been noticed that from time to time in the course of the description, I 
have referred to the occurrence of crania, brachycephalic in form and proportions, 
in districts where the skulls are usually dolichocephalic, and conversely of skulls, dolicho- 
cephalic in form and proportions, being found in districts where brachycephalic crania 


are the customary type. The question may, therefore, be very properly considered, in 


how far the contrasted forms of skulls which we designate by the terms dolichocephalic 
and brachycephalic, are to be regarded as two distinct race types, or merely extremes 
found in the same race, graded into each other by a series of intermediate forms. If 
the latter proposition be correct they would lose the value which has been assigned to 
them, since the time of Anprrs Rerzius, as important guides in the classification 
of races. In employing these terms it should be understood that I recognise with 
Broca and the later school of craniologists a mesaticephalic (mesocephalic) group, as 
interposed between the more extreme brachycephalic and dolichocephalic forms, and 
that, to enable a comparison to be made between my observations and those of crani- 


ologists generally, the arbitrary numerical division into dolichocephali, with the length- 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 28). a3 


744 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


breadth index below 75, mesaticephali, index from 75 to 80, and brachycephali, index 80 
and upwards, has been employed in this memoir. It is obvious that those mesati- 
cephalic skulls which have the length-breadth index below 77°5 approach nearer to the 
dolichocephali, whilst those with this index above 77°5 approximate to the brachy- 
cephali, Thus a skull with the index at or near 76 or 77 is in its form essentially 
dolichocephalic ; whilst one with an index at or near 78 or 79 is essentially brachy- 
cephalic, though not falling numerically into this category. 


ee et ee 


To assist one in determining the value of these classificatory characters as expressing 
racial distinctions, one should strive to obtain a sufficient number of skulls of a given 
race, and determine, both by inspection of their form and by actual measurement, how 
far they fall exclusively either into the brachycephalic or the dolichocephalic group, or 
present an admixture of both groups, or possess the form and proportion, termed mesati- 
cephalic, 2.¢e., intermediate to the two extremes. One ought not, however, to attach, 
as is sometimes done, too exclusive an importance in the determination of race char- 
acters to the differences expressed by the terms dolichocephalic and brachycephalic ; as 
if those races were necessarily allied to each other, which on the one hand had in common 
dolichocephalic skulls, or, on the other, heads brachycephalic in form and proportions.* 
Rerzius himself emphasised also the necessity of the study of the relative projection of 
the upper jaw, and employed the terms orthognathic and prognathic in his classification 
of races in accordance with their skull and head-forms. Since his time the relation 
between the length and breadth of the nose, the breadth and height of the orbit, the 
breadth and length of the palato-alveolar arch, the breadth and height of the face, the 
breadth and height of the box of the cranium, as well as its cubic capacity, have all 
attracted attention. The value of cranial characters as a basis for the classification of 
races depends therefore upon a comparison not only of the relative length and breadth | 
of the skull or head, but of several other characters. When, with but a slight range of 
variation, the majority of these characters correspond in a particular tribe or people, 
they may then properly be considered as the cranial and head characters of the 
race, and be of value for purposes of classification. 

It is not easy at the present time to find a race so pure that the possibility of an 
intermixture with another race may not at some previous period in the history of the 
race or the locality have taken place. In using this term ‘intermixture’ one should 
understand that it may cover one or other of two conditions. Either it may be 
produced by the cohabitation of parents of different races, whose offspring would there- 
fore be a half or mixed breed. Or by the residence side by side either, in the same 


~~ ee ee 


SE EE RO IE OE ET a SNe 


— 


* The question of the signification of brachycephaly and dolichocephaly has been discussed in a recent memoir by | 
Dr A. B. Meyer of Dresden, “On the Distribution of the Negritos in the Philippine Islands and elsewhere,” and he 
has arrived at the conclusion that they are not necessarily to be looked upon as constant factors in the determination of i 
racial features. He regards the Negritos and Papuans to be of one race, notwithstanding the differences in the form of i 
the skull and in the stature ; so that in his view considerable variability may exist in the physical characters of the | 


same Trace, 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 745 


village or in adjacent villages, of individuals or families of, say, two different races, 
one of which may have reached the place either as captives in war, or as invaders, 
and the other may represent the aboriginal inhabitants. Skulls collected in such a 
district would be therefore those of distinct races, and might possess very different 
forms and proportions, although cohabitation and the production of a mixed breed would 
also doubtless give rise to a people in which the individuality of the parent types would 
be lost. 

There are, however, certain parts of the globe where, from the climatic con- 
ditions, or the geographical position, an almost perfect isolation of the people is 
possible, and where one may expect to find the race as nearly as possible in its 
purity. 

It is customary, for instance, to speak of the Esquimaux as a dolichocephalic race, 
and numerous skulls have been measured and recorded in evidence of this character. 
For my present purpose I may refer to the specimens enumerated and measured in Sir 
Wa. Fiower’s catalogue,* where the mean cephalic index of twenty-seven crania was 72. 
Twenty-five of these crania ranged in the length-breadth index from 66:1, the 
minimum, to 76°6, the maximum, but two specimens were respectively 78°1 and 7877, 
7.€.,in the higher term of the mesaticephalic yroup. It is to be noted that both of 
these were from the eastern side in proximity to Baffin’s Bay, where the possibility of 
the production of a half-breed by intercrossing with a brachycephalic Dane is not 
unlikely to have occurred. 

In the Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh are twenty-two adult 
Hsquimaux crania collected at various places from Greenland to Behring Straits. 
Highteen of these had a mean length-breadth index 71°4, and the range was 
from 69°3 to 75°7; they may all be regarded as essentially dolichocephalic. The 
remaining four specimens presented different proportions, for the leneth-breadth 
indices ranged from 76°2 to 87, so that three were mesaticephalic and one hyper- 
brachycephalic. A special interest is to be attached to these four crania, as they 
belonged to the western division of the Esquimaux, and were collected by the late Mr 
JoHN Simpson, t Surgeon to H.M.S. Plover, at Point Barrow, Kotzebue Sound, on the 
American side of Behring Straits. From Mr Srmpson’s description communication 
takes place yearly with the Asiatic coast by boats, which cross the Straits after mid- 
summer, and an active trade is carried on between the Esquimaux and the Asiatics. 
Opportunities are therefore given for an intermixture of the brachycephalic people of 
Northern Asia with the dolichocephalic Esquimaux, and in this manner a crossing 
of the two races and the production of half-breed children could without difficulty arise ; 
or some of the Asiatics might, and it is probable do, stay and cohabit with the Esqui- 


* Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 1879. 

T See an excellent description of the locality and people by Mr John Simpson in the Nautical Magazine, vol. xxiii, 
Pp. 639, 1854. A fifth specimen from the same locality was dolichocephalic, with a length-breadth index 72°7. Tt is 
included in the eighteen crania referred to in the text. 


746 PROFESSOR SIR W. TURNER ON 


maux and be adopted as members of the tribe. One may therefore legitimately draw 
the conclusion that, as regards the Esquimaux, the occurrence of a brachycephalie 
cranium or of skulls in the higher terms of the mesaticephalic group may be accounted 
for by the introduction from without of another race possessing brachycephalic propor- | 
tions, and not by the evolution within the dolichocephalic Esquimaux of a brachycephalie 
type. i 
As regards certain of the other leading characters of the adult crania, it is to . 
_ observed that in the dolichocephalic Esquimaux, with few exceptions, the height of the 
cranium was greater than the breadth ; the nasal region was narrow and elongated and 
well within the leptorhine index, with the exception of one specimen which was meso- | 
rhine. The mean gnathic index was 99°5, mesognathous; one specimen only was pro- 
enathous; the index variation between 94, the lower, and 104'6, the bighest, was 10°6; 
and twelve out of sixteen specimens ranged only from 97°3 to 101. The skulls there- 
fore showed in these relations a remarkable constancy of type, in harmony with the | 
uniformity in the proportion of the length to the breadth of the cranium. 

Another race, from its geographical isolation, and from the number of specimens 
which I have collected, may also appropriately be considered. I refer to the 
aborigines of Australia. Several travellers have expressed the opinion that the natives | 
conform to one pattern as regards features, colour of skin, hair and mental characters. | 
The University Museum contains seventy-one adult crania of these people. In almost | 
every instance the locality where the skull was got is known, and the series is repre- : 
sentative of all parts of the great island, except the central region. Sixty-nine skulls } 
ranged in their length-breadth index from 61°5 (a specimen elongated from scaphocephaly) 
to 71°1, and their mean index was 70°2; they were all dolichocephalic both in form and 
proportion, Of the remaining two skulls, one, a female from West Victoria, had a } 
cephalic index, 77°9; the other a male, from the Thomson River, Queensland, had an 
index 77°4; both, therefore, were mesaticephalic. Although brachycephalic Malays do, it 
is said, visit the west coast, and brachycephalic Polynesians may possibly have visited | 
the east coast of Australia, yet in the large series of skulls now before me not a 
single brachycephalic specimen occurred. There is no evidence therefore of an evolu: | 
tion within the dolichocephalic Australians, or even of the intrusion from without, of a | 
brachycephalic type. As regards the proportions of other parts of the skull, the platy- | 
rhine nasal index, dolichuranic palate, upper jaw either markedly prognathic or meso- 
gnathic, and the microcephalic brain cavity are characters which, conjoimed with the | 
dolivhocephalic cranium, constitute race features of the aboriginal Australians, The 
relation of the breadth to the height of the cranium is not, as I pointed out in my 
Challenger Report (Part. xxix., 1884), constant in the different tribes; for whilst in | 
South Australia, and in some other localities along the southern seaboard, a considerable 
proportion of the crania possess the basi-bregmatic diameter distinctly below the greatest 
breadth, in other parts of the island it is altogether exceptional to meet with a skull 
in which the height is less than the breadth. 


CRANIOLOGY OF PEOPLE OF INDIA. 747 


From the geographical relations of the hill-tracts in North-Hastern India, occupied 
by a dolichocephalic people, to the surrounding countries, where the prevailing type of 
| is brachycephalic, it seems more reasonable to conclude that the occurrence of 
ional specimens in a district is due to an intermixture of races possessing different 
orms, rather than to the evolution of a new type, on the one hand, in a dolicho- 
phalic race, or, on the other, in a brachycephalic race,—the more so when it is kept 
nd that tradition and history point to these countries as having during many 
es been occupied by successive waves of invading people. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES I-III. 


The figures'in these plates are reproductions of photographs kindly taken for me by Mr W. E. Carnegie 
kson, B.Sc. . 


. Profile of Skull of Lushai from the north hill tracts. G in Table I. 
. Front view of the same skull. 

. Profile of skull of Chin. B in Table I. 

. Front view of the same skull. 

. Profile of skull of Nagé. F in Table II. 

. Front view of the same skull. 

. Profile of Gurung skull from Nepal. Table IT. 

. Front view of the same skull. 

. Profile of Siamese skull. C, Table VII. 

», 10. Profile of Burmese skull, Tun Tha. Table IV. 

_,, 11. Front view of the same skull. 

», 12. Profile of Burmese skull, Paudun. Table V. 

,, 13. Front view of same skull. 

14. Profile of a Burmese skull from an old cemetery, Upper Burma. Table VI. 


Samnarntnwpe wp 


, XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 28). sie 


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Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. 


Vou. XXXIX, 
Sir Witt1am Turner on “ Craniology of People of India.”—P.arp i 


Fic. 1.—Lushai. 


Fic. 2.—Lushai. 


Fic. 3.—Chin. 


Fic. 4.—Chin. 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. Vou. XXXIX, 


Sir Witu1am Turner on “ Craniology of People of India.”—Puare IT 


Fie. 5.—Naga. 


Fic. 6.—Naga. 


Fic. 9.—Siamese. 


————E—————  ——————<— 


| Fic, 7.—Gurung, Nepal. Fie. 8.—Gurung, Nepal. 


| 
| 


t ms, Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. 


Sir Wint1am Turner on 


Fig. 12.—Burmese. 


“Craniology of People of India,”—Prarg ITI. 


Fic. 11.—Burmege, 


Fic. 13.—Burmese. 


VoL. 


XXXIX. 


( 749 ) 


XXIX.—On the Development and Morphology of the Marsupial Shoulder Girdle. 
_ By R. Broom, M.D., B.Sc. Communicated by Professor Sir Wm. Turner. 
(With Two Plates.) 


(Read January 9, 1899.) 


The various structures in the marsupial shoulder girdle are so unquestionably 
homologous with similar structures in the girdle of the human subject and of the 
jutheria generally, that there has never been any difficulty in interpreting the parts in 
as of human anatomy; but when the elements are compared with those in what we 
y consider to have been the ancestral condition, such as is exemplified in the shoulder 
of the Monotremes, or of the Anomodonts, or in the more distantly related 
gonditions met with in modern Reptiles and Amphibians, we are confronted with quite 
a number of difficulties, to which the most varied solutions have been applied by different 
phologists. The chief difficulty in the way of comparing the typical mammalian 
le with that of the lower forms, is that in the girdle of the higher mammals certain 
ures are rudimentary, and, further, that the forms that have hitherto been 
ined have been so far removed from the ancestral stock that even a study of the 
developmental conditions fails to give any clues that are more satisfactory than 
afforded by comparative anatomy. Though it has been suspected that further 
results would be obtained from the study of the early condition in Marsupials and 
Monotremes, the embryos of these groups that have hitherto been studied have been 
foo old to yield much further evidence than that obtained by a study of the adult 


In studying the conditions in marsupial embryos much earlier than any that had 
erto been examined, I have been fortunate in discovering one or two facts which 
considerable light on the changes which have taken place in the course of the 
ication of the highly specialised shoulder girdle of the Anomodonts into the simple 
i more rudimentary condition met with in the higher mammals. ' 

e time ago I published a short paper (1) recording the occurrence in the newly- 
frichosurus of a well-developed coracoid which articulates with the sternum. 
en I have traced the course of development from the very early and rudimentary 
n met with in an intra-uterine embryo of Trichosurus of 8°5 mm., onward till the 


ore entering on a discussion of the various views that have been advanced 
ng the morphology of the various elements, it will be well to describe the course 
lopment of the structures in the marsupial. In the following descriptions I 
ade use of the terminology which seems to me the most satisfactory, reserving 
latter part of the paper the reasons for the various opinions. 

JOL, XXXIX. PART II. (NO. 29). 64 


750 DR R. BROOM ON 


THE SHOULDER GIRDLE IN AN 8'5 MM. INTRA-UTERINE EmBryo oF T'richosurus 
vulpecula (fig. 1). 


In this early embryo, which I have elsewhere (Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. W., 1898) 
figured and described in some detail, the skeleton is as yet but very imperfectly 
chondrified. The anterior limbs, though fairly well formed, and having the digits well | 
marked, are still widely apart, owing to the skeletal elements of the chest-wall not 
having yet met in front of the heart. In the hind limbs there are as yet no indications 
of digits. 

The shoulder girdle is in a very interesting stage of development, but certain parts 
of its structure, from their imperfect state of development, can only be clearly under- 
stood when compared with those in a more advanced stage. 

The scapula is fairly well chondrified and moderately thick. Its long axis points 
upwards and somewhat forwards, and, as will be seen from the position of the first rib in 
the figure (fig. 1), the upper border of the scapula les wholly in the cervical region, 
The upper half of the scapula is moderately flat, and there is no trace of a spine. From 
the anterior border of the scapula, near the point of union of the middle with the lower 
third, there passes outwards and slightly forwards and downwards a moderately thick, 
rounded, cartilaginous acromion process. After passing outwards for a distance about 
equal to the width of the scapula at its middle, it curves downwards, slightly back- 
wards, and inwards, for a distance about equal to the length of the outward passing 
portion. This downward passing portion, unlike the other, is entirely mesenchymatous. 
At its lower extremity it meets on its inner side the outer end of the developing clavicle. 

The glenoid cavity is comparatively shallow, and looks outwards and slightly back- 
wards. Though the cartilage forming the lower part of the cavity is quite continuous 
with the scapula, there can be very little doubt but that it belongs, if not entirely, at 
least mainly, to the coracoid. In the figure a dotted line indicates what appears to be 
the limit of the two elements. As the shoulder girdle is not chondrified much beyond 
the region of the glenoid cavity, the further tracing of the elements in their mesenchy- 
matous condition would be a matter of some little difficulty, were we in ignorance of 
the latter stages of development. As it is, most of the structures can be followed even 
in their pre-cartilaginous condition with moderate certainty. The cartilaginous portion 
of the coracoid ends in a rounded process which points almost directly backwards; but 
though the cartilage here ends, the element is manifestly continued as a very well 
marked mesenchymatous structure, which, on passing backwards, spreads out like a fan, 
and becomes continued into the mesenchymatous anterior portion of the first rib, and 
also into the less clearly differentiated sternum. When viewed in the light of the more 
developed condition as found at birth, there seems little doubt but that not only is the 
portion of cartilage forming the lower half of the glenoid cavity coracoid, but also the 
whole of its mesenchymatous fan-like continuation, with the exception of so much as 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 751 


may be taken to represent the first rib and the sternum. In the figure a dotted line 
indicates what is probably the limit of the mesenchymatous portion of the coracoid. 
In front of the coracoid, and between it and the developing clavicle, is a very thin 
and feebly developed continuous sheet of mesenchymatous cells. It is best developed 
at its anterior end, but it can be traced throughout the whole space between the 
vicle and the coracoid, with the exception of the extreme anterior part of the 
acoid. Near the anterior border of this sheet, and about its middle, is a small 
foramen through which passes a minute blood-vessel, and apparently a nerve. The 
leoree of development of this structure is so slight that it is probably well not to place 
much weight on its importance, but as it represents almost exactly the area 
yceupied by the precoracoid (epicoracoid of most authors) in the Monotremes, it seems 
fo me probable that it represents that structure. Its anterior part gives rise to the 
aco-clavicular ligament, and if its morphology be here correctly interpreted, it of 
se follows that this ligament in the higher mammals and man is the homologue, 
and apparently the sole representative of the precoracoid of the Anomodonts. 
‘The clavicle can be very distinctly traced, though as yet it is but very imperfectly 
fied. Where ossification has not commenced, as in almost the whole lower half, the 
ture of the developing clavicle differs but little from that of mesenchyme, which is 
ut to give rise to cartilage. There is, however, no trace of cartilage at this stage, 
or long after, in the clavicle. Whether any distinct histological difference can be 
out between the mesenchymatous cells which give rise to cartilage and the very 
ar cells which give rise to bone, I am not aware, but, at any rate, in their further 
ition, the cells become quite distinct. In the case of developing cartilage, the nuclei 
me more rounded, slightly enlarged, and more translucent, and become fairly 
mily surrounded by the hyaline substance. In the development of the clavicle, 
1 the other hand, the nuclei do not increase in size, and instead of becoming rounder 
‘become more oval, and develop angular processes. The little osteoblasts then 
themselves in little groups of twos or threes, and the little bony spicules form 
e side of the little groups. So far, then, as the Marsupial is concerned, it may 
finitely stated that the clavicle is a pure membrane bone in whose early develop- 
nent cartilage plays no part. At the part where the clavicle meets the acromion, the 
esenchyme of the acromion may be said to merge into the mesenchyme of the clavicle, 
but to assume that therefore the clavicle has a similar basis to the acromion, as has been 
ne by Horrmann, seems to me unjustifiable. 


752 DR R. BROOM ON 


THe SHOULDER GIRDLE IN A 10 MM. INTRA-UTERINE EmBryo oF Trichosurus 
vulpecula (fig. 2). 


In this embryo, though the development of the shoulder girdle is not much in 
advance of the condition in the previous embryo, there are some interesting changes. 
The skeletal elements of the chest-wall very nearly meet in front of the heart, and as 
the figure of this girdle is, like the previous one, a true lateral view, much of the 
apparent difference in the ventral part of the girdle is due to foreshortening brought 
about by this further development. 

The scapula is not very much further developed than in the previous stage. Its 
upper part is, however, broader, and the borders which were there mesenchymatous are 
now cartilaginous. The broadening out of the upper part is still proceeding; the 
cartilaginous borders being continued on for some distance in a semi-cartilaginous con- 
dition. The lower part of the scapula is considerably better developed, and the scapular | 
part of the glenoid cavity looks almost directly downwards. The acromion very much | 
resembles that in the earlier stage, and is not yet’ completely chondrified, though the 
lower part is much more clearly defined. 

The coracoid is only but slightly better developed than in the previous stage, and 
but little more than the glenoid portion is chondrified. If we assume that the inner 
half of the glenoid is formed by the coracoid, and also the knob at its anterior end, part 
of which gives attachment to the long head of the biceps muscle, the cartilaginous part 
of the coracoid may then be described as an irregular oblong structure attached to the 
scapula along the inner side of the glenoid cavity, and forming part of the cavity. At 
its anterior end it is moderately thick, but at its posterior end, after passing the glenoid 
region, it rapidly tapers away. Though the cartilage here ends, the coracoid is con- 
tinued as a well marked mesenchymatous structure to the anterior border of the first 
rib and to the sternum. In the earlier stage this mesenchymatous portion is moderately 
flat, and its margins ill-defined, but the structure is here fairly thick and much narrower. 
As the first rib is fairly well chondrified, the posterior border of the mesenchymatous 
coracoid is readily defined. The limits of the coracoid, where it meets the sternum, can 
only be guessed at by comparison with the more perfectly developed later stages. In 
the figure (fig. 2) a dotted line indicates the probable limits of the coracoid. 

Of the thin, imperfectly developed structure seen in front of the coracoid in the pre- 
vious stage, and which is believed to represent the precoracoid, only the anterior part 
which forms the coraco-clavicular ligament can be distinctly made out. 

The clavicle is considerably better ossified than in the previous stage, bony spicules 
being present to the inner end. ‘The inner end is considerably thicker than the outer, 
and now fits in between the lower end of the coracoid and the anterior end of the 
sternum. 

The omo-sternum is not yet distinctly differentiated from the sternum proper. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 753 


THE SHOULDER GIRDLE oF A NewLy-BorN Empryo or Trichosurus vulpecula 
(14°38 mm. Greatest Lenora), (figs. 3, 5, 10, and 20). 


It was in the shoulder girdle of the newly-born Trichosurus that the interesting 
development of the marsupial coracoid was first noticed, and it is remarkable that it is 
here that the development is most perfect, for whereas before birth chondrification is 
incomplete, almost immediately after birth degeneration begins. 

The scapula is an irregular triangular plate lying in a plane parallel to median plane, 
and with its long axis directed upwards and forwards. Its upper border is markedly 
convex, the posterior concave, and the anterior moderately straight. The outer surface 
of the plate is almost perfectly flat, there being no trace of a cartilaginous spine. From 
the anterior border of the scapula, near the union of the middle with the lower third, 
arises the well-developed cartilaginous acromion. It passes outwards as a moderately 
round process, and then forms a more flattened plate, which passes downwards and 
slightly inwards to articulate with the clavicle. Where the outward part of the 
acromion meets the downward part, a sort of cartilagcimous knuckle is formed. From 
this point upwards and forwards, along the outer surface of the scapula in its anterior 
part, passes a distinct membranous structure, which divides the supra-spinatus and infra- 
' Spimatus muscles. It may be compared to a membranous flap whose posterior surface is 
somewhat concave, owing to the outer border partly overlapping the infra-spinatus 
muscle. It is this membranous structure which ossifies to form the spine of the scapula 
along with the acromion. Though it is not as yet ossified, it is on the point of ossifying, 
and osteoblasts and osteogenic fibres can be distinctly made out. Though the projecting 
part is very thin, it rests on a well-formed base, which on section is somewhat triangular, 
thus giving the membranous spine a firm attachment to the scapula. In connection 
with the occurrence in Pareiasaurus of a distinct ‘ epiclavicle, or, as it has been termed 
by Gucrnzaur (2), a ‘cleithrum,’ Srenzy (3) has already pointed out the probability of 
the mammalian scapular spine representing this structure, and of its thus being morpho- 
logically a distinct element. The fact that in the Marsupial, and most probably all other 
mammals, the spine, apart from the acromion, is not developed from cartilage, affords 
very strong confirmation of the correctness of SEELEY’s opinion. In the acromion being 
itself a cartilaginous structure, it is manifestly not a part of the cleithrum, but a develop- 
ment of the scapula proper. 

f The coracoid is very well developed, and may be regarded as formed of an upper part 

| which articulates with the lower end of the scapula and forms part of the glenoid cavity, 
) and a lower part which articulates with the sternum and the first rib; the two parts 
being united by a slightly constricted intermediate portion. The outer surface of the 
upper part is mostly hollowed out as if forming part of the glenoid cavity, but probably 
only a part of the hollowed surface forms an articular surface for the humerus. To a 
| little ridge on the lower edge of this part of the coracoid, and a little behind the plane 
_ | of the front of the glenoid cavity, is attached the long head of the biceps. The lower 


754 DR R. BROOM ON 


part of the coracoid lies in a downward, backward, and inward direction from the upper 
part. Tt is somewhat round and bulbous. At its lower and inner side its cartilage is | 
continued into that of the sternum, while further back it rests on the first rib. On the {| 
outer side of the posterior part of the coracoid near its upper part is the poimt of attach- 
ment of the coracoid head of the biceps. The intermediate portion of the coracoid is 
moderately flat, its outer surface looking downwards and outwards. = | 

The clavicle is now fairly well developed. The outer part is somewhat slender, while | 
the inner two-thirds is moderately stout. Its posterior part is pointed, and passes into 
the angle formed by the coracoid and the sternum. This part of the clavicle is hollowed | 
out on its anterior and mner side to receive the well-developed omo-sternum. . 

The omo-sternum is a small, irregularly oval cartilage which lies between the sternum 
and the clavicle, and in a deep depression in the latter. It is quite distinctly differen- 
tiated from the sternum proper. ‘t 


Tar SHouLDER GIRDLE IN A 17 MM. Mammary Faerus or Trichosurus vulpecula — 
(figs. 4, 7, 8, and 11). 
i) 

The shoulder girdle at this stage, though it resembles the previous stage in being — 
still attached to the sternum, shows a considerable advance in many of its characters. 

The scapula differs from the earlier stages in that the long axis passes upwards and ~ 
slightly backwards. The posterior angle is developed to a much greater degree, and 
extends well upwards and backwards. The acromion is of large size. It arises from . 
the outer side of the anterior scapular border, and passes first forwards and slightly 
downwards and outwards. It then broadens out and passes downwards and slightly : 
forwards and inwards to meet the outer end of the clavicle. From the upper side of the’ : 
upper part of the acromion the non-cartilaginous part of the spine extends upwards | 
along the anterior part of the outer side of the scapula to about the beginning of the 
upper third of the blade. This little element—the supposed homologue of the cleithrum — 
—is now a well-developed bony plate. It must be admitted, however, that at this stage F 
it is not an independent bone, as it is continuous, at its attachment with the scapula, — 
with the delicate osseous film which is now developing on the surface of the scapula; 
and it is probable that the non-cartilaginous spine is at no time a distinct bone, as ossifi- _ 
cation sets in in connection with the perichondrium apparently about the same time as — 
ossification begins in the structure dividing the supra-spinatus and infra-spinatus muscles. 
‘The ossification of the scapula is as yet a pure ectostosis, the cartilage being as yet 
unossified, though the cells are considerably increased in size. 

The coracoid is of much the same absolute size as in the previous stage, and is thus — 
considerably smaller relatively. Its glenoid portion differs but little from that at birth, 
but there is considerable difference in the portion which articulates with the sternum. | 
At birth this lower and posterior portion is irregularly pear-shaped. Here the knob-— ij 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 759 


like lower part is of an elongated oval shape, and is undergoing a peculiar sort of 
degeneration. The axis of this elongated oval portion points in an upward and back- 
ward direction, and degeneration of the cartilaginous cells can be detected throughout 
its whole extent except along its outer and/upper side. The hyaline substance becomes 
largely absorbed, giving rise to a sort of cellular cartilage, and around the surface of 
this degenerated cartilage a further degeneration is seen to be taking place in that what 
temains of the cartilaginous matrix is becoming completely absorbed, the cells: appar- 
ently going to form connective tissue. In the ventral view of the girdle (fig. 11) a 
dotted line indicates the limits of the cartilages in which degeneration is not taking 
place. 

The clavicle is well ossified, and, as seen in figs..4 and 11, the mner part is con- 
siderably stouter than the outer. The inner third has a well-marked concavity on its 
anterior side, in which lies the omo-sternum, the cartilage of which, however, is separated 
| from the bone by a thick layer of connective tissue of a peculiar structure. Surround- 
| ing the osseous tissue of the clavicle throughout its whole length, but most developed 
| at the ends, is a fairly thick covering of large connective tissue cells. These cells have 
no doubt a slight superficial resemblance to cartilage, but they are certainly not cartilage 
cells. They are irregularly oval and taper at their apices, and are only separated from 
each other by a thin layer of connective tissue substance. They are apparently imper- 
feetly differentiated osteoblasts. Cells scarcely differmg in appearance are found 
surrounding the bony plates of the developing dentary, maxillary, or pre-maxillary 
elements, but in these bones the surrounding layer of cells is much thinner relatively 
than in case of the clavicle. In the case of the tympanic bone, however, in many forms 
the surrounding layer of cells is proportionately very thick, and a condition is presented 
almost exactly like that found in connection with the marsupial clavicle. 


Later DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE IN TRICHOSURUS. 


_ The degeneration of the inner end of the coracoid continues, and the coracoid becomes 
|detached from the sternum when the embryo attains to about 20 or 21 mm.—greatest 
ength, apparently. In an embryo of 23 mm. the inner end of the coracoid is quite free, 
und is about one-sixth of a millimetre distant from its former point of attachment. To 

he lateral portion of the pre-sternum there is still attached a small portion of degenerat- 
 |ng cartilage—apparently the inner part of the bulbous portion of the coracoid, whose 
ny legeneration permits the detachment of the shoulder girdle from the sternum. Though 
r his coracoidal fragment apparently completely disappears, its presence is interesting, 
ft view of the occurrence in a number of the higher mammals of similarly situated 
Jlements, and it confirms the correctness of the view that these fragments represent 
ae rudimentary sternal end of the coracoid. The coracoid process is pointed, and 
‘xtends for about ‘3 of a millimetre behind the point of attachment of the coracoid 


ad of the biceps. This posterior portion is degenerating, and it would seem as if the 


. 


756 DR R. BROOM ON 


limit of the degeneration was determined by the muscular attachment. The claviele | 


is very well ossified, but there is still no cartilage in connection with either end. The 
omo-sternum is of smaller proportional size than in the earlier stages. At this stage 
the whole shoulder girdle comes more to the front, so that the clavicles, the sternum, 
and the coracoid processes lie practically all in one plane. 

In a Trichosurus embryo of 37 mm. greatest length the whole shoulder girdle differs 
but little from that of the adult. The scapula is directed upwards and backwards. The 
spine is very large, and divides the outer surface into two deep fosse. The acromion 
resembles that of the adult in shape and proportions. The coracoid process is quite 
small, being absolutely scarcely larger than in the 23 mm. foetus, and is far removed 
from the sternum. ‘The clavicle is directed from its inner attachment outwards, for- 
wards, and slightly downwards. At this stage it shows a distinctly new feature—in 
that cartilage is now found at both the outer and inner ends. This cartilage is evidently 
a secondary development of the large cells which, in the earlier stages, tip the bone. It 
would seem as though the cells at the ends of the bone develop more rapidly than the 
rate at which the bone encroaches on them, and that hence the more peripheral cells 
become chondrified. 

ParkER (4) describes the shoulder girdle of a young specimen measuring 8 inches from 
snout to root of tail. It differs but little from that of the earlier stages. Both ends 
of the clavicle are tipped with cartilage—that of the outer end being called the ‘ meso- 
scapular segment’; the inner, the ‘unossified part of the praecoracoid.’ The coracoid 
is small and ossified by a single endosteal centre. 

The latest stage of the developing girdle in my possession is that of a young one 
two-thirds grown. In it the coracoid only shows one centre of ossification. Whether any 


further centre of ossification may be found as the animal approaches its full size | am 


unable to say, but if a second centre exists it must be very small. 


Tue SHoutper GirpLE IN A 16 mM. Mammary Farus or Pseudochirus peregrinus 
(figs. 6 and 12). 


This embryo of the Ring-tailed Phalanger is in a stage of development about equal 
to that of the 17 mm. Trichosurus. The shoulder girdles of the two genera, however, 
present a number of very dissimilar features. 

The scapula is almost quite flat. The acromion springs from the anterior border 
a little above the glenoid cavity. It passes outwards and downwards as a thick, rounded 
process ; then, becoming flattened antero-posteriorly, it passes downwards and inwards 
as a broad, somewhat flattened plate to meet the outer end of the clavicle. The glenoid 
cavity looks almost directly downwards. 

The coracoid probably forms the inner and anterior third of the glenoid cavity. 
The anterior part of the coracoid is an irregular cuboid structure projecting inwards 
from the anterior border of the glenoid cavity, and giving attachment to the long head 


. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. habit 


of the biceps. From the posterior part of the inner end of the main part of the 
coracoid an irregular quadrangular process passes backwards and downwards to meet 


the lateral process of the pre-sternum. Though the tip of this coracoid process rests on 
the lateral process of the sternum, the two structures are quite distinct and separated 
by a few fibres of connective tissue. It will be noticed that this mode of attachment 
of the coracoid to the sternum differs considerably from that of Trichosurus. Here, one 
_ would almost be inclined to think that there never had been any structural continuity. 
Tf im an earlier stage the cartilage of the coracoid is continuous with that of the ster- 
| num, the separation of the two elements can hardly have been by the degeneration of 
) a part of the coracoid, as in Trichosurus, and the appearances would rather suggest that 
the structures had split apart without loss to either of the elements. 

The clavicle is shorter and stouter than in Trichosurus embryos. The outer half 
is considerably flattened, being oval on section. The inner half is much stouter, and 
towards its inner end becomes hollowed on the under and inner side to accommodate 
the small omo-sternum. At both ends of the clavicle there is a distinct cap of large 
regular cells which are becoming cartilage cells, though true cartilage can scarcely, as 
yet, be said to exist. 

The omo-sternum is comparatively small, and its anterior end is ill defined. It is 
specially interesting in that it is structurally continuous with the true sternum. 

In fig. 6 an anterior view is shown of the right shoulder girdle with the clavicle 
}remeved. In fig. 12 is shown a ventral view of the same arch, with the sternum, 
omo-sternum, and base of first rib. 


THE SHOULDER GIRDLE IN A NEewLy-Born Empryo or Petrogale penicillata 
(21 mm. Greatest Lenerts), (figs. 9 and 18). 


The Rock-wallaby differs so little in its anatomical structure from the true Kan- 
garoos that this embryo may safely be taken as the type of the Macropodide; and 
though some differences will likely be found in the girdle of the Rat-kangaroos, it is 
| probable that the condition in true Kangaroos will be found to agree closely with that 
in the present embryo. 

The axis of the scapula is directed upwards and well backwards, and the blade of 
| the scapula is larger in comparison with the size of the glenoid cavity than in phal- 
| angers. The acromion arises from the outer side of the anterior border a little distance 
above the glenoid cavity. It passes forwards and slightly outwards as a stout process 
which is oval on section. After passing forwards for some distance it passes downwards 
and inwards to meet the clavicle—this lower part being somewhat flattened. There is a 
tract of ossification representing the beginning of the spine, and presumably homo- 
logous with the cleithrum of the primitive reptiles. With the exception of this-low 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 99), 6B 


758 DR R. BROOM ON 


ridge and commencing ectostoses radiating from its margins over.a small part of the surfs 
of the cartilaginous scapula, both the scapula and coracoid are entirely cartilaginous, Pa 

The coracoid has a very peculiar structure. It consists of an upper and a lower 
part, with a connecting neck. The upper part presumably forms the anterior third of 
the glenoid cavity. In both Trichosurus and Pseudochirus the coracoid part of the 
glenoid cavity is formed by an excavation of the coracoid cartilage, but here, in additior 
to the simple excavation, the cavity is enlarged by a well-developed outstanding rim 
which projects downwards from the coracoid and forms the inner margin of the margin, 
somewhat after the style of the well-marked rim in Ornithorhynchus. From the 
glenoid cavity the coracoid passes almost directly inwards for a short distance, and then 
passes downwards and slightly backwards as a comparatively narrow neck, which is 
continued into the large inferior part of the coracoid. A very deep groove is formed 
between the coracoid rim of the glenoid cavity and the descending neck, and to the 
anterior part of this groove is attached the long head of the biceps. The inferior part 
of the coracoid is a long, broad, flattened structure which passes from the lower end of 
the neck backwards and slightly outwards. Near its middle it adjoins the sternum, and 
is structurally continuous with it. Posteriorly it rests on the first rib, but 1s distinet 
from it. ; 3 

The clavicle is unusually flat. In its outer third it is slender and rounded, but m 
its inner two-thirds it is almost quite flat. From the anterior rounded portion a ridge is 
continued for a short distance along the outer border. The posterior end passes between 
the coracoid and the sternum, and rests on the upper side of the sternum. Round the 
whole outer third of the clavicle is a thick coating of large cells, the more central of 
which are cartilaginous. A similar coating is found round the inner end, and here = 
many of the cells are cartilaginous. 

I fail to detect any trace of an omo-sternum. 


ee 
a 


Tue MorpHoLocy oF THE ScAPULAR BoRDERS. 


In all marsupials, and practically all the higher mammals, the scapula is formed on one 
and the same plan, and all the variations met with are due to different degrees of 
development of the different regions. According to FLowsr (5), “ the scapula may be | 
considered as essentially an elongated rod or bar of bone,” which usually has “three 
projecting plates or ridges arranged round the longitudinal axis, and three surfaces or 
fossee bounded by these.” This is also the view taken by Parker (4), who has given the 
following special names to the projecting plates :—The preescapula, mesoscapula, and 
postscapula. While such a manner of looking at the scapula is very convenient for the 
higher forms, it leads to confusion when the lower forms are considered. In almost all 
reptiles, the scapula, instead of being made up of an anterior, a posterior, and a median 
plate, has but two borders, an anterior and a posterior, and even in the monotremes 


; 
fHE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 759 
there are only two well-marked borders. The endeavours which have been made to find 
' the homologues of the higher mammalian scapular borders in the lower forms have led to 
very different conclusions. 
_ Most of the discussion concerning the morphology of the scapular borders has been 
in connection with the scapula in the monotremes. In both Ornithorhynchus and. 
| Echidna it is a flattened bone which bears a superficial resemblance to the eutherian 
apula ; but though at first sight the two borders look as though they might cor- 
spond with the anterior and posterior borders of the typical mammalian scapula, 
t the muscular attachments are so dissimilar that the majority of anatomists have 
led to the opinion that neither of the seemingly similar borders are really 
| homologous. 
_ The whole subject has recently been very fully and most ably discussed by WILSON 
and M‘Kay (6). In 1893 M‘Kay (7) published an exhaustive account of the morphology 
the muscles of the shoulder girdle of the monotremes, and in connection with the 


me work, he and Wison were led to examine the current views.on the homology of 
borders and fossz of scapula of the monotremes. The border, which is usually 
en of as the anterior, but which is really directed as much outwards as forwards, is 
own to agree as regards all its muscular attachments and relations with the “ meso- 
ula.” of the higher mammals, and also in its giving attachment to the clavicle. 
s view has been held by Owen (8), Mrvarr (9), Parkur (4), Flower (5), and Hows 
, and there seems very good reason for believing it to be correct. Concerning the 
ology of the posterior border, opinion has been much divided, and the facts are 
tless' less unequivocal. There is a well-marked ridge on the outer side of the 
ula of Echidna, and a corresponding though slightly less marked ridge on that 
Ornithorhynchus, situated above the glenoid cavity, which gives attachment to the 
| triceps muscle, and which divides the origins of the infra-spmatus and subscapularis 

muscles. This ridge is held by Winson and M‘Kay to be the true homologue of the 

osterior border of the eutherian scapula—a view which had previously been advocated 
[tvarT and FLowrr. Owen, Parker, and most other anatomists, on the other hand, 
nave held that notwithstanding the differences in their muscular relations, the actual 
erior border in the monotremes is the morphological posterior border. These 
rences of opinion are, however, slight in comparison with the differences which 
arisen in the endeavour to find in the monotremes the homologue of the 
rior or preescapular border of the higher forms. On the inner side of the scapula 
nithorhynchus is a small ridge which represents the anterior border of the 
in of the subscapularis muscle, and in front of which arise the omo-hyoid and 
minute supra-spinatus. This ridge was regarded by Owen as the morphological 
mior border, and the same view is also held by Witson and M‘Kay. Frownr, 
2 Opinion apparently has been mainly influenced by the condition im Echidna, 
the supra-spinatus muscle is of large size and occupies a very large part of the 


760 DR R. BROOM ON 


outer side of the bone, regards the actual posterior border as the true homologue of the 
anterior border in the higher mammals; while PaRKER’s opinion is that in the mono- | 


tremes “ there is no preescapula.” 


The leading views that have been held as to the homologues in the monotremes | 


of the borders of the eutherian scapula are shown in the following table :— 


Preescapular Border. Mesoscapular’ Border. Postscapular Border, 


Owen (1847) a Ridge on inner side of scapula Anterior border Posterior border — 
in Ornithorhynchus 


PaRKER (1868) abe Absent Anterior border Posterior border 
FLOWER (1870) Re Posterior border Anterior border Tricipital ridge 
Bruut (11) (1875)... Anterior border Tricipital ridge Posterior border 


Witson & M‘Kay (1893) Ridge on inner side of scapula Anterior border Tricipital ridge 
in Ornithorhynchus 


It will be seen that the differences of view have arisen owing to the differences | 
of opinion as to what value is to be placed on the positions of the muscular attachments. | 
In considering the scapula of the monotremes in reference to the muscular attachments, | 
it is important to keep in mind that in neither Echidna nor in Ornithorhynchus does | 
the scapula lie, as in the higher mammals, by the side of the chest, and in an antero- 
posterior plane, but that in both the plane of the scapula is oblique, the posterior | 
border looking about as much inwards as backwards, and the anterior border being | 
directed mainly outwards. Furthermore, the long axis of the scapula, instead of, as | 
in the higher forms, pointing upwards and backwards, points upwards and forwards | 
—the scapulee embracing the neck well in front of the chest. When this different | 
attitude of the scapula is considered, it seems to me a more natural explanation of the | 
peculiarities, that the muscles had to alter their attachments, than that the bone had | 


become developed in new axes. 
It may be regarded as moderately certain that the scapula of the higher mammals 


is not derived from that of the monotremes, but it is not difficult to derive the } 
monotreme type from what may be regarded as the ancestral mammalian type. Let | 
us consider the structure of the scapula in this primitive type. We are familiar with | 
the structure of the shoulder girdle in Pareiasaurus and Dicynodon, and though | 
probably neither of these genera is an ancestral type, their scapule are so similar that | 
it seems probable that in the Theromorphine types, from which the mammals are | 
derived, the scapula differed but little from that of the forms already known. In} 


these types the scapula is a flattened, elongated blade, with but two distinct borders, 
an anterior and a posterior. There seems good reason to believe that the long axis of 


the scapula was directed upwards and slightly forwards. SEELEY, however, it must be | — 
admitted, opposes this view, and in his (12) restorations of Rhopalodon and Deutero- | 


| 
| 


; 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. ou 


saurus and of other forms turns the long axis of the scapula almost directly backwards. 
As may be seen in the almost perfect skeleton of Pareiasaurus in the British Museum, 
if this be the case the interclavicle has to lie almost at right angles to the axis of the 
body—a rather improbable condition. Moreover, if the inner borders of the precoracoid 
and coracoid of Dicynodon be placed in contact with an imaginary antero-posteriorly 
directed interclavicle, the scapula will be found to incline forwards. The imperfect 
remains of two specimens of Kistecephalus, in the British Museum, show that in that 
genus at least, the scapula almost certainly was directed somewhat forwards. The 
early developmental condition of the scapula in the marsupial also seems to confirm the 
view that in the early types this was the direction of the scapular axis. In Pareiasaurus 
the anterior border of the scapula is supported by a distinct cleithrum or epiclavicle, as 
is most probably also the case in Kistecephalus and Dicynodon. In the early develop- 
ment of the monotremes it seems probable that the anterior part of the scapula will be 
found to develop like the spine in the marsupial, from a membranous basis, and if this 
be the case it will mean that the monotremes, like the lower Theromorpha, have the 
anterior border of true scapula extended by the addition of a membrane-bone element, 
the cleithrum, but with the cleithrum becoming co-ossified with the scapula, as is pro- 
bably the case in the higher Theromorphine genus Cynognathus (14). In the marsupial 
and eutherian type the change which has taken place is, that the cleithrum has become 
shifted from the anterior border of the cartilaginous scapula to its outer side. The 
marsupial scapula in its early condition scarcely differs from that of the adult monotreme, 
except in the greater development of the acromion. There is an acromion process 
situated on the anterior border, and no spine on the outer surface of the scapula, and 
it is probable that if the scapula of the foetal marsupial were compared with that of a 
very young monotreme before the development of the supposed cleithral portion, the 
resemblance would be greater. If this comparison be correct, it will follow, that 
though the spine in the marsupial and the eutheria is the homologue of the actual 
anterior scapular border in the monotreme, the anterior border of the marsupial scapula 
is the homologue of the anterior cartilaginous portion of the scapula in the monotreme. 
Whether the study of the early development will prove that the anterior part of the 
¢artilaginous scapula is coincident with the ridge on the inner side of the scapula in 
Ornithorhynchus, which is believed by Owen and Wison and M‘Kay to be the 
morphological anterior border, remains to be seen. 

How the muscles may have arranged themselves in the Theromorpha it is difficult 
to tell, but it may be regarded as fairly certain, that no muscle could have passed from 
the inner side of the scapula to the humerus in front; and the peculiar development of 
the supra-spinatus muscle in the monotremes is probably due to the attitude of the 
seapula, for if this muscle existed in Cynognathus, it must have been extremely 
minute. 

The question as to whether the posterior border of the monotreme scapula is really 
_ the homologue of the posterior border in the higher forms, or, as held by Witson and 


762 DR R. BROOM ON 


M‘Kay, a new development, is more difficult of solution. If the question is to be 
decided by muscular attachments, no doubt the evidence would favour the homology of 
the typical mammalian posterior border with the little ridge on the outer side of the 
scapula of the monotremes. If, however, we admit the possibility of the plane of the 
scapula becoming partly rotated, and this we unquestionably find in some of the 
higher mammals (e.g., Chrysochloris, where the praescapular border is carried inwards), it 
will be seen that such a rotation would compel certain muscles to take up new attach- 
ments. It can hardly be denied that the anterior border of the scapula in the 
monotreme is the homologue of the anterior border in the Theromorph, and yet while 
this border in the ancestral forms is directed forwards, in the monotremes it looks more 
outwards than forwards. And if the anterior border has thus been rotated outwards it 
seems but reasonable to suppose that the posterior border has been correspondingly 
rotated inwards. In both monotremes, the change has probably been brought about by 
the digging habits of the genera. If we now suppose this change to have taken place, it | 
will be seen that the triceps muscle must of necessity take up a point of attachment on 
the outer side of the scapula, as, were it to continue attached to the posterior border, the 
action of the muscle would be hampered. ‘The inward rotation of the posterior border 
also of necessity in Echidna brings almost the whole of the subscapularis muscle to the | 
outer side, as it would be practically impossible for the muscle to work round the 
posterior border in its present attitude. In Ornithorhynchus, owing to the upper and 
posterior part of the scapula being almost sickle-shaped, a large portion of the sub- | 
scapularis muscle is enabled to retain its original attachment and to work clear of the 
lower part of the posterior border. The muscles not connected with the arm would be 
less affected by the altered attitude of the blade, and we find that the serratus magnus 
and rhomboideus practically retain their original attachments. | 

It will thus be seen that there is good reason for believing both the monotreme and ! 
the marsupial types of scapula to have been derived from the primitive Theromorphine 
type; the monotreme type being formed by the coalescence of the cleithrum to the 
morphological anterior border of the scapula, complicated by a slight rotation of the 
plane of the blade on its long axis; the marsupial type, on the other hand, being 
formed by the cleithrum coalescing to the scapula on its outer surface, leaving the | 
anterior border of the scapula free, and thus giving rise to a new fossa—that between 
the cleithrum or spine and the anterior scapular border. In the Cetacea we have 
apparently a scapula in which, though the acromion is well developed, there is no true 
spine, the infraspinous fossa extending to the anterior border of the blade, and the 
supra-spinatus muscle occupying a little hollow on the inner side of the acromion. 

It is, of course, not improbable that the cleithrum element may be completely lost in | 
the monotremes. If the study of the early development prove this to be so, the actual 
anterior border must be the morphological anterior border. : 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 763 


THE MorpPHOLOGY OF THE CORACOID. 


Until comparatively recently there seemed little doubt in the minds of the majority 
of morphologists that the rudimentary coracoid process of the higher mammals was 
the true homologue of the larger and posterior of the two coracoidal elements in the 
monotremes, and of the well-developed bone which unites the scapula with the sternum 
n birds. 

_ In 1887, Hownzs (10) published a paper on the morphology of the mammalian 
pracoid, in which he very ably discusses the whole question, and gives reasons for 
loubting the correctness of the currently accepted views. The coracoid of the rabbit 
an d some other mammals he has shown to be developed from two distinct ossifications, 
vhich he holds to be probably homologous with the two coracoidal elements of the 
monotreme. The smaller of the two ossifications which forms part of the articular 
urface for the head of the humerus he regards as the homologue of the posterior 
lement in the monotreme usually regarded as the coracoid, while the larger ossification 
hich forms the coracoid process he believes to be the representative of the ‘ epicoracoid ’ 
f the monotremes. His chief reasons for this determination are that in the rabbit the 
ssification which gives rise to the coracoid process lies anterior to that which forms 
art of the elenoid cavity, and also that this larger ossification, like the ‘ epicoracoid’ in 
he monotremes, takes no part in the formation of the glenoid surface. The ‘epi- 
sracoid’ of the monotremes he regards as the homologue of the anterior coracoidal 
lement in Dicynodon, but does not regard it as homologous with the precoracoid of the 
imphibia. His reason for this latter opinion is that the true precoracoid is believed to 
become absorbed by the clavicle in the mammalia and most of the higher vertebrates. 
Tn 1893, he published (14) a second paper, giving the results of his further researches 
1 the development of the mammalian coracoid process, and also dealing with the 
ology. As Howes holds that the two coracoidal elements of the monotreme are 
ther homologous to the single coracoid of the bird or the true coracoid of the 
hibian, he proposes calling the posterior coracoidal element the ‘ metacoracoid,’ as 
ted by LypEKKER, and to retain the name ‘ epicoracoid’ for the anterior element. 
n this same year, LYDEKKER (15), by a different argument, came to a conclusion some- 
it similar to, though not identical with, that of Hows. By comparing the shoulder 
2 de of the sloth with that of Dicynodon he comes to the conclusion that the coracoid 
fhe sloth is the homologue of the anterior coracoidal element in the Anomodont, from 
ir having somewhat similar relations ; and consequently, that the mammalian coracoid 
cess 1s homologous with the ‘ epicoracoid’ of the monotremes. 

If we compare the early condition of the marsupial coracoid with that of the 
lonotreme or Theromorph there seems no difficulty in homologising the cartilaginous 
ent with the posterior of the two coracoidal elements in the lower forms. In the 
Monotreme it is the posterior element which forms with the scapula the glenoid cavity, 


764 DR R. BROOM ON 


AB. remre OE 


and it is this same element which serves to fix the shoulder girdle by articulating | 
with the sternum immediately in front of the first rib. In the foetal marsupial the | 
relations and functions of the cartilaginous element are precisely similar, and I am } 
aware of no fact or argument which seems to me to be opposed to this element being | 
the true homologue of the posterior of the two coracoidal elements in the monotreme, | 

If the cartilaginous ventral element in the foetal marsupial be not the homologue of | 
the posterior element in the monotreme, it must either represent a fusion of the coracoid | 
and precoracoid, or be the homologue of the precoracoid. As no scientist, so far as I am 
aware, holds the view that the mammalian coracoid process represents two elements, | 
it will be unnecessary to discuss this alternative. Though Howszs holds that both | 
coracoidal elements are present in the typical eutherian shoulder girdle, he admits that | 
the ossification which forms the coracoid process is a single element, and there is no 
doubt that the cartilaginous process in the foetal marsupial represents this one element. | 
The remaining alternative, that the process represents the precoracoid (‘ epicoracoid’), | 
is the view held by both Howss and LypEKkKrer. Howes, as we have seen, was led to 
this view by the discovery of a second centre of ossification which he took for the true | 
coracoid. If we assume the well-developed cartilaginous ventral element in the foetal | 
marsupial to be the precoracoid, any rudiment of the true coracoid which might be | 
present we would expect to find on the posterior side of the well-developed element, 
and, of course, on the inner side of the glenoid cavity ; but the little ossification which 
Howss believes to represent the coracoid lies on the outer side of the glenoid cavity. 
If Howes’ view be correct, the following most improbable changes must have taken 
place in order to have the mammalian shoulder girdle derived from that of the 
Theromorph :—Ist, the great reduction of the element which is most useful in uniting 
the scapula with the sternum; 2nd, its exact place and uses being taken up by the 
precoracoid ; and 8rd, the rudimentary true coracoid being shifted from the inner side 
of the glenoid cavity to the outer. As I can see no reason for believing that any of| 
these changes has taken place, and many reasons for believing that such remarkable 
changes have not taken place, I feel compelled to accept the view of the majority of 
earlier writers, that the coracoid process of the marsupials and all higher mammals is| 
the true homologue of the posterior of the two elements in the monotremes and 
theromorphs. 

In LypEKKER’s comparison of the shoulder girdle of the sloth with that of Dicy- 
nodon, he concludes that the coracoid of the sloth is the homologue of the precoracoid 
(‘epicoracoid’) in Dicynodon, because of “ each articulating with the lower border of the 
front of the scapula, from which they are partially separated by a foramen, and each 
entering into the formation of the glenoid cavity.” But if the shoulder girdle of] 
Plesiosaurus or of Cryptoclidus be compared with that of Dicynodon it will be seen that) 
the very same argument would serve to prove that the element which articulates with 
the scapula in these Sauropterygians was a precoracoid—a view which could hardly} 
be accepted. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 765 


Assuming, then, that the main coracoid ossification, and that which forms the 
coracoid process, is the homologue of the coracoid of the lower forms, in what light are 
we to regard the secondary and more rudimentary ossification? From its position on 
the outer side of the glenoid cavity it might be taken to represent the precoracoid, but 
such a view does not seem probable for a variety of reasons. Its development is 
inconstant ; when present it always, I believe, forms part of the glenoid surface ; and it 
is always late in developing. ‘That it is merely an epiphysis with no special morpho- 
logical significance seems to me to be the most natural interpretation of the structure. 
In Echidna during the development of the coracoid two epiphyses form—one on the 
posterior end, and a minute one, which however may not be constant, between the 
coracoid and the scapula, at the posterior edge of the glenoid cavity. Though neither 
of these epiphyses is homologous with the small ossification in the rabbit, the condition 
in Echidna is interesting as showing that epiphyses may develop in connection with the 
coracoid, in cases where it is practically impossible that the ossifications can have any 
important morphological significance. 

In the mammalia during the development of almost all the cartilage bones epiphyses 
are to be found. The reason for the formation of these epiphyses is probably not the same 
im all cases, and yet, as a general rule, it may be stated that epiphyses form wherever, 
for one reason or another, a considerable portion of cartilage remains, till comparatively 
late in development, beyond the region of the central ossification. In the case of the 
| long bones the ends probably remain cartilaginous for a considerable time, to afford a 
greater elasticity to the skeleton during the development of the bone. But in a number 
of other cases, epiphyses seem to be formed to accomplish the ossification of tracts which 
from some peculiarity of their structure are not readily ossified from the main centre. 
Thus almost all bony processes are provided with epiphyses. As instances of this sort 
in the human subject we may take the epiphyses of the tubercle of the rib, of the 
anterior inferior spine of the ilium, or of the acromion. Of a similar nature would 
seem to be the epiphysis on the outer side of the glenoid cavity in the rabbit and many 
other of the higher mammals. The reason for its development may have been as 
follows :—The coracoid process has apparently been preserved in the higher mammals, 
not to increase the glenoid surface, but because it gives an attachment to the biceps. 
and coraco-brachialis muscles, which is specially advantageous in that these muscles are 
Kept out clear from the working of the joint, and from pressing on the subscapularis. 
The pull of these muscles, in course of time, has brought the centre of ossification of 
the coracoid into the line of strain, as is well seen in the coracoid of, say, the young 
baboon; and the centre of ossification being thus brought somewhat back from the 
glenoid cavity, a portion of cartilage is left on the anterior wall of the cavity to be 
secondarily ossified as an epiphysis. 

We may next consider the significance of the anterior of the two coracoidal elements 
in the monotremes. This element which in the monotremes has usually been referred 
to as the ‘epicoracoid,’ is admitted by practically every one to be the homologue of the 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 29). 6c 


766 DR R. BROOM ON . 


anterior of the two coracoidal elements in Dicynodon and other allied reptiles; and that | 
this conclusion is correct can hardly be doubted. What has given rise, however, to | 
much debate is whether this is the homologue of the precoracoid of the Amphibia, 
or a new element secondarily developed. It is developed as a large and independent 
element in probably the whole of the Theromorpha, but the condition is best known in 
Dicynodon, Pareiasaurus, and Procolophon. 

The tracing of the coracoidal elements back to the condition found in the Amphibia 
is rendered especially difficult owing to the fact that in the Labyrinthodontia the 
shoulder girdle was very imperfectly ossified. If, however, the girdles of modern 
amphibia be examined it will be found that in practically every case there is a division | 
of the ventral portion into an anterior and posterior part—the anterior of which has | 
generally been referred to as the precoracoid. Among the Urodela this division of the | 
coracoidal region is most marked in Proteus and Menobranchus, while in Salamandra, | 
though the differentiation of the ventral cartilage into its two elements is less marked, 
there are, according to Parker (4), distinct precoracoid and coracoid ossifications. 

In the Anura a distinct precoracoid and coracoid are almost always present, though | 
the ventral portion of the arch is here relatively much smaller than in the Urodela, | 
‘The coracoid and scapula are invariably well ossified by endostoses, but the precoracoid | 
bar as a rule remains largely cartilaginous, though supported in front by an ectostosis. : 
Whether this bony splint is, as believed by Parxer, a true precoracoid ossification, or, | 
as held by the majority of comparative anatomists, including Grcenpaur (16), 
WIEDERSHEIM (17), and Howes (10), a true clavicle, is a point which is difficult to 
decide. Of the two views that of PaRKER seems to me the more probable. That the 
clavicular plates of the Labyrinthodonts which remain quite distinct in most reptiles, 
should in the much more nearly related frogs be represented by bony splints intimately 
connected with the precoracoid bars seems to me unlikely ; and, moreover, the fact that | 
in the Anura other elements usually ossified by endostoses are found to be ossified by 
ectostoses would seem to confirm the opinion that the split developed on the surface of 
the precoracoid cartilage is really part of the precoracoid. The difference in the mode 
of ossification of the two coracoidal elements might have been brought about through 
the precoracoid, owing to its being protected by the superficial dermal plates renal 
in a cartilaginous state long after the coracoid had become ossified. 

Apart, however, from any difference of opinion as to whether a clavicle is present in 
the Anura, it will be seen that in all the existing amphibia with limbs the ventral part 
of the shoulder girdle is made up of a distinct precoracoid and coracoid. When the 
most primitive known reptile is examined it is found that the ventral part of the 
shoulder arch is here also divided into two elements, and I fail to see any valid reason 
why the two elements in such an amphibian-like form as Pareiasaurus are not to be 
regarded as the homologues of the two ventral elements in the living amphibians. 

The only argument, so far as I am aware, that has been urged against the homology | 
‘of the amphibian precoracoid with the anterior coracoid element in the Theromorpha 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 767 


and the monotremes is, that there is believed to be evidence of the amphibian pre- 
coracoid being absorbed by the clavicle. This view is held by the majority of present 
comparative anatomists, though opposed by SreLey. It has apparently originated in 
the belief that the mammalian clavicle is developed from a cartilaginous basis. In 
1864, GEGENBAUR (18) discovered in connection with the early developing human 
clavicle, cells which he believed to be cartilage cells. Gorre (19), in 1877, and 
Horrmann (20), in 1879, confirmed GuGENBAUR’S view. From these observations it 
has been assumed that the clavicle has a cartilaginous basis, and further, that this basis 
‘represents the amphibian precoracoid. It seems rather remarkable that these con- 
‘clusions should have been so readily accepted, seeing that none of the observers have 
clearly demonstrated the presence of true cartilage in the clavicular region at a stage 
‘antecedent to the development of bone. In the development of the marsupial clavicle 
T have shown that not only is there no cartilaginous basis, but that what cartilage 


appears at the ends of the clavicle is only developed at a late stage in development, and 
is probably of no more morphological significance than is the cartilage found in some 
Mammals in connection with the premaxillary bone. It is very probable that in many 
Butheria the secondary cartilage at the ends of the clavicle develops at a much earlier 
stage than in the marsupial, but I very much doubt whether in any mammal cartilage 
is present till a considerable time after the bony clavicle is well formed. In a human 
embryo of seven weeks, though the clavicle is well ossified, I can find no cartilage at 
either end: and even in the mole, where cartilage is so well developed in the later 
‘stages as to lead Parker to believe that the short clavicle represented the clavicle + 
coracoid, the clavicle develops as a pure membrane bone. In the lizard (Mabuia 
| sulcata) the clavicle is also a pure membrane bone, and is developed in almost exactly 
| the same manner as in the marsupial. 
| It will thus be seen that there is good reason for believing that the precoracoid has 
| mot been absorbed by the clavicle ; and if this be so, there is left no reason for doubting 
the homology of the amphibian peeeaeacoid with the anterior coracoidal element in the 
theromorphs and monotremes. 
* In most reptilian orders the precoracoid is either quite rudimentary or lost. It is 
found as a rudiment in some birds, e.g., Apteryx, Struthio, Caswarius, and possibly 
also in some lizards. In both the Chelonia and the Sauropterygia a well-developed 
osseous bar passes from the scapula forwards and inwards, and which has generally been 
regarded as the precoracoid. ANDREWS (21) has shown, however, that in the Plesio- 
| saurians the structure is a true portion of the scapula, and there is no satisfactory 
| evidence that the anterior bar in the turtles is anything more. 
1 Another element in connection with the shoulder girdle that has given rise to a 
H Men ce of opinion is the little cartilage situated at the inner end of the clavicle. By 
| Parger it was named the ‘omo-sternum,’ and was held to be the homologue of the 
median element situated in front of the precoracoid in the frog. By GEGENBAUR it 
was formerly held to be a ‘lateral epi-sternum,’ but recently he has referred to it as 


768 DR R. BROOM ON 


the ‘preclavium.’ From the development of the structure in Trichosurus and Pseudo- 
chirus there seems little doubt that the element is a true sternal structure, apparently 
homologous with the anterior part of the sternum in Ornithorhynchus. Whether the 
homology can be carried to the anterior element in the frog is less clear, but at present 
PARKER'S name seems much the more appropriate. 


_ 


CoNCLUSION. * 


In conclusion, the following may be regarded as a brief outline of the course of the 
evolution of the marsupial shoulder girdle from that of the primitive terrestrial 
vertebrates. ( 

In the Labyrinthodonts we have a shoulder girdle mainly cartilaginous, but sup- 
ported by strong exoskeletal plates. Not improbably the endoskeletal apparatus 
resembled that of Proteus, only the scapula being ossified. The exoskeleton consisted 
of a large median plate and two lateral plates, corresponding to the interclavicle and 
clavicles of higher forms, and a more delicate element—the cleithrum—adjoining each 
lateral plate. When in Permian times the terrestrial reptiles came to be developed 
from the amphibian forms, the chief changes that took place in the shoulder girdle were 
that the endoskeletal elements became well ossified, and the exoskeletal elements became 
more closely united with the other structures and less distinctly dermal bones. Such a 
girdle is seen in Pareiasaurus, where the five exoskeletal elements of the Labyrinthodont 
are still distinct elements, but where the scapula, coracoid, and precoracoid are well 
ossified. 7 

In the further evolution in the mammalian line the cleithrum became lost through 
becoming co-ossified with the scapula, forming its spine. Cynognathus a 
illustrates this stage. 
the ventral at of the edie He precoracoid becoming reduced. ES 

And finally, in connection with the many changes which gave to the — 
their typical characteristics, and of which the development of a soft flexible skin only 
protected by hair probably was the most important, the coracoid became detached from 
the sternum and much reduced in size to give greater freedom of movement to the 
limbs. With this change the interclavicle would become lost to admit of the clavieles 
becoming moveable. : 


LIST OF LITERATURE REFERRED TO. 


(1) Broom, R., “On the Existence of a Sterno-coracoidal Articulation in a Foetal Marsupial,” Joma of | 
Anat, and Phys., vol. xxxi., 1897. . 
(2) GueENnBavR, C., “ Cision, und Cleithrum,” Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xxiii., 1895, 
(3) Suexey, H. G., “ Researches on the Structure, Organisation, and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia. 
vii. Further Observations on Pareiasaurus,” Phil. Trans., 1892, vol. 183, B. 


¢ 
of z 


- 


A THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE, 769 


7 _ (4) Parxer, W. K., “A Monograph on the Structure and Development of the Shoulder Girdle and 
‘Sternum,” Ray Society, 1867. 
.~ (5) Frowsr, W. H., Osteology of the Mammaliu, 1st ed., Lond., 1870; 2nd ed., Lond., 1876. 
F (6) Witson, J. T., and M‘Kay, W. J. S., “On the Homologies of the Borders and Surfaces of the 
 { Ua in Monotremes,” Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1893. 
(7) M‘Kay, W. J. S., “The Morphology of the Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle in Monotremes,” Proc, 
Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1894. 
(8) Owen, R., Article “ Monotremata,” Cyclopxzdia of Anatomy and Physiology (Lond., 1847), vol. iii 
(9) Mivart, St Grores, “ Anatomy of Echidna hystrix,” Trans, Linn. Soc. Lond., vol. xxv., 1866. 
(10) Howes, G. B., “The Morphology of the Mammalian Coracoid,” Journ. of Anat. and Phys., 
l, xxi., 1887. 
) Briut, C. B., “ Zootomie aller Thierklassen ” (Wien, 1875). 
) Szzxzy, H. G., ‘ Researches on the Structure, etc., of Fossil Reptilia. viii. Further Evidences of 
eleton in Deuterosaurus and Rhopalodon from the Permian Rocks of Russia,” Phil. Trans., 1894, 


m in New Cynodontia from the Karroo Rocks,” Phil. Trans., 1895, vol. 186, B. 

}) Hows, G. B., “On the Coracoid of the Terrestrial Animals,” Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1893. 

)) LypeKer, R., “Notes on the Coracoidal Element in Adult Sloths, with Remarks on its 
gy,” Proc. Zool. Soc., 1893. 

GrGENnzBavR, C., Grundriss der Vergleichenden Anatomie, Leipzig. 

.) Wiepersuerm, R., Grundriss der Vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, 4te Aufl., Jena, 
[8) GueznBaur, C., “Hin Fall von erblichem Mangel der Pars Acromialis Clavicule, mit Bemerkungen 
Entwickelung der Clavicula,” Jenaische Zeitschrift, 1864, Bd. i. 

Gort, A., “ Beitrage zur vergl. Morphologie der Skeletsystems der Wirbelthiere ; Brustbein und 
irtel,” Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., Bd. xiv., 1877. 

Horrmann, C. K., “Zur Morphologie des Schultergiirtels und des Brustbeins bei Reptilien, 
angethieren und des Menschen,” Wiederland. Archiv. f. Zool., vol. v., 1879. 

Anprews, C. W., “On the Development of the Shoulder Girdle of a Plesiosaur (Cryptoclidus 
Phillips, sp.),” Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1895. 


REFERENCES TO FIGURES. 


GENERAL—ac., acromion ; cl., clavicle ; er., coracoid ; ep., ep!., ep., epiphyses ; gl., glenoid cavity ; ost., 
um ; per., precoracoid ; 71., r2., lst and 2nd ribs; se., scapula ; sp., the rudimentary non-cartilaginous 
leithrum ; s¢., sternum. 

PuateE I. 


(Figures 1 to 13, except fig. 8, are reconstructions from series of sections.) 
1. Outer view of shoulder girdle of 8°5 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 34. The dotted portions are 
. Outer view of shoulder girdle of 10 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 34. The dotted portions are 


tous. 
Outer view of shoulder girdle of 14°8 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 27. The clavicle has been 


OL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 29). 6 D 


770 DR R. BROOM ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIR 


Fig. 4. Outer view of shoulder girdle of 17 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 21. The limit of commenein 
ossification is shown by interrupted lines. , 
Fig. 5. Ventro-lateral view of shoulder girdle of 14°8 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 27. 

Fig. 6. Anterior view of shoulder girdle of 16 mm. Pseudochirus embryo, x 18. 

Fig. 7. Anterior view of shoulder girdle of 17 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 20. 

Fig. 8. Trans. vert. sect. of shoulder girdle of 17 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 20.. The dark sh 
indicates the region where the cartilage is about to ossify; the medium shading, normal hyaline cart 
the light shading, the portion of coracoid cartilage undergoing degeneration. > 

Fig. 9. Anterior view of shoulder girdle of 21 mm. Petrogale embryo, x 17. 


j Puate II. 

Fig. 10. Ventral view of shoulder girdle of 14°8 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 34. 

Fig. 11. Ventral view of shoulder girdle of 17 mm. Trichosurus embryo, x 28. 

Fig. 12. Ventral view of shoulder girdle of 16 mm. Pseudochirus embryo, x 30. 

Fig. 13. Ventral view of shoulder girdle of 21 mm. Petrogale embryo, x 28. 

Figs. 14-22. A series of specimens illustrating the phylogeny of the coracoidal elements, 
magnified and reduced. 

Fig. 14. Coracoid and Precoracoid of the Common Toad (from nature). 

Fig. 15. Coracoid and Precoracoid of Procolophon (modified after Seeley). 

Fig. 16. Coracoid and Precoracoid of Dicynodon (modified after Seeley and Lydekker). 

Fig. 17. Coracoid and Precoracoid of Gomphognathus (restored from fragments in Brit. Mus.). 

Fig. 18. Coracoid and Precoracoid of Ornithorhynchus (from nature). 

Fig. 19. Coracoid and Precoracoid of Echidna (from nature). 

Fig. 20. Coracoid of Embryo Trichosurus (reconstructed from sections). 

Fig. 21. Coracoid of nearly adult Pseudochirus (from nature). 

Fig. 22. Coracoid and Epiphysis of Cape Hare (from nature). 


| Vol. XXXIX 
BROOM ON MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE. 


Plate |. 


A-RITCIIE & SON EDIR 


. Vol. XXXIX. 
BROOM ON MARSUPIAL SHOULDER GIRDLE, 


Plate |]. 


Fig. 22, 


A RITCHIE & SOW EDIN™ 


ear) 


XXX.— Non-Alternate + Knots. By Professor C. N. Lirrtz, Ph.D. Communicated 
by Professor Tarr. (With Three Plates.) 


(Read July 3, 1899.) 


1. The following paper is a contribution to the theory of non-alternate + knots, 
ether with a census of these knots for Order Ten; that is, all the knots are given 
h have in reduced form just ten crossings, and in which the thread does not proceed 
ulternately over and under. 

The census was begun in the fall of 93, and carried so far that the forms were 
The matter was then laid aside and taken up anew in the spring of ’99. 

2. Having postulated an endless one-dimensional continuum which may change its 
ength and form in any way, subject only to the condition that it can never have a 
double point, and consequently no one portion can be made to break through another, 
(understand by a knot a continwum which can not be brought to a circular form. 

3. The above definition makes of a knot a purely mathematical concept. As 
ysical approximations for the continuum may be taken :—(qa) a vortex filament of 
tionless ether ; (b) a flexible, extensible thread. It is convenient and can lead to no 
arror, although keeping to the mathematical conception, nevertheless to speak of the 
ntinuum as a thread. 

4. Through the work of Listine,* Tarr,t Kirxman,{ and the writer,§ but pre- 


* “Vorstudien zur Topologie,” Géttinger Studien, 1847, pp. 859-866. To the kind courtesy of Professors FELix 
EIN and P. StAcKeEt, for which I here express my appreciation, I owe the opportunity to examine the topological 
asse of GAuss and Listine. The former will appear in the forthcoming Bd. VIII., Gesammelte Werke, and must 
commented upon in advance of publication. The latter contains among the drawings of reduced knots not 
in the “Vorstudien,” a sheet bearing date March 18, 1849, on which are the following forms marked as 


ex (2 
\y oS) pees ee 
eile < 


Scvei Pipa, vol. i. pp. "273-346, 
ae og pe tiens vol. xxxii. pp. 281-309 ; ibid., pp. 483- ae 


772 PROFESSOR C. N. LITTLE ON 


5 
eminently of Professor Tarr, the theory of the alternate knot is well understood, It | 
may be useful to recapitulate the main points of this theory : 


(a) The knot is reduced (projected with fewest crossings) if no one of the compart- | 
ments into which its projection divides the plane is opposite itself. 

(b) Reduced forms of the same knot divide the plane into two sets of vertically | 
opposite parts, with a constant number of parts in each set. This gives a | 
convenient basis for classification. 

_(c) It is a simple problem in the circular arrangement of letters to determine from a 
given reduced form all reduced forms of the knot. Hence it is easy to say as 
to two given forms whether or not they are projections of the same knot. 

(2) Simple methods are known by which al/ the knots of a given order (minimum 
number of crossings) can be found. 
(e) The theory of amphicheiral knots. 


5. It is quite the contrary with the non-alternates. They constitute an almost | 
untouched field, bristling with difficulties. In these Transactions, vol. xxxv. part ii. | 
_ p. 664, I published a census of these knots for Orders Hight and Nine; for brevity I | 
shall refer to this paper under the letter A in brackets. 

6. It is there stated, [A] § 8, There is no reduced non-alternate += knot of he 
crossings than eight. I proceed to give formal proof*:— am | 

In class IL., order x, all knots are obviously alternate. 

In class III., order n, the leading partition (set of compartments with smaller number 
of parts) has three parts, say A, B, C. If any one of the connections (AB), (BC), (CA) | 
is null, the form is not a knot. If any one is a single crossing the knot is alternate, 
[A]|§ 3. If two of them have each two crossings there must be a link, that is, at least | 
two threads. Hence there must be for these connections at least 3, 3, 2 crossings | 
respectively, and a non-alternate knot of class III. must be at least an eightfold. 

Consider class IV., order n. Here there are in the leading partition four parts, 
A, B, C, D, and these have six connections. 

First, let any one, say (AB), be null. Then in order that the form may be the pro- 
jection of a reduced knot, (AC), (AD), (BC), (BD) must exist. There are two cases — 
(a) Let (CD) also be null. If now any one of the existing connections be a single 
crossing, say A, then all of the crossings of the other connections will also be A, by [A] 
§ 3, and the form alternate. But if not, the form is at least elevenfold, since only one 
connection can consist of an even number of crossings, else the form would be a link. 
(b) Let (CD) exist. We now have D joined to C by B, by A, and by the one or more 
crossings of (CD). If either (DB) or (CB), and at the same time either (DA) or (CA), 
are single crossings; the form is alternate. If (DB) and (CB), or (DA) and (CA), are | 

* The classification of alternate knots according to the number of parts in the projection, in that set of vertically 
opposite compartments which has the smaller number, does not answer for non-alternates, since the same knot can be 


projected in forms belonging to different classes. Later, in § 9, a new basis of classification will be proposed. In this | 
and the following sections, however, the term class has the old signification. 


NON-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. WS 


as > 


~ both even, the form is a link. Hence to have a non-alternate knot, A (or B) must 
furnish at least five crossings and the remaining three connections at least one each. 
The knot is at least an eightfold. . 
Second, let all six connections exist. If each is a single crossing the form is a link 
‘of three threads. If one connection has two crossings, and the other five one each, the 
form has two threads. In all other cases in this class the form is at least an 
eightfold. 
- Class V. and higher classes do not exist in orders lower than Order Hight. This 
gompletes the proof of the theorem that there exists no non-alternate + knot with 
~ fewer than eight crossings. 
_ 7. No reduced, non-alternate knot with three consecutive overs has fewer than eleven 
crossings. 
Since in classes IL, IIL, and IV., order n, it is always possible to go from any part 
4 of the leading partition to any other part of the same partition with not more than two 
 @ossings, no sequence of three (three consecutive overs) can exist in these classes. 
_ Hence no reduced eightfold knot with a sequence of three can exist. 
All other ninefolds of class V. can be derived from the ninefold 35, below, by 
erasing crossings at some of the existing connections of the leading partition and 
ding the crossings erased at other connections. Although it requires 


ee crossings by every path to go from A to H, nevertheless the form as (ke) 


b 
b 
: 
' 
7 
: 


stands cannot have three consecutive overs, for this would require that 

re should have three consecutive overs ona closed circuit of five crossings ; 

ut this is impossible, since, in order to have in a reduced knot three con- 

utive overs on a closed circuit, the circuit must have at least seven crossings. If 
4), (CD), or (DB) were erased it would be possible to go from A to E with two 
| crossings. If an A (or E) crossing be erased, say (AB), we have a link, and for knot 
‘must add the crossing erased to (BC), (EC), (BD), or (ED). But this will leave D and 
© connected by the 2-gon A and the crossing (DC). By the transposition of these it 
becomes possible to go from A to E with two crossings. Hence no reduced ninefold 
knot can have a sequence of three. 

All class V. tenfolds are to be had from the ninefold 35 by the process above 
described, except that the number of crossings added must exceed by one the number 
d. If none be erased and one added, we have either a link or the tenfold 87, 
h can have no sequence of three, from A to E, except upon a five-crossing circuit. 
above, we may not erase (BC), (CD), or (DB). If (BA) be erased and two crossing 
din any way to (BC), (EC), (BD), (ED), we again have, after transposition of 
A and the crossing (CD), only two portions of the thread between A and E. If 
rossing be added to any one of the four mentioned connections and the other to 
, (CA), or (DC), A can still be brought into the same position with respect to E. 
e second crossing be added to (CE) or (DE) there will be two threads. Hence no 
ss V. tenfold can have a three sequence. 


774 PROFESSOR C. N. LITTLE ON 


Lastly, suppose a class VI. form to have the sequence of three of fig. 1. The 
parts A, B, C, D, a, b, c, d must all be distinct, and A, B, a, b can not 
be 2-gons, or the form would be reducible. Nor can the latter be | 
3-gons. For, suppose any one, as A, to be a 3-gon. If, now, the 
thread be shifted from the position fig. 2 to that of fig. 3, the 

part A is lost to the leading partition and the form comes 


cla/p a under class V., which, as has just been shown, can have | 
ae aie exe no form with three consecutive overs. Hence we have the 
oe ‘ aa e portion of the class VJ. tenfold shown in fig. 4. A moment's 
consideration shows that the parts marked are all distinct. 
eWay Of the three pairs of adjacent parts C, ec; D, d; F, f, only one mm 
“colalblq cach can be a 2-gon. Hence to complete the form at least two 
ee boas additional crossings must be introduced, so that the form becomes 


at least an elevenfold. Still less is it possible for A, B, a, or b 
to have more sides than four. Hence no class VI. tenfold can 
have a three sequence. . 
This completes the proof of the theorem that no reduced non-alternate knot with 
three consecutive overs has fewer than eleven crossings. 
It is easy to verify these theorems by inspection of the plates of alternate forms. 
An irreducible elevenfold knot form with three consecutive overs is shown at B, the 
last in Pl. III. As alternate it is No. 39 of my census.* 
8. Twist.—Let the direction of the moving point, continuously tracing the 
projection of a knot be recorded at each crossing by marking the thread with 
arrows. Crossings are of two kinds, as shown in the 


Fie 4, 


] figs. 5 and 6. I call the first a twist of + 7, the | 
Fines ——|—* ~~ second a twist of — 7. 

| Theorem.—The total twist of a reduced knot is 
me ae constant for all forms in which the knot can be pro- 
Fic. 5. Fic, 6. 


jected. The proof is very simple. The twist of the 
crossings is not altered by any of the transformations permissible to alternate forms, 
since these consist of rotations of a portion of the knot through an angle of @ 
about an axis in the plane of the knot projection. This does not change the relation 
of the arrows to a crossing nor a X crossing to a y, or vice versa. In the changes 
peculiar to non-alternate forms the thread is shifted from one portion of the knot 
to another, so as to alter the position of two consecutive overs (or unders). Hither 
the twist of the two crossings is unchanged, or else the twist of the two crossings 
was originally unlike, and in both crossings it is reversed. 

9. Knots may be classified according to twist. The non-alternate tenfolds will be 
so classified in the following census. 

10. An amphicheiral knot is one that can be distorted into its own perversion ; and 
* Trans, R.S. £., vol. xxxvi, pl. I. (89. D,. @.) 


NON-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. (75 


the twist of the perversion of a form is the negative of the twist of the original ; hence 
the twist of an amphicheiral must be zero, since it must at the same time change sign 
and be constant. 


Census of Tenfold Non-Alternates. 


_ 11. The basis of a non-alternate census of any order is the corresponding census 
of alternates of the same order, since projections of the former, looked at as plane 
eurves with double points, must be included in the projections of the latter, also 
so regarded. 

12. It will be remembered that two censuses* of tenfold alternates were made 
independently. These agreed in classes III. and V. The one discrepancy in class IV. 
was due to an oversight of Professor Tarr, and by him corrected before his plates were 
printed. There were four discrepancies in class VI., for all of which I was responsible. 


non-alternate knots are the following :— 
(a) Those in which two parts have three necessarily alternate connections :— 


2 39 57 75 115 

5 42 63 100 116 

18 AT 64 103 118 

| 23 50 69 109 123 
4 36 56 70 114 


The two or three forms of each of these were at once drawn and marked. For 
ample, 123 has two 3-gons connected by the alternate connections 2-gon, 2? coil and 
oil. Any one of these connections may be y (or A) and the other two A (or 7), 
ving six forms—the three found on the plates in knots: I, class I.; I, class III. ; 
nd I, class VI., and their perversions. 


6 27 38 86 95 
8 28 44 87 96 
a 29 46 88 97 
10 30 54 89 98 
12 ol 59 90 99 
13 32 82 on 110 
ile 33 83 92 athist 
25 34 84 93 112 
26 35 85 94 113 


* Trans. R.S. E., vol. xxii. ; Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. vii. 


776 PROFESSOR C. N. LITTLE ON 


° 


14. For the latter, tables of all possible crossings were made out, as described 
[A] § 6. To secure accuracy these tables were written out twice, once by myself an 
again later under my direction.* The limitation of § 7 keeps these tables in bounds, 
Nevertheless a considerable number of the forms given are reducible, and these must 
in the after work be detected and excluded. This was invariably done by so distor 
the form that a sequence of three overs occurred. ‘i 

15. Upon these tables also the twist of each form was computed. — 

16, From the tables the crossings were marked upon the tracings, giving all posal 
forms of non-alternate knots. 

Forms are regarded as distinct only when compartments are dissimilar, or when che 
direct connections of the compartments are dissimilar in the number or character of the 
crossings. The tables lead to a certain number of forms equivalent to others already — 
given, and differing only in the circumstance that the form had been rotated through an 
angle + about an axis of symmetry in the plane of the projection. These were excluded 
from the plates. In the case of forms which as alternates are amphicheiral, two 
equivalent forms occur which differ in that the amplexum partition of one is made the 
non-amplexum partition of the other. Such duplicates are also omitted. on 

17. The task of finding the knots from the knot forms was exceedingly laborious, 
and one that I should not have been able to accomplish except for the constant check 
given by the twist. : z. 

The process was as follows :—The twenty- -four knots of which the forms obtained in _ 
(a) § 13 are projections were easily found. Every other form was examined to see if 
it could be distorted so as to have two parts with three alternate connections. If this 
could be done, its proper place in these twenty-four knots was at once known. Where 
this was found to be impossible, the form was distorted into a form of which the knot — 
was known. In the end it was necessary to see that all permissible distortions of the 
forms of each knot gave only forms of the same knot. The conditions attendant upon 
this process are very numerous; I must repeat the caution previously given that until 
a simple test is found which shall distinguish the forms of one knot from those of every 
other in the same class, it may happen that non-alternate knots regarded as distinct may 
be in reality the same. ee 

18. The identification of a given tenfold non-alternate by means of the census may, 
in a particular instance, require some labour. In the first place it must be ascertained 
that the given knot is reduced. For this, unfortunately, no simple test is as yet known. 
Next observe the twist, to determine the class in which the knot will be found. Then 
find the number of the corresponding alternate knot and compare with the list of §19. 
If this number is to be found in more than one knot of the class, a closer comparison 
with the forms of the plate must be made. In case of apparent failure to find the form, 
the limitations of § 16 must be kept in mind. 


* By Dr H. F. Buicuretpt, now instructor, at the time a student in Stanford University, for whose care my 
thanks are due. 


“ NON-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. . : 777 


The Tenfold Alternate xt Knots. - 


_ 19. In the following list the forms of § 13 (a) are put at the beginning of the knots 
in which they occur. Other forms are given in numerical order; this is not the case 
upon the oe 


Class 1 Tiss 0. Six knots, and forty-six numbered forms. 


I.—70, 116, 123, 26, 33, 88, 94, 94, 97, 99, 112, 113, 113. 
IL—18, 57, 75, 17, 17, 34, 44, 54, 93, 93, 95, 111. 
TIL—2, 63, 8, 10, 25, 25, 84, 85, 89, 90. 
IV.—5, 50, 64, 6, 6, 8, 46. 

V.—25, 28, 87. 
VI—59. 


emraery en pps comme samen weer eum ee 0 ene ee ee 


Class I1—Twist 27. Nine knots, eighty-four numbered forms. 


T.— 56, 115, 26, 27, 38, 38, 88, 88, 96, 97, 112. 

 TI—2, 63, 114, 10, 25, 30, 44, 83, 83, 85, 90, 92, 92. 

| Ti—23, 69, 34, 92, 95, 98. 

TV.—39, 42, 47, 12, 12, 13, 13, 29, 82, 84, 84, 86, 86, 86, 86, 89. 

 V.—42, 47, 12, 12, 13, 28, 28, 29, 29, 30, 82, 82, 82, 84, 84, 85, 86, 86, 87, 89, 91. 
 VL—39, 42, 12, 13, 84, 84. 

‘VILL—31, 32; 38, 88, 96, 112. 

iihe—34, 89,91. . 

Pe —91, 98, 110. 


ee 


Class III.—Twist 47. Ten knots, ninety-eight numbered forms. 


mei ——a6, 70, 123, 33, 94, 99, 113. 
 11.—23, 69, 118, 25, 28, 34, 82, 85, 87, 91, 91, 93, 98, 110, 110, 111. 
- TIL—56, 100, 115, 26, 31, 32, 33, 88, 94, 96, 112. 
IV.—57, 75, 109, 54, 17, 93, 111. 
V.—50, 64, 103, 6, 8, 25, 25, 28, 30, 44, 46, 85, 87, 90, 90, 92, 92, 93, 95, 98, 110, 110, 111. 
VI.— 28, 29, 93. 
‘VII.—26, 27, 32, 33, 35, 59, 94, 96, 97, 97, 113. 
VIII.—26, 27, 27, 88, 94, 96. 
IX.—6, 8, 9, 10, 44, 59, 95. 
 X—10, 25, 83, 83, 92, 92, 98. 


SS 


Class [V.—Twist 67. Hight knots, sixty-five numbered forms. 


I—26, 70, 116, 97, 99, 99, 113. 

 IL—18, 57, 109, 17, 54, 54, 95. 

- IIL—5, 50, 103, 6, 8, 25, 30, 30, 44, 46, 46, 54, 85, 85, 90, 95, 98, 111. 
IV.—28, 82, 85. 

 V.—10, 25, 28, 29, 85, 87, 89, 89, 91, 110. 

VI—8, 9, 10, 30, 44, 46, 59, 83, 85, 89, 111. 

ey il.—31, 32. 

VIIL—33, 33, 35, 59, 96, 97, 99. 


778 PROFESSOR C. N. LITTLE ON NON-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. 


Class V.—Twist 87. Two knots, ten numbered forms. 


IL—63, 114, 10, 29, 83, 86, 89. 
Il—27, 32, 96. 


Class VI—Twist 107. Eight knots, fifty numbered forms. 


I.—36, 116, 123, 26, 31, 33, 38, 88, 94, 97,.99, 112, 113. 

II.—23, 118, 25, 87, 92, 98, 110. 

IIL—100, 115, 27, 32, 96. 

IV.—18, 75, 109, 8, 17, 28, 34, 54, 85, 93, 95, 111. 
V.—5, 64, 103, 6, 30, 44, 46. 

VI.—10, 29, 83, 89. 

VIL—9. 
VIIL.—35. 


20. It is interesting to note that in order ten as in order eight no amphicheiral not 
alternate knots have made their appearance. The numbers of knots must be double 
therefore, to include perversions. 


making 339 reduced knots of ten crossings. 

These new knots are shown upon Plates I., II., III., the perversions being obtiat ined 
as usual by holding the plates before a mirror cc ne at the images. In knot II of © 
class II., Plate L, § 16 should have excluded the second form of 83. The first 59 
knot IX of class III. on Plate II. is also manifestly superfluous. 


Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXIX. 


PROF, LITTLE: NoN-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. 


WAP CESSSRADOO 


Ged 


Gs 


BS BE 7D) @DAQ@O'D AOD &” 
12380848888 
eo GS GN IG) TD) OG YG PN, ae 
IDOOO DSSS CB C8 


Me GN NN BMA "OQ BR OT ON 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vou. XXXIX, 


ERRATA FOR PROF. LITTLE'S PAPER, 


p. 778. 6th last line, for 253 read 233. 
fo Me 5th Ay 3 389 45 319. 
e The laps referred to below are parts of the external boundary of the figure, and are supposed to be 
described with the sun. The first specification of a lap refers to the side of the figure, the second to its 
position on the side. 
Plate I. 8th col., last row. Right-hand upper lap should crvss over, 
late ITT. 4th 5, 6th ,, Upper lap should go under, over, over, wnder, over, ete, 
10th ;) 9th) 5; Upper right-hand lap should cross over, 
Last ,, 2nd last row. Right-hand middle lap should cross under. 


~~ 
3 
Gs 
= 


OH) = 
eS ¢ (a BE BH 4 
GQHASHS SASH 
8 @ a aOe 
oe 
GES RoRe NS RORSTORG! 


29 


10888 O60 6808 


YD BB es 6 
Bo SOC ¢ 


eS 
G 
CS 
ASD 

GB 
<a) 


SD ® ¢ 
coy 


eS 


& 


. 
D 


778 PROFESSOR C. N. LITTLE ON NON-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. 


Class V.—Twist 87. Two knots, ten numbered forms. 


IL—63, 114, 10, 29, 83, 86, 89. 
IL—27, 32, 96. 


Class VI—Twist 107. Eight knots, fifty numbered forms. 


I.—36, 116, 123, 26, 31, 33, 38, 88, 94, 97, 99, 112, 113, | 
IL.—23, 118, 25, 87, 92, 98, 110. 
IIL—100, 115, 27, 32, 96. 
IV.—18, 75, 109, 8, 17, 28, 34, 54, 85, 93, 95, 111. 
V.—5, 64, 103, 6, 30, 44, 46. 


—S “an ~ RA 


| PROF. LITTLE: NoN-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. oe 
EVHOECSESRADOD 


IGS3 996 OS3 088 
2200029686808 
RON Nem cene 
MOBELSE OLDS ESOB 


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PMT OLGSOGREaR 


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Poo'sn pes gap 
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198 8 OD®BSaO 
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x Ss 86 86 86 86 
HCOQHRODS BOSS 
DO @ HA ® mA “aia 
BS OSO OSHA NDE 


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Peiisec. Edin. Vol. XXXIX 


PROF, LITTLE: NoN-ALTERNATE + KNOTS. 
PEATE II. 


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Bo soveaee: 
POO © Pa GBB G% 


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XXXI.—The Meteorology of Ben Nevis in Clear and in Foggy Weather. 
as By J. Y. Bucnanan, F.R.S. (With Eight Plates.) 


(Read July 3, 1899.) 


_ The publication by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1890 of the hourly observa- 
tions made at the observatory on the summit of Ben Nevis along with corresponding 
ybservations at five different hours at Fort-William at the sea level was an important 
sontribution to meteorological science. As I held at the time the Lectureship in Geo- 
hy at the University of Cambridge it furnished a welcome supply of facts for the 
stration of important points in physical geography. What struck me most at the 
time in the study of this work was the unique character of the observatory of Ben Nevis 
itself, without reference to its companion at the sea level, as a first-class observatory 
m a locality where the atmosphere is for the greater part of the year completely 
urated with moisture. Being also situated on a true peak, and that the highest 
point in the British Islands, the observations may fairly be taken to represent the 
m Bercorology of the clouds, or at least of such clouds as are in contact with moun- 
tain slopes, and in any case they must afford rich material for the study of the 
physics of the atmosphere. 
The weather on Ben Nevis falls naturally into three categories : the first includes the 
lays when the mountain is continuously enveloped in fog or cloud, the second, those 
yeriods when the mountain is clear of clouds, and the third, periods during which 
ent alternations of clear and foggy weather occur. It seemed to me that 
- conditions would be best understood by studying the continuously clear 
her and the continuously fogey weather, each by itself, and that this would 
/ it more easy to understand the conditions of mixed weather. When the 
orological observations on Ben Nevis are looked at as physical observations, 
the object is to study the physics of the atmosphere, apart from all considera- 
of weather, then a separation such as that above indicated becomes an obvious 
ainary. Had meteorology been first practised in the Tropics it would now be 
a more advanced state than it is. The meteorology of Europe, like the tides on 
8 coasts, is the most intricate and involved that can be found anywhere in the world, 
id it is the worst possible material on which the study could be commenced. Within the 
es, and round the Poles, the conditions are simple and uninvolved, and the meteoro- 
il observations, at least those made within the Tropics, reflect this simplicity. 
ally, in the Tropics there are two kinds of weather, indicated by the terms Dry 
m, Rainy season. In the Indian peninsula, for instance, during the months 
mber, January, February, March, and April, hardly a drop of rain falls, there 
h le cloud, the air is very dry, and the temperature shows considerable daily range. 
‘VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 31). 6 F 


780 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


In the months from June to October it rains at least two days out of every three; the 
tension of aqueous vapour is high, and the atmosphere is generally nearly saturated 
with it; this is the weather which accompanies the strong south-west wind known as 
the Monsoon. 

If we take the meteorological record of a year at any such place we find that the 
sorting out of different kinds of weather has been done by Nature, and the discussion 
has necessarily reference to the different kinds of weather, even although this may not 
always find expression. At the Poles, where the year consists of one long day and one 
long night, we cannot doubt that the meteorology must be characterised by much sim- | 
plicity. In Europe, we have dry seasons and rainy seasons ; but, whereas, in India the ~ | 
dry season occupies completely one-half of the year and the rainy season occupies com- 
pletely the other half without any mutual interference, our wet and dry seasons alternate 
as many times in the course of a single day. Here it would seem to be indicated that 
we should do for ourselves what Nature does for us in the Tropics, and sort out the 
weather before discussing it. 

The prime factor in determining the climate of a place is its Latitude, because this 
determines the altitude to which the sun rises from day to day and the length of time 
that it is above the horizon each day. The heating power of the sun on any horizontal 
portion of the earth’s surface varies with the sine of its altitude at the moment. All 
the elements of climate and weather depend ultimately on this factor, and its variability 
produces a corresponding variability in the weather. It is only necessary to consult a 
table of sines to see where the greatest variability is likely to occur. Thus, at the 
equator the sine of the sun’s meridian altitude varies between 0°924 and 1:000, at 
either of the Tropics, between 0°684, and 1°000 in lat. 45°, between 0°367 and 0°930, and 
in the latitude of Ben Nevis (56° 48’ N.) it varies between 0°169 and 0°835. At the 
equator the sun’s heating power at noon only varies by 74 per cent. of its maximum 
amount, while at Ben Nevis the variation is 80 per cent. 

But the latitude of a place determines not only the intensity of the sun’s heat which 
it receives, it also determines the intensity of the cooling to which it is exposed by 
radiation into the upper regions of the atmosphere and into space. This goes on ali 
day independently of the sun’s heating, but it becomes more apparent after the sun 
has set, and produces the greater effect the longer is the duration of the night, and 
this is a function of the latitude. While the altitude which the sun attains measures 
the heat which it supplies, and the length of the night determines the amount which is 
lost, both the heat received and that lost at any particular place may be in excess or in 
default of what it is entitled to, owing to its latitude alone. This is due to secondary 
actions set up by the primary heating and cooling, whereby one place may receive, in 
addition to its own, a supply of heat or of cold to which it is not entitled, thereby 
altering its climate as well as that of the other place which has supplied the heat or cold. 

The principal secondary agencies through which the sun works are the atmosphere, 
in its motion, both horizontal and vertical, and in its changes of volume ; and the sub- 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 781 


stance of water in its changes of state of aggregation. It cannot be doubted that, 
considering the Earth as a whole, the nett effect of these secondary agencies is nil. 
Yet their local effect is in many cases very great, as witness the difference in population 
between Great Britain and places in the same latitude in North America. The waters 
of the ocean are also a powerful secondary agency in the distribution of the sun’s 
heat. 

The 384 years’ published observations on Ben Nevis, though furnishing excellent 
material for the illustration of lectures, were not sufficient for the thorough discussion 
of the climate of the mountain. There was no lack of foggy weather; but it is of very 
little use attempting to study a secondary effect without knowing something of the 
primary effect which is disturbed, and we must consider the fog as a disturbance of the 
“normal solar climate. For this purpose it is important to have a sufficient number 
of examples of the clear weather of Ben Nevis; and now that ten more years have 
passed, thirteen whole years’ observations are available, and these have been obligingly 
put at my disposal by Dr Bucuan. 

Many special features of the meteorology of Ben Nevis have been discussed in 
interesting papers by Mr Omonp, Mr Rankine, Mr Mossman, and by Dr Bucway. 
T have little doubt that these papers would have gained in interest if the clear and 
fogey weather had been distinguished. It has been my wish to do something towards 
this end myself, and at the beginning of last winter I set about sorting the thirteen 
years into periods of clear and of foggy weather, leaving out all days of mixed weather. 
The burden of this work has been borne by Mr ANDREW Kune, who for a number of 
years ably assisted me in my chemical work. Without his aid the collection of books, 
with the hourly observations sorted into spells of clear and of foggy weather, would 
never have been brought together ; and I desire to express my great obligation to him 
for this and for the extensive work of computation which has accompanied it. 

Great as this labour was, it would have been several times greater had our 
meteorological observatories followed the fashion, which it is attempted to force on 
them from abroad, more especially from the continent of Europe, of using Celsius’ 
scale for the measurement of the temperature of the air.* 

The books, which already form almost a little library, will be deposited with the 
‘Scottish Meteorological Society, and will furnish the indispensable preliminary arrange- 
ment for permitting every feature of the meteorology of Ben Nevis to be discussed with 
reference to clear or fogey weather. I attach particular value to discussions by men 
like Mr Omonp, Mr Ranxryz, Mr Brucz, and others who have resided on the summit 
for a considerable time as observers. They have known the mountain in all its moods, 
and explanations will occur to them which would never be suggested to another by the 
mere contemplation of numbers. 

The published observations were begun on Ben Nevis in 1884, but, to avoid a 
broken series, I have taken the years from Ist January 1885 to 31st December 1897. 


* My views on this subject are more fully explained in a letter which appeared in Nature (1899), vol. lx. p. 364. 


782 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


The principle on which the dates were selected was:—For foggy weather, to take 
spells of three or more whole days of continuous foggy weather, and continuous foggy 
weather is defined by twenty-four consecutive entries of fog in the log of each day. 
The supply of foggy days seemed to be so abundant that the minimum length of spell 
was able to be fixed at three whole days. When it became a question of selecting the 
spells of clear weather it was necessary to adopt the hour as unit, and twenty-four 
consecutive hours during which fog was not once entered in the log was adopted as the 
specification of the spell of clear weather of minimum duration. It was not possible to 
enforce the limitation that the twenty-four hours should all belong to the same day. 
It will be observed that a clear day only means twenty-four hours free of fog, and 
implies nothing with regard to the presence or absence of cloud overhead. dy 

Summit and Base.—Although observations have been made at the base of the 
mountain since the observatory on the summit was established, and for the last ten 
years a first-class observatory has existed at Fort-Willam, in this paper no account is 
taken of the observations made at the base. After the meteorology of the summit 
has been thoroughly studied by itself, and that of the base by itself, there will be 
greater light for the study of the combined observations and more assurance ¢ 
the validity of the conclusions arrived at. 

Detoils of Method of Selection.—A list of dates selected from the years 1885- 1897 
was made. The principle of the selection was, in the case of foggy weather, to pick 
out every block of at least three days of continuous fog; in the case of clear weather, 
to pick out every spell of at least twenty-four hours continuous clear weather. Bya 
spell of clear weather is meant one in which no fog was logged. The blocks of foggy 
weather vary in length from three days to eleven days; the spells of clear weather < 
in length from twenty-four hours to two hundred and eighty-three hours. 

This list of dates having been made, the barometer observations for every hour of 
the days involved were copied from the Ben Nevis sheets into a series of note-books : 
one note-book containing all the data belonging to a particular month for all the years, 
Thus, one note-book contains all the January blocks of foggy and spells of clear 
weather ; another, the February, and so on—a series of twelve books being thus made 
up. In the case of the spells of clear weather the entries for the entire day in which 
the spell begins and for that on which it ends were copied out (besides those for the 
intermediate days), and afterwards the exact hours at which the spell begins and ends 
were marked. Thus, in the case of a spell of clear weather extending from nine o'clock 
on 15th August to two o’clock on 19th August, all the entries for 15th, 16th, 17th, 
18th, and 19th August were made. The advantage of this arrangement is that it shows 
plainly the barometric conditions prevailing at epochs of transition from one kind of 
weather to another, and it has greater completeness. The same thing was done in the 
case of the temperature, rainfall, tension of aqueous vapour, wind, cloud, and sunshine ; 
so that we have a series of eighty-four note-books, containing records of the 
meteorological elements mentioned above, for the selected list of dates. The dates of | 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 783 


clear and of foggy weather are clearly indicated, so that there is a valuable collection 
of data available for any future work on the conditions prevailing in the two kinds of 
weather specified. 

_ Note-books were then prepared for the tabulation of the swms and means of the 
different meteorological elements in each month. These were ruled with the various 
years (1885-1897) as the side argument, and the twenty-four hours of the day as the 
top argument. 

- Take the barometric pressure during clear weather for illustration. Under each 
hour and opposite each year were recorded the sum of the barometric pressures, and the 
number of observations involved at that particular hour of that particular year. Thus, 
for each month we have thirteen longitudinal columns and forty-eight vertical columns: 
bwe aty-four of the vertical columns being the record of the sums in the individual years, 
and twenty-four being the record of the number of observations dealt with. On 
summing the vertical columns and dividing the sums of the pressures by the sums of 
the number of observations we find the mean pressures at each hour of each month for 
the whole period of thirteen years. 

The same process was applied to the Barometric observations during foggy weather, 
and to the temperature, ramfall, and tension of aqueous vapour for both clear and fogey 
weather. In the case of the wind observations note-books were also prepared for the 
tabulation of the number of winds in each month. The top argument in this case was 
) sixteen points of the compass (N., N.N.E., N.E., E.N.E., etc.), and the side argument 
» twenty-four hours of the day. Under each point and opposite each hour was recorded 
the number of times that that particular direction of wind had been logged at the hour 
under consideration in the whole thirteen years. By summing the columns vertically the 
total number of times that each particular direction of wind had been logged in each 
month for the whole thirteen years was obtained without regard to the hour of the day. 
When the totals were obtained they were reduced to eight points, viz.: N., N.E, 
-#H,S5£,,8.,8.W., W., N.W. This was done by distributing the N.N.E. winds equally 
amo ng N. and N.E., the E.N.E. equally among N.E. and E., and so on. 

A tabulation of the number of times the wind was observed to blow in a particular 
direction in a particular month does not, however, give a true idea of its relative 
importance, without also taking into consideration the number of observations 
dealt with altogether in that particular month. Thus, we find in June that in our 
dear weather and foggy weather we have westerly winds logged about an equal 
mber of times. It must be remembered, however, that in June we are dealing with a 
y much larger number of observations of clear weather than of foggy weather ; 
e we find that the westerly winds are only 6 per cent. of the total dealt with in 
in clear weather, whereas they are 20 per cent. of those in foggy weather. A 
as, therefore, been made, showing for each month the percentage of each 


cs, A A SOS TS EIT 
ee . 


a 


Although we have in the tables and curves all the data relating to clear and 


784 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


fogey weather on Ben Nevis, arranged in convenient form for study, the study of them 
takes time. The object of this paper, however, is less to present a complete account of 
the meteorology of the mountain in the two different classes of weather, than to present 
the data in the form which appears the most suitable for fruitful study, leaving the 
actual study free and open to everyone, in view of the publication very shortly of the 
complete series of observations to the end of 1897. While, therefore, no complete 
discussion of the data is attempted in this paper, the chief facts of interest which 
proceed from them are noticed in the following pages. . 

First, as regards the selected dates: the principle of selection has been already 
stated. In Tables I. and II. we have the complete list of clear and of foggy spells. The 
clear spells are indicated in Table I. by the year and month, and the day and hour at 
which each spell begins and ends. The foggy spells, consisting only of whole days and 
a minimum of three consecutive days, are indicated simply by the days in the 
squares corresponding to the year and month. The observations of thirteen years, 
namely, 1885 to 1897 (inclusive), are dealt with in this paper. 4 

The following short Table shows a summary of the quantity of material which was 
available on the principle of selection adopted. 


Summary of Material Used. 


Foggy Weather. Clear Weather. 
Month. SS ee 
No. of Spells.| No. of Days. | No. of Spells.) No. of Hours. 

January, ; : 2 22 86 13 606 
February, : ‘ : Wy 54 26 1,158 
March, . : : E 20 78 27 1,335 ¥ 
April i 5 : 2 16 59 30 1,728 
May, ; ; : , if 27 37 2,228 
June, < ‘ : : 12 42 46 2,895 
July, ‘ 3 : : 11 46 30 1,502 
August, . : E : 17 58 19 971 
September, . ; , 16 (s) 31 1,296 
October, ‘ ‘ : 17/ 64 21 951 
November, ‘ P : 20 88 19 983 
December, : - ‘ 15 66 14 697 
Totals, . , P : 185 747 313 16,350 


From it, it will be seen that 70 per cent. of the clear weather occurs in the months 
of April, May, and June, and generally there is much more prolonged clear weather in 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 785 


the spring half of the year than in the autumnal half. There is also less continuous 
fooay weather in the spring half, there being a well-marked minimum in May. The 
months of August and especially September are rich in continuous foggy weather, and 
this accounts for the very bad reputation of the mountain among tourists. The month 
ich figures in our lists with the maximum of foggy spells is November, the maximum 
of clear spells falls in June. 

The distribution of the spells of clear and of foggy weather in the months of different 
years is worth attention. In January there were no spells of twenty-four hours clear 
weather in the six years, 1889 to 1894 (inclusive). In March, May, June, and July, 
there is one year without a spell of clear weather; in February, April, August, and 
ember, there are two years ; in October and November, three ; and in December, five 
s without a spell of clear weather. With regard to the spells of foggy weather of 
three days and upwards, we find only one year where they were awanting in January. 
n March, April, September, November, and December, there are two years ; in June and 


Adding up the total number of hours of clear weather and days of foggy weather 
considered, we find that they make 681 and 747 days respectively, or a total of 1428 
days out of 4748 days contained in the thirteen years, or, roughly speaking, one-third. 


TABLE giving the Number of Minutes after Greenwich Mean Noon when it is Local Apparent Noon 
at Ben Nevis at Different Dates. 


Date. Minutes. Date. Minutes. Date. Minutes. Date. Minutes. 

Jan. 1 24 Mar. 30 24 Aug. 18 24 Nov. 2 37 
x 3 25 April 4 23 » 24 23 96) 9 4 
a 5 26 6 7 22 ects 22 are el ld 5 
+ Uf 2 UO 21 » 00 21 pe all 6 
35 9 28 mo 20 Sept. 1 20 LO 1 
ee 29 3 18 19 4 4 19 te 8 
een) 30 55 2 18 3 7 18 30 9 
rp AY) 31 » 30 17 9 9 17 Dec. 2 10 
3» «24 32 May 15 16 4 12 16 ssn A i 
op 33 a AD 7 lb 15 oA 7 12 

Feb. 1 34 June 3 18 Liv 14 - Le 13 
ae el 34°5 AD 9 19 5 20) 13 ae ule 14 
~ Ue) 34 apy alls) 20 aon 12 3 4 15 
ee 33 same cul: 21 wy PAD) 11 nD 16 

Mar. 2 32 yu 2D 22 » 930 10 lS 17 
8) tf 31 po) 23 Oct. 3 9 eral 18 
ay LO 30 July 2 24 5 5 8 » 20 19 
ee LD 29 sip li 25 a Mek 7 ae 20 
el 7, 28 aye alls) 26 Ay els} 6 » 26 21 
P20 27 Aug. 1 26 mn) 5 28 22 
mH 249) OX ay Ds 25 Pye oats 4 > a) 23 
oj Che) 25 / 


786 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


Hence, out of the thirteen years we can make up four years in which the weather was 
either continuously clear or continuously foggy in the sense of our specification of these 
classes of weather. a 
Time used in the Observatory.—The observations are made at every hour by a el 
showing Greenwich mean time. The mountain lies 5° of longitude west of Greenwich, 
so that the local mean time of Ben Nevis is twenty minutes earlier than mean tim 
at Greenwich. With the varying values of the equation of time the local appare 
time varies from 3°5 to 34°5 minutes earlier than Greenwich mean time. In the first of | 
the accompanying tables (printed on the preceding page) is given, for a number of dates, 


Ben Nevis. It will be seen that at the beginning of November the sun crosses t 
meridian at only 3°5 minutes after noon by the clock; while at the beginning of 
February it does not do so till nearly thirty-five minutes after noon by the clock, 


by the clock. 


The second Table gives the dates of days of lengths differing by half-an-hour, 
the number of days elapsed since the vernal equinox. 


Ben Nevis.—Dates when the Length of the Day is an exact number of Half-hours. 


Days from Days from 
vernal Diff. Date. Length of Day. Date, Diff. vernal 
equinox. equinox. 
93 23 | June 21 17h. 32m. | 21 June 93 
70 ) May 29 vets: 14 July 23 116 
61 8 eo) 16} Zon as 9 125 
53 7 a 16 Sra 8 133 
46 8 ; 5 15} 8 Aug 8 141 
38 6 April 27 15 15 ,, 7 148 
32 7 eee 144 Zi ss 6 154° 
25 6 *. Ue 14 Als} ~ op 7 161 
19 6 m8 13} 4 Sept fi 168 
13 7 ee 13 IO) — 5, 6 174 

6 6 Mar. 26 123 G5, 6 180 
365 6 ee 12 23) a 7 187 — 
359 6 = Ae 114 7S) 6 193 
353 6 m ll 5 Oct 6 199 
347 7 ee 103 1 aes 6 205 
340 6 Feb. 23 10 ih 5, ff 212 
334 6 ra ei 94 24 4, 6 218 
328 7 yl 9 10), 6 224 
; 321 7 aes 8} 6 Nov. if 231 
314 7 Jan. 28 8 Los 7 238 
307 9 eee)! 7h 2 ost 8 246 
298 22 rie eet 7 BU, 9 255 
276 21 Dec. 21 6h. 28 m. 21 Dec 21 276 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 787 


‘tion should not be according to local apparent time, especially when, as at Ben Nevis, 
hourly eye readings are made. They would be equally available for popular purposes, 
whereas, the correction of popular time by as much as half-an-hour is a serious matter 
for scientific purposes. When self-recording instruments are used, it is as easy to take 
off the values for one time as for another. It is certain that it is apparent time and 
not any conventional time that rules meteorological phenomena. 

 Winds.—-The data regarding the winds are contained in Tables III. to VII. Tables 
III. and VI. contain the total number of observations of each wind to sixteen points, 
as logged in each month in clear and in foggy weather. Tables IV. and VII. contain 
the same data reduced to eight points of the compass, and Tables V. and VIII. are these 
fioures reduced to percentages per month. 

Only the direction of the wind is given in the Tables. In foggy weather the 
prevailing directions are N., N.W., W., and S.W., the greatest percentage being from 
2 West. In clear weather the prevailing directions are N., S.E., and S., with a 
maximum at 8.H., while calms occur very frequently. The cyclonic gales so common 
on our coasts, especially in winter, blow hardest between 8.W. and N.W., and on these 
casions the summit is usually enveloped in fog. On the other hand, in anti-cyclonic 
weather the air has hardly any sensible horizontal motion, and is generally clear 


a Te OO EES, A 
——————— 


and warm. 
In the following short Table are given the general results of the classification of the 
winds according to percentage, and distributed over eight points of the compass :— 


| Weather. N. N.E, E. S.E, 8. S.W. Wie N.W. Calm. 


17°45 601 | 11°63 | 18°85 | 16-74 8:94 6°17 3:54 | 10°67 | 100 | 
16°88 5°28 3°63 5°64 6°95 | 17°82 | 23°72 | 16°65 3°43 | 100 


If the winds were equally distributed round the compass we should have 12°5 per 

nt. from each point. In clear weather the amounts are above the average for N., 8.E. 
S.; in fogey weather, they are above the average for N., S.W., W., and N.W.; the 
imum falling on W., with 23°72 per cent., and the minimum on E., with 3°63 per 
. The winds in both clear and foggy weather require to be studied in connection 
the other meteorological elements, but for this purpose the individual observations 
must be combined. It has not been possible to overtake this. 
Rainfall.—The data with respect to rainfall are contained in Tables IX. to XI. 
ble IX. contains the total rain measured in each month of each year in continuous 
>weather, It will be seen that in weather of this description rain is of very rare 
rence, so much so that the rain in clear weather is not further dealt with in 
t form. Table X. is the corresponding Table for foggy weather. In this kind 
yeather the rainfall is very large, and in Table XI. it is reduced to mean hourly 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (No. 31), 6G 


eget ERS OO = ia : 
= : 7 . Font [ - Sa a ( 
D | - 


b> eR 


788 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 4 . 


values for each month, with the maximum hourly rainfall during the thirteen years for each 
hour. Table XII. contains the diurnal variation of the monthly mean hourly values. J 
On studying these Tables we note the following facts :— 7 
In continuous foggy weather there is always some precipitation measured, and it is 
usually very abundant. There is only one spell of foggy weather in which no 
precipitation was registered, and that was in January 1897. In continuous clear (not 
necessarily cloudless) weather it may be said that it never rains at all. The only ex- 
ception which could be taken to this might be the cases of June and August. In June, 
in the 2895 selected hours, the total amount of rain measured was 1'248 ins., giving an 
average of one-hundredth of an inch in twenty-four hours. In August, in the 971 _ 
selected hours, 0°72 in. fell, giving an average of 0:018 in. per twenty-four hours. The 
rainless character of continuous clear weather is well shown in Table IX., in which the 
total amount of rain which fell in each month in each year during clear weather is civen, 
There are only five occasions in the course of the thirteen years when more than one- 
tenth of an inch of rain fell during the clear weather of any one month, and the chief 
of these are 0°685 in. in August 1890, and 0°298 and 0°774 in. in June of 1887 and 1898 
respectively. Two-thirds of the whole rain fell in these five months, the remaining 1 
third is distributed over forty months, and 111 months out of the total of 156 have 
none at all. 
If we now turn to Table X., drawn in the same form for foggy weather, we see a 
very different state of things. As already pointed out, there is only one spell of foggy 
weather where no rain or precipitation has been measured. The smallest mean daily 
rainfall in foggy weather is 0°590 in. in April. The highest daily mean is 1:286 in. 
in September, and next to it comes February with 1270 in., and October with 1163 
in. April, May, June, July, and August are all under the mean for the year, which 
is 0°998 in., or almost exactly one inch. When it is remembered that in foggy weather — 
the air is always saturated, and besides that it has disseminated through it particles of 
water, which form the fog, on which the vapour can immediately and without resistance 
condense, and that in summer there is a much larger percentage of water vapour 
present in the atmosphere than is found in winter, it appears somewhat remarkable that 
the summer rainfall per foggy day should be so much lower than that of winter. When 
we turn to the maximum rainfall of any foggy day in each month during the thirteen 
years, we find these same months below the average again. The absolute maximum for 
the thirteen years falls on the 3rd October 1890, when 7:287 ins. fell in the twenty-four | 
hours; the next highest value, 6668 ins., falls on 6th February 1894, and the 
maximum rainfal] on a foggy day is above five inches in December, January, and 
March. The greatest fall in one hour occurred between fifteen and sixteen hours on 
14th January 1890, when 0°850 in. fell. 
The following short table puts together concisely the results of the rainfall 
measurements in the two kinds of weather, and shows clearly the great contrast 
between them in this respect :— | 


Bi 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 789 


CLEAR WEATHER, Focey WEATHER. 
Month : : 
: Total Mean Rain- 5 Mean Maximum 

Number * : s Number} Total Rain- 3 ; ; Date of 

of Hours. Re acer fen Liens of Days. |fall in Month. nee eeaiey. Maximum. 
Inches, Inch. Inches. Inches, Inches, | Day. | Year, 

: January, 5 : 606 0:004 0:00015 86 93°029 1:082 5:476 29 | 792 
| February, - : 1,158 033 00069 54 68°587 1:270 6°668 6 | 794 
March, . 5 ‘ 1,335 003 “00005 78 82:602 1-059 5:210 11 | ’90 

April, 3 . : 1,728 -110 00153 59 34°782 0:590 2:530 22 |’90 

May, . : i 2,228 392 00422 27 20°555 0-761 2°880 15 | °92 
‘June, . 4 ; 2,895 1:243 ‘01030 42 32°579 0-776 2-108 16 | 797 

July, . ; . 1,502 0°169 -00270 46 41°452 0-901 2°337 13} |) OO) 
August, 5 ; 971 ‘720 ‘01777 58 55°852 0:963 3°483 29 | 92 
September, : : 1,296 046 00085 79 101°646 1:2 6 4:930 Sill) 491 
October, c : 951 064 00161 64 74°438 1:163 7-287 3 | 790 
November, . : 983 076 00185 88 91-660 1:042 4°294 28 | 793 
December, . . 697 000 “00000 66 71:049 1:07 5-340 12 | ’85 

Sums, . . a 16,350 2°860 747 768°231 
/ Mean, . é 5 0:00389 0-998 4-379 


Barometric Presswre.—The particulars of barometric pressure are given in Tables 
XIII. to XIX. Tables XIII and XIV. contain the actual maximum and minimum 
pressures observed at every hour during the thirteen years in clear and in foggy 
weather. Tables XV. and XVI. contain the monthly mean hourly pressures for clear 
and fogoy weather. Tables XVII. and XVIII. contain the diurnal variations in the 
monthly mean hourly pressures in clear and in foggy weather; and Table XIX. gives 
the monthly mean hourly excess of the barometric pressure in clear weather over that 
in fogey weather. 

The last of these tables shows the most striking difference between clear and foggy 
weather on Ben Nevis, namely, the large and continuous excess of pressure in clear 
weather over that in foggy weather. At every hour of the year, without a single 
exception, the mean monthly pressure is several tenths of an inch higher in clear than in 
fogey weather. The maximum excess recorded in the table is 0°602 in. at twenty-one 
hours in January, and the minimum is 0°296 in. at fourteen hours in February. 
The average excess for the whole year is 0°456 in., and the following are the mean 
excesses for each month :— 


Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. Mean. 


| | 0570] 0:320/ 0:501 | 0-353] 0:372| 0-390| 0-414) 0-433] 0°519| 0:550| 0-537) 0°513| 0-456 inch 
+ 114 | +126 | +045 | — -103 | — 084 | — -066 | — 042 | — 023 | + -063) + -094)+-081 |+ 057] 0-000 


Roughly speaking, in spring and summer the excess is below the mean, excepting 
the month of March, and in autumn and winter it is above the mean. The drop from 


790 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE é 


the maximum to the minimum value in one month, from January to February, is very 
remarkable, but the recovery in March to a much higher value, and indeed to a second 
maximum, suggests that there are special reasons for this irregularity which may be 
accidental to the particular years under consideration. It is certainly dithicult to 
imagine, though it is well worth while to try to find out, what conditions vary so 
much and so rapidly between January and April that the excess of pressure in 
question should show the variations which we observe in the table. 9 

The curves of yearly march of pressure, Plate VIII., show a remarkable rise in 
February in foggy weather and a sharp fall in clear weather, so that the curves are 
brought much nearer each other. In both weathers there is a minimum in March and | 
a’ maximum at the beginning of June. In foggy weather this is the principal maximum, 
In clear weather the principal maximum is in September. 

Turning now to the distribution of pressure over the day in each month, Tables XY. 
to XVIII., Plates I. and II., we find considerable differences. In Plate I. we have the | 
months of the winter half-year, and in Plate II. those of the summer half-year, both on | 
a scale of 20:1. It is seen at once that the curves for fogey weather are smoother 
than those for clear weather, although sharp irregularities are not wanting, as, for 
instance, in the month of April. Looking at the clear weather curves, especially those 
of the winter half-year, it would be imagined that they were curves of a single day’s 
observations, but they are the mean curves for the clear days of the month during 
thirteen years. 

It will be observed that in all the clear weather curves there is a maximum in the 
evening between eighteen hours and midnight, this is particularly developed in winter. 
In these months, especially December, January, and February, the curves are most 
irregular. In summer they are a good deal smoothed out, and run down to the 
early morning minimum, which is strongly marked in nearly all the curves. The 
midsummer months, June and July, show curves which, without straining, could be 
smoothed into one having a single minimum between three and four A.M., and a single 
maximum about six P.M. In all the others a double period is perceptible, and in the 
winter months the serrated character of the curves is too remarkable to be accidental. 

In foggy weather we have, as has been pointed out, greater regularity. The con- 
tinual change of water from the liquid to the gaseous state and vice versd has a regulating 
influence on the changes of pressure as it undoubtedly has on the changes of temperature. 
In comparing the curves for clear and for fogey weather, it has to be remembered that 
the mean pressures, the hourly deviations from which are shown in the curves, are 
always much lower than the corresponding ones for clear weather. 

The curves for May and June very much resemble those for June and July in clear 
weather. They give at once a smooth curve with single minimum and single maximum, 
but these points fall rather later, the minimum at 4 to 5 a.m., and the maximum at 9 P.M. 
A second minimum at 6 P.M. appears in July, providing a second maximum at 2 P.M., 
and the curve preserves this form in August and September. In October the second 


7ol 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 


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792 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


maximum and minimum have been nearly smoothed out, and the curve changes char- ; 
acter with the approach of winter. The most striking feature of these curves is the 
sharp rise of pressure between midnight and 1 a.M., this is apparent in all the curves 
from November to April, with the single exception of December. The morning minimum 
is found about 6 a.M., with a forenoon maximum at 11 aM., and these are followed by 
an afternoon minimum and an evening maximum more or less pronounced. The extra- 
ordinary serration of the curve after midday in April is remarkable, as it is the only one 

belonging to foggy weather which shows this feature.  ¢ | 

A general summary of the movements of the barometer during the year is presented 
in the tables on the preceding page, in terms of the inch and the millimetre — 
respectively, 

Tension of Aqueous Vapour.—This element is dealt with in Tables XX. to XXVi 
Tables XX. and XXI. contain the absolute maximum and minimum values observed 
at every hour in the thirteen years in clear and in foggy weather respectively. Tables 
XXII. and XXIII. contain the monthly mean hourly values of the aqueous tension ; 
Tables XXIV. and XXY. contain the diurnal variation of the same element; and 
Table XXVI. contains the monthly mean hourly excess of vapour tension in clear 
weather over fogey weather. Excepting in the middle of summer this difference is 
always negative, the aqueous tension in the colder part of the year being always higher 
in foggy than in clear weather. 

In foggy weather the vapour tension is that of saturation at the temperature of the 
air. As the water particles which form the fog permeate the whole of the air any addi- 
tion of heat has the effect of changing into vapour a portion of the fog, and any loss 
of heat has the opposite effect, of condensing some of the vapour of the air on the water 
(or ice) of the fog, both being accompanied by a certain change in temperature. In the 
clear weather the atmosphere is generally in a state far removed from saturation, and 
the effect of addition or removal of heat is simply a rise or fall of temperature. In itself 
the air in clear weather has no means of increasing its supply of water vapour. 

It follows from this that in the case of non-saturated air the percentage of aqueous 
vapour present in it forms a valuable means of identification. If it has no means of 
receiving or parting with water this percentage must remain the same. If the 
percentage has changed, then we conclude that the whole air has changed either by 
mixture or by replacement. Hence the percentage of aqueous vapour affords a ready 
means of detecting changes of air. 

The barometric pressure is the measure of the sum of the tensions of the various 
gaseous constituents of the atmosphere. If this pressure is diminished all the constituents 
expand proportionately, and their tensions diminish also proportionately. Ifthe pressure is 
increased they contract in the same proportion, and their tensions increase proportionately. 

The tension of a given quantity of gas varies inversely with the volume which it 
occupies. From this it follows that, if, in a gaseous mixture, we know the total tension 
of the mixture, which is given by the barometric pressure, and the tension of any one 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR. AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 793 


of the constituents, then the volume at barometric pressure of this constituent is to 
the total volume of the mixture as the observed tension of the constituent is to the 
total tension of the mixture or the barometric pressure. It should be noted that in the 
analysis of a gaseous mixture the volumes of the constituents are always given in terms 
of the same temperature and pressure.* 

At all meteorological observatories the barometric pressure and the tension of 
‘aqueous vapour in the atmosphere are among the chief objects of observation, and they 
furnish at once the means of ascertaining the exact composition by volume of the air 
jn so far as it consists of permanent gas and aqueous vapour. 

In clear weather in winter on Ben Nevis the tension of aqueous vapour in the atmos- 
phere is very low. The mean for January is 0'0892 in., with a mean diurnal range of 
0°016 in. In July the mean value is 0°2362 in., with a mean diurnal range of 0°062 in. 
In January the mean height of the barometer is 25°618, so that the air contains 0°35 
per cent. by volume of aqueous vapour, and the range during the day is from 0°316 to 
0379 per cent. In July the mean barometric pressure is 25°628 ins., and the mean 
vapour tension being 0'236 in., the air contains 0°92 per cent. by volume of aqueous 
yapour. This ranges during the day from 0°80 to 1:04 per cent. The difference 
between these figures is considerable, amounting to 24 per cent. of the larger amount, 
and it indicates a considerable change of air. 
If we look at the tables or curves giving the monthly mean hourly values of the 
vapour tension and of the barometric pressure in clear weather in each month, and if we 
consider the range through which each of these elements varies in the mean monthly 
day, we find that these ranges vary in the case of vapour tension from 16 to 30 per 
cent. of the whole vapour tension, while the barometric pressure does not range through 
more than a quarter of one per cent. 
Tn continuously clear weather, as we have specified it, the air at a height of 4000 
feet has no means of changing its percentage of aqueous vapour except by mixture 
" with air from greater heights, which usually reduces the percentage, or with air from 
lower levels, which usually increases the percentage. From the character of the vapour 
tension curves it appears that, on the whole, at night drier air descends from above, 
while during the day moister air rises from below. The changes in the composition of the 
ait , which we recognise by the accurate analytical method which we have thus in our 
hands, afford us quantitative proof of the activity of changes of air in the atmosphere, 
Which on other grounds we are forced to conclude must exist, in order that it may 
preserve unimpaired its life-supporting properties. 
| The accompanying Table gives a summary of the movements of vapour tension in 
‘the year, and combined with the atmospheric pressure the movements in percentage by 
| volume of the amount of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere :— 


‘g Thus, if H be the barometric pressure, and h the observed vapour tension, then the percentage by volume of 
| aqueous vapour in the air is given by the equation V=100 5 ; 


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q METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 795 


If we consider the variations of vapour tension with reference to the vapour tension 
itself, and compare the two kinds of weather in this respect, we find a marked difference. 
Looked at from this point of view, we find some analogy between the foogy weather on 
Ben Nevis and the rainy season in the Tropics, and between the clear weather and the 


dry season. 

The following figures illustrate this :— 

In India the months June, July, August, and September are the chief Monsoon 
months. The station Poona lies with respect to the west coast of the peninsula and to 
the Indian Ocean beyond, in a position not unlike that of Ben Nevis to the west coast 
of Scotland and to the Atlantic. Also, at Poona in the rainy season, and on Ben Nevis 
during foggy weather, the prevailing wind is from the westerly quarter. On the other 
hand, Poona is 60 miles inland, and only 2000 feet above the sea, whereas Ben 
Nevis is on the coast and 4400 feet above the sea. If we compare the vapour tensions 
in the months June to September at Poona, and in foggy weather on Ben Nevis, and 
the same elements in the opposite months, December, January, February, and March, 
the dry season at Poona with June to September on Ben Nevis in clear weather, we 
have at Poona* in the rainy season for the mean vapour tension 0°708 in., and 
the mean range 0:037 in., or 5-2 per cent. of the whole vapour tension. On Ben Nevis 
during foggy weather in the same months the mean vapour tension is 0°224 in., and 
the range 0:0153 in., or 6°8 per cent. of the whole vapour tension. In the months Decem- 
ber to March at Poona the mean vapour tension is 0°465 in., and the range 0:087 in., or 
1877 per cent. of the whole. In the months June to September on Ben Nevis in clear 
_ weather the mean vapour tension is 0'220, and the mean range 0049 in., or 22°2 per cent. 
of the whole. These figures show that the conditions in the two cases run in parallel lines. 
The temperatures are given in Tables XXVII. to XXXIII., and in Plates IV., V., 
VI, VIL, and VIII. Tables XXVII. and XXVIII. contain the absolute maximum and 
minimum temperatures at every hour during the thirteen years. Tables XXIX. and XXX. 
ontain the monthly mean hourly temperatures in clear and in foggy weather. Tables 
XXI. and XXXII. contain the corresponding diurnal variation of temperature, and 
ble XXXII. contains the hourly difference between the temperature in clear and in 
roy weather. 

The mean temperature of the year is 3°57° F. higher in clear weather than in fogg 
‘weather. Amongst the monthly values this excess is greatest in June, when it reaches 
11° F. In the first three months of the year the difference is in the opposite sense. 
temperature is then higher in fogey than in clear weather, the excess being 2°92° F. 
February. The mean temperature of the months October to March is almost the 
me for both kinds of weather, being 28°70° for clear and 28°51° for foggy weather. 
ngst the hourly values the greatest excess of temperature in clear over that in 
ey weather is 13°4° F. at fifteen hours in June, and the greatest difference in the 


_ * The Meteorology of the Bombay Presidency. By Charles Chambers, F.R.S., Official Publication of the India 
ice, p. 148, 


Mevol. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 31). 6 H 


=> 


y 


; 
4 


796 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


opposite sense is 4°3° F, at one hour in March. The range of mean hourly a 
is much greater in clear than in foggy weather in every month, 

In this respect again the difference between clear weather and foggy weather on 
Ben Nevis is the same in kind as that between the dry season and the rainy season in 
the Tropics. 

In fogey weather the mean daily range of temperature is very small in janes andl 
by no means large in summer. The maximum mean daily range is 25° F. in May, | 
when the mean monthly temperature is 31°42° F. The maximum mean monthly 
temperature, 39°58° F., falls in August, and then the daily range is only 1:7° F. In 
clear weather the maximum mean monthly temperature, 46°46° F., falls in July, and | 
the maximum mean daily range, 82° F., falls in the same month, In clear weather | 
the effect of adding heat is to raise the temperature of the air and to increase its volume, 
In fogey weather a large portion of it is rendered latent by the evaporation of a portion 
of the water in a very fine state of subdivision disseminated through it. It may be 
doubted whether the direct heat of the sun has any part in producing the diurnal 
range of temperature during continuous foggy weather. At the upper surface of the | 
fog-cloud we would expect the sun’s rays to be largely reflected from the dazzlingly 
white surface which such a cloud always presents when viewed from above in bright | 
sunshine, and that the remainder would be absorbed in evaporating the upper layer of | 
fog, leaving nothing to be transmitted downwards. There is, as a rule, a resultant | 
current of air upwards during the day, and when the cloud, as is often the case, does 
not spread to a great distance from the mountain side, the lower ground is enjoying 
sunshine and the upward circulation is very active. The fact that the month of May 
has the greatest amount of clear weather and also the greatest daily range of 
temperature in foggy weather seems to support this view. In winter the daily range 
of temperature is under 1° F. ; 

Mean Hourly March of Temperature vm each Month.—This is conveniently 
treated with respect to the hourly change of temperature during the day and without 
respect to the actual temperatures at these hours. 

If we review the curves which have been drawn for each month we see that they 
fall into two distinct types. The one type is predominant in the winter months and 
the other in the summer months. For this purpose the winter months are October to 
March, and the summer months April to September. The principal feature which 
distinguishes the winter months from the summer months in clear weather is the 
occurrence in the former of a pronounced nocturnal heating effect. This shows itself 
particularly in the curves for November, December, January, and February ; in October 
and March the passage between the summer and winter types is apparent. 

Confining our attention more especially to the four months about midwinter we 
find the abnormal feature referred to very strongly marked in November. ‘The 
mean temperature of the twenty-four hours is 32°74°, and it occurs four times, namely, 
at midnight, at 1.40 a.m, 9 a.m., and 3.50 p.m., the curve showing two maxima at 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 797 


1 am. and 12.30 p.m. respectively, and two minima at 7 a.m. and 6.30 P.M. 

respectively. The shape of the curve produces the impression that immediately 
the sun had set another sun rose. It will be observed that the diurnal heating 
and cooling occupies twelve hours and the nocturnal heating and cooling occupies 

the same length of time. The area contained between the curve and the base 
line, forming a tangent to the minimum part of the curve, is proportional to the 
heat added during the time corresponding to the interval between the initial and 
final ordinates, and it is given directly in a convenient unit, namely, in Hour-degrees 
(F.), which may be indicated by H.° F. Effecting the necessary measurements we find the 
diurnal heating represented by 16°75 H.°F. and the nocturnal heating by 8°70 H.°F. 
Thus the nocturnal heating is rather more than half of that produced by the sun 
during the day. It is, therefore, roughly equivalent to what would be supplied by the 
sun itself if it rose again after setting and shone for the same number of hours as 
during the day, eight hours; attaining, however, only one-half of its meridian altitude 
during the day. 

This nocturnal effect persists in the month of December, and, apparently, more 
intensely relatively to the normal solar heating than in November. At the first glance 
at the curve it would not be thought so, for there is no prominent rise and fall of the 
‘eurve during the night, asin November. ‘The fall is then just before sunrise, but the 
minimum and with it the fall and rise between the diurnal and the nocturnal heating is 
almost obliterated, so that the curve, after rising in the forenoon to the normal 
| maximum in the early afternoon, hardly falls at all, and merges into the nocturnal 
| heating, forming a very flat curve, nearly parallel to the base line. 
| We have seen from measurements on the November curve where the two effects are 
: ‘sharply separated that the nocturnal heat supply is rather more than one-half of the 
diurnal supply. If we calculate from Hatiny’s* well-known formulae, the relative 
amounts of heat communicated by the sun in a day in the middle of November and in 
‘one at the middle of December in the latitude of Ben Nevis, we find that they are in 
| the proportion 356 : 189, or almost exactly in the proportion of the diurnal to the 
nocturnal heating in November. If the nocturnal heating is the same in December as 
in November, and as the night is longer it has every chance of being greater, the heat 
‘due to the two sources would be equal, and the rise of temperature due to the one 
would counteract the fall of temperature due to the other, producing a day with an 
/ excessively small range of temperature. From the table the range is 1°4° F. The 
‘| mean temperature in December is 28°45°, or 4:29° below that of November. This 
| is. a very small difference, especially when we find, from Lamperr’st funda- 


i] 


| mental calculations of the yearly march of heat under different latitudes, that the 
a- 


— 


 * On the proportional Heat of the Sun in all Latitudes, with the method of collecting the same. By E. Halley, 
Phil. Trans., 1693, vol. xvii. p. 878. Abridgment iii., p. 576. 
+ Johann Heinrich Lambert’s Pyrometrie oder vom Maasse des Feuers und der Wérme, Berlin, 1779, p. 339 and fig. 35. 


798 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


normal difference due to solar and terrestrial radiations alone would be about 
Lo 

Nocturnal heating is observed in foggy weather in most of the months, and it takes 
the form of a sharp rise of temperature between midnight and 1 a.m., which then falls 
gradually to a minimum at or near the hour of sunrise ; but there are exceptions to this, 
as in November, and particularly in January, when the temperature rises very uniformly 
from a minimum at midnight to a maximum at noon, and then falls again as uniformly 
to the midnight minimum again. 

In dealing with the winter months at Ben Nevis, it must not be forgotten that the 
solar influence is very small. Lying in lat. 56°48’ N. the sun’s meridian altitude at the — 
winter solstice is only 9°35’, and the length of the day is under 64 hours. It is, there- 
fore, chiefly at this season that we might expect terrestrial or geographical influences to 
produce their most apparent effect. With the march of the season the influence of the sun 
increases very rapidly, and it has a tendency to obliterate the effects of other agents, 
especially in the hours of the day when its heating power is increasing or diminishing 
most rapidly. In the summer months, when the diurnal range of temperature is con- | 
siderable, it is only in the neighbourhood of the epochs of maximum and of minimum | 
temperature that other influences can make themselves felt. At these times, and | 
especially at the time of maximum temperature, the heating and cooling influences are 
for a time in a condition approaching equilibrium, during which the temperature remains 
nearly constant, and its curve runs sensibly parallel to the line of time-abscissee. Here 
we might expect other influences to show themselves; and, in fact, if we inspect the 
curves, especially those relating to clear weather, we see that most of them show great 
irregularities in the neighbourhood of the extremes. Nearly all the clear weather curves 
have strongly-marked irregularities near the date of minimum temperature, and most of 
them, as February, March, August, and October, show similar irregularities near the date 
of maximum. In foggy weather the hour to hour irregularities of mean temperature are, 
as might be expected, much less striking, with, however, the exception of the month 
October, when we have a very remarkable oscillation of temperature from hour to hour 
during the whole morning. If we were to calculate the mean temperature of the morn- 
ing from the odd hours, 1, 38, 5 . . . . 11, we should find it quite half a degree lower than 
if we used the even hours, 2,4 .... 12. One reason for the greater uniformity of the 
temperature curves in foggy weather than in clear weather is that there are no effects of 
alternating cloud and sunshine. In clear weather we have these effects, and to some 
extent they must be held responsible for the irregularities apparent. This, however, 
applies only to the daylight hours, and we see that the irregularities in clear weather 
are by no means confined to these hours. — 

In dealing with the barometric pressure we have found something very similar to 
what we have just noticed in regard to temperature, namely, that the curves for foggy 
weather are much smoother and more uniform than those for clear weather, and the 
clear weather barometric curves present nearly as irregular and serrated an outline as 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 799 


those of temperature. It naturally occurs to see if there is any connection between the 
two. 

Taking clear weather and the winter months during which the curves, both of tem- 
perature and of pressure, show the greatest irregularity, and considering first the mean 
curves of temperature and pressure for the six winter months, October to March, on 
Plate VII., we see from 6 A.M. onwards a very considerable agreement in the irregu- 
larities of the two curves. The alternations of flatness and steepness in the two curves 
are very remarkable even during the hours when the sun’s increasing influence is most 

felt. Even where a rise of the barometer is not accompanied by a rise of temperature 
we see a sharp rise or fall of the barometer, accompanied by an increased or diminished 
_ steepness of the temperature curve. The nocturnal rise of temperature between 6 P.M. 
and midnight, which is so marked a feature in the midwinter months, affects the mean 
of the whole six winter months, and the nocturnal maximum of pressure is still more 


_ pronounced in the six winter months. ‘Turning now to the curves for the individual 
months, we find in October the parallelism in the irregularities strongly marked. In 
| this month the sun’s power is still considerable, and during the morning rise and after- 
| noon fall of temperature the rise of barometer between 5 and 7 p.M. may be put in con- 
| nection with the flattening of the temperature curve at the same time, when, with the 
disappearance of the sun, the rate of cooling ought to be the greatest. The nocturnal 
| heating is characteristic of all the winter months, and is sensible even in April and May. 
A nocturnal maximum of pressure is common to all the months of the year, but it is not 
| accompanied by a temperature maximum in the warmer months. On Ben Nevis, as in 
| most places, the barometer is subject normally to more than one rise and fall during 
) the twenty-four hours, and it is meant here only to point out parallelisms without 
expressing any opinion as to cause or effect. The parallelisms in the changes of curva- 
| ture from hour to hour are more particularly apparent in the case of January. In 
| February and March, and in a less degree in other months, in clear weather there is 
agreement in the irregularities in both curves in the early afternoon when the tempera- 
ture is about its maximum. 

| In fogey weather the march of both temperature and pressure is more uniform than 
‘in clear weather. The most striking departure from uniformity occurs about midnight 
and the early morning hours. In the months of March, April, June, July, August, 
| September, October, November, and December there is a sharp rise of temperature 
between midnight and 1 or 2 a.m. This is greatest in summer, in July the difference 
jin the mean temperature at midnight and at 1 a.m. is 1°3° F. A similar feature is 
jobserved in the barometric pressure in the months November, January, February, March, 
and April. The maximum excess of the pressure at 1 A.M. over that at midnight is 
(0034 in. in January. Hence, in foggy weather the most striking feature of parallelism, 
although common to some months, reaches its maximum values at midsummer in the 
case of temperature, and at midwinter in the case of pressure. 

The Table on page 803 gives a summary for the year of the movements of tempera- 


800 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


ture. The mean dew-point for each month is given for clear weather, and the excess: 
over it of the mean monthly temperature in foggy weather is given. It is only in 
June and July that the mean temperature of the air in foggy weather is under the mean 
dew-point in clear weather. As the air is always ebaleteig saturated in fogey weather 
on Ben Nevis, the temperature of the air is also its dew-point. — 


SUMMARY. 


The paper deals only with observations made at the observatory on the summit of 
Ben Nevis. The position of the observatory is lat. 56° 48’ N., long. 5° 0’ W., and 4407 
feet or 1343 metres above sea-level. Greenwich mean time is used at the observatory, | 
The apparent time is always earlier than that shown by the clock, and the amount | 

varies from three to thirty-five minutes. A table is given at page 785 to facilitate the | 
conversion of G.M.T. into local apparent time. The length of the day varies from six | 
and a half hours at mid-winter to seventeen and a half hours at mid-summer. A table | 
is given at page 786, showing the dates when the length of the day is an exact number | 
of half hours. ‘% 

The observations are made every hour, and by eye. The period covered by this 
paper is from lst January 1885 to 31st December 1897, or thirteen complete 
years. wae 
The weather on Ben Nevis is characterised by great prevalence of fog or mist. The 
principal object of this paper is to select dates of continuous foggy weather and of 
continuous clear weather, and to discuss them separately. A spell of continuous foggy 
weather means three or more consecutive days during which fog has been logged at 
every hour. Clear weather is comparatively so rare that the minimum length of spell 

was taken at twenty-four hours, and the characteristic of the weather is that fog shall 
not be logged once during the spell. At page 784 a table gives a summary of the 
material used. It amounts in the aggregate to about one-third of the total available, 
without distinction of weather. Full details of the method of selection are given at 
page 782. The data for pressure, temperature, tension of aqueous vapour, rainfall, | 
wind, cloud, and sunshine were sorted out, and fill eighty-four note-books. These will 
be deposited with the Scottish Meteorological Society. tne! 

The information contained in these note-books has been concentrated into the thirty- 
four Tables which form the main part of this paper, and they are illustrated by the 
eight Plates of curves at the end. The Tables and the Plates explain themselves. It is 
sufficient to call attention to one or two salient features. ee 

It must be remembered that, for the purpose of this paper, clewr weather means only 
absence of fog, and predicates nothing with regard to presence or absence of cloud over- 
head. 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 801 


+ Rainfall.—tIn continuous clear weather it practically never rains on the mountain 
at all. In continuous foggy weather, on the other hand, the average daily rainfall is 
almost exactly 1 inch. The maximum amount of rain in any one day during the 
- thirteen years fell on the 2nd October 1890, and it amounted to 7:287 in. The greatest 
- rainfall in any one hour occurred between fifteen and sixteen hours on 14th January 
1890, when 0°85 in. fell. 

| Barometric Pressure.—The difference. between clear and foggy weather is shown 
 yery clearly. There is a large and continuous excess of pressure in clear weather over 
that in fogey weather. At every hour of the year, without a single exception, the 
“mean monthly pressure is several tenths of an inch higher in clear weather than in 
| foggy weather. The mean excess for the whole year is 0°456 in, (11°6 millim.). At 
"page 791 the results of the barometric observations are summarised in two tables in 
terms of the inch and the millimetre respectively. 

The Tension of Aqueous Vapour is an important element of the meteorology of this 
| mountain. In fogey weather the vapour tension is that of saturation at the tempera- 
| ture of the air, and the variations are slight. In clear weather the variations are 
| considerable, but then the air never reaches the point of saturation, consequently 
it never loses moisture by precipitation. At a height of 4000 feet it has also no 
opportunity of increasing its supply of moisture, consequently any change in the 
} relative amount of moisture is due to change of air as a whole. Attention is directed 
| to the fact that, in the barometric pressure and the tension of aqueous vapour, we have 
the data for an exact analysis by volume of the air, in so far as it consists of aqueous 
vapour and permanent gas. At page 794 the results of the observations of tension of 
}aqueous vapour are summarised in inches and millimetres, and the percentage by volume 


\of the aqueous vapour in the non-saturated air is included. 

! Temperature.—The mean temperature of the year is 3°57° Fahr. higher in clear 
jweather than in foggy weather. Amongst the monthly values this excess is greatest in 
‘June, when it reaches 10°11° Fahr. In the first three months of the year the difference 


| 
jis in the opposite sense. The temperature is then higher in foggy weather than in 


LB: weather, the excess being 2°92° Fahr. in February. The range of mean hourly 
| emperature is much greater in clear than in foggy weather in every month. 

The Ben Nevis observations show very clearly the nocturnal heating in the winter 
‘months, which has been observed before both on mountains and in balloons. This 
deeurs in both clear and fogey weather, though it is more pronounced in the clear 
weather. , 

No distinction is made between one kind of fog and another, and they are not 
 listinguished in the monthly sheets of the observatory. There are, however, several 
lifferent kinds of fog, and these are clearly distinguished by the observers living on the 
There is the very wet fog, which is called mist in the log, and there is 


802 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


which cannot be expressed in numbers. They are as important as those which can 
so expressed; and they can be brought into the discussion of the meteorolo; 
mountain with their due weight and importance only by men who have spent 
siderable time there as observers. Whether wet or dry, the fog which characterises t 
climate of the mountain is nothing but cloud under another name. The lower surf 
of the clouds which form on the hills rising out of the Western Ocean is found gener 
at a height of about three thousand feet above the sea. On the west coast of Scotla 
the air is very damp, and the clouds abundant, consequently the observatory on 
summit of Ben Nevis is usually situated in the heart of the common clouds of 
country. It may, therefore, be claimed that it is in reality an observatory establis 
in the clouds, and that the observations made in it furnish a record of the meteorol 
of the clouds. In this respect the observatory of Ben Nevis is unique. 


803 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 


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OL, XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 31). 


61 


( 804 ) 


Bren Nevis Summit Osservatory. 


\ 
eee ee ee 
Longitude : : 5 : é 5° 0’ W. 
Height above sea. = : ‘ 4407 feet. 
Do. : : : : 1343 metres. 
Time used 


Greenwich mean time. 


Period covered Ist January 1885 to 3lst December 1897. 


[i fnce rage 804, 
BEN NEVIS SUMMIT, 
TABLE L 
Complete List of Dates used in Spells of Continuous Clear Weather. 
I 1897. 
1886, 1886, 1887. 1888, 1889. | 1800. 1891. 1592, TEE Met 8 1 - 
lf Th 
from to 
from to from to from to from to from to from to from to from to from to from. to from to from to 
Month, ! | 
7 | Hour.) Day. | Hour. 
Day. | Hour.) Day. | Hour.)| Day. | Hour.| Day. | Hour.|) Day. |Hour.| Day. | Hour. Day. | Hour,| Day. | Hour.|| Day. | Hour.| Day. | Hour-)| Day. | Hour.| Day. | Hour-|) Day. | Hour. Day. {Hour.|| Day. | Hour.| Day. | Hour.|| Day. | Hour.| Day. | Hour.|| Day. | our.) Day. | Hour. Day. |Hour.| Day. | Tour.) Day. Hour.| Day. | Hour.|) Day. | Hour.) Day. | Hour, 
4 7m |e 6 7 ay... wo |) oe 10} 14 | 12 | oa | 4 
January, 19 21 |/ a7 |) 19 | 22) || 1 |) 2 |) ad | a7 | a6 | 16 |) 13) oo | 16 Clee 
21 23 |/ 17 || 2 al ees om | ao |] i | ot |] eo lift 
|: | es 27 | 24 | 98 
re all? 3 [a 20) 10) | zl ua5) | es) ine 
se || 16 4 5 | 17 19) | 13 | |} 24 | 18 | 95 
Fobruaryy oe Ile 15 18 | 10 18 20 | 21 | 27 | 1 | 29 
| oro. |] te 9 | 28 | 19 | .. 
| = live By (zen | eee esl Be 
20 | 14 | 9 10 | 15 | 4 | 13 | 7 | 8 \| a7 | 22 | or 
March, . | 15 | 23 10 18 | 8 |] 18 | 18 | 19 | 10) 27 | a3 | os 
_ | 
R on Ti) |) as) 92) |e 7 6 | 
7 | 99 20 | 15 | 23 || 9 || 8 | 24 
April, TI | 7 a || ag |) Be || om |} xe |) a 
: Ee a |) 2c |) 8 (han | x 
30, | an | ee | |] | ae | 
al lien 7 [ | 
|e | is | 3 
7 } au || 17 || 22 
May, pa | 23 | 93 
|| i |} omy Po 
7 14 9 3 eal |e | 
x | 2} mw] 5 | 2 | a6 || 5 
Mm || |) oo |] 2 i) ai al) a 
sine) 26 4 || 27 | 3 || 17 |) 22 || 20 
a | #3 Bll ao | ae || 
i || aK 2 | a4 
| 2 | 2 4 10 
23 | 6 22 ot 
July, Veet ieee : 
26 | 2 
es 2 a 
4 | 22] 6 2 
Angust, Ww | 13 |) 22 
22 | 99 | 24 
80) |) 2) || 
i} 
8 is 4 
September, 9 ou 28) a 
15 
; ns |] ot |} ate |] 2 29 
U3S8I a | 1 | 22 | 23 31 
i) an |jaa 0 10 v1 
5 1 | 19 | 10) 0 19 a1 
Noyomber, 1 23 7 16 18 -* wie 
= S=7] | =| | 
D 17 | 13 | 19 | 22 || 18 | 10) 15 | a4 || 28 | 16 | 29 | 18 |] 10) 6 | 1} a or » |. |} te | 14 | 17 | 14 |} 2s | 28 19 |] 18 | 12 | 20 | 16 
jecember, 5 au |) ao |] ccs |] ceo | 2 |] ei) 7 Wy ae Ts |) om Hom |] on |} 29 |] © |) B01) 36 s Ea 20) |) 21] 22))/) aN) a || ae Cy ex) ere || an 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. 


Complete List of Days used in Spells of Continuous Foggy Weather. 


TABLE It. 


(To face page 804, 


Month, 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888, 1889. 1890, 1891. 1892, 1893, 1894. 1895. 1896, 
1,2,3,4 25, 26, Ms 14, 15, 16 18, 19, 20 16,19, 20,21,22,| 16,17, 18, 19, 
Tonuary, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 27, 28, 29, 126, 27, 2, 3,4,5 ists, 19, 20, 21 23, 24, 25, 5, 26 16, 17, 18 67,8 
30, 31 he , 20, 3 24, 25, 26 26, 27, 2 29, 30, 31 
: 7,8, 9 19, 20, 21,22, | 3, 4,5,6, 7, 5 2,3,4,6 | 6,7,8,9, 10, 11 20, 21, 22, 23, 
February, 97, 28, (1) 23, 24 8,9 1,23,3 tAthi 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 26, 27, 28 E)y tu 0k 24, 25, 26, 27 
10, 11, 19, 13 
plea) 14, 15 
- 4 5, 6,7 : 1,2,3, 4,5 4,5,6 §,9,10,11, | 23,24 25,20 1,23 , 
March) Mb Hey) eer Bh 6,7, 8,9 99) 93,94,95 || 10 11) 12) 18 $3, 94, 95 9,10, 11, 12 3, 28, 29, 30 16, 16).17, 18) |) 1728/29) 20 
18, 19, 20 entestente 
; (31),1,2 4,5, 0,7, 8 ae ae 
April, . 3, 4,6,6,7, 8,9 | 18, 19, 20, 21 27, 28, 29 19, 20, 21 2,3,4,5,6 | 21,92,23,24 | 14, 15, 16,17 21, 22, 23 16, 17, 18 et 
28, 29, 30 26, 27, 28 20, 
May, 8, 9, 10 45, 6,7 26, 27, 28, 29 13, 14, 15 23) a 26028; 67,8 9,3, 4, 5 
Tune, 18, 19, 20, 21 6,7,8,9 8, 9, 10 13, 14, 15 25, 26, 27 29, 28, 24, 25 18, 19, 20, 21 ay 


20, 21, 22 


(1, 3,3, 4) 


; 10,11, 12. | 11,12, 13, 14 13, 14, 15 se 5 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 
Tuly, ee au 22, 23, 24, 26 setae 24, 26, 26 5,6,7,8 19, 20, 21, 22 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 eae 
August, 24, 25, 26 16, 17, 18 7,8,9 ane 22,23, 24, . | 27, 28, 20, 30 : 16, 17,18 

cb eh 90, 21) 22 24, 25, 26 HEH ETS 35, 26 31, (1) Ehebhely 28) 29) 30 

(31), 1,2 
Esty ys. nee were ; 9,20, 11, 12,18, 
Sroinihtn ear EMAL ite 7, 18,19 | 24, 25, 26, 27, (BY), 1,2 14,15, 16,17, | 13, 14, 15, 16, ener 165, 16, 17, 21, 22, 28, 2 
p svar a2 ( ) 5.6, 7 97) 28; 99 28, 29 16, 16, 17, 18 ”18, 19 17, 18, 19, 20 Tbs 16))L7 18, 19 25, 26 
24, 25, 26, 27, 
28, 29 
r 11, 19, 13, 14, 
z 3, 4,5,6 7,8 13) 
Ottober 4,5, 6, 7,8 1 4, hihi 15, 16 5, 6,7 
; 4 0G, 7 9, 10, 11 27, 28, 29, pa 18 1,33 8, 9, 10, 11 
29, 30, 31 nee Boat 19, 20,31, 22 11, 12, 13 p 
November, « a (1), 1,2 455,607,890, | 8a 8i8° || 10,11,18) 13, 
16, 17, 18 OR Re is 9, 10, 11 aa 97, 28, 29, 30, 14, 15 


20, 21, 22, 23 


20,40 


December, . 


(80), 1, 2,3 


17, 18, 19 


(80), 1, 2, 3 


4, 5,6 
26, 27, 28, 29, 
30, 31 


18, 19, 20, 21 


3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8,9 
11, 13, 13, 14, 
15, 16 
20, 21, 22, 23, 

24, 


17, 18, 19 
21, 22,23 
28, 29, 30, 31 


9,10, 1 


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METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 


uaynagy mang fo soumanguoy 


a es ce hc a a a te ir 


806 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. TABLE Tv. 
Data of Table IIL, distributed over Eight Points of the Compass. 


Month, N. N.E. Bex) SE S. S.W. WwW. | NW. 

January, ... 94 49 BB 118 158 90 20 6 18 q 
February, . . .| 189 | 67 135 | 156 | 229 | 184 72 | 36 90 | 1158 
March, . . . .| 228 98 102 308 235 183 58 43 so | 1335 | 
Apiy 2 ee, 6 | 201 | 165 217 368 234 116 84 52 201 | 1728 | 
May, 00 eee i 28009 |, Te 352 479 320 128 134 73 276 | 2298 | 
Site eee |) ATS Let 421 554 343 188 178 | Wie 459 2895 | 
July ee ee ly 2837 71 193 308 176 91 79 52 195 | 1502 | 
August,. . . .| 262 55 83 91 160 56 59 68 137 |. q 
September,. . .| 233 26 BB 212 322 167 131 72 | 78 | T9¢gmmne 
October. ea =|. 178 42 79 178 188 95 80 16 | 95 
November,. . . 125 96 158 199 189 54 45 20 97 

December, . . . 89 37 54 111 183 109 68 27 19 

Total mace. | 26b4* | ORS 1902 | 3082 | 2737 | 1461 | 1008 | 578 1745 | 16350 | 
BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. TABLE V. 


Data of Table IV. reduced to Percentage. 


Month. N. NE. E, S.E. S. S.W. W. vw. | Cana 


N.W. Variab! 
January,. . . .| 15°49 8°08 8°75 19°47 26:07 | 14°85 3°30 0:99 
February, . . .| 16°31 5°78 11°65 13:46 19°76 | 15°88 621 3:11 
Marcho cate lela L708 7°34 7°64 23°08 1756 |. 13°71 4°34 3°22 i! 
April,’ ee. ae les 9°57 12°58 21°34 13°57 6°73 4:87 3:01 11°66 
May; Age eee Meh loci 5°21 15°80 21°50 14:37 5°74 601 3:27 12°39 
Juné.de an. ot lode 5°56 14:53 19°11 11:84 6:49 614 3:90 15°84 
July, Ree: | 2246 4°73 12°86 20°53 11°72 6:06 5:26 3°46 13-00 | 
August, . . . .| 26°99 5°66 8°55 9°37 16°48 5°77 6:08 7:00 1411 | 
September,. . .| 17:98 2:00 4°24 16°36 24°84 | 12°88 | 10°11 5°55 
October,. . . .| 18°72 4°41 8°31 18°72 19°77 9:99 841 1°68 
November,. . .| 12°71 9°76 16°07 20:24 19°22 5°49 4°58 2-04 
December, . . .| 12°77 5°31 7°75 15:93 26:26 | 15°64 9°76 3°87 
Mean. . .. .| 17°46 601 11°63 18°85 16°74 8:94 617 3°54 10°67 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 807 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. QUAN TBS Ib, WT 
| Data of Table VI., distributed over Eight Points of the Compass. 


Calm 
N. N.E. E. S.E. Ss. S.W. W. N.W. and Total, 
Variable. 

290 159 80 12 212 460 377 322 52 2064 
- 213 80 67 68 a 208 289 266 28 1296 

304 98 100 160 114 296 419 351 30 1872 

159 61 98 102 93 203 364 263 13 1416 

168 | 48 28 24 34 67 133 123 93 648 

221 fell 53 46 75 149 202 134 47 1008 

185 59 24 Pal 70 223 273 188 61 1104 

211 107/ 23 101 103 257 438 170 ae 1392 

326 60 24 33 85 361 627 309 71 1896 

341 108 21 50 90 317 329 234 46 1536 

A 309 61 99 208 157 389 467 368 54 9112 

300 115 34 86 136 264 335 257 57 1584 

3027 947 651 1011 1246 3194 4253 2985 614 17928 
NEVIS SUMMIT. (VIN TE) Ib) 1B), WE Td 
Data of Table VII. reduced to Percentage. 

N. NE. E. SE. S, Sees) Wee | NEW. | ceed 
14°05 770 3°87 5°43 10°27 22°29 18°26 15°60 2°52 
16°44 6:17 pall 5°25 5°94 16°05 22°30 20°53 2°16 
16°24 5°24 5:34 8°55 6:09 15°81 22°38 18°75 1°60 
11°23 4°31 6:23 7:20 651 14°34 a7 18°57 516 
25°93 741 4°32 3°70 5:21 10°34 20°52 18°98 3°55 
21:92 8:04 5°26 4:56 744 14°78 20°04 13°29 4°66 
16°76 5°34 217 1:90 6°34 20°20 9473 17:08 5°53 
15°16 1:22 1:65 7°26 7:40 18°46 31°47 12°21 Dalig 
17°19 3°16 1:26 1°74 4:48 19°04 33°07 16°30 374 

7) 22-20 7:03 1°37 3°26 5°86 20°64 91°42 15°23 2°99 
a oll Zs} 2°89 4°69 9°85 7:43 18°42 DALI 17:42 2°56 
fee a 18:94 7:26 9°14 5°43 8:59 16°67 Diets 16:22 3°60 
eee) LOSS 5:28 3°63 5°64 6°95 17°82 93°72 16°65 3°43 


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“woygna yy, Lng fo soumnunuog Guunp wwex you ur yofumy hyygwopy 1701 


‘XI GITLVaL 


“LIAWOAS SIAUN Nad 


809 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 


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‘ayyoayy Kbbog fo sumnuyuog burunp weg youo ur yofumy hyyyopy yopoz 


MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


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‘wayne yy hbhbog fo vounmnuyuon bursnp yofuny hjwnoyy unopy hyyguozy fo suoymuny pouunuy 


TIX HTaVi 


‘LINWOAS SIAGN NU 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. TABLE XI. Wear pe NU 
Monthly Mean Rainfall and Actual Maximum Rainfall observed at every Hour in cach Month of Thirteen Years during Continuance of Foggy Weather. 
| Janvany, Feunvany, Manes. Avni, May. Jone, JoLY. Avaust. SEPTEMBER, Ocrouer. Noyeunen. DrceMnER. Mean. No. of 
Hovr, |—__ = = 7 |- a in =| fe eo | i =< | one 
Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean | Max. | Mean, | Max. | Mean. | Max. | Mean. | Max. |) Mom | Max. arvoucne 
=| ~—|———-| ——— =| = i 
Inch, | Inch, | Inch, | Inch. | Inch, | Inch, | Inch, | Inch. | Teh. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. }) Inch. | Inch. 
1 0040 0372 0051 0461 0042 0372 0032 0°201 0031 0190. 0-029 0359 0-034 0138 0050 0264 0057 0508 0051 0368 0052. 0728 0042 O45 0043 0376 7a7 
2 “040 “"Bb2 “056, 471 “042 374 029 150 028 15 031 333 “035, 173 050 “270 053 750 AT 050 "382 “046 256 “043 “342 ” 
|) *048 “460 055 “B08 050 “500 028 192 “027 109 “084 284 “031 152 “054 303 063 511 “058 AMS “050 323 “O51 292 || 46 “323 ” 
“046 413 “054 705 043, 526 026, 195 039 “O24 “105, 038 “181 050 291 063 369, 052 298. 050 “440 "042 “B25 } “O44 “340 ” 
5 “046 “ddd “056 046, °365 ‘O24 “195, 037 “165, 037, “200 “031 123 “042 ‘191 059 “619 “066 “340 042 202 036 “200 “O44 275 » 
6 044 ARS “043 225, 042 ‘351 *032 | 621 021 075, “029 “161 037 250 “038 | -198 052, “301 “055 "620 “047 “435, 031 “152 “039 "317 ” 
7 “onl 367 “039 353 050 593 "028, “AAT 022 103 030 142 “042 210 “038 056 °302 “051 “533 “042 “164 037, 234 l 040 305 ” 
8 “046 “41d, “035, 200 ‘042 245 “024 142 | 115 “027 183 “031 “116 039 214 “051 226 “048, ALO “052 430 “040 “208 } 038 "242 ” 
9 “049 279 “042, “440 042 276 "021 136 “023 102 034 “387 029 036 | “li7 “059 | “343 052 360 045 “Bal “039 190 I “039 “263 ” 
10 060 "315 057, ‘OBL “O41 248 026 160 | 070 “OAG “035 037 | 215 060 375 056 | “480 038 “330 “048 “437 “O44 “321 ” 
an 046 B77 “061 "B12 “O44 270 “025, 133 “094 027 150, “036 238 040 | 165, “061 “B57 “O49, “150 040 200 “055 “390 “O42 *303 ” 
13) *050 “290, “O51 663 “O40 180 “032 190 “026 | 121 “033, “210 “036 205 038 ‘312 052 °335 “O44 460 046 282 “059, “670 042 319 ” 
13 “O44 1285 ‘059 583, “049, 247 026 1i7 037 | °255 ‘O34 157 *038 “188 052 324 “046 | *320, “059 “404 “O44 “321 060 "622 “046 “324 ” 
4 “040 400 “019 273 “044 253 “023 ‘141 “027 164 “O44 291 “034 140 “049 513) “O41 “364 043 42 “037 282 “061 “BOT “041 278 ” 
16 049 “500 *058 “38S. “050 “318 “019 “100 “030 152 043, 204 035, 182 “048 “389 “OAT “026 048, “343 035 273 “048 “313 “043 307 ” 
16 “038 50 059 “BAD 050, All “019 142 030 150 033 “187 "038 “142, 036 199 “O44 | 211 “046, "326 “O41 3 043 275 “040 305 ” 
17 “O54 “830 "059 “669 055 330 ‘022 160 “052 “525, 032 055 “390 “029 304 “O41 | “312 "O44 250 O44 “S16. 051 “351 “045 “B91 ” 
18 “042 “O49 “81 “042 258 028 201 036, 210 “O41 “321 052 “328 036, “387 “O41 | 176 O44 “183 036 “381 “O44 322) “O41 “302 ” 
19 “047 “382 “ONT “Bal “044 303 1022 130 “045 "298 037 209 “040 “190 033 059 | 403 “O44 “238 035 279 “037 “184 “041 270 ” 
20 “037 219 “052 416 °037 165 “O17 “184 O44 300 034 192 “O41 338 ‘033 228 “O47 219 “O41 215 “037 “313 “037, 270 ! “039 "255 ” 
a1 “O47 ALT “050 720 037 222, *021 7 “O44 “193 033 180 035 197 026 250 062 | “780, 036 "243 052 711 “045, “321 | 041 363 ” 
22 “O41 200 *052 “329 040 430. 025 “134 *030 230 031 180 “O40 “310 037 275 “O57 *282 037 232 “O44 “342 “O45 203 “040 270 ” 
23 “037 245, “064 “395, “O45 262 022 142 “036 “194 033, 180 036 “160 “034 "255 “053 “402 “043 210 “043 300 “040 276 “O40 "262 ” 
a4 “040 “281 59 “395, “O41 333 “018 148 “026 “180 032 “342 “O41 “253 036 290 055 “786 ‘O44 "225 “O44 B56 036 7225 “039 “318 ” 
Mean OMS. 0-053 0451 0-044 0326 0025 0189: 0:032 O184 0-034 0238 0038 202 0-040 0254 0053 0420) O-048 | 0354 0-044 0358 0045 0-311 0042 0307 oo 
= — — —s a — = IPAS | a » JU = =< 
No, of | 
Days 86 54 8 59 27 42 AG 58 79 64 88 66 2 
employed 


he 
[eee 


ow ry I 


x ‘ ‘@ 
CoM wise 


eS 
= 3 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. 


TABLE XIIL 


Actual Maximum and Minimum Barometric Pressure observed at every Hour in cach Month of Thirteen Years during Continuance of Clear Weather. 


[Ze fuse pay 810. 


| JANUARY. Frnnvany. Marcu. Avni. May. Jury. Avcusr. Srrrembek. Ocropen. Novesmen. DecEMnER. Mean. No of 
Hour. | + = = = — earl I = = = —— = Hourly 
| Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min, | Mux. | Min | Max. | Min, | Max. | Min. | Max. Max. | atin. | Max. | atin, | Max. | atin. ) afox, || atin, | Observations 
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Tnohes. | Inches. | Inches, | Inches, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Tuehes, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches | Toches, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches, 
1 25°007 |24867 | 26053 | 24-779 | 25943 |24444 |25°935 |25101 26000 |25172 76 (25247 [25907 | 25255 25-904 ] 25-355 | 25975 |25391 | 26026 j 25166 | 26047 |2n023 | 25-901 | 24885 | 25972 | 25-057 689 
2 990 | +909 | 40 | 686 | 940 | 447 | “931 -op3 Jessi | 166 | ‘970 | -247 | 901 | 252 | oo | aaa | -o71 | 376 | -020 | -155 | -o3s | -oz0 | -so7 | -ss2 || ooo | 016 691 
3 || 987 | +035 | 020 | “689 | 920 | 455 | “931 085 | +990 | 136 | -966 | 247 | “901 250 | 903 ‘yor | 362) 092 | 147 026 | -016 | “898 | 878 “061 “086 680 
4 ‘998 || 953 | ‘010 | “691 | “926 | 452 | “937 | ‘O72 | ‘991 | ‘115 | “968 | 218 | 807 “904 60 24057 | 020 | ‘O11 | “895 | “S66 061 016 676 
5 980 | +963 | -006 | -688 | 930 | 456 | -934 | O80 | p93 | 190 | 969 897 264 | -399 236 | -957 020 | 979 | -007 | O04 | 890 | 857 “957 | *025 71 
6 “076 “983 “012 “G97 “931 “458 077 | 26-000 “196 “970 “216 “904 276 “207 204 “58 “O12 | 25007 “006 “004 ‘878 *850 | “O58 7028 664 
7 ‘975 “909 0ll “G07 “928 466, “081 “004 “979 7232 “907 280 “907 960 “S04 013 “031 003 003 “B76 “B51 | “960 “036 GOL 
8 "7a |25015 | -o09 || 702 933 478 | +959 | -090 | 25-998) 212 || 984 | 232) | p12 | 284 | “911 279 | +962 295 | -019 | 064 | ‘009 | -093 881 837 | -00a | 018 658 
9 985 | 047 | “016 | “695 40 465 | -970 | -090 213 985 | 279 || 915 | 202 | “914 381 023 | oss | 004 | 092 | “886 | “845 | 967 | -056 G4 
10 “992, 064 “030 “709 ‘O42 A71 “980 04 “008 988 179 920 201 918 209 “960 258 “110 | 25°983 092 “887 ‘S38 | 7970 052 682 
it 995 | 079 | 033 | -709 043 478 | 087 | -099 | O11 209 992 206 | +921 ey || BEM 300 223, 035 | -130 | ‘993 | 092 | “887 | “S30 | 055 675 
12 ‘999 || 090 | -027 711 | “944 | 993 | 100} “013 | 220 988 237 | -920) | 285 | O21 | “321 208 O32 | 142 | “990 | +082 | <BB4 | “B14 ‘972 | ‘057 079. 
13 “904 | 100 | ‘020 | -709 | 946 ‘97 | 108 | 012 260 | 988 262 | 027 292) | -933\ || -337 || -953, || «169 || 027 142 | 26°057 071 883 | 816 078 | 019 G81 
MM | 907 | 110 | 022 77 | -937 26003 | -o94 | ond 218 86 200) || 7930) | 204 150 026 140 | 056 | 064 | 883 798 | ‘979 | ‘010 690 
16 26003 |24-798 | 016 719 | 936 332 |25:990 | -o90 | ‘O09 | 230 983 306 | -924 295 ga) | 354 | 959 | 125 018 141 052 | 059 | Sod | 15 ‘76 | 031 697 
16 005 | 874 | -009 341 | 989 | 084) -003 979 | +268 | 925 296 | 916 358 “089 | -024 144 | 056 | 057 | :900 | “925 O74 | -032 698 
VW 000 | 897 | ‘oll 733) | 927 || 344 | -oBd 120 321 “909 299 O10 | 367 | +951 060 022 141 064 | 056 | "807 | -918 970 | -080 683 
18 001 | 926 | 022 | 747 | 933 355 | 7983 | “002 093 | 130 963 275 910 207) |) 912 379 958 | 016 026 153 | 067 | ‘057 | “DOL 921 072 | 030 090 
19 001 | 053 028 | 749 939 360 | 980 | -o96 | 990 | 149 | -960 320 | 912 217 ‘p10 | 38 | 971 |24979 | -032 “068 | -055 | 909 925 || 075 | “020 680 
~ 30 004 | -969 | 032 | -761 “340 391 “979 | 008 | “904 | -153 965 | 310 | +908 | “224 | 917 | -a7L 979/25 037 | 165 | “O62 | -055 | “914 | “919 978 | 007 687 
al 005 | 988 | -032 | -766 ‘940 400 | 108 |26:000 159 071 229° || -908 231 | 917 | 368 | 979 | 9375 | “047 74 | 055 | O54 | 907 | 916 979 | “064 680 
2} ool | O91 | -063 iii | “D42 411 g78 | aos | O01 | 06 ‘075, | 238 || -908 | 239 || 912 | 362 | psi! | 355 am | -o1 | 050 | -904 | 003 “078 | O04 88 
23 007 | 791 | ‘061 | “784 | ‘945 419 71 105 | 05 | 170 ‘O77 || “239. | +912) | 239 || 910. ‘971 | 338 161 054 | -o42 | -308 | -906 978 | 046 656 
24 002 |25029 | -052 | 104 | 000 | 173 978 245 | -912 | “243, | “904 | “361 | 979 | 306 | 027 154 | -053 | -032 || 899 | p02 976 | “O04 685 
Mean /26-994' | 24-972 | 26:027 26001 Q254 |25-912 | 25268 | 25912 | 25323 | 25-064 26-034 | 25-049 | 25°94 }24875 | 25070 *e 
No.of 
Hourly 606 1168 1335 1728 2228 2895, 1502 971 1206 951 983, 697, ! ry 
Observations | i 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. TABLE XIV. [o,face page 810. 


Actual Maximum and Minimum Barometric Pressure observed at every Hour in cach Month of Thirteen Years during Continuance of Foggy Weather. 


JANUARY, Fennvary, Mancn. Aprin. May. JUNE. Juny. Auaust. SEPTEMBER, Ocroner, Noyesper. DECEMBER. MEAN, 
No. of Hourly 
Hour. ‘Observations, 
Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max, Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. 
| Inches, | Inches, | Inches. | Inches, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches, | Inches. || Inches. | Inches. 
1 |/35:838 |24:067 |25°768 | 24-331 ja5c40 |24140 |2p824 |24197 25081 |24°830 | 25755 |24788 | 25612 | 24734 |25878 |24490 |e5755 |24483 |25749 |24475 |ap942 |24:300 |25'800 | 24167 | 25753 | 24411 TAT 
2 || 638 | 105 | 768 | +335 | 631 | 100 | 812 | -224 | 685 | ‘856 | -734 | 790 | ‘coy | 719 | -6e7 | 377 | -752 | “454 | 731 | 402 | ‘937 | 301 “740 | 7028 “741 "397 7 
3 || -a39 | ‘104 | -741 | 314 | 625 | -oco | B04 | 259 | -o34 | -904 || -719 | -767 | “582 | -703 | “ood || 372 || -750 | 437 || -724 | -3a3 || “938 | “285 | -718 |23:866 732) | +372) mi 
4 833 | 7002 | “741 290 | -609 |/23:085 | -799! | -276 | +683 || ‘905 | :700 | -757 | 576 | “686 | ‘G55 | “360 | “747 | “497 | “714 | +379 | 920 | “251 | “703 | “742 723 | +343 ” 
6 "B22 | 034 | 743 | 275 | “Gld |adol4 | °789 288 686 919 690 765 ‘572 688 659 380 | “751 395 719 371 921 217 685 749 721 B41 a 
6 ‘817 | ‘105 | 743 | 270 | “631 |23997 | °772 | 284 92 | 934 | -681 | +762 | “563 | -708 || ‘668 | 400 | 754 | “380 | ‘793 | ‘491 | “917 | ‘240 | “685 789 720 | °357 ” 
7 | - 806 O91 752 341 640 982 782 303 | -698 940 674 772 580 719 677 448 754 305 734 | 407 | ‘907 244 675 013 793 | ‘377 ” 
8 807 | ‘O71 | 772 | ‘444 | 650 || ‘977 | “776 || ‘311 | -701 | 933 | -666 | 774 | 567 | 736 | ‘680 | 526 | -763 | ‘338 | ‘739 | 417 | ‘916 | ‘278 | “673 | 24019 735 | "402 a 
9 808 | -011 °786 | “511 650 | 975 | “767 | -323 | “708 | -935 | 670 | “780 | "658 | -753 | “683 | “584 | 753 | °330 | -739 | -417 | 815 | ‘220 | "662 | 23035 “726 | “B98 ” 
10 815 146 789 476 | 663 | +966 772 | 340 | -719 643 788 563 792 685 638 752 818 725 425 | ‘913 220 642 ‘B88 723 | ‘410 si 
|| 803 217 ‘801 444 658 063 769 327 728 931 “641 799 563 821 686 686 748 BOL 732, | -434 910 a2 G49 921 724 | -492 i 
12 ‘811 239 795 AB 661 052 770 356) °733 022) 641 809 553 | -838 687 77 742 286 721 436 930 176 632 41 723 | ‘426 ” 
13 816 255 B06 397 G51 945 763 376 735 216 633 B22 558 867 691 “764 734 | 271 71 AAG 937 146 616 | 24037 7a 436 ” 
M4 | ‘Bll | 7227 | “794 | °357 647 | 943 | -760 | 387 | -742 | -922 | “G24 | 844 654 | 868 | “685 | “781 “72 260 | 699 | -448 | -937 | 113 | °622 | ‘040 7 | 432 » 
16 815 191 798 | 329 645 949 | °7560 387 744 225 | -022 880 | “564 B37 678 787 712 | 304 702 457 930 | -099 617 076 716 433 ” 
16 808 | 177 | “803 | -200 | G40 | -954 | 743 | -408 | -744 | 922 | 620 | 901 669 | 823 | 673 | 787 | 701 | 879 | “703 | -442 | “947 | O91 628 | 099 715 | “435 rn 
VW "812 150 “800 *220 “O44 “962 718 “401 “740 935 “611 “934 “569 “805 “663 716 “701 411 “708 “471 “942 “088 ‘G41 “106 “716 “434 ” 
18 816 107 ‘604 173 651 971 723 394 736 935 598 907 | ‘572 747 666 | “678 689 435 | "713 ADT 942 | 085 G49 | 143 713 419 cn 
19 829 | 057 | “807 | “100 | G54 | -981 “723 || 393 | °734 || ‘947 || ‘583' | "881 569 | -762 | G72 || 653 | -700 | “493 | 711 “475 | 939 096 | 659 | “159 “716 | “416 ¥ 
20 826 | 018 | “S06 | 041 | 650 | 997 | -732 | -309 | “730 ‘928 | “591 867 || 565 | “751 | 678 | 624 | 715 | +558 | -701 479 | ‘O44 | 117 | ‘670 | 179 77 | “411 mn 
1 "B22 | 028 | ‘803 | 023 | 650 24008 | +738 | 280 | +728 | -936 | 609 | “S16 | “565 | 758 | 686 | 605 | -7329 | S53 | -709 | “470 | “950 | 137 | “673 | “188 7738 403 ” 
32 798 | 054 789 |23°976 | “650 | -045 | -741 | -203 | 793 883 | 630 | 823 | 553 | 756 | 687 | 565 | 739 | 535 | “711 452 | 938 | 161 “B74 | +209 719 | °388 ” 
23 “187 070 794 960 | 656 022 ‘751 200 714 ‘875 644 816 550 747 690 B15 752 529) 704 | “418 | 931 194 G68 | "186 720 378 mi 
a4 173 || *096 | “784 | +860 | ‘642 | -033\ || +750 | 188 | °702 | 865 || ‘654 | 792 | “b45 | “740 | “684 | “474 | -761 | $13 | 706 493 | “41 213 | 664 | 213 “17 | 368 ‘ 
Mean //25°811 | 24112 /25:783 }24259 | 25'644 |23°907 |25°764 | 24311 25715 |24-913 | 25.651 24820 25567 |24°765 |25°677 |24:574 |25736 |24407 |25718 }24496 |25:031 |21187 |257%G008 | 24025 |/25722 |24-400 at 
No. of | | 
Days 86 54 78 659 27 42 46 58 79 64 83 | 66 
employed | 
| 


811 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 


GOST 


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TIIAX ATV 


“LINWOAS SIAIN NAG 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. TABLE XX. (70 face page 814. 


Actual Maximum and Minimum Tension of Aqueous Vapour observed at every Hour in each Month of Thirteen Years during Continuance of Clear Weather. 


JANUARY. Trproany. Mancu. APRIL. May. JUNE. Juny. Avausrt, SEPTEMBER. OoronER. Novemner. Decespen. } Mean. a 
soon : | etry 
Max. Min. Max, Min. Max. Min Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max, Min. 
Tneh. Tnch, Inch. Tnch. | Inch. Inch. | Inch. Tnch. Tnch. | Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. | Inch. Inch. | Inch. Inch, | Inch, | Inch. | Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Tnch. 
1 0193 | 0:023 | 0174 | 0014 | 0177 | 0013 | 0236 | 0-021 | O27 | 0058 | 0375 | 0-048 | 0343 | 0-089 | OB01 | 0-093 | 355 | 0086 | O288 | O19 | O62 | D019 | O252 | 0018 || 02678} 00443 689 
2 198 || -024 | 169 | -019 | 177 | ‘013 || 247 | 70236 | “358 | 046 | 373 | 059 | 344 | :088 | -308 | 101 | ‘a5G | ‘078 | -285 | ‘086 | 261 | O18 | 248 | “O21 “2087 | “0466 691 
3 196 | 023 | 193 | 020 | ‘172 | ‘O12 | -247 | -0zG | 254 | -050 | ‘377 | 055 | -338 | ‘087 | -303 | ‘096 | “356 | 075 | 253 | -Ob7 | 253 | Ol7 | “266 | “018 2065 | 0447 680 
4 189 | 022 || 189 | ‘019 | 181 | 012 | 248 | 029 | +250 | ‘024 | +357 | ‘060 | "343 | ‘086 | ‘324 | 100 | "335 | ‘O84 | 245 | 052 | 250 | 030 | 245 | O17 2630 | 0446 676 
5 188 | -020 | 188 | 020 | 191 | ‘015 | “246 | 028 042 357 071 328 089 361 114 330 | “O74 | -274 050 212 33 | 244 O14 2607 | *0476 G71 
6 205 | -om | 193 | ‘21 | 167 | ‘old | -240 }, -oa7 | -2a5 | -043 | -a51 | -oc2 | -a43 | -os9 | -a60 | m9 | aaa | -o72 | -275 | -o55 | -194 | ‘O21 | 242 | ‘O12 |) -2cc4| -o4c3 664 
7 | 200 | 022 | 181 | 020 | 168 | ‘015 | -218 | -o29 | -3oz | -o4G | 358 | ‘078 | ‘349 | 090 | 377 | "120 | 334 | ‘O74 | 266 | *O57 | “197 | ‘O16 | -298 | O12 “2048 | -0483 661 
8 a12 021 7 ‘017 197 O14 | 245 036 306 | “O44 362 083 ‘331 091 345 102 339 075 | 280 071 183 018 | 220 oll 2072 | 0486 058 
9 199 | 023 149 | 026 172 O14 250 033 325 | 047, 366 086 339 113 356 101 329 081 280 038 184 O17 224 | ‘012 2644 | 0493 664 
10 ‘214 | 02d | “17 || :028 | 191 | -017 | +243 | ‘046 | 333 | ‘066 | “366 | ‘O91 | “340 | “111 313 | 097 | “319 | +082 050 181 020 220 | ‘O14 2646 | -0538 682 
n 217 | 020 166 | 020 191 ‘018 249 045, 320 | 086 382 086 360 Wit | 324 121 335 078 063 202, | 020 | “291 016 || 2670) 0571 075 
a2 214 (| -023 179 024 201 019 261 067 329 | -095 396 121 355 lid 348 127 335 078 233 079 219 026 219 016 2741 | -0G58 679 
13 213 023 165 010 197 013 264 | -O64 306 | 094 386 118 339 130 379 128 336 ‘077 | -280. 065 263 022 220 ‘O14 2782 | 0632 681 
14 103 || 021 | "168 | 013 | 196 | “Old | +268 | 056 | +298 | 099 | “386 | 112 | “333 | 162 | 388 | 140 | 357 | 078 | 285 | ‘078 | 264 | 030 | 228 | ‘012 2795 | 0670 690 
16 195 | -026 166 | 17 205 ‘016 271 062 | +288 | -086 393 | “143 B44 159 | 378 113 335 076 | 244 ‘085 247 | -016 | 229 010 2738 | -0674 697 
16 186 | ‘024 159 017 207 012 247 | -049 | 286 || -091 389 147 370 Vid ‘375 167 339 075 | 256 077 259 ‘O17 214 010 2733 | ‘0717 098 
WW 184 026 146 | 019 180 oul 250 057 286 | -086 393 135 Ryne 179 400 158 ‘367 077 236 073 252 033 233 013 2761 | -0722 683 
18 “184 022 149 021 19 ‘010 | +257 053 302 | -090 412 130 373 181 | 410 116 301 081 237 076 241 034 258 O14 2704 | 0690 690 
Fa 11) 196 021 160 | 023 187 008 278 042 285 | -081 ADT 115 ‘371 152 AOS 124 349 090 | 231 | 082 235 038 229 017 2775 | 0661 i) 
20 "186 174 O14 189 007 263 ‘G1 | +285 069 456 110 371 119 410 | 106 B45 083 225 081 224 027 231 024 2709 | “0601 687 
21 214 197 | O14 | 184 | -008 | +260) -o59' || -2c9 | ‘031 | -410 | ‘oso | -369 | “120 | 424 | -098 | -a35 | -os2 | ‘239 | ‘O71 | 225 | ‘O22 | 237 | 023 2803 | 0533 680 
23 211 ‘191 | :013 | 177 | °010 | 252 | 027 | 269 | -o44 | 403 | ‘068 | “370 | “124 | 388 | 100 | 334 | -os1 | 267 | -073 | “237 | ‘025 | 255 | °023 2795 | 0512 688 
23 20 | 033} “174 | 012 | 176 | “013 | -247 | -0PB | 256 | ‘039 | -399 | 061 | 379 | 120 || 374 | “101 | “345 | 078 | -287 | 081 | 226 | 023 | 230 | 025 2748 | 0508 686 
24 199 | 028) 174 | 013 | 175. | “O11 | -251 | -037 || -265 | -o62 | ‘379 | -oGO | ‘374 | 106 | -356 | 102 | 356 | -os1 | ‘276 | 061 | 208 | 025 | 267 | 023 2725 | +0508 685 
Mean 01996 | 0:0233 | 01718 | 0:0181 ) 0:1849 | 0:0129 | 02513 | 00420 | 0:2877 | 0-0628 | 0'3853 | 0:0908 | 03533 | 01207 | 03631 | 01143 | 0:3427 | 0:0790 | 02605 | 00663 | 02276 | 0:0236 | 02350) 00162 || 02719 | 0-:0558 
No. of \| 
a on } 606 1158 1335 1728 2298, 2805 1502 971 1296 951 983 | 697 
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BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. TABLE XXL [10 face page 814. 


Actual Maximum and Minimum Tension of Aqueos Vapour observed at every Hour in each Month in Thirteen Years during Continuance of Foggy Weather. 


JANUARY Fruavany. Mancu. Apnin. May. June. Jory. Auoust. ‘SEPTEMBER. Ocropen. Novesper. DECEMBER. 
No. of Hourly 
Hour, ee = = 7 Observations: 
Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. | Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. | Max. Min. 
Tnoh. Tuch. Tnoh. Tneli. Tnch. Tneli. Tach. Tueh, Tuch. | Inch. | Inch. Inch. | Inch. Inch. Tach. Tueh. | Tneh. | Tneli. | Inch. Inch. Inch. Tuch. Tuch. Tnch. Tnch. 
1 0219 0-083. 0220 | 0:030, 0211 0-078 0208 0-093 0247 | O117 0-280 0156 0327 0162 0311 O11 0362 O144 | 0325 0123 O116 0233, 0076 02652 | O1124 Wr 
2 “220 “078 222 “030 “206 “079 "208 093, "246 13 “280 Wd “B25 “167 308 174 361 ‘ld “334 “lat “239 7 “236 “078 “2654 “1123 1» 
E 318 | 077 030 | “216 | -080 | 210 | 093 | 244 | “114 | 277 153 B23 174 ‘313 | -177 136 | 336 45 | “116 231 079 | 2660 | 1127 mn 
4 215, 079 222 “031 215 ‘082 “208 "094 241 i “274 “154 “BIB B17 179 “10 “338 124 “6 115 “230 “078 “2647 “13 oY 
5 214 083 010 | 220 | -0s2 | 218 || -093 || 249 | 118 | 267 154 “300 302 | 180 | 360 | 142 |] 340 | 120) S47 | 117 228 | O74 | 2633 | “1147 vn 
6 217 “OBA 204 | 073 “220 “O85, 205 "091 “241 120 275 “162 “311 ‘174 309 “181 “352 139 336 “118 259 ‘ll4 227 “079 2630 “1175, of 
7 “218 “085, 204 ‘072 24 “082 “209 “098, “241 119 “279 153 “308 172 “313 "182 “B27 43 “S24 120 a4 14 230 078 "2593 “78 ” 
8 218 || 083 | 207 073 | 211 082 | 205 093 45 | “121 “280 | “149 307 pigt 318 | +193 B19 | 143 | 324 120} 265 | 116 232 | 078 | 2609 | “1185 n 
9 “219 || 052 21 “075 213 “8G | 109 |) -093 | “347 | 121 203 7 319 | 170 | “311 190 | “325 146) 318 | ‘125 263 | 119 239) || :079 11o4 i 
10 221 "082, 218 076 1218 090 “209 095 126 207, ‘151 321 “173 “Bll 195 “330 49 “335, 126 257 17 “231 “082 “1218, sf 
1 322) |) +083) |) “217 078 | 9220 093 |) 211 093 | 256 | “132 | 306 a6 |) 391 172 194 335 || 153 336 250 | 116 | 236 083 1233 an 
12 323° || :086) |) 21 078 “092 214 094 204) +135 207 161 325 176 201 “B48 | 153 | 7340 | «126 || 255 “18 234 “083 1263 5 
13 7220 “088 218 ‘075 227 “090 213 “095 261 136 295 167 320 192 “356 156 “346 125 258 118 231 “081 “1248, " 
Ww “220 “085, 218 “075 230 ‘089 “097 137 209 “164 329, “BAB. 201 ‘BOL 157 B48 128 ‘113 “231 ‘O81 1250 n 
16 219 219) 074 238, ‘090 210 “095 265 142 ‘B01 160 333, 174 “SAB 201 BAe 162 BAG 127 253 110 230 ‘080 2749 1242 Y 
16 “221 214 074 247 090 211 004 265, 136 ‘S11 164 V4 “309 “193 “B45 | “151 46 123 8 113 231 “079 2763, 1228 ” 
W 220 082 1072) | +238) | :000) |) “212 097 261 | -128 162 335 | ‘il 331 194 148 | 343 123 098 231 075 | 2750 | “1199 D 
18 218 “086 212 072 236, ‘090, 212, “097 261 127 323 158 336 168 315 190 358 149 328 122, 244 ‘098 230 “074 2730, 1193 n 
19 17) || *O84 | 310) || +072] 322) -0901 ||| 208 | -097 125 317 156 336 | 167 306 185 307 123 240 102 | 231 ‘071 | 2706 | 1179 fF 
20 218 “085 208 “072 219 ‘090 208 ‘099 306 17 334 161 306 183 ‘374 17 100, 234 ‘072 2693, “1165 Ti 
21 27 “082 205 060, 218 ‘090, 209 100, 250, 4 204 17 B23, 160 301 183 ‘370 48 335, 118 230 ‘091 238 ‘O71 2655, DUET 5 
22 069, 213 090 209, 099 255 116 279 1G 323 160 “301 182 ‘B51 152 | 118 237 096 236, 072 2638 1153 7 
23 069 “217, “090 204 097, 250 116 “288 “143 “B21 ‘161 “307, 179 321 116 238 “006 24 ‘074 2639, “146, ” 
24 “070 274 090 204 “094 251 115, “288 155 “32 160 290 179 152 113 “238 “096 231 073 “2684 ‘1M a 
Mean 00645 | 02235 | 0:0871 | 02085 | 0:0950 01545 01694 | 03152 | O1866 | 03509 | 01473 | 03342 | 01222 | 02474 | 01095 | 02319) 00771 | 02678 | 01183 
No, of 
Days 86 54 78 59 27 42 46 58 7 64 88 66 = = 
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2 


+ 4 


TIIXX ATAVL | - TINWAS SIAUN Naa 


ee eae ee eeee—————eeeEeEeEeEeEeEeE—eEeEEee 


SIT teats 


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= — wayyna yy way fo aumnuyuoy burunp wnodn4g snoonby fo uorsuay hyunozy unary Azyjguopy fo uoymimy jou 


AIXX WTaVa WLINWOS SIAUN Nad 


| 
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2 1000. — 8100. —} O100. — | S100. —; O100- —| 4000. —; 6100. — | 9800. +; 9100. +} 000. +, T1000. — 1100. +; +000. — 61 
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2 8g00. + 6000. +| O100. — | g000. +] ogodo. +} €900. +] TL00. +} 9200. +} 9400. +} GFOO. +] 6100. +] IF00. +} 9100. + 91 
S 6900: + 6100. + 0 c100- + | 0900. +] ¢800. +} 1800. +] 9400. +} 9600. +) g¢¢900- +| 6700: +] TFOO. +| 9700. + GT 
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Zi 8700- + 8Z00- — | 0200. +] SfFo0. +] 0900. +] €200. +} 1900. +] 9400. +] 9100. +} ¢900- +} 6€00- +] 100. +| 9€00. + €1 
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cy | 2 
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S youl “goul “youl “youl Wea “youy “qouy “youy “"youy ‘yout =|. “youl “youl Apveq : 
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= PCO. — 690- — 870. — 8F0. — I10- — G00. + 90. + GEO. + 800: + FeO. — Gy0. — bLO. — 090. — 9T 

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= OrrO- — 0L0- — 790. — 0L0- — Gr0. — Teo. — 800. — 700. + 600. — L180. — L490. — ZLO. — 890. — 8 

a crPo. — 890. — 090. — 010. — Oro. — 160. — €10- — G00. — PLO. — LhOS 090. — LLO. — 890. — L 

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o 
& IAXX GIVI TINWAS SIAAN Nd 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. TABLE XXVII. (70 face page 820. 
Actual Maximum and Minimum Temperature observed at every Hour in each Month for Thirteen Years during Continuance of Clear Weather. 
4) y 
] 
JANUARY, Feprvany. Manca. Apnin. May. Jone. Tuy. August. SEPTEMBER. Octoner. Noyestpen. Derceuen. MEAN. 
= No. of Hourly 
Hour, ; ; Olsorvations 
Mox. | Min. | Mox. | atin. | Max. | afin. | Max. | Min, | Mas. | Min | Max. | Min. | fox. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. |! Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. 
| | 
* Tah. syab. | *Fah. | °Fah, | °Fah. | Fah, | *Fab, | *Fab. | °Foh. | ‘Fah. | “Fob. | *Fah. | *Fan, | °Fab, | °ah. | °oh. . | at | Fak, | * Fah. | Fah. | * Fah, "Tah. 
1 471 42:9 90 384 60 451 13:0 490 | 182 55:9 260 56-0 310 530 339 622 AT 180, 459 151 5 1868 689. 
2 46-0 43/1 85 | 37:0 po | 461 | 125 | ag4 | 184 5611 555 | 315 | 530 | 332 479 | 173 | 459 |! 15:0 ior | 1840 691 
3 460 | 102 | 461 73 | 37:0 63 | 460 | 137 | 493 | 179 | 553 | 252 | 560 | 311 | 524 | 334 975 || 476 | 170 161 149 109 18°38 680 
4 46:7 14 | 46:0 78 | 369 7o | 463 | 118 | 499 | 180 | 562 | 250 | 550 | 311 | sre | 330 | so | 282 | 474 73 | 455 | 167 9 | 161 17°86 | 1848 678 
5 452 121 AbD 79 35:9 63 46:9 115 504 189 571 25:0 553 308 524 320 518 291 480, W5 451 OL Alt 155 AT87 18:39 671 
6 43°7 is | 449 75 | 37° 78 | 482 | 120 | 496 | 206 | coe | 260 | se1 | 314 | 530 | 321 53 | 267 | 476 | 164 451 416 «| 14 4827 | 1842 664 
7 43:7 15 450 70 386 79 A482 13:0 480 212, 60:9 26:8 56:8 33'S 51o 29:7 48S, 4 460 400 161 1849. 114 661 
8 433 | 122 | 445 7A | 400 80 | 483 | 128 | 484 | 221 | Grd | 26D | 575 33 |) 532 501 171 46:8 145 | 411 167 | 4919 | 1936 658 
9 AsO 12:2) 440 78 406 83 500 149 487 | 197 623 28:0 581 354 550 200 185 ATS 140 41-7 161 49°99 19°95 664 
10 440 | 125 || 43:3 TT | Are 90 | 509 | 145 | 494 | 210 | 630 || 879 | 590 | 349 320 | 55:5 oa 189 196 | 172 | 411 161 5053 | 20°34 682 
| 
a 442 | 100 42:2 94 | 399 90 | srs | 163 | 520 | 22 | G29 605 | 360 | ss2 | 335 | 579 | 330 198 | 504 170 | 40:8 165 | srr | gia 075 
| 
12 455 | 130 | 437 99 | 409 s8 || 525 | 183 | sae | 215 | G37 29:6) || Gi7 | 348) | 584 | 348 || 575 | 207 | od | 307 510 186 | 408 162 670 
13 454 | 128 | 43:7 110 | 398 96 | 520 | 187 oil | 222) | (653) | 880) | ‘eso! |) 349) |) 595 |) 351 590 555 205 W2 | 412 160 681 
tt 458 13:0 43:0 17 404 103 504 178 640 219 649 640 40:0 606 36:0 599 30:0 55. 205 170 413 193 690 
| 
15 453 46 | 119 | 412 93 | 507 180 | 539 | 209 | GoO2 | 3£0 || 633 | 394 || 622 || 360 | 593 | 311 | noo | 196 || 51D 414 153 697 
16 448 42'8 113 409 82 504 170 583 | 213 65:9 28'8 624 399 601 37-0 577 310 OAT 182 500 162 AO 161 51-93, 2136, 698 
7 44-2 42-0 98 | 400 80 | 498 | 167 | 523 | 210 | 662 | 300 | 620 | 385 | 590 | 361 | 578 | 305 | 520 | 178 478 | 153 | 41a | 161 5129 | 20:93 683 
18 446) 107 | 412 95 | 385 70 190 | 175 | 523 | | 650 | 207 | ore | a79 | so7 | ao1 | 549 | 295 | mio | 175 17°3 161 429 164 5038 | 90:81 690 
z 19 457 112) 412 85 381 64 481 155 512 202 635 288 606 35:0 562 360 532 29°0 498 172 A700 161 408 16:0 AN 62 1999 689 
20 456 | 120 | 431 100 | 381 57 | 481 153 | 500 | 194 | 606 | 278 | 597 655 | 351 28:8 162 46 | 155 | 417 170 4916 | 19:82 687 
21 468 bDT 425 100 377 59 18°6 16" 48:9 195 601 27:0 678 341 548 350 529 270 418°6 165 AGeL 19d ALS 16:9 1885 1055, 680 
22 479 | 120 | 423 | 100 | 380 80 | 481 145] 483 | 194 | 581 |} 363° | 570 | 321 540 | 347 51D | 267 | 484 164 | 466 | 160 | 415 168 1851 | 19-41 688 
33 474 | 12:0 | 4210 98 | 380 66 | 469 | 145 | 481 | 18:7 260 | 566 | 310 | 530 | 344 | 531 264 | 4190 462 | 163 | 409 | 155 1843 | 18:93 686 
24 183 103, 418 96 38:0 2 46:0 140 472 185 1} 26-0 560 3 524 B41 a7 266 488 4617 151 ao 143 4787 1852 685 
| | a z = = = 
Mean 4547 | 1178 | 4925 | 918 | 3883 | 752 | 4868 | 1495 | 5044 | 2009 | 6110 5877 | 3410 | 55°71 | 3442 | 5444 | 28:07 | 5063 | 1793 | 47-72 | 1571 123 | 1602 | 4969 | 19:85 
bk | | a 
No. of 
Hourly: 606 1158 1335 1728 2228 2895, 1502 971 1296 951 O83 697 
Observations 


' 


, 


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4 


BEN NEVIS SUMMIT. 


TABLE XXVIIL 


Actual Maximum and Minimum Temperature observed at every Hour in each Month of Thirteen Years during Continuance of Foggy Weather. 


[Zo face paye 820, 


JANUARY, Feprvany. Maron. Aprin, May, JUNE. JuLy, Auousr. SEPTEMBER. Ocroper. Novedper, DECEMBER. Mras. 
No, of Hourly 
oun: |) Observations 
Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. ‘Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max, Min. | 
“Fal. | “Fab, | “Fab, | *Fah. | “Fob. | “Fah. | “Fab. | “Fah, | “Fab, | “Fah. | “Fah | “Fab. | *Fab. | Fab, | *Fah. | “Fah. | *Fnh. | “Fah | Poh. | "Fah | “Fab, | *Fah. | “Fab, | *Foh. | °Fah. | “Fab. | 
1 360 W3 370 123, 376 131 353 168 400 219 43°3 285 473 204 460 306 601 265 AT2 23:0 392 217 385 125 4153 20°88 | TT 
2 370 13:2 372 122 370 134 35°6 168 309 211 433 28:1 AT2 300 458 310 500 260 479 23:1 392 213 388 132 41°65, 2078 | 1 
3 36'8 129 372 119 366 135 35:0 168 397 213 43'0 28-0 470 310 462 3l5 A497 251 481 23:0 398 202 383 133 4145 2071 | it 
4 36-4 133 372 118 364 140 35:6 72) 304 218 42:7 28:3 466 318 465 ; 31s A493 258 48-2 23:1 399 197 381 132 4136 20°98 | aI 
5 363 43 370 120 370 42 361 16:9 393 220 42:0 28:2 45°9 30:9 45:2 320 499 261 484 225 400 190 379 122 4125, 20:86 n | 
6 36:6 15:0, 349 117 370 148 352 163, 3nd 224 42:8 27:8 460 3L0 45:9 320 493 256 481 220 412 19:0 378 133 4118 20°01 | ” 
“i 367 149 351 116 363 142 353 167 rivet 22:3, A32 28:0 45°58 308 462 325 473 263 471 224 410 190 381 131 4096 20°98 » 
6 305 143 354 19 35°6 141 361 167 308 22:7 A133 274 457 306 466 337 467 263 ATI 225 418 190 384 132 4111 21-03 | y 
9 369 M1 363 122, 361 152 35:9 169 400 22°77, 446 270 46-7 304 46-0 333 472 268 166 23-4 416 190 350 133 4133, 2119 | ” 
10 372 W2 308 125 367 16:0 361 74 408 235 448 277 AGB 309 460 33:9 AT 74 418° 23'5 410 197 352 1 4167 2173, | ” 
11 372 144 357 131 370 168 35:9 16:9 409 245, 456 285 468 308 464 33'8 48-0 280 481 23°6 403 201 388 43 4173 22°07 | a 
12 376 162 363 13°0 372 165 362 172 4L7 25:0 AV 29:2 AT 2 314 468 34-7 490 280 484 23'5 408 19:3 386 143 42°05 22°28 | ” 
13 aro | 16% 367 124 | 378 161 361 175 | 414 | 252 | 446 | 300 | 475 311 471 335 | 496 | 284 | 489 | 23-4 411 200 | 382 13) | 4217 |} 29°95 Ff 
i 370 148 368 12/2) 381 16:9 366 176 418 253 45:0 29:6 ATS 309 48'6 347 492 286 49:0 23°9 405 201 38'3 137 4239 22°20, ” 
16 309 149 360 21 391 161 35:8 174 Ave 26:1 451 291 ATS 310 490 347 48:9 278 48-9 237 406 19°9 381 135 4233, 22:19 ” | 
16 a7 we 36:2 121 400 16:0 35:9 172) 418 25:1 460 29:6 48:0 310 483 33°6 497 276 489 23:0 401 190 382 133 42:47 2181 i” 
W 370 MW2 36:0 116 390 161 360 77 414 23°9 468 29-4 48-0 306 477 33°8 495 186 229 397 180 382 12% 42°33, 2148 | n 
18 36°7 150 36:0 115 38:8 161 36-4 178 Ala 23'6 47-0 288 481 301 466 333 500 274 AT4 22°8 397 HEE 381 120 42:18 2138 | ” 
19 366 145 358 113 372 160 370 178 410 23:3 465 285 481 300 45:6 326 509 262 481 23:0 393 19:0 383 112 42:03 EOE | Py 
20 36:7 7 35:5 113 369 162 369 18:2 405. 22°5 45:6 270 47-9 292 456 323 510 270 ATS 228 382 185 386 113 474 20:92 ” 
a1 36:6 140 352 106 365 160 372 187 403 213 445 270 47-0 291 451 323 507 273 465 220 38°0 164 390 112 4141 2048 D 
22 362 143 36:0 105, 361 162 373 182 408 216 43:2 26'8 ATO 29°0 451 321 498 278, 462 22:0 389 175 388 113 41-28 20°61 ” 
23 3607 Jal 367 105 366 162 35:1 V7 403 216 440 263 46:3 292 457 317 498 278 468 216 378 W6 386 121 4124 20°53 | 4 
- 363 11 873. 108 374 160 353 172 404 215, 440 253 457 291 442 318 501 27:8 469 210 390 176 383 118 412 20°58: " | 
Mean 36°50 14°35 3626 11°80 37°30 15:36 36:00 1733 | 4055 23°01 4440 47-02 30°39 A634 32°60, 4928 27:03 A779 22°82 40-00 19:11 BBG4 12°82 4167 2125 | | 
No. of 
Daya 86 oA 78 59 27 42 46 58 79 oA 88 66 ae 
employed | 


821 


64 “SMOTIRAIOSYO) 

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— 


TINWAS SIAEN Naa 


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BUCHANAN ON THE 


6 
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aban “TUBOTT requie0ag |-requieaony | “10q0900 |zoquieqdag] 4snSny “Ane oun ART ‘Tudy younyy =| “Areniqeg | “Arenues “Moy 
‘wayne hbbog fo vouvnurjquog burwnp hog oy) fo wnoxy hana yw wip 9yn fo aungouedway uvapy hyyyworg 
ak k& RDEV EG SLINWOAS SIAGUN Nad 


822 


823 


METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS IN CLEAR AND IN FOGGY WEATHER. 


62-1- Z0.0 - 0-0 — 96-0 - Opi Z0-6 — 00-8 - 0%-6 — PL-3- 08-1 - 09-1 — 91-0 — 8¢.1- za 
13-L- 90.0 -— 8.0 — 8F-1 — 61-1 - 4-1 - 80-6 — 16-1 — LLL 18:0 — 66-1 — L1-0+ 8&-L — &@ 
06-0 — 8T-0+ 1¢-0- 90-1 - €L-1- GP. — 98-1 — 9€-1T — 69-1 — PL-0— SL.1- 99.0 + 66-1 — GG 
Tee 1z0+ | 9¢0- 80-1 - 79.0 - 19.0 - FE.0 - GL-0 - LUT = 69.0 — 6E.0 — 7o0+ | 98.0- 1% 
80-0 - 8F-0+ 99.0 - LL-0 - 91-0 — €1-0+ $9.0+ €6-0+ €9.0 — 86-0 — 1€-0— 8¢.0+ 9Z-0 — 0% 
70+ 20.0 - ee. - 1-0 - pe0+ | 061+ Z9.1+ €9-1+ | 680+ IL-O+ GE-0 — G0-0 ~ GH.0 - 61 
FL-0+ €0-0+ 10-1 — 80-0 — 98-1 + c0-6 + €9.6+ €P-o+ LI-I+ 10-1 + 90-0 + 02-0 — 8G.0- SI 
6Z-T+ €Z.0 —- €1.0- 0Z-0+ 66.6 + LG.6+ 0¢-€+ F0-€+ ¢6.1+ 89-T+ 76-0+ 02-0+ GL-0 — Dit 
P8-1+ 80-0+ FE0- ¢0.+ 60-6+ 96-6 + 00-6 + 19-6+ PG.ot SL-+ 96-1 + 8L-0+ GZ-0 — 91 
66-6 + GL-O+ ge..+ 6z-6+ TL-E+ cL-é+ CE.F+ CL.7+ OL-6+ Fa.G+ 19.1 + 96-.0+ CZ.0+ CL 
€F-o+ | og0+ €9.1 + 16-6+ OL-E+ 6LE+ 06-€ + bLEt 06-6 + 60-6 + 10-6 + Gg..+ ieee TL 
GZZ+ || OGO+ 96-1 + GL-G+ 0g-e+ F0-E+ eF-o+ GP-e+ ¢g.6+ v6-L+ Weiter 9¢-1+ 9LI+ el 
16.1 + GZ.0 — TP-o+ CPt FO-E+ 69-6 + 9¢.6+ GL.G+ CP-6+ GLI+ PL-1+ SLI+ *6-0+ ZL 
OFT + T.0 - co..+ 96.6 + SP-o+ GFL + Gg.1+ 09.T+ 16-1+ 9LI+ eta ZO-1+ LGT+ II 
94.0+ 6G.0 — 67-0+ 9.1 + F0-.1+ 1Z-0+ 88.0 + $G-0+ 10-1 + $8-0+ 9L-I+ ¢9.0+ OL-I+ OL 
FL-O+ 89-0 — G0-0 - €8-0+ 70-0 — €0-0+ 06-0 + 90-0 — 96-0+ 1¢:0+ 69.0 + GS-0 — LT-O+ 6 
8.0 — SL-0—- 86-0 — 66-0 — PG-L—- 66-0 — €1-0 - 16-0 — 1Z-0+ 96-0 — 1é-0+ GL-L— €8.0+ 8 
6L-L- €Z.0+ 0€-T — 80-1 — LE-6 — 60-6 — 96-T — 9L.T — LG.0 — 86-0 — 89.0 — GP. 1 — tV-0+ jt 
OF-I — 60-0 — €L-0 - 0¢-T — 96-6 — CE-6 — GG.G — CPG — €L-L—- 09-1 — CL-I- 9L-L — 96-0 + 9 
IL-1 -¢ 1Z.0 — 62:0 — 88-1 — C6-6 — 61-6 — 1E-€ — 80-€ — 68-1 — 18-1 — 0¢-T — G¢.1 — 18-0+ G 
6F-1 - 80-0+ 60-0 — 9-1 — 18-6 — G9.6 — T6-€ — €7V-€ — 6&-6 — ~- 88-L— 0G-1T — LG. — 0 v 
OL-T — ¢0.0 + 70:0 — GPL — 69.6 — CG-G — 1¢-€ — LE-§ — 87-6 — 64-1 —- 09-T — GG-T — 91-0 — € 
79.1 - €0:0 — LE-0- 91-1 — 67-6 — PL-G— SPE — SL-€ — G9.6 — TL-1- 66-0 — G¢.0 — 86-0 — G 
LG.. — 90-0 — LE-0 — 8F-1 — GEG — ¥6-1 — 8L-E—- GL.G — 16.6 — 09-1 — 89.T — 96-0 — 00-1 — I 

“Inox 
‘yquoyy fo unapy png wouf uvazy hpwnozy fo sovasafu 
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‘uvey{ =| “Laqureseq | “requmeaoyy | “10q0}0Q |sequieydeg| ysnSny “Ane oun “AUT Tady ‘yours, =| Arenaqag | “Arenuee || ‘qyuozy 


— 


ree 


MR J. Y. BUCHANAN ON THE 


€7-0 — 
LE-0- 
0€-0 — 
FI-0- 
90-0 — 
60-0+ 

LE-O+ 
67-0 + 

99.0+ 

GLO+ 

99-0+ 

09-0 + 

OF-0+ 68.0+ 92.0+ LE-0+ LE-O+ ce.0+ 8-04 0€-0+ 69.0 + $S.0+ 6F-0+ FE-0+ GF-O+F IL 
13-0 + LLO+ 0-0 + 69.0 + 06-0+ 80-0 + 91-0 + 90-0 - 16-04 €e.0+ 910+ 40-0+ €8.0+ or 
80-0 — €0-0 — 10:0+ 40-0 —- 80.0 — 61-0 - 60-0 — G60 — 0€-0- 90.0+ 16-0 — €€-0 — 08.0+ 6 
€¢.0 — 0 SLO+ FE.0+ 6-0 — 97-0 - €.0 — €9.0 — g¢.0 — GE-0 — €F-0 — 69.0 — 66-0 + 8 
1-0 - 60-0 — éL-0+ GE-0 — GE-0 — €9.0 - 9¢-0 — 88-0 — 68-0 — LV-0- 19.0 - OL-0 — LL-O+ L 
17-0 - IL-0 - OL-O+ €LO+ 86.0 — 61-0 — 86-0 — 46-0 — 66-0 — €9.0 — 0-0 — 99.0 — £0.0+ 9 
8€.0 —- €0-0+ GL-O+ 66-0 — 9Z-0 — 64.0 — L1-0 - 96-0 - 98-0 — 19.0 — 98-0 — S7-0 - 60-0 - ¢ 
92-0 — LLO+ 60-0+ 6L-0+ 1é-0 — FG.0 — 80.0 + 84-0 - €8-0 — 8¢.0 — 9€.0 — 87-0 - GE.0 — v 
1-0 - St.0+ LLO+ PE-0 - IL-0 - F1-0- e.0+ FS-0—- TL-0 - OF-0- 6L-0—- L¥-0- gé.0 — € 
IL-0- 160+ L0.0+ 9L-0+ 600+ 100+ €2.0 + €¢-0 — 69-0 — GE.0 — 60-0 — 9F-0 - GP-0 — G 
IL-0- 60-0 + éL-0- FZ-0 — €L-0+ 400+ 96-0 + 70-0 — 19:0 - 9.0 — 61-0 - 82-0 - 6€-0 — I 

| 
‘yquopy fo unapy hpog wosf unazy hjunozy fo souavafige : 

69.1€ 69-96 6L-0€ TL-€& £9.98 69.68 VE-LE VE.9E &P-L€ {0-86 69-96 LE-LG 19-96 en. 
“UPd o WeH o “Wed o Wed o “WPd « UPA o Wed o WPL o “WPT o “UPd o "Pd o “UPL o “UPd o “spe 
‘IwaX = || “Aaquradeq | equieaon | “JoqopQ jsrequiaydag| ‘ysnSny “A[ne ‘oune “ACTIN dy ‘youeyy =| “Arenaqag | “Arenuer "Yquoyy 


‘Layqoay hibbog fo vounnurjuog burunp singosedwmay, hyanogy unapy kyyquopy fo uoymuny, pouunry 


JTIXXX WZIAVI | ‘LINWOS SIAUN Naa 


825 


Lg.e+ $8-1+ 69.5+ G.6+ 66-9 + c6-9+ €6-6+ OOS || WAGE 9L-6+ 09-3 — 1-3 —- LL-O- Tea 
69.6 + 06-6+ F8.6+ 8L-1+ 96-9+ LGPL GL-L+ 1¢-8+ 06-9-+ inc Cas 69. — 8L-€— 66-1 — VG 
ee 6L:6+ 1Z-+ 69.6+ PLI+ OL-¢ + 99.6 + eLe+ 79-8+ PP-G+ 09-6+ 09-8 — 88.6 — CLI- 8% 
<q F0-6+ 08-6+ TG-6+ 8¢-1+ LG.9+ F8-b+ 68-8 + 90-6 + 69-G+ FPG OV-€ — OF-G — 6L-L— GG 
E OF-E+ FE-o+ 8E-6+ 8¢-1+ $9.9+ €L-9+ €9-6 + 09-6 + €6-¢+ GV-o+ 99.6 - GP-S — LG.0- Iz 
sy ¢9.e+ 796+ SL-o+ ShL-L+ 10-4+ GE-9+ 1Z-0L + 91-01 + 9L-9+ 19.64 G9.6 — 1¢-@ — 66-0 — 06 
o Weieae 80.6+ GP-I+ 80-6+ 69-L+ SLA+ HON |. eeGleae |) Cae 18.6+ TLS - 86.6 — €6.0- 61 
© G6-F + 60.64 PLL+ PE-G+ €¢.8 + 88-44 61-11 + 16-11 + GEL + $G.Et OV-6 — 16-€ — 01-0 — SI 
3 69-F+ 84.14 80-6 + LG-61 69.6 + 40-8 + GL-6L+ 68-61 + 16-L+ 86.6 + [Spih= 81-6 — €8-0 — LI 
A 66-F + 16-.+ 8E-G+ CGE + 19-6 + 0¢-8-+ €9-6L + SLE + 6L-8+ 6L 7+ V6.0 —. OL-G — 69-0 — 91 
=) 06-G+- eF-G + 66-E+ C8-P+ 66-6 + €6-8 + €9-21 + ce-€L+ 10-8 + 00-7 + TL-T — 69-6 — GG-0 — cI | 
q 86-G+ L8-1+ | FO-F+ SL-b+ €0-01 + 06-8 + GV-L+ 08-21 + FL-8+ 26-2+ L8-1- IL-3- 6¢-0+ FI 
0 9L.¢+ 69-1+ 66-6 + 6F-F + 09-6 + LEB + PLGI+ | LG0L+ | LP-8+ PLE + 99-1 — BEG — 9¢.0+ 1 
a F6.F + SLI+ Th + 89-6 + 8F-6+ 66-44 Ly-IL+ FL-GL+ FE-8+ 68-e+ 69-1 — NG — 1¢-0+ &I 
A €9.b+ i IP-8+ bLbt 10-6 + cO-L+ GLOT+ | OFIT+ | 008+ 8e-e+ 8.1 — £63 — 89.0+ Il 
GLP+ cL-L+ 16-6+ LEE 6L-L + 80-9-+ ¢6-6 + OL-01 + LV-L+ LEG 0¢-T — 0-6 — 09-0 + OL 
g 6LE+ 61-I+ 0¢-6+ SLét 66-9 + LL-9+ GP-6+ 66-01 + LE-L+ 16-6 + 09-1 — 06-6 — 08-0 — 6 
ei GPE + 69-1 + 6LE+ CLL + €6.9+- 6F-G+ €1-8 + 91-6 + Lb-LT 68-6 + 91-1 — 1V-€ — 16-0 8 
ie 98-6+ 9L-6+ 0G-1+ 6G-1+ 06-F+ 6F-F + €¢.L+ 66-6 + €0-44 6-6 + LY-G — 99-€ — OL-O+ L 
a 8¢-6+ 98-1 + 8L.1+ 69.0 + LEV 6E-F + 98.9+ 69.84 LG.9+ 61-14 CLE — TV-€ — FL-O+ 9 _ 
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a 80-6 + $9.1 + Th-6+ LL-L+ LETT ¥8-6 + LP-G+ LO-L+ 60+ LE-1+ 86-€ — 69-€ — 60-0 + € 
V0-6+ 09-1 + SL-o+ 16-0+ Te-F+ PLE + LG.G+ SL-L+ 89-6 + LE... + OF-E — 00-€ — €L-0 - G 
A IL-G+ 69-1 + LE-G4+ 10-L+ 0¢-F + 16-8 + 69-9+- 68-44 IL-¢+ Th-I+ 90-7 — 68-6 — 84-0 — IT 
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XXXII.—Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland in the 
Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland. By Ramsay H. Tragquatr, M.D., 
LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Natural History Collections in the Museum of 
Science and Art, Edinburgh. (With Five Plates.) 


(Read July 4, 1898.) 
INTRODUCTION. 


In the autumn of last year (1897), Sir A. Gerxis, F.R.S., Director-General of the 
Geological Survey, kindly placed in my hands for description an important collection 
of fossil fish-remains from the Silurian rocks of the Lesmahagow district, which had been 
lade by Messrs MacconocuiE and Tarr, collectors to the Survey. I accordingly pre- 
d a brief report on these fishes, which was included by the Director-General in his 
nary of Progress for that year. 
The collection was, however, considerably increased by additional work on the part 
of Mr Tarr in the spring of the present year (1898). Many better and more complete 
Specimens were procured, and I was able to define one new genus and species, which 
previously been represented only by undeterminable fragments. The results gained 
he examination of the entire collection I now propose, with Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE’s 
mction, to lay before this Society in detailed form. 
As might be expected, this collection is of the greatest importance both from a 
ological and from a zoological standpoint. Though I understand that Mr Jamzs 
ounG of Lesmahagow had indeed found a fish in one of the beds, the “ Ceratiocaris 
l,” before the collectors of the Geological Survey came on the scene, the only 
us record, in any scientific publication, of the occurrence of such remains in the 
h Silurian rocks is to be found in a paper (xii.) by the late Dr HunrER-SELKIRK of 
raidwood, in which he mentions the finding of “a few small scales, something like those 
f Acanthodian fishes,” in the rocks of Logan Water. Of special geological interest is 
iso the fact, that while fishes of the family Ccelolepide, represented by detached scales 
1 the Upper Silurian rocks of England and Russia, occur in these Lesmahagow beds, 
trace has as yet been found in them of the Pteraspide, the Cephalaspide, or of the 
lan spines and teeth which have been yielded by rocks of similar horizon elsewhere. 
ver, all the species and all the genera but one are new to science, and some of 
e throw unexpected light upon forms concerning which next to nothing was pre- 
lously known. Others, too, are of appearance so strange that their precise place in the 
system has yet to be determined. 
The fishes occur in special bands in the horizons designated by the Geological.Survey 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 32). 6M 


828 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


as “ Ludlow” and ‘‘ Downtonian,” the latter forming the uppermost part of the Silurian 
system. 
The localities are— 
Ludlow—* Ceratiocaris” and “ Pterygotus” bands in Logan Water. 
Downtonian—Segeholm, Birkenhead Burn, Dippal Burn, Monk’s Burn; in the 
Lesmahagow district. Lyneslie Burn in the Pentland Hills. 
The fish-bands consist of hard, grey, flagey shale, and in all the localities save Seggholm 
the actual substance of the fossils seems preserved. At the last-mentioned locality, however, 
the shale is somewhat decayed, and is in consequence soft, inclines to a brownish-yellow 
coloration, and the scales and plates of the contained fishes are only seen in impression. 
It will serve our purpose best to begin with the description of the fishes themselves 
and of the facts concerning them, and thereafter to enter into the consideration of the bear- 
ing of these new facts on certain previously obscure questions in paleeozoic ichthyology. 


Parr |I.—DeEscrIPTIve. 


Order HETEROSTRACI, Lankester. 
Family Ca@LoLepip&, Pander. 


Head and anterior part of body flattened, trapezoidal, broader behind than in food 
the sides forming posteriorly a right and left angular flap-like projection, the contour 
of which, sharply marked off from the tail behind, is continuous or nearly so with the 
lateral margin of the head. Tail narrow, provided with a deeply bifurcate and strongly 
heterocercal caudal fin. The flap- or lappet-like projections probably represent the 
pectoral members; but there is no trace of ventrals, or of dorsal or anal fins. Dermal 
covering, consisting either of minute shagreen-like scales having an internal pulp cavity, 
and usually a hole in the base, or of minute pointed conical spines, without any basal | 
plate, hollow internally and widely open below. 

There is no trace of teeth or jaws or of any internal skeleton except in one instance, 
the unique specimen of Thelodus Paget of the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire, 
which shows certain markings, probably caused by a branchial apparatus (xxxvi. p. 599). 

This family was instituted by Panpmr (xxi. p. 64) for the genera Celolepis, Pander; 
Thelodus, Agassiz; Nostolepis, Pander; and Pachylepis, Pander. Of these Nostolepis 
and Pachylepis are synonyms of Thelodus (Rohon, xxviii. p. 31), while Celolepis, in my 
opinion, falls under the same category (xxxvi. p. 601). These genera were founded on 
scattered scales, and nothing further has hitherto been known as to the creatures to 
which these scales belonged. The Ccelolepid scales have been considered to be ‘incerta 
sedis” (Smith Woodward, xxxviii. p. 157), or to have belonged to sharks (M‘Coy, xvii. 
p. 15; xvii. p. 576; Rohon, xxviii. p. 15; Reis, xxvi. p. 211), or to Acanthodians 
(Zittel, xlii. p. 30). Those who have referred the Coelolepidee to sharks have also been 
inclined to correlate with them the spines known as Onchus, which in England and } 
Russia often occur in the same beds with the scales in question. r 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 829 


Genus THELODUS, Agassiz, 1839. 


Syn. Celolepis, Thelolepis, Pachylepis and Nostolepis, Pander. 


_ Generic Characters——Form of the body as in the definition of the family. Scales 
consisting of a base and of a crown separated by a constriction or neck. Crown of scale 
round, oval, quadrangular, or sometimes acutely pointed behind, smooth or sculptured ; 
base usually with an opening of greater or lesser size (sometimes absent) leading into 
the central pulp cavity. . 
Range in time.—Although Thelodus is a characteristically Silurian genus, its range 
in time extends to the Upper Devonian, as Prof. Ronon has described and figured 
scales of a species (Th. Tulensis) from strata of the latter age in Russia. I have also 
shown that the ‘‘ Cephalopterus” Pages of Powrie from the Forfarshire Lower Old Red 
be longs to the same genus (xxxvi.). 

Remarks.—Although the name Thelodus, given to the detached scales in the Ludlow 
Bone Bed by Acasstz, implies that these little bodies are teeth, the laws of priority forbid 
its alteration into Thelolepis, as proposed by PAnpER and adopted by Ronon. 

For a more detailed account of the history of the genus I must refer the reader to 
my paper on Thelodus Paget (xxxvi.). 


Thelodus Scoticus, Traquair. 
Plate I. figs. 1-10. 


ows) 


a 1898. Thelodus Scoticus, Traquair, in Director-General’s Summary of Progress for 1897, p. 72. 


Specific Chwracters.—Scales in front having the crown rounded, somewhat convex, 
th, the edges distinctly crenulated, the crenulation passing down the neck as a sort 
# fluting; base well developed with a conspicuous basal opening. Scales behind having 
he crown acutely pointed posteriorly, and sculptured with several longitudinal ridges 
nd furrows. 
 Note.—The anterior scales conform in general shape to the ordinary type of Thelodus 
es, but the crenulations are fewer than in any which I have seen figured. The 
erior scales resemble those of Thelodus (Celolepis) Schmudti, Pander, in having 
crowns pointed behind and longitudinally sculptured, but judging from PANDER’s 
Rowon’s figures, the sculpture in these scales appears to consist of incised lines 
a nearly flat surface, while in our present species the surface is convex and the ridges 
sharp and elevated. It is interesting to reflect that were Thelodus Scoticus only 
by detached scales, the two different forms of those bodies would certainly figure 
distinct species. 
Deseription—Fig. 1 on Plate I. represents a specimen from the “ Ceratiocaris 
1” of the Ludlow horizon in Logan Water, which, though it shows the upper lobe of 
ie caudal fin, is very deficient anteriorly ; this is the largest specimen known, as its 
total length when entire would probably not be under 84 inches. Fig. 2 is taken from a 


830 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


smaller specimen from the same horizon and locality, in which both lobes of the caudal | 
fin are seen, but the general form of the body is somewhat obscure. The length of this 
specimen is 54 inches. 

In fig. 8 we have a small example from the Downtonian beds of Seggholm, which 
gives a very good view of the general shape of the entire creature, the pectoral fin-flaps 
and the deeply-cleft heterocercal tail being very conspicuous. Fig. 4 is a still smaller 
specimen from Monk’s Burn, in which the tail is also very well exhibited, but the pectoral 
flaps are rather drawn in. 

The length of the head and body to the posterior origin of the pectoral fin-flaps is 
contained on an average rather less than three times in the total, while the caudal fin, | 
with its two lobes, occupies also rather less than the terminal third of the fish. | 

In some specimens, as in fig. 3, the apices of the pectoral fins seem rounded, but in 
most, as in fig. 4, they are angulated, and this latter condition I take to represent the 
normal and unaltered contour. As to the caudal fin, both lobes are pointed, and the 
upper one is longer than the lower. 

Owing to the state of preservation of the specimens, there are few opportunities of 
making out the exact form of the scales, an obscurely granulated surface being very 
often all that is shown by the dermal covering. Careful examination, however, of a 
considerable number of specimens reveals not only the shape of the scales, but the fact 
that the scales on the head are of a different form from those further back. I was 
fortunate enough to find both forms of scales together in an iron-stone nodule from 
Logan Water, imbedded in a softish material, considered by Mr B. N. PEacu to be 
coprolitic in its nature, and with a little trouble I succeeded in isolating the scales repre- 
sented in Pl. I. figs. 6-9. On comparing these with the scales and impressions of scales 
which are now and then to be seen in the entire fishes themselves, there can be no doubt 
as to the identity of the species. 

The anterior or head-scales (figs. 5-7) have the regular Thelodus form, with well- 
developed base and conspicuous basal opening (fig. 6); a smooth, slightly convex crown 
(fig. 5), separated from the base by a constricted neck, as seen in fig. 7. It will be seen 
that the edges of the upper surface show eight or nine shallow crenulations or crimp- 
ings, which are continued down the neck as a sort of “ fluting,” very much as in the 
scales of Th. Paget. 

Fig. 8 represents one of the posterior scales seen from above, and fig. 9 a similar one 
seen from the side. They can be absolutely identified with those which are seen beauti- 
fully preserved im situ in some parts of the fish represented in fig. 1, and whose arrange- 
ment is represented in fig. 10. . 

These scales are very small, the examples figured measuring only 45 inch in long. 
diameter. The crown is rounded in front, pointed behind, where it projects backwards 
over the basal part,—convex above, and longitudinally ribbed in such a manner as to— 
remind one of some small umbelliferous seed. The usual mode of ribbing is this:—Hach 
side of the upper surface is constituted by a marginal ridge, inside which and at a some- 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 831 


what higher level we have a second pair of ridges running parallel to the first, and also 
meeting behind in a point, while, lastly, between them is a longitudinal median depres- 
‘sion. The base is shallow, but I have not got a good view of its under surface. 

— Observations.—The specimens from the Downtonian beds of Birkenhead Burn, 
Seggholm, etc., though well preserved as to external form, do not show the configura- 
tion of the scales in so distinct a manner as those from the Ludlow horizon in Logan 
Water ; it is therefore not beyond the bounds of possibility that they may ultimately 
turn out to belong to another though closely allied species. Meanwhile, to avoid 
premature multiplication of names, I associate them with the Logan Water examples 
which constitute the types of Scoticus. : 
Position and Localities.—In the Pterygotus Band and in the Ceratiocaris Band in 
Logan Water; also in the Downtonian beds at Segeholm, Birkenhead Burn, and 
Monk’s Water. 

I may mention that I have lately, while examining some specimens of the well- 
known “ Bone Bed” from Ludlow, found one or two scales which resemble the posterior 
ones of this species to a very close degree. 


Thelodus planus, Traquair. 
Plate IL. figs. 1-3. 


1898. Thelodus planus, Traq., in Director-General’s Summary of Progress for 1897, p. 74. 


_ Specific Characters.—Upper surface of anterior scales round or somewhat oval, 
slightly convex, smooth ; scales behind becoming narrow, elongated, and pointed pos- 
teriorly, but without any strongly marked sculpture. 
Description.—Fig. 1, Plate II., represents the only specimen of this form which has. 
as yet been obtained. It measures seven and a half inches in length, but as the 
remity of the tail is imperfect, it must originally have been at least two inches longer.. 
e contour of the fish is pretty clear, although the edges are somewhat ragged ; the lower’ 
lobe of the caudal fin is gone, while only the beginning of the upper one is preserved. 

_ The scales are very small, and are represented magnified eight diameters in figs. 2. 
and 3 of the same plate. Unfortunately no view can be had of any of them, either from 
below or from the side—all are either broken through or show the upper surface only. 
in those of the head (fig. 2) this upper surface is round or oval, smooth, ganoid, slightly 
sonvex, and with an occasional tendency to crenulation round the edge, while in the 
posterior scales (fig. 3) the exposed surface is more elongated, is pointed posteriorly, and 
in some cases even a trace of a ridge on each side close to the margin may with some care 
be made out. As shown in the figure, these scales seem to be somewhat irregular in size. 
_ This species is distinguished from Th. Scoticus by the smoothness of the posterior 
ales, the species to which it is most allied being Zh. glaber (Pander), from the Upper 
Silurian of Oesel. 

. Position and Locality.—From the Ceratiocaris Band in Logan Water. 


832 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


Genus LANARKIA, Traquair, 1898. 


Contour of head, body, tail, and fins as in Thelodus. Dermal armature consisting of 
small, sharp, conical spines, hollow within and widely open below, without basal plate. 

The generic name is taken from the County of Lanark, in which the ih 
Silurian beds are situated. 


Lanarkia horrida, Traquair. 
Plate III. figs. 1-6. 


1898, Lanarkia horrida, Traq., in Director-General’s Summary of Progress for 1897, p. 73. 


Specific Characters.—Dermal spines mostly of one size, large for the size of the fish; 
and with expanded, somewhat trumpet-mouth shaped base. 

Description.—This is a small species, the length of which seldom exceeds two inches, 
while the proportionally large size of its spines gives it a very decidedly prickly 
appearance. 

Fig. 1, Plate III., represents a specimen from Birkenhead Burn, in which the form of 
the head and pectoral region is more than usually undistorted, but the caudal fin is 
absent. ‘This deficiency is, however, supplied in fig. 2, in which it will, however, be 
observed that the parts in front are pressed somewhat awry. Both figures are enlarged 
by one-half. 

The spines are nearly equal in size all over the fish, save on the pectoral and caudal 
fins, where they are smaller. On the pectoral fins there is also some appearance of 
smaller spines intermixed with the larger ones. These appendages (figs. 8-6) have a 
widely open trumpet-mouth-like base which passes, usually in an oblique manner 
(fig. 3), up into a conical pointed shaft, which is externally finely striated longitudinally 
(fig. 4). Fig. 5 represents a natural cast or impression of the interior of the base of one 
of those spines with the shaft broken off, and in fig. 3 a portion of the wall of the spine ) 
has flaked away, showing the mould of the cavity within. Fig. 6 represents a group 
consisting of three moulds of the interior and two impressions of the exterior of similar 
spines. a 


Position and Localities—Downtonian Beds at Birkenhead Burn and Seggholm. ‘i 


Lanarkia spinosa, Traquair. F 
Plate III. figs. 7-12; Plate IV. figs. 1-2. 


1898. Lanarkia spinosa, Traq., in Director-General’s Swmmary of Progress for 1897, p. 73. 


Specific Character—Skin closely covered with minute pointed spines, among which 
are scattered, in varying degrees of closeness, spines of a larger size, which are also conical 
pointed and striated externally. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 835 


Description.—This is a larger species than the former, some of the examples in the 
collection attaining a length of six inches. In general form it is identical with JL. 
rrida, but the manner in which that form may be altered by distortion is well seen 
1 the examples figured in Pl. II. figs. 7 and 8, and Pl. IV. fig. 12. My idea of the 


ndistorted form is given in the accompanying restored outline. 


Fic. 1.—Restored outline of Lanarkia spinosa in the position in which it occurs as a fossil, namely, 
vertically compressed in front, but the tail twisted round so as to appear in profile, 


o hollow internally and minutely striated: externally. The manner in which they 


Lanarkia spinulosa, Traquair. 
Plate IV. figs. 3-5. 


4 . 


1898. Lanarkia spinulosa, Traq., in Director-General’s Summary of Progress for 1897, p. 73. 


Specific Character.—All the dermal spines minute, and without admixture of 
ones. 


834 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 4 


Description—aAs yet very few examples of this species have occurred, and of these 
not one is entire. The specimen represented in PI. IV. fig. 3 shows a large portion | 
of the fish, but is imperfect both in front and behind: from what remains we may judge 
that its original length was seven or eight inches. The whole surface is closely covered 
with minute, sharp, conical, striated spines, as seen magnified in fie. 4, and still further 


enlarged in fig. 5. 
Badly preserved specimens of Thelodus Scoticus and Lanarkia spinulosa are some- | 
times difficult to distinguish from each other. ‘ 
Position and Localities—Downtonian Beds at Seggholm and Birkenhead Burn. 


ORDER OSTEOSTRACI. 


Family ATELEASPID. 


7 


Genus ATELEASPIS, n. g., Traquair. 


Imperfectly known. General form of body apparently as in the Cceelolepide, but the 
dermal covering in front consists of small polygonal plates, while behind the pectoral 
fin-flaps it takes the form of flat rhombic sculptured scales. Orbits apparently on the 
top of the head as in Cephalaspis. 


Ateleasprs tessellata, n. sp., Traquair. 
Plate IV. figs. 6-12. 


In my preliminary report (p. 74) I referred to ‘‘ one or two fragments showing quad- 
rancular osseous scales belonging to some other fish,” no doubt undescribed. On 
account of the very fragmentary nature of those specimens I abstained from giving | 
them a name, as well as from entering any further into their description. 

Since that report was written, Mr Tarr was successful in obtaining a specimen at 
Segeholm, which I think I am justified in identifying with these fragments, and which, 
imperfect as it is, throws a certain amount of light on what is apparently a very 
remarkable fish. ; 

Description—The most perfect specimen is represented of the natural size in Pl. 
IV. fig. 6, and shows the anterior portion, including the pectoral fin-flaps, in a tolerable 
state of completeness ; the tail is, however, obliquely cut through on the right side. We 
have here in front a contour essentially similar to that in Thelodus or Lanarkia, though | 
the pectoral flaps appear to be a little more rounded. When examined by a lens, the 
surface appears covered with small polygonal tesserze, which are not all of the same size 
or of the same number of angles, and these tesseree were evidently covered with minute, | 
closely-set, rounded tubercles. As there is scarcely any of the original bony matter left 
in the fossil, a study of the counterpart is necessary towards coming to a conclusion as | 
to the condition of the surface. In the same Plate, fig. 9, we have a very little bit of the | 
counterpart magnified five times, showing distinctly the impression of the tessere and | 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 835 


of their tubercular ornament. Fig. 10 again represents a “squeeze” in modelling wax 
taken from a similar piece of the counterpart, the tubercles appearing here in relief. 
The tesserzee become extremely small and at last indistinguishable on the parts corre- 
sponding to the fin-flaps in the two preceding genera; and it is also to be noted that 
reles of a larger size are to be seen in impression along the lateral and anterior 
margins of the head. 

About the middle of the head there are to be seen, on the counterpart, two small 
rescentic markings, right and left, separated from each other by a space of one-third of 
an inch, and situated half an inch back from the front, the convexity of each being out- 
ds and the concavity inwards. These markings, indicated in the accompanying outline, 
ainly do suggest the outer margins of a pair of orbits placed as in Cephalaspis, 
and on no other supposition can I explain their presence, although there is no trace of 
any inner margin to either, nor of any orbital space or opening, the impressions of the 


6 
‘ 


Fic. 2.—Outline sketch of the counterpart of the specimen of Ateleaspis tessellata, to show the 
position of the crescentic marking alluded to in the text. 


ulated tesserze being continued all over the intervening surface. This may, how- 
e due to that vertical pressure which has reduced to absolute flatness a contour 
was no doubt originally more or less elevated or vaulted in the middle; it must, 
er, also be noted that there is no trace here of the ant-orbital fossee or of the post- 
valley which are prominent markings on the shield of Cephalaspis. 

On the tail the dermal covering assumes the form of rhombic scales arranged in 
ansverse rows, and the change from the polygonal tessere to this condition is seen to 
lready in front of the posterior margins of the pectoral fin-flaps. In Pl. IV. fig 11 
ns of three rows of these scales are represented, magnified three diameters, the 
g being made from a “ squeeze” in modelling wax taken from the counterpart. As 
xhibited, the sculpture of the surface consists of comparatively coarse, wavy, and 
rtuous ridges, tubercles and furrows, which pass across the scale from before backwards. 
Fig. 7 represents a fragment apparently of the caudal part of a larger fish near its 
VOL. XXXIX. PART IIT. (NO. 32), 6N 


(oe) 
cs) 


6 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES.COLLECTED BY THE 


origin. Part of the original osseous matter of the scales still adheres to the matrix, so” 
that their sculpture (PI. IV. fig. 12, magnified three diameters) is not properly seen; 
however, as far as one can judge, it is similar to that of the scales represented in fig. 11, 
though the ridges seem finer and more numerous. 

Fig. 8 of the same plate is another fragment, which is evidently the upper lobe of a 
forked caudal fin, shaped like that of Zhelodus or of Lanarkia. The scales on the 
body-prolongation are mostly rhombic, though sometimes nearly square in form, and 
show traces of an ornamentation resembling that in the two former specimens. On the | 
part corresponding to the fin-membrane the scales become very small, and assume a 
more or less linear arrangement. ' 

Microscopic Structwre.—In a vertical section of scales from Birkenhead Burn which 
are evidently referable to this species, I distinguish three layers :—an wpper, consisting 
of sections of the superficial tubercles and ridges; a middle, or cancellated layer; and 
a lower, or laminated one. The ridges and tubercles which make up the outer layer are 
usually solid in section, though sometimes hollow at the base, and are permeated, but 
not very closely so, by branching tubules, which pass in a radiating manner from the 
base to the periphery. In most cases, and especially towards the base of the tubercle 
or ridge, these tubules are seen to be provided with irregular dilatations which also give 
off other branches, and which cannot in fact be removed from the category of lacune 
or ‘ bone-cells,” however much they may differ from the orthodox lacune in their 
frequently irregular shape. In a few instances the tubules seem towards the base of 
the tubercle to be merely very coarse, without the presence of distinctly differentiated 
lacunee, but that is rare. There is no surface layer of ganoine. ‘The middle layer con- 
sists of a cancellated or spongy tissue in which distinct structure is hard to discern; 
the lower layer seems to be composed of thin laminze superimposed upon each other, 
with obscure, elongated specks between, which I have no doubt are also lacune. I 
hope to figure these interesting details on a future occasion. 

Observations.—In general form Ateleaspis resembles the Ccelolepide, but on the 
head the shagreen-bodies have coalesced into small polygonal plates,—behind, into flat 
rhombic scales; the thickness of these plates and scales being added to by ossification 
in a deeper layer of the skin. The tessellated aspect of the head-covering reminds us 
both of Cephalaspis and Psammosteus, but the position of the crescentic markings, 
which apparently indicate the outer margins of the orbits, shows a greater affinity with 
the former genus, which is confirmed by the microscopic examination of the scale, 
which discloses presence of undoubted bone-lacunze with branching processes. There 
are, however, neither lateral cornua, nor post-orbital valley, nor pre-orbital fossee ; but 
as we seem to have here an approximation to the formation of a shield like that of 
Cephalaspis, | propose for the genus the name of Atelcaspis, or “ imperfect shield” 
(aredys and domes). Further consideration of the zoological bearings of this remarkable 
form I reserve for the second part of this paper.* 


* The paragraphs above designated as “ Microscopic Structure” and “ Observations” have been rewritten since the 


é 
= 


af 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 887 


Position and Localities.—All the specimens figured are from the Downtonian Beds 
of Seggholm, though there is also in the collection a fragment from the beds of similar 
age at Birkenhead Burn. Mr Tarr has also recently collected a few detached scales 
from the Downtonian Beds’ of the Pentland Hills. It is unfortunate that a fish of 
such interest and importance should be so exceedingly rare, and the specimens as yet 
obtained so comparatively fragmentary. 


ui Order ANASPIDA. 


The two remarkable genera to be now described are so unlike any other fishes 
herto known that I feel under the necessity of erecting a new order for their 
eption. - And as one of these forms, Birkenia, presents some features reminding us 
Cephalaspis, we may as well, at least provisionally, place the order also in the 
ab-class Ostracodermi. Nevertheless, the structure of the substance forming dermal 
ales of Birkena shows neither the bone-lacune of the Osteostraci nor the dentine 
abules of the Heterostraci, but so far as I have been able to examine them micro- 
opically, nothing is seen but a homogeneous, or slightly fibrillated mass, though this 
ay possibly be the result of faulty preservation. 


Family BrrkENUIDz. — 


Small fishes, fusiform in shape, with deeply bifurcate heterocercal caudal fin, but 
no paired limbs. Dermal hard parts in the form of scutes, which are in one form 
nearly entirely absent. No cranial shield ; orbits, jaws, and internal skeleton unknown. 
a Genus BIRKENIA, Traquair, 1898. 

Generic Characters.—Fusiform ; body covered with several longitudinal rows of 
jarrow scutes, arranged in lines running obliquely from above downwards and 
vards; head bluntly rounded, also covered with narrow scutes; an oblique row 
small round openings on the side just at the posterior boundary of the head ; 
no orbit seen, and no evidence of cranial bones, jaws or shoulder-girdle; no paired 
ns; caudal paleeoniscoid in shape, completely heterocercal, deeply bilobed and rayed ; 
u small rounded dorsal situated far back, near the caudal. 

. 

Birkenia elegans, | toes 

ie _ Plate V. figs. 1-4. 

* 1898. Birkenia elegans, Traquair, in Director-General’s Swmmary of Progress for 1897, p. 73. 


‘& ‘Specific Characters.—Scutes finely tuberculated; five rows on the sides of the 
dy, of which the upper two do not pass beyond the dorsal fin; a row of six median 
scutes between the anal region and the origin of the lower lobe of the caudal fin, each 


aper was presented to the Society, and also since the publication of my notes in the Geological Survey’s Memorr on the 
uurian Rocks of Scotland. 


838 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


furnished with an aculeate spine, first one being directed forwards, the remaining 
five backwards. . \ 

Description.— The specimen represented in Pl. V. fig. 1, enlarged by one-half, 
is three and a half inches in length, and is the largest complete one in the collection, 
though fragments occur indicating a somewhat larger size. This example does not 
show the contour of the head properly, but that deficiency is supplied in fig. 2, in 
which the rounded blunt form of that part is seen in its entirety. Fig. 8 represents 
another small specimen, the contour of which is shortened up, a phenomenon which, | 
as well as the converse condition of lengthening out, is frequently observed in 
palzozoic fishes which had no ossified vertebral column to keep them in shape 
during fossilisation. —— 

The configuration of the fish and the arrangement of its dermal scutes may best be 
understood by a reference to the accompanying restored outline, the contour of which 
is based on that of the specimen represented in Pl. V. fig. 1, the details being, 
however, completed by an examination of numerous other examples. — 3 . a 


\ t 
. Fic. 3.—Restored outline of Birkenia elegans, Traq., one-half larger than natural size; d, dorsal fin, 


From the elegantly fusiform shape of the body and the completely heterocercal 
deeply cleft inequilobate caudal fin, we might at first sight fancy that we had before 
us a member of the Paleoniscid family, with the rows of scales running the wrong 
way! ‘The resemblance is, however, entirely superficial. . 

The head is bluntly rounded, and covered with small scutes, spindle-shaped in 
outline, and very peculiarly arranged. On the top of the head they are disposed in 
four areas separated by two cross lines, one longitudinal-median and the other | 
transverse—the scutes of each area having their long axes parallel with each other, 
but directed at acute angles to those of its fellow of the opposite side, and also of the 
area immediately in front. Of course, in the figure only the two areas, anterior and 
posterior, of the right side can be seen. Then in front, just behind the rounded 
snout, the little scutes swirl round a circular space nearly where we would expect the 
orbit of a paleoniscid fish to be, but the area of this space is occupied by scutes like | 
those of the rest of the head, but arranged with their long axes vertical. Below and | 
behind this space is another rounded marking, around which the adjacent scutes also 
pass in a swirling manner, but what organ this can represent it is meanwhile impossible 
to guess. It is on the wrong aspect of the head for an orbit,—it cannot be a mouth, | 
because it is paired, having a fellow on the opposite side. It is not even certain that | 


a? 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 839 


it is an opening at all. Immediately behind this the rest of the head is covered 
by an area of little soutes, which have their long axes directed downwards and 
backwards. 

Now a narrow band-like prolongation of this last-mentioned area passes obliquely 
upwards and backwards along the posterior margin of the head as far as the first row 
body-scutes. In this band we see, in every specimen, eight small round openings 
or their impressions. Are these branchial openings? That is indeed the only inter- 
p etation which I am able to put upon them. 

| In no specimen can any trace of mouth, of jaws, or of teeth be found, nor is there 
a ny certain evidence of eye-orbits. 

Passing now to the body, we find that it is covered on each side with five longitudinal 
rows of scutes, which are much larger than those on the head, and of a narrow, elongated 
oblong shape, pointed at each end. 

Commencing above, the first row extends from the back of the head to inn a short 
distance of the dorsal fin. It consists of a succession of narrow parallel plates, whose 
Jone axes are directed from above downwards and backwards, that is, in a direction 
rary to that of most of the scutes of which the other rows consist. This row is in 
act in the middle line of the back with the corresponding series of the other side. 
The second row proceeds below the first as far as the dorsal fin, in fact. passes into that 
appendage ; the direction of its parallel scutes is downwards and forwards. So it is 
the scutes of the third row until they pass the dorsal fin, when, from that point 
the termination of the series on the tail pedicle, their direction is suddenly altered, 
d their long axes point downwards and backwards. The fourth series, which extends — 
t back from the head to the tail pedicle, has its scutes directed downwards and 
ards from beginning to end without interruption. The fifth row, which runs along 
ventral margin from the head also to the tail pedicle, consists of scutes which in the 
it half of the fish point downwards and backwards, but exactly in the middle of the 
tral curve the direction is suddenly reversed and the scutes come to have their long 
s directed downwards and forwards until the band ends at the caudal fin. 

In the middle line of the back, and placed exactly between the termination of the © 
row of body-scutes and the dorsal fin, is a single narrow oblong azygous plate. — 
Then on the opposite aspect of the body we have on the front half of the ventral 
five marginal scutes, of which the first four are narrow and sputless, while the 
| rises into a backwardly directed sharp conical elevation. So far as I can judge, 
e scutes seem to be placed on one side of the middle line, leaving us therefore to 
pose that they are paired structures, but this I cannot prove, as in no specimen are 
t fellows of the opposite side to be seen, and analogy with Lasanius would lead us 
e other hand to suppose that they formed one continuous series with the remaining 
marginal scutes behind them, which undoubtedly are placed in the middle line, and 
re remarkable for the prominent thorn-like spine borne by each. The first one of these 
18 apparently formed of two closely fused together, the two halves—anterior and pos- 


3 


- 


840 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


terior—being separated by a vertical line, and each bearing a thorn, that of the front | 
half being directed forwards, that of the hinder part backwards. The succeeding four | 
scutes which lie between this double one and the tail pedicle gradually diminish in | 
size, but each of them rises into a prominent backwardly curved and pointed thorn, of | 
a rather formidable appearance it must be owned. 

The dorsal fin forms a small rounded projection from the outline of . back, aiid 
is situated far behind, so as to be just in front of the tail pedicle. Its “rays” are simply. 
continuous with the scutes of the body, in fact they belong to the second lateral row, 
but tend to become broken up distally. | 

The caudal fin is paleoniscoid in shape, being deeply cleft into two unequal lobes, tt 
of which the upper is the longer and contains the prolongation of the body axis, from | 
the under aspect of which the fin-membrane exclusively arises. The body-prolongation | 
is covered by innumerable minute rhombic or spindle-shaped scales, which result from the | 
breaking up of the third, fourth and fifth series of lateral body-scutes. Along the dorsal | 
margin we have a special band of tiny narrow oblique scales, which would remind us | 
of the ridge-scales or “ fulera” of the upper lobe of a palzeoniscoid tail, were it not that | 
the band here apparently consists of two rows of scales one above the other. The fin- | 
membrane is also covered with narrow scales which tend to be arranged linearly so as | 
to give the fin a very decidedly rayed appearance. All the scales of the tail and of the 
caudal fin show the same minutely tuberculate ornamentation which occurs on the seutes 
of the body. 

Position and Localities:—Extremely rare in the Ludlow horizon, one specimen only 
having been found by Mr Tarr in the “ Ceratiocaris Band” at Shanks Castle, Logan | 
Water. It is, however, by far the most common of the fishes which occur in the over- | 
lying Downtonian rocks, and has been obtained in that horizon in the following localities 
in Lanarkshire—Slot Burn, Seggholm ; Birkenhead Burn ; Dippal Burn ; Monk’s Burn. 
Detached scales have also occurred in the Downtonian of the Pentland Hills, at Lyneslie 
Burn, near its junction with the Lyne Water. es 


Genus LASANIUS, Traquair. 


Generic Characters.—Elongated-fusiform in shape, with a deeply cleft heterocercal 
caudal fin. A median row of ventral scutes, each bearing a recurved thorn, runs along 
the ventral margin from behind the head to the origin of the caudal fin. Immediately 
behind the head is a series of eight slender parallel bony rods on each side, and directed 
downwards and forwards, each of which at its dorsal extremity sends a process inwards 
to the middle line of the back, there meeting its fellow of the opposite side. In front 
of the anterior one of these rods, and parallel with it, is a chain of short slender ossicles. | 
No other hard parts are visible, but the form of the body is often more or less indicted | 
by a delicate carbonaceous film. 

[At first, judging from the position of the vith aculeated scutes in Birkeiy | 


ie 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 841 


I thought it probable that they also occupied a ventral position in Lasanius; after- 
ds, however, it seemed to me more natural to suppose that such a long row of median 
orny plates should run along the back instead of along the belly. The matter was, 
ever, settled by a specimen of a new species of the same genus obtained by Mr Tarr 
e the beginning of the year 1899, and, in consequence, the description of Lasanius 
us been rewritten since this paper was presented to the Society. | 


' 


Lasanius problematicus, Traquair. 


Plate V. figs. 5-11. 
1 1898. Lasanius problematicus, Traq., in Director-General’s Summary of Progress for 1897, p. 73. 


Specific Characters.—Highteen median scutes along the ventral line, aculei slender. 
Description.—In ordinary specimens only two things are to be seen—the long row 
dian scutes and the arrangement of parallel rods in front—and though these 
$ maintain the same relative position, it was impossible so long as no other parts 
ybserved to decide as to which was the dorsal and which the ventral aspect of the 
That the line of scutes is, however, ventral is proved by the occurrence of a 
nen of the closely-allied species Z. armatus, in which the arrangement of the rays 
heterocercal tail-fin can be clearly detected. 

. V. fig. 5 represents a typical specimen showing the position of the oblique 
lying above, and passing beyond the anterior extremity of the row of ventral 
; the same relations are also shown in the restored outline, fig. 4, in the text. 


a em I a A 


ie eee 
2 Ee LDS S. 


Fic. 4.—Lasanius problematicus, Traq., restored outline, enlarged. 

2.8,, ventral scutes ; 7,, post-cephalic rods; 7’., chain of ossicles. 

e rods (see also figs. 7 and 8) are eight in number, and consist each of two parts 
s, which meet above at an angle which increases in acuteness as we pass back- 
long the series, and, where the two parts join, there is a sharp posteriorly 
“process. The lower limb, slender and tapering, is directed obliquely down- 
nd forwards on the side of the fish,—the upper one is on the other hand short 
ected inwards (fig. 7) to meet its fellow of the opposite side in the middle iine 
back. In front of the foremost rod there runs parallel with it a row of five or 
Il ossicles, the lower extremity of each of which rides over the upper extremity 
one below, and each of them (fig. 9) is also furnished with a small backwardly 
ted thorn-like projection. 


842 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


The median scutes are eighteen in number; they are oblong in form when seen from 
above or below, and the anterior extremity of each overlaps the posterior margin of the | 
one in front, a mode of imbrication with which we are unacquainted as regards the seales | 
of other fishes. Each of these plates is hollowed on its attached surface, elevated on its | | 
free aspect, and there it is provided (figs. 10 and 11) with a sharp backwardly directed | 
thorn or aculeus. I have not observed any evidence of external sculpture in those | 
scutes. 

In a considerable number of specimens a delicate carbonaceous film indicates in parts | 
the remains of the soft tissues and gives a clue as to the external form of the fish. Itis | 
thus clear that the head extended a little way beyond the oblique rods, and that it was, | 
as in Birkena, bluntly rounded in front. In the same way the caudal fin is seen to | 
commence just at the posterior termination of the ventral row of scutes, and to be 
heterocercal, deeply divided into two slender lobes, of which the upper one is consider- 
ably the longer. This is well shown in fig. 8, but it is in the species next to be deseribed 
that the actual fin rays have been observed. | 

As regards size, specimens have occurred so small as to have the row of ventral | 
scutes only three-quarters of an inch in length, whereas in large examples this may 
extend over a length of two inches and a quarter. | 

Position and Localities. —Only in the Downtonian horizon, in which it occurs im the | 
same localities with Birkenia, Lanarkia, ete. ; Birkenhead Burn; Slot Burn, Seggholm ; 
Dippal Burn; Monk’s Burn; Smithy Burn, Hagshaw Hill. In the Pentland Hills 
detached scutes have been found by Mr Tarr at Lyneslie Burn, along with similar 
scattered remains of Birkenia and Ateleaspis. 


Lasanius armatus, sp. nov., Traquair. 
Plate V. figs. 12; 13: 


Specific Character.—Aculei of ventral scutes, thick and stout. 

Description.—Two specimens only have occurred, both of which are very small, the 
more perfect one being only 1} inch in length, including head and caudal fin, while the 
other would probably have given the same measurement had it not been cut off by the 
edge of the stone before the termination of the ventral scutes. 

The first mentioned specimen is represented in Pl. V. fig. 12, magnified three 
diameters. It will be seen that the shape of the body is pretty well shadowed out by a 
dark film, the form of the head being slightly distorted. I attach no significance to the 
two round spots without film seen near the front of the head. The oblique rods are 
seen in their proper position; below them commences the ventral row of scutes, and 
these are seen to have their thorns disproportionally large when compared with those of 
L. problematicus. The shape of the individual thorns is better shown in the second 
specimen, from which fig. 13 is taken, and which represents one of these plates with its 
thorn seen from the side, and magnified four diameters. This difference in the ventral 


* 


J 


(AE 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 843 


aculei is not a matter of age, for the smallest specimens of L. problematicus have slender 


thorns, just as in adult examples. 


The condition of the caudal fin is here of prime interest, for on wetting the specimen 
and examining it with a lens, the arrangement of its rays can distinctly be seen. And 
so, if we are to judge from the analogy of other heterocercal fish-tails, the arrangement 
here seen at once shows that the azygous row of scutes is on the ventral side of the 
body. In other words, we see the body-prolongation distinctly passing into the longer 
lobe of the fin, which is on the opposed side to the scutes, the rays of this lobe being 
short, while those of the smaller lobe are long. 

Position and Locahty.—Downtonian Beds at Slot Burn, Seggholm. 


Part II].—RzEsvtts. 
THE C@LOLEPIDA. 


The general form of the Ccelolepide has now been ascertained. They are shark-like 
fishes of comparatively small size, the largest example known being only fourteen or 
fifteen inches in total length. The head, with the anterior part of the body, is depressed, 
the pectoral fins are lappet-like, there is a strongly heterocercal caudal, but no other fins. 
The dermal covering is seen in its most primitive form in Lanarkia, where it consists of 
small hollow-pointed spines, open below, and without basal plate. It appears in a more 
specialised form in Thelodus, where we have small shagreen-like scales constricted below 


_ the crown, with a base more or less developed, in which there is usually an opening into 


a central pulp cavity. Where their microscopic structure has been examined, these scales 


' are found to consist of simple dentine, with radiating tubules, with no Haversian canals ; 


the crown is also covered with a layer of ganoine. No traces have been seen of jaws, 
teeth, eyes, branchial openings, or internal skeleton. The last-mentioned part of the 


| organism must have been entirely cartilaginous. 


Tn the absence of hard circumorbital plates, of teeth, and of opercula, it is not sur- 
prising that the position of the eyes, of the mouth, or of the branchial openings should: 


not be ascertainable, though in the Devonian Thelodus Paget (xxxvi. p. 599) the position 


of the branchiz themselves seems to be indicated by certain transverse markings in the 
broad and depressed anterior part of the fish. 
Of course the notion that the Selachian spines known as Onchus, or the teeth, which 


jhaye been named Monoplewrodus and Anchistrodus, had anything to do with the 


Coelolepidee, is now entirely disposed of. Nevertheless, looking at these fishes as a group 
by themselves, and taking into special consideration the nature of their dermal covering, 
we should have no hesitation in assigning to them a position among the Selachii, and, as 
elachians I classed them in my preliminary notice of the Lesmahagow fishes. 
Tn that notice I also applied to them the term “primitive.” If that is so, then the 
VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 32). 60 


844 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


lappet-like appearance of the flaps, which I have interpreted as pectoral fins, would ¢ 
a new and important corroboration to the lateral fold theory of the paired liml 
would present us with a “ptychopterygium” still more archeie than the pectoral 
Cladoselache, as described and interpreted by Basurorp Dean and others. al 
Whether the Ccelolepidee are admissible to a place among the Selachii or not, 
nature of their dermal hard parts points directly to an Hlasmobranch affinity and E 
branch derivation. But their “ primitive” nature now seems to me, on reconsidera 
of the subject, extremely doubtful. In fact, the depressed configuration of the an 
part of the fish, the absence of teeth, and of ventral, dorsal, and anal fins seem to m 
be rather marks of a very considerable specialisation than of archeeic simplicity. In 
way the lappet-like fin-flap may well represent a degenerate form of pectoral fin instead 
of an original ptychopterygeal form of that member. 
And as the Ccelolepidze seem also to be so inseparably linked to a series of organ: 
whose typical representatives can hardly be looked upon as Selachii, hardly even 
Elasmobranchs, I prefer to consider them as having definitely split off from the 7 | 
named sub-class, from which they doubtless originally came. a 


THE DREPANASPID&. - . 

i 
We may now take up the consideration of the Drepanaspidee, a family tho le 
representative of which is the singular genus Drepanaspis of Schliiter, from the Low 
Devonian slates of Gmiinden, in Western Germany. 
Drepanaspis Gmiindenensis has hitherto been scarcely known to science. 1] 
named, but very imperfectly described, also without figures, in 1887 by Prof. Scntt 
of Bonn (xxx.), who seemed to consider it as allied to Cephalaspis. In Mr Surra W 
warv’s Catalogue, Part II. p. 311, it is only mentioned by name and placed 
with a number of other imperfectly known forms (Aspidichthys, Anomalichthy: 
which he considered as “ perhaps for the most part” referable to the Coccosteida 
1896 I noticed the fish before this Society,* and expressed the opinion that its 
lay rather with the Pteraspide, a view which I am now prepared to defend and ¢ 
firm, as well as to point out that on the other hand Drepanaspis is kere 7 
the Coelolepidee. ; 
I have now, by the help of Mr B. Srirrz of Bonn, got together, in the Edi in urgl 
Museum of Science and Art, an important series of specimens of Drepanaspis 
Gmiinden, and I have also to thank my friend, Prof. O. JareKEL, for procuring for m 
beautiful casts of examples in the Natural History Museum at Berlin, and also in 
collection of the Geological Survey in that city. I hope presently to use this mat 
for a more exhaustive description of this remarkable form; meanwhile I shal 
the principal points in its construction, as far as aaceniateet by the aid of ¢ the 
panying restored sketch of its dorsal aspect. ia 
* Nature, vol. liv., 1896, p. 263. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 845 


A 


The remains of Drepanaspis Gmiindenensis occur in a pyritised condition in the 
dark purple roofing-slate (Hunsriickschiefer) of Gmiinden, a mode of preservation which, 
oh yielding beautiful fossils to laborious and careful preparation, forbids their 
ng any results to microscopic examination. It was a fish of considerable size, and 
3 examples must have attained a length of over two feet. 

rom the accompanying sketch it will be seen that, as in Thelodus, the fish is 
dinto two parts—an anterior, broad and depressed, corresponding to the head 
md body, and a posterior, or tail, terminating in a heterocercal caudal fin. The anterior 


§ 


as a broad oblong carapace, rounded in front, abruptly truncated behind, where 
on each side a prominent though rounded angle. From the middle third of the 
posterior margin the tail arises. The carapace consists of numerous bony 
ge and small. In the centre there is a large median dorsal plate (c) of a 
ovate-hexagonal contour, the anterior margin being short and somewhat 
the posterior is more rounded, and is also acutely notched in the middle. 
ostero-lateral angles are formed each by a large, narrow, triangular falciform 
, Which narrows to a very acute point more than half-way to the front of the 
_ The rest of the space is covered by a multitude of smail polygonal plates, 
hexagonal in contour, but the anterior margin itself is generally formed by a 


846 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


few plates of a larger size, which we may term rostral (r.). Lastly, on each lateral 
margin, a little way in front of the termination of the postero-lateral plate, may be seen 
a small rounded depression (#.) which may represent an orbit, though in one case I see 
on its floor a portion of bone sculptured like the rest of the plate, but this may be 
due to some accidental displacement. This depression or cavity is of such constant 
occurrence that it must mean something. 

On the ventral surface there is likewise a large oblong central or median ventral 
plate, but its posterior notch is Jarger, and its direction is continued forward for a little | 
distance by a slight elevation or fold of the surface—hence, when detached, the plate | 
can always be readily distinguished from the corresponding one on the back. The 
postero-lateral angles and margins are formed by the same plates (p.l.), which we saw 
on the dorsal surface, but a much narrower area of each is exposed. ‘There are also a 
few broad plates at the anterior margin, the rest of the surface being filled in by = 
polygonal ones, exactly as on the dorsal aspect of the carapace. 

All the plates of the carapace, both above and below, are ornamented by tolerably 


closely-set stellate tubercles. There is no trace of jaws or of teeth, but as it is impos- 
sible to conceive of the absence of a mouth, we must conclude that it was placed exactly 
at the anterior margin. 

The tail is rather shorter than the carapace, and is covered with tuberculated quad- 
rangular scales, which, becoming finer and smaller, are continued on the caudal fin, 
which is heterocercal but scarcely bilobate. But in addition to those lateral scales, we 
have, running along both upper and lower margins of the tail and caudal fin, a series of 
stout elongated imbricating “ fuleral scales,” those of the dorsal series being the longer. 
No trace of any other fins is to be seen, nor do we find any remains of internal skeleton. 

After this brief description of the leading points in the structure of Drepanaspis, it 
is impossible even in the absence of evidence as to the microscopic structure of its hard 
parts, to avoid the conclusion that it is related to the Coelolepidee—in fact, that it forms 
an onward stage in the evolution of a common series to which the last-named family 
belongs. 

We cannot fail to recognise the general resemblance in form—the broad and 
depressed anterior portion, rounded in front and truncated behind; the want of jaws 
and teeth; the slender tail with heterocercal caudal fin. But whereas the minute 
shagreen-scales of Thelodus have in Ateleaspis coalesced into polygonal tessere in front — 
and rhombic scales behind, in Drepanaspis we have, added to the rhombic scales of the 
tail, well-developed fulcra, and as to the anterior part, we find that it is now covered by 
a regular carapace, into which enter not merely a multitude of small polygonal plates, 
but also several large ones, among which the great median dorsal and ventral plates and — 
the falciform plates at the postero-lateral angles are conspicuous. Then, if the postero- 
lateral lappet-like projections of the body of Thelodus and Lanarkia represent lateral — 
fin-flaps, as I believe them to do, we find these parts in Drepanaspis, though still pre- ‘| 
serving the same general contour, rendered utterly functionless as fins by being enclosed — 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 847 


in unyielding bony plates. In fact, the shark-like Ccelolepidee seem to have specialised 
themselves into a form, which in former days would certainly have been called a verit- 
able “‘ Placoderm.” 

But if Drepanaspis points backwards to the Ceelolepidee, it also points forwards to the 
Pteraspide, but the consideration of this question I shall defer till we come to treat of 
the last-named group itself. But before doing so we must look into the question of the 
affinities of the Psammosteidee, a family upon whose hitherto somewhat doubtful position 
the structure of Drepanaspis throws an unexpected light. 


THE PSAMMOSTEID. 


The plates known as Psammosteus (Agassiz), which occur usually in a very fragmentary 
condition in the Devonian (Old Red Sandstone) rocks of Great Britain and Russia, have 
long been a puzzle to paleontologists. By Acassiz, to whom only small fragments were 
known, Psammosteus was classed as a ‘“Coelacanth” (ii. p. 61); by TRavTscHoLp, 
plates apparently belonging to the same genus were interpreted as swimming paddles of 
Coccosteus (xxxvu., Pl. VI., Pl. VIL, fig. 2); but the most prevalent opinion at present 
is that these remains are elasmobranch in their nature, and belonged to some extinct 
group of “armoured sharks.” 

The remains of Psammosteus consist in the first place of large oblong plates, gently 
hollowed in boat-like fashion, obtusely pointed at one extremity (anterior), and truncated 
or obtusely notched at the other. Internally these plates are smooth, externally they 
are covered with minute closely-set tubercles, which are brilliantly ganoid and have 
_ beautifully crimped edges. In many instances these tubercles are arranged in polygonal 
areas, which in worn specimens are often removed, leaving shallow polygonal depres- 
sions behind, so as to give the surface of the plate something of a honeycombed 
appearance. 

The inner layer of these plates is formed by a dense laminated substance perforated 
by vessels ; the middle one is thicker, and shows a-close network of vascular canals, the 
| intermediate substance displaying numerous minute tubules, so that, as AGassiz already 
remarked, it appears more related to dentine than to bone. ‘The outer layer consists of 
the tubercles themselves, which show a radiating arrangement of dentine tubules pre- 
cisely similar to those figured by Rowon in the scales of Thelodus (xxviii. p. 33), while 
the external resemblance of these tubercles to certain Thelodus scales, especially to 
those of Thelodus Page: from the Forfarshire Old Red (xxxvi. fig. 2), is obvious enough. 
It seems, therefore, pretty clear that, as I have already remarked in my Extinct 

Vertebrata of the Moray Firth Area (xxxiv. p. 262), the stellate tubercles of Psam- 
mosteus are shagreen-granules which have coalesced, and have also become united to a 
plate formed in a deeper layer of the skin. Here an analogy seems to be afforded 
by the condition of the dermal covering in Ateleaspis, on the anterior part of which 
we have also reason to believe that minute scales have run together into polygonal 


os 


848 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


plates, which, small as they are, remind us strongly of the polygonal areas so ottes 
seen on the surface of the plates of Psammosteus. 

Tt need scarcely be added that the large median dorsal and ventral plates of Dre- 
panaspis and the oblong boat-like shields of Pswmmosteus mutually remind us of each 
other, and though the former never show any polygonal areas, the smaller plates with 
which they are surrounded are eminently suggestive of these areas as they occur in 
Psammosteus paradoxus, Agassiz, and Ps. Ragioee Traq. 

There are, however, two other forms of plates often found associated with the large 
oblong ones above referred to, the structure and external sculpture of which lead us to | 
refer them also to Psammosteus. Of these we have first certain flattened and somewhat 
falciform pieces, pointed and often worn at one extremity, and having towards that 
extremity the characteristic Psammosteus-ornament, which, however, covers more of 
the surface on one side than on the other. A fragment of one of these bodies was figured 
by Panper (xxii. Pl. VII. fig. 22) as an “Ichthyodorulite.” From their want of 
bilateral symmetry, they must have occupied a lateral position, and they were indeed, as 
already remarked, figured and described by TRavuTSscHOLD as the paddles of a species of 
Coccosteus. Relying on the microscopic structure of these plates or “ ichthyodorulites,” 
which, as described by Panpmr, consists of true dentine without any bone lacune, | 
referred them in 1890 (xxxiii. p. 134) to the category of “ Selachian Appendages,” noting 
also the certain amount of resemblance which they bear to the peculiar carboniferous 
species known as Oracanthus. A year afterwards they were noticed by Smrra Woop- 
WARD in the second volume of his Catalogue (xxxviil. p. 126), and referred by him to 
Acassiz’s Psammosteus meandrinus; and again, in 1895, in his Problem of the 
Primeval Sharks, he compares those bodies to Oracanthus, adding, as regards their 
position on the fish, that “they may have been arranged along the lower margin of the 
body, as in certain Acanthodian sharks (e.g., Climatius), or the animal may have had 
only a single pair of these spines at the back of the head, as described by Dr Traquair 
in Oracanthus.” The second supposition is more feasible than the first, and I rather 
think that the ‘‘ichthyodorulites” in question were backwardly directed developments 
of plates corresponding to the postero-laterals of Drepanaspis. 

The third form of Psammosteus-plate, of which Panper (xxii. Pl. VIL fig. 16) 
figured an example as possibly a caudal scale or spine of Asterolepis, is comparatively 
small in size, bilaterally symmetrical, oblong, bluntly pointed at one extrermiie 
and sculptured externally with the usual shagreen-like tuberculation. 

Mr Smrra Woopwarp remarks (xxxvii. p. 39), concerning these bodies, that they 
are shaped much like the rostrum of Pteraspis, but in my mind there is not the slightest 
doubt that they are ridge-scales of the tail, similar to those which are to be found in situ 
in Drepanaspis. 

It is now pretty clear that Psammosteus is closely allied to Drepanaspis,—so closely 
that it may be a question as to whether there is any need for family distinction. | 
think, however, that it is better for the present to keep them in separate families until | 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 849 


the microscopic structure of the hard parts of Drepanaspis can be investigated and 
more also is known regarding the configuration of Psammosteus and the arrangement of 
its plates. 

_ But as regards Oracanthus, 1 must now abandon all idea of its being related to 
fe sa mosteus, retaining it indeed as a veritable Selachian. Certainly it is so, if the 
boniferous fish which I named and described as Oracanthus arnugerus (xxxil. p. 86) 
anything at all to do with the genus in which I placed it. The position of the 
es of O. armigerus is at the back of the head, one on each side, like the cornua 
ephalaspis, but the dentition is cochliodont, and the creature is evidently closely 
I] sd to Menaspis armata, Ewald, from the German Kupferschiefer. 

_ Meanwhile the problem of the “armoured sharks” is, I think, solved, by our ceasing 
fo consider them, properly speaking, as sharks at all, and transferring them to the 
terostraci. This is in accordance with views already expressed by Dr O. M. Rets 
Munich, as we shall presently see. 


THE PTERASPIDA. 


The Pteraspide, the only family which by common consent has hitherto been 
uded in the Heterostraci of LANKESTER (Aspidorhini, Rowon), have, like the Psam- 
teidze, no bone lacune in the substance of their dermal] plates, but the middle layer, 
ad of consisting altogether of a dense reticulation of Haversian canals, forms in its 
part at least a stratum of polygonal or prismatic cavities, which is the cancellated 
The outer layer consists of dentine, or kosmine, with fine arborescent tufts of 
e tubules. The external sculpture consists of fine concentric and sub-parallel 
and grooves, but the ridges, as Prof. LankesTer observes, “are usually 
d at the margins, and give the notion in some species of a linear series of 
ite tubercles fused together.” Further on he also observes :—‘ Indeed each of the 
of the ridges recalls very strongly the structure of a tooth or of a dermal 
nee of a placoid fish” (xiv. pp. 11-12). 
In fact the microscopic appearance of the ridges when seen cut in transverse section 
2e recalls the structure of the tubercles of Psammosteus, or of the crowns of the 
f Thelodus, and I have no doubt that we have the explanation of their origin 
idea of the fusion of Ccelolepid dermal tubercles or shagreen-bodies in linear 
That these ridges originated by the fusion of “ placoid” scales of some sort at 
was strongly advocated by Rowon in the first part of his monograph on the 
r Silwrian Fishes of Oecsel (xxvii. p. 75), where he says :— 
“Teh muss Prof. Ray Lankester beistimmen, wenn er in dem Bau der dusseren 
ler Leistenschicht des Pteraspis-Schildes die Structur der Placoidschuppen erblickt 
1 diese Schicht aus demselben Grunde auf die Placoidschuppen zuriickfiihrt. Wird 
eser amine richtigen Segall ee SO usb die ‘Existenz der 


850 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUATR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


des Pteraspis vollstiindig iiberfliissig, dass aber die leistenartigen Erhabenheiten der 
Schildoberfliche vom Pteraspis aus der Verschmelzung zahlreicher Placoidschuppen 
hervorgegangen sind davon kann man sich ohne Riicksicht auf den histiologischen Bau 
auch bei macroscopischer Betrachtung tiberzeugen.” . 

However, in the second part of his researches on the Silurian Fishes of Oesel (xxviii. 
p. 105), the same author proposes an alternative and opposite view of the case— 
namely, that the ridges of the Pteraspidee might have been the most primitive condition 
of the dermal skeleton of the Vertebrata, out of which, by differentiation, the dermal 
denticles (placoid scales) of the Selachii, as well as their modifications in the Ganoids, | 
Teleostei, &c., have arisen. Again, to quote his words :— 

‘“‘Indessen kénnte ebensogut die gegentheilige Ansicht gelten, d. h. die Streifchen 
und Pliittchen der Pteraspiden kénnten den urspriinglichen Zustand des Hautskelets 
der Vertebraten bilden, so dass also aus den Streifen und Plattchen der Pteraspiden 
durch Differenzirung die Hautziihnchen (Placoidschuppen) der Selachier gleichwie die 
entsprechenden Modificationen bei deren Descendenten (Ganoiden, Teleostiern, 
Amphibien, &c.),- entstanden wiren. Demgemiiss wiirden die linglichen Streifen, 
Leistchen oder Plittchen der Pteraspiden als die auf der niedersten Entwickelungstufe 
befindlichen Hartgebilde an der Kérperoberfliche bei den Vertebraten darbieten.” 

It seems to me that, on this occasion at least, second thoughts have not proved the 
best, for to suppose that the ridges of so specialised a structure as a dermal plate of 
Pteraspis are likely to be more archzic in character than the simple shagreen-bodies 
of the Ceelolepidze formed round a simple papilla, seems to me to be indeed rather like 
putting the cart before the horse. But Prof. Ronon does not seem to insist very 
strongly on his new theory, as may be seen from the remarks which immediately folloy 
his enunciation of it. It is, moreover, interesting to see that in comparing the micro- 
scopic structure of the ridges of Pteraspis with that of placoid scales, he makes in this 
paper special reference to the Ccelolepide :—‘“da die Streifen und Plittchen der 
Pteraspiden die gleiche microscopische Structur wie die den recenten Placoidschuppen 
gegeniiber als einfachere und dltere Hautzihnchen erkannten Ccelolepiden aufweisen ” 
(ib., p. 106). 

Much remains still to be learned about the Pteraspidee, but the configuration and 
structure of the carapace which covers the head and anterior part of the body in the 
type genus Pteraspis is pretty well known through the researches of Huxigy, 
LANKESTER, ALTH, and others. a; 

The head and anterior part of the body of Pteraspis is enclosed in a carapace, the 
dorsal part of which shows evidence of having been originally composed of at least 
seven distinct plates, though in these fossils, as we usually find them, the pieces are not 
actually separate. Text-figure 6 shows the arrangement of the parts of the dorsal 
surface of the carapace, while the accompanying text-figure 7 is a restoration of ‘the 
entire fish slightly altered from the figure given by SmrrH Woopwarp in the second 
volume of his Catalogue, p. 161. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 851 


The greater part of the carapace, as seen from above, is composed of the oblong 
median dorsal plate (D), which is slightly bilobate in front, while posteriorly it presents 
a narrow deep notch, into which fits the dorsal spine (S). In front of the median plate 
is the anteriorly-pointed rostral one (R); while fitting into the angle between these 
two, on each side, is the triangular orbital plate (O), each of which shows a small opening, 
just on the edge of the carapace, and supposed to be for the eye. Behind this is 
the cornual plate (C), one on each side of the median dorsal, and forming a right and 
left prominent postero-lateral angle. Hach of these plates, also visible on the ventral 
aspect of the fish, forms the sharp lateral edge of the carapace behind the orbital region, 
and is perforated near its hinder angle by a pretty large oblique opening (B), usually 
supposed to be branchial in its function. Lastly it is to be mentioned that on the 
inner aspect of the carapace, just between the median dorsal and rostral plates is a 
small but very distinct round median pit, which was probably supported by a minute 
eighth or pineal plate. (See LANKESTER, xiv. p. 28; ALTH, ili. p. 43.) 


Fie 7. 


Fic. 6. 


Fig. 6, Diagram of the dorsal surface of the carapace of Pteraspis rostrata, from specimens in the British Museum. 
Fig. 7, Restored outline of the same fish seen from the side, slightly altered from a figure by Mr A. SmirH Woopwarp. 
(D) Median dorsal plate ; (S) Spine; (C) Cornual plate; (0) Orbital plate; (R) Rostrum ; (V) Ventral plate ; (B) Branchial 
opening. The posterior caudal scales are here omitted. 


On the ventral surface (text-figure 7) is a large oblong medzan ventral plate (V), 
once described by LankESTER as a distinct genus (Scaphaspis). The mouth must 
have been placed between the anterior margin of this plate and the posterior-ventral 
aspect of the rostrum. 

It is impossible to compare this carapace with that of Drepanaspis (text-figure 5) 
without being struck by the general resemblance in the arrangement of the parts 
in both. In each there is on the dorsal surface a great oblong median plate notched 
behind, although there is no dorsal spine in Drepanaspis. The cornual plates 
of Pteraspis are represented by the postero-laterals of Drepanaspis, though in the 
latter genus no branchial opening is observable, at least in the position in which it 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 32). 6P 


852 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


occurs in the former. The position of the orbits in Pteraspis on the edges of the 
anterior part of the carapace is relatively identical with that of the rounded depressions 
which I take to represent orbits in Drepanaspis. But there is no distinct specialised 
rostral plate in Drepanaspis, and the mass of small polygonal ones which surround the 
median plate have altogether disappeared in the Pteraspide. 

Then again on the under surface of Drepanaspis there is a great median ventral 
plate, comparable to that of Pteraspis, though it is again surrounded by small ones like 
the dorsal one above. 

So far as the arrangement of the plates of the carapace is concerned, Pteraspis then 
suggests to us a specialised form of Drepanaspis. 

The tail of Pteraspis is only known by three fragments, two of which were figured 
by LanxesreEr (xiv., Pl. V., figs. 1, 3, 5, 8). One of these, from Cradley, Herefordshire | 
(tab. cit., figs. 3 and 8), and now in the British Museum, is the basis of the restored | 
squamous portion of the tail in LANKESTER and SmirH Woopwarp’s reconstructions, and | 
shows that this part was covered by somewhat imbricating rhombic scales. The second 
specimen, from the Powrie collection, and now in the Edinburgh Museum of Science 
and Art, is from the Bridge of Allan, where it occurred along with carapaces of 
Pteraspis Mitchelli, Powrie. To this specimen LanKesteR did not devote much 
space in his monograph, merely remarking (op. cit., p. 38), under Pteraspis Mitchell, 
that “a few rhomboidal scales also obtained by Mr Powrte from this locality (PI. V., 
fig. 1) probably belong to this or another species.” 

This patch of scales is, however, worthy of careful examination. As may be seen 
in Prof. LaNKESTER’Ss figure, it is a narrow band two inches in length by three-eighths 
in breadth, starting apparently from a larger mass, of which the remains are, however, 
no more than barely indicated. It is to be noted that the scales, quadrangular in form, 
become smaller towards what was apparently the distal extremity of the patch, while 
on one aspect there is something to be seen which Prof. LanyxssTeR had apparently | 
overlooked—namely, some undoubted remains or traces of a fin-membrane covered by 
minute scales. I have therefore no doubt that this specimen is the remains of the 
upper lobe of a heterocercal Pteraspidian tail, and belonging in all probability to 
Pt. Mitchell. . 

The third example is from the Lower Devonian of the Rhine country, and has been 
briefly alluded to by Prof. Scuniirer (xxx. p. 125) under the name of Scaphaspis 
Bonnensis. The specimen is in the Geological Museum of the University of Bonn, 
where I have on two occasions had the opportunity of looking at it for a few moments, 
but I did not find that it showed anything more than the fact already known— 
namely, that the Pteraspidian tail was provided with a covering of small scales. 

The tail, then, of Pteraspis, so far as we know it, is also in accordance with that of 
Drepanaspis, and the conclusion seems to me to be certainly warranted—namely, that 
the Pteraspidee are related to the Drepanaspidee as more highly specialised forms of | 
one common series. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 853 


No doubt this conclusion would be invalidated if it were proved that any 
Pteraspidian possessed distinct Crossopterygian-like paired fins, like those indicated by 
Claypole in his “attempted restoration” of Paleaspis Americana (v. p. 560). But this 
is far from being the case. Judging from Prof. CLaypotr’s sketches it does seem to me 
that the resemblance of the objects in question to Crossopterygian fins is rather super- 
ficial, and the author himself admits that “no specimen (as aforesaid) shows this organ 
in position.” Prof. JanKen of Berlin (xiii. p. 467) has expressed the opinion that the 
supposed fins are isolated portions of the dermal armature, and probably scales.* A 
different view, but equally decisive against these objects being jins, has been put 
forward by Dr Basurorp Dean of New York (vili. p. 71, footnote) in the following 


words :— 

“The presence of paired fins in Paleaspis, as determined by Ciaypous, has not been confirmed. The 
present writer, to whom the type specimens were kindly shown by their describer, must regard these 
structures as elasmobranchian (Chimeroid?) spines, in crushed condition, accidentally associated with the 
head region of the fossil.” 

So with due apologies to Prof. CLaypoLE, we cannot accept the occurrence of distinct 


paired fins in the Pteraspidze as an ascertained fact. 


Tue HETEROSTRACI. 


If the Pteraspidee are related to the Drepanaspide, then it follows, by the same line 
of reasoning, that they are also related to the Psammosteidz, and finally to the 
Ceelolepide. The conception of the Heterostraci is, therefore, widened by the addition 
of three families, showing almost every gradation from the shark-like Thelodus, with 
its shagreen-covered skin and lappet-like pectoral fin-folds, to Pteraspis, which, with its 
box-like carapace, composed of a limited number of sculptured plates, its scaly tail, 
presents us with as good a type of the so-called “ Placoderm ” or ‘‘ Panzerfisch” as any 
paleeozoic creature which has ever been brought under that designation. 

What characters are now to be considered as common to the members of this order ? 

They all have this in common, that the microscopic structure of the dermal hard 
parts (unknown, however, in Drepanaspidz) is either that of dentine, or at least of a 
substance partaking more of the nature of dentine than of bone.t Innone has any 
internal skeleton been found, or any distinct jaws or teeth. The eyes, where their 
position has been observed, are situated on the outer edge on each side of the anterior 
part of the carapace. Those whose external form is sufficiently known have all a 
strongly heterocercal caudal, but no other median fins. 


* “Nach Alledem glaube ich mit voller Sicherheit annehmen zu miissen, dass die fiir Flossen gehaltenen 
Skeletstiicke nichts anderes als isolirte Hautpanzertheile und zwar Schuppen des Fisches sind.” 

+ Scumipr (xxxi. p. 16-17) described and figured the occurrence of lacunae in the ridges of the Pteraspis-shield, 
but this was denied by LanxKusrsr, and finally disproved by Ronown (xxvii. p. 74-75). As regards Psammosteus the 
last named author maintains the occurrence, in the lowest layer of the shield of simple spindle-shaped bone cells which, 
however, “weisen fast gar keine Primitivréhrchen auf” (xxviii. p. 70-71). These I have yet not seen, but Prof. 
_ Rouon says they are only visible in especially well preserved examples. 


854 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 4 


Specialisation from the most primitive form (Lanarkia) to the most specialised 
(Pteraspidze) has been accompanied by :— 

1. Fusion of the spinelets (Lanarkia) or shagreen grains (Thelodus) into plata 
scutes, and rhombic scales, supported by hard matter, developed in a deeper layer of 
the skin. 

2. Alterations in the pectoral fin-flaps, which becoming covered up by the postal 
lateral plates in Drepanaspis, are finally no longer recognisable in the Pteraspidee. 

Now, if it be admitted that the Ccelolepidee are of Elasmobranch origin—they have 
hitherto, from the structure of their shagreen-bodies, been looked upon as actual sharks 
—then it follows, if my views are correct, that the entire group of Heterostraci owes” 
its origin to an Hlasmobranch source. This idea has been already foreshadowed, at 
least as regards the Pteraspidee and Psammosteidz, by Dr O. M. Rets of Munich, in his 
remark—“ dass Pteraspiden und Psammosteiden sehr nahe mit einander verwandt eine 
einheitliche Degenerationsgruppe der Elasmobranchier bilden, fiir welche ich den | 
Namen Psammacanthiden vorschlage” (xxv. p. 64). Again, in another and later 
publication, he says—“ Pteraspiden und Psammosteiden gehéren zusammen auf Grund 
der microscopischen Structur, welche zwar placoid ist, aber die Higenheit zeigt, dass 
das Dentin auf die ausserste Schicht beschrinkt wird; es ist dies aber eine Structur- 
differenzirung zu gross plattiger und massiver Stachel- und Hautplattenentfaltung — 
deren Beginn auch bei den Holocephalenzihnen zeigt ” (xxvi. pp. 213-214). However, 
he does not seem to have suspected any special afiinity between his Psammacanthiden 
(Heterostraci) and the Ccelolepide, for, on a previous page of the same paper (p. 211), | 
he adheres to the old view as to the correlation of Thelodus and Onchus,—“mit | 
mehreren andern Forschern halte auch ich es ftir sehr wahrscheinlich, dem die zusam- 
menvorkommenden Thelodus-Schuppen und Onchus-Flossenstachel einer und derselben 3 
Haifischgattung angehéren.” ; 

It follows now that, if the views which I have here supported as to the derivation | 
of the Heterostraci be accepted, two other theories which have been propounded | 
regarding their affinities must fall to the ground. 

The first is that originated by the late Prof. E. D. Copz, who, placing the Pteraspids, 
Cephalaspids, and afterwards also the Asterolepids,* in one sub-class of “‘ Ostracodermi,” 
associated this sub-class with the Marsipobranchii or Cyclostomes (Lampreys and Hags) 
in one class of Agnatha, apart altogether with the Pisces or Fishes. This idea, founded 
on the apparent absence of lower jaw and shoulder-girdle in the Ostracodermi, has | 
been accepted by Smirax Woopwarp in his obituary notice of Copn(xl. p. 379), as well 
as in his recently published Manual of Vertebrate Paleontology (xli. p. 1). It also 
appears in Dr Basnrorp Dean’s Fishes, Living and Fossil, where, in his table of Classi- 
fication of Fishes, he boldly adopts, in place of ‘‘ Agnatha,” the term “‘ Marsipobranehii,” 
previously used only for the Lampreys and Hagfishes themselves. In the table of 


* The Asterolepids or “ Antiarcha” were, however, first added to the Ostracodermi by Mr Samira WooDWARD { 
(xxxviii. p. 17). ky | 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 855 


distribution of fishes in geological time, however, which is given on the next page of 
the same work, though still placing the Pteraspids, Cephalaspids, and Pterichthyids under 
the Marsipobranchii, he qualifies the position by the judicious use of points of inter- 
rogation. A few pages further on (p. 66), speaking of the Ostracodermi, including 
the Pteraspidee, he indicates his opinion that they ‘are in no way closely connected 
with the ancient shark types.” 

For this doctrine of an affinity between the Marsipobranchii and any of the groups 

reckoned to the “ Ostracodermi,’ I myself never could perceive any real justification, 
and I consequently found myself quite in agreement with the opinions expressed by 
Prof. LANKESTER in the short paper (xvi.) which he wrote on the opposite side of 
the question. Prof. LankszsTeR lays principal stress on the entire absence of 
any proof that the Ostracodermi were monorhinal like the Lampreys and Hags. I 
would go further and ask, Where is the evidence that they were really ‘‘agnathous” ? 
These fossils never show any trace of endo-skeleton at all—it must have been entirely 
cartilaginous—so that it would be just as reasonable to affirm that they had no chon- 
drocranium. Again, it is by no means so certain that the term “‘ Agnatha,” if taken to 
indicate a primitive deficiency of the mandible or mandibular arch, can properly be 
applied even to the Cyclostomes, for though the distinguished embryologist F. M. 
-Batrour believed that their ancestors never had lower jaws, and that they themselves 
are the “remnants of a primitive and pregunathostomatous group,’ * the opinions 
of those who consider these creatures to be degenerates from originally gnath- 
ostomatous forms cannot be entirely overlooked (see Howss, x.). Huxuey (xi.), and 
following him, Howss (op. cit.) have even maintained that, in the cartilaginous frame- 
work of the Marsipobranch head, elements are present which represent parts at least 
of the mandibular arch in the true Gnathostomata,t though the latter author, from 
other developmental reasons, emphasises the enormity of the gap which lies between 
the Marsipobranchii and the other and higher Vertebrata. 

It is not, however, necessary to enter further into the agnathous question, if the 
palzontological facts described in this report indicate that the Pteraspide, Drepanas- 
pide, and Psammosteide, are derivable from the Ccelolepide, and that the latter are 
of Elasmobranch origin. 

_ For the same reason we need not enter into any very detailed discussion of the 
second theory to which I have referred—namely, that of Prof. W. Parren, who seems 
to be endeavouring to revive, on a scientific basis, what we have long considered to be 


* Comparative Embryology, London, 1881, vol. ii. p. 69. 

+ Huxtey says regarding Petromyzon (op. cit., p. 427) :—“The posterior lateral cartilages are directly connected 
with that end of the suborbital arch, which answers to the articular end of the suspensorium in the frog, and in their 
position exaggerate the peculiar arrangement of the tadpole’s meckelian cartilage. That,they are parts of the mandib- 
ular arch I believe to be certain, but in the absence of any knowledge of their mode of development, I leave the ques- 
tion as to their exact homology open.” This view is supported by Hows, who also finds a representative of the man- 
dible in the prepalatine cartilage of Myzine, remarking,—“In its relationships to the superficial branches of the 
trigeminal nerve, this ‘ prepalatine’ closely corresponds with that which Huxuuy claimed as MucKet’s cartilage in the 
Lamprey, and with that I hold it to be homologous notwithstanding PARKER’S view to the contrary” (op. cit., p. 133). 


856 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


obsolete guesses as to a true zoological (we should now call it a genetic) affinity between 
the ancient plated fishes of the Silurian and Devonian epochs and Arthropoda. It will 
be remembered that nearly ten years ago Prof. Parren compared the sutures and other | 
markings on the head of a Trilobite with those on the cranial shields of Pterichthys and | 
Bothriolepis, though unsuccessfully, as he had unfortunately taken his figures from old | _ 
restorations, in which sutures and sensory grooves were confounded. He now (xxii.) 
finds a strange similarity between the microscopic characters of certain chitinous | 
trabecular structures “underlying the external chitinous covering of the body” of | 
Inmulus and those of the plates of the carapace of Pteraspis. These trabecule contain | 
in their centres, or cores, minute cavities, which he compares to bone-lacune; and each | 
of these sends off a delicate tubule or canaliculus vertically to the surface. “When 
the chitinous network forms a rather thin layer, as in the eye region and elsewhere on | 
the thoracic shield, the innermost trabeculz unite to form a nearly continuous layer, 
perforated by pores, that lead into the irregular sinuses above them.” This he compares | 
with the basal layer of Pteraspis, while the layer above, ‘‘ crossed in various directions } 
by the chitinous trabeculz containing the lacune,” he divides into two, of which the 
lower corresponds to the cancellated, the upper to the reticulated layer in the same | 
fish-plates. Lastly, the “thick outer cuticula” he compares to the outer layer of 
Pteraspis, the most superficial and colourless stratum representing the ganoine, | 
while he evidently looks upon the deeper part which is permeated by “innumerable | 
canalicule (pore canals of authors)” as the dentine or kosmine layer. He con- | 
cludes the descriptive part of his paper by stating that “the only animals | 
known to show such an exoskeleton as Limulus are some of the remarkable | 
fishes known as Cephalaspide,” under which designation he includes also the 
Pteraspide. 

I have not myself examined the dermal structure of Limulus microscopically, but 
I have read Prof. ParrEn’s paper very carefully, and must own that I fail to see, more | 
especially in his figures, such a correspondence between the structure described in | 
Limulus and the structure of the plates of Pteraspis as would warrant us in supposing | 
that the two forms were “genetically related.” Pteraspis has no bone-lacune, but | 
here Prof. ParrEen calls in the aid of Cephalaspis, in which, however, the lacune 
are quite different from the appearances figured as such in Limulus. Nor do I see 
anything in Prof. Parren’s figures having the slightest resemblance to the dentine or 
kosmine layer of Pteraspis. Prof. Parren says——‘“‘ As to its peculiar surface orna- 
mentation, the shield of Pteraspis is exceptional among the Cephalaspide, and need not 
at present be considered.” But it is here where the gist of the matter comes in. The 
crenulated ridges of Pteraspis obviously consist of shagreen-bodies, like those of 
Thelodus, but run together in lines, and the derivation of the family from an Hlasmo- 
branch source is indicated in a way, which superficial resemblances to other groups 
cannot in any way touch. 

To sum up, then, I must consider the Heterostraci to be of Elasmobranch deriva- | 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 857 


tion, and would include under them the following families, in their order of special- 
isation :-—Celolepide, Psammosteide, Drepanaspide, and Pteraspide. 


HETEROSTRACI AND OSTEOSTRACT. 


Although the classification of the Orders Heterostraci (Pteraspids), Osteostraci 
(Cephalaspids), and Antiarcha (Asterolepids), together in one great division or class 
of “ Ostracodermi,” as adopted by Core and SmirH Woopwarb, is, in the present 
state of knowledge, very convenient, and has for that reason been used by myself, 
it has not, however, gained universal assent. Reis protests against the union of the 
Pteraspids and Cephalaspids as “unbegriindet” and “ unheilvoll,” while Prof. 
LanKEsTeER, who thirty years ago treated them in his classical monograph as “ sections” 
of one group,* has emphasised another view of the matter in the short paper in 
Natwral Science to which I have already referred (xv. p. 46), and where he says— 
“There is absolutely no reason for regarding Cephalaspis as allied to Pteraspis beyond 
that the two genera occur in the same rocks, and still less for concluding that either 
has any connection with Pterichthys.” 

I must nevertheless hold that the configuration and structure of the remarkable, 
though imperfectly known genus Ateleaspis does seem to indicate that there is, after 
all, an actual connection between the two groups. So far as the external form of 
Ateleaspis, shown in the specimen represented in Pl. IV. fig. 6, is concerned, the 
resemblance to Thelodus is so striking, that the idea of a genetic connection between 
them is well-nigh unavoidable, and in truth I placed it at first immediately after the 
Coelolepidee in the order Heterostraci, even although certain misgivings were aroused in 
my mind by the crescentic markings (see text fig. 2) which seemed to point to the 
presence of orbits on the top of the head as in Cephalaspis. But when I succeeded in 
obtaining microscopic sections of the scales, and saw that the indications of a Cepha- 
| laspis-like position of the orbits were correlated with the presence of true bone lacune 
| in the dermal hard parts, then I felt compelled to transfer Ateleaspis to the Osteostraci, 
) though with a tolerably strong conviction that we have here an annectent form—in 
’ fact, a “missing link.” Here, however, it must form the type of a very distinct 
family, characterised especially by the want of the pre- and post-orbital openings or 
markings of the Tremataspide and Cephalaspide, the acute lateral cornua of the latter 
| bemg also absent. We do not know if the shield was flexible; at all events its com- 
| position, externally at least, out of a multitude of polygonal tuberculated plates gives 
| itaresemblance to that of Cephalaspis as well as of Psammosteus. For though the 
apparent tessellation of the shield of Cephalaspis may be “‘ deceptive,” inasmuch as the 
tesseree are not actually separate from each other, but take part in the formation of 


* Tt must, however, not be forgotten that Prof. LANKESTER in the concluding page of that monograph (xiv. p. 62), 
| even then stated that “The Heterostraci are associated at present with the Osteostraci because they are'found in the 


same beds, because they have, like Cephalaspis, a large head-shield, and because there is nothing else with which to 
associate them.” 


858 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


one continuous structure in the forms with which we are acquainted, we are, I think, | 
justified in supposing that they were originally distinct pieces. 

If we now turn to the lappet-like expansions behind the head in the Ccelolepide: and | 
Ateleaspidee, which I have interpreted as pectoral fins, we. shall see that they bear a | 
strong resemblance to the flap-like structures in Cephalaspis, which are organically i 
continuous with the head shield, and placed immediately internal to the cornua and | 
behind the head. It will be remembered that these were originally described by | 
LANKESTER as pectoral fins (xiv. p. 41), though Smrra Woopvwarp designates them i 
with a query as opercula (xxxvi. p. 176). If the homology of these parts is accepted, iF 
it follows that if they represent pectoral fins in Thelodus, as such they must also be | 
looked upon in Cephalaspis, and consequently LanKusreR was right in his original | 
interpretation. 

I am therefore meanwhile of opinion, that the association of Heterostraci and Osteo- | | 
straci in one great subclass of Ostracodermi is not a mere delusion founded on the occur- 
rence together, geologically, of their fossil remains, and on the presence in both ofa 
cephalic shield, but is supported by the facts brought forward in this paper. The 
position of the Asterolepidee does not come within the scope of the present observations. 

But unless the Ostracodermi are to be maintained, though it might be only as a| 
“lumber room,” we have no place in the system for the two remarkable genera of fishes, . 
with the consideration of which I may now conclude this report. 


— 


THE ANASPIDA. 


I have placed the genera Birkenia and Lasanius together in one family, because | 
both possess a fusiform body with bluntly rounded head, a bilobate heterocercal tail, | 
and a median row of aculeated scutes on the ventral margin. In neither do we find| 
any jaws, teeth, paired fins, shoulder-girdle, or ossified internal skeleton. . 

Birkenia has the head and body completely covered with scutes. Lasanius, though b 
nearly naked, has a row of median ventral aculeated plates resembling those of Birkenia, | 
and the only other dermal hard parts which it possesses—the parallel rods behind the i 
head—are directed, for the greater part of their extent, downwards and forwards like the H 
elongated lateral scutes of Burkenia. 

So I am inclined to look upon Lasanius as standing much in the same relation 
to Birkenia as the nearly naked Phanerosteon does to the other genera of Paleeoniscide, 
whose bodies are covered with osseous scales. Lasanius seems to have lost its scutes,| 
and is consequently a more specialised form. 

As to Birkenia itself, its heterocercal tail, its small posteriorly situated dorsal fin, 
and its narrow tuberculated body-scutes, do remind us strangely of Cephalaspis, ine 
which genus it must also be noted that the lateral scutes, if not directed actually down- 
wards and forwards like those of the former fish, are at least vertical, and do not pass 
obliquely backwards like the bands of scales on the sides of the ordinary “Ganoids.” 

The under surface of the head of Cephalaspis is as yet imperfectly known, and no 


- | 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 859 


branchial openings have as yet been seen or described in that genus. But if we consider 
e row of eight openings, apparently branchial, which in Birkenia are arranged in an 
ue line on the side, at the junction of head and body (see text figure 3), we are 
k by the very interesting fact that Ronon has already figured two rows, right and 
t, of similar openings on the ventral surface of the Osteostracan genus Tremataspis 
i. p. 70 and xxix. p. 8), though the number of openings here is only six on each 
Now, in Zremataspis the head is broad and depressed, while in Barkenia the 
re, as it is always found lying on its side, must have been more laterally com- 
d, and consequently the position of the branchial openings must have been in 
two genera relatively as in the skate and in the shark. 

For these reasons I have often felt inclined to refer the Birkeniide to the 
ostraci, but there are two serious difficulties in the way of this idea. The first 
absence of the cranial buckler with orbits on the top, which is so prominent a 
ature in all known Osteostraci. The second difficulty is the utter absence of any 
copie proof, as the apparent substance of the scutes of Barkenia, as preserved 
schists of such localities as Birkenhead Burn, shows in sections under the 
cope absolutely no structure whatever, except a very faint fibrillation or 
n. 

But whatever may be the position which increased knowledge may afterwards assign 
» Birkenia and Lasanius, for the present they are best placed in an Order by them- 
for which, I repeat, no place can be found in the system unless we admit it to 
e “ Ostracodermi.” 


CONCLUSION. 


The fossil fishes from the Silurian rocks of the South of Scotland, described in the 
ing pages, constitute eight species, which are all new to science. They may be 
d in five genera, four of which are also new; the remaining one, Thelodus, 
been named by Agassiz in 1831 from detached scales occurring in the Ludlow 
Bed. The following classification of the species has been adopted :—— 


Sub-class—OSTRACODERMI. 
Order— HETEROSTRACTI. 


Family—Celolepide. 


1. Thelodus Scoticus, Traq.,—Ludlow and Downtonian horizons. 

2 PA planus, Traq.,—Ludlow. 

3. Lanarkia horrida, Traq.,—Downtonian. 

4 re spinosa, Traq.,—Downtonian. 

5 spinulosa, Traq.,—Downtonian. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART III. (NO. 32). 6 Q 


860 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


Order—OstTEOSsTRACI. 


Family—Ateleasynde. 


6. Ateleaspis tessellata, Traq.,—Downtonian. 


Order—ANasPIDA. 
Family—Birkenude. 
7. Birkenia elegans, Traq.,—Ludlow and Downtonian. 
8. Lasanius problematicus, Traq.,—Downtonian. 

And whether the views which I have expressed regarding the phylogeny ai 
classification of these and allied forms be adopted or not by subsequent writers, it 
cannot, I think, be denied that these recent discoveries by the Geological Survey have 
opened out a new vista in the field of paleeozoic ichthyology. 
I must conclude by thanking the Director-General of the Geological Survey fom is 
kindness in submitting this very important collection to me for description, and t che 

officers of his staff for the friendly courtesy and readiness with which they afforded 1 
every facility for its examination. 4 


LIST OF WORKS REFERRED TO. 
[The undernoted writings are referred to in the text by small Roman numerals. ] 


1. Acassiz, L.—‘“ Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles.” Neuchatel, 1833-43. 

2. Acassiz, L.—‘“ Monographie des Poissons fossiles du vieux Gres rouge.” Neuchatel and Sol 

1844. 

3. Avru, A, v.—“ Ueber die paleozoischen Gebilde Podoliens und deren Versteinerungen,” Abh. der 

k. k. geolog. Reichsanst, Bd. vii. Heft 1. Wien, 1874. _ 
4, Aura, A. v.—‘‘Ueber die Zusammengehirigkeit der den Fischgattungen Pteraspis, Cyathaspis 

und Scaphaspis zugeschriebenen Schilder,” Be/ty. Palcont. Oesterreich-Ungarns, vol. v., 1886. ee 
5. Cuaypoitr, E. W.—“On the Structure of the American Pteraspidian, Palewaspis (Cleypoleyil 

Remarks on the Family,” Qu. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. xlviii., 1892, pp. 542-561. c 

6. Corn, E. D.—‘“‘Synopsis of the Families of WVierlebaata, ” Americ. Naturalist, vol. xxiii., 1880, p 

849-877. 

7. Corr, E. D.— On the Phylogeny of the Vertebrata,” Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. xxx., 1892 
278-281. : 

8. Dean, B.—‘‘ Fishes, Living and Fossil.” New York, 1895. » 

9. GUricu, G.—‘ Ueber Placodermen und andere devonische Fischreste im Breslauer cae ogis 

Museum,” Zeitschr. der deutschen geol. Gesellschaft, vol. xliii., 1891, pp. 902-913. “a ; 

10. Howzs, G. B.—‘‘On the Affinities, Inter-relationships, and Systematic Position of ne -Marsipo- | 
branchii,” Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool, vol. vi. pp. 122-147. “7 ; 

11. Huxuey, T. H.—“On the nature of the Craniofacial apparatus of Petromyzon,” Tourn. Anat. and 

Phys., vol. x., 1876, pp. 412-429. | 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 861 


12. Hunrer-Suikirk, J. R. 8.—‘ Three Months’ Tent Life among the Silurian Hills of Logan Water, 
Lesmahagow,” Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vii. pt. 2, 1885, pp. 272-278. 

13, JamKen, O.— Referat iiber E. W. Claypole: On the structure of the American Pteraspidian,” &c. 
s Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1894, Bd. ii. pp. 466-7. 

14, Lanxesrer, HE. Ray.—“ Fossil Cephalaspide of Great Britain,” Paleontographical Society, 1868 and 


“1. Lanxester, E. Ray.—“ On Holaspis sericeus and on the Relationship of the Fish-genera Pteraspis, 
haspis, and Scaphaspis,” Geol. Mag., vol. x., 1873, pp. 241-245. 

. Lanxester, KE. Ray.—‘ The Taxonomic Paeitioa of the Pteraspide, Cephalaspide and Aaa 
al Science, vol. xi., 1897, pp. 45-47. (Answered by Mr Smith Woodward, 7b., p. 144.) 

17. M‘Coy, F. On the supposed fish remains figured on Plate 4 of the ‘ Silurian System,’” Qu. SOA, 
foc., ix., 1853, pp. 12-15. 

. M‘Coy, F.—“ A Systematic Description of the British Paleozoic Fossils in the Geological Museum 
University of Cambridge.” London, 1851-55. 

. Murcuison, R. I.—“ The Silurian System,” vol. i. London, 1839. Contains descriptions of fish 
s, with figures, by L. Agassiz. 

). Murcuison, R. I.—‘“Siluria.” London, 1854. 

. Panprr, C. H.—‘‘ Monographie der fossilen Fische des silurischen Systems des russisch-baltischen 
rnements.” St Petersburg, 1856. 

Panper, C. H.—‘“‘ Ueber die Placodermen des devonischen Systems.” St Petersburg, 1857. 
Parren, W.—“ On Structures resembling dermal Bones in Limulus,” Anat. Anzeiger., Bd. ix. 
fo. 14, 1894, pp. 429-438. 

. Powris, J.—“ On the Earliest known Vestiges of Vertebrate Life; being a Description of the 
Remains of the Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire,” Yvans. Geol. Soc. Kdin., vol. 1., 1870, pp. 


. Res, O. M.—‘“ Zur Kenntniss des Skelets der Acanthodinen,” Geognostische Jahreshefte, vi., 1893. 

. Reis, O. M.—“ Ueber Acanthodes Bronni, Agassiz,” Morphologische Arbeiten herausgegeben von, 
ibe, vi 

Ronon, J. V.—‘‘ Die obersilurischen Fische von Oesel. I. Theil. Thyestide und Tremataspide,” 
ad. des Sciences St. Petersbourg (7), vol. xxxviii, No. 13, 1892, 

8. Ronon, J. V.—‘‘ Die obersilurischen Fische von Oesel. II. Theil. Selachii, Dipnoi, Ganoidei, 
lz und Cephalaspide,” Mem. Acad. des Sciences de St Petersbourg, vol. xli. No. 5, 1893. 

Ronon, J. V.-—“ Beitriige zur Classification der Paleozoischen Fische,” Sitzwngsb. Kon. bohm. 
ch. der Wissenschaften, Math. Naturw. Classe, 1896. 

. Scuuiiter, C. A. T.—‘ Ueber Panzerfische aus dem rheinisch-westfalischen Devon,” Sitzwngsb. 
| Gesellsch., Bonn, 1887, pp. 120-128. 

Scumipt, F.—“ Ueber die Pteraspiden tiberhaupt und iiber Pteraspis Kneri aus den obersilurischen. 
en Galiziens insbesondere,” Verh. der Kais. russischen mineralog. Gesellsch. zu St Petersburg (2), viii., 


Traquair, R. H.—‘“‘ Notes on Carboniferous Selachii,” Geol. Mag. (3), vol. v., 1888, pp. 81, 86. 
Traquair, R, H.—“ On the Structure of Coccosteus decipiens, Ag.,” Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), vol. 
p. 125-136. 

Traquair, R. H.—“ The Fossil Vertebrata of the Moray Firth Area.” In Harvie-Brown and 
S Vertebrate Fauna of the Moray Basin. Edinburgh, 1896. 

‘Traguatr, R. H.—‘“ Additional Notes on the Fossil Fishes of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of the 
Firth Area,” Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb., vol. xiii., 1897, pp. 376-385. 

6. Traquair, R. H.—“ On Thelodus Pagei (Powrie) from the Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire,” 
j. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxxix., 1899, pp. 595-602. 


i, Ag.,” Zeitschr. der deutschen geol, Gesellschaft, 1889, pp. 35-48. 
Woopwarp, A. Smita. Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes in the British Museum,” Part IL, 1891. 
‘Woopwarp, A. Smita.—‘ The Problem of the Primeval Sharks,” Natura! Science, vol. vi, 1895, 


862 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES COLLECTED BY THE 


40. Woopwarp, A. Smira.— Edward Drinker Cope” (obituary notice). Natural Science, vol. x., 1897, 
pp. 377-381. 
41. Woopwarp, A. Smira.—‘ Outlines of Vertebrate Paleontology.” Cambridge, 1898. 
42. Zirre, C. v.—‘ Handbuch der Palewontologie.” Division I., vol. iii. pt.'1. Munich and Leipzig, 1887. 
43, Zrrren, C, v.—“ Grundziige der Palzeontologie (Paleozoologie).” Munich and Leipzig, 1895. 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 


Puate I. 
Thelodus Scoticus, Traq. 


Fig. 1. A specimen from the “ Ceratiocaris Band,” Logan Water. Natural size. The head is imper-— 
fect, but the sculpture and arrangement of the scales is exceedingly well shown in places. ¢ 
Fig. 2. Another specimen from the same horizon and locality. Natural size. The contour in front is 
somewhat obscured by distortion. = 
Fig. 3. A specimen from the Downtonian horizon at Seggholm, showing the shape of the body 
unusually well. Natural size. 


Fig. 4. Another specimen from a similar horizon at Monk’s Burn. 

Fig. 5. Upper surface of an isolated head-scale from Logan Water, magnified twenty diameters. 

Fig. 6. The same scale, from below. 

Fig. 7. The same scale, from the side. 

Fig. 8. Upper surface of a scale from behind the head, also from Logan Water, magnified twen 
diameters. 


Fig. 9. A similar scale seen from the side, magnified twenty diameters. 
Fig. 10. Arrangement of the posterior scales, from the specimen represented in fig. 1. 
enlargement as in figs. 8 and 9. 


Puate II. 


Thelodus planus, Traq. 


Fig. 1. Entire specimen, natural size, from the ‘ Ceratiocaris Band,” Logan Water. 
Fig. 2. Scales from the front ; outer surface, magnified eight diameters. 
Fig. 3. Scales from the caudal region, outer surface ; same enlargement. 


Puate IIT. 


_Lanarkia horrida, Traq. 


Fig. 1. Specimen, showing the head region well, but imperfect posteriorly. Downtonian, Birkenl 
Burn. Enlarged by one half, 
Fig. 2, Another specimen from the same horizon and locality, showing a nearly perfect caudal } 
extremity. Also enlarged one half. 
Figs. 3-4. Isolated dermal spines, magnified twelve diameters. 
Fig. 5. Natural cast of the interior of a spine, seen from above, apex broken off ; same enlargemen 
Fig. 6. A group of similar spines ; same enlargement. . 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN SILURIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH OF SCOTLAND. 863 


5 . . La bs 
Lanarkia spinosa, Traq. 


Fig. 7. Entire specimen, somewhat distorted on right side; natural size. Downtonian, Seggholm. 

Fig. 8. Another entire specimen from the same horizon and locality ; natural size. 

Fig. 9. Portion of integument from a specimen from Birkenhead Burn, magnified, showing the larger 
mal spines intermixed with those of minute size ; magnified nine diameters. 

Figs. 10-12. Three of the larger dermal spines also from a Birkenhead Burn specimen, magnified twelve 


Puate LY. 


Lanarkia spinosa, 'Traq. 


Fig. 1. A small specimen from Seggholm, in which the larger spines are very strongly marked. 
ged one half. 
tig. 2, Portion of integument of the same specimen, magnified four diameters. 


Lanarkia spinulosa, Traq. 


Z ig. 3. Imperfect specimen from the Downtonian horizon, Birkenhead Burn ; natural size. 
Fig. 4. Spiny integument of the same specimen, magnified six diameters. 
Fig. 5. Isolated dermal spine from another specimen, magnified twenty diameters. 


a Ateleaspis tessellata, Traq. 
L) 


Fig. 6. Specimen from pee Downtonian horizon, Seggholm, fairly complete in front, but obliquely cut 
nd. 
Fig. 7. Portion of the body of another specimen ; natural size. 
F ‘ig. 8. Upper lobe of the caudal fin of another specimen ; natural size. 
. 9. Tesserze of the surface of the head, seen in impression on the counterpart of the specimen 


. 10. A squeeze in modelling wax taken from a similar part, also magnified five times. 

Fig. 11. Scales from behind the head of the specimen shown in fig. 6 as seen in a squeeze in modelling 
en from the counterpart, magnified three diameters. 

Fig. 12. Scales from specimen shown in fig. 7, magnified two diameters. 

All these specimens of Ateleaspis are from the Downtonian Beds of Seggholm, 


PuatTe V. 


Birkenia elegans, Traq. 


1, Entire specimen from Birkenhead Burn (Downtonian), enlarged one half. 
g. 2. Another specimen from the same locality, having the body shortened up, enlarged one half. 
3. Head of another specimen from the same locality, enlarged one half. 


g. 4, Impression of a detached scute of the median ventral series, magnified four diameters. From 
ae Pentland Hills. 


Lasanius problematicus, Traq. 


B.A specimen from Birkenhead Burn, showing the fish as it usually occurs—the ventral scutes 
e gridiron-like arrangement of rods being in position with regard to each other, Enlarged by one 


vou. XXXIX. PART III. (NO, 32). me 


864 DR RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR ON FOSSIL FISHES. 


Fig. 6. A specimen from Seggholm, in which the form of the head as well as of the caudal fin is show1 
by a carbonaceous film. The lower lobe of the caudal is slightly distorted ; the body is bent nea dowkil le 
Magnified two diameters. 

Fig. 7. Gridiron-like arrangement of parallel rods of both sides, vertically compressed and spread out, 
and showing how those of opposite sides meet together in the dorsal middle line. The left set of rods is 
crossed by the anterior part of the series of ventral scutes (v). From Birkenhead Burn, and magnified tw 
diameters. -- 
Fig. 8. Left series of parallel rods in a specimen from Seggholm ; enlarged by one half, The peculia 
chain of ossicles or rodlets is well seen in front of the anterior rod. q 

Fig. 9. The three uppermost rodlets in a specimen from Seggholm ; magnified two diameters. 

Fig. 10. Outline of a usual form of the ventral scutes, seen from the side. Birkenhead Burn ; magnified 
four diameters. 

Fig. 11. Another form, in which the elevation is less. Seggholm; magnified four diameters. 


Lasanius armatus, Traq. 3 


Fig. 12. The more perfect of the two specimens known, showing in a carbonaceous film the blunt for 
of the head, and posteriorly the heterocercal caudal fin with its rays distinctly ae: Seggholn 
magnified three diameters. - 

Fig. 13. Outlines of two of the ventral scutes of the other specimen, magnified nk diameters. 


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ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV.—FOR THE SESSION 1898-99. 


CONTENTS. 

Pace 
TL. The Trap Dykes of the Orkneys. By Joun 8. Furrr, M.A., B.Sc. (With Three 
Plates), . ; , ; ‘ 5 : ; , 52 O60: 

(Issued separately, 11th January 1900.) 


. On the Structure and Affinities of a Lepidodendroid Stem from the Calciferous Sand- 

stone of Dalmeny, Scotland, possibly identical with Lepidophloios Harcourtti 

(Witham). By A. C. Szwarp, M.A., F.R.S., University Lecturer in Botany, and 

A. W. Hitt, B.A., University Dec omit in Botany, pan ae (With Four 

Plates), . ‘ ; wo OF 
Alebued Reonae 6th July 1900.) 


IL OF THE SOCIETY, . 937 
AL List or Orpinary FEuuows, =. 989 
onoraRY FrLnows at Novemper 1899, 955 
INARY FELLows Exzcrep purtNG SEssion 1896- 97, 957 
ONORARY Fretitows Exvecrep purine Ssssion 1896-97, 957 
JECEASED, RESIGNED, OR CANCELLED, 1896-97, , ; : 3 egos 
RDINARY FeLtows Exxcrep purine Session 1897-98, 7 : : Bsa) 
ECEASED, 1897-98, . ; : , ‘ 2 960 
pINARY Fr~iows ELEcTED DURING Seqtae 1898-99, 4 ; : 5 EXD 
Dsceasep on ReEsicNED, 1898-99, .. ; : : s E \- 962 
Society, - : P ; ; : 2 : > 963 
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y oF THE KeitH, Maxpoucatt-BrisBanz, NEILL, AND Gunning VicroRIA JUBILEE 
FRoM 1827 To 1898, : : ; , : ; Bian 29) 3 
OF THE StaTuTORY GENERAL iieainwaa : Q ; ; = 2909 
c InsTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS ENTITLED TO RECEIVE Geers OF THE TRANS- 
AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE Roya Society, F : : ; Sa oleig 
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XXXMI—The Trap Dykes of the Orkneys.—By Joun S. Fuett, M.A., B.Sc. 
a (With Three Plates.) 


(Read June 19, 1899.) 


Previous AccoUNTS OF THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 


The existence of a series of trap dykes cutting the Old Red Sandstone strata of the 
rkneys has been noted by most of the geologists who have examined the islands. In 
scription of the Mainland or Pomona, Professor JaAmEson states (I., p. 233, vol i.) 
t “at Yesknaby is the only basaltic rock which I observed in the whole island. 
t forms veins which traverse the common argillaceous sandstone. The crystals of 
nblende, which are contained in it, are larger than usual in such rocks, being more 
an inch long and half an inch broad. I sometimes observed small cavities filled 
1 bitumen.” Sir ARcHIBALD GEIKIE, in his account of the Old Red Sandstone of 
y, remarks (II., p. 408): ‘‘ Here and there a few basalt dykes—far outlying 
ns, no doubt, of the great Tertiary series of the West of Scotland—cut through 
agstones with a prevalent direction towards west or north-west.” Messrs PEacu 
ORNE, in their paper on The Old Red Sandstone of Orkney (III., p. 14), describe 
in the following terms: “Several dykes of basalt were observed among the 
s. They are most numerous and conspicuous on the west coast of the Mainland 
Breckness to Skaill, but as they have been so often described, it is unnecessary to 
rv to them in detail. They have the same lithological characters, and behave in 
ly the same manner as the dykes in other parts of Scotland, which have been 
ded as the product of volcanic energy in Miocene times. A noticeable feature 
the Orcadian representatives is, that they are usually divided up the centre of 
the dyke by a line of vesicles. This is not an uncommon feature elsewhere.” In the 
er on the Geology of Orkney in Tupor’s The Orkneys and Shetland, by the same 
rs, the dykes are referred to in similar terms (IV., p. 191). A somewhat more 
fe examination of these dykes was made by Professor M. Foster Heppie. He 
the presence of augite, olivine, and hornblende in certain dykes near Skaill 
. 118), and gives a map of the dyke which cuts the west end of the granite outcrop 
t Inganess (V., pl. viii.). He figures also a crystal of augite of simple form which he 
found in a dyke on Scabra Head, Rousay (V., p. 128). 

The present account is based on investigations made in the field in the summer 
ions of 1897 and 1898. The microscopic and chemical work was done in the 
geological laboratory of the University of Edinburgh. The result has been to show 
‘VOL. XXXIX. PART Iv. (NO. 33). 6s 


866 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


that these dykes belong to the bostonites, camptonites, monchiquites, and alndites, and 
that we have in Orkney a very interesting and remarkable series of this peculiar group 
of rocks. 


I. THe GEoLocicaL FEaturES oF THE Trap Dyxkgs. 


Their Number and Distribution.—The number of dykes from which specimens have 
been collected and examined during this investigation cannot be less'than a hundred, 
and this might be considerably increased were we to regard as separate dykes what are 
really the branches and offshoots of one. Where two dykes are seen close together and 
running in parallel courses, it is not always possible to say definitely whether they are 
distinct, or would unite to form one, could they be traced for some distance. And there © 
can be no doubt whatever that this is merely a fraction of the total number in the 
district. Far the most satisfactory exposures are those to be obtained by following a 
bare and rocky shore which runs in a direction at right angles to their trend, such as, 
for example, the west coast of the Mainland. Where the beach is low and covered 
with gravel, a dyke may easily escape notice, or be quite concealed, even though the 
occurrence of trap in loose blocks may indicate its presence. And, in the inland districts, 
it can only be a very small minority which meets the eye of the geologist. They are to 
be found in quarries, in burns, on the shores of inland lochs, and very occasionally 
they can be traced in a roadside or on the bare slopes of a hill. But in the cultivated 
fields, or the low moors covered by peat or boulder clay, any number of dykes might 
be so effectively concealed as to yield no evidence of their existence. 

The rocks of which they consist are, as a rule, too soft and too readily decomposed 
to enable them to form outstanding wall-like outcrops. Such, however, do occasionally 
occur, as at Netherton (near Stromness), Crowness (near Kirkwall), and in the north of 
Birsay. They are usually denuded to the level of the surrounding flags, or lie even in 
trenches formed by their rapid decay. It is very rare to find that any noticeable 
feature of the scenery can be attributed to their presence. On the lofty cliffs of the 
west coast they sometimes, by reason of their perfect jointing, give rise to a narrow 
“geo” with parallel sides. On Rowe Head, near Skaill, the flagstone between two 
parallel dykes has been tunnelled out by the sea, forming a natural arch, the Hole of 
Rowe, the sides of which are lined in part by the trap dykes. Occasionally a dyke is 
so resistant as to form the face of an exposed cliff, as, for example, at Skaill in Rousay. 
In the inland streams their presence is commonly marked by small waterfalls, but at 
Corrigal, in Harray, the burn flows in a deep, narrow trough, out of which a trap dyke 
has been washed. The burn has evidently been turned out of its preglacial valley by 
a dam of boulder clay, and has followed the outcrop of the trap dyke in cutting its 
new course. 

Sufficient is known, however, to prove that their distribution is far from uniform, 
and that from some districts they are entirely, or almost entirely, absent; while im 
others they are so numerous that several may occur in a distance of a few hundred 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 867 


yards. Without doubt it is in the West Mainland that they principally occur. In the 
splendid coast section which stretches from Breckness, near Stromness, to the Brough 
of Birsay, there is not a mile in which one cannot be found, and in several places there 
are three, four, or six toa mile. On the east coast of the West Mainland also, in Evie, 
Rendall, and Firth, although here the shores are low and gravelly, dykes are known to 
be present in considerable numbers. From the East Mainland, on the other hand, 
specimens of only two have been collected. The town of Kirkwall seems to stand on 
the boundary-line between the region of dykes and that from which dykes are almost 
absent. Five dykes were observed immediately to the west of the town, while none 
was seen for ten miles to the east of it. 

Of the North Isles, Rousay is the only one which has yielded trap dykes; along the 
western and southern shore they are very freyuent, and bear a great resemblance to 
those of the West Mainland. From the other islands they are not yet recorded, and 
although I have examined the whole shore of the principal islands, I failed to obtain 
any, so that they at least cannot be numerous. Of the South Isles J cannot speak with 
the same certainty, but in South Ronaldshay several are known which present interesting 
features of their own. While there cannot be any doubt that in the future many 
additions will be made to the numbers recorded, yet it is probable that the main facts 
of their distribution are already established. 

Moreover, it is frequently to be observed that they tend to occur in groups, the 
members of which are at no great distance from one another, and show a close resem- 
blance in petrological character. One such group, for example, includes those of South 
Ronaldshay. The dykes of Rousay, Birsay, and Evie form a well-marked class, closely 
similar to one another. Those also which are exposed in the coast section just north of 
the Black Craig on the west coast of the Mainland have certain common features, which 
at the same time are fairly distinctive. In the little bay at Binniaro, Firth, eight dykes 
oceur, which in some points are quite unlike any other Orkney dykes. Instances might 
be multiplied, but sufficient has been adduced to show that a tendency exists for similar 
dykes to be grouped within a short distance of one another. It seems quite certain 
that this is not due to the branching and subdivision of one main dyke, though that is 
admittedly of common occurrence. In that case the distance which separates the 
branch dykes is never great, and they are inconstant, frequently uniting within a short 
distance only to diverge again, so that their true nature is quite obvious. It seems 
rather that the dykes of one group were all of the same, or about the same age, while 
those of other groups were injected at a different period. The common magma from 
which they all proceeded was one which from time to time underwent considerable 
change, and the fact that each group has common petrographical characters which differ 
from those of other groups would indicate that each series was the product of a separate 
phase in the cycle of change through which the magma passed. As will be seen 
later, there is evidence of another kind that certain of these dykes are of later origin 
than others. 


868 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


This rule, however, is not without exceptions. Near the Bridge of Waithe two 
dykes occur—one a bostonite, the most acid of the whole series; the other a biotite- 
monchiquite or alnéite, one of the most basic. At Rennibuster, on the road from 
Kirkwall to Stromness, camptonite dykes, rich in felspar, are associated with monchi- 
quites, from which felspar is absent. In these cases, however, the trend is different, 
and the association is merely fortuitous. 

Breadth, Jointing, Contact Metamorphism, etc.—The breadth of the dykes 
may be stated to be on an average 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches. Dykes under 
a foot are rare, except as lateral veins proceeding from a larger mass. On the 
other hand, one of 7 feet may be considered large. The dyke of Borwick, near 
Yeskenaby, is 9 feet; at Avalshay, Rousay, there is one of 10 feet, and the 
broadest of all is one near the Spoord, on the west coast of Birsay, which 
measures 12 feet from side to side. As usual in dykes, a series of transverse joints 
divides the mass into horizontal angular prisms, and the jointing is commonly finer 
and closer at the sides than in the centre. This is very well seen where the side of 
the dyke is exposed on the face of a sea cliff. In the thicker dykes the jointing is 
apt to be rude. Very often they weather in a spheroidal manner, exactly resembling 
the diabases. This, as a whole, is most characteristic of the rather basic camptonites, 
but it is far from universal. The general presence of fine-grained, chilled edges proves 
that the flagstones at the time of injection were comparatively cold. Some of the 
dykes, as will be later described, are remarkably coarsely porphyritic ; but this is con- 
fined to the centre, the edges being fine grained, and, under the microscope, showing 
traces of residual glassy material, even though they never have a vitreous appearance 
to the naked eye. As remarked by Pracu and Horns (III, p. 14), the dykes are often 
vesicular, and the vesicles, which are filled with white calcite, tend to be central in 
position. The flags adjacent to the dyke show usually a contact alteration, which 
rarely extends to more than a few inches, and amounts only to induration with the 
development of a closer texture and a splintery fracture. They frequently break 
down under the hammer into small sharp-edged cubical fragments. Jameson (anted) 
noted that where the flags contain much organic matter, bitumen may appear in the 
vesicles. 

Regularity of the Trend, Branching, etc.—In most cases the exposures are very 
limited, and it is always to be observed that a dyke follows one of the two series of 
usually very perfect joints by which the flags are cut. These must have been ante- 
cedent to the dykes, and furnished lines of weakness along which the flagstones opened 
out. Wherever a dyke can be followed for more than a few yards, its course is found 
to be not absolutely straight. It passes frequently from one joint to another by means 
of a cross joint, then resumes its previous direction. This feature is so common that 
instances need hardly be cited, but it is well seen in a dyke at the Brough of Birsay, 
which runs parallel to the shore line, and can be traced in the rocky beach for about 
400 yards, during which space it maintains its general direction with frequent tem- 


| 


| 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 869 


porary deviations. Instances of curvature are rare; one was observed by Professor 
Hepp iz on the west coast, south of Skaill (at Borwick). ‘ Froma W. by N. it suddenly 
eurves round to a W.S.W., and as suddenly regains its original direction, exhibiting 
thus a bold sigmoid feature” (V., p. 119). On Rowe Head, Skaill, there is a dyke well 
exposed on the bare cliff top for about 200 yards. About 100 yards back from the 
face of the cliff it forks into two branches—one of which maintains the original trend 
of the dyke—a little S. of W.; the other curves away and takes a nearly S.W. course. 
These are the only instances of curvature which have come under my notice. 

It is very common, on the other hand, to find a dyke branching into two or 
more which run in parallel courses a few feet apart, and may unite again in a short 
space to form a single dyke. A fine example of this is to be seen below Widewall, 
South Ronaldshay. A large dyke, seven feet broad, is exposed in the beach at the 
mouth of the mill stream. It runs nearly parallel to the bank which overlooks the shore. 
A few yards further south it is found to be much diminished in breadth, while lateral 
dykes accompany it on each side. For about 400 yards it can be followed, and its 
general direction is well maintained, though it frequently passes laterally for a few feet, 
then resumes its former course. Sometimes there are three, at other times four or even 
more parallel dykes, but it is to be noted that the sum of their respective breadths is 
always equal to that of the original dyke where first seen ; and under the microscope 
they are all very similar in character. At the Oyce, Finstown, a dyke penetrates a bed 
of contorted slickensided flagstones, in which the jointing is disturbed and irregular, 
and in consequence it breaks up into a plexus of ramifying veins, The flag between 
them is markedly indurated. On the west coast of Birsay, north of Skaill Bay, there 
are several dykes, which, traced along their courses, are found to die out with a wedge- 
shaped termination. In a parallel joint a few feet away a new dyke appears, beginning 
in the same manner as the other ends, and increasing step by step as it diminishes. No 
connecting vein can be seen. ‘There is no doubt that in these cases the dyke has passed 
laterally along a bedding plane, and indeed this is a common feature of the exposures 
seen in vertical cliffs. 

In the course of my examination of the Orkney dykes, two points have impressed 
me as particularly clear. One is that in every case they availed themselves of the 


highly perfect joints by which the flags were intersected. It is very rare to find any 


brecciation, and, except where the dykes branch, fragments of flagstone are never found 
included in the intrusive rock. The other is that in no case has a dyke been seen to 
pass laterally into a sheet or sill. This may be due to the ease with which the sedi- 
mentary masses opened along the joint planes, or possibly also to the pressure exerted 
by a great thickness of superjacent rock, which has been swept away by denudation 
since the time of injection. 

The Trend of the Dykes.—Observations were made by means of a pocket compass of 
the direction in which every dyke was running so far as exposed, or, in case of branching 
or deviation, of the average course as near as could be judged; and although it is not 


870 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


pretended that high accuracy was attained, sufficient care was taken to establish the 
following conclusion. 

Of the camptonites, which form almost 90 per cent. of the whole, the average trend 
is E, 25° N., and rarely do they differ from this by more than 10°. Their regularity in 
this respect will be best seen from the tables appended. It has not proved possible to 
break them up into groups, each with a characteristic direction. Their extreme range 
is from E. 5° N. to EH. 35° N., and two dykes within a hundred yards of one another 
may differ by as much as 10°. If we neglect one or two instances in which the outcrop 
is too limited to justify positive observations, or where in all probability it is a cross | 
vein and not the main dyke that is exposed. to view, their uniformity in this respect is 
so marked as to indicate with certainty that they are very closely allied in age and 
origin. The single dyke of bostonite is distinguished by having the most easterly trend 
of the whole series (east and west). On the other hand, the most basic dykes, the 
biotite-monchiquites and alnéites, have a very distinct northerly trend—the dykes at 
Quanterness N, 20° E., at the burn of Ireland N. 5° W., at Naversdale N. 20° W., the 
average being almost a direct north and south. Finally, the monchiquites proper seem 
to be connected with the camptonite series, with which they agree closely in direction, 
having perhaps a slightly more northerly direction. 

Sequence of the Different Types.—The main road from Kirkwall to Stromness, four 
miles from the former town, crosses the mouths of two little burns which are flowing 
into the Bay of Firth. The streams are about 100 yards apart, and the road runs here 
along the sea shore; a little cottage stands just above the beach between the streams, 
and nearer the east one. In the west burn, just beside the bridge which carries the 
road across it, a large trap dyke is seen 6 feet 6 inches broad, which stands up boldly 
and forms a little waterfall. It is running east 20° north, or almost parallel with the 
Stromness road, and is a notable dyke, as the centre is coarsely porphyritic, with large 
hornblende crystals up to an inch in length; the edges are fine grained. It disappears 
in the grassy bank of the stream, but if we pass eastward, cross the road, and examine 
the sea beach below it, we find, a little further east, that two dykes appear in the beach 
with the same course as the burn dyke, and respectively 4 feet and 2 feet 6 inches in 
breadth. In character they exactly resemble the larger dyke in the burn, except that 
they are not so coarsely porphyritic, and their united breadths are equal to that of the 
burn dyke. It is clear that the burn dyke has swung northwards along a cross joint, 
hidden by soil and road, and after crossing the road has resumed its previous direction, 
but now as two dykes running a few feet apart. These two shore dykes can be 
traced in the gravelly beach till they disappear beneath the cottage. Here they must 
still further split up, for in the east burn, after passing the cottage, we see only a thin 
dyke with the characteristic trend, but not over a foot in breadth. The other branches 
are covered by gravel or boulder clay, and are not to be found. We have here, in 
fact, a case exactly similar to that already described from Widewall, South Ronaldshay, 
a single, rather large dyke, with the usual direction, which repeatedly branches into 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 871 


parallel dykes of smaller-breadth, and deviates occasionally from its straight course by 
passing for a short distance along cross joints. The microscope shows that they are all 
yery similar, and belong to a peculiar group of the camptonites, with abundant 
felspar. 

Now, in the beach, below high-water mark, and just north of the cottage which 
stands between the burns, three other dykes are to be seen, 3 feet, 1 foot 6 inches, 
and 2 feet wide, running nearly straight in parallel courses, but in a direction almost 
at right angles to that of the camptonite dyke described (N. 20° E.). They are 6 feet 
and 30 feet apart, but they are to be regarded as really one dyke, and belong to a very 
basic type, the biotite-monchiquites or alndites, and contain no felspar. They are 
exposed for 40 or 50 yards, and, as we trace them southwards towards the little cottage, 
the east dyke thins, and finally dies out in a small vein; the middle dyke twists a good 
deal in its course, and approximates gradually to the west dyke, which is the most 
constant of the three. The west and mid dykes are finally covered by the gravel of 
the shore just behind the cottage. In the manner in which the east dyke dies out in 
a thin vein, while the other dykes twist from side to side and send veinlets into the 
chinks of the flags between them, which behind the house are filled with little 
ramifying jets of trap, we have something so different from the usual straightforward 
behaviour of the trap dykes as to prove that some peculiar obstruction lay in their 
course. This must have been the camptonite dyke which runs beneath the cottage, 
and which would necessarily bind the flagstones together and render irregular the series 
of cracks into which the later dykes were injected. The actual junction is covered by 
gravel and by the cottage, but there can be no doubt that we have here dykes of two 
different series, running each with the characteristic trend of its group, and crossing 
one another, and that the more basic were later in origin. 

From no other locality has evidence been obtained which would elucidate the 
question of the succession in time of the different types. From the way in which the 
monchiquites are interspersed among camptonite dykes, agreeing with them in trend 
and in other characters, it seems, on the whole, most probable that they are of closely 
allied origin and of very similar date. Like the alndites, the bostonites have a dis- 
tinetive course, which would point to their having had a separate period of injection, 
but nothing is to hand to show whether earlier or later than the others. 

The Age of the Dykes.—It has been generally assumed that the trap dykes of the 
Orkneys are outlying members of the great Tertiary series so well developed in many 
parts of Scotland. That they are not basaltic does not disprove this, as, in the opinion 
ot Brocerr (VI., p. 26) and others, the camptonites may be products of a basaltic 
magma. On the other hand, there is no conclusive evidence to establish this opinion. 
They cut the highest rocks of the Orcadian Old Red Sandstone in the district, the red 
sandstones of the John o’ Groats series, near Newark Bay in Deerness. They are not 
yet proved to be later than the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Hoy; they are not 
confined to the Orkneys, as, in a collection of rock sections from Shetland, kindly lent 


872 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


me by Mr Horne, of H.M. Geological Survey of Scotland, there is one of a much 
decomposed camptonite dyke from Brenista Bay. Their great freshness, in many 
cases, would point to a comparatively recent origin, for the igneous rocks of Old Red 
age are in every case much more decomposed (VII., p. 412). But, till we know more 
of the distribution of these rocks in the north-east of Scotland, it will not be possible to 
arrive at any definite conclusion as to the geological period in which they were formed. 

That they are later than certain of the faults by which the flagstones are intersected 
has been shown by observations in two different localities. In the cliffs on the east 
coast of Holm there is a narrow inlet, the “ Long Geo,” where the sea has eaten its | 
way inwards along the line of a fault. The “geo” runs east and west, and crossing it 
obliquely, there is a small trap dyke, which is not brecciated or broken by the fault, 
but, on the other hand, can be seen to twist out of its true course, and to split into 
two branches, where it cuts the crushed fault rock. On the west shore of the Wart 
Holm of Copinshay there is a beautiful monchiquite dyke, one side of which has been 
exposed by the sea, and forms the surface of the cliff for a short distance. It differs 
from all the other dykes in being not vertical, but inclined at an angle of 60° (to the 
vertical plane). Along the shore there runs a fault, as is shown by a crushed and 
slickensided belt of flagstones, and this has proved a line of least resistance, which has 
been taken advantage of by the dyke. Although all the flags are much disturbed and 
twisted, the dyke shows no deformation whatever, and is undoubtedly of later origin 
than the fault. 


IJ. PerroGRAPHICAL CHARACTERS. 
1. The Bostonites. 


The only dyke of bostonite known to occur within the area was found on Onston 
Ness, a small promontory on the Loch of Stennis, just east of the Bridge of Waithe. 
Its width is a little over two feet, and its colour is greenish-grey, and much paler 
than is usual in the camptonites in the centre, but mixed with darker streaks; while 
at the edges, for about two inches, the rock is finer grained and darker in colour. In 
the hand specimen it shows neither porphyritic nor fluxion structure, and contains 
occasional vesicles which are filled with calcite. 

Sections were made of the edges and of both the lighter and darker varieties of the 
centre. In the centre the rock is porphyritic, having large phenocrysts of anorthoclase 
felspar simply twinned on the Carlsbad plan, and with a honeycombed appearance 
indicating the former existence of glass enclosures (PI. I. fig. 2). These lie in a ground- 
mass, rather coarse grained, of felspars mostly simply twinned, and almost isodiametric, 
but without crystalline form. Among them are scattered long irregular sections of 
plagioclase crystals. This groundmass is holocrystalline, and fluxion structure is not 
apparent. Calcite and limonite in irregular patches are scattered about the section. 
There is no trace of quartz or of undecomposed ferro-magnesian minerals. But pale 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS, 873 


green chlorite, mixed with calcite and limonite, is rather abundant, and fills up the inter- 
spaces between the felspars of the groundmass. 

_ Specimens from nearer the margin contain felspar phenocrysts (partly of plagioclase) 
in a groundmass of long lath-shaped felspars, for the most part plagioclase, though 
aply twinned sections are frequent. The structure is trachytic and markedly fluidal 
1. L fig. 1), the felspars of the groundmass having their long axes parallel and 
nding in streams around the phenocrysts. Chlorite, with limonite and calcite, are 
more abundant, but the nature of the original component from which derived is 
not determinable. | 

_ At the extreme margin the rock is finer grained, long narrow crystals, both 
xrthoclase and plagioclase, most of them with forked irregular terminations lying in a 
ndmass still in. some measure glassy, but filled with minute pointed felspar 
microliths arranged in no definite order. 

The difference between this rock and even the most felspathic of the camptonite 
es is so marked as entirely to justify its recognition as the type of a distinct group. 
predominance of felspar and abundance of orthoclase, the paucity of ferro- 
j@nesian ingredients, the pale colour and low specific gravity (2°653), all support this 
w. In some of the sections the resemblance to the bostonites is very close, but in 
rs the abundance of plagioclase and of chlorite show that the rock is of a more basic 
racter than any bostonite with which I have been able to compare it. Needless to 
, the sections show no quartz. The presence of glassy material in the selvage is also 
1 feature not characteristic of bostonite dykes. 


1 2 3. 4 5 

SiO, 52-00 62°28 63°25 67°16 56°50 
TiO. 98 ee eee 0°85 
AO; 18-06 ISL 22°12 14°53 18-14 
Fe,0, 2°18 3°39 5 4-17 3°12 
FeO © 5:14 a56 & ss 2°86 
MnO 25 : BS nae a 
MgO 2°84 tr ie 0-41 1:22 
CaO 4°59 1-44 0°56 1:26 3°38 
Na,O 3°78 5°37 6:29 5°55 528 
K,O 4°68 5°93 5°92 6-10 1:60 
H,0 1:84 2°33 0°93 1:10 1:26 
P50; a3 ne, 5a me ee 
Co, 3-59 ve m ¥ 5-11 

99°93 99°91 99-07 100-28 99-32 

1. Onston Ness, Orkney. 

2. Lake Champlain, U.S.A. (IX. p. 20). 

3. M‘Gill College, Montreal (cited from XIX. p. 211). 

4, Chateaugay Lake, Clinton Co., N.Y., U.S.A. (cited from XIX. p, 211). 

5. Maena, Gran, Christiania (VIII. p. 207). 


‘VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. (NO. 33). 6T 


874 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON | 

Chemical analysis was made of a specimen from about six inches from the margin 
so as to obtain as nearly as possible the average composition. It is given below No. 1, 
and may be compared with the analyses of similar rocks appended. 

It will be seen that with Nos. 2, 3, and 4, which are typical bostonites, the 
affinities of the Onston dyke are by no means close. No. 5 is regarded by Professor — 
BrOGGER as the representative of a distinct group which he names the maenites or | 
lime-bostonites. The characteristics he insists on are the large percentage of lime and 
the preponderance of soda over potash. In the latter respect the Onston dyke is far 
more near the typical analyses 2, 3, and 4, as it shows a slight excess of potash, | 
Otherwise the two analyses agree pretty well; but in the Orkney dyke the high 
percentage of iron, mostly in the ferrous condition, and of magnesia and water, and the 
lower percentage of alumina, indicate a greater abundance of a chloritic mineral. 


The Camptonite Dykes. 


The dykes included in this series may be porphyritic or non-porphyritic, and vary 
in coarseness of grain, having often fine chilled edges and a coarser centre. They 
consist of olivine, augite, brown hornblende, and plagioclase felspar; the commonest 
accessory minerals being magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite, apatite, biotite, and orthoclase, 
Olivine is the commonest porphyritic ingredient; augite and brown hornblende oceur 
less frequently. The groundmass contains hornblende or augite, or most frequently 
both of these, with plagioclase felspar, and sometimes orthoclase. The structure is 
typically panidiomorphic, all the minerals having well-developed crystalline form. The 
fresh rocks are black or very dark green, rarely showing fluxion structure, and usually 
with lighter spots, due to the presence of calcite and “ocelli” of felspar. When 
weathered they are green or rusty brown, and the tendency to spheroidal decomposition — . 
is very marked. : 

The groundmass of the porphyritic dykes resembles in most respects, as regards 
composition and structure, the usual type of non-porphyritic camptonite ; and the 
variety exhibited by the porphyritic minerals gives greater interest to the study of the 
dykes containing them. I shall select for detailed description the most important 
dykes with porphyritic structure before considering the much commoner rocks in which 
this structure is absent. 

The Rennibuster Dykes.—The dyke already mentioned as crossing the west burn at 
Rennibuster, four miles from Kirkwall, is a remarkably fresh and interesting camptonite. 
It is 6 feet 6 inches wide, and at the edges finer grained for a few inches, but 
showing in a compact groundmass crystals of olivine, augite, and hornblende, much 
altered. Towards the centre it becomes coarser grained, and contains large phenocrysts 
of hornblende, augite, and olivine. The hornblendes measure in some cases one inch in 
length, and nearly half an inch in breadth, and are occasionally arranged in a parallel 
manner, so as to indicate fluxion structure. The augite and olivine are not over a 
quarter inch in diameter. The weathered material is dark green, the fresh rock is black. 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 875 


Prismatic jointing is well developed, and the flags for a few inches from the margin are 
slightly baked and hardened. 

Sections from the centre rarely contain the large phenocrysts of hornblende so 
striking in the hand specimen, as. their perfect cleavage renders them exceedingly 


"apt to be shattered in grinding. They do not appear to be idiomorphic, their outlines 


being rounded and irregular. They are not markedly zonal, but have sometimes'a 
slightly darker border. Twinning is common, and the usual hornblende cleavage very 
perfect. The only enclosures observed were calcite, apatite, and magnetite. Extinction 
and pleochroism are the same as in the smaller crystals. That olivine was an original 
ingredient is proved by the presence of pseudomorphs with the outlines of olivine in 
specimens the augite of which is quite undecomposed. The serpentine is often covered 
with a meshwork of magnetite, and mixed with more or less calcite. The augite pheno- 
erysts are the most numerous (Pl. I., fig. 3). They are of rather a pale greenish variety, 
and perfectly idiomorphic, showing in the prism zone the faces 110, 100, 010, and 
terminated apparently by 111 and 101. The prismatic cleavage is highly perfect, and 
there are in addition numerous irregular cracks. ‘The enclosures are apatite, magnetite, 
oliyine (altered into serpentine), calcite, and occasionally a minute patch of hornblende. 
The crystals are sometimes twinned on 100. An extinction angle up to 43° was 
measured. Between crossed nicols there is neither zonal nor hour-glass structure. 


Decomposition begins at the edges and in the strongly marked cracks, and proceeds 


gradually over the mineral, so that in early stages there is a perfectly fresh centre, 
while an outer zone, ‘3 mm. or more in depth, is passing into deep green chlorite. The 


- inerease of volume due to hydration produces a series of fissures perpendicular to the 


surface of the crystal which make this border very evident. Its inner limits are usually 
so sharp as to suggest that it is due to an outer layer of slightly different composition, 
and more liable to alteration than the central mass; and, indeed, where least altered, 
this border appears to have a more brownish colour. In other sections the mineral is 
entirely altered into a pale chlorite mixed with finely divided calcite, and covered with 
a fine dust of magnetite, with anatase orrutile. Hven in these pseudomorphs an outer 
zone is clearly distinguishable from the central part. Magnetite is abundant in large 
tounded masses, and in small sharply angular crystals disseminated through the other 
minerals. Around the larger crystals there is usually a number of smaller grains, 
Yadiately disposed, and mixed with biotite. Pyrite is rather common, and the presence 
of ilmenite is indicated by occasional traces of alteration into leucoxene. Biotite in 
small scales of deep brown colour and very intense pleochroism is frequently adherent 
to the iron oxides, and is found in small quantity scattered’ through the other minerals. 
There are numerous long delicate pointed crystals of apatite. 

_ The groundmass consists of augite, hornblende, and felspar. The augite is similar 
in general character to the porphyritic crystals, but of smaller size, and not quite so 
perfectly idiomorphic’; it is only in small amount, and is commonly decomposed, while 
the hornblende remains quite fresh. . The hornblende forms almost one-half of the 


876 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


groundmass in long, narrow prisms of a rich brown colour. In cross-section it shows 
the usual faces (110, 010), the prism faces being best developed. In longitudinal section 
it is sometimes ten times as long as broad, and the ends are irregular or forked. 
Twinning is common (on 100), and the only enclosures are apatite and magnetite. The 
pleochroism is—g, dark brown; J, pale brown; a, clear yellow—absorption ; c>b>>a,. 
From the measurement of twinned crystals the angle ¢:c¢ is about 10°. In all the 


sections the hornblende is quite undecomposed. The felspar lies between the other | 


ingredients, and being evidently the last to crystallise, shows less perfect crystalline 


form. Much of it is plagioclase, with both albite and pericline twinning, and often | 


zonal. The long, narrow crystals lie scattered in every direction ; around them is often 
a considerable amount of simply twinned orthoclase, never with crystalline outlines, 


and commonest in the areas richest in felspar. The plagioclase it surrounds shows | 


sharp idiomorphism towards the orthoclase, which has been the last mineral to develop. 


According to the extinction of the twin lamelle, the plagioclase is principally a variety _ 


between andesine and labradorite. Both minerals are quite fresh ; they enclose grains 
of magnetite and hornblende and apatite in long needle-like crystals. 

To prove the presence of orthoclase, several grammes of the rock were crushed and 
sifted. The powder selected had an average diameter of ,); inch. This was cast into a 


Thoulet’s solution of specific gravity 2°62. The grains which floated were removed and | 


introduced into a Sollas’s diffusion column. The indicators used were pure adularia and 
cordierite of specific gravity 2°59. None of the particles floated so high as the former, 
and the great majority had a specific gravity of between 2°58 and 2°59. The felspar is 
hence an anorthoclase. When removed, washed, and examined under the microscope, 


they had all the characters of orthoclase felspar. The enclosures were apatite (sp. gr., | 


3°16 to 3:22) and possibly needles of hornblende. 

In structure the rock is panidiomorphic, all the constituents, except orthoclase, 
showing sharp crystalline outlines; it is holocrystalline, no trace of glassy base being 
present. The arrangement of the groundmass is mostly perfectly irregular. Around 
the olivine phenocrysts the later hornblendes are often grouped with their axes parallel 
to the crystal faces, a rough approach to ocellar structure ; and in places there are pale 


spots rich in felspar, which may be 3 or 4 mm. in diameter. The long plagioclases | 
converge towards the centre. Between them is orthoclase and a little hornblende in | 


long radiating prisms; a cavity filled with calcite occupies the centre, and into it the 
sharp points of the surrounding crystals project, showing that it is really of miarolitic 
origin. (See Pl. I. fig. 3.) 

The dykes in the shore and in the east burn are neither so fresh nor so coarse-grained 
as the centre of the large dyke described, but they are practically identical with it in 
composition and in structure. As we approach their edges, all the dykes become finer- 
grained, but retain the panidiomorphic structure. There is no trace of a glassy selvage. 
Olivine and augite are the phenocrysts; hornblende does not seem to have formed in 
the first generation; hornblende and plagioclase form the groundmass; there is little 


¢ 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 877 


evidence of augite. The ferro-magnesian minerals are much altered, the products being 
chlorite, calcite, and rnuch anatase. An occasional cluster of epidote and a few grains 
of sphene are to be found. Magnetite in skeleton networks, ilmenite weathering into 


leucoxene, and pyrite in large cubes are abundant in some of the slides. 


The order of crystallisation appears to have been as follows :—Pyrite, magnetite, 
and ilmenite; apatite ; olivine; augite; biotite and hornblende ; and in the groundmass, 
augite ; hornblende ; plagioclase ; orthoclase. 

The Dyke from Scabra Head, Rousay.—The presence of large phenocrysts, such as 
occur in the Rennibuster dyke, is not exactly a common feature of the Orkney camp- 
tonites ; it occurs in all in about a dozen. These are usually 5 feet or more in breadth, 
but several of the broadest dykes show no porphyritic crystals. On the very summit of 
Scabra Head, Rousay, there is one which resembles in many respects that of Renni- 
buster. It is 6 feet broad, and of several dykes in this region it is the broadest, and 
the only one with porphyritic structure. ‘The edges are fine-grained, but in the central 
part the dyke is not homogeneous, fine-grained bands alternating with others which are 
porphyritic. This is perhaps due to enclosures of blocks of sandstone, a few of which 
are to be seen slightly indurated, and in contact with them the dyke shows a chilled 
edge. Some of the veins which run in the joints of the flags have a compact edge and 
a porphyritic centre, though not over 3 inches in total breadth. 

The minerals of the first generation are pyrite in large crystals, magnetite, and 
apatite ; olivine in small quantity and entirely altered into serpentine ; biotite in scattered 
scales; augite and hornblende (PI. I. fig. 4). The augite is perfectly idiomorphic, and 
this dyke is probably the source of the crystal figured by Heppx, showing the faces 
{110, 100, 010, 111, 101), as I saw similar crystals in the weathered material on the 
surface. It encloses olivine, apatite, magnetite, and pyrite. Most of it has a distinctly 
violet tinge and a slight pleochroism, otherwise it resembles that of Rennibuster. In 
some of the crystals scattered flakes of hornblende occur, and they have all the same 
extinction, though few and far apart, being evidently in parallel growth with the augite 
which surrounds them. There is in many cases a narrow marginal zone of paler colour 
and slightly different extinction from the central area of the crystal. The hornblende 
erystals are smaller, but probably more numerous than at Rennibuster, and are more 
frequently preserved in the sections. Some are almost without cleavage. It is almost 
quite idiomorphic, in crystals not very elongated. Zonal structure is very common ; 
mostly the centre is of a darker colour than the margin, but there may be several zones 
of alternately lighter and darker shade. The various zones have parallel outlines ; it 


encloses apatite, magnetite, pyrite, and sometimes partly envelops an augite. Pleo- 


ehroism and absorption resemble those described for Rennibuster, but the colours are 


more reddish and the absorption more intense, especially in the interior, where § and ¢ 


are sometimes dark greenish-brown, » pale brown. 
The groundmass is similar in structure to that of the Rennibuster dyke as regards 
panidiomorphism and irregular arrangement of the ingredients ; but the white felspathic 


878 MR JOHN 8S. FLETT ON 


spots are few; the grain is finer (the hornblendes averaging ‘03 mm. in breadth); and 
augite, which is not very abundant in the former rock, is practically absent here, even 
where the material is fresh enough to ensure its identification if present. There is 
apparently no orthoclase. This rock is a typical camptonite in the sense in which the 
term is used by some authors. 

The Dyke at Stromness.—Just outside Stromness harbour, on the isthmus which 
connects the Holms with the Mainland at low water, there is a porphyritic camptonite 
dyke which differs from these two in some important respects. The phenocrysts are 
olivine (serpentinised) and augite, very similar to that of Rennibuster. It is of a pale 
violet colour, sometimes rather greenish, and has a narrow marginal zone of a slightly 
darker tint. Flakes of hornblende in parallel growth are scattered through the augite. 
There are no hornblende phenocrysts. Magnetite occurs in rather large areas, fringed 
with biotite scales (PI. I. fig. 5). 

The groundmass contains augite and hornblende in about equal amount, in crystals 
of good crystalline form, and not more than four or five times as long as broad. On the 
surface of the olivine little hornblendes are planted in ocellar fashion. The augite and 
hornblende are often in parallel growth. Augite forms the centre, hornblende the 
periphery, or each may form one side of a crystal, and give its outlines to that part it 
constitutes. Prisms, also, are common, of which the ends are hornblende, while the 
centre is augite. Together they form one-half of the groundmass. ‘The rest is felspar 
in long, narrow prisms, often aggregated to form radiate white spots with a central 
area of calcite. 

North Galton.—Another porphyritic dyke of great interest occurs at North Galton, 
Sandwick (Pl. I. fig. 6). |The phenocrysts are olivine (entirely altered into serpentine, 
magnetite, and calcite) and augite of a brownish-violet tint, like the titaniferous augites 
of many basalts, and with a marked dispersion of the axes. As usual, it is perfectly idio- 
morphie, and encloses flakes of brown hornblende in parallel growth. At the margins the 
groundmass is that typical of the camptonites, consisting of hornblende and augite in 
about equal proportions, the augite brownish-violet, the hornblende reddish-brown. 
Both are frequently twinned, and parallel growths are exceedingly common. Here also 
the augite is internal, central, or lateral; the hornblende external, peripheral, and 
sometimes terminal. The augite was evidently the first of the two minerals to finish 
erystallising. Plagioclase felspar forms the other half of the groundmass in long, narrow 
prisms, while felspathic spots of radiating crystals are numerous. ‘ 

In the centre of the dyke we have quite a different structure (Pl. I, fig 6). The 
groundmass is much coarser; it contains felspar, partly in long, narrow polysynthetic 
crystals, partly in large, broader, simply twinned crystals. It is unusually abundant 
in this rock, and the only other mineral of the second generation is brown hornblende. 
Both minerals are partly idiomorphic, the hornblende much less so than usual. — Around 
the augite phenocrysts lath-shaped plagioclases are arranged parallel to the erystal 
faces, and the interstices between them are filled up by hornblende, which is entirely 


| 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. | 879 


moulded upon felspar. The structure is intersertal. In other parts of the section the 
hornblende has more continuity, and is less penetrated by felspar, but it is everywhere 
less idiomorphic than usual, and obviously later than felspar, around which it is very 
commonly deposited. This is a reversal of the normal sequence in these dykes, and 


indicates a transition to the diabases and proterobases. There is no second generation 


of augite in the slides. It is noteworthy that the usual deposit of hornblende on the 
surface of the phenocrysts does not appear, being replaced by plagioclase felspar. The 


“sequence of crystallisation must have been magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, olivine, biotite, 


augite, with a little hornblende in parallel growth; then plagioclase, and finally 
plagioclase and hornblende. 
The South Ronaldshay Dykes.—In South Ronaldshay occurs a group of dykes, in 
many ways the most remarkable of any of the camptonite dykes of the Orkneys. 
These include that already described as running in the shore at Widewall, and breaking 
up by repeated branching into parallel dykes. The two others are in Hoxa, a few 
hundred yards to the west of the landing-place. These dykes are all comparatively 
broad (5 feet to 7 feet), and carry large crystals of hornblende, augite, and olivine ; 
they are more basic than the general type of the camptonites; some of them, in fact, 
contain so little felspar and so much glassy base as to pass gradually into monchiquites. 
I have retained them, however, in this class, as they form a natural group, closely 
connected, and their general facies is that of camptonites with little felspar. 

They all contain olivine in phenocrysts, usually decomposed, but in sections taken 
from the east dyke of Hoxa, one foot from the edge, it occurs in crystals almost 
quite fresh, and showing serpentine only along the borders and cracks. Augite 


and hornblende are present in crystals up to one-half inch in length in the west 


dyke on Hoxa; in the east dyke and at Widewall they are smaller, but numerous. 
The augite phenocrysts resemble those described in the Stromness and Rennibuster 
dykes in most respects. Like them, they contain flakes of brown hornblende in parallel 
growth, and have commonly a margin of a darker brown. Zonal structure is very 
marked, and some of the crystals contain a nucleus of a bright green colour, which 
seems to have suffered from corrosion, being only partly idiomorphic. This augite is 
shghtly dichroic in shades of yellow, green, and darker green; it has a smaller 
extinction angle than the brownish augite which surrounds it. In one section the 
nucleus extinguished at 31°, the periphery at.44°. The central augite has also a greater 
axial angle, and apparently a weaker dispersion. The hornblende is in large, short, 
Stout crystals, with evident traces of corrosion, and distinctly zona]. A darker margin 
surrounds a paler centre, but there may be five or six zones of varying shades of brown. 
As a rule, these are strictly parallel to one another. In pleochroism and other characters 
they resemble the hornblende in the dyke on Scabra Head (PI. I. fig. 3). 

The majority of the phenocrysts are of a more complicated structure, and consist of 
several zones of different composition succeeding one another in a definite order. In 
the centre of the crystal we may have a rounded remnant of the green augite above 


880 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


described, which is apparently one of the earliest minerals to crystallise out, as it 
occurs only enclosed in brown augite or in hornblende. It encloses glass cavities, with 
an immobile bubble, magnetite in small octahedra, and apatite. Olivine accompanies 
it, apparently formed at the same period. 

The innermost and oldest hornblende is of a deep brown or dark greenish-brown colour, 
with a pleochroism ¢, deep greenish-brown; b, dark brown; y, pale brown. The 
absorption for all the rays is more intense than usual. This is in part due to the great 
amount of magnetite in very minute grains which are scattered throughout the mineral, 
though not quite equally distributed. In some places they make it almost opaque. | 
They lie parallel to the prism faces, and as they run in streaks following the cleavage, | 
they give the sections a laminated appearance resembling diallage (Pl. II. figs. 2 and 6), 
Higher magnification shows, however, that this is not cleavage, as in the thinnest 
sections they are not sharply defined lines, but broadish bands along which magnetite 
in rounded grains has been deposited, while in the centre of the bands a cleavage crack 
may occasionally be found. The enclosures found in this form of hornblende are apatite, 
magnetite, occasional glass cavities, and bright green augite and olivine. It has usually 
the form of a highly corroded remnant of very irregular outlines, into which tongue- 
shaped intrusions have penetrated from every side (PI. II. figs. 4and 6), It may indeed 
resemble a spongy mass of hornblende, the interstices of which have been filled up by 
later products of crystallisation. This hornblende is found only in the rocks which 
contain large porphyritic crystals, and in them only asa central nucleus. Still such 
remnants may be of considerable size, measuring over + inch in diameter. 

Around this is commonly found a thin zone of brown hornblende, clear and less 
green in colour. It is usually free from enclosures, except scattered grains of magnetite. 
Its external outlines follow those of the mass it surrounds, and it is never more than ‘01 
mm. in breadth (PI. Il. fig. 4). 

The third zone in these complex crystals covers the two described, or, when they are 
absent, forms the nucleus itself. It has always a dark appearance, owing to the abun- 
dant grains of magnetite it encloses. These are of larger size than in the central mass, 
where they are mere dust. It consists of an intergrowth of pale violet augite, with dark 
hornblende, usually in about equal proportions, though often the hornblende predomin- 
ates. In polarised light the clearer colours of the augite, owing to its smaller absorption, 
distinguish it at once, and all the augite granules extinguish in the same position, while 
the scattered patches of hornblende are also in optical continuity, and are moreover in 
parallel growth with the central hornblende on which they were deposited. ‘The strue- 
ture is similar to that of the granophyres, where the graphic quartz and felspar of the 
groundmass are in optical continuity with the phenocrysts. Whether this graphic 
intergrowth does not enclose a certain number of glass cavities is not easy to establish 
with certainty (Pl. II. figs. 1-6). 

The external zone varies in character. It may be brown hornblende, comparatively 
pure, and sometimes showing zones of varying tint. It may be brown augite of the 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 881 


usual variety. In either case the result is the completion of the crystalline form, which is 
that of the external mineral, and is often perfectly sharp and well preserved. But more 
usually this zone is composed of both minerals in parallel growth, each forming part of the 
external rim, and lending its form to the part it constitutes. The augite often forms the 
lateral faces, the hornblende the terminal ones (PI. UJ. fig. 2). But their relative position 
and amount follow no fixed rule. At one end there may be augite, at another hornblende, 
01 hornblende may be the earlier and form the inncr part, while a mere film of augite 
surrounds it, thickest at the corners over the prism faces and thinnest on the pinakoids, 
d giving the whole the octagonal transverse section of pyroxene. Between crossed 
ols it is easily seen that the marginal augite is in optical continuity with the 
ttered patches in the graphic augite-hornblende intergrowth in the zone within; and 
it it is in parallel growth with the hornblende is shown by the disposition of the 
cleavages, and the simultaneous extinction of both minerals in certain sections, those, 
namely, which are parallel to the ortho-diagonal. The pinakoidal faces of both minerals 
parallel to one another. The relation of their terminal planes could not be made out, 
ing to the fact that where these crystalline faces of one mineral are perfect, those of 
. other are deficient. The crystals are frequently twinned, and the twin plane passes 
straight through both minerals (see Pl. II. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and description, p. 904). 

_ This is the commonest, and at the same time the most highly developed and com- 
lex type of structure, but many sections are found in which all these zones are not 
sent. ‘The centre may be an augite-horublende intergrowth ; the periphery ordinary 
nblende or augite; or on a nucleus of greenish-brown laminated hornblende, a border 
of ordinary hornblende may have formed. There is, in fact, a very great variety of 
abinations. But the order of succession is invariably that given, and is never 
sed, although certain of the zones may be wanting. The dark brown hornblende 
of minute magnetite dust is never any but the innermost zone, and never occurs. 
hout another zone of whatever sort surrounding it. Neither does the graphic inter- 
wth of hornblende and augite form the external surface in any case. The absence 
tain elements may perhaps be explained as due to the section having missed that. 
of the crystal which they constitute, and this is most probable when the central’ 
are apparently absent. It is obvious that these structures are the result of a 
lex series of periods of alternate crystal growth and destruction by corrosion. 

ther the augite-hornblende intergrowth is a direct formation or a resorption product 

not easy to establish. It has rarely external crystalline outlines, and it is filled 

h magnetite sometimes to such an extent as to be almost opaque, and in these respects 

alls many instances of the complete or partial destruction of hornblende and substitu- 

of augite and magnetite. But this does not explain the graphic structure, and it 

more probable that this zone has originated by direct crystallisation from the 

oma. Its external outlines may be those characteristic of augite or of hornblende, 

jut more usually are rounded or irregular. 

In the west dyke of Hoxa these complex phenocrysts are largest and most numerous. 

‘VOL. XXXIX. PART Iv. (No. 33). 6 U 


= 


882 MR JOHN 8, FLETT ON 


The groundmass consists of brown hornblende, brownish-violet augite, plagioclase felspar, 


and glassy base. The hornblende preponderates, and is commonly in parallel growth 
with the augite, and both have sharp crystalline form. The felspar in irregular masses 
fills up the interspaces. The glassy base is not abundant, is turbid with decomposition 
products, and filled with colourless, ramifying microliths, which appear to be felspar, 
Its presence indicates that the rock is a transition to the monchiquites, where such a 
material is a constant constituent. Rounded pale ocelli, consisting of felspar prisms 
mixed with a little hornblende and much glassy matter, are scattered through the 
slides (Pl. Il., fig. 4). 

The other dykes contain the same minerals, though the phenocrysts are smaller, 
and the groundmass richer in felspar. Towards the edges of the dykes there is a 
tendency to the development of much glassy material, which, with the absence of cp 

makes the sections very similar to those of some monchiquites. 

In all the South Ronaldshay dykes, but particularly in the west dyke of Hoxa, 
sections of a colourless isotropic mineral, clear, transparent, without regular cleavage 
or trace of crystalline form, are to be observed. It rarely shows any double refraction, 
and agrees in all its characters with analcite. The manner of its occurrence is 
pretty varied. It is abundant in the pale ocelli, mixed with felspar and pale, turbid, 
decomposed glass. There it is usually central, but appears in the ocellus itself, and not 
in the miarolitic cavity, which is occupied by calcite. It is surrounded by the glassy 


base, and merges into it gradually on every side. It is apparently formed by the 


decomposition and hydration of areas of a glass, which, as Prrsson has shown (XL), 
has a close resemblance in chemical composition to analcite. In scattered spots in the 
groundmass it is also seen, and is here of similar origin. The tendency of the still 
liquid magma to aggregate into globules after the crystallisation of the hornblende and 
augite of the groundmass which has given rise to ocelli, has produced also smaller 
rounded patches of glass, mixed with a little felspar at the edges, which readily change 
to analcite. Within the larger phenocrysts, and especially the honeycombed, corroded, 
nuclei of hornblende, analcite is abundant, occupying sac-shaped cavities. In many 
cases, around it are a few felspathic needles, lying in a little turbid glass with 
hornblende in parallel growth with the enclosing crystal, and it may be a little 
magnetite. These are, in fact, glass cavities decomposed and reconstituted into 
analcite. At the periphery, the hornblende and magnetite have crystallised out with 
a little felspar, leaving in the centre an area of glass. In other cases, the cavity is 
apparently entirely filled with analcite, or analcite mixed with calcite, which may 
surround it or be enclosed in it, or each may occupy one side. Similarly, a rounded 
patch of analcite may lie in the groundmass, and may exactly resemble a corroded 
phenocryst. Out of a large number of sections the best example of this is photo- 
graphed in fig. 3, Pl. II. In view of the suggestion made by Linparen (XIL), and 
adopted by Cross (XIII) and Presson (XI.), that analcite may be a primary por- 
phyritic ingredient in rocks allied to these, I have given special attention to these 


¢ 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 883 


erystals. I find no evidence of their primary origin. In that case the period of their 
erystallisation would have been utterly indeterminate. It must have been one of the 
earliest, one of the intermediate, and probably also the very last mineral to crystallise. 
It has never traces of idiomorphism, or of that expansive crystalline force of which 
Cross finds evidence (XIII. p. 686). Its constant association with calcite is practically 
decisive as regards its origin in this particular rock. 

Another suggestion offers itself, viz., that the apparent phenocrysts may have 
resulted from the decomposition of some such mineral as nepheline. In fact, out of 
over thirty sections, two show each one crystal partly enclosed in porphyritic hornblende, 
and corroded where surrounded by the groundmass. The only mineral these resemble 
is nepheline, but in view.of the chemical composition of the rock it is difficult to see 
how it could have been produced. It may be recalled, also, that the very early 
phenocrysts of augite resemble aegirine augite very closely. What this mineral is I 
have been unable to decide with certainty. 


General Features of the other Camptonite Dykes. 


Of the greater number of the camptonite dykes scattered so abundantly over the 
West Mainland and Rousay, little remains to be said. They resemble in most respects 
the groundmass of those already described. Most of them show in section phenocrysts 
of olivine, less commonly of augite, and of hornblende only very seldom. The 
groundmass is panidiomorphic and holocrystalline, consisting of augite and hornblende 
in very variable relative proportions, and usually intergrown, the hornblende surround- 
ing the augite or forming the terminations of the crystals. Felspar is never absent, 
and may form quite one-half of the rock. It is mostly plagioclase, which stands as a 
whole between andesine and labradorite, though orthoclase would seem to be present in 
small amount in many dykes. It surrounds the ‘plagioclase, or forms a sort of 
interstitial substance without crystalline form. Often the long plagioclase felspars are 
erouped in radiating fan-like aggregates, spreading out from a common axis. Except 
in rocks which approach the monchiquites, traces of a glassy base are absent. The 
felspars are usually filled with hair-like apatites. They are often greenish, and may be 
in part actinolite, as suggested by Broccer (VIII. p. 50). 

_ Most of the rocks contain pale rounded felspathic ocelli. These consist of radiating 


plagioclase crystals, mixed with long narrow hornblendes. Even when augite occurs in 


the groundmass elsewhere, it is absent from the ocelli. In the Hoxa dykes the felspars 
are separated by much glassy material. Orthoclase may be comparatively abundant, 
though not obvious in other parts of the rock, and is found chiefly in the interior. In 
the centre there is always an irregular mass of calcite, filling what appears to have been 
a miarolitic cavity. These ocelli consist, in fact, of the last minerals to crystallise, and 
are due to the accumulation of globules of the still liquid magma at a late period in 


| consolidation. Crystallisation has proceeded from margin to centre, leaving a cavity to 


884 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


be subsequently filled by matter infiltrated from the surrounding rocks, which are 
highly calcareous. 

The large dykes tend to be coarse grained in the centre, where all the ingredients 
have a short broad form. At the margin, on the other hand, both felspars and ferro- 
magnesian minerals become very long and narrow, and the rock is very fine grained. 
The presence of glassy material in the chilled edge of the dykes is very unusual in the 
camptonites. Occasionally steam cavities of rounded form are to be noted. They are 
filled in with chlorite and calcite. 

All states of preservation are to be found. Some dykes are so fresh that all the 
minerals except olivine are practically unchanged. Others, again, have decomposed 
into a rusty-brown earth, enclosing rounded nodules of less altered material, from which 
microscopic sections can hardly be prepared. The augite is far more susceptible to 
weathering than the hornblende, while the biotite, which is probably never entirely 
absent, though never abundant, is so resistant as to be particularly conspicuous in the 
more advanced stages of decay. Olivine passes into serpentine and magnetite, and 
later into calcite and limonite. The augite yields a deep green mineral, which is often 
chlorite, dusted over with innumerable grains of anatase. The resulting pseudomorph 
is fibrous, with the fibres parallel to the long axis of the section, and a straight, or 
nearly straight extinction. The polarisation colours are not uncommonly too high for 
chlorite, and I suspect that uralite is a very frequent product, especially of the 
pyroxene of the groundmass, but chloritisation is the usual change in the phenocrysts. 
Hornblende and biotite pass into chlorite with abundant anatase and occasional rutile. 
Kaolin and calcite result from the decay of the felspars, and in the more altered rocks 
rich yellow epidote is often to be seen. That the iron ores are usually titaniferous is 
evident from the abundance of leucoxene. Calcite is everywhere present, and increases 
greatly in amount as decomposition advances. 

A peculiar secondary amphibole is found in one or two dykes near Outshore Point 
in Birsay. The sections show primary hornblende of a deep brown colour in large 
irregular phenocrysts, with numerous cracks, now filled with calcite and chlorite. It 
resembles that of the dykes previously described (e.g., Scabra Head), and its extinction 
angle is about 15°. Though much cracked and infiltrated with secondary products, it 
is mostly quite fresh, but on the outer surface, and lining the fissures, there are 
occasional spots of a deep blue hornblende. This has a very pronounced cleavage, and 
may indeed be said to be fibrous. The two minerals are in parallel growth. In one 
section, which must be nearly parallel to the clinopinakoid, the brown hornblende 
extinguishes at an obliquity of 15°, the other at 7° on the opposite side of the traces of 
the prismatic cleavage, and the axis of elasticity most nearly parallel to the prism axis 
is that of greatest elasticity. The pleochroism is intense. 

¢=pale yellow-green, = pale bluish-green, y= deep blue ; absorption,—a>b>e. | 

This is, in fact, a secondary mineral of the Riebeckite group, very similar to 
that which was thoroughly investigated by Cross (X.) in a rock which has much in 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 885 


common with the camptonites. Here, however, it does not surround augite, nor does 
it form those frayed-out fringes which he describes. 

Classification of the Camptonites.—ROsENBUSCH (XV., vol. ii. p. 540) has proposed to 
subdivide this series of rocks, according to the porphyritic minerals they contain, into 
hornblende-camptonites with olivine, augite, and hornblende ; biotite-camptonites with 
olivine, augite, and biotite ; biotite-hornblende-camptonites with olivine, augite, biotite, 
and hornblende; but, if applied to the Orkney dykes, this would result in a very 
artificial grouping. Many of them contain no phenocrysts, except occasional olivine. 
Others contain only olivine and augite. Biotite is very wide-spread, and perhaps universal, 
but in such small amount, and always so inconspicuous, as to be best regarded as an 
accessory. In the groundmass both hornblende and augite usually occur, but in a few 
slides, which are perfectly fresh, only hornblende is to be seen. The same rock may 
contain both minerals in the groundmass at the edges, while only hornblende is present 
at the centre (e.g., Galton). 

In the literature of this group many descriptions are given of rocks which contain 
only hornblende in the groundmass, mixed with green chlorite, which is regarded as 
secondary after hornblende. I very much doubt whether this is always the case. ‘The 
augite decomposes so much more readily than the amphibole, that it may be quite 
decomposed while the other is fresh, and, owing to the frequent parallel growths, the 
outlines may be those of hornblende, and the crystal appear to be a hornblende, which 
at one part has weathered into chlorite. In many such cases sections of fresher material 
from the same dyke have shown the presence of augite, and, after a careful study, the 
conviction has been forced upon me that it is only very rarely it can be concluded that 
augite is entirely absent from the groundmass. To subdivide the rocks into camp- 
tonites with hornblende and plagioclase in the groundmass, and augite-camptonites which 
contain augite in addition, would lead us in some dykes to give different specific names 
to the central and marginal parts of the same mass. These two minerals, in fact, are 
so closely related, both as phenocrysts and as constituents of the groundmass, that in 
the Orkney dykes such a subdivision would be highly unnatural. 

What might be called a pure augite-camptonite, were the term not already employed 
in a different signification, is shown in a section from a loose block of trap I picked up on 
the beach a little to the south of Burness, Firth, The original dyke must be concealed 
by the gravel of the shore. The section shows phenocrysts only of olivine altered into 
Serpentine, and consists of a very pale violet augite, quite idiomorphic, in short 
stout prisms, which are often in radiating groups and perfectly fresh. Magnetite, 
ilmenite, and scales of biotite are scattered through the slide. There is no hornblende. 
 Plagioclase felspar in well-formed crystals occupies the spaces between the augites, and 
forms occasional ocelli, with calcite in the centre. The structure is that of the camp- 
tonites, but their most characteristic mineral, brown hornblende, is quite absent. The 
general appearance of the slide will be seen from the photograph (PI. IJ. fig. 1). 

In the Bay of Binniaro, a little south of the locality just mentioned, occurs a group 


886 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


of dykes, which in some points are quite different from any others in the Orkneys. 
The most interesting is that just below the house of Binniaro. It is porphyritic, and 
the only Orkney camptonite to show phenocrysts of felspar. These are numerous, well 
shaped, free from inclusions, and belong to a labradorite of average composition. They 
show albite and pericline twinning, and are tabular on the brachypinakoid. The other 
crystals of the first generation are olivine, altered into serpentine, and augite, of a pale 
greenish variety, in idiomorphic crystals, aggregated into nodular groups and decom- 
posing into chlorite. It has an extinction angle of 43°. The groundmass consists of 
felspar (labradorite of a rather acid kind) and augite largely chloritised, and is filled with 
skeleton growths of magnetite. The felspar is ‘05 to ‘01 mm. in section, and up to 
‘5 mm. in length. The crystals lie scattered irregularly through the slide; their form 
is sharp and perfect. Between them lies the augite in grains of irregular form, mostly 
altered into chlorite, and evidently later than the felspar in crystallisation. The struc- 
ture hence is intersertal, and the rock approaches closely to the diabases. The associa- 
tion of diabase with camptonite is too well known to call for any remark. The usual 
sequence of crystallisation in the groundmass is, in this instance, reversed (see photo- 
graph No. 2, Pl. III). 

The dykes associated with this one are intermediate in character between it and 
the normal camptonites. The nearest one is a fairly typical camptonite, rather rich 


in augite, but with brown hornblende in smaller quantity, and panidiomorphic in — 


structure. Their chilled edges have more resemblance to diabase, being fine grained, full of 
magnetite skeletons, and consist of small lath-shaped idiomorphic felspar, with chloritised 
augite between. 


Chenucal Analyses of the Camptomtes. 


The dykes selected for analysis were :— 

1. The dyke at Rennibuster. 

2. A dyke from the Wart of Skaill, Sandwick; very typical of the West Mainland 
dykes, with phenocrysts of decomposed olivine and a groundmass of augite, 
hornblende, and plagioclase. 

3. The west dyke at Hoxa. 

4, The dyke approaching diabase at Binniaro Firth. 

With them a series of typical selected analyses is given for comparison. 
. Camptonite, Maena, Gran (Broacmr, VI., p. 26). | 
. Camptonite, Eege (Broacrr, VI, p. 26). 
. Camptonite, Campton Falls (cited from XIX., p. 235). 
. Camptonite, Montreal (cited from XIX., p. 235). 


cont mS O&O 


It is to be noted that in 1 and 2 the alumina carries a considerable amount of 
titanic acid, which was not estimated. Another feature of the analyses is the high 


rene 


ai 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 887 


_ percentage of potash in 1 and 2, where it preponderates over soda. ‘This is partly due 
to the composition of the hornblende (see analyses, p. 892), but indicates also the 
presence of a small amount of orthoclase. The high percentage of iron oxides, and the 
high specific gravity, are due to abundant magnetite, pyrite, and ilmenite, as well as to 
‘the hornblende and augite. No. 3 shows a transition to the monchiquites in the lower 
silica and alumina, the higher magnesia, and the relative amounts of the alkalies; but 
‘in the titanic acid, and the large amount of iron oxides, it belongs to the camptonites. 
‘This is owing to the abundance of hornblende, magnetite, and ilmenite. In No. 4 the 
alumina is rather low, the iron oxides rather high, a feature of the camptonites, but 
otherwise it approaches very closely to many olivine diabayes. The alkalies are in less 
quantity than in the camptonites, particularly the potash, and in this respect, and also 
‘in their relative proportion, this rock is of a more normal type. To this is to be 
ascribed the absence of the peculiar brown hornblende. 


ANALYSES OF CAMPTONITES. 


SiO, 41°99 42°13 39°13 45°96 40°60 42°05 41°94 40°95 


TiO, 2 ne 402 ie 4:20 5°60 4°15 3°39 
M0,)17-58" |" 16-31 | 1138" | 1268 | 19:55 | 19°30 | 15:36 | 16-45 
FeO 8°33 7:93 8-13 7:94 9°52 9-52 9-89 A 
Fe,0, 617 6°43 7°33 763 547 3°81 3:27 | 13°47 
MnO 0:29 50 42 61 Re i. 0:25 0:33 
MgO 8:03 7:37 8-64 8:25 8-96 4°83 5-01 6-10 
CaO 8:53 9°62 | 11°77 8:36 | 10:80 | 11°55 9-47 | 10°53 
| K,O 2°81 2-48 1-93 98 1-19 fei 0-19 1-28 
_ Na,O 2-12 2-27 247 1:88 2-54 2°18 5°15 4:00 
CO, reo |? 1212 2°41 2°43 2°68 2-68 2-47 i: 
P.O; an net ‘ uf : * ay 0:29 
H,0 2:99 3-16 2°87 410 2-28 2:88 3-29 3°84 


——_$§ | ee | | 


10064 | 10032 | 10050 | 100-78 | 100°79 98°51 | 100-44 | 100-63 
Sp. Gr. 3°01 2°98 3°07 2°96 cide : 2°927 


The Monchiqute Dykes. 


Compared with the camptonites, the monchiquites are few in number, but they are 
of general distribution, and occur in all the principal areas, with the exception of the 
st coast of the Mainland. 

pA typical monchiquite forms a small dyke in the shore of the Peerie Sea, Kirkwall, 


below the mouth of a spring which issues from the fields of Grainbank. It is a fine- 
med dark green rock, with few spots of calcite. Under the microscope (PI. III. fig. 3) 
it shows olivine in sharply idiomorphic crystals, altered into serpentine; these contain 


888 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


magnetite in fine grains and little brown octrahedra of chromite or perofskite. Augite 
phenocrysts are few and small, but it forms most of the groundmass in small crystals five 
or six times as long as broad, and averaging ‘02 mm. in breadth. It is brownish-violet, 
very feebly dichroic, with rather perfect idiomorphism, occasional twinning, and frequent 
hour-glass structure. It lies scattered irregularly through the field, and grouped on the 
faces of the olivines. Hornblende is practically absent, but a deep brown biotite is 
present in small amount. It is hexagonal in transverse section, with sometimes a 
darker rim and a pale centre, far more dichroic than hornblende (the y ray being 
nearly colourless), and usually adherent to the iron ores and the olivine. In convergent | 
light it_is very nearly uniaxial. The rock is very fresh, but there is a little calcite and 
chlorite. Between the minerals of the groundmass there is a very small quantity of a 
transparent, colourless, almost isotropic groundmass, slightly turbid, and showing the 
weakest irregular double refraction. It is moulded on the other minerals, and has no 
definite outlines; the other ingredients are apatite and magnetite. Here and there 
occur small ocelli, with calcite in the centre, surrounded by a little felspar and a prism 
or two of hornblende. 

The more northerly of two dykes at the house of Skaill, Rousay, on the shores of 
Eynhallow Sound, is almost exactly similar to this rock. 

The Dykes of Tingwall (Rendall), of Quoynamuckle (Rendall), and of Kongie Geo, 
Saviskail (Rousay).—They contain similar olivine and titaniferous augite, often in 
radiating groups of six or seven. Biotite is absent, but hornblende is rather more 
abundant, especially in the little ocelli, which may contain a small amount of felspar. 
The rocks are much decomposed, and the numerous small vesicles are filled with calcite 
and chlorite. In most of the slides there is a considerable quantity of a very turbid 
brownish glass, which is filled with little needles of augite and skeleton growths of 
magnetite; it contains also microliths of hornblende, and possibly a little felspar. 
Even where clearest and least altered, it has in polarised light the appearance of a 
devitrified base, granular and speckled with decomposition products. 

On the shores of Kirkwall Bay, near the Skerry of Quanterness, I picked up in 1896 
two blocks of trap, which in section turn out to be very interesting rocks. They are 
coarsely porphyritic, and the phenocrysts resemble in every respect those described for 
the camptonites of Hoxa. Olivine is absent from the sections (PI. IL figs. 5 and 6), and 
the rock is thus a hornblende fourchite. The phenocrysts are augite and hornblende, 
which show all the varieties and intergrowths described in the west dyke of Hoxa (see 
photos, figs. 5 and 6, Pl. Il.). Both are very fresh, the augite showing only incipient 
change into chlorite. The groundmass contains little augite, and consists almost entirely 
of hornblende similar to that of the camptonites, embedded in a clear glass. This glass 
has a tendency to collect in certain parts of the slides, forming paler ocelli; it is 
colourless or pale greenish, filled with innumerable microliths, which are often horn- 
blende in beautiful dendritic growths very like those of the pitchstones of Arran. 
These consist of spicules so thin as to have only a faint brownish or greenish colour; 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 889 


and without doubt many of the microliths enclosed in the felspars of the camptonites, 
and often taken for apatite, are of similar nature. The glass is in places perfectly 
‘structureless and isotropic, elsewhere is devitrified and turbid, and in polarised 
light shows a granular appearance. Very occasionally it encloses ill-defined 
radiating skeletons of felspar. Apatite, magnetite, and ilmenite are the accessory 
ingredients. ‘ 

_ The dyke already mentioned as rising along a fault fissure on the west side of the 


yy 


V7 
\f 


art Holm of Copinshay is a monchiquite, remarkable for the large hornblende pheno- 
ts it includes. These may be as large as 24 inches by 14 inches. Owing to their 
ect cleavage they are difficult to obtain in section, but they seem to be corroded, 
often zonal, and almost free from enclosures. Decomposed olivine and idiomorphic 
violet-brown augite, with sometimes a bright green centre, are the other phenocrysts. 
The groundmass is fine grained, and resembles that of the Grainbank dyke, consisting of 
titaniferous augite and rather plentiful biotite. Hornblende is confined to the rather 
erous ocelli, where it is mingled with felspar in fine radiating fibres, A partly 
trified glassy base fills up the interspaces between the other minerals, and not 
unfrequently shows in polarised light the presence of a small quantity of ill-developed 
felspar. 

The Nature of the Groundmass of the Monchiquites—This is a subject to which 
attention has recently been directed by Professor Prrsson (XI., p. 680), who, in a very 
ble paper, has advanced the view that it is in reality primary analcite, which he 
considers an essential mineral of rocks of this class. It had previously been regarded 
as a glass, which, owing to its richness in alkalies and alumina, had a very marked 
ency to decompose into zeolites and analcite. LinpGREN had previously (XII, p. 51) 
ed attention to the presence of this mineral in apparent phenocrysts in the analcite 
alts of the Highwood Mountains, Montana, and also in a second generation in the 
sroundmass. He suggests that the mineral could have formed from igneous magmas 
i presence of water, and crystallising under sufficient pressure to retain it. Still 
e recently Cross (XIII., p. 684) has described certain ‘“analcite basalts,” in which 
analcite, though the last product of crystallisation, in many ways resembles the 
henocrysts of porphyritic rocks. He, too, considers it a primary mineral. 

The grounds on which Prrsson bases his opinion are, that it is in itself improbable 
that rocks so basic in composition, solidifying under great pressure, should produce any 
sy material, while under similar circumstances the acid dykes of the same districts 
ways crystalline. That it is not impossible, however, is proved by the frequent 
lite selvages of basalt dykes, and the association of variolite with diabase. Com- 
n of the limburgites with the basalts will show that it is not merely the percentage 
ica a rock contains which determines the abundance or frequency of glass in the 
dmass. ‘The chemical analysis of the glass in a monchiquite from Brazil has, as 
on shows, a striking resemblance to analcite, and he considers it has been made 
h great care and skill on excellent material. We must remember that the ground- 
)) VOL, XXXIX. PART IV. (NO. 33). 6x 


890 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


mass is decomposing into zeolites, and (XVI., p. 452) that the solution from which the 
material was precipitated had been diluted to a specific gravity of 2°3, which is less 
than that of most natural glasses, so that the material must have in any case contained 
a disproportionate amount of these secondary minerals. A single analysis is, moreover, 
a slender basis on which to build so important a theory. Two analyses of the material 
from LINDGREN’s rocks, which also are admittedly rich in analcite, are adduced to 
support the hypothesis, but they seem to differ too much from one another to be 
suitable for the deduction of a mineral formula. Finally, in Prrsson’s view, the 
ready gelatinisation with acids, and the weak and irregular double refraction, point to | 
this substance being really analcite; but these points have long been known and not 
considered incompatible with the properties of a natural glass such that it readily 
decomposes with formation of zeolites (HUNTER and Rosensuscu, XVI., p. 452). 

Asa result of my examination of the Orkney trap dykes, I have been led to form 
the opinion that this material is really a glass, which, owing to its composition, very 
readily decomposes, with formation of zeolites and particularly of analcime. Where 
analcime can be identified, as in the west dyke of Hoxa, it is quite different in appear- 
ance from the glassy base, being clear and transparent, while the latter is turbid and 
full of microlites. In some rocks, as in the fourchite, this glass is perfectly clear, 
fresh, and isotropic, though filled with felspar microlites, which are grouped in radiate 
bundles very similar to those of the minettes. It may be colourless or pale brown. In 
decomposition it becomes turbid, granular, semi-opaque. In polarised light it is then 
filled with specks and fibres of undeterminable nature, which give it the appearance of 
a devitrified material rather than of analcite. Finally, it becomes a granular mosaic of 
calcite and analcite, mixed with various fibrous zeolites. 

Moreover, its occurrence is that which is distinctive of a glassy base. In certain of 
the camptonites, as, for example, those of Hoxa, an isotropic matter is abundant at the 
edges of the dykes. Towards the centre felspar increases in abundance, and the base 
diminishes, but does not disappear. The sections of the edges have all the characters 
of hornblende monchiquites. Yet if the base is here analcite, it cannot be analeite 
which in the centre has been left after the crystallisation of the felspar. On the other 
hand, the passage from monchiquites to alndites will be shown to be a very gradual one. 
There are forms of the latter rocks which at the centre show melilite, at the edges only 
a glassy base; other dykes contain a granular glass throughout. ‘The transition is 80 
perfectly gradual, that no line can be drawn to separate the “‘analcite rocks” on the 
one side from the felspathic and melilite-bearing rocks on the other. 

Should ever this hypothesis be established, it must rest on a broad basis of chemical 
facts. The attempt which I made to separate out the groundmass of the Orkney dykes 
failed to yield material of suitable purity. It is difficult to see how it could be obtained, 
as the undoubtedly secondary analcite of the amygdules should certainly be first removed. 
The*rock which RosenpuscH and Hunver investigated (XVI.) is far more suitable for 
this purpose than any other I have seen; but it should not be forgotten that this 1s 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS, 891 


an extreme member of the series, and, in its richness in alkalies, stands in striking 
contrast to the rocks which have later been associated with it (Analysis 5, below). 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF MONCHIQUITE DYKES. 


1 2 Bi 4 5 
SiO, 42°51 42-46 43-74 43°50 46°48 
TiO, 247 2°80 210 0:99 
Al,O 12-85 12-04 14°82 18-06 16°16 
¥e,0, 2°67 2-19 2°40 752 6°17 
FeO 752 534 752 764 6-09 
MnO 0:83 0-16 io 
MgO 12-00 12-40 6-98 3°47 409 
CaO 11°83 12°14 10°81 13°39 7°35 
Na,O 2°75 1-21 3-08 2-00 585 
K,O 2-15 2°68 2-90 1-30 3-08 
CO, 3-46 ‘BB 1:50 1-22 0°45 
P.O, 84 0°64 
H,O 2-96 4-03 2-94 4-27 

100°53 99°51 100-23 100-20 100-91 

Spec. Grav. 2905 2-94, 2-914 3-051 2736 


“1. Grainbank, Kirkwall. 
2. Willow Creek, Castle Mountain (Pirsson, XIV., p. 115). 
3. Monchiquite, Rio de Ouro, Rio de Janeiro (XVI, p. 464). 
4, Hornblende Monchiquite, Magnet Cove, Arkansas. Analyst, W. A. Noyes (XXI., p. 295). 
‘B. Monchiquite, Santa Cruz Bahn, Rio de Janeiro (XVI., p. 464). 

‘The monchiquite dyke of the Wart Holm, Copinshay, carrying the large phenocrysts 
‘ hornblende, presented a specially favourable opportunity to obtain this mineral pure 
analysis. About 20 grammes were broken out of various crystals, hand picked, 
ished, and thrown into borotungstate of cadmium. The principal precipitation took 
place on dilution to a specific gravity of 3°15, and, on microscopic examination, proved 
to be pure hornblende, perfectly fresh, and free from enclosures. The material had 
yiously been purified by passing over a strong electro-magnet to remove the magnetite. 
e analysis is given under No. 1. 
As this rock carries a little felspar in the groundmass and in the ocelli, it approaches 
ly to camptonite, and the composition is probably the same as that of the horn- 
de in the mass of the dykes. From these pure material could not be obtained, 
@ to the frequent intergrowths with augite and admixture of its decomposition 
ts. The average given in the third column shows that this is a typical basaltic 


blende. 
Toe ALNOITES AND Brorrrr-MoNCHIQUITES. 


To this group belongs a small number of dykes, so far as at present known confined 
to the district between Kirkwall and Stromness. They have all a very northerly 


892 MR JOHN 8S. FLETT ON 


trend, and seem to have a marked tendency to branching. There can be no doubt 
that they are, both in geological origin and in petrographical characters, a closely — 
related series. 


<< 


1 2. 3 
sid, 40°65 40°79 39°88 
TiO, 4°52 - 4:86 
Al,O; 17°12 17°36 14:83 
Fe,0, 426 3°83 Hsia 
FeO 5°53 15:04 
MnO 0°34 0°30 ae 
CaO 12°88 10°83 12°68 
MgO 9:96 6-97 12°27 . 
Na,O 1:74 : : i’ 
ats ae } 4-17 3°39 " 
H,0 36 0-71 
100°16 100°00 100°51 
Spec. Grav. 3°153 ae a 


1. Hornblende from hornblende-monchiquite, Copinshay, Orkney. 
2. Analyses of hornblende from camptonite. Dixville North, N.H., U.S.A. (cited from XIX., p. 234), 
3. Average of ten analyses of basaltic hornblende. Brdgger (VI., p. 29), after Schneider’s analyses. 


One of the most interesting occurs in a small headland about 400 yards north of the 
farmhouse of Rennibuster, four miles from Kirkwall. It is 5 feet broad, and in the 
hand specimen is a dark green, almost black rock, with fine glancing scales of biotite 
and vesicles filled with calcite and pale-coloured zeolites. The weathered material is 
dark rusty brown. ‘ 


"4 
)) 


Under the microscope, olivine proves to be abundant in phenocrysts, rather uniformly — 
of small size. It is entirely decomposed into pale green, sometimes almost colourless, 
serpentine accompanied by magnetite, or into calcite and limonite. It encloses magnetite, 
and perofskite in small dark brown octahedra. Augite in large phenocrysts is compara- 
tively scarce, and usually idiomorphic, with short, broad, longitudinal, and octagonal 
transverse sections. The centre is almost quite colourless, the margins purplish-brown. 
It is twinned, often repeatedly, on 100, and has the usual cleavage. It shows no 
decomposition. The enclosures are apatite, magnetite, and perofskite. . 

The most striking porphyritic mineral is biotite, in large irregular plates. Its 
pleochroism is intense, y= pale yellow, fy and ¢=reddish-brown, absorption —¢=b>u. 
A very narrow zone of intenser brown surrounds a large corroded nucleus, and may 
occasionally show a tendency to idiomorphism by the presence of angular corners 
recalling hexagonal outlines. It has a greater absorption than the central biotite for all 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 8938 


rays, but especially for ) and ¢, which are dark brown. The optic axial angle is very 
small. Twinning on TscHERMAK’s law was not made out, and the extinction may have 
an obliquity of 5°.. The biotite encloses olivine, augite, magnetite, perofskite, apatite. 
In weathering it passes into a deep green chlorite, but this change is confined to the 
margin of certain sections (see Pl. III. fig. 4). 

Augite is very abundant in small crystals of the second generation. The prisms are 
elongated, and average ‘015 mm. in breadth by *1 mm. in length. They are very 
idiomorphic, and in transverse section have usually six sides, the clinopinakoid not being 


- developed. They are irregularly scattered, and often in radiating groups of six or 


seven, Their colour is purplish-brown, resembling the outer zone of the phenocrysts. 
Owing to their small size, they are almost without cleavage, but it is usually to be traced 
in the longitudinal sections. Their extinction angle ranges up to 43°. They are not 
dichroic, and very commonly show hour-glass structure and twinning similar to that of 
the phenocrysts. These little augites are enclosed in the periphery of the biotite plates, 
but are never seen in the centre, and very frequently the edges of the biotite are 
moulded on them. In that case the dark brown rim is absent. In the groundmass 
biotite in small, sometimes sharply-formed crystals is mingled with the augite, and 
adherent to its margins or surrounding magnetite. On the surfaces of the olivines 
biotite and augite are usually implanted. 

Melilite in some of the slides and in some parts of them is quite common, in others 
it is not recognisable owing to decomposition. It is best found fresh on the edges of 
the biotite. Here it has rather perfect form, squarish rectangular or lath shaped. It is 
colourless, not dichroic, with a cleavage parallel to the length of the section very well 
defined, and another less frequently seen at right angles to this. It contains glass 
inclusions, but reoular peg-structure is not seen. The extinction is straight, and the 
polarisation colours are pale grey. Transverse sections are not recognisable. Parallel 
erowths between biotite and melilite, as figured by Berwerru (XVII, pl. 10), were 
not found. Care must be taken to distinguish it from the abundant apatite, which 
approaches it in size, but the lower refractive index, the more perfect cleavage, the 
sharply rectangular outlines, and the frequent decomposition, assist in identifying the 
melilite. The apatite penetrates all the ingredients, but the melilite is moulded on the 
others, except biotite occasionally. It is optically negative. 

In some parts of the slides a clear isotropic groundmass resembling glassy matter is 


_ frequently observed, but usually it is turbid and granular, and in polarised light breaks 


Up into a mosaic of angular grains of calcite with fibrous zeolites, and possibly analcite. 
This material shows mostly no cleavage or trace of regular structure, but at times it 
encloses little rectangular prisms which are apparently melilite mostly decomposed 
into zeolites, which are fibrous, and extinguish parallel to the prism axis, while weakly 
polarising grains of still fresh material may be found in the centre. Whether there has 
been originally a glassy residuum or a final crystallisation of nepheline, as ADams 
suggests (XVIII., p. 278), cannot now be made out. 


894 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


If this rock be compared with the alndite of St Anne, Montreal, it will be found 
that the chief differences are that it is less coarsely crystalline and much more decom- 
posed. The olivine of the Canadian rock is mostly fresh, there is more porphyritic 
augite; the melilite is in larger grains, and far better preserved ; otherwise the two— 
rocks present a close parallel. 

The sequence of crystallisation appears to have been perofskite, apatite, magnetite ; 
olivine, first augite (later corroded), biotite, and before its completion, second augite, 
melilite, and then the brown rim of biotite; lastly, completion of augite of ground- 
mass, and the bulk of the melilite, with perhaps, finally nepheline or a glassy base. 

Towards the edge the dyke becomes finer grained, but the specimens are too decom- 
posed for minute study. Numerous phenocrysts of olivine entirely altered into 
serpentine and calcite, with many porphyritic augites still fresh, are scattered in a fine 
grained dark groundmass. The augites are sharply idiomorphic, with a pale or colourless 
corroded centre and a purplish margin, and in polarised light have the remarkable 
zonal and hour-glass structure of those of the Montreal rock. The centre and periphery 
may differ 12° in extinction, and the marked dispersion of the bisectrices observed by 
ADAMS is evident here also. Biotite at the extreme edge of the dyke is present only in 
small scales, and increases in size and abundance as we approach the centre. It is not 
commonly idiomorphic. Melilite is not found at the margin of the dyke, but there is 
much of a granular turbid semi-opaque groundmass which was probably originally 
glassy. We remark here a curtailment of both the first and second generation of 
erystals. A few grains of melanite with broad dark corroded borders were noted, and 
here and there pale ocelli. 

In the shore at the mouth of the burns of Rennibuster, as already described, three 
dykes are seen traversing the course of the camptonites. They are narrow, and run 
parallel to one another, and in all probability are subdivisions of one dyke; indeed, 
connecting veins were observed in the flagstones between. They are all alnéites, but 
vary somewhat in microscopic appearance. Phenocrysts of olivine occur in all, and 
those of augite are also numerous. They resemble those described in the previous case, 
and some contain a honeycombed centre which gives the impression that it has been 
full of glass cavities. The corroded interior has sometimes a diallage lamination 
parallel to the face 100. Biotite, in large irregular plates, is abundant in sections of 
the west dyke. It is not surrounded by a darker border, and is often attached to the 
surface of the porphyritic augite and olivine, and encloses the augites of the ground- 
mass. It is not idiomorphic, and its period of crystallisation appears to have been 
deferred till the formation of the groundmass. Melilite is to be found in the ground- 
mass often with typical rectangular sections, but weathering at the edges to fibrous 
zeolites, which lie parallel to the axis of the section and extinguish straight. In the 
centre of these, grains of fresh material may still be found. Elsewhere the ground- 
mass consists of secondary products, chiefly calcite, zeolites, and analcite in irregular 
srains. The cleavage of the melilite is evident, but there is no peg-structure. Inethe 


———e 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 895 


mid dyke and east dyke the ingredients are the same, but the biotite is less abundant, 
and in smaller crystals which are deep brown, and adhere to olivine, augite, and 
magnetite. The east dyke is much decomposed, and yielded no evidence of melilite. 
The mid dyke is fresher, and in the hand specimen has a finely nodular appearance. 
The little dark brown biotites are often idiomorphic, and distinct traces of melilite were 
observed in crystals irregular in shape or approaching rectangular, moulded on the augite, 
which plays the chief part in the groundmass, and undergoing the same decomposition 
as in the other slides. 

In Naversdale, Orphir, a dyke is seen cutting the more northerly burn in the valley 
about half-a-mile above the sheepfold. It is 3 feet broad, and in the hand specimen 
the mica is very evident in little glittering scales, but there is no marked parallel 
structure ; there is much calcite in rounded spots. 

Under the microscope it is very similar to the east dyke at Rennibuster point (Pl. IIL 
fig. 5). It contains many olivines, weathered to green and yellow serpentine and mag- 
netite, and surrounded by a fringe of biotite and little augites. Large augites with similar 
appearance and properties to those in the Rennibuster dyke accompany the olivine. 
The biotite occurs also in large, irregular plates, with similar enclosures, but here 
without a darker rim; and the little scales in the groundmass are absent. The 
eroundmass consists of little idiomorphic augite crystals scattered through what appears 
under low powers a turbid, granular material, but on higher magnification resolves 
itself into melilite in irregularly-shaped intersertal masses, which fill up the interstices 
between the other minerals. Over fairly large areas the melilite has the same cleavage 
and extinction, though penetrated by many augites. The structure is exactly that of 
the ophitic dolerites, where augite encloses idiomorphic plagioclase. Peg-structure is 
here very perfect, and perpendicular to it a rather ill-defined cleavage. The mineral is 
never absolutely fresh, but always granular, turbid, brownish in ordinary light ; it is 
not dichroic. In polarised light decomposition is seen to have followed the direction of 
the pegs and of the cleavage to a less extent, with the production of a fine fibrous 
secondary product, which at first forms a rectangular network over the mineral, and, as 
the change proceeds, extends gradually over the meshes. The fibres are mostly parallel, 


and although the polarisation colours are too high for melilite, the aggregate has a 


straight extinction. Many fibres, however, have an indefinite orientation, so that, when 
the section is at its darkest, extinction is never absolute, but bright flakes are to be seen. 
These are mostly at the edges and in the cleavage cracks. In other sections the fibres 
have an entirely irregular or radiate arrangement; these may be pseudomorphs after 
melilite in transverse section. Recognisable calcite does not appear till comparatively 
late in the process. Analcite, calcite, and other minerals of secondary origin, which are 
undeterminable, occupy other parts of the sections. An isotropic mineral of irregular 
corroded form, full of dark inclusions, and resembling nosean, is present in very small 
quantity. Apatite and perofskite are both abundant. 

The sequence of crystallisation appears to have been apatite, perofskite, magnetite ; 


896 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


olivine, augite, biotite; 2nd augite, melilite. In all probability there was no glassy 
residuum. | 

A rock, which appears to be a much decomposed alnéite, forms a small dyke which 
crosses the burn of Ireland, Stenness, where the two tributary burns unite. This dyke 
forks into two branches. It has all the features of the alndites, but in the iene 
melilite is not recognisable, although in all probability originally present. 

It has been already remarked that at the edges of the dykes the alndites tend to 
develop a glassy groundmass, biotite being present in small quantity, and melilite 
absent. Sections taken from the thin veins which connect the dykes at Rennibuster 
burn have a totally different appearance from those of the dykes themselves. Large 
phenocrysts of olivine (altered into serpentine) and of augite lie in a dark brown turbid 
groundmass, evidently at one time glassy, but now decomposed and devitrified. No 
biotite and no melilite appears. In the groundmass are microliths of augite and 
minute brown grains, which may be biotite. The glass has rounded paler spots, which 
recall the ocelli of the camptonites, and the groundmass is distinctly fluidal. 

On Rennibuster Point, a short distance to the west of the alnéite dyke first 
described, occurs another, a little over a foot broad, and with the same northerly 
trend. In section it is the freshest of the monchiquites and alndites of the Orkneys, 
and the numerous phenocrysts of olivine show only slight decomposition into serpentine, 
and are sometimes absolutely unaltered. There are many phenocrysts of augite which 
exactly resemble those of the alnéites. A deep brown biotite, in small, fairly idio- 
morphic crystals, is rather plentiful. It encloses only apatite, magnetite, perofskite, 
and may surround porphyritic olivine or augite. Only very rarely do the augites of 
the groundmass encroach on it. It has a narrow, deep brown border. In the ground- 
mass we have many small augites embedded in a brown granular glass. A careful 
search has revealed a few sections which resemble melilite. It is perfectly idiomorphie 
and sharply rectangular. Apatite and perofskite are frequent accessories. There is 
one large brown corroded crystal of melanite, with traces of twelve-sided outlines and 
a broad black border. This is a glassy alndite, which very closely approaches in 
microscopic character certain of the monchiquites. 

In the table on next page an analysis is given of the alndite of Naversdale, the only 
one I have so far been able to overtake. It is accompanied by the principal analyses 
of similar rocks elsewhere. 

Melilite-Monchiquite.—This name I propose for a rock which occurs in a small 
dyke at Long Geo, Holm, and has been already mentioned as crossing a small 
fault (p. 872). In consequence of the irregularity in its course, its true direction 
cannot with certainty be established. It is in every respect a monchiquite, except 
that the groundmass here consists wholly or in part of melilite in plates of irregular 
shape. 

It contains phenocrysts of olivine, decomposed into calcite, pale serpentine, and 
magnetite, and enclosing brown octahedra of perofskite. The olivines are rounded, and 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 897 


on their surface are implanted grainscof augite; and biotite in‘small scales. 1 Augite occuns 
in few small phenocrysts, purplish-brown,sidiomorphic, not, markedly «zonal; :and 
resembling those of the monchiquites :rather: than ‘ofthe alndites):. The groundmass 
consists of augite, biotite, and melilite.-, The augites are in small prisms 5:to1l0 times 
ong as broad, brownish-purple,sidiomorphic,. sometimes twinned’ in: 100, frequently 
sh wing hour-glass structure, andiwith a ‘high obliquity of extinction::(44%)i: They. are 


’ Mot §. wo 
is Eipred 
Mt ! 
SiO, 35°54 85°91 24°19 enable 5: 
TiO, 72203 °° bh) 9-280 Js te Wola . oviv al 04 
Al,0; 11-72 11°51 12-00 | 
Fe,0, 5°86 2°35 6-45 
FeO DOO ok ll i ogoa) 
Mn0' (deh le etic 8 
MgO ~-13-56 — 17°54 14:07 
CaO 15°83 13°57 17°37 
Na,O 1:91 1:75 1-99 
K,O 2:24 2:87 3:06 
H,0 ' 1:67 9°40 516 
PO, ine a 3-96- 
. CO, 4°30 | 277 
100-97 100°51 101-16 . 
Spec. Grav. 3°052 3:02 1315 


a Alniite, Naversdale, Orkney. : I 

2. Alndite, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Monten! Genie Lz Rossiexo1, XVII, p. 27 . [ 
Alnoite, Alno (XIX., p. 235). : | | 

accordance between the first and segond is eae close. The titanic acid was estimated by the 
od described by Hituepranp (XX., p. 45), and must be contained in the perofskite, titaniferous 
etite, and augite of the groundmass. The Canadian rock carries magnesia partly as carbonate. 


: | 
ichroic, and almost perfectly undecomposed. They lie irregularly dispersed, or 


ps in radiating rosettes. Biotite occurs only in small scales of irregular form, dark 
yn colour, and intense dichroism. It is not, however, like that of the alndites, being 
lear yellow, with y not colourless, but ey yellow- -brown. It resembles the 
tes, it often forms a narrow border, and in the ee at is mingled with augite 
melilite. Except its less idiomorphism, there 1 is’ ‘nothing to distinguish it from the 
te in such a monchiquite as that.of Grainbank..: ithe, ‘melilite was the last mineral 
‘ystallise, and is destitute of crystalline form;‘its-itregular masses enclosing all the 
ingredients. It is paler and fresher than’ inthe alndite- of!/Naversdale; almost 
less, with very perfect. peg-st¥ucture’ (see photo; Pl. IIL “fig. 6), ‘though the 
ge is often indistinct, nd dichroism and ‘gives polarisation colours: of dark grey, 
t the same as apatite, or slightly lower. ‘Its optical sign “is “négative. Its deeom- 
» KXXIX. PART Iv. “No. 33). 6Y 


898 MR JOHN 8. FLETT ON 


position is very similar to that already described in the former rock, fibrous zeolites, 
with straight extinction parallel to the peg-structure, forming first in a net-work, and 
spreading afterwards through the mineral. In the freshest parts of the slides it fills up 
all the spaces between the other ingredients of the groundmass, and leaves no room 
for any later mineral or for a glassy base. But where the rock is more decomposed, 
calcite, with chlorite, brilliantly polarising zeolites, and an isotropic mineral (analcite ?), 
in a mosaic of irregular grains and fibres, form the interstitial material. These have, no 
doubt, resulted from the final disintegration of the melilite and the adjacent minerals, 

The rock contains a few vesicles filled with calcite, chlorite, and zeolites. In the — 
hand specimen it is fine grained, non-porphyritic, and in places much decomposed. It 
closely resembles the monchiquites, but is distinctly paler in colour, being rather greyish 
green, while they are dark green. 

A chemical analysis is given below (No. 1), and beside it certain others for com- 
parison. 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF MELILITE Rocks, ETC. 


1 2 3. 4 5 
SiO, 33°87 49-5] 35:54 33:89 35-84 
TiO, 2:12 a 2:03 0-64 8:85 
Al,O; 15-25 12-04 11-72 9-93 10-48 
FeO, 2:37 2°67 5:86 15°63 7-25 
FeO 515 752 5:99 Aa 6-62 
MnO 32 83 32 Bs Me. 
MgO 12°52 12-00 13°56 1614 12-95 
CaO 14-43 11°83 15°83 15°19 10-90 
Na,O 1-41 2°75 1-91 2-86 3-53 
K,O 1-02 215 2:94 a 151 
H,0 247 2-96 1-67 2-90 ” 
P.O; 99 a a 1-41 a 
CO, 8:64 3-46 4:30 1-41 2-84Cr,0, 
100-36 100-53 100-97 100-00 100-77 
Sp.G. 3-033 2-905 3052 3-015 3-051 


- Melilite monchiquite, Long Geo, Holm, Orkney. 
Monchiquite, Grainbank, Kirkwall, Orkney. 

Alnoite, Naversdale, Orphir, Orkney. 

. Melilite basalt, Hochbohl bei Owen. 

. Nepheline melilite basalt, Riedéschingen, Hegau, Baden. 
(Nos. 4 and 5 cited from Rosensuscu (XIX., p. 360).) 


A comparison with 4 and 5 will show that the melilite monchiquite from Orkney 
has a sufficiently close similarity to other well-known rocks of the melilite group. It is 
in a state of more advanced decomposition, as witness the high percentage of OO,, which 
is partly combined with magnesia, as it was noticed that only a small amount of CO, was — 


OUR co bo 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 899 


evolved on treatment with cold dilute HCl, but on warming, the evolution of gas was 
renewed and rapid. To what extent the abundant secondary products have resulted 
from the decomposition of the dyke rock itself, or have infiltrated from the surrounding 
highly calcareous flagstones, it is impossible accurately to determine, but, from the 
investigations of Merritt (XXII, p. 214), we may assume that the effect has been to 
increase the apparent percentage of alumina and to diminish that of silica and the 
alkalies. This would make the accordance still more complete. 
: _ An examination of analyses 1, 2, and 3 shows how closely connected are these three 
rocks which we have selected as types of different groups, and leads to the assumption 
they must have proceeded from the same igneous magma. In the monchiquite we 
a relatively high percentage of silica, and the alkalies, while lime, magnesia, 
nina, and iron, are slightly low. The others have the extremely low silica percentage 
racteristic of the melilite rocks. In the alnéite potash predominates, in the melilite 
chiquite soda. The alnéite is richer in magnesia, lime, and iron oxides, the melilite 
chiquite in alumina. As decomposition has followed a similar course in these three 
s, more reliance can be placed on a comparison between them, and their chemical 
position, taking into consideration the analyses of their constituents (see Table below), 
may reasonably be expected to throw some light on their diversity of character. 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF CONSTITUENTS OF MOoNCHIQUITES AND ALNOITES. 


1 2 3. 4 5 

SiO, 53-43 38:56 44-55 36-42 44°76 
TiO, bis 2°85 3-99 i 
Al,O, 20°86 és 7-86 17-92 7-90 
FeO, 2-61 1:36 3-81 283 516 
FeO 12°65 4-53 7-04 1-39 
MnO ae 0-11 0:38 r bi 
MgO 0:29 44:37 12-71 20:52 8:60 
CaO 114 z 20-84 ia 27-47 
Na,O 11-63 1-29 2°60 2-65 
K,O 2-51 0:49 6-54 0:33 
H,O 7-06 2-91 a 2-50 1-42 
CO, i *: ee 

99-53 99-96 99-31 100-36 99°68 


1, Glassy base of monchiquite Sta. Cruz Bahn (Hunter and Rosenzuscu, XVI., p. 454). 
_ 2. Olivine from alndite, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Montreal, Canada (anal. Prof. Harrington (ADams, 
VIII., p. 273). 
3. Augite Pole monchiquite, Rio de Ouro, Sierra de Tingua, Rio Janeiro (HunTeR and Rosrnsuscu, 
+, p. 462). 
4, Biotite from monchiquite, Norberig, Oberbergen (cited from Rossnsuscu, XIX., p. 234). 

5, Melilite from melilite basalt, Hochbohl. (cited from Rosmnsuscy, XIX., p. 360). 


i. al 


a 


oe a 


: 


900 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


In all three, crystallisation began in the same manner. Perofskite, magnetite, apatite, 
olivine, augite, were the first products. In the alnéite the augite was accompanied by — 
much biotite, conditioned, no doubt, by the excess of magnesia and of potash (anal. 4), 
and these two went on crystallising till the still liquid residuum was rich in lime and 
comparatively poor in alumina and magnesia (anal. 5), crystallising finally as melilite. 
In the melilite monchiquite the conditions were less favourable for the production of 
biotite, and for some time augite alone was formed, till a similar condition supervened, and 
crystallisation was completed by the formation of melilite. But, in the monchiquite, 
owing to the higher percentage of silica and lower percentage of lime and magnesia the — 
continued crystallisation of augite was giving rise to a residuum comparatively acid, 
containing the alkalies in fair amount and in nearly equal proportions, and practically 
devoid of lime, iron, and magnesia (cf anal. 1). To its peculiar chemical composition 
we must ascribe its final solidification as a glass. As in the closely-related rocks 1 and 
3 an anhydrous crystalline silicate was finally formed, there does not seem to be any 
reason to believe that in this one, had crystallisation taken place, the water would have 
been retained, and the hydrous silicate analcite have been the result. 


CoNCLUSION. 


It will be seen that in the Orkneys we have one of the most abundant and interest- 
ing series of the camptonite-monchiquite-alndite rocks which is anywhere known to 
exist. They fall naturally into two groups, the “ leucocrate” rocks of Broaamr, of 
which the sole representative is one dyke of bostonite, and the “ melanocrate,” to which 
the others belong. Between them there is no connecting link; and the theory which 
he expounds of their origin by complementary differentiation from the same magma, is, 
in view of their constant association, the most natural that has been suggested. 

The “ melanocrate” series must be regarded as a unity. The series of gradations by 
which they merge into one another is so complete that they cannot be separated. They 
have proceeded from one magma, which, by a progressive differentiation, was becoming 
more and more basic as time elapsed. Taking the Orkney dykes as a whole, the petro- 
graphical characters agree with the facts regarding their geological occurrence, in 
establishing that they have been emitted, no doubt in successive periods, from the same 
voleanic focus. 

But when we pass to consider what the nature of that parent magma has been, it 
must be insisted that there are no data, within the Orkneys, which will enable us to 
decide. In chemical composition they correspond exactly to no plutonic magma, and 
seem to be in every case products of differentiation. They are typical dyke rocks, and 
occur only as dykes or thin intrusive sheets. It may be possible, when their distribu- 
tion in the north-east of Scotland is better known, to trace them to some parent mass ; 
till then we can argue only from general facts. From what is known of this series at 
the present day, it is difficult to point to any magma from which we could say with 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 901 


certainty they had not been derived. Granites, augite-syenites, elaeolite-syenites, 
-gabbros and diabases, and theralites, have all been shown to have occasionally given 
origin to dykes of one or other of the rocks of this series. In the present instance only 
one fact seems to point to a solution of the problem. In Orkney the camptonites are 
she most numerous, and form a central type from which the others diverge. Of these 
there is only one dyke, though it is connected with the others by intermediate steps, 
which corresponds chemically and structurally to the products of undifferentiated 
magmas. That is a diabase, and we may provisionally regard it as most probable that 
original magma was, as BRéccER has shown for the camptonites of Gran, an olivine- 
bro-diabase magma. If so, it may well be, as Sir ARcHIBALD GEIKIE suggests, 
they are outlying members of the great Tertiary series of basaltic dykes of the west 
of Scotland. 

To Professor James GeErkin, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., under whose direction the 
ical and chemical investigations were made in the Geological Laboratory of 
Edinburgh University, I desire to record my indebtedness. For valuable assistance in 
chemical analyses I have to thank Mr J. S. Grant Witson, F.G.S., of H.M. Geo- 
gical Survey of Scotland. Several gentlemen resident in the county have at various 
es assisted me with specimens and observations, more particularly my brother 

Peter C. Fuett, Mr Macnus Srence, F.E.1.S., and Mr J. W. Cursrrmr, F.S.A. 


st of the ge Dykes of the Orkneys from which Material was obtained and 


examined, 
BOSTONITES. 
Locality. Width. Bearings. Notes. 
Onston Ness, Stenness, . } ; 2 2 tb, 6m: E. and W. _ see description, p. 872, 
a and figs. 1, 2, Pl. I. 
- CAMPTONITES. 
Rennibuster (4 miles west of Kirkwall) :— 4 sa Saige ik 
West burn, . F : ; = 6 it, 6 in. ; ; oie 
Kast burn, : ; : : ee iteeoumn. KE. 20 N. Teen | 
2dykesin shore, . : : . Aft.and2ft.6in. E. 20N. teks 
wall Sarry, Kirkwall, ’ : : (2) E. 15 N. non-porphyritic, much 
weathered. 
ness, Kirkwall, : J) eels E, 25 N. 
e Sea, Kirkwall, below A. Borwick’s house, ; ole wee 
r of F.C. Manse, Finstown, . a te E. 30 N. eat 
uth of Oyce, ag : ; wae E. 30 N. much branched, p. 869. 
ataing, : : 2 Ofn, E, 35 N. a6 


902 MR JOHN 8S. FLETT ON 


Locality. Width. Bearings, Notes. 
Binniaro Bay :— 
Below boat, 2 dykes, . : : » Dit Ginj2i E20 
200 yards further N.; ; ‘ so “Guin: E. 20 N. | 886. and fic. 2 
Between boathouse and farm, : . 2 ft. E. 25 N. ee. Tl 7 one eee 
Near corner of farmyard, . 15 in. E. 30 N, ( a 
400 yards south of boathouse, 2 dykes, . 2 ft. 6 in. BcONe | 
North of Burness, Firth, . ; < Lote E. 40 N. cee 
Corrigal Burn, Harray, 2 dykes, . ; . about 3 ft. E. 15 N. see p. 866. 
Quarry, near Lochside, Stenness, . : ; jac ans 
South end of Kirbuster Loch, Orphir, . . ee 
400 yards south of Tingwall, "Rendall, ; chapel ft. E. 20 N. 
300 yards further south, . : . 6in. E. 20 N. 
Break, Rendall, : 5 / 716 ims E. 30 N. 
Laith, Sandwick, shore of ‘Harray Loch, ; 2st. E. 30 N. 
Below Ironsides’ farm, shore of Harray ‘Loch, . 3 ft. 6 in. E. 35 N. 
Below Howe, Stromness, 5 ‘ 5 ee tb. E. 20 N. 
Cumminess, Bay of Ireland, : : 5) aL Sin: E. 20 N. a 
Stromness, point below Garson, . ; . 4 ft. E. 30 N. see p. 878. 
is Stacks of Netherton, . : . 6in. KE, 35 N, Rae 
Billiacroo, Breckness, : : , peut E. 30 N. 
Burn of Sella, 2 dykes, : ; : 
Neban Head, 4 dykes, : : : ext Soi 30 
North Galton, 2 oa : f - ‘ Bae re see p. 878. 
Inganess, . : : ; . 4 ft. N.E. cuts granite. 
Borwick, . : ‘ : : «WON: E. 10 N. curving, see p. 869. 
Ramna Geo, : 5 . ore K. 25 N. ans 
100 yards south of Wart, Skaill, i : . 4 ft. E. 25 N. forks, see p. 869, 
Wart, Skaill, : ‘ 5 Son wee 506 
Crooadee Burn, Birsay, 2 dykes, : : - each 2 ft. B10 aN. 
in quarry, 5 2) it. E. 20 N. 
Boardhouse Loch, Birsay, 100 yards south ‘of ate 4 ft. E. 30 N. 
Near Quoyloo Church, Sandwick, . 8 ft. EK. 25 N. 
Howana Geo, : : 2 . 3 ft. 6 in. E. 30 N. 
30 yards further north, : ; “Outs E. 30 N. 
Axin Geo, Birsay, 3 ft. E. 25 N. : 
Just south of a little streamlet a little further 
north, 2 dykes, . : ‘ : ae E. 20 N. 
Spoord, ’Birsay, : : : : eal uit: E. 25 N. = 
Stack of Spoord, . ‘ . “3 ft: 6 in. E. 20 N. 
Grassy banks south of Outshore Point, 5 - Ott: E. 25 N. see p, 884 
Oyce, Marwick, . : : , 2a: twisting te 
Backaquoy Point, Birsay, . : : 5» EEE: E. 20 N. oe 
Banks Head, Birsay, : : : . 4 ft. E. 30 N. a 
Costa Head, Evie, : : : Oat, E. 30 N. 3 
Sole Geo, Evie, : : pe anit E. 30 N. 
Ata landing- place a little further east, op ea ab. E. 20 N. 
At the Crane further east, 3 ft. E. 20 N. 
Dyke on top of Burgar Hill exposed in a road, Bete Bae “ 
Veira Lodge, Rousay, : pe Out, E. 30N. ms 
Westness, Rousay, 4 ft. 6 in EK. 20 N. aoe 
Skaill, Rousay, between kirk and house 2 =2 it. E. 20 N. Wa 
Fishing Geo, Rousay, : ; . 3ft, 6 in. E, 20 N. nee 
South side of Scabra Head, Rousay, : » db uin: E. 30 N. oy 
20 yards further north, seen en face, ; ae E, 30 N. ioe 
Scabra Head, Rousay, . : » Ot. E. 30 N. see p. 877. 
Telegraph Hut near Hullion, Rousay, ; Sa one us E. 20 N. jen 
Varmaday, Rousay, west dyke, . ; | oat E. 30 N. 
2 east dykes 28 eee 
a ! cy 2 ft. E. 20 N. ae 
Taing of Tratland, Rousay, 5) eb at, E. 20 N. oa 
300 yards west of Trumland Pier, “Rousay, . 6 ft. E. 20 N. oe 
Just east of Trumland Pier, Rousay, ’ . 3to4 ft. E, 20 N. we 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 903 


Locality. Width, Bearings. Notes. 
400 yards east of pier, Rousay, . : eSoft: E. 20.N. 
Avalshay Point, Rousay, . : 2 we LOH E. 20N. 
-Sourin Mill, Rousay, : : ; Be Det: E. 30 N. 
Geo of Dykend, Saviskail, Rousay, : a) Betts E. 20 N. 
Behind farmhouse, Saviskail, : : 5 2 ite E. 20 N. He 
Hoxa, South Ronaldshay, west, . . 2 ott: E. 20 N. see p. 879. 
see Pl. IT. figs. 1, 2, 4. 
a Bs east, . : ) A-ttr 9 in: E. 25 N. see p. 879. 
, - see Pl. IT. fig. 2. 
‘Widewall, FA 4 or more dykes, Be ab E. 30 N. see p. 869. 
East of Mermaid’s Rocks, Deerness, : . 2 ft. 6 in. (9) a 
MONCHIQUITES. 
Gr ainbank, Kirkwall, po eres : . 2 ft. 6 in. about E.N.E. see p. 887. 
see Pl. III. fig. 3. 
aill, Rousay,  . : ‘ ‘ am yet. E. 20 N. see p. 888. 
uoynamuckle, Rendall, . : : ahi E. 25 N. see p. 888. 
gwall, Rendall, : : ; a eaetts E. 30 N. see p. 888. 
gie Geo, Saviskail, Rousay, . ‘ 3 e4eft. Gin; E, 20 N. see p. 888. 
Wartholm, Copinshay, . : : . ft, 6 in. E. 40 N. see p. 889. 
ALNOITES., 
Rennibuster Point, east, . : 3 oe gb Ets N. 20 E. see p. 892. 
4 ss west, . ; : ea Us N. 35 E. (7) see p. 896. 
‘ twisting 
mnibuster Burn, east, . : : Ott N. 20 E. see p. 894. 
4 5 mid, . ‘ ' eelett moni N. 20 E. see p. 894. 
ee 5 west, . . ‘ «cout; N. 20 E. see p. 894. 
Knowes, Burn of Ireland, Stenness, ‘ . branches, 5 ft., N. 10 W. see p. 896. 
¥ 3 ft., 2 ft. 
Naversdale, Orphir, ne N. 20 W. see p. 895. 


MELILITE-MONCHIQUITE. 


Li g Geo, Goltick, Holm, ; : x 2 it: N. 10 E. see p. 896. 
i twisting see Pl. III. fig. 6. 


LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 


il JamEsON, Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles, 2 vols, Edinburgh, 1800. 
I, Sir Arcurpatp Gurkiz, “The Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe,” Part I., Trans. Roy. Soc. of 
m., Vol. xxviii., 1878. 


Soc. Edin., 1890. 

. J. R. Tuvor, The Orkneys and Shetland (London, 1883), with a chapter on the “ Geology of 
y,” by B. N. Peacn, F.R.S., and Joun Hornz, F.G.S. 

. M. Foster Heppuz, M.D., F.R.S.E., “The Geognosy and Mineralogy of Scotland.” Part V.— 
y. Reprinted from the Mineralogical Magazine, vol. iii. Truro, 1880. 

VI. W. C. Brécasr, “The Basic Eruptive Rocks of Gran,” Quart. Journ. of the Geolog. Soc., 1894, 
mp. 15. 

: Joun S, Fuert, “Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys,” Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin., vol. xxxix., 1898, 


II. W. C. Broaenr, “ Die Eruptivgesteine des Kristiania gebietes.” III. Das ganggefolge des laurdalits, 
ania, 1898. 

IX. J 3 F. Kemp and V. F. Masters, “The Trap Dykes of the Lake Champlain Region,” Bulletin of the 
d States Geological Survey, No. 107, 1893. j 

W. Cross, “Some Secondary Minerals of the Amphibole and Pyroxene Groups,” American Journal 


904 MR JOHN S. FLETT ON 


XI. L. V. Prrsson, “On the Monchiquites or Analcite Group of Igneous Rocks,” The Journ. of Geology, 
vol. iv., 1896, p. 679. 1 on OM 

XII. W. Linperen, “ Eruptive Rocks from Montana,” Proceedings of the California Academy of Science, 
1890, vol. iii. p. 39. 

XIII. Wuirman Cross, “An Analcite-basalt from Colorado,” Zhe Journ. of Geology, vol. v., 1897, 
p. 684. hs 

XIV. W. H. Weep and L. V. Pirsson, “The Geology of the Castle Mountain Mining District,” 
Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, No. 139, 1896. 

XV. H. Rosensuscn, Mikroskopische Physiographie der massigen Gesteine, Ed. III., 1896. 

XVI. M. Hunter and H. Rosensuscn, “Uber Monchiquit, ein camptonitisches Ganggestein aus der 
Gefolgschaft der Elaeolitsyenite,” Tschermak’s Mineralogische Mittheilungen, vol. xi. 26, 1890. 

XVII. F. Berwerrn, “ Ueber Alndit von Alno,” Annalen des k. k. naturhistorischen Hofmuseums, Wien, 
1893, Band VIII. p. 441. 

XVIII. Frank D. Apams, ‘On a Melilite-bearing Rock (Alndite) from Ste. Anne de Bellevue, near 
Montreal, Canada,” American Journ. of Science, vol. xliii., 1892, p. 269. 

XIX. H. Rosensuscu, Elemente der Gesteinslehre, Stiittgart, 1898. 

XX. Hitiepranp, “Chemical Analyses of Rocks,” Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 
No. 148. Washington, 1897. 

XXI. Wituiams, “Igneous Rocks,” Arkansas Geological Survey, Annual Report, 1890, vol. ii. 

XXII. Merri, G. P., Rocks, Rock-Weathering, and Soils, 1897, : 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 


Puare I. 


Fig. 1. Photomicrograph of the Bostonite of Onston Ness, Stennis, Orkney—magnified about 20 
diameters. The elongated sections of felspar, which is both orthoclase and plagioclase, are arranged in a 
fluidal manner. The black spots are magnetite and ilmenite weathering to leucoxene. Chlorite and other 
secondary products in small quantity occupy the interspaces between the felspars. From near the margin of 
the dyke. 

Fig. 2. The Bostonite of Onston Ness, Stennis, Orkney, photomicrograph between crossed nicols—mag- 
nified about 30 diameters. The section is taken from the centre of the dyke and shows a large Carlsbad 
twinned crystal of anorthoclase, filled with decomposed glass cavities, and surrounded by a groundmass no 
markedly fluidal, of simply twinned felspars. ‘ ; 

Fig. 3. Camptonite, Rennibuster Burn, Orkney—magnified about 20 diameters. Large idiomorphie 
phenocrysts of a pale augite, surrounded by a decomposed zone, lie in a groundmass of idiomorphic hornblende 
prisms and clear plagioclase, On the right margin a segment of an ocellus rich in felspar, radiately disposed, 
with, at the upper margin, an area of calcite occupying a miarolitic cavity. 

Fig. 4. Camptonite, Scabra Head, Rousay, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. A more fine grained 
rock than the preceding, but with a similar groundmass. The phenocrysts are augite, idiomorphic and pale 
in colour, and dark hornblende slightly corroded and showing zones of different shade. 

Fig. 5. Camptonite, Stromness, Orkney—magnified 26 diameters. At the bottom two phenocrysts of a 
violet augite. The groundmass consists of hornblende and augite, intergrown and idiomorphic, surrounded 
by clear plagioclase. In the upper part two felspathic ocelli. 

Fig. 6. Camptonite, North Galton, Sandwick, Orkney. From the centre of the dyke—magnified 35 
diameters, Large augite phenocrysts are seen in the margins below and above. On their surfaces lie lath- 
shaped felspars which, in the centre of the photograph, are enclosed by allotriomorphic brown hornblende, in 
an ophitic fashion. : 


Prats II. 


Fig. 1. Camptonite, West Dyke of Hoxa, South Ronaldshay, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters, The 
phenocrysts are augite, idiomorphic, almost free from enclosures, and pale in colour, and hornblende (almost 
in the centre of the figure), with a dark brown laminated centre and a clear peripheral zone. In the upper 
part are three crystals, the centre of which consists of an augite-hornblende intergrowth, dark with grains of 
magnetite, and showing only rude traces of crystalline boundaries, surrounded by hornblende which may con- 
sist of two zones, the inner paler in colour than the outer. Just below the centre of the figure is a similar 
crystal, the upper margin of which is formed by a thin rim of hornblende, while the remainder of the margin 
is a paler augite. Details of the groundmass are not shown, but it is rich in hornblende and augite, and con- 
tains comparatively little felspar. 


THE TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS. 905 


Fig. 2. Camptonite, East Dyke of Hoxa, South Ronaldshay, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. The 
“nature of the groundmass is better seen than in the previous figure. Some of the clear spots are analcite in 
irregular grains. Pale augite phenocrysts are few. The elongated section of hornblende shows an internal 
dark laminated nucleus and a clearer peripheral zone. On the right is a phenocryst with graphic augite-horn- 
plende centre, dark with magnetite, and two external zones of hornblende. In the centre and on the left are 
two similar crystals, but in the central one the sides are augite, the ends hornblende; the other is completely 
surrounded by a narrow border of augite. 

Fig. 3. Camptonite, West Dyke of Hoxa, South Ronaldshay, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. In the 
centre an “analcite phenocryst.” The clear space on the left is due to the disappearance of a hornblende 
stal. Above the centre a clear augite, to the right a zonal somewhat irregular hornblende. Below and to 
he left several graphic intergrowths with hornblende borders. 

Fig. 4. Camptonite, West Dyke of Hoxa, South Ronaldshay, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. On 
upper margin, part of one of the pale ocelli, with long, prismatic, hornblende crystals, and clear 
pars, embedded in a brownish, granular, somewhat decomposed glass. Below the centre a large 
mocryst of dark brown laminated hornblende intensely corroded, surrounded by a thin, clear hornblende 
and around this a narrow augite-hornblende intergrowth. The external border is partly augite, partly 
lende. To the left of this a phenocryst with a centre of graphic augite-hornblende intergrowth, dark 
magnetite, and a border of hornblende on the upper end, of augite elsewhere. 

Fig. 5. Fourchite, section from a loose block of trap found on the shore of Kirkwall Bay near Quanter- 
s Skerry—magnified 40 diameters. In the centre a large phenocryst, which consists of a graphic inter- 
wth of augite and hornblende, with comparatively little magnetite, and mixed with a considerable quantity 
lear transparent glass. The upper margin is augite, the lower hornblende. The crystal is repeatedly 
ed and the twin planes pass transversely through the whole structure. The groundmass contains mag- 
ite and hornblende embedded in a clear transparent glass which is full of dendritic skeleton crystals of 
blende. 

Fig. 6. Section of the same rock as No. 5—magnified 20 diameters. Showing a large, much corroded 
ocryst of dark laminated hornblende, with enclosures of fine magnetite dust in lines parallel to the faces 
ihe prism (110). It is surrounded by a thin margin of clear hornblende. 


; Puate III. 


‘Big. 1, Augite Camptonite, section from a loose block of trap found on the beach near Burness, Firth, 
magnified 20 diameters. Pale violet augite in small rounded crystals, which are often perfectly 
.orphic, surrounded by plagioclase felspar, mixed with magnetite. 

g. 2. Diabase, Binniaro, Firth, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. Phenocrysts of olivine altered into 
atine (above) and of augite in a glomero-porphyritic aggregate (below). The groundmass consists of 
orphic lath-shaped felspar, which is included in chloritised aucite in an ophitic fashion. 

‘Fig. 3. Monchiquite, Grainbank, Kirkwall, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. Phenocrysts of olivine, 
into serpentine, and of augite, lying in a groundmass of augite, biotite, and magnetite, with a small 
y of a granular glassy base. 

g. 4. Alniite, Rennibuster Point (east dyke), near Kirkwall, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. In 
er part of the figure a phenocryst of augite with a pale centre and dark violet-brown margin. Biotite 
1 in large irregular plates below, and on the right cut perpendicular to the cleavage; on the left a plate 
otite cut parallel to the cleavage. The biotite encloses magnetite, apatite, and at its margins the small 
of the groundmass. A pseudomorph of calcite after olivine, enclosing perofskite on the left below. 
f the groundmass are not shown, 

Fig. 5. Alndite, Naversdale, Orphir, Orkney—magnified 20 diameters. The left of the figure shows 
two large plates of biotite cut parallel to the cleavage, and enclosing apatite, magnetite, augite, etc. 
ght a large plate biotite embedded in a groundmass of little augite prisms, biotite, magnetite, and 


ig. 6. Melilite Pe ciiaite, Long Geo, Holm, Orkney—magnified 200 diameters. Augite in prismatic 
nd magnetite are embedded in clear melilite, which at the upper margin is decomposed, but on the 
little above the centre, shows the peg structure, In the centre and on the right the pegs are not 
in focus, but are indicated by the parallel striz which cross the mineral. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. (NO. 33). a 


7 


tn li 


———— 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XXXIX, 


FLETT ON “TRAP Dyxks OFTHE ORKNEVS; Pic 


Se 
> fs 


AA 35 
an a ¢' 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XXXIX, 


Minin ON “TRAP DYKES OF THE ORKNEYS.” 


—PrarEm Il. 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XXXIX. 


OF THE ORKNEYS.’—Ptate IIL 


KES 


TRAP Dy 


FLELT ON “ 


( 907 ) 


XXXIV.—On the Structure and Affinities of a Lepidodendroid Stem from the 
Calciferous Sandstone of Dalmeny, Scotland, possibly identical with Lepidophlovos 
Harcourtw (Witham). By A. C. Sewarp, M.A., F.R.S., University Lecturer in 
Botany, and A. W. Hitt, B.A., University Demonstrator in Botany, Cambridge. 
(With Plates I.-IV.) % 


: (Read June 19, 1899.) 
INTRODUCTORY.* 


The unusually fine stem which forms the subject of this paper was found by Mr 
T. Kerr, of Edinburgh, in rocks of Calciferous sandstone age exposed in a railway 
cutting at Dalmeny, Linlithgowshire. Mr James Bunning, of the Geological Survey 
of Scotland, called the attention of Mr Krpsron to the fossil, and the latter 
very generously placed part of the specimen in the hands of one of us for in- 
vestigation. 

The photograph reproduced in PI. I. fig. 1, for which we are indebted to the kind- 
ness of Mr J. J. H. Tau, was taken from a polished slab of the stem in the Museum 
of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street. A similar specimen is in the Geological Museum, 
Edinburgh, and the remaining portions of the fossil are in Mr Kuipsron’s possession 
and in the Botanical Laboratory Collection, Cambridge. A preliminary note on the 

structure and affinities of this Carboniferous plant was contributed to the Cambridge 
Philosophical Society in November 1898,+ but no detailed account of the fossil has 
been published. A reference to the state of preservation of the tissues has also been 
made by one of us in a text-book published last year.t 

The specimen consists of a fairly thick piece of a stem, 33 cm. in diameter, and a 
polished transverse section of the block presents the appearance shown in PI. IJ. fig. 1. 
The peripheral portion consists of a band of unequal thickness of partially disorganised 
bark ; internal to this there is a light-coloured matrix of volcanic ash filling up the 
hollow trunk, and the detached central cylinder of wood and pith occupies an eccentric 
position close to the thicker part of the shell of bark. ‘The marked contrast between 
the dark silicified plant tissues and the buff-coloured volcanic ash renders the specimen 

one of the most striking examples of a Paleeozoic tree that has so far been discovered. 
The position of the larger angular fragments in the ash and of the central cylinder, point 


* The numbers in brackets after the authors’ names in the footnotes refer to the year of publication of the works 
Given in the bibliography on page 928 ; ¢.g., (99) means that the paper was published in 1899. 
+ Sewarp and Hitt (99). +t Snwarp (98), figs. 14, A, B, and 15, p. 83. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. (NO. 34). Has 


908 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


to the stem having been preserved in the position in which it is represented in fig. 1. 
The tree may have been killed by the effects of neighbouring volcanic eruptions ; and 
after the decay and removal of the inner and more delicate cortical tissues, the hollow 
shell was filled with volcanic ash. Silica was the petrifying medium, and the preserva- _ 
tion of the tissues is unusually perfect: in the central cylinder there are numerous 
spherulitic patches scattered through the matrix; it would seem that silicification was 
first completed round definite isolated centres, and this was followed by a secondary 
crystallisation in the matrix, which partially obliterated some of the more delicate 
structural features. 

Several of the photographs show the concentric bands of the circular areas of crystal- 
lisation—as in P]. I. fig. 5 and Pl. IL. figs. 13-15.* 

The shell of the bark consists in the main of secondary tissue, from 7 to 8 em. in 
thickness, for which we shali use Von Mohl’s term—Phelloderm ; externally this is 
broken up into irregular patches, as seen in the lower part of fig. 1, by numerous 
longitudinal fissures, some of which were probably formed during the life of the tree. 
Decay, previous to the introduction of the silicifying solution, removed the greater part 
of the cortical tissues, but it will be shown that the lost tissue no doubt consisted of 
thin-walled parenchyma. The central cylinder has a diameter of 6°5 cm. ; the centre is 
occupied by concentric bands of silica, seen as a white spot in fig. 1; surrounding this 
is a band of unequal breadth of pith-tissue (fig. 1) about 11 mm. in breadth, suc- 
ceeded by a ring, 3 mm. in width, of primary wood x’; beyond this is a broad zone of 
secondary wood «”, 2°2 cm. in diameter (vide also fig. 38, Pl. IV.). External to the 
secondary wood some of the tissues have fortunately been clearly preserved. 


A. DESCRIPTION OF THE TISSUES. 


i. Pith.t—The band of pith (fig. 1, Pl. I.) has an irregular inner margin, where 
it is succeeded in the centre by concentric layers of silica ; probably the pith was not quite 
solid in the old part of the living tree. The cells of this region are parenchymatous in 
form, and vary considerably in size; those in contact with the imnermost tracheids of 
the primary wood have a more regular arrangement and a more uniform size than those 
towards the interior (Pl. I. fig. 4, Pl. IV. fig. 25). As we pass towards the centre of the 
pith, the cells become more irregular in shape, and many of them have the form of long 
filaments, which show a tendency to grow in a radial and more or less vertical direction, 
increasing in length by apical growth, and dividing by transverse walls. The general 
appearance of the parenchyma of the pith, especially the more internal portions, sug- 
gests an actively-growing stout hyphal tissue, comparable to the hyphe in the 


* Vide SHWARD, loc. cit. 
+ The term “pith” is used for the central tissue of the stele as a matter of convenience, but it would, perhaps, be 


better to adopt the expression “ central conjunctive” [Fior (93)]. Brrtranp has discussed the morphological nature of 
this region in his paper on L. Harcourtiz [BERTRAND (91)]. 


- 


eae Sr eT ee 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 909 


medullary region of Fucus and other genera of large brown seaweeds, which arise as 
outgrowths of short elements and insinuate themselves between neighbouring cells. 
This form of tissue is also well known in the middle cortical region of various Lepido- 
dendroid plants, and a similar parenchyma occurs in the cortex of some recent Lyco- 
podiacee.* The photograph shown in PI. I. fig. 4 affords distinct proof of active cell- 
division taking place in both the smaller external cells and in the larger filamentous 
cell-rows.{ This phenomenon of growth in the pith is referred to in a later part of the 
paper. It remains to call attention to the existence of numerous elements next the 
primary xylem, which may be spoken of as short or isodiametric tracheids with fine 
scalariform and reticulate bands of thickening; these are shown in Pl. IV. fig. 25. A 
solitary short tracheid was observed at the inner edge of the pith-tissue, similar to those 
of the peripheral region. ‘These short tracheids are of the same character as the 
familiar ‘“ barred-cells” of W1LLIAMsoN, scattered through the axial region of the central 
cylinder of Lepidodendron vasculare (Binney).{ 

u. Primary xylem.—The limits of the annular band of primary xylem—a’—are 
readily recognised in Pl. I. fig. 1. This ring of wood consists of scalariform tracheids— 
about 20 to 30 tracheids in breadth ; the narrowest tracheids form the outer limits of the 
band, and the diameter of the elements increases towards the inner edge of the xylem 
(Pl. IV. fig. 24). The outer edge of the xylem ring or corona has an undulating 
outline, prominent tapering teeth, which would appear as ridges in surface-view, and 
shorter, broader projections alternating with bays or depressions as shown in fig. 24. 
The two diagrams in fig. 34, Pl. IV., illustrate the general appearance of the outline of 
the primary wood. The character of the xylem surface appears to agree with that of 
Lepidophloios Harcourt, as described by BeRTRAND.§ ‘The narrowest and most external 
tracheids, which constitute the protoxylem, have their thickening bands rather farther 
apart than in the wider elements, and the scalariform type passes in some cases into a 
spiral form of xylem element. There does not appear to be that well-marked distinction 
between definite spirally thickened protoxylem elements and the larger scalariform 
tracheids of the primary xylem, which we find in most recent Vascular Cryptogams. In 
some ferns, however, the protoxylem tracheids are not clearly differentiated from the 
rest of the xylem. The broad scalariform pits of the tracheids in both the primary and 


* Bower (93), p. 346. 

+ The growth and division of pith-cells has been noticed in old coniferous stems. Cf. STRASBURGER (88), p. 88. 

t This specific name has been adopted, following the example of Solms-Laubach, in preference to that of Lepidoden- 
dron selaginoides used by CARRUTHERS, WILLIAMSON, and others. In 1862 Binney described the internal structure of 
certain stems, which he named Sigillaria vascularis and Lepidodendron vasculare ; these were afterwards shown to be 
identical. The structure of the same species was also described by CARRUTHERS [CARRUTHERS (69)], and identified by 
him with L. selaginoides of Sternberg, a determination which WILLIAMSON, who extended CARRUTHERS’ account, doubt- 
fully accepted. SrERNBERG’s species is, however, included by Kipston asa synonym of L. Sternbergi, Brongn. [Kipston 
(86), p. 151]. The simplest plan would seem to be to adopt BINNEY’s name, as we are quite certain as to the characters 
of the stem to which he gave the specific name of vascularis. KuipsTon has included Sigillaria vascularis, Binney, as a 
synonym of Lepidodendron Harcourtii, Witham (loc cit., p. 169), but the difference in the anatomical characters is too 
well marked to render their identity possible. 

§ Berrranp (91). 


4 
910 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 4 


secondary wood are clearly bordered (PI. IV. figs. 25, 26 and 29), and the position of 
the pit-closing membrane is occupied by numerous delicate threads extending from one 
thickening band to the next ; the appearance of these in surface-view is seen in figs. 
25 and 26. In tangential longitudinal section the walls of the tracheids have a double 
contour, and each pit-closing membrane appears to consist of a double series of irregular 
fine threads, which have probably been formed by the contraction and tearing of the 
thin membrane which originally connected the scalariform bands. Precisely similar 
threads occur in Lepidodendron vasculare (Binney),* Lepidophloios Wunschianus 
(Will.),¢ ZL. Harcourt (Witham),{ Lepidodendron mundum (Will.),§ L. brevifolium 
(Will.),|| Z. sgvamosum (Gépp.),1 and Stigmaria ficoides, Brongn.** 

Count Soims-Lavsacu, in describing the same structure in a Culm species of Lepido- 
dendron, speaks of the two sets of delicate threads, which appear as two lines in the 
drawing of Pl. IV. fig. 29, as probably corresponding to the ‘“ grenzhiiutchen” of the 
tracheid wall, the middle lamella of which has disappeared. The same limiting mem- 
brane is shown in Pl. [V. fig. 26, and the irregular darker substance in the middle of 
each thickening band represents the shrunken internal portion of the wall. This 
histological feature is probably the result of post-mortem changes, and cannot be 
regarded as of any importance as a specific character.TT{ 

In contact with the narrower tracheids, already referred to, in the outer portions of 
the primary xylem, there are numerous short and more delicate elements characterised 
by fine spiral and reticulate thickening bands; some of these are shown in fig. 24, 
Pl. IV., but it is more convenient to deal with this feature in describing the origin and 
structure of the leaf-traces. At two points in the ring of primary xylem, indicated by 

in the diagram, fig. 33, Pl. IV., there is an indentation occupied by thin-walled 
parenchyma and a few fairly large isodiametric tracheids. 

iii. Secondary «xylem.—The broad band of secondary wood consists of radially 
disposed scalariform tracheids of smaller diameter than the innermost elements of the 
primary wood. At some points the smaller internal tracheids which compose the inner 
ends of the rows of secondary xylem are seen in contact with the elongated narrow 
elements of the projecting teeth of the corona, but for the most part the rows of 
secondary tracheids are separated from the primary tracheids by a zone of varying 
breadth consisting of elements of a different type. These intervening cells {{ are short 
or isodiametric in form, and have spiral or reticulate bands on their walls ; they are, in 
fact, short and delicate tracheids (Pl. II. fig. i8 and Pl. IV. fig. 24). When secondary 


* HOVELACQUE (92), p. 42, fig. 6. Soums-Lausac# (92), pl. ii. fig. 6. 


+ WinLtAMson (80), pl. xiv. fig. 4. {t Ibid. (938), p. 20. § Ibid. (89), pl. v. fig. 14 A. 
|| H.g., specimen 511 (Williamson Coll., British Museum). 
“| Soums-LavuBacs (92), p. 76. ** Thid., p. 76. 


++ In a specimen of WiLLIAMson’s Lepidodendron brevifolium, some of the tracheids show the pit-closing membrane 
intact, while in others it has the form of fine threads. 

tt “Fibres primitives” of Berrranp. It is probable that these elements described by BrrtRanp as cells with smooth 
walls possessed originally reticulate thickening bands, 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. Om 


thickening began there were some at least of these isodiametric elements present on the 
surface of the corona, and additional elements of this type were formed during the 
process of secondary growth; but this question must be considered in more detail in 
connection with the leaf-traces.* 

The rows of secondary tracheids are separated at intervals by bands of one, two or 
several rows of radially elongated elements characterised by spiral or partially reticu- 
late thickening bands. In the stem before us there appears to be an almost complete 
absence of any simple unthickened parenchymatous elements in the bands of medullary- 
ray tissue. The nature of the medullary-ray elements is shown in Pl. I. fig. 6,f which 
represents the appearance of a broad “ray” as seen in a transverse section of the 
secondary wood, also in Pl. IV. fig. 24; in figs. 7, 30 and 32, the medullary-ray tissue 
is seen in longitudinal sections of the wood. In a tangential section of the secondary 
xylem, the medullary rays are seen to vary considerably in size, consisting of a single 
row of a few cells deep, or of bands of considerable length and varying breadth 
(Pl. IV. fig. 30); a leaf-trace may be met with in the broadest rays, as seen in trans- 
verse section, on its way through the secondary wood (Pl. [. fig. 7 /¢, and PL. IV. fig. 
30 /t). Inthe broad medullary ray shown in the slightly oblique tangential section 
of the wood in Pl. I. fig. 7, it is possible by careful focussing to examine the walls of 
the tissue, and in every case the elements appear to possess the characteristic thickening 
bands. In radial section the medullary-ray elements are clearly seen in Pl. IV. fig. 32 ; 
this section shows the radially elongated form and other characters of the tissue. The 
simple nature of the pits in the secondary tracheids which abut on medullary-ray 
elements is demonstrated in Pl. IV. fig. 29. 

There is the same absence of any concentric lines of growth in the secondary 
tracheids as in Paleozoic stems generally. Here and there, however, the uniformity 
in the size of the constituents of the wood is interrupted by the occurrence of groups of 
smaller elements suddenly abutting on the walls of the larger tracheids. This is well 
shown in Pl. II. fig. 11.. Some of the tracheids immediately internal to the patch of 
smaller elements are seen to have their cavities occupied by thin-walled parenchymatous 
cells ¢; a similar instance of tiillen in the tracheids has also been observed at one place 
in a longitudinal section of the wood. This local irregularity in the size of the tracheids 
may, no doubt, be regarded as the expression of some interference with the normal 
progress of secondary growth. 

iv. Leaf-trace bundles.—The prominent ridges of the corona, as seen in Pl. IV. fig. 
24, gradually detach themselves from the primary wood and constitute the leaf-traces in 
such manner as BERTRAND and other writers have described in various Lepidodendroid 
plants. For a short distance a leaf-trace pursues an almost vertical course approxi- 


* Winuiamson and Scort [(94), p. 926], in their account of the secondary thickening in Sphenophyllum plurifoliatum, 
speak of part of the secondary xylem as separated from the primary xylem by a layer of thin-walled tissue. 

+ Of. the medullary rays of Stigmaria ficoides, Lepidodendron vasculare (specimens 362 and 1609, Williamson Coli.), 
also L. brevifoliwm (No. 489), etc. 


912 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


mately parallel to the surface of the primary wood. After becoming free it soon bends 
outwards almost at a right angle, and passes in a horizontal direction through a broad 
medullary ray until it reaches the limits of the secondary wood ; at this point it again 
ascends, bending up abruptly and appearing in transverse section just beyond the outer- 
most secondary tracheids (Pl. II. fig. 15 7t and Pl. III. 16 and 19).* The projecting 
ridges of smaller tracheids at the periphery of the primary xylem form a reticulum on 
the corona as seen in surface-view, and, as BERTRAND has shown in L. Harcourtii, the leaf- 
traces appear to be given off from the lower angle of the meshes. A comparison of 
the Dalmeny stem with the drawings in BERTRAND’s monograph leads us to consider the 
mode of attachment of the leaf-traces to the stele identical in the two cases. Each leaf- 
trace consists of a few primary elongated tracheids, accompanied by numerous thinner 
walled and shorter spiral and reticulately thickened elements ; these latter elements are 
shown in fig. 24 in contact with the central projecting leaf-trace group. When seen in 
a tangential section of the secondary wood, the thicker and larger tracheids of the trace 
-are recognised as a distinct group (PI. I. fig. 7 and Pl. IV. fig. 30) surrounded by the 
smaller and more delicate elements which exhibit a more or less regular radiating arrange- 
ment. As seen beyond the limits of the secondary wood, a leaf-trace presents a charac- 
teristic diploxyloid structure, which on examination reveals certain points of particular 
interest. There is the well-defined group of long tracheids with the narrowest elements 
towards the exterior, but not on the edge of the primary elements, and now the radial dis- 
position of the smaller elements, less distinctly shown in the tangential sections previously 
referred to (Pl. I. fig. 7, Pl. IV. fig. 30), is very striking (PI. II. fig. 15, Pl. III. figs. 16 and 
17). The smallest and somewhat crushed primary elements occupy a position near the 
-outer edge of the primary xylem, the leaf-trace bundle may therefore be described as mesarch 
(Pl. ILI. fig. 19 pa). We have in each leaf-trace a group of primary tracheids partially 
enclosed by radially disposed rows of secondary tracheids, the latter being characterised 
by their smaller size and somewhat more delicate structure. The secondary xylem of 
each leaf-trace has usually the form of a fan, attached to the sides and outer edge of the 
primary xylem, but the fan-shaped secondary tissue may extend over almost the whole 
surface, as seen in Pl. III. fig. 16. The secondary thickening of the leaf-trace bundles 
is effected to some extent during their passage through the secondary wood of the stem, 
and further additions are made to the trace after it has passed beyond the limits of the 
wood of the stem. ‘This latter point is illustrated by figs. 16 and 19, PI. ILI. m, where 
the external secondary tracheids of the leaf-bundle pass gradually into thin-walled short 
meristematic cells. In Pl. III. fig. 21 a leaf-trace is seen in radial longitudinal section ; 
the limit of the secondary wood of the stem is slightly to the right of ¢; at a we have 
some of the longer and thicker primary tracheids, and at b a broad band of the shorter 
and thinner secondary tracheids. A portion of the same section is more highly mag- 
nified in Pl. IV. fig. 28; a@ and 6 mark the position of the primary and secondary 
tracheids respectively. A tangential view of the secondary elements (fig. 21 b) is 


* Of. MARKFELDT (85), fig. 3. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 913 


afforded by the photograph in Pl. III. fig. 23 ; in the upper part of the section the more 
internal secondary elements are shown, with their reticulate, spiral or scalariform bands, 
and below we have the more delicate recently formed peripheral tracheids. This section 
shows very clearly the meristematic tissue which has been pointed out in fig. 19; the 
cells have extremely thin walls and square ends ; they are slightly longer than broad, as 
seen in tangential section (Pl. III. fig. 23 m, m). In Pl. III. fig. 17 the transverse 
section has just missed a leaf-trace, but the accompanying thin-walled meristem is 
clearly shown, with the cells disposed in a fan-shaped manner. 

The presence of undoubted secondary xylem in the leaf-trace bundles is a fact of 
considerable importance from the point of view of the affinities of the plant, and as 
proving that the distinction insisted upon by some writers between the Sigillarize of the 
section Leiodermaria and Lepidodendroid leaf-bundles cannot be maintained.* 

Owing to the absence of the greater portion of the cortex in the Dalmeny stem, the 
course of the leaf-traces cannot be followed through the cortex, but the partially 
disorganised tissues of two traces have been met with in the outer cortical tissues. 
Before passing to the consideration of the outer cortex, the tissues which immediately 
succeed the secondary xylem, and the question of secondary growth must be dealt 
with. 

v. Tissues in contact with the xylem; and secondary growth of the central cylinder. 
—the first point to notice in connection with the growth of the secondary wood is the: 
juxtaposition of small tracheids and the most external tracheids of normal size, as in 
the local patch shown in fig. 11, Pl. II. Instead of finding the large tracheids at the 
limits of the secondary wood succeeded by thinner-walled elements of the same breadth, 
which gradually pass into obvious cambium cells, we have a sudden transition from the- 
wide elements (¢’, Pl. III. fig. 19) to the much narrower elements ¢’t”. It is physically 
impossible that the latter should ever have been able to alter their form so as to fit on. 
to the older and larger tracheids. It would seem that the constant association of these 
dissimilar tracheids at the periphery of the wood points to the existence of unfavourable. 
conditions of growth; had the stem continued to grow, the period during which such 
conditions occurred would be shown by the occurrence of a ring of smaller tracheids ; 
an extension round the whole circumference of such inequalities as are found here and 
there in the secondary wood (eg., Pl. Il. fig. 11). It may not be unreasonable to 
suggest that this irregularity in the growth of the wood was due to the harmful effects 
of neighbouring volcanic activity. Prof. WiLLiamson has expressed the opinion that the 
large Arran trees (‘‘ Lepidodendron Wunschianum”) perished probably ‘in conse- 
quence of the mephitic vapours which filled the atmosphere”; the forests grew in a 
district ‘‘as volcanic as Auvergne.” + 


* Ina tangential longitudinal section through the secondary wood of a specimen of Lepidodendron vasculare (No. 
495) in the Williamson Collection, an outgoing leaf-trace seen in a wide medullary ray shows a tendency of some of 
the elements to arrange themselves in a fan-shaped manner like that of the secondary tracheids in PI. I. fig. 7 and 
Pl. IV. fig. 30. 

+ WILLIAMSON (96), p. 175. 


914 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


The occurrence of the narrower tracheids is in all probability merely the expression 
of the result of harmful conditions, and not an indication that the secondary thickening 
had reached its maximum extent. It might be suggested that the Lepidodendroid stems 
possessed a limited power of secondary growth, and that the stem before us represents 
the final stage of wood development; we find, however, that such continuous bands of 
smaller tracheids occasionally occur in the secondary wood of Lepidodendron* and 
Stigmaria,t and are succeeded by larger tracheids of the normal size. A section of one 
of the Arran stems in the Binney Collection shows an almost continuous zone of small 
tracheids succeeded externally by larger elements near the periphery of the secondary 
wood. ‘The elements in the region t” of fig. 19, Pl. IIL. correspond more closely in size 
with the large xylem tracheids than do the small elements in contact with the large 
tracheid a. In forming the small tracheids the segments cut off from the meristem 
cells must have divided radially ; if the radial walls were not formed, the meristem 
segments would approximate more closely in breadth to the tracheids of normal size. 
But the mechanics of secondary growth in Lepidodendroid stems has still to be satis- 
factorily explained. 

Passing beyond the small tracheids (¢’, figs. 16 and 19), we find a few rows of 
thinner-walled elongated elements, which are succeeded further out by several rows of 
delicate parenchymatous cells (cm, Pl. IL. fig. 10, Pl. IIL. figs. 16 and 19). The cells 
composing this band of thin-walled tissue are rectangular, slightly elongated in a tan- 
gential direction, and somewhat flattened, as seen in a radial longitudinal section (PI. I. 
fig. 10, em). The thinnest and most recently formed cell-walls in this tissue oceupy a 
radial position. In a few places the band cm may be traced continuously through the 
more elongated elements ¢” to the narrow tracheids, but owing to the delicate nature of 
the parenchymatous cells the continuity: of the tissue is frequently interrupted by 
tearing. 

In Pl. IL. fig. 10 we have an oblique radial section of the narrow tracheids and more 
external tissue ; beyond the thicker tracheids ¢’, corresponding to ¢’ in the transverse 
sections (figs. 16, 17 and 19), we have shorter and thinner elements ¢” (also in the 
transverse sections, figs. 16, 17, 19, and the radial longitudinal section, fig. 5), which 
we regard as partially developed tracheids, with transverse or slightly oblique walls, 
and beyond these the band em, composed of flattened cells in a state of active division. 
At mr, in fig. 10, a strand of flatter cells is seen passing across the tracheids: this 
represents the outward extension of a medullary ray (wide Pl. I. fig. 5). This broad 
band of rectangular cells we regard as the meristematic zone, which is responsible for 
the growth in thickness of the xylem cylinder. From the examination of the Dalmeny 
stem and other species of Lepidodendroid plants, we are led to the conclusion that, as a 
general rule, in Lepidodendron and Lepidophloios there was no well-defined cambium in 


* WILLIAMSON (72), pl. xJiii. fig. 21. 
+ Ibid. (81), pl. liii. fig. 21. Section No. 1922 H. (Williamson Coll.) shows three complete rings of smaller 
tracheids in the outer part of the secondary wood. Vide also WILLIAMSON (87), pl. iv. fig. 19. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 915 


the sense of the typical cambium of recent Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons, or of such 
Palzeozoic plants as Calamites, Sphenophyllum, Lyginodendron, and other genera; but. 
in its place a broader band of meristematic elements, more similar in appearance to the 
zone of meristem which is formed in the pericycle of certain Monocotyledons or to the 
meristem zone of Isoetes and other recent plants. 

The leaf-trace bundles in their course through the meristematic band, cm, are 
enclosed by an arc of the cambial tissue, m, which furnishes additions to the rows of 
secondary tracheids, and internal to each trace we see some flattened rows of the 
meristem zone of the stem (PI. III. figs. 16 and 19). This relation of the leaf-bundles 
to the cambial tissue, and the arching round them of a special leaf-trace meristem band, 
may be compared with the behaviour of the petiole stele in Lygniodendron Oldhamium 
(Binney) as figured by Witttamson and Scort.* 

Beyond the meristem zone cm there are preserved portions of a partially dis- 
organised tissue consisting in part of large sacs and smaller, more or less crushed cells. 
(sc) ; this zone is directly continuous internally with the outermost cells of the band 
em, as shown in Pl. Il. fig. 9. This tissue, which may be termed the secretory zone, 
contains numerous dark and irregular patches which most probably represent the 
remains of secreted substances. The large circular sacs (sc, figs. 9, 15, and 16), which 
present practically the same appearance in longitudinal as in transverse section, were no. 
doubt secretory in function. The areas bounded by the dark lines shown in fig. 9, sc, 
Pl. II., and fig. 16, sc, Pl. IIL, may enclose some small delicate cells ; it is probable 
that these elements constitute glandular tissues, which gave rise to latex or other 
products of secretion. External to this secretory zone the tissues have disappeared, and 
the wide gap which intervenes between this region and the outer cortex is occupied by 
volcanic ash. The large sac-like spaces in this zone often present the appearance of 
having been tangentially stretched (figs. 9 and 16). 

No tissue has been found which can be described as typical phloem, but to this point 
reference is made in a later section of the paper. The so-called secretory zone occupies 
the position of phlcem tissue, and may represent it physiologically. The secretory zone 
may probably be regarded as the outermost tissue of the stelar region. t 

vi. Outer cortex, chiefly phelloderm.—We now come to the shell of bark already 
mentioned ; a piece of this cortical region is shown natural size in Pl. I. fig. 2. The 
innermost portion consists of imperfectly preserved large parenchymatous cells of 
polygonal form (a to ), fig. 2); the walls of the cells have been partially destroyed, 
but the angles are more perfectly preserved, and small intercellular spaces occur between 
the individual elements. At a in fig. 2 the remains of a leaf-trace occur, the primary 
tracheids are seen in slightly oblique transverse view, and the more delicate secondary 
elements are crushed and displaced. As we follow the parenchymatous tissue outwards, 


* WILLIAMSON and Scort (95), p. 712, pl. xxii. fig. @& 

+ This view is supported by an examination of some unusually perfect specimens of Lepidophloios fuligimosus in the 
Binney Collection. [Since this was written the sections referred to in the Binney Collection, Cambridge, have been 
figured and described. Vide Srwarp (99).] 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. (NO. 34). 72 


916 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


t is found to gradually pass over, in the region b of fig. 2, into regular radially disposed — 
rows of secondary tissue consisting of narrower and more elongated cells. This 
secondary tissue composes the whole of the outermost cortex from b to the surface of 
the stem. The appearance of the tissue is illustrated by fig. 18, Pl. III.; the cells are 
of fairly uniform size, but in some rows the elements have been tangentially stretched ; 
intercellular spaces are comparatively large and abundant. The same tissue is seen in 
radial section in fig. 22, and in tangential view in fig. 20, Pl. III. The regular arrange- 
ment and square ends of these elongated cells, as shown in fig. 22, is a characteristic 
feature of the secondary cortical tissue of Lepidodendreze and Sigillariz.* The vacuo- 
lated cell-contents seen in the tangential section, fig. 20, bear a misleading resemblance 
to small cells; but the cellular appearance is simply due to the manner of occurrence of 
the cell-contents, and may be compared with the vacuolated tannin and other sub- 
stances met with in unhealthy tissues of recent plants. The most interesting feature of 
the phelloderm is the occurrence of seven or eight fairly regular bands of secretory cell- 
rows, as seen at ¢ in fig. 2, and at d, e, f, and in other parts of the phelloderm. There 
is a row of distinct secretory groups or canals just internal to the innermost cells of the 
phelloderm (0, fig. 2); each of these secretory patches contains dark indistinct traces of 
secreted products enclosed by smaller cells lining the cavity. 
The row of secretory cells at c consists mainly of oval and circular areas, which may 

be either empty or occupied by portions of thin-walled cells and products of secretion, 
as shown in fig. 18, Pl. III. At d we have a similar row of secretory patches, but in 
these there is rather more of the secreted material; similarly at e and / (fig. 2) there are 
fairly regular bands of such tissue. In these more external rows the disorganisation of 
the secretory elements is less advanced, and their structure is more clearly seen (PI. IL. 
fig. 12). The cells forming each secretory strand are much lighter in colour than the 
neighbouring brown cells which make up the bulk of the phelloderm. It would seem that 
as the phelloderm was developed from a phellogen, at fairly regular intervals groups of the 
phelloderm cells underwent further division, and constituted definite strands of secretory 
cells. In longitudinal section a secretory strand presents the appearance shown in PI. I. 
fig. 8; the cells have undergone various transverse and longitudinal divisions, and some 
of them have become disorganised, and have given rise to dark brown secretory pro- 
ducts. A single secretory patch of cells is shown in PI. IV. fig. 31; this is taken from 
the region fof the phelloderm (fig. 2), and shows a central group of cells deeply coloured 
by the resinous or other secretion. The method of development of these secretory 
strands appears to have been lysigenous. The superficial resemblance of the phelloderm 
with its rows of canals to the wood of resinous Conifers is fairly striking ; a figure given 
by TscurrcH t of the resin-ducts in the wood of Copaifera Langdorfix also agrees 
closely with our fig. 18, Pl. III. 
* Cf, WILLIAMSON (72), pl. xxix. fig. 42, pl. xxxi. fig. 55; (72), pl. xliii. fig. 17; (78), pl. xxv. fig. 100, Also 
RENAULT (75), pl. x. fig. 11; Renauir and Granp’EvrRy (75), pls. iii. and v.; Bronaniarr (39), pl. xxvi. figs. 2 


and 3; and Renavutt and Rocux (97), pl. vi. fig. 2. 
+ TscHIRCH (89), p. 217, fig. 216. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. oF 


The phelloderm tissue is continued to the exterior of the fissured surface shown in: 
the lower part of the photograph in Pl. L. fig. i. In the upper part of the stem this. 
secondary tissue was succeeded by the phellogen layer, and this again by the parenchyma 
of the leaf-cushions ; probably this outermost tissue had been thrown off from the older 
portion of the stem during the life of the tree.* 

Some secretory strands in a state of development are met with also in the neigh- 
bourhood of g in fig. 2, and beyond this region the phelloderm cells are less clearly 
preserved, and are characterised by walls of considerable thickness, the lumen being in. 
some cases almost obliterated, and what remains of it is filled with a black substance. 
It is often difficult in dealing with petrified tissues to distinguish thick-walled tissue: 
from tissue of which the cell-walls have been thickened by mineral deposition or by 
swelling of the membrane during mineralisation. In the present instance the cell-walls. 
were probably fairly thick, but the thickened mass shown in the cell of Pl. IV. fig. 27 
would seem to be the result of swelling of the wall, and this explanation is rendered 
probable by the fact that the cells of neighbouring rows are more or less flattened by 
pressure. The outermost portion of the phelloderm is characterised by many of the 
cells being tangentially elongated, and the occurrence of newly-formed radial walls in 
some of these elements points to the stretching being the result of growth, and not of 
mechanical or secondary origin. In a tangential section of the outermost phelloderm 
there are seen narrow bands of an opaque black substance forming an irregular 
anastomosing system; these dark lines extending through the imperfectly preserved 
tissue probably represent resinous or some other mineralised secretion. 

There is another point of some interest brought out by the examination of the 
phelloderm connected with the leaf-traces. Reference has been made to the occurrence 
of two partially disorganised leaf-traces in the inner part of the outer cortex (region a, 
fig. 2, Pl. I.). In the peripheral part of the outer bark no indication of any leaf-trace: 
xylem elements has been found, but in a radial section of the phelloderm one leaf-trace 
was met with in the region of the phelloderm indicated by d in fig. 2, Pl. I., passing 
outwards in an approximately horizontal direction ; the xylem portion is crushed and 
imperfect, but sufficiently clear to enable one to easily recognise the tracheids (PI. II. 
fig. 14 tr). The xylem is accompanied by a large patch of parenchyma composed of 
cells of varying shape, some of the elements having a hyphal or filamentous form. This. 
mass of parenchyma is in marked contrast to the regular radial rows of phelloderm 
through which it is passing ; there can be no doubt that we have here a portion of the 
middle cortex which accompanied the leaf-trace as the so-called parichnos (pr) of 
BERTRAND and other writers. The parichnos tissue affords an indication of the character 
of the lost middle cortex of which it formed a part. In tangential sections of the more 
external portion of the phelloderm, the mass of fibrous cells of which it consists is 

* In a longitudinal section of Lepidophloios in the Williamson Collection (No. 1963) there appears to be an 


indication of an absciss layer of tissue in course of formation at the base of a leaf, suggesting that the leaf-fall was 
accompanied by the usual phenomenon familiar in the case of recent trees. 


918 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


occasionally interrupted by the occurrence of an elongated elliptical group of parenchyma, 
with the cells slightly extended in a radial direction. One of these groups is shown in 
Pl. I. fig. 8; the cells vary considerably in size and shape, the central region consisting 
of smaller elements; the group shown in the photograph is about 3 mm. in length, and 
there is a second similar parenchymatous mass slightly above and to one side of the 
group shown in the figure. These parenchymatous masses agree in their structural 
features with the parenchyma accompanying the leaf-trace shown in Pl. II. fig. 14 pr, 
and it is probable that the more external groups like that of fig. 8 are the arms of the 
parichnos which have been shown by WILLIAMSON * and others to bifurcate in the more 
external region of the cortex in Lepidodendroid stems. In younger stems the two 
arms of a parichnos would appear on the same level as seen in a tangential section of 
the outermost cortex, and between them would be found the leaf-trace bundle ; in the 
present instance we are dealing with an old trunk from which the leaves had fallen, and 
the parichnos arms alone persist, the vascular tissue having been gradually crushed and 
obliterated. It is well known that in the lower portions of large casts of Sigillarian 
stems the two large elliptical parichnos scars are often seen to lose their regular paired 
arrangement; one may occur at a higher level than the others, or they may appear as 
separate areas with no definite order. 


B. AFFINITIES OF THE DALMENY PLANT. 


In the foregoing description no reference has been made to the relationship of the 
stem to other Lepidodendreze. The size of the stem and its anatomical characteristics 
at once suggest a comparison with the famous Arran species described by WILLIAMSON 
and others. We have no doubt as to the specific identity of the Dalmeny and Arran 
trees ; an examination of the series of sections of the Arran plant in the Williamson 
Collection (British Museum) reveals an identity in structural features. The Dalmeny 
specimen is, however, much more perfectly preserved, and enables us to considerably 
extend the diagnosis of the species. 

The fossil trees of Arran were discovered by Mr Wtwscu{ in volcanic beds of 
Calciferous sandstone age at Laggan Bay, and briefly described by him in 1867. He 
refers to the large stems as apparently Sigillarian, containing five or six “internal 
piths”; the smaller branches he identifies with Sigillaria, Halonia, and Lepidodendron, 
CARRUTHERS § afterwards visited the locality and gave a short account of the fossil 
stems; he speaks of having traced the radiating branches of a Stigmaria to a large 
trunk of Sigillaria, and describes the internal “ piths ” of WUNnscH as young stems which 
had grown from spores carried into the hollow trunk of a large tree. CARRUTHERS || 
proposed the name Lepidodendron Wiinschianum in 1869 for a species from Arran in 


* WILLIAMSON (93), pls. iii. and iv. 

+ Renavwr (96), p. 770. Vide also Renavit and Rocux (97), p. 17, where this point is referred to in the descrip- 
tion of a silicified Syringodendron stem. 

+ Wétwnscx (67), p. 97. Vide also LynuL (78), p. 547, and Spwarp (98), p. 89. 

§ CaRRUTHERS (69), p. 178. || Ibid. (69), p. 6. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. ons 


his possession, but no diagnosis of the plant is given. In 1871 Binney * described 
three new Lepidostrobi from the Arran volcanic beds, and to one of these, a hetero- 
sporous form, he gives the name Lepidostrobus Wiinschianus. In 1880 WILLIaMson 
published an account of the Arran Lepidodendron,{ in which he described and figured 
small twigs with a solid “vascular axis” (stele), and larger branches and stems with a 
parenchymatous axial region enclosed by a ring of wood. He regarded the smaller 
specimens as representing different stages in the growth of the large trunks, and dis- 
cussed the evidence in favour of a gradual increase in diameter of the axial tissues, and 
the conversion of a solid vascular stele to a larger stele with a central parenchyma. In 
1883 the same author{ gave an account of an Halonial branch from Arran which with 
good reason he referred to the plant previously described. Ten years later WILLIAMSON 
made a brief reference to Brnney’s Arran Lepidostrobi, and in the second part of his 
Index,§ published in that year, he speaks of the Laggan Bay plant as Lepidodendron 
Wiinschianum (Will.), having hitherto refrained from the use of a specific name in 
dealing with the “ Arran Lepidodendron.” Finally in 1895 Wit1amson || gave a 
summary of his work on this species, and again discussed the question of growth and 
modification of the stele during the development of the stem. 

Sotms-Lavusacu { has dealt at some length with WuiLLi1aMson’s views on the growth 
of the Arran stems, and points out the physical impossibilities involved in some of the 
suggested explanations of the conversion of small solid steles into large steles with a 
wide central parenchyma. We must regard the various forms described by WILLIAMSON 
as representing, in part at least, branches of different orders, but all belonging to one 
specific type. 

In a footnote to a paper in which some account is given of the Arran species, 
Kipston ** adds that the plant should be referred to the genus Lepidophloios and not to 
Lepidodendron, if WILLIAMSON was correct in connecting the Halonial branches which he 
described in 1883 with the large Laggan Bay trunks. tt 

It would necessitate an unreasonable extension of the paper to discuss in detail and 
to illustrate by drawings the numerous points of interest as regards the comparative 
anatomy of the Lepidodendrez which are suggested by an examination of the Dalmeny 
specimen. There are certain considerations, however, which must be briefly touched 
on, as they have a direct bearing on the question of the systematic position of the 
plant. To deal first with the Arran plant, which should be designated Lepidophloios 
Wiinschianus. 

The large stems represented by various sections in the British Museum {{ and in the 
Binney Collection, Cambridge, and by a magnificent specimen in the Owens College 
Museum, agree closely in size as well as in structure with the Dalmeny fossil. There 


* BINNEY (71), p. 56, pl. xi. + WILLIAMSON (80). + Ibid. (83), p. 466. 
§ Ibid. (93), p. 15. || Ibid. (95), p. 43. 
“I Soums-Lavupacs (91), p. 229. Vide also BurTRAND (91), p. 40. ** KIDSTON (97), p. 40. 
tt For the evidence in favour of the connection between Halonial branches and Lepidophloios, vide Kinston (93), 
‘pp. 539 et sey. tt £.g., sections Nos, 451, 452, etc. 


920 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


are the same hyphal cells in the centre of the stele, the same spirally thickened elements 
in the medullary rays,* and an identity of structure in the primary and secondary wood. 
Isodiametric tracheids also occur internal to the primary xylem cylinder, as in the 
Dalmeny stem.+ Unfortunately, the large Arran stems do not afford any positive 
evidence as to the structure of the leaf-trace after it becomes free from the secondary 
wood, the tissue in the innermost cortical region having been almost completely destroyed. 
In one section a leaf-trace with both primary and secondary elements was found close to 
the edge of the wood, but the fan-shaped group of secondary elements was directed inwards 
and not outwards as in the Dalmeny stem ; as the trace is isolated and not enclosed in 
tissue, it has no doubt been twisted, and indeed it may not improbably belong to a 
Stigmaria and not to the stem with which it is associated. 

The phelloderm of the Arran trunks is identical with that which we have described, 
there are the same rows of secretory strands as in our stem,{ and in tangential sections 
of the phelloderm elliptical groups of cells are met with identical with that of Pl. I. 
fie. 8, which we regard as the parichnos.§ Passing to the smaller specimens, we may 
first mention the specimen represented in pl. xiv. fig. 5 of WiLLtamson’s tenth Memoir,|| 
One important fact to notice in connection with this example is the very small amount 
of secondary xylem in a stem about 12 cm. in diameter. Here, again, there is the 
closest agreement with the Dalmeny stem as regards the structure of the wood and 
cortical tissues ; the large sac-like cells shown in our Pl. IL. figs. 9 and 15, and Pl. III. 
tig. 16, are clearly seen in WILLIAMson’s figured section. The middle portion of the 
cortex in WILLIAMSON’s specimen presents the characteristic structure which is shown in 
the parichnos, or portion of the inner cortex accompanying the leaf-trace, represented 
in our Pl. I. fig. 8. The small twigs described by WuitLiamson show fairly well-pre- 
served leaf-cushions, and the form of these, as seen in longitudinal section, suggests the 
Lepidophloios rather than the true Lepidodendron type. In the smaller axes, 1°2 cm, 
in diameter, there is no trace of secondary xylem, but each leaf-trace is accompanied by 
numerous short and spirally thickened tracheids, which in a transverse section of a leaf 
are seen to be arranged round the strand of elongated scalariform tracheids; their 
position and appearance recall the transfusion tissue of many recent plants.1 These 
short tracheids are well shown also in longitudinal sections of the leaf-trace on the flanks 
of the tracheal strand.** The solid xylem strand occupying the axis of the small twig 
may indicate that these are slender shoots of an Halonial branch; their stele agrees 


* The thin-walled spirally thickened elements accompanying the leaf-traces in their course through the secondary 


wood are clearly shown also in Lepidodendron brevifoliwm, Will. (cf. especially No. 499), and in Stigmaria, L. 
vasculare, ete. 


+ Cf. section 448 A, 

t These secretory groups of cells are exceedingly well shown in some sections of the phelloderm of the largest 
Arran stem in the Binney Collection, Cambridge, as well as in British Museum sections, Similar cell-groups have been 
observed in sections of L. vasculare ; of. also HovELAcguE (92), p. 58, fig. 17. 

§ L.g., sections 443, 447, 448, 449 in the Williamson Coll. ; cf. also sections of Sigillaria (662 and 665), 

|| Wiiuramson (80). | L.g., sections Nos. 481, 482, ete. (Williamson Coll.). 

** Of, section 1955, and several others in the British Museum. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 921 


closely with the small vascular strands given off from the stele of the larger Halonia 
described by WILLIAMSON in 1883. In the small twigs the two arms of the parichnos, 
composed of large thin-walled cells, are found in close proximity to the leaf-trace 
bundles, as seen in the fleshy leaf-bases.* In the older stems from which the leaves 
have fallen, and in which a considerable thickness of phelloderm has been developed, 
the leaf-trace becomes disorganised on its way through the outer cortex, and the 
parichnos strands lose to some extent their regularity of arrangement; their cells, too, 
appear to be somewhat compressed by the pressure of the mass of phelloderm, through 
which the parichnos is passing. The cells in the parichnos figured in Pl. I. fig. 8 are 
rather smaller and more compact than those in the parichnos arm of a leaf-base. 

The Williamson Collection includes one specimen of a piece of rock from Arran 
(No. 62) which shows imperfect surface markings in the form of lozenge-shaped depres- 
sions, which no doubt represent the leaf-bases of a Lepidodendroid plant, but the pre- 
servation is far from satisfactory, and we have no proof of the connection between this 
cast and the petrified stems. 

There is a specimen of Lepidophloios Wiinschianus in the fossil-plant gallery of the 
British Museum, from the Calciferous sandstone of Craigleith (No. 52,625), which repre- 
sents a stem with two steles 1 cm. in diameter; the stem has been cut across trans- 
versely just below the point at which the two branches of the bifurcating axis became 
free. It is interesting as showing the absence of secondary wood, although the section 
measures 19 by 14 cm.; this is one of the characters shared by L. Wiinschianus and 
the stems known as L. Harcourtu. 

We may next consider the question as to the possible identity of the Arran and 
Dalmeny stems with plants described under other specific names. There are many 
points of resemblance between these stems and the diploxyloid axes from Burntisland, 
named by Wituiamson Lepidodendron brevifoliwm,t but a comparison of the structural 
features does not lead us to regard the latter form as specifically identical with the 
Arran and Dalmeny species. ‘There are various characteristics shared by WILLIAMSON’s 
species, Lepidophloios fuliginosus (Will.), and L. Wiinschianus (Will.), but the former 
species is no doubt distinct ; the nature of its secondary xylem and other features prove 
it to be a well-defined specific type. 

The most interesting comparison { is with the species long known as Lepidodendron 
Harcourtu (Witham). The plant bearing this name was first described and figured by 
Wirnam,§ and afterwards by LinpLry and Horton in their Fossil Flora ||; subsequently 
more accurate figures were given by BRONGNIART I in 1837 and 1839. 


* Cf. sections 428, 443, etc. 

+ Witt1aMson (72), p. 310, In the index (Pt. II.), published in 1893, WILLIAMson speaks of this species as 
Lepidophloios (p. 10). 

{ For the opinions expressed as to the possible identity of the Dalmeny plant and L. Harcourtit, one of us must be 
held responsible (A. C. S.). 

§ WirHaM (32) and (38), p. 51, Pls. xii. and xiii. || LinpLEy and Huron (33), vol. 1. pls. xevili. and xcix. 

‘| BRonGNIART (37), pls. xx. and xxi. ; (39), pls. xxx, and xxxi. 


922 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


The specimen on which the species was founded was presented by the Rev. C. G. V.. 
Vernon Harcourt to Mr Phillips of York, and the latter forwarded it in 1832 to Mr 
WirnamM, who named the fossil Lepidodendron Harcourti. It was found, as we are 
told by the authors of the Fossil Flora, in the roofstone of a bed of coal worked at. 
Hesley Heath, near Rothbury in Northumberland. The seam is considered by LinpLEY 
and Hurron to occupy a position ‘ deep in the Mountain Limestone series.” * WiTaaM. 
published several rather crude figures of the internal structure, and compared the: 
anatomy of the stem with that of Lycopodium clavatum ; he agreed with BRONGNIART'S. 
conclusion, based on external characters, that the Lepidodendra should be regarded as. 
Lycopodiaceous plants. Wuirnam’s figures and descriptive text are repeated in his 
important work of 1833. Other drawings are given in the “ Fossil Flora,” but these are. 
in many respects far from accurate. ADOLPHE Bronentart + afterwards published. 
a few additional drawings in his Histoire des végétaux fossiles and in his classic 
paper on Stgillaria elegans. Under the name Lepidodendron Harcourtw, Binney { 
described some exceedingly fine specimens from the Coal-measures near Dudley,. 
but these belong most probably to the type since named by Wituiamson§ L. 
Suliginosum. 

WILLIAMSON in his latest paper, published in 1895,]|| calls attention to the probability 
that, like Lepidophloios Wiinschianus, L. Harcourtiz developed secondary xylem at a. 
comparatively late period of its growth. Brrtranp {i has also expressed similar views as 
to the late appearance of the secondary wood in the latter species. 

‘An exceedingly detailed account of Lepidophloios Harcourtu was published in 1891 
by Prof. Bertranp ** of Lille; this author draws attention to the close similarity 
between this species and the plant figured by Corpatf in 1845 as Lomatofloyos 
crassicule, 

The chief characteristic features usually associated with L. Harcourts are (i) the 
absence or late appearance of secondary wood ; (ii) the nature of the leaf-trace bundles, 
which consist of a strand of xylem tracheids accompanied by a group of “ bast fibres” ; 
(ili) the presence of numerous prominently projecting teeth from the surface of the 
corona ; (iv) the usual absence of the middle cortical tissues. In 1887 W1LLIamson {f 
contributed a note to the Royal Society, in which he proposed the name Lepido- 
dendron fuliginosum for certain specimens incorrectly described as L. Harcourtw ; he 
mentioned the ‘‘ duplex structure” of the leaf-trace bundle as a special distinguishing 
feature of WirHaw’s specific type. Sotms-Laupacu § especially compares L. Harcourt 
and Wiuiamson’s L. fuliginosum, suggesting for the latter the specific name of 
Williamsoni |\ ||; he refers to the presence of the bast-fibres in Z. Harcourtit as one of 


* Linpiry and Hurton, loc. cit., p. 45. + Bronenrart (37), pls. xx. and xxi. 
t Brnney (72), p. 77. § WiLLrAMson (87), vide also (93), p. 3. 
|| Lbid. (95), p. 47. “| BertRAND (91), p. 150. ** Thid. (91). 
tt Corpa (45), pl. iii. tt Winrr1AMson (87), p. 7. §§ Sorms-Lavsacn (91), p. 226. 


|||| The change of name suggested hy Count Sotms seems inadvisable, as the older name given to the species by” 
WILLIAMSON has been generally recognised. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 923: 


the distinguishing features between the two species. There are other differences which 
need not be considered here, as they are well known and apparently constant. The 
“bast-fibres” of the leaf-trace are referred to by BERTRAND* as consisting in part of 
possibly laticiferous tubes, and that they are not bast fibres but brown secretory cells 
is, we believe, the true explanation. Precisely similar groups of indistinctly preserved 
cells accompany the leaf-traces of L. fuliginosum, and these two are composed of a few 
partially-disorganised secretory elements. A comparative examination of the species 
Lepidophloios Harcourtu, L. fuliginosus, and L. Wiinschianus shows that in each of 
these plants there is a fairly broad zone of secretory tissue a short distance beyond the 
xylem, as shown in several of the photographs of the Dalmeny stem. As the xylem 
tracheids of a leaf-trace pass into this zone they appear to carry in front of them a patch of 
the secretory tissue. A leaf-trace bundle when seen immediately external to the primary 
xylem of the stem has no strand of the so-called fibres accompanying it ; but imme- 
diately beyond the secretory zone the second strand is present, and it consists, we 
believe, not of true fibres, but of somewhat crushed or partially-disorganised secretory 
cells.| This behaviour of the trace is very clearly demonstrated in some sections of 
L. fuliginosus, figured by Binney { under the name of L. Harcourtiw, and now in the 
Woodwardian Museum, also in several sections of L. Wiinschianus§ and L. Har- 
courtw in the British Museum. A more detailed account will be given of the Binney 
sections in another place. || 

Another point of resemblance between L. Harcourtw and the Dalmeny plant is the 
occurrence of strands of secretory cells in the outer cortical region. In the type- 
specimen of WirHam’s species there are a few large canals near the periphery 
of the partially decorticated specimen; and in the large stem from Airdrie‘ we find 
large canals just internal to the phelloderm precisely as in the Dalmeny stem, as well 
as other canals in the phelloderm tissue. In the Dalmeny plant the secretory areas 
immediately internal to the phelloderm (region } Pl. I. fig. 2) are rather larger than 
those in the phelloderm; in L. Harcourtw there is the same slight difference between 
the more internal and external canals.** Brrrranptt has figured a secretory area in 
the cortex of a specimen of L. Harcourt received from M. Hovenacque. 

The short tracheids which occur in the inner margin of the primary wood of the 
Dalmeny stem (Pl. IV. fig. 25) are clearly represented in L. Harcourtu.{{ The margin 
of the corona in L. Harcourtii and in the Dalmeny stem is, we believe, identical, and 
the leaf-traces apparently become detached from the main mass of xylem in the same 
manner (figs. 24 and 34). The mesarch structure of the leaf-traces is another character 
shared by LZ. Harcourtw §§ and the Scotch plant; the same feature is well shown in 


* BERTRAND (91), p. 119. + Cf. specimen 448A, 456A, etc. 

{ Binney (72), pls. xiii. and xv. Cf. also specimens 1922A, 384, etc., in the Williamson Collection. 

§ £.g., sections Nos. 465, 448A, 428. 

||[Since this was written a description of Binney’s specimens has been published in the Proceedings of the 
Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. x. p. 137 ; vide SEwaRD (99).] 


| Figured by WILLIAMSON (93), pl. 1. fig. 3. ** Cf. specimens Nos. 1593, 380, 381. 
tt Brertranp (91), pl. v. fig. 26. tt Specimen No. 381. §§ [bid. (91). 
VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. (NO. 34). ec 


924 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


some exceedingly well-preserved sections of ZL. fuliginosus, originally described by 
Binney as Lepidodendron Harcourtii and as Halonia.* 

There are no anatomical characteristics shown in the type-specimen of JL, 
Harcourtii nor in the larger stem from Airdrie,t which cannot be matched, more 
or less exactly, in the Dalmeny and Arran species. This resemblance in structure 
agrees also with the geological horizon from which the type-specimen of W1THaM 
was obtained. 

We have no precise information as to the geological age of the larger stem of L. 
Harcourtu described by WittraMson from Airdrie; the matrix in which the specimen 
is embedded bears a close resemblance to that of the Dalmeny tree. There are, how- 
ever, other examples{ of what appears to be LZ. Harcourtw from the lower Coal- 
measures of Lancashire and Yorkshire, but of the identity of these we do not wish to 
speak with certainty at present. To be consistent with our belief of the specific 
identity of WirHam’s type and the larger Airdrie stem with the Dalmeny stem, the 
latter should be spoken of as L. Harcourt (Witham). 

The conspicuous gaps accompanying the leaf-trace bundles, as seen in a transverse 
section of the outer cortical regions of the stems of L. Harcourtw hitherto figured, are 
not present in the large stem which we have described. ‘The size of the parichnos, 
part of which is shown in PI. II. fig. 14 pr, agrees with the large dimensions of this 
organ in the smaller specimens, and the absence of the gaps in the phelloderm-band in 
the Dalmeny stem is in all probability due to the considerable development of phello- 
derm, which compressed, and to a large extent obliterated, the parichnos tissue of the 
leaf-traces which were no longer connected with leaves, as the older stems were leafless. 
The slightly more prominent and obvious tooth-like projections of the corona in the 
smaller stems may be accounted for by the presence of the broad zone of secondary 
wood, but the long and narrow prominences shown in Pl. IV. figs. 24 and 34 are indeed 
very similar to those of the smaller examples of L. Harcourtu. 

WILLIAMSON'S nineteenth Memoir, the last of the splendid series which he com- 
municated as sole author to the Royal Society, concludes with the paragraph: ‘“ We 
have at least arrived at one result from the investigations recorded in the preceding 
pages ; we now know that L. Harcourt was not a distinct form, teaching an inde- 
pendent and special philosophy. So far as its history is now known, it is substantially 


identical with that of the other known Lepidodendra, teaching the same truths, and 


leading to the same inferences. We only want, in my opinion, to discover it in its 
arborescent condition to place it side by side with L. Wiinschianum as a true typical 
exogenous Lycopod, and with which it has several external close relationships.” § 

In the Dalmeny stem, and in the much less perfect stems from Arran, we have most 
probably this “ arborescent ” form which WILLIAMSON refers to. 


* BinnEy (72). [Vide also SpwarD (99).] 

+ Section No, 380 (received by Prof. Williamson from the late Prof. Balfour of Edinburgh). 

i Specimens No. 1596A, 380B, etc., in the Williamson Collection [vide WILLIAMSON (93), pl. i.]. 
§ WILLIAMSON (93), p. 29. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 925 


In considering the affinities of the Dalmeny stem reference must be made to a 
specimen recently described by Renavutr and Rocuy* from the Culm of Esnost under 
the name Syringodendron esnostense. The petrified block shows several spirally 


disposed elliptical areas on the weathered surface, which represents the ends of 


parenchymatous cell-groups, called by the authors organes aeriféres. Internally there 
is a segment of a band of secondary wood 20 mm. in diameter, succeeded by portions of 
an annular zone of primary wood and a large pith. Beyond the secondary wood, and 
separated from it by a space filled with siliceous material and plant débris, there is a 
broad band of secondary cortex described as consisting of concentric zones of “ suber.” 
In a tangential section of the secondary wood some broad medullary rays are repre- 
sented containing diploxyloid j vascular bundles passing horizontally outwards, practically 
identical with our Pl. I. fig. 7. One of the vascular strands is also shown in transverse 
section immediately beyond the secondary wood of the stem, agreeing closely with the 
leaf-trace bundles of the Dalmeny stem (e.g., Pl. III. figs. 16 and 19). These bundles 
are described as passing out to branches, and the true leaf-traces are considered to have 
been obliterated as the stem had most probably lost its leaves ; one small and indistinct 
bundle is shown in a tangential section of the wood passing through one of the broad 
rays traversed by a “ branch-bundle,” which Renautr and RocueE speak of as a foliar 
vascular strand. It would seem, however, much more probable that the diploxyloid 
xylem strands are the true leaf-traces. 

There is, in fact, the closest resemblance between the French and Scotch stems, and 
if not specifically identical, the two must be very nearly allied. The photograph of the 
‘concentric bands” of secondary cortex suggests a comparison of the fairly regular lines, 
which break the regularity of the radially disposed phelloderm cells, with the rows of 
secretory strands in the Dalmeny plant. The elliptical groups of cells visible externally 
as slightly projecting areas in the French stem agree in structure, except in their some- 
what larger dimensions, with the parichnos strands met with in tangential sections of 
the Arran and Dalmeny stems. 


The old name Syringodendron, usually regarded as standing for a partially decorti- 


eated and old Sigillarian trunk, is used by Renautr and RocHE as an autonomous genus 
on the grounds that the parichnos strands occur singly and not in pairs, and that no 
evidence has been found suggesting the formation of the single groups by the fusion of 
two originally separate arms. These reasons seem hardly sufficient for raising Syringo- 
dendron to generic rank. In Syringodendron esnostense we have in all probability an 
old stem—very closely allied to the Dalmeny species—which was most probably either 
a Sigillaria, a Lepidodendron, or a Lepidophloios. To discuss this question would 
involve us in an examination of the anatomical and other characteristics which dis- 
tinguish these three genera. The structure of Lepidodendron and Lepidophloios is 


* Renavutt and Rocugsx (97). 
_ + The term “diploxyle” is used by Renavtr to describe vascular tissue'consisting of primary (generally centripetal) 
xylem and secondary centrifugal xylem ; he includes under this head the leaf-traces of Cycads, which are now termed 
Mesarch by many writers ; they are not truly diploxyloid in that they consist of primary xylem only, 


926 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


practically identical, and there are at least some Sigillarian stems * in which we cannot 
discover any structural features distinct from those of the Lepidodendrez. Reasons 
have already been given for regarding the Dalmeny stem as a Lepidophloios, but 
whether the younger stems and branches of the French stem should be recognised as 
belonging to Lepidodendron, Lepidophloios, or Sigillaria must remain an open question. 
This uncertainty as to the respective anatomical characteristics of these three genera is 
perhaps a reason in favour of retaining such a generic term as Syringodendron. 


CoNCLUSION. 


The more important anatomical features of the Dalmeny species may be briefly 
summarised as follows :— 


i. The diploxyloid and mesarch leaf-trace bundles. 

ii. The numerous canals or secretory strands of parenchyma in the phelloderm. { 

ui. The presence of a fairly reeular ring of rather larger secretory strands immediately 
internal to the secondary cortical tissue (phelloderm). 

iv. The presence of short tracheids on the inner edge of the primary xylem, and the 
numerous and more delicate short tracheal elements external to the corona. 

v. The delicate and lax nature of the broad inner cortex. 

vi. The parenchymatous pith, which consists in part of elongated cell-filaments, 
especially in the larger stems; in smaller branches the pith is solid and 
composed of more regular cells. 


The character of the parichnos, the nature of the secondary xylem, the presence of a 
band of secretory tissue in the innermost cortex and other features are not peculiar to 
this type of the Lepidodendrez. The characters enumerated in the above list must not 
be regarded as being of specific rank, some at least are certainly shared by allied forms. 
We are much in need of an exhaustive comparative account of the Lepidodendroid 
species from which to select features common to the various types and others which 
may serve as specific characters. The apparent absence of typical phloem has been 
briefly referred to in the above description ; this is probably a character shared by other 
species of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron ; it would seem that we have as yet no 
satisfactory evidence in these genera of the existence of tissue possessing the ordinary 
anatomical characters of phloem, and probably the functions associated with the phloem of 


* £.g.,a specimen described by CARRUTHERS at the Edinburgh British Association Meeting in 1892; but the 
account was not published in the Annual Report. [Since the above was written a Sigillarian stem has been described 
by Prof. Berrranp which throws fresh light on the anatomy of this genus. Vide Annals of Botany, 1899.] 

+ We have observed similar secretory strands in the phelloderm of L. vasculare as well as in other species already 
referred to. [Cf. also a figure by HoveLacque (92), in which strands appear to be indicated.] 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 927 


recent plants must in the Palzeozoic types have been carried out by tissues of another 
kind and of a more primitive character. This question will be dealt with in a forth- 
coming account of some exceedingly well-preserved examples of Leprdophloios fuli- 
ginosus (Will.).* It is a remarkable fact that there is no band of tissue which can be 
spoken of as secondary phloem at all comparable in extent to the secondary xylem. 
The absence of any well-defined initial meristem layer or typical cambium is another 
_ point of general interest. The meristem zone in the Dalmeny stem is separated from 
the newest tracheids by a comparatively broad band of cells, the elements of which 
appear to assume more gradually the form of xylem tracheids than is the case with most 
plants which possess the power of secondary growth ; we should speak of a cambial 
zone rather than a cambium layer as constituting the generative region from which the 
wood was supplied with new elements. 

The thick band of secondary cortex, described as phelloderm, is a character common 
to the Lepidodendra and Sigillariz generally. The meristem-zone, which arises just in- 
ternal to the leaf-cushions, at an early stage in the growth of these plants gives rise to 
little or no tissue on the outside, but on the other hand produces internally a consider- 
able thickness of radially disposed elongated elements, and some of these cells undergo 
further divisions to form strands of secretory tissue ; from analogy with other plants 
one may speak of the internal secondary cortex as phelloderm, a tissue with a fairly 
well-developed aérating system of intercellular spaces. The cork of recent plants, in 
the sense of an impermeable tissue developed on the outside of the phellogen, is barely 
represented. It may be noted that WorspE.t has described a thick band of phelloderm 
in the stems of Cycas media, R. Br.,+ and Macrozamia.t 

When we consider the small diameter of the woody central cylinder, as shown in 
P]. 1. fig. 1, in comparison with the size of the stem as a whole, the usefulness of the 
wood as a mechanical support to enable the stem to resist lateral strains would seem to 
have been extremely small. May we not regard the thick phelloderm of the fossil stem 
as a tissue of which one of the functions was mechanical ; a strengthening band at the 
periphery of the stem corresponding to the hypodermal stereome or to the peripheral 
region of secondary wood in recent plants ?§ 

The exact significance of secretory products in recent plants is by no means well 
understood, and seeing that we cannot determine the nature of the secretions in fossil 
tissues, we are not in a position to do more than hazard a guess as to the function of 
the glandular tissue. The abundance of secretory canals in so many of the Paleozoic 
genera is an interesting fact, and one which, with further data derived from physio- 
logical anatomical considerations, may help us to learn something as to the conditions 
under which these plants grew. 

In the outermost stelar region of Lepidodendra the large secretory sacs form a 
striking feature, and the close connection between strands of this secretory zone and the 
outgoing leaf-trace reminds one of the large secretory strands which are met with in the 

* [SEWARD (99).] + WoRSDELL (98), p. 443. + Ibid. (96), p. 615. § Of. HABERLANDT (96), p. 163, 


928 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


cortex of Lycopodium imundatuwm (Linn.), and other species, and associated with the 
foliar bundles of some Cycads.* It is possible that the secretory zone of Lepidophloios. 
had some share in the conduction of plastic organic substances, while the secretory tissue 
of the phelloderm fulfilled a different purpose. 

The abundance of short and comparatively thin-walled tracheids is a question which 
invites speculation as to the possibility of connecting certain anatomical characters with 
the habit of growth of these Paleozoic Lepidodendrez. Some at least of these elements 
suggest a comparison with the transfusion tissue > of recent plants, to which reference 
has already been made, and at the same time there is the possibility that in these short 
tracheal cells we may have representatives of what have been called ‘‘ Speicher- 
tracheiden.” { There are, indeed, indications in the anatomical features of the Dalmeny 
Lepidophloios that the conditions of growth were such as to require the development of 
characters usually associated with a xerophytic habit. The existence of striking xero- 
phytic peculiarities in recent plants which inhabit seashore regions, as well as those of 
arid regions, teaches the need of extreme caution in attempting to deduce from ana- 
tomical data conclusions as to the environment of Paleeozoic species. On the whole, we 
are disposed to see in the presence of xerophytic characteristics an indication that some 
at least of the Carboniferous plants grew in seashore swamps under conditions which 
necessitated the development of halophytic peculiarities. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


_ Bertrand, C. (91), “Remarques sur le Lepidodendron Harcowrtii de Witham,” Travaua et.Mémoires 
des Faculté de Lille, Mem. No. 6, Lille, 1891. 

Bryyey, E. W. (62), ‘On some Plants showing Structure from the Lower Coal-Measures of Lancashire,” 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xviii. p. 106, 1862. 
(71), “Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants found in the Carboniferous Strata. 
Pt. I. Lepidostrobus and some allied Cones,” Palcont. Soc., London, 1871. 
(72), Ibid. Pt. III. Lepidodendron, 1872. 

Bower, F. O. (93), “On the Structure of the Axis of Lepidostrobus Brownit, Schmp.,” Annals Bot., 
vol, vii. p. 329, 1893. 

Bronentart, A. (37), “ Histoire des Végétaux Fossiles,” vol. ii., Paris, 1837. 
(39), ‘Observations sur la structure intérieure du Sigillaria elegans,” Arch. Mus. d’hist. Nat., 
vol. i. p. 405, 1839. 

CarrutHers, W. (69), “On the Structure of the Stems of the Arborescent Lycopodiacez of the Coal- 
Measures,” Monthly Micr. Journ., p. 177, 1869. 
(69), “On the Plant Remains from the Brazilian Coal-Beds, with remarks on the Genus. 
Flemingites,” Geol. Mag., vol. vi. p. 5, 1869. 

Corpa, A. J. (45), “ Beitrage Zur. Flora der Vorwelt,” Prag., 1845. 

For, L. (93), “ Recherches sur la zone périmddullaire de la tige,” Ann. Sci. Nat. [7], vol. xxviii. p. 37. 


* Cf. WoRSDELL (96). 

+ Vide Worspet (97), ZIMMERMANN (80), etc. Short tracheids, similar to those of Lepidophloios, accompanying 
the petiolar bundles have recently been described by Scorr in Medullosa anglica, An excellent example of transfusion 
tissue in a fossil conifer has been figured by Soums-LavusBac# in Ullmannia [Soums-Lausac# (84), pl. iii.]. 

{ Haprrianprt (96), p. 354. [In a new genus recently described under the name Megaloxylon, the abundance of 
large short tracheids, which probably served as reservoirs of water, is a characteristic feature. [Vide Sewarp (99).] 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 929 


GRaND’Hury, C. Vide RENAULT. 

Haperuannt, G. (96), “ Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie,” Leipzig, 1896. 

Hint, A. W. Vide Sewarp. 

HovexacquE, M. (92), “‘ Recherches sur le Lepidodendron selaginoides, Sternb.,” Mem. Soc. Linn. Nor- 
mandie, vol. xvii. p. 5, 1892. 

Kinston, R. (86), “Catalogue of the Paleeozoic Plants in the Department of Geology and Paleontology, 
British Museum,” London, 1886. 
(93), “On Lepidophloios, and on the British Species of the Genus,” Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., 
vol. xxxvii. Pt. ITI. p. 529, 1893. 
(97), “On the Fossil Flora of the Yorkshire Coalfield” (Second Paper), ibid., vol. xxxix. 
fiat p. 33, 1897. 

_ Linpuey, J., and Hurton, W. (33), “The Fossil Flora of Great Britain,” London, vol. ii., 1833-35. 

Lyutt, C. (78), ‘Elements of Geology,” London, 1878 (edit. 3). 

Marxrexpr, O., “Ueber das Verhalten der Blattspurstrange immergriiner Pflanzen ‘beim Dicken- 
wachstum des Stammes oder Zweiges,” Flora, 1885, p. 33. 

Revnavtt, B., and Granv’Eury, C. (75), “Etude du Sigillaria spinulosa,” Mém. prés, div, sav, Acad. 
Sct. France, vol. xxii. p. 1, 1878. 
Renauvtt, B. (79), “Structure comparée de quelques tiges de la Flore Carbonifére,” Nouv, Arch. Mus. 
_ Paris, vol. ii., 1879 [2], p. 213. 
(82), “ Cours de Botanique fossile,” vol. ii., Paris, 1882. 
(96), “Bassin Houiller et Permien @’Autun et d’Epinac,” Paris, 1896 (text); atlas, 1893. 
- Etudes gites Min. France, fase. iv. 
Renautt, B., and Rocuz, A. (97), “Sur une nouvelle diploxylée,” Bull. Soc. @hist. nat. d Autun., 
Syvol, xi, 1897. 

Scort, D. H. Vide Wiiitamson. 

Szwarp, A. C. (98), “ Fossil Plants,” vol. i., Cambridge, 1898. 

Sewarp, A. C., and Hinr, A. W. (99), “On Lepidodendron from the Calciferous Sandstone of Scot- 
land,” Proc. Phil. Soc. Cambridge, vol. x. Pt. I. p. 38, 1899. 

Smwarp, A. C. (99), “Notes on the Binney Collection of Coal-Measure Plants. Pt. I. Lepidophloios ; 
_ Pt. II. Megaloxylon gen. nov.,” Proc. Phil. Soc. Cambridge, vol. x. p. 137, 1899. 
Sorms-Lausacu, GrarF zu (84), “Die Coniferenformen des deutschen Kupferschiefers und Zechsteins,” 
Pal. Abhand., Dames und Kayser, Bad. i1., 1884. 
(91), ‘‘ Fossil Botany,” Oxford, 1891. 
‘ (92), ‘‘Ueber die in den Kalksteinen des Kulm von Glatzisch-Falkenberg in Schlesien 
‘ethaltenen structurbietenden Pflanzenreste,” Bot. Zezt., p. 49, 1892. 
SrraspureErR, E. (91), “Ueber den Bau und aie Verrichtungen der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen,” 
Hist. Beitr., Heft. ui., Jena, 1891. 
TscuircH, A. (89), “ Angewandte Pflanzenanatomie,” Wien and Leipzig, 1889. 
- Wittramson, W. C. (72), “On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal-Measures. Pt. II. 
Lycopodicer,” Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clxii. p. 283, 1872. 
: (80), Ibid., Pt. X., 2bid., vol. clxxi. p. 493, 1880. 
(81), Lbed., Pt. XI., 2bid., vol. elxxii. p. 283, 1881. 
(83), Ibid., Pt. XII, ibid, vol. elxxiv. p. 459, 1883. 
(87), “A Mangere on the Morphology and Histology of Stigmaria ficoides,” Palzont. Soe., 
London, 1887. 
(87), “Note on Lepidodendron Harcourtii and L. fuliginosum (Will.),” Proc. R. Soc., vol. xi. 


-p. 6, 1887. 


(89), ‘On the Organisation,” ete., Pt. XVI., Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clxxx. p. 195, 1889. 

(93), Lbid., Pt. XIX., ibid., clxxxiv. p. 1, 1893. 

(93), ‘General, Morphological, and Histological Index to the Author’s Collective Memoirs on 
the Fossil Plants of the Coal-Measures,” Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, vol. vii. [4], p. 1, 1893. 

F (95), ‘On the Light thrown upon the Question of the Growth and Development of the Car- 


930 MR A. C. SEWARD AND MR A. W. HILL ON THE 


boniferous Arborescent Lepidodendron by a Study of the Details of their Organisation,” zbid., vol. ix. (4) 
p. 31, 1895. 

Wituramson, W. C. (96), “ Reminiscences of a Yorkshire Naturalist.” (Edited by Mrs Crawford 
Williamson.) London, 1896. : 

Wiuiuamson, W. C., and Scorr, D. H. (94), “Further Observations on the Organisation of the Fossil 
Plants of the Coal-Measures. Pt. I.,” Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clxxxv. p. 863, 1894. 
(95), Ibid., Pt. IIL., ibid., vol. clxxxvi. p. 703, 1895. 
Wirnam, H. (32), “On Lepidodendron Harcourtii,” Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Newcustle-upon-Tyne, 1832. 
(33), “The Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables,” Edinburgh, 1833. 

Worspett, W. C. (96), “The Anatomy of the Stem of Macrozamia compared with that of other 
Genera of Cycade,” Annals Bot., vol. x. p. 601, 1896. 
(98), “The Comparative Anatomy of certain Genera of the Cycadacee,” Journ. Linn. Soc., vol. 
XXxill. p. 437, 1898. 

Wiwnsca, FE. A. (67), “ Discovery of Erect Stems of Fossil Trees in Trappean Ash in Arran,” Trans, 
Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. ii. p. 97, 1867. 

ZIMMERMANN, A. (80), “‘ Ueber das Transfusionsgewebe,” Flora, p. 2, 1880. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


[The photographs reproduced in Pl. I. fig. 6, and PI, IIT. figs. 20 and 22, were kindly supplied by 
Mr Kidston ; all the other micro-photographs have been taken by Mr W. Tams, Cambridge. ]{ 


Puate I, 


Fig. 1. Transverse section of the stem. /, pith; a’, primary wood; 2, secondary wood. Cire. } nat. 
size. 

Fig. 2. Portion of the outermost cortex, mainly composed of phelloderm, which extends from 6 to the 
surface of the stem. a, position of a leaf-trace ; 6 g, regions referred to in the text. Nat. size. 

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of a secretory strand in the phelloderm. x 100. 

Fig. 4. Longitudinal section of the pith, and portions of two xylem tracheids. x 100. 

Fig. 5. Longitudinal section through the edge of the secondary wood. ¢’, narrow tracheids; t’, 
thinner and shorter elements representing partially developed tracheids ; m7, medullary ray. x 80. 

Fig. 6. Part of a medullary ray as seen in a transverse section of the secondary xylem. x 190. 

Fig. 7. Tangential section of the secondary wood, showing a broad medullary ray and a leaf-trace, /t. 
x 90. 


Fig. 8. Tangential section of the phelloderm showing a mass of parenchyma (parichnos) cut through 
transversely. x 80. 


Puate II. 


Fig. 9. Transverse section of the secretory zone. Sc. em, outer portion of the meristematic region. 
x 100. 

Fig. 10. Radial longitudinal section, slightly oblique, of the outermost portion of the secondary xylem 
and neighbouring tissue. 7? and ¢’, new and partially developed tracheids; cm, meristematic tissue. 
x 80. ; ; 

Fig. 11. Transverse section of the secondary wood, showing a group of smaller tracheids, 4, tiillen in 
the cavities of two tracheids. x 120. 

Fig. 12. Transverse section of the phelloderm, with a row of secretory cell-groups. x 80, 

Fig. 13. Radial longitudinal section through the junction of the primary and secondary xylem 
(a and ”).. x90. 

Fig. 14. Radial longitudinal section through the phelloderm, passing through a leaf-trace with partially 
disorganised tracheids ¢r and the parichnos pr. x 60. 

Fig. 15. Transverse section through the stelar region and the outer edge of the secondary wood. 
t, leaf-traces ; sc, secretory zone. x90. 


STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM. 931 


Puate III. 


Fig. 16. Transverse section through the secretory zone sc, the meristem-zone cm, and the edge of the 
wood ; ¢’ and ¢”, tracheids ; m, meristem cells surrounding the secondary tissue of a leaf-trace. x 90. 
Fig. 17. From the same region as fig. 16, passing through a fan-shaped group of meristem cells. 
«x 902~ 
Fig. 18. Transverse section of the phelloderm showing some older secretory canals. x 80. 

Fig. 19. Transverse section of the outer edge of the secondary xylem, ¢’ t’, the meristem region, cm, 
and a leaf-trace with its cambium arc, m. x 100. 
Fig. 20. Tangential section of phelloderm cells with vacuolated cell-contents. x 80. 
Fig. 21. Oblique radial longitudinal section of a leaf-trace, showing the primary and secondary xylem, 
a, b and ¢, region close to the secondary xylem. sc, secretory zone. x 100. 
Fig. 22. Radial longitudinal section of phelloderm cells. x 50. 
Fig. 23. Tangential section of a portion of a leaf-trace. m, meristematic cells. x 120. 


Puate LV. 


Fig. 24. Transverse section showing the corona (z’) and secondary xylem (#”). x 50. 

Fig. 25. Radial longitudinal section of one of the large innermost tracheids of the primary xylem, with 
‘some small isodiametric tracheids in the peripheral region of the pith. x 90. 

Fig. 26. Bordered pits with fine threads in the wall of a tracheid. x 240. 

Fig. 27. A cell from the phelloderm (outer portion) with thickened wall. x 100. 

Fig. 28. Portion of fig. 21, Pl. III., more highly magnified. 

Fig. 29. Tangential longitudinal section showing the double bordered pits in the walls of adjacent 
tracheids, and the single bordered pits between the tracheids and medullary-ray cells. x 240. 

Fig. 30. Tangential longitudinal section of the secondary xylem showing a leaf-trace in a medullary 
Yr ay. x50. 

Fig. 31. A secretory group of cells in the phelloderm. x 90. 

Fig. 32. Radial longitudinal section showing a medullary ray traversing the secondary xylem. x 50. 
Fig. 33. Diagram of the annular primary xylem 2’, with remains of pith. Thedots . . mark the 
position of two indentations in the ring of wood. 

Fig. 34. Diagrams illustrating the external contour of the corona. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. (NO. 34). 7D 


mo 


Trans. Hoy. Soc. Edin? 


Vol. XXXIX. 


S OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM 
F DALMENY — Pruate |. 


SEWARD & HILL: STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIE 
FROM THE CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE 0 


W.Tams, phot. M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith Edin? 


| Trans. Roy Soc. Edin” Wolo 


SEWARD & HILL: STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM 
FROM THE CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE oF DALMENY — Puate II. 


W.Tams, phot. M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin® 


Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXIX. 


SEWARD & HILL: STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM 
FROM THE CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF DALMENY — Puate III. 


Ce ee fe ee 


Reo SRK 
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( a ‘over, 

@) t 


Tor A — 
zi oo 


W. Tams, phot. 
R. Kidston, (Fisg, 20 & 22. 


M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin™ 


Trans. Roy. Soe. Edin? Vise LOCbe 


SEWARD & HILL: STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A LEPIDODENDROID STEM 
FROM THE CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF DALMENY — Piate IV. 


4 & AbontrrtpuQe 
rire oe Poy este 


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MiFarlane & Erskine, Lith. Edin™ 


145. 26,27, 31, 33,34. 


APPENDIX. 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. APPENDIX. 7E 


CONSE Nes: 


THE COUNCIL OF THE SOCIETY, . . 

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS, . . 
LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS, : : : 5 . 
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1896-97, . 
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED, 1896-97, . - : . 
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1897-98, 
FELLOWS DECEASED, 1897-98, . ° . : : . 
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING 1898-99, 
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED, 1898-99, . . 

LAWS OF THE SOCIETY, 5 : - " ‘ : : 


THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING VICTORIA 
JUBILEE PRIZES, . . . . e . 


AWARDS OF THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, AND NEILL PRIZES, 
FROM 1827 TO 1898, AND OF THE GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE 
FROM 1884 TO 1896, : : She i : 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS, 1896, 1897, AND 
1898, . . e e ° e e e . . e 


LIST OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS ENTITLED TO RECEIVE 


COPIES OF THE TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL | 


SOCIETY, . . e e e e e e . e 
INDEX, . ‘ : : . . : : : . , 


PAGE 


937 
939 
955 
957 
958 
959 
960 
961 
962 
963 


970 


973 


979 


987 
995 


ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 
LIST OF MEMBERS. 


~ COUNCIL, 
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS, 
AND LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS, 


At November 1899. 


Ea CO UL IN Cals 


OF 


THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


NOVEMBER 1899. 


PRESIDENT. 


Tae Ricut Hon. Lorp KELVIN, G.C.V., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Grand Officer 
of the Legion of Honour of France, “Member of the Prussian Order Pour le 
Mérite, Foreign Associate of the Institute of France, Emeritus Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. 


HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS, HAVING FILLED THE OFFICE OF PRESIDENT. 


His Grace roe DUKE or ARGYLL, K.G., K.T., D.C.L. Oxon, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 
Str DOUGLAS MACLAGAN, M.D., ER. C. Pp. E., TLD; Sanaa Bhasin of Medical 
Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

JOHN G. M‘KENDRICK, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology 
in the University of Glasgow. 

GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of 
Edinburgh. 

Sir ARTHUR MITCHELL, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D. 

Sim WILLIAM TURNER, M.B., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Sc. Dub., F.R.S., Pro- 
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 

RALPH COPELAND, Ph.D., Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Professor of Practical 
Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh. 

Tae Rev. JOHN DUNS, D.D., Professor of Natural Science in the New College, 
Edinburgh. 

GENERAL SECRETARY. 

P. GUTHRIE TAIT, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of 

Edinburgh. 
SECRETARIES TO ORDINARY MEETINGS. 

ALEXANDER CRUM BROWN, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of 
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 

Sm JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., D.Sc., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Challenger 
Expedition Publications. 

TREASURER. 


PHILIP R. D. MACLAGAN, F.F.A. 


CURATOR OF LIBRARY AND MUSEUM, 
ALEXANDER BUCHAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological 
Society. 
COUNCILLORS. 


Sm JOHN BATTY TUKE, MD. DSc, | C. 


Hm R.C. PE. 


A, BEATSON BELL, Advocate. 


_ A. SHIELD NICHOLSON, M.A., D.Sc., Pro- 
; fessor of Political Economy in the Univer- 
sity of Edinburgh. 

JOHN GIBSON, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry 
3 in the Heriot-Watt College. 

Tae Hon. Lorp M‘LAREN, LL.D. Edin. and 
Glas., F.R.A.S., one of the Senators of the 
College of Justice, 


G. KNOTT, D.Se., Lecturer on Applied 
Mathematics in the University of EKdin- 
burgh. 

ALEXANDER BRUCE, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E. 

JAMES A. WENLEY. 

Tue Rey. Proressor FLINT, D.D., Cor- 
responding Member of the Institute of 
France. 

JAMES BURGESS, C.LE., LL.D., M.R.A.S, 

ROBERT M. FERGUSON, Ph.D., LL.D. 

ROBERT IRVINE, F.C.S. 


( 939 ) 


ALPHABETICAL LIST 


OF 


THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY, 


CORRECTED TO NOVEMBER 1899, 


N.B.—Those marked * are Annual Contributors. 


. prefixed to a name indicates that the Fellow has received a Makdougall-Brisbane Medal. 


” BE) ” Keith Medal,’ 

” ” Neill’Medal. 

3 0 51 the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize, 

an », contributed one or more Communications to the Society’s 
TRANSACTIONS or PROCEEDINGS. 


* Abercromby, The Hon. John, 62 Palmerston Place 
Adami, Prof. J. G., M.A., M.D., Cantab., Professor of Pathology in M‘Gill University, 
Montreal 
* Affleck, Jas, Ormiston, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 38 Heriot Row 
Agnew, Sir Stair, K.C.B., M.A., Registrar-General for Scotland, 22 Buckingham Terrace 
* Aikman, C. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.LC., F.C.8., 128 Wellington Street, Glasgow 5 
* Aitken, Andrew Peebles, M.A., Sc.D., F.LC., 57 Great King Street 


Aitken, John, F.R.S., Ardenlea, Falkirk 


* Alford, Robert Gervase, Memb. Inst. C.E., 1 Western Terrace, Murrayfield 
* Alison, John, M.A., Head Mathematical Master in George Watson’s College, 126 Craiglea Drive 
Allan, Francis John, M.D., C.M. Edin., M.O.H., Strand District, 5 Tavistock Street, 
Strand, London 10 
* Allardice, R. E., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Stanford University, Palo Alto, Santa 
Clara Co., California 
Allchin, W. H., M.D., F.R.C.P.L., Senior Physician to the Westminster en 5 
Chandos Sesh Carentan Square, London 
Anderson, John, C.M.G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., late Superintendent of the Indian Museum 
and Professor of Cinuine aris in the Medical College, Calcutta, 71 Harring- 
ton Gardens, London 
Anderson, J. Macvicar, Architect, 6 Stratton Street, London 
* Anderson, Robert Rowand, LL.D., 16 Rutland Square 15 
Andrews, Thos., Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., F.C.S., Ravencrag, Wortley, near Sheffield 
Anglin, A. H., M.A., LL.D., M.R.1.A., Professor of Mathematics, Queen’s College, Cork 
Annandale, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Clinical Surgery in the University of 
Edinburgh, 34 Charlotte Square 
Appleyard, James E., Royal Technical Institute, Salford, Manchester 
* Archer, Walter E., 42 Ennismore Gardens, London 20 


940 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 
Election. 
1883 Archibald, John, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S.E., 2 The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent - 
1886 * Armstrong, George Frederick, M.A., Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering in the 


University of Edinburgh 
1849 | C. | Argyll, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Hon. Vice-Pres.), 
Inveraray Castle 
1885 | C. |* Baildon, H. Bellyse, B.A., Ph.D., Freiburg, University Lecturer on the English Language 
and Literature in the University of Vienna, Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh 


1894 * Bailey, Frederick, Lieut.-Col. (/ate) R.E., Secretary to the Royal Scottish Geographical 
Society, 7 Drummond Place 25 
1896 * Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A., Professor of Applied Physics, Heriot Watt College 


1879 * Balfour, George W., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., Westfield, Colinton 
1877 | C. |* Balfour, I. Bayley, M.A., Sc.D., M.D., C.M., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the 
University of Edinburgh, Inverleith House 


1892 * Ballantyne, J. W., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 24 Melville Street 

1889 * Barbour, A. H. F., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 4 Charlotte Square 30 

1886 * Barclay, A. J. Gunion, M.A., 729 Great Western Road, Glasgow 

1872 Barclay, George, M.A., 17 Coates Crescent 

1883 | C, |* Barclay, G. W. W., M.A., 91 Union Street, Aberdeen 

1887 Barlow, W. H., Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., High Combe, Old Charlton, Kent 

1882 | C. Barnes, Henry, M.D., LL.D., 6 Portland Square, Carlisle 35 

1893 Barnes, R. S. Fancourt, M.D., M.R.C.P.L., Consulting Physician to the British Lying-in. 

Hospital, Woldhurstlea, Crawley, Sussex 

1874 Barrett, William F., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, 
Dublin 

1889 Barry, T. D. Collis, Staff Surgeon, M.R.C.S., F.L.S., Chemical Analyser to the Government 


of Bombay, and Prof. of Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence to the Grant Medical 
College, and of Chemistry, Elphinstone College, Malabar Hill, Bombay 


1887 * Bartholomew, J. G., F.R.G.S., The Geographical Institute, Dalkeith Road : 

1895 | C. | Barton, Edwin H., D.Sc., A.M.LE.E., Memb. Phys. Soc. of London, Senior Lecturer 
in Physics, University College, Nottingham 40 

1888 * Beare, Thomas Hudson, B.Se., Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering and Mechanical — 


Technology in University College, Gower Street, London 
1897 | C. |* Beattie, John Carruthers, D.Sc., Professor of Physics, South African College, Cape Town 
1892 Beck, J. H. Meining, M.D., M.R.C.P.E., Rondebosch, Cape Town ™ 
1893 |B. C. | * Becker, Ludwig, Ph.D., Regius Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow, The 
Observatory, Glasgow : 
1882 | C. Beddard, Frank E., M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London, 


Zoological Society’ 8 ania Regent’s Park, London 45 
1887 * Begg, Ferdinand Faithful, M.P. for the St Rollox Division of Glasgow, 13 Earl’s Com . 
Square, London, 8.W. 
1886 * Bell, A. Beatson, Advocate, 2 Eglinton Crescent 
1874 Bell, Joseph, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., 2 Melville Crescent 
1887 * Bernard, J. Mackay, B.Sc., 25 Chester Street 
1875 Bernstein, Ludwik, M.D., Lismore, New South Wales 50 


1893 | C. |* Berry, George A., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S., 31 Drumsheugh Gardens 
1897 | ©, |* Berry, Richard J., M.D., F.R.C.S.E., 4 Howard Place 
1881 * Berry, Walter, of Glenstriven, K.D., Danish Consul-General, 11 Atholl Crescent 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 941 


Date of | 
Election. 


1880 | C. |* Birch, De Burgh, M.D., Professor of Physiology, Yorkshire College, Victoria University, 
16 De Grey Terrace, Leeds 


1884 _ |* Black, John S., M.A., LL.D., 3 Down Street, Piccadilly, London 55: 

1850 Blackburn, Hugh, M.A., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Mathematics in the University of 
Glasgow, Roshven, Ardgour 

1897 * Blaikie, Walter Biggar, 6 Belgrave Crescent 

1898 * Blyth, Benjamin Hall, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., 17 Palmerston Place 

1878 | ©, |* Blyth, James, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Anderson’s College, Glasgow 

1894 * Bolton, Herbert, Curator of the Bristol Museum, Queen’s Road, Bristol 60- 

1884 Bond, Francis T., B.A., M.D., M.R.C.S., Gloucester 


1872 | C. Bottomley, J. Thomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Natural Philosophy in 
the University of Glasgow, 13 University Gardens, Glasgow 

£869 | C. Bow, Robert Henry, C.E., 7 South Gray Street 

1886 * Bower, Frederick O., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in the 
University of Glasgow, 45 Kerrsland Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow ; 

1884 | C, Bowman, Frederick Hungerford, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Lond. and Berl.), F.1I.C., Assoc. Inst. C.E.,. 


Assoc. Inst. M.E., M.I.E.E., &c., Mayfield, Knutsford, Cheshire 65 

1871 Boyd, Sir Thomas J., 41 Moray Place 

1873 Boyd, William, M.A., 56 Palmerston Place 

1886 * Bramwell, Byrom, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 23 Drumsheugh Gardens 

1895 * Bright, Charles, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., M.I.E.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., 53 West Cromwell Road,. 
London 

1886 Brittle, John Richard, Memb. Inst. C.E., Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill, Blackheath, Kent 70 

1877 Broadrick, George, Memb, Inst. C.E., Broughton House, Broughton Road, Ipswich 

1893 Brock, G. Sandison, M.D., C.M., 47 Piazza Barberini, Rome, Italy 

1892 * Brock, W. J., M.B., D.Sc., 5 Manor Place 

1887 * Brown, A. B., C.E., 19 Douglas Crescent 

1864 |K. B.| Brown, Alex. Crum, M.D., D.Sc. F.R.C.P.E, LL.D., F.R.S. (Szcrerary), Professor of 

C. Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, 8 Belgrave Crescent 75: 

1898 * Brown, David, F.C.S., F.I.C., Willowbrae House, Midlothian 

1883 | C. |* Brown, J. Graham, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.P.E., 3 Chester Street 

1885 | C. Brown, J. Macdonald, M.B., F.R.C.S.E., 5 Lymington Road, West Hampstead, London, N.W. 

1883 | C. |* Bruce, Alexander, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 13 Alva Street 

1867 Bryce, A. Hamilton, LL.D., D.C.L., 12 Royal Circus 80: 

1898 | C. |* Bryce, T. H., M.A., M.B. (Edin.), 2 Buckingham Terrace, Glasgow 

1888 * Bryson, William A., Electrical Engineer, Engineer’s Department, Town Hall, Leith 

1869 |B.C.| Buchan, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society 

V.J (Curator oF LIBRARY AND Museum), 42 Heriot Row 

1870 |K.C.| Buchanan, John Young, M.A., F.R.S., 10 Moray Place, Edinburgh 

1882 * Buchanan, T. R., M.A., M.P. for East Aberdeenshire, 10 Moray Place, Edinburgh, and. 
12 South Street, Park Lane, London, W. 85 

1887 | C. |* Buist, J. B., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 1 Clifton Terrace 

1894 | C. |* Burgess, James, C.IE., LL.D., M.R.A.S., M. Soc. Asiatique de Paris, H.A.R.1.B.A.,. 
22 Seton Place 

1887 * Burnet, John James, Architect, 18 University Avenue, Hillhead, Glasgow 

1888 * Burns, Rev. T., F.S.A. Scot., Minister of Lady Glenorchy’s Parish Church, Croston Lodge, 


Chalmers Crescent 
VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. 7 i 


942 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 


Election. 


1883 
1896 


1887 
1897 
1879 


1893 


1894 
1878 
1898 
1899 
1898 
1898 
1882 
1890 
1899 
1874 


1875 
1872 
1880 


1891 


1886 
1875 
1892 
1887 
1888 


1886 
1872 
1894 
1891 
1890 


1875 
1898 


1887 
1870 


Kae, 


* Butcher, S. H., M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Dub., Professor of Greek in the University of 
Edinburgh, 27 Palmerston Place 90 
* Butters, J. W., M.A., B.Se., Secretary to the Edin, Mathematical Society, Rector of 
Ardrossan Academy 
* Cadell, Henry Moubray, of Grange, B.Sc., Bo’ness 
* Caird, Robert, LL.D., Shipbuilder, Greenock 
* Calderwood, John, F.I.C., Belmont Works, Battersea, and Gowanlea, Spencer Park, Wands- 
worth, London, 8S. W. 
Calderwood, W. L., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries of Scotland, 7 East Castle Road, | 
Merchiston 95 
* Cameron, James Angus, M.D., Medical Officer of Health, Firhall, Nairn 
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., Garland’s Asylum, Carlisle 
* Campbell, Richard Vary, M.A., LL.B., Advocate, 37 Moray Place 
* Carlier, Edmund W, W., M.D., B.Sc., Professor of Physiology in Mason College, ci 
* Carter, Wm. Allan, M. Inst. C. E., 32 Great King Street 100 
Carus-Wilson, Cecil, F.R.G.S., EGS, Royal Societies Club, St James Street, London 
* Cay, W. Dyce, Memb. Inst. C.E., 107 Princes Street 
Charles, John J., M.A., M.D., C.M., Prof. of Anatomy and Physiology, Queen’s College, Cork 
* Chatham, James, Actuary, Inverleith Park House 
Chiene, John, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh, 
President of the Royal College of Surgeons, 26 Charlotte Square 105 
Christie, John, 19 Buckingham Terrace 
Christie, Thomas B., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Royal India Asylum, Ealing, London 
* Chrystal, George, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh 
(Vicz-PresipEnt), 5 Belgrave Crescent 
*Clark, John B., M.A., Mathematical and Physical Master in Heriot’s Hospital School, 
110 Caine Drive 


* Clark, Sir Thomas, Bart., 11 Melville Crescent 1102. 


Clouston, T. S., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Tipperlinn House, Morningside 
* Coates, Henry, Pitcullen House, Perth 
* Cockburn, John, F.R.A.S., The Abbey, North Berwick 
Collie, John Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical 
Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury Square, London 
Connan, Daniel M., M.A., Education Department, Cape of Good Hope 115 
Constable, Archibald, LL.D., 11 Thistle Street 
Cook, John, M.A., Principal of the Central College, Bangalore, India 
* Cooper, Charles A., 41 Drumsheugh Gardens 
* Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Professor of Practical 
Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh (Vice-PrusrpEnt), Royal Observatory, 
Blackford Hill, Edinburgh 
Craig, William, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Lecturer on Materia Medica to the College of oa 


71 Bruntsfield Place 120 


* Crawford, Francis Chalmers, 19 Royal Terrace 
* Crawford, William Caldwell, Lockharton Gardens, Slateford, Edinburgh 
Crichton-Browne, Sir Jas., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Lord Chancellor’s Visitor and Vice-President 


of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 61 Carlisle Place Mansions, Victoria Street, — 


and Royal Courts of Justice, Strand, London 


= 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 943 


Date of 
Election. 


1886 
1898 
1878 


1871 
1898 
1885 
1897 
1884 
1894 
1895 
1869 | C. 


1884 
1888 
1876 
1885 


Qaaa 


1897 
rel | Cc. 


1867 | C. 
1896 
1882 | C. 
1892 
1866 
1876 
1889 
1878 
1859 
Heo2'| . 


1888 
1899 
1893 


1885 


1875 
#397 | C, 
1855 
1884 
1863 | C. 


1879 | N.C. 


* Croom, John Halliday, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 25 Charlotte Square 
* Cullen, Alexander, F.S.A. Scot., Millburn House, by Hamilton 125 
* Cunningham, Daniel John, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Professor of Anatomy in Trinity 
College, Dublin, 43 Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin 
Cunynghame, R. J. Blair, M.D., 18 Rothesay Place 
* Currie, James, junior, M.A., Cantab., Larkfield, Golden Acre 
* Daniell, Alfred, M.A., LL.B., D.Sc., Advocate, 3 Great King Street 
* Davidson, Hugh, of Braedale, Lanark 130 
Davy, R., F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Westminster Hospital, Burstone House, Bow, North Devon 
* Denny, Archibald, Braehead, Dumbarton 
* Deuchar, David, F.I.A., F.F.A., Actuary, 12 Hope Terrace 
Dewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and 
Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, and Fullerian Professor of 
Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London 
* Dickson, Charles Scott, Q.C., Advocate, Solicitor-General for Scotland, 4 Heriot Row 135 
* Dickson, H. N., B.Sc., 2 St Margaret’s Road, Oxford 
* Dickson, J. D. Hamilton, M.A., Fellow and Tutor, St Peter’s College, Cambridge 
Dixon, James Main, M.A., Professor of English Literature in the Washington University 
of St Louis, United States 
* Dobbie, James Bell, F.Z.S., 2 Hailes Street 
* Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Edinburgh, 7 Cobden Road 140 
Donaldson, J., M.A., LL.D., Principal of the University of St Andrews, St Andrews 
* Donaldson, William, M.A., Viewpark House, Bruntsfield Links 


* Dott, D. B., Memb. Pharm. Soc., 29 Spring Gardens 


Doyle, Patrick, C.E., M.R.LA., F.G.S., Editor of Indian Engineering, Calcutta 
Douglas, David, 22 Drummond Place 145 
* Duncan, James, 9 Mincing Lane, London 
* Duncan, James Dalrymple, F.S.A. Lond. and Scot., Meiklewood, Stirling 
* Duncanson, J. J. Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 22 Drumsheugh Gardens 
Duns, Rey. Professor, D.D. (Vicz-Prusipent), New College, Edinburgh, 5 Greenhill Place 
Dunstan, M. J. R., B.A. F.C.S., Director of Technical Education in Agriculture, 
Newcastle Circus, The Park, Nottingham 150 
* Durham, James, F.G.S., Wingate Place, Newport, Fife 
* Duthie, George, M.A., Mathematical Master in the Edinburgh Academy, 6 Royal Crescent 
Edington, Alexander, M.B., C.M., Colonial Bacteriologist, Graham’s Town, South Africa 
Elgar, Francis, Memb. Inst. C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., 18 York Ter., Regent’s Park, London 
Elliot, Daniel G., Curator of Department of Zoology, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 


US. 155 
* Erskine-Murray, James Robert, D.Sc., c/o Wireless Telegraph Co., 28 Mark Lane 
London, E.C. 


Etheridge, Robert, F.R.S., 14 Carlyle Square, Chelsea, London 
* Evans, William, F.F.A., 38 Morningside Park 
Everett, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Natural Philosophy, Queen’s 
College, Belfast, 11 Leopold Road, Ealing, London 
* Ewart, James Cossar, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History, Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh 160 


944 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 
Election. 


1878 


1875 
1888 
1859 


1883 


1899 
1888 
1868 
1886 
1898 
1899 


1852 
1880 


1872 


1892 
1859 
1828 
1858 


1896 


1892 
1867 


1891 
1891 


1892 
1888 
1899 


1894 
1867 
1889 
1880 


1861 


C. 


C. 


C. 


B.C. 


B.C. 


* Ewing, James Alfred, M.A., B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanism and 
Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, Langdale Lodge, Cambridge 
Fairley, Thomas, Lecturer on Chemistry, 8 Newton Grove, Leeds 
* Fawsitt, Charles A., 9 Foremount Terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow 
Fayrer, Sir Joseph, Bart., K.C.S.1, M.D., F.R.C.P.L., F.R.C.S. L. and E., LL.D., F.B.S., 
Honorary Physician to the Queen, 16 Devonshire St., Portland Pl., London, W. 
* Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Anthropological Society of Berlin 
6 Crouch Hall Road, Crouch End, London 165_ 
* Fergus, Andrew Freeland, M.D., 22 Blythswood Square, Glasgow 
* Ferguson, John, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow 
Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., LL.D., 5 Douglas Gardens 
Field, C. Leopold, F.C.S., Upper Marsh, Lambeth, London 
* Findlay, John, M.A. Oxon., 3 Rothesay Terrace 170 
* Finlay, David W., B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., D.P.H., Professor of Medicine in the University 
of Aberdeen, 2 Queen’s Terrace, Aberdeen 
Fleming, Andrew, M.D., Deputy Surgeon-General, 8 Napier Road 
* Flint, Robert, D.D., Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, Corresponding 
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Palermo, Professor of Divinity in the 
University of Edinburgh, Johnstone Lodge, 54 Craigmillar Park 
Forbes, Professor George, M.A., Memb. Inst. C.E., Memb. Inst. LE., F.R.S., FRAS., 
34 Great George Street, Westminster 
* Ford, John Simpson, F.C.S., 4 Nile Grove 175 
Forlong, Major-Gen. J. G., Assoc. C.E., F.R.G.S., R.A.S., &c., 11 Douglas Crescent 
Foster, John, Liverpool 
Fraser, A. Campbell, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Emeritus Professor of Logic and Metaphysics 
in the University of Edinburgh, Gorton House, Hawthornden 
* Fraser, John, M.B., F.R.C.P.E., one of H.M. Commissioners in Lunacy for Scotland, 19 
Strathearn Road 
* Fraser, Patrick Neill, Rockville, Murrayfield 180 
Fraser, Thomas R., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Materia Medica in the University 
of Edinburgh, President of the Royal College of Physicians, 13 Drumsheugh Gardens 
* Fullarton, J. H., M.A., D.Sc., Clyde Mussel Beds, Greenock 
* Fulton, T. Wemyss, M.D., Scientific Superintendent, Scottish Fishery Board, 417 Great 
Western Road, Aberdeen 
* Fyfe, Peter, Chief Sanitary Inspector, Glasgow 
* Galt, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S., Physical Laboratory, The University, Glasgow 185 
Gatehouse, T. E., Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E., M. Inst. E.E., 60 Gresham 
Road, Brixton, London 
Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.L.S., Felbridge Place, East Grinstead 
Gayner, Charles, M.D., Oxford 
* Geddes, George H., Mining Engineer, 8 Douglas Crescent 
* Geddes, Patrick, Professor of Botany in University College, Dundee, and Lecturer on 
Zoology, Ramsay Garden, University Hall, Edinburgh 190 
Geikie, Sir Archibald, LL.D., D.Se. Dub., F.R.S., F.G.S., Corresponding Member of the 
Institute of France, Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of Berlin, Director 
of the Geological Surveys of Great Britain, and Head of the Geological Museum, 28 
Jermyn Street, London 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY: 945 


lection 

1871 |B,C.| Geikie, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of 
Edinburgh, Kilmorie, Colinton Road 

1881 * Gibson, George Alexander, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 17 Alva Street 

1890 * Gibson, George A., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Glasgow and West of Scotland 
Technical College, 183 Renfrew Street, Glasgow 

1877 | C. |* Gibson, John, Ph.D., Prof. of Chemistry in the Heriot-Watt College, 20 GeorgeSquare 195 


1892 Gifford, Herbert James, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Longnor Hall, Leebotwood, Salop 

1897 | C. |* Gillespie, A. Lockhart, M.D., F.R.C.P. Ed., 23 Walker Street 

1887 * Gilmour, William, 9 Inverleith Row 

1880 * Gilruth, George Ritchie, Surgeon, 48 Northumberland Street 

1898 * Glaister, John, M.D., F.F.P.S. Glasgow, D.P.H. Camb., Professor of Forensic Medicine in 
the University of Glasgow, 18 Woodside Place, W., Glasgow 200 

1899 * Goodwin, Thomas S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Veterinary College, Glasgow 

1897 Gordon-Munn, John Gordon, M.D., The Hall, Bushey, Herts 

1850 Gosset, Major-General W. D., R.E., 70 Edith Road, West Kensington, London 

SOT * Graham, Richard D., 11 Strathearn Road 205 

1898 | C. |* Gray, Albert A., M.D., 16 Berkeley Terrace, Glasgow 

1883 * Gray, Andrew, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 


University of Glasgow 
1880 | C. Gray, Thomas, B.Se., Professor of Physics, Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, 
Indiana, U.S. 


1886 * Greenfield, W. S., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Professor of General Pathology in the University of 
Edinburgh, 7 Heriot Row 
1897 Greenlees, Thomas Duncan, M.B. Edin., The Residency, Grahamstown, South Africa 210 


1886 | C. | * Griffiths, Arthur Bower, Ph.D., Lecturer at the National Dental Hospital and College, 
London, 12 Knowle Road, Brixton, London 

1899 * Guest, Edward Graham, M.A., B.Se., 5 Church Hill 

1883 Gunning, His Excellency Robert Halliday, Grand Dignitary of the Order of the Rose of 
Brazil, M.A., M.D., LL.D., 12 Addison Crescent, Kensington 

1888 | C. Guppy, Henry Brougham, M.B. 


1867 Hallen, James H. B., C.LE., F.R.C.S.E., Veterinary Lieut.-Colonel in H.M. Indian Army, 
Retired, Pebworth Fields, under Stratford-on-Avon 215 
1899 Hamilton, Allan M‘Lane, M.D., 44 East Twenty-ninth Street, New York 


1881 | C. |* Hamilton, D. J., M.B., F.R.C.S.E, Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the University 
of Aberdeen, 41 Queen’s Road, Aberdeen 
1876 | C. Hannay, J. Ballantyne, Cove Castle, Loch Long 


1896 * Harris, David, Fellow of the Statistical Society, West Grange, Grange Loan, Edinburgh 

1896 | C. |* Harris, David Fraser, B.Sc. (Lond.), M.D., F.S.A. Scot., Lecturer on Physiology in the 
University of St Andrews 220 

1888 * Hart, D. Berry, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 29 Charlotte Square 

1869 Hartley, Sir Charles A., K.C.M.G., Memb. Inst. C.E., 26 Pall Mall, London 

1877 | C. Hartley, W. N., F.R.S., F.1.C., Prof. of Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Ireland, 
Dublin 

1881 * Harvie-Brown, J. A., of Quarter, Dunipace House, Larbert, Stirlingshire 

1880 | C. |* Haycraft, J. Berry, M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Physiology in the University College of 
South Wales and Monmouthshire, Carditf 225 


41892 | C, |* Heath, Thomas, B.A., Assistant Astronomer, Royal Observatory, Edinburgh 


946 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 
Election. 


1862 Hector, Sir J., K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey, Colonial 
Laboratory, Meteorological and Weather Departments, and of the New Zealand 
Institute, Wellington, New Zealand 

1893 Hehir, Patrick, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.S.L., L.R.C.P.E., Surgeon-Captain, Indian Medical 
Service, Principal Medical Officer, H.H. the Nizam’s Army, Hyderabad, Deccan, India 

1890 | C. Helme, T. A., M.D., 258 Oxford Road, Manchester 

1884 * Henderson, John, Meadowside Works, Partick, Glasgow 230 

1890 | C. |* Hepburn, David, M.D., Lecturer on Regional Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh 

1896 | C. |*Herbertson, Andrew J., Ph.D., Lecturer on Commercial Geography in the Heriot-Watt 
College, The Loan, Colinton | 

1881 | N.C.}* Herdman, W.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., Prof. of Natural History in University College, 


Liverpool 

1894 Hill, Alfred, M.D., M.R.C.S., F.I.C., Medical Officer of Health, The Council House, 
Birmingham 

1859 Hills, John, Major-General, C.B., Bombay Engineers, United Service Club, London, and 
Love’s Grove, Aberystwith, Wales 235 

1879 Hislop, John, LL.D., formerly Secretary to the Department of Education, Forth Street, 
Dunedin, New Zealand 

1885 Hodgkinson, W. R., Ph.D., F.LC., F.C.S., Prof. of Chemistry and Physics at the Royal Mili- 


tary Acad. and Royal Artillery Coll., Woolwich, 18 Glenluce Road, Blackheath, Kent 
1881 |N. C. | * Horne, John, F.G.S., Geological Survey of Scotland, Sheriff-Court Buildings, Edinburgh 


1896 Horne, J. Fletcher, M. D., F.R.C.S.E., The Poplars, Barnsley 

1897 Houston, Alex. Cruikshanks, M.B., C. M. , D.Se., 19 Culworth St., Regent’s Park, London 240 

1893 Howden, Robert, M.A., M.B., C.M., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Durham, 
—address: 24 Burdon Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne 

1899 Howie, W. Lamond, F.C.S., Hanover Lodge, West Hill, Harrow 

1883 | C. |* Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., M.R.C.S., 25 Brunswick Road, Withington, Manchester 

1886 Hunt, Rev. H. G. Bonavia, Mus. D. Dub., Mus. B. Oxon., F.L.S., La Belle Sauvage, London 

1872 Hunter, Colonel Charles, of Plis Coch, Llanfairpwll, Anglesea, and Junior United Service 
Club, London 245 

1887 | C. |* Hunter, James, F.R.C.S.E., F.R.A.S., Rosetta, Liberton, Midlothian 

1887 | C. |* Hunter, William, M.D., M.R.C.P. L. and E., M.R.C.S., 54 Harley Street, London 

1882 | C. |* Inglis, J. W., Memb. Inst. C.E., Kenwood, Liberton, Midlothian 

1898 * Trons, James Campbell, M.A., S.S.C., 10 Royal Terrace 

1886 | N. C.| * Irvine, Robert, F.C.S., Royston, Granton, Edinburgh 250 

1899 Isherwood, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., 1 Cambridge Road, Southport 

1875 Jack, William, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow 

1894 Jackson, Sir John, 10 Holland Park, London 

1889 | C. |* James, Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 10 Melville Crescent 

1882 * Jamieson, A., Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of oe in The Glasgow and West of 
Scotland Technical College, Glasgow 255 

1860 | C. Jamieson, George Auldjo, Actuary, 24 St Andrew Square 

1880 Japp, A. H., LL.D., The Limes, Elmstead, near Colchester 

1869 Johnston, J. Wilson, M.D., Surgeon Lt.-Col., Benmore, 30 Bidston Road, Oxton, Cheshire 

1895 Johnston, Surgeon-Major Henry Halcro, R.A.M.S., D.Se., M.D., F.L.S., Orphir House, 


Kirkwall, Orkney | 
1874 Jones, Francis, Lecturer on Chemistry, Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, ‘Manchester 260 ; 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 947 


Date of 

Election. 

1888 Jones, John Alfred, Memb. Inst. C.E., Fellow of the University of Madras (F.V.M.), 
Sanitary Engineer to the Government of Madras, Fort St George, Madras 

1896 * Jong, E, Fade, L.RiCPik., L:R.C.S.E.) ERICV.S. 


1847 ae Kelvin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Presipent), Grand Officer 
cae of the Legion of Honour of France, Member of the Prussian Order Pour le Mérite, 
Foreign Associate of the Institute of France, and Emeritus Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, Netherhall, Largs 


1892 * Kerr, Rev. John, M.A., Manse, Dirleton 

1891 Kerr, Joshua Law, M.D., Biddenden Hall, Cranbrook, Kent 265 

1886 | N. C.| * Kidston, Robert, F.G.S., 12 Clarendon Place, Stirling 

1877 * King, Sir James, of Campsie, Bart., LL.D., 115 Wellington Street, Glasgow 

1880 * King, W. F., Lonend, Russell Place, Trinity 

1883 * Kinnear, The Right Hon. Lord, one of the Senators of the College of Justice, 2 Moray Place 

1878 * Kintore, The Right Hon. the Earl of, M.A. Cantab., Keith Hall, Inglismaldie Castle, 
Laurencekirk 270 


1880 | K. C.| * Knott, C. G., D.Sc., Lecturer on Applied Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh (late 
Prof. of Physics, Imperial University, Japan), 42 Upper Gray Street, Edinburgh 


1896 | C. |* Kuenen, J. P., Ph.D. (Leiden), Prof. of Natural Philosophy in University College, Dundee 

1886 * Laing, Rev. George P., 17 Buckingham Terrace 

1878 | C. |* Lang, P. R. Seott, M.A., B.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University of St Andrews 

1885 | C. | * Laurie, A. P., B.A., B.Sc., Woodside, Baldwin’s Hill, Loughton 270 

1894 | C. |* Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.S,, Prof. of Zoology, St Mungo’s College, Glasgow 

1870 Laurie, Simon S., M.A., LL.D., Professor of Education in the University of Edinburgh, 
22 George Square 

1872 Lee, Alexander H., C.E., 58 Manor Place 

1863 Leslie, Hon. G. Waldegrave, Leslie House, Leslie 

1874 |K.C.| Letts, E. A., Ph.D., F.LC., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s College, Belfast 280 

1899 Lewis, Joseph Slater, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. E.E., M. Inst. M.E., Norwood, Ellesmere 
Park, Eccles 

1889 * Lindsay, Rev. James, D.D., B.Sc., F.G.S., Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy 


of Sciences, Letters and Arts, of Padua, Minister of St Andrew’s Parish, Springhill 
Terrace, Kilmarnock 

1870 |B.C.| Lister, The Right Hon. Lord, M.D., F.R.C.S.L., F.R.CS.E., LL.D., D.C.L., P.R.S., Foreign 
Associate of the Institute of France, Emeritus Professor of Clinical Surgery, King’s 
College, Surgeon Extraordinary to the Queen, 12 Park Crescent, Portland Place, 


London 

ilsteire | en Lloyd, Richard John, M.A., D.Lit., 494 Grove Street, Liverpool 

1898 * Lothian, Alexander Veitch, M.A., B.Sc., Baxter Demonstrator in Geology, University of 
Glasgow, 11 Holborn Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow 285 

1884 * Low, George M., Actuary, 15 Chester Street 

1888 * Lowe, D. F., M.A., LL.D., Headmaster of Heriot’s Hospital School, Lauriston 

" 1849 Lowe, W. H., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Woodcote, Inner Park, Wimbledon 

1894 * Mabbott, Walter John, M.A., Rector of County High School, Duns, Berwickshire 

1855 Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh, 11 East 
Brighton Crescent, Portobello 290 

1888 * Macadam, W. Ivison, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, Slioch, Lady Road, Newington, 


Edinburgh 


948 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 

Election. 

1887 M‘Aldowie, Alexander M., M.D., 6 Brook Street, Stoke-on-Trent 

1891 Macallan, John, F.I.C., 3 Charlemont Terrace, Clontarf, Dublin 

1888 | ©. M‘Arthur, John, F.C.S., 196 Trinity Road, Wandsworth Common, London 

1885 * M‘Bride, Charles, M.D., Wigtown 295- 

1883 * M‘Bride, P., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 16 Chester Street 

1867 M‘Candlish, John M., W.S., 27 Drumsheugh Gardens 

1899 * M‘Cubbin, James, B.A., Rector of the Burgh Academy, Kilsyth 

1894 * Macdonald, James, Secretary of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, 9 
Lauriston Gardens 

1897 | C. |* Macdonald, James A., M.A., B.Sc., 22 Summerside Place, Leith 300 

1886 * Macdonald, The Rt. Hon. J. H. A., C.B., Q.C., LL.D., F.R.S., M.LE.E., Lord Justice-Clerk, 
and Lord President of the Second Division of the Court of Session, 15 Abercromby Place 

1886 * Macdonald, William J., M.A., Comiston Drive 


1888 | ©. |*M‘Fadyean, John, M.B., B.Sc., Professor of Pathology and Dean of the Royal Veterinary 
College, Camden Town, London 
1878 | C. Macfarlane, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., Lecturer in Physics in Lehigh University, 


Pennsylvania 
1885 | C. |* Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., Professor of Biology in the University of Pennsylvania, Lans- 
downe, Delaware Co., Pennsylvania 305. 
1897 * M‘Gillivray, Angus, C.M., M.D., South Tay Street, Dundee é 
1878 + M‘Gowan, George, F.I.C., Ph.D., 3 Mount Avenue, Ealing, Middlesex 
1886 * MacGregor, Rev. James, D.D., 3 Eton Terrace 
1880 | C. | MacGregor, J. G.,M.A., D.Sc., Prof. of Physics in Dalhousie Coll., Halifax, Nova Scotia 
1869 |N.C.| M‘Intosh, William Carmichael, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History 
in the University of St Andrews, 2 Abbotsford Crescent, St Andrews 310: 
1895 | ©. |* Macintyre, John, M.D., 179 Bath Street, Glasgow 
1882 * Mackay, John Sturgeon, M.A., LL.D., Mathematical Master in the Edinburgh Academy, 


69 Northumberland Street 
1873 | B.C.| M‘Kendrick, John G., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S. (Vicu-Prusipent), Professor of 
Physiology in the University of Glasgow 


1840 Mackenzie, John, 6 Manor Place 
1894 * Mackenzie, Robert, M.D., Napier Villa, 2 ae tenareciia Road 315: 
1898 Mackenzie, W. Cossar, D.Sc., Principal of the College of Agriculture, Gheezeh, Egypt 


1843 | C. Maclagan, Sir Douglas, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., (Honorary Vice-Presipent), Emeritus. 
Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh, 28 Heriot Row 


1894 * Maclagan, Philip R. D., F.F.A. (Treasurer), St Catherine’s, Liberton 

1869 Maclagan, R. C., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 5 Coates Crescent 

1864 M‘Lagan, Peter, of Pumpherston 320 
1869 | C. M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, LL.D. Edin. and Glasg., F.R.A.S., one of the Senators of the 


College of Justice, 46 Moray Place 
1899 Maclean, Ewan John, M.D., M.R.C.P., London, 51 Linden Gardens, Bayswater, London 


1888 | C. |* Maclean, Magnus, M.A., D.Sc., Prof. of Electrical Engineering in the Glasgow and West 
of Scotland Technical College, 51 Kerrsland Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow 
1876 * Macleod, Rev. Norman, D.D., Westwood, Inverness 
1896 * M‘Lintock, James, M.D., B.Sc., 5 Atholl Crescent 325 
1872 Macmillan, Rev. Hugh, D.D., LL.D., 70 Union Street, Greenock ( 


1876 * Macmillan, John, M.A., D.Se., M.B., C.M., F.R.C.P.E., 27 Warrender Park Road 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 949 


Election 

1893 * M‘Murtrie, The Rev. John, M.A., D.D., 5 Inverleith Place 

1884 * Macpherson, Rev. J. Gordon, M.A., D.Sc., Mathematical Examiner in the University of St 
Andrews, Ruthven Manse, Meigle 

1888 Mactear, James, F.C.S., 28 Victoria Street, Westminster, London 330 

1890 * M‘Vail, John C., M.D., 2 Strathallan: Terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow 

1898 Mahalanobis, S. C., B.Sc., Demonstrator of Physiology, University College, Cardiff 


1880 | C. Marsden, R. Sydney, M.B., C.M., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S., 64 Park Road, South, and 
Town Hal), Birkenhead 

1882 | C. Marshall, D. H., M.A., Professor of Physics in Queen’s University and College, Kingston, 
Ontario, Canada 

1888 | ©, |* Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edin- 


burgh, 131 Warrender Park Road 335 
1892 * Martin, I’rancis John, W.S., 17 Rothesay Place 
1864 Marwick, Sir James David, LL.D., Town-Clerk, Glasgow 
1866 Masson, David, LL.D., Litt. D. Dub., Emeritus-Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature 


in the Univ. of Edin., H.M. Historiographer for Scotland, Gowanlea, Juniper Green 
1885 | C. |* Masson, Orme, D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Melbourne 
1898 | C. |* Masterman, Arthur Thomas, M.A., D.Sc., Lecturer on Zoology in the New Medical School, 


Edinburgh, 1 Mortonhall Road, Blackford Hill 340 
1890: * Matheson, The Rev. George, M.A., B.D., D.D., Minister of St Bernard’s, Edinburgh, 19 St 
Bernard’s Crescent 
1888 * Methven, C. W., Memb. Inst. C.E., Engineer-in-Chief to the Natal Harbour Board, 


Equitable Buildings, Durban, Natal 
1885 | B. C.|* Mill, Hugh Robert, D.Se., LL.D., Librarian, Royal Geographical Society, 1 Saville Row, 
and 22 Gloucester Place, Portman Square, London 


1886 * Milne, William, M.A., B.Sc., 57 Springbank Terrace, Aberdeen 
1899 * Milroy, T. H., M.D., B.Sc., 57 Inverleith Row 345 
1866 Mitchell, Sir Arthur, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D. (Vicz-Presiwent), 34 Drummond Place 


1889 | OC. Mitchell, A. Crichton, D.Sc., Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, and Principal of 
the Maharajah’s College, Trivandrum, Travancore, India 


1897 * Mitchell, George Arthur, M.A., 2 Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow 
1871 Moncrieff, Rev. Canon William Scott, of Fossaway, Easington Rectory, Castle Eden, County 
Durham 


1890 | C. Mond, R. L., M.A. Cantab., F.C.S., The Poplars, 20 Avenue Road, Regent’s Park, London 350 

887 | C. Moos, N. A. F., L.C.E., B.Sc., Professor of Physics, Elphinstone College, and Director of 
the Government Observatory, Colaba, Bombay 

1896 * Morgan, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc., Pres. of the Edin. Mathematical Society, 6 Cluny Terrace 

1892 Morrison, J. T., M.A., B.Se., Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Victoria College, Stellen- 
bosch, Cape Colony 

1892 | C. |+* Mossman, Robert C., 10 Blacket Place 

1874 |K.C.] Muir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., Superintendent-General of Education for Cape Colony, Educa- 
tion Office, and The Hall, Mowbray, Cape Town 355 

1888 * Muirhead, George, Commissioner to His Grace the Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G., 
Speybank, Fochabers 

1887 Mukhopadhyay, Asttosh, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., Professor of Mathematics 
at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, 77 Russa Road North, 
Bhowanipore, Calcutta 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. 7G 


950 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 

Election, 

1870 Munn, David, M.A., 12 Danube Street 

1894 * Munro, J. M. M., M.I.E.E., 136 Bothwell Street, Glasgow 

1889 * Munro, Rev. Robert, M.A., B.D., F.S.A. Scot., Free Church Manse, Old Kilpatrick 360 


1891 | C. |* Munro, Robert, M.A., M.D., Hon. Memb. R.I.A., Hon. Memb. Royal Soc. of Antiquaries 
of Ireland, Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 48 Manor Place 

1896 * Murray, Alfred A., M.A., LL.B., 20 Warriston Crescent 

1892 | C. |* Murray, George Robert Milne, F.R.S.,, F.L.S., Keeper of the Botanical Department, British 
Museum (Natural Hist.), Cromwell Road, London 

1857 Murray, John Ivor, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.P.E., 24 Huntriss Row, Scarborough 

1877 |_B. * Murray, Sir John, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Member of the Prussian Order 


oa Pour le Mérite (Szcretrary), (Society’s Representative on George Heriot’s Trust), 

Director of the Challenger Expedition Publications. Office, 45 Frederick St. House, 
Challenger Lodge, Wardie, and United Service Club 365 

1888 * Murray, R. Milne, M.A., M.B., F.R.C.P.E., 11 Chester Street 

1887 Muter, John, M.A., F.C.S., South London Central Public Laboratory, 325 Kennington 
Road, London 

1888 Napier, A. D. Leith, M.D.,C.M., M.R.C.P.L., General Hospital, Adelaide, S. Australia 

1895 * Napier, James, M.A., Drums, Old Kilpatrick 

1877 * Napier, John, C. Audley Mansions, Grosvenor Square, London 370 

1897 Nash, Alfred George, B.Sc., Greenvale House, Mile Gully P.O., Jamaica, W.I. 

1887 * Nasmyth, T. Goodall, M.D., C.M., D.Sc., Cupar-Fife 

1898 Newman, George, M.D., D.P.H. Cambridge, 2 Woburn Square, London 

1884 * Nicholson, J. Shield, M.A., D.Se., Professor of Political Economy in the University of 
Edinburgh, 3 Belford Park 

1880 | C. |* Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., 15 Blacket Place 375 

1878 Norris, Richard, M.D., M.R.C.S. Eng., 3 Walsall Road, Birchfield, Birmingham 

1888 * Ogilvie, F. Grant, M.A., B.Se., Principal of the Heriot-Watt College 

1888 * Oliphant, James, M.A., 11 Ramsay Gardens 


1886 | C. Oliver, James, M.D., F.L.S., Physician to the London Hospital for Women, 18 Gordon 
Square, London 

1895 Oliver, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor of Physiology in the University of Durham, 
7 Ellison Place, Newcastle-apon-Tyne 380 

1884 |K.C.)* Omond, R. Traill, Hon. Superintendent of Ben Nevis Observatory, Fort-William, 
1 Newbattle Terrace, Edinburgh 


1877 Panton, George A., 73 Westfield Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham 

1892 Parker, Thomas, Memb. Inst. C.E., Manor House, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton 

1886 | C. |* Paton, D. Noél, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., 22 Lyndoch Place 

1889 * Patrick, David, M.A., LL.D., c/o W. & R. Chambers, 339 High Street 385 
1892 * Paulin, David, Actuary, 6 Forres Street 


1881 | N.C. | * Peach, B. N., F.R.S., F.G.S., Acting Palzontologist of the Geological Survey of Scotland, 
86 Findhorn Place 


1889 * Peck, William, F.R.A.S., Town’s Astronomer, City Observatory, Calton Hill, Edinburgh 

1863 Peddie, Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 15 Rutland Street 

1887 | B.C. | * Peddie, Wm., D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh University, — 
14 Ramsay Gardens 390 


1886 | C. |* Peebles, D. Bruce, Tay House, Bonnington, Edinburgh 
1893 Perkin, Arthur George, 8 Montpellier Terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 951 


Election 
1889 * Philip, R. W., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 45 Charlotte Square 
1883 Phillips, Charles D. F., M.D., LL.D., 10 Henrietta St., Cavendish Sq., London, W. 
1877 | C. Pole, William, Hon. Memb. Inst. C.E., Mus. Doc., F.R.S., Atheneum Club, London 395 
1886 * Pollock, Charles Frederick, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., 1 Buckingham Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow 
1874 Powell, Baden Henry Baden-, C.I.E., M.R.A.S., Ferlys Lodge, 29 Bunbury Road, Oxford 
1852 Powell, Eyre B., C.S.I., M.A., 28 Park Road, Haverstock Hill, Hampstead, London 
1888 Prain, David, Surgeon-Major, Indian Medical Service, and Superintendent, Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Shibpur, Calcutta 
1892 * Pressland, Arthur, M.A., Camb., Edinburgh Academy 400 
1875 | C. Prevost, E. W., Ph.D., Elton, Newnham, Gloucester 
1885 Pullar, J. F., Rosebank, Perth 
1880 * Pullar, Sir Robert, Tayside, Perth 
1898 * Purves, John Archibald, D.Sc., 53 York Place 
1897 * Rainy, Harry, M.B., C.M., F.R.C.P. Ed., 25 George Square 405 
1899 * Ramage, Alexander G., 9 Derby Street, Trinity 
1884 Ramsay, E. Peirson, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., Fellow of the Imperial 


and Royal Zoological and Botanical Soviety of Vienna, Curator of Australian Museum, 
Sydney, N.S. W. 

1891 * Rankine, John, M.A., LL.D., Advocate, Professor of the Law of Scotland in the University 
of Edinburgh, 23 Ainslie Place 


1885 | C. | * Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sc., Dunkeld 

1883 | C. | * Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.C.S., 20 Moray Place 410 

1889 Redwood, Boverton, F.1.C., F.C.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Glenwathen, Ballard’s Lane, Finchley, 
Middlesex 

1875 Richardson, Ralph, W.S., 10 Magdala Place 

1872 Ricarde-Seaver, Major F. Ignacio, Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London 

1883 * Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., President of the Scottish Microscopical Society, 1 
Melville Crescent 

1898 Roberts, Alexander Wm., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Mathematical Lecturer, Lovedale, S. Africa 415 

1880 Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.C.P.L., 23 St John Street, Manchester 

1872 Robertson, D. M. C. L. Argyll, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., Surgeon Oculist to the Queen 
for Scotland, 18 Charlotte Square 

1886 * Robertson, The Right Hon. Lord, Q.C., LL.D., Lord of Appeal in Ordinary, 19 Drum- 
sheugh Gardens 

1896 * Robertson, Robert, M.A., 27 Hartington Place, Viewforth 

1896 | GC. |* Robertson, W. G. Aitchison, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 26 Minto Street 420 


1877 | C. |* Robinson, George Carr, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in the College of Chemistry, 
Royal Institution, Hull 


1881 * Rogerson, John Johnston, B.A., LL.B., LL.D., 3 Abbotsford Park 

1881 Rosebery, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G., K.T., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Dalmeny Park, 
Edinburgh 

1880 Rowland, L. L., M.A., M.D., President of the Oregon State Medical Society, and Professor 
of Physiology and Microscopy in Williamette University, Salem, Oregon 

1880 * Russell, Sir Jas. Alex., M.A., B.Sc, M.B., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., Woodville, Canaan Lane 425 

1897 * Sanderson, William, Talbot House, Ferry Road 


1864 Sandford, The Right Rev. Bishop D. F., LL.D., Boldon Rectory, Newcastle-on-Tyne 


952 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF. THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 

Election. 

1895 Savage, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.S. England, M.R.C.P. London, Professor of Gynecology, 
Mason College, Birmingham, The Ards, Knowle, Warwickshire 

1891 Sawyer, Sir James, Knt., M.D., F.R.C.P., J.P., Consulting Physician to the Queen’s Hospital, 


Haseley Hall, Warwick 
1885 | C. Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., The Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory of the Royal 


Institution, London 430 
1880 _ Scott, J. H., M.B., C.M., M.R.C.S., Prof. of Anatomy in the Univ. of Otago, New 
Zealand 
1888 * Scott, John, C.B., Memb. Inst. C.E., Halkshill, Largs 
1875 Scott, M., Memb. Inst. C.E., care of A. Grahame, Esq., 30 Gt. George St., Westminster 
1872 | C. Seton, George, M.A., Advocate, Ayton House, Abernethy, Perthshire 
1897 * Shepherd, John William, Carrickarden, Bearsden, Glasgow 435 
1894 * Shield, Wm., M.Inst.C.E., Executive Engineer, National Harbour of Refuge, Peterhead 
1872 Sibbald, Sir John, M.D., Commissioner in Lunacy (retired), 18 Great King Street 
1870 Sime, James, M.A., Craigmount House, 52 Dick Place 
1871 Simpson, A. R., M.D., Vice-President of the Royal College of Physicians, Professor of 
Midwifery in the University of Edinburgh, 52 Queen Street 
1876 * Skinner, William, W.S., 35 George Square 440 
1868 Smith, Adam Gillies, C.A., Agsacre, North Berwick 


1891 | C. |*Smith, Alex., B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of General Chemistry, University of Chicago, IIls., 
United States 

1882 | C. Smith, C. Michie, B.Se., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physical Science, Christian College, and 
Officiating Government Astronomer, Madras Presidency, The Observatory, Kodaikanal, 
Palani Hills, South India j 


1885 * Smith, George, F.C.S., Polmont Station 
S74 “C: Smith, John, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., 11 Wemyss Place 445 
1880 Smith, William Robert, M.D., D.Sc., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Forensic Medicine in 


King’s College, 74 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Square, London 
1846 |K. B.) Smyth, Piazzi, LL.D., Ex-Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Emeritus Professor of 


C. Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh, Clova, Ripon 
1899 Snell, Ernest Hugh, M.D., B.Se., D.P.H., Camb., Coventry 
1880 Sollas, W. J., M.A., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., late Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge, and 


Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the University of Oxford 
1889 | C. Somerville, Wm., M.A., D.Sc., D.Oec., Prof. of Agriculture in the Univ. of Cambridge 450 


1882 * Sorley, James, F.I.A., C.A., 32 Onslow Square, London 

1896 * Spence, Frank, M.A., B.Sc., 25 Craiglea Drive 

L874) CG: Sprague, T. B., M.A., LL.D., Actuary, 29 Buckingham Terrace 

1891 * Stanfield, Richard, Professor of Mechanics and Engineering in the Heriot-Watt College 

1886 | CG. | * Stevenson, Charles A., B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., 28 Douglas Crescent 455 

1884 * Stevenson, David Alan, B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., 45 Melville Street 

1877 * Stevenson, James, F.R.G.S., Largs 

1888 * Stevenson, Rev. John, LL.D., Minister of Glamis, Forfarshire 

1868 Stevenson, John J., 4 Porchester Gardens, London 

1888-| ©, |*Stewart, Charles Hunter, D.Sc., M.B., C.M., Professor of Public Health in the University 
of Edinburgh, 9 Learmonth Gardens 460 

1868 Stewart, Major-General J. H. M. Shaw, late R.E., Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.R.G.S., 7 Inverness 


Terrace, London, W 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 953 


Date of 
Election. 


1866 


1873 
1877 


1889 


1896 
1885 
1872 


1861 


1898 
1895 


1890 
1870 
1899 
1892 
1872 
1892 
1885 
1884 


1870 
1887 


1896 
1887 
1880 


1899 
1899 
1870 
1882 


1876 
1874 


1874 
1888 
1861 


1895 
1898 


C. 


C. 


Wal 
Te) 


C. 


C. 


NAC; 


Stewart, Sir Thomas Grainger, M.D. Edin. and Dub., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., Professor of the 
Practice of Physic in the University of Edinburgh, 19 Charlotte Square 
Stewart, Walter, 3 Queensferry Gardens 
* Stirling, William, D.Sc., M.D., Brackenbury Professor of Physiology and Histology in 
Owens College and Victoria University, Manchester 
* Stockman, Ralph, M.D., F.R:C.P.E., Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the 
University of Glasgow 465 
* Sutherland, John Francis, M.D., Dep. Com. in Lunacy for Scotland,4 MerchistonBank Avenue 
* Symington, Johnson, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Prof. of Anatomy in Queen’s College, Belfast 
Tait, The Very Reverend Andrew, D.D., LL.D., M.R.I.A., Dean of St. Mary’s Cathedral, 
Tuam, Deanery, Moylough, Ballinasloe, County Galway, Ireland 
Tait, P. Guthrie, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edin- 
burgh (GENERAL SEcRETARY), 38 George Square 
* Tait, William Archer, B.Sc., M. Inst. C.E., 38 George Square 470 
Talmage, James Edward, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.M.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology, Univ. of 
Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 
Tanakadate, Aikitu, Prof. of Nat. Phil. in the Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo, Japan 
Tatlock, Robert R., F.C.S., City Analyst’s Office, 156 Bath Street, Glasgow 
* Taylor, James, M.A., Mathematical Master in the Edinburgh Academy, 3 Melgund Terrace 
* Taylor, W. A., M.A. (Camb.), 3 East Mayfield 475 
Teape, Rev. Charles R., M.A., Ph.D., Rector of St Andrews Episcopal Church, 15 Findhorn PI. 
Thackwell, J. B., M.B., C.M., Ravenswood Hospital, Ravenswood, Queensland 
* Thompson, D’Arcy W., C.B., B.A., F.L.S., Prof. of Natural Hist. in Univ. College, Dundee 
* Thoms, George Hunter, of Aberlemno, Advocate, Sheriff of the Counties of Orkney and 
Zetland, 13 Charlotte Square 
Thomson, Rev. Andrew, D.D., 63 Northumberland Street 480 
* Thomson, Andw., M.A., D.Sc., Mathematical Master in the Perth Academy, Ardenlea, 
Pitcullen, Perth 
* Thomson, George Ritchie, M.B., C.M., 306 Bath Street, Glasgow 
* Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., Regius Prof. of Natural History in the Univ. of Aberdeen 
Thomson, John Millar, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. of Chem. in King’s College, Lond., 85 Addison 
Road, London 
* Thomson, The Right Hon. Mitchell, Lord Provost of Edinburgh, 6 Charlotte Square 485 
* Thomson, R. Tatlock, 156 Bath Street, Glasgow 
Thomson, Spencer C., Actuary, 10 Eglinton Crescent 
Thomson, Wm., M.A., B.Sc., Registrar, University of the Cape of Good Hope, University 
Chambers, Cape Town 
Thomson, William, Royal Institution, Manchester 
Traquair, R. H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Natural History Collections 
in the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, 8 Dean Park Crescent 490 
Tuke, Sir J. Batty, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., 20 Charlotte Square 
* Turnbull, Andrew H., Actuary, The Elms, Whitehouse Loan 


N. C.| Turner, Sir William, M.B., F.R.C.S.E., LLD., D.C.L, D.Se. Dub., F.R.S., (Vicu- 


PrESIDENT), Professor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh, 6 Eton Terrace 

* Turton, Albert H., M.E., A.I.M. and M., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 

* Tweedie, Charles, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh, 
15 Dalrymple Crescent, Grange 495 


954 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Date of 
Election. 


1877 
1889 
1891 
1875 


1888 


1891 


1873 
1886 
1898 
1891 
1866 
1862 


1896 


1882 
1896 
1896 
1890 


1881 


1894 
1879 
1868 


1897 
1879 


1895 


1882 
1891 
1886 
1884 
1890 
1896 


1882 
1892 


1896 
1882 


BG: 


* Underhill, Charles E., B.A., M.B., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.C.S.E., 8 Coates Crescent 
Underhill, T. Edgar, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Dunedin, Barnt Green, Worcestershire 
Vernon, Henry Hannotte, M.D., Shipbrook, Cambridge Road, Southport, Lancashire 
Vincent, Charles Wilson, F.I.C., F.C.S., M.R.L., Librarian of the Reform Club, Pall Mall, 
London, 38 Queen’s Road, South Hornsey, Middlesex 
Walker, James, Memb. Inst. C.E., Engineer’s Office, Tyne Improvement Commission, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne 500 
* Walker, James, D.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University College, Dundee, 19 
Springfield, Dundee 
Walker, Robert, M.A., University, Aberdeen 
* Wallace, R., F.L.S., Prof. of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the Univ. of Edin. 
Wallace, W., M.A., Principal, Southern Higher Grade School, Leeds 
* Walmsley, R. Mullineux, D.Sc., Prin. of the Northampton Inst., Clerkenwell, London 505 
Watson, Patrick Heron, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., 16 Charlotte Square 
Watson, Rev. Robert Boog, B.A., LL.D., F.L.S., Past President of the Conchological 
Society, 11 Strathearn Place 
* Webster, John Clarence, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Lecturer on Gynecology, M‘Gill 
University, Montreal, 287 Mountain Street, Montreal, Canada 
* Wenley, James A., 5 Drumsheugh Gardens 
Wenley, R. M., M.A., D.Sc., D.Phil., Prof. of Philosophy in the Univ. of Michigan, U.S. 510 
White, Philip J., M.B., Prof. of Zoology in University College, Bangor, North Wales 
White, Sir William Henry, K.C.B., Memb. Inst. C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Assistant Controller 
of the Navy, and Director of Naval Construction, The Admiralty, London 
Whitehead, Walter, F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Clinical Surgery, Owens College and Victoria — 
University, 499 Oxford Road, Manchester 
Whymper, Edward, F.R.G.S., 29 Ludgate Hill, London 
* Will, John Charles Ogilvie, M.D., 379 Union Street, Aberdeen 515 
Williams, W., Principal and Professor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, New Veterinary 
College, Leith Walk 
* Williams, W. Owen, F.R.C.V.S., Johnville, Portobello 
* Wilson, Andrew, Ph.D., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, 110 
Gilmore Place 
Wilson-Barker, David, F.R.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc., Captain-Superintendent Thames Nautical 
Training College, H.M.S. ‘ Worcester,” Greenhithe, Kent 
Wilson, George, M.A., M.D., 7 Avon Place, Warwick 520 
* Wilson, John Hardie, D.Sc., University of St Andrews (39 South Street, St Andrews) 
* Woodhead, German Sims, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Prof. of Pathology in the Univ. of Cambridge 
Woods, G. A., M.R.C.S., Tregarthyn House, 31 Brunswick Road, Brighton F 
* Wright, Johnstone Christie, Oakdene, Woking, Surrey 
* Wright, Robert Patrick, Professor of Agriculture, West of Scotland Technical College, 
Glasgow, Laventille, Crow Road, Partick, Glasgow 525 
* Young, Frank W., F.C.S., Lecturer on Natural Science, High School, Dundee, Woodmuir 
Park, West Newport, Fife 
Young, George, Ph.D., Firth College, Sheffield 
* Young, James Buchanan, M.B., D.Sc., Dalveen, Braeside, Liberton 
* Young, Thomas Graham, Westfield, West Calder 529 


LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS. 


LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS 


AT NOVEMBER 1899, 


His Royal Highness The PRINCE oF WALES. 


FOREIGNERS (LIMITED TO THIRTY-SIX BY LAW X.). 


Elected. 
1897 Alexander Agassiz, 
1897 E.-H. Amagat, 


1889 Marcellin Pierre Eugéne Berthelot, 


1895 Ludwig Boltzmann, 
1897 Stanislao Cannizzaro, 
1883 Luigi Cremona, 
1877 Carl Gegenbaur, 
1888 Ernst Haeckel, 
1883 Julius Hann, 

1884 Charles Hermite, 
1879 Jules Janssen, 

1864 Albert von Kolliker, 
1864 Rudolph Leuckart, 
1897 Gabriel Lippmann, 


1895 Eleuthére-Elie-Nicolas Mascart, 
1888 Demetrius Ivanovich Mendeléef, 


1895 Carl Menger, 

1864 Theodore Mommsen, 
1897 Fridtjof Nansen, 

1881 Simon Newcomb, 

1895 Max von Pettenkofer, 
1895 Jules Henri Poincaré, 
1889 Georg Hermann Quincke, 
1886 Alphonse Renard, 

1897 Ferdinand von Richthofen, 
1897 Henry A. Rowland, 

1897 Giovanni V. Schiaparelli, 
1878 Otto Wilhelm Struve, 
1886 Tobias Robert Thalén, 
1874 Otto Torell, 

1868 Rudolph Virchow, 

1897 Ferdinand Zirkel, 


Total, 32. 


Cambridge (Mass.). 
Paris. 
Paris. 
Vienna. 
Rome. 
Rome. 
Heidelberg. 
Jena. 

Graz. 
Paris, 
Paris, 
Wurzburg. 
Leipzig. 
Paris, 
Paris. 

St Petersburg. 
Vienna. 
Berlin. 
Christiania. 
Washington. 
Munich. 
Paris. 
Heidelberg. 
Ghent. 
Berlin. 
Baltimore. 
Milan. 

St Petersburg. 
Upsala. 
Lund. 
Berlin. 
Leipug. 


955 


956 LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS. 


BRITISH SUBJECTS (LIMITED TO TWENTY BY LAW X.). 


Elected. 

1889 Sir Robert Stawell Ball, Kt., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Lowndean, 
Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge, 

1892 Colonel Alexander Ross Clarke, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., 

1897 George Howard Darwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Plumian Professor 
of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge, 

1892 David Gill, LL.D., F.R.S., Her Majesty’s Astronomer at the Cape 
of Good Hope, 

1895 Albert C. L. G. Giinther, Ph.D., F.RB.S., 

1883 Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, K.C.S.I., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., 
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France, 

1884 William Huggins, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst. of 
France, 

1892 Sir James Paget, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. 
Inst. of France, 

1886 The Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc. Dub., Sec. RS., 
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France, 

1881 The Rev. George Salmon, D.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. 

Mem. Inst. of France, 

1884 Sir J. 8. Burdon Sanderson, Bart., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc. Dub., 
E.B.S., 

1864 Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart., M.P., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S., 
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France, 

1892 The Right Rev. W. Stubbs, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of Oxford, 

1895 Sir Charles Todd, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Astronomer, 
South Australia, 

1883 Alexander William Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst. 
of France, 


Total, 15. 


Cambridge. 
Redhill, Surrey, 


Cambridge. 


Cape of Good Hope. 
London. 


London. 
London. 
London. 
London. 
Dublin. 
Oxford. 


Cambridge. 
Oxford. 


Adelaide. 


London. 


LIST OF FELLOWS ELECTED. 957 


ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED 
DurinG SESSION 1896-97. 


ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DATE OF THEIR ELECTION. 


6th December 1896. 
Ropert Carrp. James Bett Dospis, F.Z.S. Wm. SANDERSON. 


lst February 1897. 
James Roperr Erskine-MurrAy. A. Lockuart Giuuespiz, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. 


lst March 1897. 


Watrer BicGar BiaikiE. Ricuarp J. Berry, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. 
Joun CarrutHers Brartiz, D.Sc. THomas Duncan GREENLEES, M.B. 
Harry Rarny, M.B., C.M., F.R.C.P.E. Arex. CruiksHank Houston, M.B., C.M., D.Se. 


W. Owen Witirams, F.R.C.V.S. 


3rd May 1897. 
JoHN WILLIAM SHEPHERD. ALFRED GrorGE Nasu, B.Sc. 


7th June 1897. 


James A. Macponatp, M.A., B.Sc. Grorce ArtHuR Mircueny, M.A. 
Hueu Davinson, of Braedale. JoHN Gorpon Gorpon-Munn, M.D. 
Anecus M‘Gittivray, M.D., C.M. RicuarD JoHNn Luioyp, M.A., D.Lit. 


HONORARY FELLOWS ELECTED 


DuriInG SESSION 1896-97. 
FOREIGN. 


AtpxanperR Acassiz, Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, 
Cambridge, U.S. 

E.-H. Amacat, Correspondent of the Institute of France, Répétiteur at the Ecole Polytechnique, 
Paris. 

SranisLao Cannizzaro, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Rome. 

Gapriet Lippmann, Member of the Institute of France and Professor of Physics in the University 
of Paris. 

Fripryor Nansen, Professor of Zoology in the University of Christiania. 

Baron FERDINAND von RicHrHoren, Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, Berlin. 

Henry A. Rowand, Professor of Physics in the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S. 

Giovanni V. ScHIAPARELLI, Director of the Royal Brera Observatory, Milan. 

Frrpmanp ZirKen, Professor of Mineralogy iu the University of Leipzig. 


BRITISH. 
The Very Rev. Joun Carp, D.D., LL.D., Principal of the University of Glasgow. 
Grorcr Howarp Darwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the 


University of Cambridge. 
Sir Wiu1am Frower, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Director of the Natural History Depart- 


ment, British Museum. 


VO XXXL, PART IV. 7H 


958 LIST OF FELLOWS DECEASED, ETC. 


FELLOWS DECEASED, RESIGNED, OR CANCELLED 


Durine SrEsston 1896-97. 


ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED. 


Epmunp CuisHotm Barren, of Aigas, M.A. Admiral Sir ALexanDER Mins, Bart., G.C.B. 
Professor Marraew Cuarreris, M.A. Very Rev. Dean Monrcomrry, M.A., D.D. 
Professor Henry Drummonp. James Greia Smity, M.A., M.B., C.M. 
‘Grorcr Exper, Knock Castle. Rev. Joun Witson, M.A. 


Tuomas Brumpy Jounsron, Geographer to the Queen. 


RESIGNED. 


WILLIAM JOLLY. 


CANCELLED. 


H. A. WEBSTER, 


HONORARY FELLOWS DECEASED. 
Sxssion 1896-97. 


FOREIGN. 


Eite Dusors-Raymonp, JOHANNES Japetus SMITH STEENSTRUP. 


BRITISH. 


JaMeEs Josepu SytvesTer, LL.D., F.R.S. 


LIST OF FELLOWS ELECTED. 959 


ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED 
DurinG SESSION 1897-98, 


ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DATE OF THEIR ELECTION. 


6th December 1897. 


James Curniz, Jun., M.A. JoHN ARCHIBALD Purves, B.Se. Cuarues Tweepig, M.A., B.Sc. 


17th January 1898. 
ALEXANDER CULLEN, F.S.A. (Scot.). W. Wattacs, M.A. Prof. G. Apamr, M.A., M.D. 


Tth February 1898. 


Cxrcrt Carus-Witson, F.R.G.S. Brngamin Haun Buytu, M.A., M.Inst. C.E. 
Jamus CAMPBELL Irons, S.8.C. RicHarpD Vary Camppett, M,A., LL.B. 
ArtHur THomas Masrerman, B.A., D.Sc. The Hoy. Jonn ABERCROMBY, 


7th March 1898. 


Prof. Joun Guaister, M.D. Davip Brown, F.C.S. 
Francis CHALMERS CRAWFORD. W. Atuan Carter, M.Inst. C.E. 
Gzorce Newman, M.D. ALEXANDER VeEITtcH Lotuian, M.A,, B.Sc. 


S. C. Mawananosis, B.Se. 


4th April 1898. 
W. Cossar MacKenzin, D.Se. T.-H. Brycz, M.A., M.B. 


2nd May 1898. 


Wiuiiam Arcuer Tait, B.Sc., M.Inst. C.E. Axpert A, Gray, M.D. 
ALEXANDER W. Roserts, F.R.A.S, 


4th July 1898. 


Joun Finpuay, M.A. 


960 LIST OF FELLOWS DECEASED, ETC. 


FELLOWS DECEASED 


Durine Session 1897-98. 


ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED. — 


James EpwarD TIBRNEY Arrcnisoy, C.LE., M.D. Henry Marsnatt, M.D. 


Sir James Bary. Henry Newcomss, F.R.C.S.E. 
Freverick W. Barry, M.D., D.Sc. The Right Hon. Lorp Prayrarr, G.C.B. 
Professor Henry CALDERWOOD, The Hon. Bouverte F, Primrose, C.B, 
Professor M. Forster HEpDLE. — JAMES SYME. 

CuarLes Hayes Hiaerns, M.D. Rosertr Witson, M.Inst. C.E. 


HONORARY FELLOW DECEASED. 
Session 1897-98. 


BRITISH. 
The Very Rev. Joun Carrp, D.D., LL.D. 


LIST OF FELLOWS ELECTED. 961 


ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED 
During Session 1898-99, 


ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DaTE OF THEIR ELECTION. 


5th December 1898. 


James R, APPLEYARD. Ewen Joun Mactman, M.D. 
JAMES CHATHAM. Prof. E. W. W. Caruisr, M.D. 
T. E. Gatenoussz, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.K. TT. H. Mitroy, M.D. 


9th January 1899. 
Tuomas IsHerwoop, M.A., LL.D. 


6th February 1899. 


Auuan M‘Lanz Hamizron, M.D. JosEpH SuatTerR Lewis, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.H. 
Prof. Davin W. Finuay, M.D. Grorer Durnin, M.A. 
James M‘Cussin, B.A. 


6th March 1899. 


Prof, THomas 8. Goopwin. R. Tartock THomson, 
Epwarp GraHam Guest, M.A., B.Sc. 


3rd April 1899. 


James Taytor, M.A. 


lst May 1899. 


ANDREW FREELAND FeERGUs. The Right Hon, Mircuett THomson, Lord Provost 
of Edinburgh. 


W. Lamonp Howls. 


5th June 1899. 


ALEXANDER G. RAMAGE. 


3rd July 1899. 


Ernest Hueu Syect, M.D. 


LIST OF FELLOWS DECEASED, ETC. 


FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED 


Durine Sesston 1898-99. 


ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED. 


Emeritus Professor Gzorcr J. ALLMAN. 
James LAMBERT Batuey. 
Professor D. CampBELL Buack, 


Emeritus Professor W. GARDEN BLAIKIE. 


Davin CHALMERS. 

Roserr Cox, of Gorgie, M.P. 
Joun Duncan, M.D., LL.D. 
JAMES SImpsOoN FLEMING, 

Sir Joun Fowtsr, Bart., K.C.M.G. 


JamMEs GRAHAM, LL.D. 

Grorce Fossery Lyster, M. Inst. C.E. 
W. Bowman Mactzop. 

Joun J. Morr, M.D. 

Professor Witt1am RutHerForpD, M.D, 
Sir Joun Srruruers, M.D. 

Josera Titus, M.D. 

R. H. B. WickHam, M.D. 

Grorce Witiiamson, F.S.A. Scot. 


RESIGNED. 


Most Hon. The Marquis or Loruian. 


A. E. Scoucatt, 


D. S. Srncuarr. 


HONORARY FELLOWS DECEASED. 


Sesston 1898-99. 


BRITISH. 
Sir J. Witttam Dawson, C.M.G. Sir Witu1am Frower, K.C.B. 
Epwarp Franxuanp, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
FOREIGN. 


Rozsert Wi.L1AmM Bunsen. Gustav Hetnrich WIEDEMANN. 


TL AwWS 


OY AL SOCIETY OF DPN RU T.G iH. 


AS REVISED 5rx MARCH 1900. 


( 965 ) 


LAWS. 


[By the Charter of the Society (printed in the Transactions, Vol. VI. p. 5), the Laws cannot 
be altered, except at a Meeting held one month after that at which the Motion for 


alteration shall have been proposed. | 


Jf. 
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH shall consist of Ordinary and 
Honorary Fellows. 


ine 


Every Ordinary Fellow, within three months after his election, shall pay Two 
Guineas as the fee of admission, and Three Guineas as his contribution for the 
Session in which he has been elected; and annually at the commencement of every 
Session, Three Guineas into the hands of the Treasurer. This annual contribution 
shall continue for ten years after his admission, and it shall be limited to Two 
Guineas for fifteen years thereafter.* Fellows may compound for these 
contributions on such terms as the Council may from time to time fix. 


IU. 


All Fellows who shall have paid Twenty-five years’ annual contribution shall 
be exempted from further payment. 


De 


The fees of admission of an Ordinary Non-Resident Fellow shall be £26, 5s., 
payable on his admission ; and in case of any Non-Resident Fellow coming to 
reside at any time in Scotland, he shall, during each year of his residence, pay 
the usual annual contribution of £3, 3s., payable by each Resident Fellow ; but 
after payment of such annual contribution for eight years, he shall be exempt 


* A modification of this rule, in certain cases, was agreed to at a Meeting of the Society held on 
‘the 3rd January 1831. 

At the Meeting of the Society, on the 5th January 1857, when the reduction of the Contribu- 
tions from £3, 3s. to £2, 2s., from the 11th to the 25th year of membership, was adopted, it was 
resolved that the existing Members shall share in this reduction, so far as regards their future annual 


Contributions. 
VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. if ii 


Title. 


The fees of Ordin- 
ary Fellows residing 
in Scotland. 


Payment to cease 
after 25 years. 


Fees of Non-Resi- 
dent Ordinary 
Fellows. 


Case of Fellows 
becoming Non- 
Resident. 


Defaulters. 


Privileges of 
Ordinary Fellows. 


Numbers Un- 
limited. 


Fellows entitled to 
[ransactions. 


Mode of Recom- 
nending Ordinary 
Fellows. 


966 LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


from any further payment. In the case of any Resident Fellow ceasing to reside 
in Scotland, and wishing to continue a Fellow of the Society, it shall be in the 
power of the Council to determine on what terms, in the circumstances of each 
case, the privilege of remaining a Fellow of the Society shall be continued to 
such Fellow while out of Scotland. 


V. 


Members failing to pay their contributions for three successive years (due , 
application having been made to them by the Treasurer) shall be reported to 
the Council, and, if they see fit, shall be declared from that period to be no 
longer Fellows, and the legal means for recovering such arrears shall be 


employed. 
VI. 


None but Ordinary Fellows shall bear any office in the Society, or vote in 
the choice of Fellows or Office-Bearers, or interfere in the patrimonial interests 


of the Society. 


VIL. 
The number of Ordinary Fellows shall be unlimited. 


VIIL 


The Ordinary Fellows, upon producing an order from the TREASURER, shall 
be entitled to receive from the Publisher, gratis, the Parts of the Society’s 
Transactions which shall be published subsequent to their admission. 


IX 


Candidates for admission as Ordinary Fellows shall make an application in 
writing, and shall produce along with it a certificate of recommendation to the 
purport below,* signed by at least /owr Ordinary Fellows, two of whom shall 
certify their recommendation from personal knowledge. This recommendation 
shall be delivered to the Secretary, and by him laid before the Council, and 
shall afterwards be printed in the circulars for three Ordinary Meetings of 
the Society, previous to the day of election, and shall lie upon the table during 
that time. 

* “4 B,, a gentleman well versed in Science (or Polite Literature, as the case may be), being 


“to our knowledge desirous of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, we hereby 
“ recommend him as deserving of that honour, and as likely to prove a useful and valuable Member.” 


LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. 967 


X. 


Honorary Fellows shall not be subject to any contribution. This class shall Honora a cleue 
consist of persons eminently distinguished for science or literature. Its number Foreign. 
shall not exceed Fifty-six, of whom Twenty may be British subjects, and Thirty- 


six may be subjects of foreign states. 


xk 


Personages of Royal Blood may be elected Honorary Fellows, without regard Royal Personages. 
to the limitation of numbers specified in Law X. 


>I. 


Honorary Fellows may be proposed by the Council, or by a recommenda- Recommendation 
tion (in the form given below*) subscribed by three Ordinary Fellows ; and in Tee 
case the Council shall decline to bring this recommendation before the Society, 
it shall be competent for the proposers to bring the same before a General 
Meeting. The election shall be by ballot, after the proposal has been commu- Mode of Election. 
nicated viva voce from the Chair at one meeting, and printed in the circulars 


for two ordinary meetings of the Society, previous to the day of election. 


SUUL 


The election of Ordinary Fellows shall only take place at the first Ordinary Heian oe Ordi- 
Meeting of each month during the Session. The election shall be by ballot, . 
and shall be determined by a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes, pro- 


vided Twenty-four Fellows be present and vote. 


XIN: 


The Ordinary Meetings shall be held on the first and third Mondays of Ordinary Meet- 
each month from November to March, and from May to July, inclusive ; with eet 
the exception that when there are five Mondays in January, the Meetings for 
that month shall be held on its second and fourth Mondays. Regular Minutes 
shall be kept of the proceedings, and the Secretaries shall do the duty 
alternately, or according to such agreement as they may find it convenient 
to make. 


* We hereby recommend 
for the distinction of being made an Honorary Fellow of this Society, declaring that each of us from 
our own knowledge of his services to (Literature or Science, as the case may be) believe him to be 
worthy of that honour. 

(To be signed by three Ordinary Fellows.) 


To the President and Council of the Royal Society 
of Edinburgh. 


The Transactions. 


How Published. 


The Council. 


Retiring Council- 
lors. 


Election of Office- 
Bearers. 


Special Meetings ; 
how called. 


Treasurer’s Duties. 


968 LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


XV. 

The Society shall from time to time publish its Transactions and Proceed- 
ings. For this purpose the Council shall select and arrange the papers which 
they shall deem it expedient to publish in the 7ransactions of the Society, and 
shall superintend the printing of the same. 

The Council shall have power to regulate the private business of the Society. 
At any Meeting of the Council the Chairman shall have a casting as well as a 
deliberative vote. 


SVL. 


The Transactions shall be published in parts or Fasciculi at the close of 
each Session, and the expense shall be defrayed by the Society. 


XVII. 

That there shall be formed a Council, consisting—First, of such gentlemen 
as may have filled the office of President ; and Secondly, of the following to be 
annually elected, viz.:—a President, Six Vice-Presidents (two at least of whom 
shall be resident), Twelve Ordinary Fellows as Councillors, a General Secretary, 
Two Secretaries to the Ordinary Meetings, a Treasurer, and a Curator of the 
Museum and Library. 


XVIII. 


Four Councillors shall go out annually, to be taken according to the order 
in which they stand on the list of the Council. 


XIX. 

An Extraordinary Meeting for the election of Office Bearers shall be held 
annually on the fourth Monday of October, or on such other lawful day in 
October as the Council may fix, and each Session of the Society shall be held 
to begin at the date of the said Extraordinary Meeting. 


XX. 
Special Meetings of the Society may be called by the Secretary, by direction 
of the Council; or on a requisition signed by six or more Ordinary Fellows. 
Notice of not less than two days must be given of such Meetings. 


XX]. 
The Treasurer shall receive and disburse the money belonging to the Society, 
granting the necessary receipts, and collecting the money when due. 
He shall keep regular accounts of all the cash received and expended, which 
shall be made up and balanced annually ; and at the Extraordinary Meeting in 
October, he shall present the accounts for the preceding year, duly audited. 


LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. 969 


At this Meeting, the Treasurer shall also lay before the Council a list of all 
arrears due above two years, and the Council shall thereupon give such direc- 
tions as they may deem necessary for recovery thereof. 


XXII. 


At the Extraordinary Meeting in October, a professional accountant shall 
be chosen to audit the Treasurer’s accounts for that year, and to give the neces- 
sary discharge of his intromissions. 


XXIII. 


The General Secretary shall keep Minutes of the Extraordinary Meetings of 
the Society, and of the Meetings of the Council, in two distinct books. He 
shall, under the direction of the Council, conduct the correspondence of the 
Society, and superintend its publications. For these purposes he shall, when 
necessary, employ a clerk, to be paid by the Society. 


XXIV. 


The Secretaries to the Ordinary Meetings shall keep a regular Minute-book, 
in which a full account of the proceedings of these Meetings shall be entered ; 
they shall specify all the Donations received, and furnish a list of them, and of 
the Donors’ names, to the Curator of the Library and Museum ; they shall like- 
wise furnish the Treasurer with notes of all admissions of Ordinary Fellows. 
They shall assist the General Secretary in superintending the publications, and 
in his absence shall take his duty. 


XXV. 

The Curator of the Museum and Library shall have the custody and charge 
of all the Books, Manuscripts, objects of Natural History, Scientific Produc- 
tions, and other articles of a similar description belonging to the Society ; he 
shall take an account of these when received, and keep a regular catalogue of 
the whole, which shall lie in the Hall, for the inspection of the Fellows. 


XXVI. 


All Articles of the above description shall be open to the inspection of the 
Fellows at the Hall of the Society, at such times and under such regulations 
as the Council from time to time shall appoint. 


XXVIII. 


A Register shall be kept, in which the names of the Fellows shall be 
enrolled at their admission, with the date. 


Auditor. 


General Secretary’s 
Duties, 


Secretaries to 
Ordinary Meetings. 


Curator of Museum 
and Library. 


Use of Museum 
and Library. 


Register Book. 


(HIOTOT 


THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, NEILL, AND 
GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES. 


The above Prizes will be awarded by the Council in the following manner :— 


I. KEITH PRIZE. 


The Kerr Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and from £40 to £50 in 
Money, will be awarded in the Session 1899-1900 for the “ best communication 
on a scientific subject, communicated, in the first instance, to the Royal Society 
during the Sessions 1897-98 and 1898-99.” Preference will be given to a 
paper containing a discovery. 


II. MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE PRIZE. 


This Prize is to be awarded biennially by the Council of the Royal Society 
of Edinburgh to such person, for such purposes, for such objects, and in such 
manner as shall appear to them the most conducive to the promotion of the 
interests of science ; with the proviso that the Council shall not be compelled 
to award the Prize unless there shall be some individual engaged in scientific 
pursuit, or some paper written on a scientific subject, or some discovery in 
science made during the biennial period, of sufficient merit or importance in 
the opinion of the Council to be entitled to the Prize. 


1. The Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and a sum of Money, will be 
awarded at the commencement of the Session 1900-1901, for an Essay or Paper 
having reference to any branch of scientific inquiry, whether Material or 
Mental. 


2. Competing Essays to be addressed to the Secretary of the Society, and 
transmitted not later than 8th July 1900. 


3. The Competition is open to all men of science. 


APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. Oa 


4. The Essays may be either anonymous or otherwise. In the former case, 
they must be distinguished by mottoes, with corresponding sealed billets, super- 
scribed with the same motto, and containing the name of the Author. 


5. The Council impose no restriction as to the length of the Essays, which 
may be, at the discretion of the Council, read at the Ordinary Meetings of the 
Society. They wish also to leave the property and free disposal of the manu- 
scripts to the Authors; a copy, however, being deposited in the Archives of 
the Society, unless the paper shall be published in the Transactions. 


6. In awarding the Prize, the Council will also take into consideration 
any scientific papers presented to the Society during the Sessions 1898-99, 
1899-1900, whether they may have been given in with a view to the prize or not. 


Ill. NEILL PRIZE. 


The Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh having received the bequest 
of the late Dr Patrick Neitz of the sum of £500, for the purpose of “the 
interest thereof being applied in furnishing a Medal or other reward every 
second or third year to any distinguished Scottish Naturalist, according as such 
Medal or reward shall be voted by the Council of the said Society,” hereby 
intimate, 


1. The NEILL PRizz, consisting of a Gold Medal and a sum of Money, will 
be awarded during the Session 1900-1901. 


2. The Prize will be given for a Paper of distinguished merit, on a subject 
of Natural History, by a Scottish Naturalist, which shall have been presented 
to the Society during the three years preceding the 8th July 1900,—or failing 
presentation of a paper sufficiently meritorious, it will be awarded for a work 
or publication by some distinguished Scottish Naturalist, on some branch of 
Natural History, bearing date within five years of the time of award. 


IV. GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE. 


This Prize, founded in the year 1887 by Dr R. H. GuNNING, is to be awarded 
triennially by the Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in recognition of 
original work in Physics, Chemistry, or Pure or Applied Mathematics. 


972 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 


Evidence of such work may be afforded either by a Paper presented to the 
Society, or by a Paper on one of the above subjects, or some discovery in them 
elsewhere communicated or made, which the Council may consider to be 
deserving of the Prize. 


The Prize consists of a sum of money, and is open to men of science resi- 
dent in or connected with Scotland. The first award was made in the year 
1887. 


In accordance with the wish of the Donor, the Council of the Society may 
on fit occasions award the Prize for work of a definite kind to be undertaken 
during the three succeeding years by a scientific man of recognised ability. 


(ore) 


AWARDS OF THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, NEILL, AND 
GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES, FROM 1827 TO 1898, 


I. KEITH PRIZE. 


lst BrennraL Periop, 1827-29.—Dr Brewster, for his papers “on his Discovery of Two New Immis- 
cible Fluids in the Cavities of certain Minerals,” published in 
the Transactions of the Society. 

2np BrenntaL Pertop, 1829-31.—Dr Brewster, for his paper “on a New Analysis of Solar 
Light,” published in the Transactions of the Society. 


3RD Brenniat Periop, 1831—33.—TnHomas Granam, Esq., for his paper “ on the Law of the Diffusion 
of Gases,” published in the Transactions of the Society. 


47H Binnntat Periop, 1833-35.—Professor J. D. Forsss, for his paper “ on the Refraction and Polari- 
zation of Heat,” published in the Transactions of the Society. 


57TH BienniaL Psriop, 1835-37.—Joun Scort Russet1, Esq.,for his Researches “on Hydrodynamics,” 
published in the Transactions of the Society. 


6TH Brenniat Periop, 1837-39.—Mr Jonn Suaw, for his experiments “on the Development and 
Growth of the Salmon,” published in the Transactions of the 
Society. 

77TH Birnniat Periop, 1839—41.—Not awarded. 


87H Brenntau Psriop, 1841-43-—Professor James Davip Forsss, for his papers “on Glaciers,” 
published in the Proceedings of the Society. 


9TH BrenniaL Periop, 1843—45.—Not awarded. 


107TH Bienntat Pertop, 1845—47.— General Sir THomas Brispane, Bart., for the Makerstoun Observa- 
tions on Magnetic Phenomena, made at his expense, and 
published in the Transactions of the Society. 


lira BrrnntaL Pertop, 1847—49.—Not awarded. 


127H Brenniat Periop, 1849-51.—Professor Krtzanp, for his papers “on General Differentiation, 
including his more recent communication on a process of the 
Differential Calculus, and its application to the solution of 
certain Differential Equations,” published in the Transactions 
of the Society. 


13TH Brenniat Periop, 1851-53.—W. J. Macquorn Ranking, Esq., for his series of papers “on the 
Mechanical Action of Heat,” published in the Transactions 
of the Society. 


147TH Brennrau Periop, 1853-55.—Dr Taomas Anperson, for his papers “on the Crystalline Con- 
stituents of Opium, and on the Products of the Destructive 
Distillation of Animal Substances,” published in the Trans- 
actions of the Society. 


157H Brenntat Periop, 1855-57.—Professor Boots, for his Memoir “on the Application of the Theory 
of Probabilities to Questions of the Combination of Testimonies 
and Judgments,” published in the Transactions of the Society. 


VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. 7K 


974 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 


16TH Brenniav Perron, 1857-59.—Not awarded. 


177H Brennrat Periop, 1859-61.—Joun Atxtan Broun, Esq., F.R.S., Director of the Trevandrum 
Observatory, for his papers “on the Horizontal Force of the 
Earth’s Magnetism, on the Correction of the Bifilar Magnet- 
ometer, and on Terrestrial Magnetism generally,” published in 
the Transactions of the Society. 


18TH Brenniat Periop, 1861—63.—Professor WinL1am THomson, of the University of Glasgow, for his 
Communication “on some Kinematical and Dynamical 
Theorems.” 

197H Brenniau Periop, 1863-—65.—Principal Forses, St Andrews, for his “Experimental Inquiry into 
the Laws of Conduction of Heat in Iron Bars,” published in 
the Transactions of the Society. 

20TH BrenniaL Periop, 1865—67.—Professor C. Prazzi Smyta, for his paper “on Recent Measures at 
the Great Pyramid,’ published in the Transactions of the 

~ Society. 

21st Brenniat Periop, 1867-—69.—Professor P. G. Tair, for his paper “on the Rotation of a Rigid 
Body about a Fixed Point,” published in the Transactions of 
the Society. 

22np Brenntau Periop, 1869—71.—Professor Crerk Maxwewt, for his paper “on Figures, Frames, 
and Diagrams of Forces,” published in the Transactions of the 
Society. 

23RD Brenniau Periop, 1871—73.—Professor P. G. Tait, for his paper entitled “ First Approximation 
to a Thermo-electric Diagram,” published in the Transactions 
of the Society. 

247H BiennIAL Perion, 1873—75.—Professor Crum Brown, for his Researches “on the Sense of Rota- 
tion, and on the Anatomical Relations of the Semicircular 
Canals of the Internal Ear.” 

257a Brenniat Periop, 1875-77.—Professor M. Forster Heppue, for his papers “on the Rhom- 
bohedral Carbonates,’ and “on the Felspars of Scotland,” 
published in the Transactions of the Society. 

26TH Brenntat Psriop, 1877-79.—Professor H. C. Fireemine Jenxiy, for his paper “on the Appli- 
cation of Graphic Methods to the Determination of the Effi- 
ciency of Machinery,” published in the Transactions of the 
Society; Part II. having appeared in the volume for 1877-78. 

277TH Brenniat Pertop, 1879—81.—Professor Grorce Curysrat, for his paper “on the Differential 
Telephone,” published in the Transactions of the Society. 

28TH BrenniaL Periop, 1881—83.—Tuomas Muir, Esq., LL.D., for his “ Researches into the Theory 
of Determinants and Continued Fractions,” published in the 
Proceedings of the Society. 

297TH Brennrat Periop, 1883-85.—Joun Arrxen, Esq., for his paper “on the Formation of Small 
Clear Spaces in Dusty Air,” and for previous papers on 
Atmospheric Phenomena, published in the Transactions of 
the Society. 

30TH BrenniaL Periop, 1885-87.—Joun Youne Bucuanay, Esq., for a series of communications, 
extending over several years, on subjects connected with 
Ocean Circulation, Compressibility of Glass, &c.; two of 
which, viz., ‘On Ice and Brines,” and “On the Distribution: 
of Temperature in the Antarctic Ocean,” have been published 
in the Proceedings of the Society. 

31st Brenntau Pertop, 1887—89.—Professor E. A. Lurts, for his Papers on the Organic Compounds 
of Phosphorus, published in the Transactions of the Society.’ 

32np Brenntat Pertop, 1889-91.—R. T. Omonp, Esq., for his Contributions to Meteorological Science, 
many of which are contained in Vol. XXXIV. of the 
Society’s Transactions, 

33RD Brenniau Periop, 1891-93.—Professor THomas R. Fraser, F.R.S., for his Papers on Strophan- 
thus hispidus, Strophanthin, and Strophanthidin, read to the 
Society in February and June 1889 and in December 1891, 
and printed in Vols. XXXV., XXXVI., and XXXVII. of 
the Society’s Transactions. 


APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 975 


347TH Brewniat Perron, 1893-95.—Dr Carem G. Knort, for his papers on the Strains produced 
by Magnetism in Iron and in Nickel, which have appeared 
in the Transactions and Proceedings of the Society. 

357H Bienntau Pertop, 1895-97.—Dr Tuomas Murr, for his continued Communications on Deter- 
minants and Allied Questions. 


II. MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE PRIZE. 


Ist Breynran Prriop, 1859,.—Sir Roperick Impry Murcuison, on account of his Contributions to 
the Geology of Scotland. 

2np Brenniat Periop, 1860—62.—Witiiam Sevier, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., for his “‘ Memoir of the Life 
and Writings of Dr Robert Whytt,” published in the Trans- 
actions of the Society. 

3RD Biennian Periop, 1862-64.—Joun Denis Macponazp, Esq., R.N., F.R.S., Surgeon of H.M.S. 
“Jcarus,” for his paper “on the Representative Relationships 
of the Fixed and Free Tunicata, regarded as Two Sub-classes 
of equivalent value; with some General Remarks on their 
Morphology,” published in the Transactions of the Society. 

47H BienntaL Periop, 1864—66.—Not awarded. 

57TH Brenniat Periop, 1866—-68.—Dr AtExanper Crum Brown and Dr Taomas Ricuarp Fraser, 
for their conjoint paper “on the Connection between 
Chemical Constitution and Physiological Action,” published 
in the Transactions of the Society. 

6TH Brenniau Periop, 1868—70.—Not awarded. 

71H Brenntat Periop, 1870—-72.—Grorcze James Auuman, M.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of 
Natural History, for his paper “on the Homological Relations 
of the Coelenterata,” published in the Transactions, which 
forms a leading chapter of his Monograph of Gymnoblastic 
or Tubularian Hydroids—since published. 

8TH BrenniaL Periop, 1872—74.—Professor Lister, for his paper ‘“‘on the Germ Theory of Putre- 
faction and the Fermentive Changes,” communicated to the 
Society, 7th April 1873. 

97H BrenniaL Pertop, 1874—-76.—Atexanprer Bucnan, A.M., for his paper “on the Diurnal 
Oscillation of the Barometer,” published in the Transactions 
of the Society. 

107TH Bienntat Pertop, 1876—78.—Professor ArcHiBaLD Gutkie, for his paper “on the Old Red 
Sandstone of Western Europe,” published in the Transactions 
of the Society. 

117TH Brenntat Periop, 1878—80.—Professor Prazzi Smyru, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, for his 
paper ‘‘on the Solar Spectrum in 1877-78, with some 
Practical Idea of its probable Temperature of Origination,” 
published in the Transactions of the Society. 

127TH BiewntaL Pertop, 1880—82.-—— Professor Jamns Guikin, for his “Contributions to the Geology of 
the North-West of Europe,” including his paper “on the 
Geology of the Faroes,” published in the Transactions of the 

_ Society. 

131TH Brewniat Periop, 1882—84.—Epwarp Sane, Esq., LL.D., for his paper “on the Need of 
Decimal Subdivisions in Astronomy and Navigation, and on 
Tables requisite therefor,” and generally for his Recalculation 
of Logarithms both of Numbers and Trigonometrical Ratios, 
—the former communication being published in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Society. 

147TH Breynrat Pertop, 1884—-86.—Joun Murray, Esq., LL.D., for his papers “On the Drainage 
Areas of Continents, and Ocean Deposits,” “The Rainfall of 
the Globe, and Discharge of Rivers,” “'The Height of the Land 
and Depth of the Ocean,” and “The Distribution of Tem- 
perature in the Scottish Lochs as affected by the Wind.” 


976 -APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 


157m Brenniat Periop, 1886—88.—Arcurpatp Geikin, Esq., LL.D., for numerous communications, 
especially that entitled “ History of Volcanic Action during 
the Tertiary Period in the British Isles,” published in the 
Transactions of the Society. 

16TH Brenniat Periop, 1888-90.—Dr Lupwie Brecker, for his Paper on “The Solar Spectrum at 
Medium and Low Altitudes,” printed in Vol. XXXVI. 
Part I. of the Society’s Transactions. 

177H Brenna Periop, 1890-92.—Hvueu Rosert Mitt, Esq., D.Sc., for his Papers on “ The Physical 
Conditions of the Clyde Sea Area,” Part I. being already 
published in Vol. XXXVI. of the Society’s Transactions, 


18TH Brennrau Periop, 1892—94.—Professor James Watxkur, D.Sc., Ph.D., for his work on Physical 
Chemistry, part of which has been published in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Society, Vol. XX., pp. 255-263. In making 
this award, the Council took into consideration the work 
done by Professor Walker along with Professor Crum Brown 
on the Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids, published i in 
the Transactions of the Society. 


19TH Brenniat Prriop, 1894—96.—Professor Joun G. M‘Kzenpricx, for numerous Physiological 
papers, especially in connection with Sound; many of which 
have appeared in the Society’s publications. 


20rH Bienniau Perrop, 1896-98.—Dr Wituiam Pexppiz, for his papers on the Torsional Rigidity 
of Wires. 


II. THE NEILL PRIZE. 


1st Trienniat Prrtop, 1856-59.—Dr W. Lauper Linpsay, for his paper “ on the Spermogones and 
Pycnides of Filamentous, Fruticulose, and Foliaceous Lichens,” 
published in the Transactions of the Society. 


2npD TRIENNIAL Periop, 1859-62.—Rospert Kaye Grevitte, LL.D., for his Contributions to Scottish 
Natural History, more especially in the department of Cryp- 
togamic Botany, including his recent papers on Diatomacez. 


3RD TRIENNIAL Perton, 1862-65.—Anprew Crombie Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the 
Government School of Mines, and Local Director of the 
Geological Survey of Great Britain, for his various works and 
Memoirs published during the last five years, in which he 
has applied the large experience acquired by him in the 
Direction of the arduous work of the Geographical Survey of 
Great Britain to the elucidation of important questions bear- 
ing on Geological Science. 


47H TRIENNIAL Periop, 1865-68.—Dr Witiiam Carmicuart M‘Intosu, for his paper “on the Struc- 
ture of the British Nemerteans, and on some New British 
Annelids,” published in the Transactions of the Society. 


5TH TRIENNIAL Periop, 1868—71.—Professor Witt1am Turner, for his papers ‘on the great Finner 
Whale ; and on the Gravid Uterus, and the Arrangement of 
the Foetal Membranes in the Cetacea,” published in the 
Transactions of the Society. 


67TH TrieNNIAL Periop, 1871—-74.—Cuaries Witiiam Peacu, Esq., for his Contributions to Scottish 
Zoology and Geology, and for his recent contributions to Fossil 
Botany. 


77H TRIENNIAL Periop, 1874—77.—Dr Ramsay H. Traquair, for his paper “ on the Structure ard 
Affinities of Tvristichopterus alatus (Egerton),” published in— 
the Transactions of the Society, and also for his contributions 
to the Knowledge of the Structure of Recent and Fossil Fishes. 


APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. Dan 


8TH TRIENNIAL Periop, 1877-80.—Joun Murray, Esq., for his paper ‘“‘on the Structure and Origin 
of Coral Reefs and Islands,” published (in abstract) in the 
Proceedings of the Society. 


97H TRIENNIAL PeRiop, 1880—83.—Professor Herpman, for his papers “on the Tunicata,” published 
in the Proceedings and Transactions of the Society. 


10Ta TrienniaL Periop, 1883-86.—B. N. Pracu, Esq., for his Contributions to the Geology and 
Paleontology of Scotland, published in the Transactions of 
the Society. 

11TH TrienNIAL Pertop, 1886-89.—Rosert Kipston, Esq., for his Researches in Fossil Botany, pub- 
lished in the Transactions of the Society. 

12TH Triznniat Periop, 1889-92.—Joun Horng, Esq., F.G.S., for his Investigations into the Geolo- 
gical Structure and Petrology of the North-West Highlands. 

13rH Trrenniau Pertop, 1892—95.—Rosert Irvine, Esq., for his papers on the action of Organisms 
in the Secretion of Carbonate of Lime and Silica, and on the 
solution of these substances in Organic Juices. These are 
printed in the Society’s Transactions and Proceedings. 

147TH TRIENNIAL Prion, 1895—98,—Professor Cossar Ewart, for his recent Investigations connected 
with Telegony. 


IV. GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE. 


Ist TrienniaL Periov, 1884—87.—Sir Wittiam Tuomson, Pres. R.S.E., F.R.S., for a remarkable 
series of papers ‘‘on Hydrokinetics,” especially on Waves 
and Vortices, which have been communicated to the Society. 


2np TripnntaL Pertop, 1887—90.—Professor P. G. Tart, Sec. R.S.E., for his work in connection with 
the “Challenger” Expedition, and his other Researches in 
Physical Science. 

3rD TRIENNIAL Periop, 1890—93.—ALExanDER Bucuan, Esq., LL.D., for his varied, extensive, and 
extremely important Contributions to Meteorology, many of 
which have appeared in the Society’s Publications. 

47H TrienniaL Periop, 1893-96.—Joun Arrxen, Esq., for his brilliant Investigations in Physics, 
especially in connection with the Formation and Condensation 
of Aqueous Vapour. 


- c 
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PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS, 


23rp NOVEMBER 1896, 
22nd NOVEMBER 1897, 


AND 


28TH NOVEMBER 1898. 


(use 4 


STATUTORY MEETING. 


HUNDRED AND FOURTEENTH SESSION. 


Monday, 23rd November 1896. 


At the Annual Statutory Meeting, 


Professor A. CAMPBELL FRASER, D.C.L., in the Chair, 


The Minutes of last Annual Statutory Meeting of 25th November 1895 were read, 
approved, and signed. 


Mr SKINNER and Professor FERGUSON having been named Scrutineers, the Ballot for 
the New Council commenced. 


The TREASURER submitted his Accounts for the year. These, with the Auditors’ Report, 
were read and approved. 


Lord KELVIN (with power to name a substitute from the List of Fellows of the Society). 
was appointed to represent the Society at the British Association Commission on a National 
Physical Laboratory. 


The Scrutineers reported that the following Council had been duly elected :— 


The Right Hon. Lord Ketviy, G.C.V.O., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., President. 

Professor JAMES Guixiz, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., 

The Hon. Lord M‘Laren, LL.D., F.R.A.S., 

The Rev. Professor Furnt, D.D., 

Professor JoHN G. M‘Kenprick, M.D., LL.D., } Vice-Presidents. 
F.RB.S., 

Professor GzorGE CurystaL, M.A., LL.D., 

Sir ArrHur MitcHety, K.C.B., LL.D., 

Professor P. G. Tart, M.A., D.Sc., General Secretary. 

Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S., 

Joun Murray, LL.D., 

Purp R. D. Mactaean, F.F.A., Treasurer. 

ALEXANDER Bucuan, M.A., LL.D., Curator of Library and Museum. 


VOI LkXEX, PART LV; 7 Tt, 


\ Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings. 


982 APPENDIX—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS. 


COUNCILLORS. 
Professor T. R. Fraser, LL.D., F.R.S. Joun Sturceon Mackay, M.A., LL.D. 
Rosert Munro, M.A., M.D. Professor RatpuH Coprrenanp, Ph.D., Astronomer- 
D. No&t Paton, B.Se., M.D. Royal for Scotland. 
CareiLt G. Kyort, D.Sc. : Professor D’Arcy W. THompson. 
Sir Wit1t1am Turner, M.B., F.R.S. The Rev. Professor Duns, D.D. 
Sir Srarr Acnew, K.C.B. Lieut.-Colonel Frep. Baruey (/ate), R.E. 


Dr James Burgess, C.I.E., M.R.A.S. 


On the motion of the Hon. Lord M‘Laren, thanks were voted to the Treasurer. 
On the motion of Dr Crum Brown, the Auditors were thanked and reappointed, and 


On the motion of Dr BurGEss, thanks were awarded to the Scrutineers. 


JOHN M‘Laren, C. 


(98800) 


STATUTORY MEETING. 


HUNDRED AND FIFTEENTH SESSION. 


Monday, 22nd November 1897. 


At the Annual Statutory Meeting, 


The Hon. Lord M‘Laren, LL.D., Vice-President, in the Chair, 


The Minutes of last Annual Statutory Meeting of 23rd November 1896 were read, 


approved, and signed. 


Mr Roserr Carrp and Mr GzorcrE H. GEpDDES having been named Scrutineers, the 


Ballot for the New Council commenced. 


The TREASURER submitted his Accounts for the year. These, with the Auditors’ Report, 


were read and approved. 


The Scrutineers reported that the following New Council had been unanimously 


elected :—— 


The Right Hon. Lord Ketviy, G.C.V.0., LL.D., F.R.S., President, 
The Hon. Lord M‘Largn, LL.D., F.R.A.S., 
The Rev. Professor Frint, D.D., 
Professor JoHN G. M‘Kenpricx, M.D., LL.D., 
E.B.S., Vice-Presidents. 
Professor GrorcE CurystaL, M.A., LL.D., 
Sir Arraur MitcuHett, K.C.B., LL.D., 
Sir Wittiam Turner, M.B., F.R.S., 
Professor P. G. Tart, M.A., D.Sc., General Secretary. 
Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S., 
Joun Murray, D.Sc., LL.D., } Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings, 
Pure R. D. Mactaean, F.F.A., Treasurer. 
ALEXANDER Bucuan, M.A., LL.D., Curator of Library and Museum. 


984 APPENDIX—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS. 


COUNCILLORS. 
Sir Starr Acnew, K.C.B., M.A. The Rey. Professor Duns, D.D. 
JaMES Burasss, C.I.E., LL.D., M.R.A.S. Lieut.-Colonel Frep. Battey, R.E. 
Joun Sturcron Mackay, M.A., LL.D. Professor James Guikiz, LL.D., F.R.S. 
Professor RatpH CopELanD, Ph.D., Astronomer- Sir J. Barry Tuxs, M.D. 
Royal for Scotland. Mr A. Beatson Bet, Advocate, 
Professor D’Arcy W. THompson, Professor JoHNn Gipson, Ph.D, 


On the motion of Professor Tait, thanks were voted to the Treasurer, and 
On the motion of Dr Crum Brown, the Auditors were thanked and reappointed, and 
On the motion of Dr Burcrss, thanks were awarded to the Scrutineers. 


JOHN M‘LAREN, 
Chairman. 


( 985 


STATUTORY MEETING 


HUNDRED AND SIXTEENTH SESSION. 
Monday, 28th November 1898. 
At the Annual Statutory Meeting, 
The Hon. Lord M‘Largen, LL.D., Vice-President, in the Chair, 


The Minutes of last Annual Statutory Meeting of 22nd November 1897 were read, 
approved, and signed. 


On the motion of Dr Bucuan, Dr Burcess and Mr WiLuiAM Boyp were named 


Scrutineers, and the Ballot for the New Council commenced. 


The TREASURER submitted his Accounts for the year. These, with the Auditors’ Report, 


were read and approved. 


The Scrutineers reported that the following New Council had been duly elected :— 


The Right Hon. Lord Ketvin, G.C.V.O., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., President. 

The Rev. Professor Furyt, D.D., 

Professor Joun G. M‘Kenprick, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., 

Professor GzorGE Curystat, M.A., LL.D., 

Sir Arruur MircuHe tt, K.C.B., LL.D., Vice-Presidents, 

Sir Witt1am Turner, M.B., F.R.S., 

Professor RaupH Coprentanp, Ph.D., Astronomer- 
Royal for Scotland, 

Professor P. G. Tarr, M.A., D.Sc., General Secretary. 

Professor A. Crum Brown, F.R.S., LL.D., 

Sir Jonn Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., 

Pamip R. D. Macracan, F.F.A., Treasurer, 

ALExaNpeR Bucuan, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Curator of Library and Museum. 


} Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings. 


986 APPENDIX—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS. 


COUNCILLORS. 
Professor D’Arcy W. THomeson, C.B, Professor Sureup Nicuotson, M.A., D.Sc. 
The Rev. Professor Duns, D.D. Professor JoHN Gipson, Ph.D. 
Lieut.-Colonel Frep. Bartny, R.E. The Hon. Lord M‘Largn, LL.D., F.R.A.S. 
Professor JAMES Gerkin, LL.D., F.R.S. C. G. Kworr, D.Sc. 
Sir J. Barry Tux, M.D., D.Se. Dr ALExanvDeER Brucg, M.A., F.R.C.P.E, 
Mr A. Beatson Bett, Advocate. Mr James A. WENLEY. 


Sir Jonn Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., FERS, Honorary Representative on George Heriot’s Trust. 


The following motion by Dr Crum Brown was submitted by direction of the Meeting 
of Council of 28th November 1898 :— 


“That the Ordinary Meetings of the Society be held on the first and third Mondays of November, 
January, February, March, May, June, and July, and on the first Monday in December, with the 
exception that when there are five Mondays in January the Meetings shall be held om the second and 
fourth Mondays of that month,” : 


The Meeting decided that it be remitted to the Council for favourable consideration 
of the necessary arrangements. © 


On the motion of Mr Beatson Bs, the Auditors were thanked and reappointed. 
On the motion of Professor Crum Brown, thanks were voted to the i eusuren 
On the motion of Dr Bucuan, thanks were voted to the Scrutineers, and 


On the motion of Sir Joun Murray, thanks were voted to the Chairman. 


ARTHUR MITCHELL, 
Chairman. 


( 987 


The following Public Institutions and Individuals are. entitled to receive Copies of 
the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh :— 


London, British Museum. 


(Natural History Depart- 
ment), Cromwell Road. 
Royal Society, Burlington House. 
Anthropological Institute of Great Bri- 
tain and Ireland, 3 Hanover Square. 
British Association for the Advancement 
of Science, Burlington House. 
Society of Antiquaries, Burlington 
House. 
Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington 
House, 
Royal Asiatic Society, 22 Albemarle 
Street. 
Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi. 
Atheneum Club. 
Chemical Society, Burlington House. 
Institution of Civil Engineers, 25 Great 
George Street. 
Royal Geographical Society, Burlington 
Gardens, 
Geological Society, Burlington House. 
Royal Horticultural Society, South Ken- 
sington. 
Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. 
Imperial Institute. 
Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, W. 
Linnean Society, Burlington House. 
Royal Society of Literature, 20 Hanover 
Square. 
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, 
20 Hanover Square. 
Royal Microscopical Society, 20 Han- 
over Square, 
Museum of Economic Geology, Jermyn 
Street. 
Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 
Pathological Society, 20 Hanover Sq. 
Royal Statistical Society, 9 Adelphi 
Terrace, Strand, London. 
Royal College of Surgeons of England, 
4 Lincoln’s Inn Fields. 
United Service Institution, Whitehall 
Yard. 


London, University College, Gower Street. 


Zoological Society, 3 Hanover Square. 
The Editor of Nature, 29 Bedford 
Street, Covent Garden. Mia 
The Editor of the Zlectrician, Salis- 


bury Court, Fleet Street. 
Cambridge Philosophical Society. 
University Library. 
Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. 
Liverpool, University College Library. 


Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. . 


Oxford, Bodleian Library. 


Plymouth, Marine Biological Laboratory, Citadel: 


Hill. 
Richmond (Surrey), Kew Observatory. 
Sheffield, University College. 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society. 


SCOTLAND. 
Edinburgh, Advocates Library. 
University Library. 
Royal College of Physicians. 


Highland and Agricultural Society, 


3 George IV. Bridge. 


Royal Medical Society, 7 Melbourne 


Place. 
Royal Observatory. 
Royal Physical 
Buildings. 


Society, 


Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 117 


George Street. 


Royal Botanic Garden, Inverleith 


Row. 
Aberdeen, University Library. 
Dundee, University College Library. 
Glasgow, University Library. 


Philosophical Society, 207 Bath Street. 


St Andrews, University Library. 


IRELAND. 
Dublin, Royal Dublin Society. 
Royal Irish Academy. 
Library of Trinity College. 
National Library of Ireland, 


988 APPENDIX. 


COLONIES, DEPENDENCIES, ETC. 
Bombay, Royal Asiatic Society. 
Elphinstone College. 
Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal. 
Geological Survey of India. 
Meteorological Department of the 
Government of India. 
Madras, Literary Society. 
Canada, Geological and Natural History ae 
Queen’s University, Kingston. 
Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa. 
Quebec, Literary and Philosophical 
Society. 
... Toronto, Literary and Historical Society. 
The Canadian Institute. 
University Library. 
Caps of Good Hope, The Observatory. 
Melbourne, University Library. 
Sydney, University Library. 
Linnean Society of New South Wales. 
Royal Society of New South Wales. 
Wellington, New Zealand Institute. 


CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 


Amsterdam, Koninklijke Akademie van Weten- 
schappen. 
Y Koninklijk Zoologisch Genootschap. 
Athens, University Library. 
... Observatoire National. 
Basle, Die Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesell- 
schaft. 
Bergen, Museum. 
Berlin, Kénigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. 
Physikalische Gesellschaft. 
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft. 
Bern, Allgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft fiir 
die gesammten Naturwissenschaften. 
Bologna, Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto. 
Bordeaux, Société des Sciences Physiques et 
Naturelles. 
Bremen, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. 
Brussels, Académie Royale des Sciences, des 
Lettres et des Beaux-arts. 
Musée Royal d'Histoire Naturelle de 
Belgique. 
L’Observatoire Royal de Belgique, Uccle. 
La Société Scientifique. 
sucharest, Academia Romana. 
Buda-Pesth, Magyar Tudomanyos Akadémia—Die 
Ungarische Akademie der Wissenschaften. 


Buda-Pesth, K6nigliche Ungarische Naturwissen 
schaftliche Gesellschaft. 
Catania, Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali. 
Charlottenburg, Physikalisch-Technische Reichs- 
anstalt. 
Christiania, University Library. 
Meteorological Institute. 
Coimbra, University Library. 
Copenhagen, Royal Academy of Sciences. 
Cracow, Académie des Sciences. 
Danzig, Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 
Dorpat, University Library. 
Ekatherinebourg, La Société Ouralienne d’Ama- 
teurs des Sciences Naturelles, 
Erlangen, University Library. vee 
Frankfurt-am-Main, Senckenbergische Naturfor- 
schende Gesellschaft. 
Gand (Ghent), University Library. 
Geneva, Société de Physique et d’Histoire Natu- 
relle, 
Genoa, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. 
Giessen, University Library. 
Gottingen, Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissen- 
schaften, 
Graz, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Steier- 
mark, 
Groningen, Holland, University Library. 
Haarlem, Société Hollandaise des Sciences Exactes 
et Naturelles. 
Musée Teyler. 
Halle, Kaiserliche Leopoldino - Carolinische 
Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher. 
Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 
Hamburg, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. 
Naturhistorisches Museum. 
Hanover, Naturhistorische Gesellschaft. 
Helsingfors, Sallskapet pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. 
Societas Scientiarum Fennica (Société 
des Sciences de Finlande), 
Jena, Medicinisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Gesell- 
schaft. 
Kasan, University Library. 
Kiel, University Library. 
Kommission zur Wissensckaftlichen Unter- 
suchung der Deutschen Meere. 
Kiev, University of St Vladimir. 
Konigsberg, University Library. 
Leyden, Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging. 
The University Library. 
Leipzig, Konigliche Sachsische Akademie. 


APPENDIX. 989 


Leipzig, Professor Wiedemann, Editor of the 

Annalen der Phystk. 

Lille, Société des Sciences. 
Société Géologique du Nord. 
Lisbon, Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa. 

Sociedade de Geographia, 5 Rua Capello. 
Louvain, University Library. 

Lund, University Library. 
Lyons, Académie des Sciences, Belles Lettres et 

Arts. 

Société d’ Agriculture. 

University Library. 

Madrid, Real Academia de Ciencias. 

Comisién del Mapa Geoldgico de Espaiia. 

Marseilles, Faculté des Sciences. 
Milan, Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze, Lettere, 
ed Arti. 
Modena, Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere, ed 
Arti. 
Montpellier, Académie des Sciences et Lettres. 
Moscow, Société Impériale des Naturalistes de 
Moscou. 

Société Impériale des Amis d’Histoire 
Naturelle, d’Anthropologie et d’Eth- 
nographie. 

Imperial University. 

Musée Polytechnique. 

L’Observatoire Impérial. 

Munich, Koniglich-Bayerische Akademie der Wis- 
senschaften (2 copies). 

Nantes, Société des Sciences de l’Ouest de la 
France. 

Naples, Zoological Station, Dr Anton Dohrn. 

Societa Reale di Napoli—Accademia delle 

Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche. 

R. Istituto d’Incorragiamento di Napoli. 
Neufchatel, Société des Sciences Naturelles. 
Nice, L’Observatoire. 

Padua, R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. 


Palermo, Signor Agostino Todaro, Giardino 
Botanico. 
Societa di Scienze Naturali ed Kcono- 
miche. 


Paris, Académie des Sciences de l'Institut. 

Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres 
de l'Institut. 

Association Frangaise pour |’Avancement 
des Sciences. 

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 
Sevres. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. 


Paris, Société d’ Agriculture, 
Société 
France. 


Nationale des Antiquaires de 


Société de Biologie. 
Société de Géographie. 
Sociéte Géologique de France, 
Société d’Encouragement pour I’Industrie- 
Nationale. 
Bureau des Longitudes. 
Dépot de la Marine. 
Societé Mathématique. 
Ecole des Mines. 
Ministére de l’Instruction Publique. 
... Musée Guimet, 30 Avenue du Trocadero, 
Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Jardin des. 
Plantes. 
L’Observatoire. 
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Rue d’Ulm. 
Société Frangaise de Physique. 
Kcole Polytechnique. 
. Société Zoologique de France. 
Shee Konigliche Sternwarte. 
Koniglich-Béhmische Gesellschaft der 
Wissenschaften. 
Ceska Akademie Cisare Frantiska Josefa. 
pro Vedy, Slovesnost a Umeni. 
Rome, R. Accademia dei Lincel. 
Accademia Ponteficia dei Lincei. 
Societ& Italiana delle Scienze (detta dei 
XL.), S. Pietro in Vincoli. 
Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani. 
Comitato Geologico, 1 Via Santa 
Susanna. 
Rotterdam, Bataafsch Genootschap der Proefon- 
dervindelijke Wijsbegeerte. 
St Petersburg, Académie Impériale des Sciences. 
Comité Géologique. 
Imperial University. 
LInstitut Impérial de Médecine 
Expérimentale. 
L’Observatoire Impérial de Pul- 
kowa. 
Physikalisches Central-Observato- 
rium. 
Physico-Chemical Society of the 
University of St Petersburg, 
Russian Ministry of Marine. 
Siseknonn, Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Acade- 
mien. 
Strasbourg, University Library. 


7M 


990 APPENDIX. 


Stuttgart, Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde 
zu Wiirtemberg. 
Throndhjem, Kongelige Norske Videnskabers 
Selskab. 
Toulouse, Faculté des Sciences. 
L’Observatoire. 
Tiibingen, University Library. 
Turin, Reale Accademia delle Scienze. 
Upsala, Kongliga Vetenskaps-Societeten. 
University Library. 
Venice, Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere 
ed Arti. 
Vienna, Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. 
Oesterreichische Gesellschaft fiir Mete- 
orologie, Hohe Warte, Wien. 
Geologische Reichsanstalt. 
Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft. 
Zurich, University Library. 
Commission Géologique Suisse. 
Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 


ASIA. 


Java, Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en 
Wetenschappen. 

. The Observatory. 
Japan, The Imperial 
(Teikoku-Daigaku). 


University of Tokio 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


Albany, New York State Library. 
American Association for the Advancement of 
Science. 
Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University. 
Boston, The Bowditch Library. 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
Beacon Street, Boston. 
Society of Natural History. 
California, Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, 
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University. 
: Harvard College Observatory. 
Chicago Observatory. 
Clinton, Litchfield Observatory, Hamilton College, 
Denison, University and Scientific Association, 


Towa Academy of Sciences. 
Jefferson City (Missouri), Bureau of Geology and 
Mines. 

Kansas, University of Kansas, Lawrence, 

Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society. 
Editor Annual of Medical Sciences. 
Academy of Natural 

Logan Square. 


Sciences, 


Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 
Cleveland (Ohio), The Geological Society of 
America, : 
Salem, The Essex Institute. 
St Louis, Academy of Sciences, 
Washington, United States National Academy of 
Sciences. 
Bureau of Ethnology. 
United States Coast Survey. 
United States Fishery Commission, 
United States Naval Observatory. 
United States Geological Survey. 
United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Weather Bureau. 
The Smithsonian Institution. 
Surgeon-General’s Office, United 
States Army. 
Wisconsin, University (Washburn Observatory), 
Madison. 
Yale College, Newhaven, Connecticut. 


MEXICO. 


Mexico, Observatorio Meteorologico-Magnetico 
Central. 
Sociedad Cientifica ‘“‘ Antonio Alzate.” 


SOUTH AMERICA, 


Buenos Ayres, Public Museum, 
Cordoba, Argentine Republic, Academia Nacional 
de Ciencias. 
The Observatory. 
La Plata, Argentine Republic, Museo de La 
Plata. 
Rio de Janeiro, The Astronomical Observatory. 
Santiago, Société Scientifique du Chili, 


All the Honorary and Ordinary Fellows of the Society are entitled to the Transactions and Proceedings. 
See Notice at foot of page 994. 


APPENDIX. gon 


The following Institutions and Individuals receive the Proceedings only :— 


SCOTLAND. 


Edinburgh, Botanical Society. 
Geological Society, 5 St Andrew Sq. 
Scottish Fishery Board, 101 George 
Street. 
Royal Scottish Geographical Society. 
Mathematical Society. 
Scottish Meteorological Society, 122 
George Street. 
Pharmaceutical Society, 36 York Pl. 
Royal College of Physicians Labo- 
ratory, 8 Lauriston Lane. 
Glasgow, Geological Society, 207 Bath Street. 
University Observatory. 
Natural History Society. 
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, Old Cambus, 
Cockburnspath. 


ENGLAND. 


Geologists’ Association, University 
College. 
Mathematical Society, 
Street, London, W. 
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 
Storey’s Gate, St James’ Park, West- 
minster. 
. _ Meteorological Office, 116 Victoria Street. 
Royal Meteorological Society, Princes 
Mansions, 70 Victoria Street, West- 
minster, 
Nautical Almanac Office, 3 Verulam 
Buildings, Gray’s Inn. 
Pharmaceutical Society, 17 Bloomsbury 


London, 


22 Albemarle 


Square, London. 
The Editor of the Electrical Engineer, 

139-40 Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. 
Birmingham Philosophical Society. 
Cardiff, University College of South Wales. 
Cornwall, Geological Society. 

Royal Institution of Cornwall, Truro. 
Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalists’ 
Field Club. 


Liverpool, Literary and Philosophical Society. 
Biological Society, University College. 
Geological Society. 

Manchester, Geological Society, 36 George Street. 

: Microscopical Society. 

Newcastle, Philosophical Society. 

North of England Institute of Mining 
and Mechanical Engineers. 

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, The 

Museum, Norwich. 

Oxford, Ashmolean Society. 

Radcliffe Observatory. 

Scarborough, Philosophical Society. 

Whitby, Philosophical Society. 

Yorkshire, Geological and Polytechnic Society, 

Hopton, Mirfield. 


IRELAND. 


Dublin, Dunsink Observatory. 
Belfast, Natural History and Philosophical Society. 


COLONIES, DEPENDENCIES, ETC. 


Adelaide, South Australia, University Library. 
Royal Society. 
Royal Geographical Society (South 
Australian Branch). 
Canada, Natural History Society of Montreal. 
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, 
112 Mansfield Street, Montreal. 
Astronomical and Physical Society of 
Toronto. 
Cape Town, South African Philosophical Society. 
Geological Commission. 
Geelong, Victoria, Gordon Technical College. 
Halifax, Nova Scotian Institute of Science. 
Melbourne, Royal Society of Victoria. 
Perth, Western Australia, Geological Survey 
Office. 
Sydney, The Australian Museum. 
Department of Mines. 
Hong Kong, China Branch of the Asiatic Society. 
The Observatory. 


992 APPENDIX. 


Jamaica, The Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. 
Madras, Superintendent of Government Farms of 
Madras Presidency. 
Ottawa, Literary Scientific Society. 
Queensland, Royal Society, Brisbane. 
Queensland Branch of Geographical 
Society. 
Government Meteorological Office. 
Water Supply Department. 
Tasmania, Royal Society. 
Wellington, N.Z., Polynesian Society. 


CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 


Amsterdam, Genootschap der Mathematische 


Wetenschappen. 
Berlin, Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft. 
Konigl. Preussisches Meteorologisches 
Institut. 


K. Technische Hochschule. 
Bern, Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 
Bonn, Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen 
Rheinlande und Westfalens. 
Bordeaux, Société de la Géographie Commerciale. 
Brunswick, Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft. 
Brussels, Société Belge d’Astronomie. 
Bucharest, Institut Metéorologique de Roumanie. 
Carlsruhe, Technische Hochschule. 
Cassel, Verein fiir Naturkunde. 
Chemnitz, Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. 
Cherbourg, Société Nationale des Sciences Natu- 
relles. 
Constantinople, Société de Médecine. 
Copenhagen, Naturhistoriske Forening. 
Danske Biologiske Station. 
Delft, Ecole Polytechnique. 
Dijon, Académie des Sciences. 
Erlangen, Physico-Medical Society. 


Frankfurt a. Oder, Naturwissenschaftlicher 
Verein. 

Giessen, Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und 
Heilkunde. 

Gothenburg, Kung]. Vetenskaps-och Vitterhetssam- 
haillet. 


Gratz, Chemisches Institut der K. K. Universitat. 
Halle, Verein fiir Erdkunde. 
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Sachsen 
und Thiiringen. 
Hamburg, Verein fiir Naturwissenschaftliche 
Unterhaltung, 29 Steindamm, St Georg. 


Helsingfors, Société de Géographie  Fin- 
landaise. 

Iceland, Islenzka Fornleifafelag, Reikjavik, Ice- 
land. 


Kasan, Société Physico-Mathématique. 

Kiel, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Schles- 
wig-Holstein. 

Lausanne, Société Vaudoise des 
Naturelles. 

Leipzig, Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 

Liége, Institut de Physiologie, Université de 
Liége, 

Lille, University Library. 

Liibeck, Geographische Gesellschaft und Natur- 
historisches Museum. 2 

Luxembourg, L’Institut Royal Grand-Ducal. 

Lyons, Société Botanique. 

Société Linnéenne, Place Sathonay. 

Marseilles, Société Scientifique Industrielle. 

Milan, Societa Crittogamologica Italiana. 

Modena, Societa dei Naturalisti. 

Moscow, Observatoire Magnétique et Météoro- 
logique de l’Université Impériale. 

Neuchatel, Société Neuchateloise de Géographie. 

Nijmegen, Nederlandsche Botanische Vereeniging. 


Sciences 


Oberpfalz und Regensburg,  Historischer 
Verein. 

Odessa, Société des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle 
Russie. 


Offenbach, Verein fiir Naturkunde. 
Osnabriick, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. 
Paris, Société d’ Anthropologie. 

Société Académique 
France. 

Société Philomathique. 

Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques. 

Bureau des Ponts et Chaussées. 

Sociétés des Jeunes Naturalistes et 
d’Etudes Scientifiques, 35 Rue Pierre- 
Charron. 

Revue Générale des 


Indo-Chinoise de 


Sciences Pures et 
Appliquées. 
Pisa, I? Nuovo Cimento. 
Rome, Rassegna delle 
Italia. 
Sarajevo, Governor-General of Bosnia and Herze- 


Scienze Geologiche in 


govina. 
St Petersburg, Imperatorskoe Russkoe Geogra- 
phicheskoe Obtshéstvo. 


APPENDIX. 993 


St Petersburg, Russian Society of Naturalists 

and Physicians. 

Société Impériale Minéralogique. 

Société des Naturalistes (Section 

de Géologie et de Minéralogie). 
aoe Société Astronomique Russe. 

Sofia, Station Centrale Métdorologique de 

Bulgarie. 

Stavanger, Museum. 

Stockholm, Svenska Sallskapet for Anthropologi 

och Geografi. 

Tiflis, Physical Observatory. 

Toulouse, Académie des Sciences. 

Trieste, Societa’ Adriatica di Scienze Naturali. 
Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. 
Osservatorio Astronomico-Meteorologico, 

Tromsd, The Museum. 

Utrecht, Provinciaal Genootschap van Kunsten 

en Wetenschappen. 

Vienna, K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum. 

Vilafranca del Panades (Cataluiia), Observatorio 

Meteorologico. 
Zurich, Schweizerische Botanische Gesellschaft. 


ASIA, 


China, Shanghai, North China Branch of the 
Royal Asiatic Society. 
Japan, Tokio, The Seismological Society. 
Zoological Society of Tokio. 
The Asiatic Society of Japan. 
Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Natur- 
und Volkerkunde Ostasiens. 
Java, Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging, 
Batavia. 


UNITED STATES. 


Annapolis, Maryland, St John’s College. 
Buffalo, Society of Natural Sciences. 
California, State Mining Bureau, Sacramento. 
The Lick Observatory, Mount Hamil- 
ton, #@ San José, San Francisco. 
: University of California (Berkeley). 
Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Elisha Mitchel! 
Scientific Society. 
Chicago, University of Chicago. 
Field Columbian Museum, 


Chicago, Academy of Sciences. 
Cincinnati, Observatory. 
Society of Natural History. 
Ohio Mechanics’ Institute. 
Colorado, Scientific Society. 
Concord, Editor of Journal of Speculative Philo- 
sophy. 
Connecticut, Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
Davenport, Academy of Natural Sciences. 
Ithaca, N.Y., The Editor, Physical Review. 
N.Y., The Editors, Journal of Physical 
Chemistry. 
Indiana, Academy of Sciences, Indianopolis. 
Iowa, The State University of Lowa. 
Geological Survey. 
Kansas, Academy of Science, Topeka. 
Mass., Tuft’s College Library. 
Meriden, Conn., Meriden Scientific Association, 
Minnesota, The Geological and Natural History 
Survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 
Minnesota. 
State Botanist. 
Missouri, Botanical Garden, St Louis. 
Nebraska, The 
Lincoln. 


University of Nebraska, 
New Orleans, Academy of Sciences. 
New York, The American Museum of Natural 
History. 
American Geographical Society. 
2 American Mathematical Society. 
Philadelphia, Wagner Free Institute of Science. 
Geographical Club. 
The Editor, American Naturalist. 
Portland (Maine), Society of Natural History. 
Texas, Academy of Science, Austin. 
Trenton, Natural History Society. 
Washington, Philosophical Society. 
American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, Central Park. 
United States National Museum. 
United States Department of Agri- 
culture (Division of Ornithology 
and Mammalogy). 
ase United States Patent Office. 
Wisconsin, Academy of Sciences, Arts, and 
Letters. 
Geological and Natural History 
Survey. 


994 APPENDIX. 


SOUTH AMERICA. MEXICO, 
Montevideo, Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Academia Mexicana de Ciencias Exactas y 
Quito, Ecuador, Observatorio Astronomico y Naturales. 
Meteorologico, Instituto Geolédgico de México. 
Rio de Janeiro, Museu Nacional. Tacubaya, Observatorio Astronémico. 
San Salvador, Observatorio Astronémico y Me- Xalapa, Observatorio Meteorologico Central del 
teordlogico. Estado Vera Cruz. 


Santiago, Deutscher Wissenschaftlicher Verein. 


EE 


NOTICE TO MEMBERS. 


All Fellows of the Society who are not in Arrear in their Annual Contributions are entitled to receive Copies of 
the Transactions and Proceedings of the Society, provided they apply for them within Five Years of Publication. — 

Fellows not resident in Edinburgh must apply for their Copies either personally, or by an authorised Agent, at the 
Hall of the Society, within Five}Years after Publication. 


LN D EX, 


A 


AITKEN (JOHN). On some Nuclei of Cloudy Con- 
densation, 15-25. Part I.—Ions and Cloudy 
Condensation, 15. Part I].—Sunshine and 
Cloudy Condensation, 21. 

Anaspida, (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 837, 858. 

Anatomy (Comparative) of the Mammalian Organ 


of Jacobson. By Rozert Broom, 231. 
Ateleaspis tessellata. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 
834. 


Automorphic Linear Transformation of a Quadric. 
By Tuomas Murr, 269. 


B 


Bartpon (Henry Bettysz). On the Rimes in the 
Authentic Poems of William Dunbar, 629- 
665. 

Baiuure (T. C.). The Absolute Thermal Conduc- 
tivity of Nickel, 361-382. 

Bembicosoma pomphicus. (Laurie: Eurypterid 
Remains from the Pentland Hills), 588. 

Ben Nevis, Meteorology of, in Clear and in Foggy 
Weather. By J. Y. Bucnanan, 779. 

Birkenia elegans. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 
837. 

Brines and Steam. By J. Y. Bucnanan, 529. 

Broom (Rozert). A Contribution to the Compara- 

tive Anatomy of the Mammalian Organ of 

Jacobson, 231-255. 

On the Development and Morphology of the 
Marsupial Shoulder Girdle, 749-770. 
Bucuanan (J. Y.). On Steam and Brines, 529-573. 

The Meteorology of Ben Nevis in Clear and in 
Foggy Weather, 779-820. 


Burecess (James). On the Definite Integral 
eel e—2dt, with extended Tables of Values, 
r/aJ 0 
257-321. 


Burma, Craniology of the People of. By Sir Wm. 


TuRNER, 725. 


C 


C. Discriminant|as an Envelope. By James A. 
Macponatp, 27. 

Cancer. Emblem of the Crab in Relation to the 
sign Cancer. By D’Arcy W. THompson, 603. 

Cephalaspis, New Species of (C. Lornensis, 
Traquair), discovered in the Old Red Sand- 
stone of Oban. By Ramsay H. Traquair, 591, 

Cephalodiscus dodecalophus (M‘Intosh). Anatomy 
and Budding Processes of. By A. T. MastEr- 
MAN, 507, 

Cloudy Condensation, Nuclei of. By Joun AITKEN, 
15-25. Part I.—Ions and Cloudy Condensation, 
15. Part [J.—Sunshine and Cloudy Condensa- 
tion, 21. 
Coal Field (Yorkshire), On the Fossil Flora of 
(Second Paper). By Rogpert Kinston, 33. 
Coaxials Minors of a Determinant of the Fourth 
Order. By Tuomas Murr, 323. 

Cobalt Tubes in the Magnetic Field, Strains pro- 
duced in, 457. 

Celolepide., (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 828, 843. 

Coleoptera and Lepidoptera in the Edinburgh 
Museum of Science and Art. By Percy Hatt 
GrimsHaw, I-11. 

Crab, Emblem of the Crab in Relation to the Sign 
Cancer. By D’Arcy W. THompson, 603. 
Craniology of the People of the Empire of India. 
Part I. The Hill Tribes of the North-East 
Frontier, and the People of Burma. By Sir 

Wm. Turner, 703-747. 


D 


Definite Integral =; | <— di, with extended Tables 
ty 


of Values. 
Determinants. 

Minors of a Determinant of the 

Order. By Toomas Muir, 323. 


By James Burezss, 257, 
The Relations between the Coaxial 
Fourth 


996 INDEX. 


Determinants. A Development of a Determinant of 
the Mn™ Order. By Tuomas Murr, 623. 
Discriminant. The C, Discriminant as an Envelope. 

By James A. Macponatp, 27. 

Drepanaspide. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 844. 

Drepanopterus lobatus, D. bembicoides, D. pent- 
landicus. (Laurin: Eurypterid Remains from 
the Pentland Hills), 583-5. 

Dunbar (William). On the Rimes in the Authentic 
Poems of. By Henry BeEttyse BarLpon, 
629. 

E 


Edinburgh, Meteorology of. Part II.—By Rosert 
C. Mossman, 63-207. General Summary, 63- 
92. Remarkable Atmospheric Phenomena, 
93-108. General Tables: Barometric Pressure, 
Temperature, Rainfall, Wind, Non-Instrumental 
Phenomena, etc., 109-205. Summary and Con- 
tents, 206. 

Eurypterid Remains from Upper Silurian Rocks of 
the Pentland Hills. By Matcoum Lavrig, 
575. 

Eurypterus scoticus, E, minor, (Laurie: Eurypterid 
Remains from the Pentland Hills), 585-8. 


F 


Fuierr (Joun S.). The Old Red Sandstone of the 

Orkneys, 383-424. 

The Trap Dykes of the Orkneys, 865-905. 

Fossil Fishes from the Silurian Rocks of the South 
of Scotland. By Ramsay H. Tragquarr, 827. 


G 


GrimsHaw (Percy Hatz). On some Type Speci- 
mens of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera in the 
Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art, 1-11. 

— On a Melanic Specimen of Hestina nama 
(Doubleday), 13-14. 


H 


Heppe (M. Forster). Chapters on the Mineralogy 
of Scotland. Chapter VIII.-—Silicates, 341- 
359. 

Hestina nama (Doubleday), a Melanic Specimen of. 
By Percy Haut Grimsnaw, 13-14. 

Heterostract. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 828, 
853, 857. 

Hint (A. W.) and Sewarp (A. C.). On the 
Structure and Affinities of a Lepidodendroid 
Stem from the Calciferous Sandstone of 
Dalmeny, Scotland, possibly identical with 
Lepidophloios Harcourtii (Witham), 907-931. 


Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier of India, 
See under Craniology. 


il 


India, Craniology of the People of the North-East 
Frontier. By Sir Wm. Turner, 703. 


t 
Integral (Definite) a | ex 2dt, with extended 
TT. 


Tables of Values. By Dr Jamus Burasss, 
257. 
Iron Tubes in the Magnetic Field, Strains produced 
in, 457. 
J 


Jacobson’s Organ, Comparative Anatomy of. By 
Rosert Broom, 231. 


K 


KenNEDY (Ropert). On the Restoration of Co- 
ordinated Movement after Nerve Section, 
685-702. 

Kipston (Rozerr). On the Fossil Flora of the 
Yorkshire Coal Field. (Second Paper), 33- 
62. 

Knots. Non-Alternate+ Knots. By C. N. Lrrrzs, 
COC 

Knorr (C. G.). The Strains produced in Iron, 
Steel, Nickel, and Cobalt Tubes, Part IL., 


457-490. 
L 


Lanarkia horrida. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 

832. 

spinosa. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 832. 

spinulosa. (TRaquarr: Silurian Fishes), 833. 

Lasanius problematicus. (Traquarr: Silurian 

Fishes), 841. 

armatus. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 842. 

Lavriz (Matcomm). On a Silurian Scorpion and 
some Additional Eurypterid Remains from the 
Pentland Hills, 575-590. 

Lepidophloios Harcourtit (Witham). Structure and 
Affinities of a Lepidodendroid Stem from the 
Calciferous Sandstone of Dalmeny, Scotland, 
possibly identical with L. Harcourtii (Witham). 
By A. C. Srwarp and A. W. Hix1, 907. 

Lepidoptera and Coleoptera in the Edinburgh 
Museum of Science and Art. By Percy Hath 
GrimsHaw, 1-11. 

Littue (C. N.). Non-Alternate + Knots, 771-778. 


M 


Macponatp (JAmus A.). The C. Discriminant as 
an Envelope, 27-32. 


| 
: 


INDEX. 


Marsupial Shoulder Girdle: Development and 
Morphology. By Rozert Broom, 749. 

MasTERMAN (ARTHUR T.). On the FurtherAnatomy 
and Budding Processes of Cephalodiscus dodeca- 
lophus (M‘Intosh), 507-527. 

Meteorology of Edinburgh. Part II. 
C. Mossman, 63-207. 

Meteorology of Ben Nevis in Clear and in Foggy 
Weather. By J. Y. Bucuanan, 779. 

Mineralogy of Scotland. Chapter VIII.—Silicates. 
By M. Forster Heppug, 341. 

Mossman (Rosert C.). The Meteorology of Edin- 
burgh. Part II., 63-207. 

Muir (Tuomas). The Automorphic Linear Trans- 
formation of a Quadric, 209-230. 

—— The Relations between the Coaxials Minors of 
a Determinant of the Fourth Order, 323-339. 

Ona Development of a Determinant of the 

Mn" Order, 623-628. 

On the Eliminant of a Set of General Ternary 

Quadrics, 667-684. 

Miillerian Ducts of Reptiles, Development of. By 
Greece Witson, 613. 


By Ropert 


N 


Nerve Section, Restoration of Co-ordinated Move- 
ment after. By Ropert Kennepy, 685. 

Nickel, absolute Thermal Conductivity of. 
C. Baruiie, 361. 

Nickel Tubes in the Magnetic Field, Strains pro- 
duced in, 457. 
Non-Alternate + Knots. 
Nuclei of Cloudy Condensation. 

45. 


Thy ne 


By ©. N. Lirruz, 771. 
By Joun AITKEN, 


O 


Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys. 
Fuett, 383. 

Orkneys. The Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys. 
By Joun S. Fuert, 383-424. 
— The Trap Dykes of the Orkneys. 

Fiert, 865. 
Osteotract, (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 834, 857. 


By Joun §. 


By Joun 8. 


IY 


Paleophonus loudonensis, (Laurie: Eurypterid 
Remains from the Pentland Hills), 576. 

Peppiz (Wittt1am). On Torsional Oscillations of 
Wires, 425-455. 

Pentland Hills, Eurypterid Remains from, 575. 

Projectile, Path of a Rotating Spherical. II. By 
Professor Tait, 491. 

Fsammosteidie, (Traquair: ‘Silurian Fishes), 847. 

Pteraspide. (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 849. 

VOL. XXXIX. PART IV. 


997 


Q 


Quadrics. Automorphic Linear Transformation of 
a Quadric. By Tuomas Murr, 269. 

—— Eliminant of a Set of General Ternary 
Quadrics. By THomas Murr, 667. 


R 


Reptiles, Development of Miillerian Ducts of. By 
Grice Witson, 613. 

fotating Spherical Projectile, Path of. II. By 
Professor Tart, 491. 


S 


Sandstones. Old Red Sandstone of the Orkneys. 
By Joun S. Fiert, 383. 

Scorpion (Silurian), from the Pentland Hills, 575. 

Scotland, Mineralogy of. See Heppie (M. Forster). 

SEwarp (A. C.) and Hitt (A. W.). On the Struc- 
ture and Affinities of a Lepidodendroid Stem 
from the Calciferous Sandstone of Dalmeny, 
Scotland, possibly identical with Lepidophloios 
Harcourtit (Witham), 907-931. 

Shoulder Girdle. See Marsupial Shoulder Girdle. 

Sigillaria, Affinities of. (Kipston: Fossil Flora), 

55. 

Sol. (Krpsron: Fossil Flora), 56. 

semipulvinata, 57. 

Sigillariostrobus. (Kipston: Fossil Flora), 49. 

S. rhombibractiatus, 50. 

S. ciliatus, 53. 

Silicates. See Heppie (M. Forster), Mineralogy 
of Scotland. 

Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland, Fossil 
Fishes from. By Ramsay H. Traquair, 827. 

Silurian Scorpion and some additional EHurypterid 
Remains from the Pentland Hills. By Mat- 
coum Laurts, 575. 

Skulls of the Hill Tribes of the North-Kast Frontier 
of India and of the People of Burma. By Sir 
Wm. Turner, 703. 

Slimonia dubia. (Lauriz: Eurypterid Remains 
from the Pentland Hills), 578. 

Sporangium. (Kinston: Fossil Flora), 55. 

Steam and Brines. By J. Y. Buchanan, 529. 

Steel Tubes in the Magnetic Field, Strains produced 
in, 457. 

Strains produced in Iron, Steel, Nickel and Cobalt 
Tubes in the Magnetic Field. Part II. By 
C. G. Knorr, 457-490. 

Stylonurus macrophthalmus, S. ornatus, S. elegans.. 
(Lavuriz: Eurypterid Remains from the Pent-. 
land Hills), 578-582, 


7 N 


998 


li 


Tarr (Professor), On the Path of a Rotating 
Spherical Projectile. II., 491-506. 

Thelodus Pagei (Powrie), sp. from the Old Red 
Sandstone of Forfarshire. By Ramsay H. 
Traquair, 595. 

—— scoticus, (TRaguarr: Silurian Fishes), 829. 

planus, (Traquair: Silurian Fishes), 831. 

THompson (D’Arcy WentwortH). The Emblem 
of the Crab in Relation to the Sign Cancer, 


603-611. 

Torsional Oscillations of Wires. By Wa. Peppig, 
425-455, 

Trap Dykes of the Orkneys. By Joun §, Fiett, 
865. 


Traquair (Ramsay H.), On a New Species of 
Cephalaspis, discovered by the Geological 


INDEX. 


Survey of Scotland in the Old Red Sandstone 
of Oban, 591-593. 

Traquair (Ramsay H.). .On Thelodus Paget 
(Powrie), sp. from the Old Red Sandstone of 
Forfarshire, 595-692. 

—— Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the 
Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian 
Rocks of the South of Scotland, 827-864, 

Turner (Sir Wittiam). Contributions to the 
Craniology of the People of the Empire of 
India. Part I.—The Hill Tribes of the North- 
East Frontier and the People of Burma, 703- 
747, 

W 

Witson (Greae). The Development of the 

Miillerian Ducts of Reptiles, 613-621. 


Wires, Torsional Oscillations of. By Wy. PEpopin, 
425, 


ERRATA FOR PROF, LITTLE'S PAPER. - 


p. 778. 6th last line, for 253 read 233. 


sth ,, 


” 


» 339 


319, 


The laps referred to below are parts of the external boundary of the figure, and are supposed to be 
described with the sun. The first specification of a lap refers to the side of the figure, the second to its 


position on the side. 


Plate I. 8thcol., last row. 
Plate III. 4th ,, 6th ,, 
10th ,, 9th ,, 


Right-hand upper lap should cross over. 
Upper lap should go under, over, over, under, over, etc, 
Upper right-hand lap should cross over. 


Last ,, 2nd last row. Right-hand middle lap should cross wnder. 


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XXXI. 

XMM. Part 1. 

Part 2. 

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XXXIII. Part 1. 

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XXXV.*Part 1. 

Part 2. 

Part 3. 

Part 4. 

Part 1. 

Part 2. 

Part 3. 

Part 1. 

Part 2. 

Part 3. 

“ Part 4. 

XXX VIII.Part1. 

Part 2. 

Part 3. 

Part 4. 

Part 1. 

Part 2. 

Part 3, 

is Part 4. 

XL. No. 1. 


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* Vol. XXXV., and those which follow, may be had in Numbers, each Number containing 
a complete Paper. 


PRINTED BY NEILL AND OOMPANY, LIMITED, EDINBURGH. — 


ii CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
XXIII. The Development of the Miillerian Ducts of Reptiles. By Grace Wiison, D.Sc. 


Communicated by Professor J. C. Ewart, F.R.S. (With Two Plates), . Oe 
(Issued separately, 3rd May 1899.) 


XXIV. Ona Development of a Determinant of the mn‘ Order. By THomas Murr, LL.D.,. 623 
(Issued separately, 21st August 1899.) 


XXV. On the Rimes in the Authentic Poems of William Dunbar. By Henry BELLyse 
Baiupon, M.A. Cantab., F.R.S.E., f ; : : P . 629 


(Issued separately, 4th August 1899.) 


XXVI. On the Eliminant of a Set of General Ternary Quadrics. By Tuomas Murr, LL.D., 667 
(Issued separately, 25th November 1899.) 


XXVII. On the Restoration of Co-ordinated Movements after Nerve Section. By Roperr 
Kewnepy, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., Glasgow. [From the University of Glasgow and the 
‘Glasgow Veterinary College.] Communicated by Professor M‘Krnpricx. (With 
Three Plates), ; 5 : 5 ; : : ; . 685 


(Issued separately, 28th November 1899.) 


XXVIII. Contributions to the Craniology of the People of the Empire of India. Part I. The 
Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier and the People of Burma. By Professor 
Sir Wm. Turner, M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. (With Three Plates), . : . 103 


(Issued separately, 14th December 1899.) 


XXIX. On the Development and Morphology of the Marsupial Shoulder Girdle. By R. 
Broom, M.D., B.Sc. Communicated by Professor Sir Wm. Turner. (With Two 
Plates), : : : : : : : : . TAY 


(Issued separately, 28th November 1899.) 


XXX. Non-Alternate + Knots. By Professor C. N. Lirrts, Ph.D. Communicated by 
Professor Tarr. (With Three Plates),  . : : - ; a aC 


(Issued separately, 15th December 1899.) 


XXXI. The Meteorology of Ben Nevis in Clear and in Foggy Weather. By J. Y. Bucnanan, 
F.R.S. (With Eight Plates), : : ; : 3 See) 


(Issued separately, 15th December 1899.) 


XXXII. Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian 
Rocks of the South of Scotland. By Ramsay H. Traquair, M.D., LL.D., F.RB.S., 
Keeper of the Natural History Collections in the Museum of Science and Art, 
Edinburgh. (With Five Plates), . : : : : 5 oad 


(Issued separately, 15th December 1899.) 


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