ALY CAC Testi, a: : Ut) ay ‘ eves Lew iy vgn) ree i) o, aH ya te Hh Piet pr is K's : ng ‘ teh oft hy ‘ ay on +e 5% fh » Fd ee) < eas ant an iy af + oF on ay Y il >} a ho tPA A ify gen ay * a9) it hay ; ADT mains abt) ‘ Wits Shp yastaos ara eae SLM Mag Anat sa, ica its ¥ alee abs, 6, 3 ii Vr ee ; One : vw ays oo1 ahs aha, ' oe Sse F toh Sita Ca aay 1 ASAE Tot ys use 4 es 4 MORLEY helgion Mae BRAS ‘eng Aaa bal LIBRARY NEW ycor>z eS teu. oat GARDEN (LIBRARY NEW YCRX BOTANICAL GARDEN ea Pe ae Mee ? im i : 5 ha : we ea ‘ ry | ae a yy 7 Py TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. SECRETARY AND TREASURER, JOHN M‘LAREN, JvnN., FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH, EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOC LET Y. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. 1887. LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN 2A OLED REY 1. 51't POA Day UETORL A. EERE i ; us pt Phe ee ae Ag 7 ; a Pa Addi: ahd ; an ae aa i fe ue om =" i $e CONTENTS OF VOL XI. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the-respective authors. Il. rE ry. Vie ae VII. Wil. . Address delivered at the Thirty-First Annual Meeting. By Hucu CLEecHORN of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., The Woods of New Brunswick : Being a description of the Trees of the Province available for economic purposes, prepared by order of the Hon. James Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New Brunswick, for use at the International Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884. By L, W. Barvey, Ph.D., Professor of Natural History in the University of New Brunswick ; and EpwarpD JAcK, C.E., Surveyor of Crown Lands, . On the Plantations on the Estate of Sorn, in the County of a N.B. By Davin Barciay, Forester, ‘ ; Natural Reproduction of Forests. By JoHN M‘LEAN, Forester, Edinburgh, : : ; : Pruning : Its Ornament and Utility. By ALex. T. GILLANDERs, Forester, Skibo Castle, Dornoch, On the New and Rare Conifer at Penrhyn Castle, North Wales. With Illustrations. By ANneus D. Wepster, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, North Wales, : : : INTERNATIONAL ForREsTRY EXHIBITION, EpINBURGH, 1884, ScoTTisH ARBORICULTURAL SoctEty, 1854-1884, Address delivered at the Thirty-Second Annual Meeting. By Hucu CLEGHORN of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., : REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF THE HovusE oF Commons, 1885, ON FoRESTRY, The Indian Forest School. By Major F. Bariey, R.E., F.R.G.S., Director of the Forest School, Dehra Dan, N.W.P., India, . The Douglas Fir (Abies Douglasii, Lindley). By Aneus D. WexssTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, . The Formation of Plantations, and their Management for the First Twelve Years. By Davin A, GLEN, Assistant Forester, Gartshore, Kirkintilloch, PAGE 115 119 155 165 173 XI. XII. XIII. XLV. xeVALIE XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. CONTENTS. The Corsican Pine (Pinus laricio). By ANncus D. WepstTer, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, The Present State and Future Prospects of Arboriculture in North Lancashire. By Gronrcr Dopns, Overseer, Wyreside Cottage, Lancaster, Report on a Visit in September 1881 to the Scottish and English Forests by Professors and Students from the Forest School, Nancy, France. By M. Borps, Inspector of French Forests, . The Formation and Management of Game Coverts. By ANGUS D. WessTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, ForESTRY IN France. By Major F. Baruey, R.E., . Address delivered at the Thirty-Third Annual Meeting. By Hueu CiecHorn of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., A Forest TouR AMONG THE DuNEs oF Gascony. By Major F. Battery, R.E.,. REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF THE HovsE oF CoMMONS, 1886, oN FoRESTRY, . Specifications of Works to be Executed in the Erection of a Forester’s Cottage ; with Plans and Sections. By Wm. Mac- InTosH, 5 Thistle Street, Edinburgh, . On the Rearing and Management of Hardwood Plantations. By A. M‘D. Grant, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry, Economic Forestry. By Professor G. 8. BoutcEr, London, The Native Trees and Shrubs of Carnarvonshire. By ANaus D. Wepssrer, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, On the Plantations and Trees on the Estate of Brahan, in the County of Ross. By ALEXANDER PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Glentruim, Kingussie, . Specifications of Works to be Executed in the Erection of a Forester’s Cottage ; with Plans and Sections. By ALEXANDER PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Glentruim, Kingussie, On the Present State and Future Prospects of Arboriculture in Hampshire. By Joun Smrru, Surveyor, Romsey, Hampshire, Hedgerow and Field Timber. By ANcus D, WezstEr, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, L’ExposiTIoN Forestikre INTERNATIONAL DE 1884. Report by Professor Reuss, of the-Nancy Forest School, on the Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884, PAGE 181 364 oO — WO Dp = co CONTENTS. APPENDIX (A) . Former Presidents, . List of Members, corrected to J ae 1885, . Subjects offered for Competition during 1884-85, . Office-Bearers for 1884-85, . Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish eae Society for year 1883-84, APPENDIX (B) . Former Presidents, F . List of Members, corrected to jal 1886, . Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish Asbortgatettel Society for year 1884-85, APPENDIX () _ Former Presidents, . List of Members, corrected to oe 1887, . Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish Arboricultural Society for year 1885-86, iil rh “I bo o2) 46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. VOL. XIL—PART IL. SECRETARY AND TREASURER, JOHN M‘LAREN, Jun, FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH, PPL OLLI APPS IREAPAD LAPP PARP KPRP,PRG PRP LP LPP Pn EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. MDCOCLXXXV. WORKS ON FORESTRY AND GARDENING, New and Greatly Enlarged Edition. THE FORESTER: A Practica, TREATISE ON THE PLANTING, REARING, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF Forest TREES. By JAMES Brown, LL.D., Inspector of, and teporter on, Woods and Forests, Benmore House, Port Elgin, Ontario; Assisted by his Son, Grorck E. Brown, Forester, Cumloden, Newton-Stewart. Fifth Edition, Enlarged and Improved. Royal 8vo, with nearly 200 Engrayings on Wood, 36s. ‘Tt is an authoritative guide, and a reference book which no forester should be without.”— Land and Water. ‘He has condensed a perfect encyclopedia of everything relating to woodcraft as now under- stood and practised in every part of the civilised world. . . . He does all that printed in- structions can do to supply the place of a regular school training in forestry.” —Pall Mall Gazette. New and Enlarged Edition. THE LARCH: A Practicat TREATISE ON ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT. By CuristopHerR Youne Micuie, Forester, Cullen House. Second Edition, with an additional Chapter on ‘‘ THE Larcu Disease.” With Illustrations of remarkable Trees. Crown 8yo, 7s. 6d. “The work isa most valuable addition to our standard literature on arboriculture. The lover of trees will find the book full of curious and interesting material ; while to the owners and managers of woodlands the volume must prove of the highest practical utility.”—Banj Journal. ‘‘ Within its pages the planter will find more information upon the best modes of treatment and culture of the larch-tree, whether in the nursery or plantation, than in any other book extant in the English language. ”_Journal of Forestry. HANDY BOOK OF THE FLOWER GARDEN; Being Practical Directions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement of Plants in Flower Gardens all the year round. With Engraved and Coloured Plans. By Davin THomson, Gardener to His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, K.G., at Drumlanrig. A New and Enlarged Edition, crown $yo, 7s. 6d. “Tts author is entitled to great praise for the simple and clear manner in which he has explained the cultural directions, which, if carefully complied with, will enable the non- professional floriculturist to grow plants as W ell as any gardener.”—Gar deners’ Chronicle. HANDY BOOK OF FRUIT CULTURE UNDER GLASS. By Davip THomson, Gardener to His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, K.G., at Drumlanrig. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. “*No work of the kind of which we have any knowledge is at all to be compared with this. It is the result of ripe experience, close thought, and ample acquaintance with the subject in all its parts.”—Scotsman. A BOOK ABOUT ROSES. By S. Reynotps Hotr. Eighth and Cheaper Edition, Revised, 3s. 6d. “His work may now be considered the most complete guide to this interesting branch of floricultural art.”—Saturday Review. ““At once charming and instructive. . The practical questions of position, soil, manure, and selection are carefully and exhaustively treated.”— Standard. CULTIVATED PLANTS: Tuerr PropacaTion AND IMPROVEMENT. By F. W. Bursiver, Author of ‘‘ Domestic Floriculture,” etc., ete. With 191 Engravings, and Index. Crown 8vo, pp. 630, 12s. 6d. ‘“This is a book not for the ordinary villa gardener, but for the professional gardener, and for those amateurs who, by their interest in the pursuit, and the skill and patience they bring to bear upon it, rank in success and authority with the professionals. . . . Jt is for scientific professionals and amateurs that Mr Burbidge has produced this extremely complete and valuable manual upon the propagation and improvement of plants.”—Standard. DOMESTIC FLORICULTURE, WINDOW-GARDENING, AND FLORAL DEcoRATIONS. By F. W. Bu RBIDGE. Crown Svo, with upwards of 200 Illustrations on Wood. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 7s. 6d. “This book will meet the case of thousands who love flowers, and know not how to begin— or, having begun, know not how to go on in collecting and cultiy ating them. ae Iti isa model of painstaking accuracy and good taste.” Gardeners’ nage 3 THE HANDY BOOK OF BEES, AND THEIR PROFITABLE MANAGEMENT. By A. Pettigrew. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. “The author of this volume is evidently a a practical man, and knows a great deal more about bees and their habits than most of the bee-keepers in England ; indeed, he may be said to bea very master in the art of bee mysteries.”—Bell’s i908 in London. SHEEP DIPPING: A Dicesr or tHe Larest IMPROVEMENTS AND PRrac- TICE CONNECTED WITH THE PROCESS. By Davin Woop. Crown 8yo, 1s. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EpinzsurcH anp Lonpon. ik é gt ADVERTISEMENTS. “SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award for Hot Houses, at the International Forestry Exhibition, Edinburgh, 1884. MACKENZIE & MONCUR, HORTICULTURAL BUILDERS AND HEATING ENGINEERS, UPPER GROVE PLACE, EDINBURGH, AND ST ANDREW’S CROSS, GLASGOW. Conservatories, Greenhouses, Vineries, Foreing Houses, and all kinds of Horticultural Buildings erected in the most approved manner in any part of Great Britain or Ireland, at strictly Moderate Rates. /Ilustrated Sheets on Application. Splendid Illustrated Catalogues, Price 8/6. PLANS AND SPECIAL DESIGNS. Heating Apparatus on the High and Low Pressure fitted up in Churches, Halls, Mansions, and other Buildings. Satisfactory Results in all Cases Guaranteed. ADVERTISEMENTS, ESTABLISHED UPWARDS OF A CENTURY. FOREST TREES. UR STOCK is Very Hardy and Well Rooted; Grown on an Exposed Situation at our Fellside Nurseries. We have this Season planted a considerable acreage of Forest and Ornamental Trees in several districts with satisfactory results. Estimates given and Samples forwarded, with Special Prices for Large Quantities. ORNAMENTAL TREES,—For Park, Street, or Avenue Planting. CONIFER A..—Choice Specimens of all the Best Varieties having been recently transplanted, are fit for removal with perfect safety. FRUIT TREES.—Standard Pyramid and Trained. Our Stock comprises all Leading Varieties. ROSES! ROSES!! ROSES!!! We have Many Thousands, and Grow Only Best Varieties. FLOWERING SHRUBS.—In Great Variety. LANDSCAPE GARDENING.—We are rapidly making this Branch a Feature in our Business, and having in our employment an Efficient Landscape Artist, we are in a position to furnish Plans and Estimates on Shortest Notice. Genuine Seeds for the Farm and Garden. Dutch Bulbs from the Most Noted Growers. Descriptive Catalogues Post Free on Application. WILLIAM FELL & CO, Seed Merchants, Nurserymen, and Landscape Gardeners, HEXHAM. CONTENTS. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective author's. I, Address delivered at the Thirty-First Annual Meeting. By Hucu CLEGHORN of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., II. The Woods of New Brunswick: Being a Description of the Trees ITI. of the Province available for economic purposes, prepared by order of the Hon. James Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New Brunswick, for use at the International Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884. By L. W. Bartey, Ph.D., Professor of Natural History in the University of New Brunswick; and EpWARD JAck, C.E., Surveyor of Crown Lands, . = On the Plantations on the Estate of Sorn, in the County of Ayr, N.B. By Davin Barcuay, Forester, IY. Natural Reproduction of Forests. By JoHN M‘LEAN, Forester, Edinburgh, VY. Pruning: Its Ornament and Utility. By Atex. T. GILLANDERS, Forester, Skibo Castle, Dornoch, . VI. On the New and Rare Conifer at Penrhyn Castle, North Wales. on ~ oo With Illustrations. By Aneus D. WessTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, North Wales, INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1884, ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1854-1884, . APPENDIX “Gs . Former Presidents, . List of Members, corrected to July 1885, . Subjects offered for Competition during 1884-85, . Office-Bearers for 1884-85, . Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish Arboricultural Society for year 1883-84, PAGE 29 36 49 55 68 114 24 26 rr - TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, I. Address delivered at the Thirty-first Annual Meeting. By Hucu Cuiecuorn of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. GENTLEMEN,—I find myself called upon, at a time of unusual pressure, to say a few words to my old friends at their annual meeting. I rejoice to see many known faces, and to find so many fresh recruits joining our ranks, and distinguished strangers appearing amongst us this day. Being aware that a large pro- portion of the country members are anxious to adjourn to the Forestry Exhibition, I shall compress my remarks to the shortest possible length. It is becoming that I should first notice the absence of our dear lamented friend and ex-President, Hmeritus Professor Balfour, who so often welcomed us to this class-room, and whose venerable countenance was never absent from our annual gatherings. He spent a long, laborious, and useful life in this city, and has been called to rest with his fathers. When we met last year, we were looking forward to the proba- bility of the Forestry Exhibition taking place, and I have to con- gratulate you on the fulfilment of the project. The Marquis of Lothian, our late President, in his address at the opening of the Exhibition, gracefully alluded to our Society when he gave it the credit of having first proposed the Exhibition. We are, of course, deeply interested in the results that may flow from this great under- taking ; these are still in the future, but we know that the pro- gress of our work is being keenly watched by all who have the least acquaintance with Forestry in this as well as in other lands, Such an Exhibition as this has of necessity engrossed the VOL, XI., PART I. A bo ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. energies of many, and not a few of our members have been fully occupied in preparing and maturing plans for it ; and I myself must crave your indulgence on this head. The ground on which the Exhibition Galleries are erected is about 5 acres in extent. The main building is 650 feet long by 55 feet broad, with three transepts, each 150 feet long by 55 feet broad, with a high central dome in each transept. The design of the build- ings is similar to the main galleries in the Health Exhibition, Ken- sington. Additional annexes, 500 feet long and 25 feet broad, similar in design to the main buildings, were erected at a later stage in consequence of the large demands for space by the Japanese Government and others; the exhibiting area thus be- came one-third larger than originally planned. The building is entirely of wood, and is of a handsome light design, which produces a very agreeable effect on entrance, and is generally admired.* The electric railway runs along one side of the building, and is about 650 yards in length. On the west side of Donaldson’s Hospital grounds a field about 7 acres in extent was inclosed for the purpose of exhibiting wood-working machinery in motion, nursery- men’s exhibits, greenhouses, iron houses, wire fencing, gates, and articles of a like nature. Here will also be found various chalets, including one constructed entirely of Scots fir from Balmoral, and another of the Californian redwood ; also the Manitoba Settler’s Farm, and many varieties of models of gates and fences, with fencing materials and implements, exhibited by the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests, all having a connection with the wide subject of forestry. It is to be regretted that some countries, particularly France, Germany, and the United States, which yield a large amount of timber and forest produce, did not respond to the circular invita- tion of the Executive Committee, France at the time was much occupied with troubles in China and Madagascar; and other Governments, such as Persia, Chili, Venezuela, and Honduras, were prevented by various causes from sending contributions. Where direct participation, in so far as exhibits are concerned, has been impossible, official maps and publications bearing on the forest service or literature of the country have been forwarded, or a representative has been commissioned officially to attend, or the * Sce Plan of the Buildings and Grounds ; and also Plates I. to ITV. Plate J.—Front View of the Exhibition Building: Plates II., III., and 1V.— Views illustrating the sections of the Scottish Arboricultural Society’s Court. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. 5 efforts of private individuals have been exerted to supply the omission. The Exhibition has thus been inaugurated by the co-operation of many of the foreign and colonial Governments, and by the good wishes of all. In the arrangement of the articles exhibited, the geographical principle has been adopted, the goods of each country being placed together. It was determined to arrange the space in courts, with the hard objects in the centre, and the soft goods and illustrations requiring vertical space on the walls and sides. A scientific arrangement was very desirable, and the “ Classifi- cation” issued by the Executive Committee was carefully pre- pared with that intention, but it was found impossible, owing to various causes, to arrange the Catalogue in accordance with it— (1.) from the imperfect details given in many of the schedules of exhibitors ; (2.) the tardy arrival of the consignments; (3.) the time allowed was too short ; and (4.) the objections of Commis- sioners of countries occupying small space to allow their contri- butions to be divided. Great latitude has been allowed in the admission of goods, which have been largely received during the month since the opening ; and the very large and interesting col- lection from Japan has been scarcely three weeks in its place. The Catalogue (Ist edit., lst July) contains much valuable in- formation, especially the portion relating to India and the Scottish Arboricultural Society. A second edition was published on 21st July, with running numbers and an index, to assist the Jurors in their labours, but it is not yet complete with respect to several colonies and foreign Governments ;* the list from Japan, it is hoped, may yet be printed, being very valuable. The Scottish Arboricultural Society has in its court about 150 exhibits, and about 20 outside, making a total of about 170, the arrangement of which reflects great credit on our Secretary, Mr M‘Laren, who spent his annual holiday in our service, and has been constant in his attendance. Other members have also rendered valuable help. Our Scottish foresters have come for- ward from almost every district of Scotland, with the enthusiasm we expected, and when the Jurors’ awards are made public, the value of their contributions will be fully recognised. The result is most gratifying, and shows their efforts to raise the position of Forestry to the highest standard in this country. * Catalogues of the Exhibits of India, British Guiana, the Cape of Good Hope, and Ceylon, were printed by the Commissioners of these countries. 4 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. Inp1A.—The Indian collection occupies the south central tran- sept, and several bays on each side ; it is very large and interesting, occupying an area of 5000 square feet; the Catalogue has a histori- cal preface by Sir George Birdwood, describing the first beginning of Forestry in India. The arrangement of the collection is admir- able,—the Commissioner, Colonel Michael, and his assistant, Mr Cole, having had previous experience in the Paris, Vienna, and Amsterdam Exhibitions. A special Report will be published. The Index Collection of Timbers sent by the Government of India comprises 800 specimens, with their habitats and commercial uses, and illustrates arboreal vegetation from Tibet to Cape Comorin ; each specimen is carefully labelled and branded with a correspond- ing number referring to Gamble’s “‘ Manual of Indian Timbers.” In the Indian Court may be specially noticed the very valuable series of maps and diagrams executed by the Forest Survey De- partment under Major Bailey, R.E., who himself arranged them in an instructive manner. The excellence of these topographical surveys can scarcely be overrated in connection with the demareca- tion and management of the reserved forests divided into blocks or compartments, and in the case of boundary disputes their value is undeniable. For students of forestry this is a most important feature of the Exhibition, and shows the silent progress of the great work which has been carried on by Dr Brandis and others during the past twenty-five years. Another country which exhibits maps showing in detail the general distribution of forests, is DrNMARK. There are three sheets displaying the occurrence of the forests of conifers and of broad-leaved trees, also the extent of newly-planted areas and the geological formations on which they grow. There are also maps of the forest district of Kronborg, which resemble those made in Germany, and are very neatly executed. Othar Holnboe, custom-house surveyor, Christiania, furnishes a map representing the principal woods of Norway, and the export of forest produce from the different parts of the country to Britain and other countries. Robert Bell, LL.D., Assistant-Director Geological Survey of Canada, exhibits a large map showing the distribution of the forest trees of Canada. The Government of Japan displays a chart illustrating the natural distribution of forest trees in Japan, and marking certain zones, each indicated by a particular tree, which forms a prominent ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 9, 1884. 5 feature in the landscape. The extent of these zones is marked in colours on the map. There are also excellent coloured drawings, representing the habit of these fine trees, and their foliage, flower, and fruit in life-size. It would have been very desirable that similar illustrative maps had been furnished, as far as possible by various Govern- ments, to assist in determining the rates of growth of valuable trees in different countries. For instance, in the Danish collection some of the diagrams give the mean height from 20 to 120 years, and show that in Germany the height of beech and spruce is greater than in Denmark; but the average diameter of the latter exceeds that of the former. Japan.—The Japanese Court occupies the eastern transept, and forms one of the largest and most important sections. The arrange- ments by the Commissioners (whom we have the honour of seeing amongst us to-day) have been carried out in a most thorough and businesslike manner. They knew beforehand the exact amount of space their goods would occupy, and worked with a rapidity and skill which might put to shame the most advanced nations. The Japanese collection was catalogued before it was despatched, and the arrangement corresponds with the running numbers, and is most creditable. Mr Takei, the head Commissioner, has shown himself possessed of great business capacity, as well as being an expert in the science of Forestry. The importance of Forestry to the welfare of Great Britain and its Colonies has only been recently recognised by us, but in Japan it has long formed an important feature of national education. The sections of woods, numbering about 270, are placed on the central table, with botanical specimens and illustrations above, and manuscript notes below, containing the Japanese and botani- cal names, with the habitats and economical uses, the comparative rarity or abundance of the tree, the average height at 50 years and at maturity. Each section, drawing, and description is marked with a corresponding number. Numerous models and drawings illustrate the expedients adopted for felling trees, slipping and floating the logs down narrow gorges or deep chasm rivers, and the booms for catching and collecting timber when the rivers debouche on the plains, and where timber depots are formed. Illustrations are also given of the method of preventing soil from slipping away from the sides of mountains, and the method of introducing sand-binding plants. The draw- 6 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. ings are mounted in wooden frames, and tastefully decorated with fragments of veneer of different colours. The models and illustra- tions must prove exceedingly instructive to students of forestry. The numerous Collections of Woods exhibited by different countries naturally come under the head of Forestry, but when dealt with by the juries of the different classes, have to be con- sidered in reference to particular qualification for special purposes. Woops or Construction are of three kinds, for Civil, Naval, and Ordnance purposes, and their value is affected by such material qualities as Strength, Toughness, Weight, Durability, and Elasticity. Of woods adapted for purposes of construction, the principal collections in the Exhibition are from New Brunswick, Norway, Denmark, India, Ceylon, Andamans, Johor, British Guiana, and Japan. Many of the timbers, as in New Brunswick, Norway, Denmark, India, and Ceylon, are well known and commonly used, but in looking over the catalogues received from South Africa, Sierra Leone, Johor, and Japan, we often find only the native names and short descriptions of woods used and valued in the countries to which they belong, but in many cases quite un- known in Britain, and of the comparative merits of which the natives themselves are frequently ignorant. It is true that much has been done by the numerous national exhibitions to extend technical knowledge; and especially the botanical identification of those plants yielding forest produce has been greatly advanced at Kew ; while important experiments on the strength and resistance of various woods have been carried out by Dr Brandis * in Calcutta (1864), and by the late Captain Fowke ¢ in London. But it is evident that in some parts of the world much still remains to be done, and the vast collections now brought together will afford opportunities of placing specimens in comparison with each other and with the ordinary woods used in trade and construction. There is a great deal of value to the country in this Exhibition, not only to landed proprietors, foresters, architects, and engineers, but also to joiners, upholsterers, and cabinetmakers. It appears to me that it would be of great importance in an industrial point of view to educate the eye and mind of the artisans in our large towns by showing and explaining the principal objects here ex- hibited. Organisations might be formed in say Glasgow, Dundee, * Gamble’s Manual of Indian Timbers, 1881. + Report on Paris Exhibition, 1856. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. rG Aberdeen, and other places, to arrange for large parties coming for one or two days. I am often surprised by the questions put to me by intelligent workmen visiting the building, who are evi- dently seeking information, and it is my belief that much useful knowledge may be communicated to all classes of the people. There is little doubt that the present Exhibition will give an impetus to a more systematic forest education both in Scotland and elsewhere. Improved tools, instruments, working plans, valuation surveys, and the like, will be introduced. In these days our foresters must take care that our Continental neighbours do not outstrip them in the march of improvement and in general details relating to production of timber, economy of management, and despatch of business. In some European countries the edu- cation and training of foresters is of a highly scientific character, and the whole wooded area has been managed for centuries with systematic care and skill. The authorities of the India Office have decided, after much con- sideration, to discontinue the system of training on the Continent our young men for Forest service, and henceforth the resources within our own borders will be utilised for the education of Forest candidates. The Royal Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines, is the place selected in the first instance, where a thoroughly good teaching staff already exists; and the proximity of the Royal Gardens at Kew will be of great advantage to the students. As the Marquis of Lothian well remarked at the opening, we have in Edinburgh many concurrent advantages—the University, the Botanical Gardens, the Arboretum, and the Highland Society. Oue thing only is needed in addition—a tract of forest reserved for systematic management and professional instruction. There will be a great mass of valuable material at the close of the Exhibition which should be utilised in Edinburgh for purposes of instruction ; and our long desired hope for a Forest School may be one result of this movement. In this way the recom- mendation of the French Professors of Forestry, who visited Britain two years ago, would be carried out ; and as a result of the International Exhibition, we should have the establishment of a Forest School in Edinburgh, Before leaving this subject, I desire to allude to the presence among us this day of several Indian Forest officers,* three of whom have been students at the Ecole Forestitre, Nancy. And Iam sure * Messrs Shuttleworth, Fry, Fuchs, and Wroughton. oe) ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. that in this case, as in so many others, further acquaintance has only heightened esteem. They have ungrudgingly given their aid as jurors at the Exhibition ; and I have been delighted to observe the continuous and fraternal co-operation of Scotland and India. The work of the juries is nearly completed, and the awards will be known in a few days. Such names as Sir J. D. Hooker, Dr Lyons, M.P., Colonel Moncrieff, R.A., Professors Wilson, Fraser, Cossar Ewart, and Dickson of Edinburgh, Bayley Balfour of Oxford, Professor Archer, Industrial Museum, Professor M‘Nab of Dublin, Trail of Aberdeen, M‘Intosh of St Andrews, and a corresponding number of our best and most honoured members,— this selection and combination, effected with great care, will give a judgment based upon technical knowledge, commanding the confidence of the public. The Executive Committee have arranged for a course of lectures during August and September ; and several distinguished pro- fessors and experts have kindly consented to enlighten us on various interesting topics. Dr Lyons, M.P., has already addressed us “On Forestry in Europe and America,” and Professor M‘Nab “*On a Piece of Wood and its Teaching ;” while further instruc- tion awaits us from Mr Jack, on “The Forest Resources of New Brunswick ;” Professor M‘Intosh, on “‘Timber-boring Mollusca ;” Major Bailey, R.E., on ‘‘ Forest Surveys in India;” Dr Howitz of Copenhagen, on ‘‘ Eucalypts at Home and Abroad ;” Mr Mel- drum, on ‘The Forests of Johor ;” Dr Croumbie Brown, on “The Aridity of Spain ;” and Mr Baty, on “‘ The Management of Plantations in Cumberland.” In conclusion, it may not be out of place to allude to the import- ance of many of the books and pamphlets on Arboriculture received in connection with the Exhibition. Britain has sent 38 vols., including 12 works on Forest Science from the fertile brain of Dr J. Croumbie Brown ; Jndia, 2; Singapore, 1; British Guiana, 1; South Australia, 6; United States, 13; Denmark, 24; Norway and Sweden, 2; Germany, 20; France, 13; Italy, 8—Total, 129 books and pamphlets. When the Exhibition is over, by request of the authors, the more valuable of these works will be transferred to our library, and they will form a most acceptable addition to our store of Forest literature. Amongst many notices of the Exhibition a series of articles in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, detailing the general contents of the several courts, is in course of publication. THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 9 Il. The Woods of New Brunswick: Being a Description of the Trees of the Province available for economic purposes, prepared by order of the Hon. James Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New Brunswick, for use at the International Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884. By L. W. Battery, Ph.D., Professor of Natural History in the University of New Brunswick ; and Epwarp Jack, C.E., Surveyor of Crown Lands, Newfoundland and the Maritime Provinces of Canada are, of all new colonies, the nearest to Great Britain. The extensive tracts of barren land which the first contains, and the habits of its inhabitants which are those of fishermen, forbid the expectation of a large timber yield from it. New Brunswick, however, which has in its interior a vast extent of fertile land covered by virgin forests, consisting largely of birch, maple, beech, and other hard woods of large size and excellent quality, stands ready to furnish these in any desired quantity or form (as well as soft woods of different kinds) so soon as the necessities of British commerce and manufactures demand it. Tue Prine AND Fir Trise (Abietine). The representatives of this tribe in New Brunswick are—(1.) The White Pine; (2.) The Red or Norway Pine; (3.) The Grey or Northern Scrub Pine; (4.) The Hemlock Spruce; (5.) The White or Single Spruce; (6.) The Black or Double Spruce ; (7.) The Balsam Fir; and (8.) The American Larch, Tamarack, or Hackmatac, 1, THE WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus, L.). The white pine is one of the largest, tallest, and most stately trees in the New Brunswick forest, often rising in a single straight but tapering column to a height of 80 feet or more, in rare in- stances to over 120 feet. The several varieties, distinguished locally as “ Pumpkin Pine,” “Sapling Pine,” and “ Bull Sapling,” owe their origin to a slight difference in the colour, texture, and specific gravity of the wood, dependent upon corresponding differences in the condition of their growth. The first named is found most thickly near the shores of streams, or on hill sides fronting lakes or streams, seldom 10 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. extending in any quantity further than half or three-quarters of a mile from water, When found in the forest distant from streams or lakes, the pumpkin pine as well as the bull sapling occur in small groups, or in pairs or solitary, a considerable distance often intervening between groups or individuals. Sometimes a single tree may be seen towering to the extreme height of its species on some rocky and elevated hill, in places so difficult of access that the lumber- men, after felling them, either float them from their place of growth to where they can be more conveniently managed, or remove them with the aid of ropes and blocks, with or without the assistance of horses and sleds. The soundest and _ best pumpkin and bull sapling pines are found scattered on high land, and frequently surrounded by hardwoods. Such as grow in low and swampy land are very subject to shakes and concave knots. These varieties of large size have become so scarce in the Province of New Brunswick, that the lumbermen often cut roads half a mile or more in length to reach a choice tree. Nearly all are found on the dry and sandy soil of the coal measures, covering the low ridges, and surrounding the heaths and bogs which abound on the surface of this formation. The great fire of Miramichi, in the year 1825, and the Saxby gale a few years ago, have done millions of dollars damage to the pine lands of New Brunswick, and the day is not very distant when pine trees of good size will be obtained with difficulty in the Province. This valuable wood is used for so many purposes, that an enumeration of them would be almost impossible. Among its more uncommon uses may be named that by the moulder for patternmaking ; it is very applicable for any purpose which re- o> quires a wood easily worked and durable. 2, THE RED PINE (Pinus resinosa, Ait.). ‘The Red (or Norway) * pine has an erect trunk, taller and more slender than that of the pitch pine, which it most nearly re- sembles. The bark, which is much less rough, is in rather broad scales of a reddish colour, The long leaves are in twos, and the cones are free from the bristling, rigid, sharp points which dis- tinguish those of the pitch pine. It may also be distinguished at * « Wrongly called Norway Pine” (Asa Gray). THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. ll a distance by the greater size and length of the terminal brushes of leaves.” —Hmerson, Lumbermen are acquainted with two varieties, which they denominate by the names of the Sapling and Old Red Pine. The former is an inferior wood, generally having those niches of sap which rot quickly on exposure to the weather, It has been largely used in the State of Maine for hogshead heading, for which purpose it answers well. The old red pine, now nearly extinct here, sometimes attains the height of 90 feet and a diameter of 3 feet, the trunk being nearly uniform and without branches for a height of 40 or 50 feet. The wood is strong and durable, resembling that of pitch pine, but with less resin, and was formerly largely employed, like the latter, for the decking of vessels and for beams, having a fine compact grain with few knots. It grows as a scattered tree on dry and sandy soil; some of the best trees ever obtained in the Province were cut on the granite boulder district which crosses the New Brunswick railway about fifty miles north of St Andrews. The Tobique river traversed a tract which was once a great habitat of the old red pine, especially that branch called the Wapskyhegan, on whose banks it grew abundantly, and the trees stood so close on the ground that there was hardly room to turn a sled between the stumps. The axe and fire have now, however, completely removed them from this locality. 3. GREY OR NORTHERN SCRUB PINE (Pinus Banksiana, Lamb). This tree is readily distinguished from the other species of pine by its scrubby growth, and by the colour and appearance of the peculiar scales by which the trunk is covered, and by its singularly spreading boughs, as well as by the cones which hang under them. Timber made from it in former times, when it was tolerably abundant, was considered to be of good size if it averaged three-quarters of a ton to the tree. The wood is hard, full of pitch, and free from sap, but it is apt to be full of streaks. It is much used by the Intercolonial railway for ties and railway sleepers, being one of the best woods for this purpose. Certain sections of country on the South-West Miramichi, the forests on which were destroyed by the great fire of 1825, have since become so thickly covered by forests of Banks’ pine that it is almost impossible to press one’s way through the trees. It grows also extensively on the Little South-West Miramichi. 1 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 4, THE HEMLOCK SPRUCE (Abies Canadensis, Mich.). The hemlock spruce, or hemlock as it is often more simply termed, is one of the most abundant of our evergreen trees, being found on almost every soil. It is when in perfection a very beautiful tree, but is apt, as age advances, owing to the death or breaking off of the lower limbs, to assume the appearance of pre- mature decay. Under favourable circumstances it reaches a height of 70 or 80 feet and a circumference of 6 to 9 feet, the latter, as in others of the family, being nearly uniform until the branches are reached. There are two varieties known to woods- men, the Sapling or White Hemlock, and the rough bark or Black Hemlock. The latter, owing probably to its large and heavy top, is very subject to shakes, rendering the boards sawn from the lower log nearly worthless. The wood of the sapling or white hemlock, with the exception of a small piece near the butt, is sound and firm, and lasts well. It is of more frequent occurrence in the southern or middle districts of New Brunswick than in the north, being a rare tree north of the Grand Falls of the St John. It occurs in belts and masses in certain localities, the laws regulating its place of growth not being understood. It is very subject to the action of fire, and disappears rapidly from the neighbourhood of settlements. It was formerly abundant on the lower portion of the Nashwaak, while it is rarely found above the Narrows, forty miles from the mouth. It is abundant on the Intercolonial railroad north of Moncton, A wide belt of hemlock crosses the St John river on the granite formation forty miles above Fredericton, and the wood is especially good, owing, perhaps, to the presence of potash from the decom- position of the felspar contained in the granite, by the action of time, frost, and moisture. It is found in large quantities and of good quality on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company south of the Becaguinne river, growing on the red soil of the Lower Carboniferous formation. This wood has been used hitherto for framing and boarding in buildings, and for fencing ; it is now employed to a limited extent for interior finish- ing of houses, and is better than black spruce for many purposes : it does not warp or shrink more, or indeed probably so much, as good white pine; it requires a longer time for seasoning than either pine or spruce ; it holds nails well; and much of it has a fine grain, and takes an excellent polish. It is very durable THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 13 when not exposed to alternations of drought and moisture, and is said to be impervious to the attacks of rats, and therefore used in the construction of granaries. Were its good qualities better known, its use would be more general. 5, THE WHITE OR SINGLE SPRUCE (Abies alba, Michaux). This tree is larger and more slender than the black spruce, being distinguished by the lighter colour of its bark and leaves, On the Restigouche, Upper St John, and many other places, it grows toa great height with little taper. Mr J. A. M‘Callum, Deputy Surveyor, in 1873, had a tree cut down on the former stream above the Quatamkedguick, which made a log measuring 14 inches at the butt, 10 inches at the top, and was 64 feet long. They have been cut 80 feet long, measuring 25 inches in diameter at the butt, and 18 inches at the top. White spruce is found in valleys, growing to a very large size, skirting streams, and in small clumps on the sides and tops of hills. The yield of white spruce land will not compare with that of black, as the former tree is much more scattered in its growth. The wood is white and soft, and generally free from knots. Its specific gravity is less than that of the black spruce, to which it is inferior in strength, and exhibits less elasticity. The spruce deals shipped from the Nepisiguit and Restigouche rivers are nearly all manufactured from this tree. 6. THE BLACK OR DOUBLE SPRUCE (Abies nigra, Michaux). As an article of export, this is the most valuable tree of New Brunswick. The vast forests of black spruce which once covered the Province have been reduced by fire and cutting to less than one-third of their original extent. This tree was found in greatest abundance in the southern part of New Brunswick. A _ line drawn from the first Eel River Lake, extending north-east to the dividing ridge between the Little South-West Miramichi and the Nepisiguit, is about the boundary of the great black spruce lands of the Province. South of this line vast forests of it ex- tended from the Schoodic, crossing the Nashwaak and South-West Miramichi, thence to the north-west branch of the last-named river, where it ended. North of this line the tree growth is generally hardwood, largely mingled with firs. Such spruce as occurs along the shores of streams or scattered on the hill sides is principally of the white variety. 4 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Black spruce is commonly found in thick masses around Jakes, or about the base and sides of ridges whose summits are covered by hardwoods, the spruce thinning as the elevation increases, Like the white pine, it attains its greatest size and altitude when growing among surrounding hardwoods. During the past seven years vast quantities of this tree have died, either from the effects of disease, or from the attack of an insect, which eats its way between the sap and the bark; the wneut forests have suffered most. The distinguishing properties of the wood are strength, lightness, and elasticity. That found on the shores of the Bay of Fundy is remarkable for its toughness and durability, and is thought to be nearly equal to Hackmatac for shipbuilding. It furnishes as fine yards and topmasts as any in the world, and has been long and extensively used for this purpose. Heretofore the smaller trees have been largely exported from the head of the Bay of Fundy in round logs, to be used as piles for wharf-building. |The principal root and the lower part of the trunk are extensively used for shipbuilding, constituting knees and foot-hooks; and by means of the small fibrous roots the Indians of Maine and New Brunswick sew together pieces of birch bark to form the exterior covering of their canoes. Very superior clap-boards are made from the clean butts of these trees, because the wood has straight seams from the butt almost to the branches. In many localities black spruces are very seamy. This occurs sometimes on the low lands, but oftener on the ridges, and is probably caused by the joint effect of wind and frost. A cheap variety of shingles is obtained from small trees. Their value, however, to New Brunswick arises from their furnishing the major part of the deals and battens which are ex- ported to Great Britain and other countries. The manufacture of spruce deals commenced in 1819, and has been steadily increasing. 7. THE BALSAM FIR (Abies balsamea, Marshall). This tree, also known as the Fir Balsam or Silver Fir, is common in New Brunswick, being found in nearly all localities, but in the greatest abundance and in the most compact bodies on the head waters of the St John, Restigouche, and Miramichi rivers. There is an extensive forest between the heads of the Miramichi and Tobique rivers. It grows here very thickly, and some acres have 10,000 or 12,000 feet to the acre upon them (superficial measure). The wood is apt to be defective, but in THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 15 this locality it is better. Mr Braithwaite, a well-known New Brunswick woodsman, says that the first 10 to 20 feet of the firs growing here are generally free from knots; his attention was drawn to their soundness when cutting into them for hunting or camping purposes. The wood is rich in resin, or rather in turpentine, which is contained in small vesicles or tumours covering the trunk and limbs. This is usually known by the name of Canada balsam, and is employed in medicine for pulmonary complaints, and in art for the manufacture of varnish. This fir is a lasting wood, and seasons readily. It is easily worked, and is used in the manufacture of butter firkins and other wooden vessels for holding food, as it imparts no flavour. It can be used for flooring, interior doors, slats for Venetian blinds, etc., etc. ; the Indians prefer it to cedar for lining their canoes, as it does not absorb water. 8. THE AMERICAN LARCH, TAMARACK, OR HACKMATAC. | (Larix Americana, Michaux.) The American or black larch, called by the French Canadians Epinette Rouge, by the descendants of the Dutch, the Tamarack, and among the English, commonly by its Indian name of Hack- matac, is one of the most valuable trees of the New Brunswick forest. Its favourite place of growth and where it usually attains its greatest size, is on or near the banks of some sluggish brook, growing specially well among that variety of wild grass known as “blue joint.” It generally surrounds the barren boggy heaths which abound in the middle section of New Brunswick ; those trees growing on the bogs being stunted and small, while those on the edges of the heath attain a large size, and frequently afford good roots for shipbuilding purposes. The roots of those found on intervale land are, however, generally sounder and larger, though the trees are not so abundant. Many of the finest and largest Tamaracks have been found growing out of old beaver dams, and these industrious animals may claim the honour of having prepared the soil for their growth. Where this tree has not a moist soil, its growth is very scanty and small, It is capable of ready propagation. By the artificial planting of the tree, a period of seventy years would yield timber fit for all the ordinary purposes of shipbuilding. The wood of the larch, which is very resinous and compact, is 16 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. remarkably durable, It has been said to be more lasting in ships’ timbers than oak, There are two varieties known among woods- men, the white and the yellow, the former being much inferior to the latter in strength and durability. Tamarack is largely used in shipbuilding for timbers, knees, beams, etc., but large roots and timber have become scarce, and cannot be obtained unless at considerable expense. In the County of Aroostook, in the State of Maine, trees of Hackmatac have been obtained from which have been made four tons of timber, Lumbermen remark, that in almost every place where you find a very large Tamarack, apparently growing alone, by searching a few rods on either side you will find a companion of nearly similar proportions. Hackmatac planks are well adapted for floor boards and door steps, from their extreme hardness, and an infusion of the boughs and bark furnishes a good alterative for horses. THe Cypress TRIBE (Cupressina). The only representatives in New Brunswick of this section, marked by having a globular or ovoid Strobilus, instead of a true cone for fruit, are the American Arbor Vite, the Red Cedar, and the Juniper. Tue AmerIcAN Arbor Vitam (Thuya occidentalis, L.). This tree, often but improperly called the White Cedar, is abundant in New Brunswick. It is met with everywhere in low grounds and swales, but especially where the soil is clayey and the drainage imperfect. The largest and best trees occur inter- mingled with hardwood. They grow thickest in what are called cedar swamps, forming for short distances dense forests well nigh impenetrable. When growing thickly together the wood is generally very defective and the diameter comparatively small, rarely exceeding 1 to 2 feet. On the dry limestone hills near St John, this species forms dense thickets of beautifully pyramidal trees. It is found in greatest abundance, as well as of the best quality, on the Resti- gouchbe river and on the upper St John. Mr J. A. M‘Callum, when surveying the dividing line between the counties of Victoria and Madawaska, on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company, observed thousands of white cedars which were THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 17 3 feet and upwards in diameter, and extended for many miles. When on the head of the Restigouche he also noticed great quantities of excellent cedar. On the north of Tobique and on Salmon river, on the above- named company’s grants, are vast tracts of hardwood, intermingled with the finest of cedar. The Crown lands on the Nictaux branch of Tobique, for many miles, are also lined with clean and straight trees of this species well adapted to the manufacture of cedar shingles or railway ties. As this stream is remarkably smooth, the trees can be conveyed by water, very cheaply, to railway communication. The Honourable Senator Ferguson, of Bathurst, says that the white cedar is much used in the eastern part of the county of Gloucester for building boats, that boards can be got from 6 to 9 inches wide for planking, and that the roots make excellent knee timbers, as they are both light and durable. The wood of the white cedar is very soft, light and fine grained, of a reddish tint, and, like its twigs, possessed of an agreeable aromatic odour. It is readily wrought, and is also very durable, being especially adapted for fencing, and for such other purposes as necessitate frequent alternations of dryness and moisture. There is a large export of cedar shingles and railway ties from the City of Fredericton. Chests made from this wood are said to have the property of preserving furs and woollen goods from the attacks of moths, which is, probably, owing to its aromatic odour. The bark of this tree is now used in the United States for the manufacture of coarse paper for carpet lining, sheathing, ete. Linpen Famity (Tihacee). BASS-WOOD, OR LIME TREE (Zilia Americana, 1.). Though rare, there are few more striking trees in the New Brunswick woods than the Bass-wood, or American Linden. With a tall straight and somewhat columnar trunk, sometimes as much as 80 feet in height, branching freely, and densely clothed with rich green foliage, diversified in the season by its abundant yellowish-green flowers, or nut-like fruit, it can hardly fail to attract attention; and as an ornamental tree, it is well worthy of cultivation. Its wood is also of considerable value, being soft, white, and of a fine close grain. It is very tough and pliable, and being less liable than other woods to split from extremes of temperature, is used, in preference to all others, for VOL. XI., PART I. B 18 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK, making curved fronts of sleighs, panels of carriages, ete. For similar reasons it is used by stair-builders for curved ends of stairs, and for interior finishing. It is readily carved and turned, and has sometimes been employed for the figure-heads of vessels. Its inner bark, or liber, is tough and fibrous, and is well adapted for the manufacture of rough ropes and cordage, It occurs sparingly on the fertile lands of the Upper St John river. THe Soap-Berry Famiry (Sapindacee). The representatives of this family in New Brunswick belong to two sub-orders, of which the first (Sapindacee proper) is represented by the introduced Horse-chestnut, much prized as an ornamental tree ; and the second (Acerinew) by the different species of Maple. The latter only require notice here. WHITE OR SILVER MAPLE (Acer dasycarpum, Ehr.). This is a somewhat smaller tree than the Rock Maple, and less generally distributed, being apparently wanting in the northern counties, and elsewhere confined to the borders of streams. It is not uncommon among the creeks and islands of the St John river, and is often of considerable size and beauty. It yields a soft white wood, fine grained and easily worked, but with little strength or durability. It is rarely used, except in the manufac- ture of agricultural implements. RED OR SWAMP MAPLE (Acer rubrum, L.). This tree is, among the maples, second only to the rock maple in size and in the value of its wood. Though not strictly confined to swamps, it flourishes best in low wooded swales, and where there is abundant moisture ; attaining, sometimes, under these circumstances, a height of 60 or 70 feet. It has been observed in all parts of the Province, being readily recognised in spring, from the reddish or crimson colour of its recent shoots, and in autumn from the intense brilliancy of its variegated foliage. “The wood of the red maple is whitish, with a tint of rose- colour, of a fine and close grain, compact, firm and smooth, the silver grain lying in layers very narrow and close, and the pores being very small. It is well suited for turning, and takes a fine polish ; is easily wrought; and serves for a great variety of pur- THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 19 poses. It is much used for common bedsteads, tables, chairs, bureaus, and other cheap furniture. In building it is an excellent material for flooring, and may be used for any part not exposed to dampness. It lasts well in the flat of a ship’s floor, and has sufficient elasticity to serve as oars, which are almost equal to those of white ash ” (Emerson’s Report, p. 486). There is a considerable quantity of this wood growing on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company on the St John river. It occurs on the edge of low land, but does not grow thickly in any place. ROCK OR SUGAR MAPLE (Acer saccharinum, L.). This is the largest and finest of the maples, and is the most valuable in its economic applications. Though varying greatly in aspect according to the special conditions under which it has grown, it is in all cases a remarkable and sometimes even a majestic tree, beautiful alike for form and foliage, the contour of the leaf being remarkably graceful. It is partial to rich, deep, and gravelly loams, and, except directly along the seaboard, is a very common upland tree throughout the Province. Its ordinary height is 50 or 60 feet, though rising sometimes to 70 or 80 feet. Tt is of rapid growth and capable of ready cultivation, but when in open ground and unprotected is rather easily overthrown and subject to somewhat premature decay. ‘‘ For purposes of art,” says Emerson, “no native wood possesses more beauty, or a greater variety of appearance than that of the rock maple. It is hard, close-grained, smooth, and compact, and capable of taking and retaining an exquisite polish. The straight-grained or common variety has a resemblance to satin wood, but is of a deeper colour. The variety called curled hard maple, caused by the sinuous course of the fibres, gives a changeable surface of alternate light and shade, exhibiting an agreeable and striking play of colours. But the most remarkable variety is the Bird’s-eye Maple. This is so called from a contortion of the fibres at irregular intervals, throwing out a variable point of light, and giving an appearance of a roundish projection rising from within a slight cavity, and bearing a distant resemblance to the eye of a bird. All the varieties, particularly the last, are used in the manufacture of articles of furniture—wardrobes, chairs, bedsteads, bureaus, port- able desks, frames of pictures, etc, The straight-grained variety 20, THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK, is much used in the manufacture of buckets and tubs, and is preferable to every other wood for the making of lasts. In naval architecture the rock maple furnishes the best material, next to white oak, for the keel.” Rock maple grows in abundance on the St John river and its tributaries ; it is found in greatest quantities from between Fredericton and Woodstock to the northern boundary-line of the Province. In the district north of the Tobique, for more than forty miles in a straight line, the explorer can travel through extremely fertile lands, the growth on which is largely composed of this tree, without meeting the habitation of man. A large quantity of sugar and some molasses or treacle are yearly made in the months of March and April, from the maple sap, which is received in troughs, holes having been bored or cut in the trunks of the trees to which a small spout is attached. The liquid is boiled down in large iron pots to the required thickness, and then sugared off. An agreeable candy is made by suddenly pouring the sap, when boiled to the proper consistency, on snow. This candy can be made in summer from the sugar by boiling it down with a little water, and using ice instead of snow as a means of sudden cooling. The French of the county of Madawaska are the largest manu- facturers of this sugar, and there is little other used in that county. In the bright warm April days the careful observer may frequently notice the common squirrel hanging tenaciously to some maple twig, occasionally lifting his head to bark angrily at the intruder. Closer observation will reveal the fact that the noisy climber is regaling himself on the delicious sap which the approach of spring is sending from the root to the branches of the tree. Many of the Provincial railroads pass through or near extensive forests of this wood, but although small water-powers abound, no manufacturing establishments for the various purposes of commerce have as yet been erected. An important application of maple wood, especially of Bird's-eye maple, in veneers, has recently been made in the internal decora- tion of railway carriages, for which it is admirably adapted. Although, like other maples, it is deficient in durability under exposure, it is very strong and remarkably cohesive. As fuel its value is unequalled by any other tree in New Brunswick, and very large quantities are annually consumed for this purpose. THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 21 Outve Fameiy (Oleacee). The representatives of this family in New Brunswick belong to the genus Fraxinus or ash, of which there are four species. WHITE ASH (fraxinus Americana, L.). This, from its large size, the most important of the ashes, is sparsely found in all parts of the Province, upon almost every variety of soil, though attaining its perfection only in rich loamy ground and in the vicinity of streams, where it obtains abundant moisture. Under favourable circumstances it rises to a height of 50 or 60 feet, with a straight undivided trunk for 30 feet, and a diameter of nearly 2 feet. It is usually scattered among other trees, rarely, if ever, forming groves. The qualities from which ash wood derives its value are its strength, toughness, and elasticity. In consequence of these pro- perties it is extensively employed by carriage and sleigh makers, especially for shafts and springs ; in the manufacture of chair and sofa frames ; for agricultural implements, as pitchforks and rakes ; and for a variety of smaller articles. For the manufacture of oars it is preferred to all other woods. THE RED ASH (Mraxinus pubescens, Walter). This tree resembles the white ash, and grows in similar situa- tions ; it is probable that they are sometimes confounded. Besides being a smaller tree, the red ash is easily distinguished by the downy character of its leaves and newer branches, from which its specific name is derived. Its wood, though used for similar purposes, is less valuable. This tree is found to a limited extent east of the Grand Falls, in low fertile parts. BLACK OR WATER ASH (fraxinus sambucifolia, Lam.). This tree is mostly confined to swamps and the muddy banks of rivers. It is common along the shores of the St John and Kennebeccasis rivers, but is in greatest abundance on the branches of the St John above the Grand Falls, especially on those of the Grand and Green rivers, the shores of the former being fringed by it for many miles. It is also abundant on the Miramichi river on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company—the drier the land usually the better the wood. The wood of the black ash is used for house and church finish- 22 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. ing, as well as in the manufacture of furniture. In order to polish it, the pores are filled with some substance, such as bees’ wax, to close the pores; after this it takes a high polish. It varies in quality with the ground on which it grows. The best ash used in Fredericton is brought from the county of Carleton ; there it attains a height of 40 feet or more, and a diameter of 2 feet. It comes into leaf very late in the season, and loses its foliage early. The wood of the black ash, though inferior to the white in strength and durability, is nevertheless remarkably tough, and, owing to the facility with which after pounding it may be separ- ated into strips and ribands, is especially preferred to other woods by the Indians for the manufacture of baskets, of which handsomely ornamented ones are made by the Tobique tribe. Nertie Faminy (Urticacee). Sus-orpER I.—Tue Exm Trise (Ulmacee). THE ELM (Ulmus Americana, L.). Though comparatively restricted in its distribution, there are, nevertheless, few trees in New Brunswick which, when the proper conditions are accorded, exceed the elm in the length or vigour of its growth, certainly none which can compare with it for grace and beauty. On the uplands it is comparatively rare, and even when occurring seldom attains to great size, but in river valleys, and especially along the rich and level intervales * bordering the St John river and its tributaries, it is much more abundant and often large, its beautiful feathered trunks and plume-like branches serving greatly to enhance the beauty of the scenery. The stem occasionally girths 20 feet. The wood of the elm is both strong and tough, and therefore well adapted for the making of ships’ blocks, hubs of carriage- wheels, and kindred uses, though said to be inferior for these purposes to the English elm. It is also used in making the flooring of ships’ decks, though difficult to work, the peculiarity of the grain requiring it to be planed crosswise rather than lengthwise. Its value in New Brunswick, however, is almost solely as an ornamental tree, quite equalling if not excelling in this respect its European relative. It is readily transplanted, hardy when in favourable situations, and of rapid growth. * Holm in England ; Haugh in Scotland. THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 23 Watnout Famity (Juglandacee). THE BUTTERNUT (Juglans cinerea, L.). The Butternut is not an abundant tree in New Brunswick, being mostly confined to the southern counties and the valley of the St John river, especially above Woodstock, while it is absent from the coast, and also, according to Mr Fowler, from the northern counties of the Province. It is usually met with in rich moist lands, especially in calcareous districts, and some of these, such as Butternut Ridge, in King’s Co., have received their names from its former abundance in their vicinity. It is rarely found away from roads or settlements. Although never a tall tree, it thrives well under cultivation, and sometimes attains a height of 60 feet or more. The wood of the butternut is adapted for numerous and various uses. Its rich reddish-yellow colour, darkening with age, and then nearly resembling the English oak, as well as its lightness, render it suitable for cabinet work, for which it is also well adapted by the facility with which it receives paint or varnish, and the fact that it is not readily split by nails. For a like reason it may be advantageously employed for carriage-making and similar uses, being both light and durable. It is well fitted for purposes of interior decoration, and has been employed with excellent effect, both in the Cathedral at Fredericton and in other churches through the Province. Of minor uses, the employment of the bark and nut-shells in dyeing may be mentioned, as well as that of the young half-grown nuts for the making of pickles. The bark is also said to yield an extract possessed of laxative properties, Oax Famity (Cupulifere). The representatives of this family in the New Brunswick Sylva are (1.) The Red Oak (Quercus rubra, L.), the American Beech (Fagus ferruginea, Ait.), the Beaked Hazel-nut (Corylus rostrata, Ait.), the American Hornbeam (Carpinus Americana, Mich.), and the American Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya Virginica, Willd.), to which may be added, as introduced at a few points, the Spanish Chestnut (Castanea vesca, L.). 24 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 1. THE RED OAK (Quercus rubra, L.). This, the only species of oak occurring in New Brunswick, is both common and widely distributed, being found in all parts of the Province, especially along the banks of streams, and, as in Charlotte Co., along ridges of slaty rocks. It is, however, a tree of inferior value, being difficult to season, imperfectly combustible, and, unlike other species of the same genus, worthless for the pur- poses of the tanner. It is, however, of rapid growth ; flourishes well in almost all situations; and, owing to the beauty of its trunk and foliage, is well adapted for ornamental purposes. To the above may be added the occasional occurrence of the white and grey oak in special localities. They are, however, so rare as to require no special mention. 2. AMERICAN BEECH (/agus ferruginea, Ait.). Three different kinds of Beech, viz., the Common Beech, the White Beech, and the Red Beech, are distinguished by lumberers and others. They are, however, probably all varieties of a single species—the White or American Beech, the differences depending, according to Emerson, simply upon the greater or less rapidity of maturation, and the consequent different proportion of the (white) sap wood or (red) heart wood. In one or other of its forms it is an abundant tree throughout the Province (except upon the Southern coast), abounding especially upon ridges of felspar rocks, and in rich moderately moist soils. It is a tree of rapid growth, increasing its diameter under favourable circumstances as much as two-thirds of an inch in a single year, and attaining some- times a height of not less than 70 feet. The beech is extensively employed for fuel, being indeed, for that purpose, second only to the rock maple. The wood is “hard, of a fine smooth close grain, and very dense, having a specific gravity of ‘724” (Emerson). It is durable when kept dry, and also when permanently wet, as in the bottom of ships, but decays rapidly when subjected to alternations of these conditions. It is well adapted for the manufacture of saw-handles, shoe-lasts, plane- stocks, and for chairs and farm utensils. From its ashes large quantities of alkali are obtained for the manufacture of soap. Its nuts are oily and nutritious, and afford a large portion of the food of various wild animals, including the bear, partridge, and squirrel. Young beeches properly arranged, and by grafting made THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 25 to grow together, form solid and elegant hedges, but have the dis- advantage of checking the growth of other plants near or under them. 3, THE SPANISH CHESTNUT (Castanea vesca, L.). This tree, so highly prized in somewhat more southern latitudes alike as an ornament and for its abundant and agreeable fruit, can hardly be said in fairness to have a place among the indigenous trees of New Brunswick. None are found in a wild state ; and though a few have been introduced from time to time, they do not appear to thrive, and are rarely seen. 4. THE HORNBEAM (Carpinus Americana, Michaux). This tree, though by no means an abundant one, is occasionally seen in the New Brunswick woods, especially in the central and southern counties, along the banks of streams, and on the sides of ridges. It is found in considerable quantity in the vicinity of Salmon river in the county of Victoria, and in other places on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company. When conveniently attainable, it is used by lumbermen in the manufacture of axe-handles; and for other purposes requiring great strength, it is considered to be the strongest of the northern woods. When well seasoned it makes excellent fishing rods, being very strong, light, and elastic. 5, THE AMERICAN HOP HORNBEAM (Ostrya Virginica, Willd.). This tree, readily distinguished from the preceding by the hop- like fruit from which its name is derived, is, like the latter, com- paratively rare in New Brunswick, though apparently distributed over its entire area. It is generaily found in rich woods, attain- ing a height of 20 to 30 feet. Like the preceding species, with which it shares the name of “ Ironwood,” it is remarkable for tough- ness and compactness, adapting it for the manufacture of levers and similar uses, whence it is also often called ‘‘ Lever Wood.” It is also employed for the cogs of mill-wheels and for agricultural implements. Tue Bircn Faminy (Betulacee). This family embraces in New Brunswick five species of true Birch, and two of Alder. 26 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 1. AMERICAN wHiITE BIRCH (Betula alba, var. populifolia, Spach.). The White Birch, or Little Grey Birch as it is sometimes called, is a very common tree in New Brunswick, especially near the coast and on the poorer class of soils, such as occur over ex- tensive tracts occupied by the rocks of the coal-measures. It is usually found in large groves associated with spruce, pine, or other soft-wood trees, and under favourable circumstances attains a height of 30 to 40 feet. The wood of the white birch is easily worked, and when well seasoned, light and strong; and is not liable to crack, split, or warp. 2. THE PAPER BIRCH (Letula papyracea, Ait.). The Paper Birch, like the White Birch, which it nearly resembles, is found in all parts of New Brunswick, but usually in soils some- what more fertile than those covered by its relative. It is said especially to favour gravelly soils and the slopes and bottoms of valleys covered with large and moss-grown rocks. There are many thousands of acres on the head waters of the Miramichi, and on the heads of streams emptying into the Tobique in the same vicinity, which are covered with forests of this wood, where it grows to a large size, sometimes attaining a diameter of 2 feet and a height of 40. It is usually sound and free from rot. There is abundance of small trees growing here also, which are white hearted and suitable for the manufacture of spools or thread reels. One Maine factory turns out 100,000 gross of spools per day, and consumes 2500 cords of birch annually. 3. THE YELLOW BIRCH (Betula excelsa, Ait.). This is one of the larger, and therefore, more valuable of the birches ; its straight and nearly uniform trunk attaining at times a height of 70, and a diameter of 2 or more, feet. It is a very common tree in New Brunswick, growing usually on rich, soft, and moist lands in company with spruce and ash, and besides being extensively employed for many domestic uses, and for shipbuild- ing, forms with the black birch an important article of export. This tree is found abundantly on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company, both on the Miramichi and St John rivers. It attains its greatest size on the fertile lands of the Upper THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 27 St John ; it is a strong and durable wood. Besides its employ- ment in shipbuilding, it has also been used in cabinet work, and in Fredericton for the frames of fanning mills and seed separators. When straight grained it is not liable to warp or split ; it is susceptible of a high polish, and derives additional beauty from the peculiarly irregular and variegated disposition of the grain. The young saplings make excellent hoops. 4, CHERRY BIRCH, SWEET OR BLACK BIRCH (Betula lenta, L.). This, the handsomest and the most valuable of the birches, is found in all parts of New Brunswick, flourishing in nearly the same situations as its relative, the yellow birch, and attaining about the same proportions. It is especially common on the deep and shady banks of rivers, and on gravelly ridges along the shores of the Bay of Fundy, as well as on the fertile lands on the Upper St John, east of the Grand Falls, and north of the Tobique river, where there are hundreds of thousands of acres covered by it, the land there being of excellent quality. This great body of birch extends over a large part of the Crown Lands in the county of Restigouche ; the wood there is of large size and exceptional quality. It is also largely found on the Miramichi river and its branches ; the soil there being inferior, the quality of the wood is not good. It also occurs in many other places on the Crown Lands of New Brunswick. The principal use of the black birch is for the manufacture of square timber for export and in ship- building, especially for the keel, lower timbers and planks of vessels; its most important characteristic being its durability when kept permanently wet. Being of a fine and close grain, readily capable of being polished, as well as possessing a rich colour, somewhat resembling mahogany, it is largely used for chair and cabinet work. It is employed by the carriage makers for panels. It takes any kind of stain well, and can be easily made to represent rare woods, The birch used in the Boston Navy Yard is kept under water, which not only prevents it from decaying, but much improves its quality. Tae Wittow Famiry (Salicacee), The Poplars are the only trees in this family which require notice here. The Balsam poplar (P. balsamifera), in its variety the Balm of 28 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Gilead (var. Candicans), grows to a fair size along the shores of streams in the northern part of New Brunswick, especially on the banks of the Tobique, Grand, and Green rivers. Its wood may be used for door panels or other interior house finishing, as it is soft and easily worked ; it takes a stain and finishes well. It is only locally abundant, and therefore of small importance commercially. AMERICAN ASPEN (LP. tremuloides, Michaux). ] This tree is found in great abundance on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company, especially on the heads of the Clear Water, Wapskehegun and Gulquac, covering large tracts of land growing on ridges mixed with white birch and fir. It is of large size, attaining frequently a diameter of 2 feet. The larger trees are more frequently sound than the smaller, as the latter, when affected by disease or rot, soon die. It also occurs abundantly on the Crown Lands of New Brunswick at the head of the Miramichi, and along the Intercolonial rail- way, where, however, it is of smaller size. The wood of the Aspen, when seasoned, is tough, light, and hard. It does not warp, crack, or shrink, and is very close grained and white, and takes a high polish. It is used in the construction of sleighs and carriages, and makes excellent floor boards in house building, and might be used much more than it is for furniture and interior finishing. It also makes superior handles for hoes, rakes, or other similar implements. THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. 29 III. On the Plantations on the Estate of Sorn, in the County of Ayr, N.B. By Davip Barctay, Forester. The estate of Sorn, the property of James Somervell, Esq. of Sorn, is situated in the uplands of Ayrshire, about midway between the source and the mouth of the river Ayr, and about 15 miles from the sea as the crow flies. The area of the estate is computed at 6245 acres, and though its plantations may compare favourably with those of other properties in the district, they are not of very great extent, and may be set down at about 600 acres. Before entering on the present condition of the plantations, it may be as well to relate, as far as known by the writer, the history of the estate. At an early period it was possessed by a Countess of Loudon. It is supposed that she planted the oldest and most remarkable trees. These comprise the English elms near the castle, some beeches that are planted in the form of a crescent in front of the castle, with the beech walk on the west, and the wood in the Cleuch on the east. Itis said of her, when she read or heard of Dr Johnson’s remarks on the treeless state of the Hebrides, or rather of Scot- land, that she exclaimed, ‘‘ Deil tak’ the man! whar was his een when he didna see my Elms?” About the beginning of the present century, it came into the possession of the Somervells, merchants in Glasgow. At that time the greater part of the estate must have presented a very bleak and sterile appearance, but by the judicious and enterprising spirit of the late Miss Agnes Somervell, the area of the plantations was increased from about 100 to the present extent of about 600 acres, The original 100 acres are of the most permanent character, and are growing on the banks of the river Ayr, in the romantic Cleuch Glen, and extend along Sorn Bank to a little to the east of Dalgain. These are composed of the following species : alder, ash, beech, chestnut, elm, Italian poplar, lime, oak, plane, Scots and spruce firs. The larch that was formerly on the estate was all cut about twelve years ago, when the demand was good and the price high. The underwood consists chiefly of hazel, mountain ash, and briars, with numerous clumps of rhododendrons, which flourish here luxuriantly, and spring up freely from self-sown seed. I will now detail the method adopted by Miss Somervell in forming the greater part of the plantations. The estate, for the 30 THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. most part, was an extensive moor when she became owner of it— undrained, and without a tree for shelter ; so that there was un- limited scope for improvements. She appears to have known, or been well advised, that the first step in estate improvement was, according to the old adage, “for agriculture to succeed, arboricul- ture must proceed.” With wisely-directed skill she managed to overcome the difficulties which meet those who have to form plantations on poor peaty soils and bleak moorlands. Limestone existing on the property, she set about opening limeworks, and liberally dressed the land with the fresh lime ; digging, trenching, and ploughing it in, and then cropped the land for two seasons before commencing to plant it. Open drains also were cut at certain distances apart to carry off all stagnant water, and the ground was thoroughly protected against the inroads of stock from the adjoining moor by a substantial stone dyke running along the boundary. The interior fences are composed mostly of beech, which have thriven well and form good hedges. After the liberal treatment of the soil above indicated, it was a matter of certainty that the plantations would succeed, in such a manner as to satisfy even the most sanguine expectations. The soil, for the most part, is peaty, in some places pure peat, resting on a clayey subsoil, well suited to grow a crop of Scots and spruce fir timber suitable for the local markets of a mining district. The plan followed in laying out the plantations was most simple, the straight line being used, except around exposed farm homesteads, where the shelter-belts were laid out in curves, and around the top of Tinkholm Hill, where the line was carried about 30 feet below the summit, or about 900 feet above the level of the sea, and the highest point of the plantations, It may be said that there is a sameness about the plantations, as the crop consists principally of Scots and spruce firs. This, however, shows the wisdom of the planter, because the soil is only adapted to grow such hardy kinds of trees, for which a ready market is now found in the neighbouring coalfields of upper Ayr- shire; the extensive Airds Moss collieries being within a few miles of the estate. It is seldom that the planter reaps the benefit of his labours ; but, if he takes a pleasure in the work of planting, it is a source of great satisfaction to see the trees thriving and the work proceeding in the manner desired. The lady who planted these woods does not appear to have had any desire to THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. 31 reap a profit from them, and would not even allow them to be thinned, except in the slightest degree. Hence it was that an extra thick crop remained on the ground until it reached maturity ; the very thickness of the crop bringing the trees the earlier to maturity, to the great advantage of the succeeding proprietor, to whom it afforded a rich harvest. The success which followed the laying out of these plantations must be attributed to the advantages they had to start with; the soil was fresh and in first-rate condition, and the fences proof against the inroads of stock. The hedges are a feature of the estate, and, along with the plantations, have added largely to the amenity and value of the property. They are formed chiefly of mixed beech and thorn, but are occasionally composed wholly of beech or of thorn, and there is one good hedge of hornbeam, They were laid out and planted by the same lady who formed the plantations, and al- though now past their best, they must have been splendid fences for many years, and great care was bestowed in keeping them properly dressed and in good order. In forming the hedges, the most of them have been planted too high on a raised bank, with a ditch alongside, and the consequence is, they suffer much from droughts. A raised bank, such as this, composed largely of light peaty soil, soon becomes void of nutriment for the hedge, with the result that the plants become stunted and perish, unless much money and labour is annually expended in manuring and digging the hedge-bottoms, to keep the plants alive and vigorous. It is always advisable not to plant hedges too high above the level of the ground, and to take care at all times to keep the soil well up to the neck of the plants when the hedge-bottoms are being cleaned and dug. In renovating beech hedges, it is best to pro- ceed by cutting in one side of the hedge at a time, taking the stronger side first. Then in the -course of a few years, when the first cut side has been fairly renewed, the other side should be treated in a similar manner, by cutting it close in, and filling up all gaps with healthy plants. The work of renovating and planting should be done early in the season, so that the roots may be in action to sustain the plants against the heat and droughts. The hedges while in a young state, and during the process of renova- tion, should be securely fenced and protected from stock and the ravages of hares and rabbits. The late Graham Somervell, Esq. of Sorn, succeeded to the 32 THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. estates in 1856, by which time all the operations already described had been completed, and some of the plantations were approaching maturity. These, in the course of the following years, were cut down, and realised a good profit, particularly the fine larch already referred to. Mr Somervell took great pains to replant the cleared woods, and during a period of about twenty years thus renewed upwards of 400 acres, which are now thriving well, although much difficulty was at times experienced in protecting them from the ravages of vermin while the plants were young. Be- tween the years 1876 and 1881, an extent of over 140 acres was planted with 688,000 trees; which shows the keen interest the late proprietor took in his woods. Since 1881 the woods have been left very much to themselves, and are growing up again with much vigour, with the prospect of a good second crop, if they receive proper attention and judicious management. A few years ago the trees in the Sorn Bank wood became un- healthy, and were cut down. Portions of it, being too wet for the growth of Scots fir, were planted with poplars, and the dry parts were filled up with Scots fir, All are doing well, and in the course of time, under good management, will give a full crop of timber. In some favourable spots in this wood are a few grand specimens of Scots fir; the finest on the estate is growing at Dalgain, above Sorn village, and measures 9 feet 8 inches in circumference of bole at 1 foot from the ground, and 8 feet 10 inches at 5 feet up. A part of the wood above Sorn Manse was cut down and replanted with Scots and spruce firs and larch. The firs are doing well, and the larch look healthy to the casual passer-by, but are badly affected with disease, to which probably many of them may yet succumb. Some of the planta- tions to the west of the castle and along the Mauchline road have been planted with hardwoods for a second crop, with spruce firs as nurses, which have been allowed to remain too long. The hardwoods have got drawn in consequence, with the result that the storms of last winter levelled the most of them. The same storms played sad havoc among the remainder of the original plantations, extending to about 100 acres, growing along the sides of Tinkholm Hill at an altitude of between 800 and 900 feet. Upwards of 50,000 trees were blown over here by the gales, and their removal necessitates the cutting down of at least as many more, as the crop will average nearly 1000 trees THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. oo per acre, To realise a moderate price, these trees should all be cleared off within the next three or four years, before the timber begins to deteriorate. The wood growing at the highest altitudes—say about 800 feet above sea-level—has during recent years brought £50 an acre thirty-five years after being planted, while the adjoining farm-land ouly brings 10s. per acre per annum; showing a yearly balance of 18s. 6d. per acre in favour of wood cultivation. At a lower altitude, woods forty-five years old were sold at £75 an acre, and the rent of the adjacent arable land was 15s. per acre, of which at least 2s. 6d. ought to be credited to the plantations for the shelter they afford. After all allowances are made for interest on the original outlay, these facts clearly prove that well-managed plantations pay the owner a handsome return within the reason- able period of a moderate lifetime, especially when they are laid out with skill on land of the nature of these uplands. The woods which were replanted from fifteen to twenty years ago suffered considerably from the storms of last winter, but the blanks then made might be quickly and satisfactorily filled by planting poplars. In these woods the larch has completely failed, and has caused a thinness of the crop, but the Scots fir and spruce are thriving. The woods from ten to fifteen years old are now in a healthy condition, although they suffered much from rabbits when planted; there being as many as 100,000 young trees eaten in a year by these voracious vermin, The plantations have not been so much overrun with rabbits since the practice of letting them at so much per head was discon- tinued, which was simply putting a premium upon keeping up a large stock of the vermin, The remainder of the renewed planta- tions, from three to ten years of age, are very healthy, and promise in time to make a fine second crop. The present proprietor does not intend to plant until he ean do so with plants of his own raising; and with that object in view, he has recently laid out and partly stocked a home nursery. The site of the nursery in the Saugh Park was ploughed in the autumn of 1882, one foot deep, with four horses, turning up some of the subsoil. A crop of potatoes was planted in this in the spring of 1883, but the land was so infested with wire-worm that the crop produced little more than the seed. This year the beds for the forest tree-seeds were prepared without any manure, so that the soil is in rather a poor condition for the VOL. XI., PART I. € 34 THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN,. plants to grow well. Rabbits abound in the vicinity, and as little is done to protect the plants from them, it is feared the labour will prove very much in vain, At present the manage- ment is in a state of transition, Formerly the wood was cut by the forester’s staff, from 10 to 20 acres being cleared each year. Now the wood is sold standing to the wood merchant, who employs men to cut it at 3d. per tree, and 3d. per tree to burn the brush- wood. The forester goes over the plantation with the merchant, and values each tree according to the class of wood it produces. The different classes are ‘‘ propwood,” from 6 inches at the thick end to 3 inches at the small end; “ 6-inch cuts” measure not less than 6 inches in diameter, and “ 7-inch cuts” not less than 7 inches, and so on. For these the following prices are obtained : propwood, 5s. 3d.; 6-inch cuts, 7s. 3d. ; 7-inch cuts, 10s, per 100 feet lineal, and 3d. per cubic foot for larger Scots and spruce fir. The trees now being cut will measure on an average 30 cubic feet. This is not likely to prove a satisfactory mode of operation, as the drains are filled up to allow the carts to pass through the woods. The upturned roots of the blown trees falling down on a part which is not burned along with the brushwood, will become a breeding ground for insects that will destroy the young plants whenever the ground is replanted, else there must be a long delay till the roots and brush are completely rotted. Young trees when planted near the old stumps, root all to one side, and consequently are easily blown over; and from the fact that they do not readily make roots among the old ones, they do not succeed so well as they should otherwise have done. In renewing plantations, it is of importance to use only the best variety of Scots fir, taking care to avoid the inferior sort, which is of a straggling coarse habit of growth, and does not stand the pinching of the side shoots so well as the native Scots fir. No doubt the poor quality of the soil is conducive to a straggling growth, yet a little pinching-in of the points of the lateral shoots, if done in time, does much towards a compact growth. When the lower branches of Scots fir are dead 6 or 7 feet up, they should be care- fully cut off close to the stem. This affords ventilation, and gives room for more plants on the ground to select from at future thinnings. It also allows freedom for carrying on operations in the woods, and for beating out the ground game. Whenever woods get crowded and impenetrable by overgrowth or otherwise, THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. 30 the rabbits increase with great rapidity, and quickly become a nuisance to all concerned ; the farmer suffers heavily ; the forester gets his work spoiled; the proprietor endures great Joss and dis- appointment ; and the gamekeeper is grumbled at by everybody. I will conclude by briefly remarking that the woods on the estate were much damaged by the last winter’s storms, and will take many years to recover, even under the care of a skilled forester. Many of the trees in the vicinity of the Castle are old, and past their best, and no storm comes and goes without laying prostrate some of the old favourites, or causing havoe among the heavier branches. Several gaps have been made in the beech walk, and the fine wood in the Cleuch is broken up in many places ; so that the future of these fine woods and plantations is a subject for much careful thought and study by an experienced man. I may add that Sorn Castle is of great antiquity, and is known to have been of considerable extent in 1409. It was added to in 1793, and was remodelled by the late proprietor in 1866. Till last winter, it was well sheltered from the prevalent westerly gales by woods on Sorn hill, which were much damaged by the storm that worked such ruin in the other plantations on the estate. Near the Castle stood the ancient village of Sorn ; the modern village is half a mile higher up, on the banks of the river Ayr. The site of the old village mill is now occupied by the pretty modern flower-garden of the Castle. These changes and improvements have been the work of many years. The late Mr Graham Somervell took a great personal interest in the im- provement of the estate and in the welfare of every one living upon it, ably filling the part of a wise, far-seeing, and kind country gentleman. 36 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. IV. Natural Reproduction of Forests. By Joun M‘Lean, Forester, Edinburgh. Natural Regeneration may be best defined as a branch of the science of Arboriculture, or rather let me term it Sylviculture, having for its object the reproduction of timber forests from seed, a subject which, I believe, has not received any great or special attention in the past history of British Forestry, at least so far as I am able to judge from my observations of woods in different parts of Scotland. From this, however, no one must jump to the conclusion that it isan operation quite unknown amongst us in the routine of practical forestry. In Scotland, at least, there are not a few extensive estates spread over portions of different counties, where natural reproduction is known and systematically practised with perfect success, especially among Scots fir woods in the northern counties, where local circumstances are found most favourable to carrying out such a system. When necessary, it is assisted, of course, by artificial means, with the most successful results. The future programme of forest economy must at all times be based on science and art, with a view to establish and facilitate a systematic code of rules by which the forester may be enabled to perform certain duties and operations with dexterity and skill. This will tend to produce the best results of practical forestry in its phases of profit, pleasure, and ornament, always leading on to having the right tree planted and growing in the right place. In order to carry this out to a profitable end, I will state the few points which must first be attended to. All areas under woodlands should be clearly mapped out, so as to show distinctly the boundaries and divisions of the various blocks ; connected with this map there should be a forest book con- taining details of the names of the woods and the numbers of the blocks; their age; length of period of rotation; description of soils and subsoils, and their suitability to grow and mature certain species of trees under local conditions ; also noting the annual rate of growth of certain species, and all experiments carried out each season. This would form a basis upon which all operations might be grounded, and it could be deviated from when circumstances rendered it necessary to do so. The loss to the owners of private woods is much greater than is generally imagined, owing to the common want of a systematic basis in NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 37 conducting the routine forest work, and especially is this the case where those in charge of the woods are often changed. The most essential work for the time being of the skilled forester is perhaps utterly neglected, which entails a heavy loss to the proprietor at a future period, although it cannot easily be detected at the time by the uninitiated. Or, it may be the persistent and careful experiments of the enthusiast that is thus negiected and thrown aside as worthless, before the fallacy or the practical soundness of the problem aimed at can be solved, and thus cause a serious loss of valuable knowledge to the profession. It is by the practical experiments carried out by enthusiasts that the medical profession has attained to such a high standard in the preservation of health and prevention of disease. And so it is with the forester, who, without the practical aid of experiments in many cases, may be compared to a captain without a chart sailing in strange seas. His being right or wrong is a mere chance, and he may be treating his subject the reverse of what Nature ordains, with results the most unsatisfactory. Let me quote the words of Professor Huxley. He says that “ignorance is visited as keen as wilful disobedience ; incapacity meets with the same punish- ment as crime. Nature’s discipline is not even a word and a blow, but the blow comes first without the word. It is left for us to find out why.” The woods and forests of this country may be designated as of two kinds: first, underwood or coppice, z.e., wood which is grown and cut at short periods of from 20 to 30 years, composed of deciduous trees, and which are reproduced by suckers from stools. The second may be called timber forests, 1.e., wood which is only intended to be cut at intervals of long periods, which may be reproduced naturally or artificially, and may be composed of evergreen or deciduous trees—conifers or hardwoods—which are grown for the purpose of yielding the heavy timber used in the various branches of manufactures and art. I shall confine my remarks at present to the second or timber forests. Various species of timber trees have different constitu- tional habits, and it will be necessary to set forth a few examples by way of illustration. We will first assume that a Scots fir wood is about ready to undergo a process of restoration, and that the process is intended to be brought about, if possible, by natural reproduction from seed. By this it may be taken for granted that the said forest or wood is ripe, or approaching maturity, from 38 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. an economic point of view. This may occur at any age ranging from 80 to 120 years. But it will depend much upon local circumstances, as the ratio of growth and the vigour of the trees will be in proportion to the conditions of the climate, soil, elevation, aspect, and exposure, It is presumed that the forest is fairly drained and securely fenced. The first operation, then, is to begin a series of thinnings at intervals over the entire forest, adopting at the outset a systematic method of selection of reserves at each felling of timber. These thinnings should extend over a considerable period of years. I would urge that in all cases the first cutting be carried out with great caution; and this should be speci- ally attended to when the crop upon the ground is dense, as all the roots will be weak and superficial in proportion to the density. The trees, therefore, cannot have such a hold in the soil, and will be liable to suffer injury from boisterous winds. To guard against this, a thick sheltering belt ought to be left all round the outside of the forest. By so doing it will serve a two- fold purpose of some importance. First, to act as a barrier against the wind ; and second, to give shelter to the young seed- lings. Should the forest be so extensive that it is impossible to spread the periodical thinnings over the entire area, it will be necessary to adopt another method, viz. to have it done in sections or sub-sections as may be found most suitable. In com- mencing to fell the timber within the belt that is left for shelter, begin at the side which is most exposed to the breeze. By so doing the older seedlings will help to shelter the younger from the blast. At each thinning it is essential to select the worst trees for cutting first, such as those that are stunted in growth and deformed ; all that show any signs of decay, as resin bursts, foliage changing to a yellowish green, annual growths arrested or diminishing, and those which bear great numbers of cones of a diminutive size ; these being all indications of approaching decay. At each felling, all the loppings of branches and brushwood should be gathered into heaps and carted outside the wood, with- out delay, to any open spot where they can be burned, so as not to injure the foliage of the reserve trees, or any seed that may be germinating near the surface of the ground. Should the surface of the soil be covered with a tough herbage of grass or heath, it will be necessary to go over it, after the brushwood and rubbish is removed, and take off large sods, say 18 to 24 inches in NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 39 diameter, at regular distances apart, and then loosen the soil with a tramp or shoulder pick, so that the seed may alight on the pre- pared portions of the soil as they drop from the trees or are blown down by the wind. This operation should be performed after all the cuttings. When the last cutting but one is to be made, which may vary as to time according to local circumstances and in pro- portion to the progress of regeneration, there ought to be a good sprinkling of seedlings interspersed here and there in groups all over the ground. At this thinning, standards must be selected at regular intervals as reserve trees, so as to ensure a more complete dispersion of seeds from the cones. The trees left as reserves should be in good health, with clean tall boles, and flat expanded heads, equally balanced all round, so as to distribute the seed as evenly as possible, and allow air and headroom for the young trees. In carrying out this operation much must be left to the discretion of the forester as to the different methods which may have to be applied according to circumstances. It would be tedious to enumerate all the details of the different plans in- volved in carrying out natural reproduction, indeed, I do not . shrink to maintain that it is impossible to do so, as the method of application which may prove quite a success in one place may be a complete failure in another, even within a radius of afew miles. This may occur from various causes, such as the nature of the soil, subsoil, altitude, exposure, and such like. All such operations must invariably be conducted and guided accord- ing to natural and local conditions. There is a proverb which says, ‘‘ the errors of a day may take years to rectify,”’—a truism reminding us that we should cherish prudence and circumspection in all our undertakings. When the final cutting of standards has to be performed, it will be judicious to begin the felling of the reserve trees from the reverse point of the previous fellings; performing all the other operations, such as loosening the soil, etc., as already described. If the prevailing wind is from the west, the final operation of felling will proceed from the east side. By this the action of the wind will go far in assisting the dissemination of the seed into the prepared soil. Great care must be taken in felling the timber among the younger crop of trees, as their heads at this stage will be furnished with a heavy canopy of foliage in propor- tion to the size of their stems. Consequently it will be necessary in most instances to lop all branches off the reserve trees before 40 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS, they are felled, and at the same time a rope should be attached to the top of the trees, in order to guide them in their descent to where they may fall with least injury to the young plants. The foregoing details may be deemed sufficient for carrying out the practical operations of natural reproduction from seed, and may also be considered as applicable to both hard and soft wooded trees. Before we pass from this subject let us turn our thoughts to a few remarks upon the seed of Scots fir, and briefly to the demerits of inferior seed; a matter which must always possess a considerable amount of importance in connection with the process of natural regeneration of forests if success is to be attained. The seed of the Scots fir is of a light nature, consequently it is wafted by the wind to great distances; its winged appendages forming an important factor in the process. The constitution of this tree is extremely hardy, and it may therefore be considered invaluable from many points, viz., it is able to endure great extremes of cold and heat, factors which are of no little importance in their bear- ing upon the germination of the seed, and also the healthy develop- ment of the young trees. But while these remarks can be justly applied in advocating the merits of Scots fir seed, the line of demarcation must be drawn here, as they do not apply to the seeds of conifers in general. And with this I venture to offer my ideas, however imperfect they may be, that to carry out the natural reproduction of woods from seed by natural sowing, the vital point is to obtain strong healthy seed, with an equal distri- bution of it over the ground, from vigorous reserve trees during the whole period of regeneration. It may be asked how can such an operation be conducted upon the lines described, where only half a crop exists, and that often in a weakly condition in some portions of matured woods? But I am well aware of this unfortunate fact which undoubtedly prevails, to a great extent, in the woods of this country, sometimes arising from a hap- hazard system of management, and at other times from natural causes which might have easily been foreseen. Light and air being essential to the growth of the young plants, it is necessary, in order to guard against the sunlight being confined to patches, that the standards should be equally distributed over the entire area, so that the sun’s rays may not be too strong in one spot and too weak in another. Let us try to illustrate this point by an example. For instance, should the soil be of a sandy or calcareous NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 4] nature, the result will be as follows :—in a dry season young seed- lings will be apt to get scorched under the influence of too much sunlight, while, on the other hand, in wet seasons in strong tenacious soils, and under the influence of too much shade, cones and seeds of all trees are liable to rot, and plants germinating under such unfavourable conditions sicken and die from want of the necessary amount of sun-heat ; from which it is obvious that extremes in all cases are decidedly injurious. A word in regard to the selection and choice of seed. It is remarkable how little care at times is bestowed upon the selection of seed. It seems in reality to be only stating a truism that the labour of cultivation is utterly lost if bad seed is used. | Same as above. | 180 ft. | 112 ft. | 563 cub. ft. years. Same as above. Ageabout 140 >| Same asabove. | 180 ft. | 112 ft. | 314 cub. ft. years. | | at the bottom ) | | a steep(| Thin loam, } | | ne Age on gravel. 180 ft. | 124 ft. | 280 cub. ft. 140 years. Same as above. } | 9, Age 140 years. Same as above.) 180 ft. | 124 ft. | 180 cub. ft. Low and shel- Team oni tered. Age 30 a tagal 180 ft. 45 ft. | 30cub. ft. years. gravel. A Set oF LARGE AND FINE SECTIONS OF TREES GROWN ON THE BuccLeucH EsTATE IN ESKDALE. Six Sections of flowered or mottled Oak, showing a very fine curl for veneers. One Section of Oriental PLANE, showing fine curled grain. Two Sections (length and cross) of LAncn Timber. diameter, 3 ft. O4 in. ; Two Sections (length and ae of Scors Fir Timber. diameter, 3 ft. ; Two Sections (length and cross) of SPRUCE Fir ‘Timber. Diameter, 2 ft. 72 in. ; ; length, length, 44 ft. ; length, 44 ft. 4h ft. ; breadth, 2 breadth, 24 ft. ; ; breadth, 2% ft. ; Circumference, 94 ft. ; thickness, 2 in. Gireumrareaee Obiter: ft. 9 in. ; thickness, 2 in. Circumference, 8 ft. thickness, 2 in. These sections of Spruce Fir show in a remarkable degree the effects of severe thinning about 60 years ago. Two Sections (length and cross) of Srnver Fir Timber. ft. ; diameter, 4 ft. ; length, 34 ft. ; breadth, 17 in. One Field or Plantation Gate, made on the estate, of Larch timber. VOL, XI., PART I. G Circumference, 124 98 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, The following Exhibits were from the Duke of Bucclench’s Estate of Eildon Hall, Roxburghshire : One Field or Plantation Gate. One Scots Fir Railway Sleeper. One Silver Fir Railway Sleeper. One Spruce Fir Railway Sleeper. Two Sections (length and cross) of Scots Fir. Two Sections (length and cross) of Silver Fir. Two Sections (length and cross) of Spruce Fir, Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Christie, Alex. D., The Gardens, Warwick Castle, Warwickshire. A section of Cedar of Lebanon from a tree grown at Warwick Castle, showing the ravages of the Giant Sirex (Sirex gigas). with the insects at work. Awarded a Certificate. Clark, John, Forester, Kelly, Wemyss Bay, Renfrewshire. Dendrometer ; invented by the Exhibitor. Colquhoun, Andrew, Forester, Rossdhu, Luss, Dumbartonshire. A very fine set of cross sections of timber of the following trees :—-Larch, 3 ft. 2 in. in diameter; Oak, 2 ft. 10 in. in diameter ; Scots Fir, 2 ft. 4 in. in diameter ; Silver Fir, 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter ; Spruce Fir, 1 ft. 9 in. in diameter ; Sycamore, 1 ft. 10 in. in diameter; and Yew, 2 ft. 4 in. in diameter. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Coupar, Robert, Forester, Ashford, County Galway, Ireland. Four sheets of Diagrams, and numerous interesting speci- mens, illustrating the Larch Disease, known as “ Blister,” and Natural Engrafting, Commended. Cowan, Charles W., Valleyfield, Penicuik. Curiously contorted root which grew in shingle on the banks of the river Lyon, Perthshire. Cumming, Sir William G. Gordon, Bart., of Altyre, Morayshire. Length Sections of Scots Fir and Larch. Six Cones of Picea nobilis. One Plank of Bog Oak. Two Larch Trees, naturally grafted or inarched on each other. Natural Engrafted Larch. INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, 99 Curious Scots Fir Top. Rustic cut of a Gean Tree. Diploma awarded for the Collection. De Eresby, The Right Honourable The Baroness Willoughby, Drummond Castle, Perthshire. A grand cross-section of Silver Fir from a tree about 200 years old, girthing 18 ft. 7 in. one foot up, and 15 ft. 6 in. at five feet up. Cross and length sections of Cedrus Atlantica. Sections of Boxwood. All grown at Drum- mond Castle. Set of Tools, including—Dendrometer, Felling Axe, Snedding Axe, Two-handed Hedge-bill, Single-handed reversible Hedge-bill. All new and neatly finished ; made at Drum- mond Castle. Certificate awarded for the Collection. Dickson, Professor Alex., M.D., of Hartree, Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Specimen of the Transverse Section of the Stem of a Fossil Tree from Craigleith Quarries, near Edinburgh. Stems of Ivy curiously interwoven on an iron railing. Paddlewood Tree (Aspidosperma excelsa) from Guiana. Stem of Tree Fern (Dicksonia antartica). Interesting collections of Forest and Botanical specimens and curiosities. Special Diploma awarded for the Collection. Dicksons & Co., Nurserymen, 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. Palms and Himalayan Rhododendrons, growing in tubs. Dickson, James, & Sons, Nurserymen, Hanover Street, Edinburgh, A fine general collection of Coniferze and other Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Duff, James, Steward, Freeland, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire. A splendid Plank of Cedar of Lebanon, 10 ft. long by 2 ft. 5 in. wide, grown at Freeland. Highly Commended. Dunn, Malcolm, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith, Midlothian. A case containing specimens of the Capercailzie, cock and hen ; Muircock and Muirhen, or “ Black Game ;” and other “Enemies of the Forest ;” and Curiosities from the forests of South Africa. 100 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, Fechney Industrial School, The, Perth. A Miscellaneous Collection of Useful Articles, chiefly turned wood goods, comprising—Spinning-wheel, Two Tables, Set of Kitchen Articles, Spiral Columns, Table and Chair Legs, Stair Balusters, Hammer Handles, and Thread Spools, in all the different stages of manufacture, made from Birch grown on Bonskeid Estate, Perthshire. Certificate awarded for the Collection. Fergusson, Miss Gillon, 31 Chester Street, Edinburgh. A Water-bottle from Patras; and a Model of a Norwegian Travelling Box. A Palm-Leaf Broom from Gibraltar. Sugar-Cane grown at Motril, Spain. Fir-Tree “Flannel ” from Thiiringen Forests, Germany. Specimen of Cloth made from the Bread-Fruit Tree by the Natives of the Marquesas Islands. Maori Chief's Mat made from New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), with Kaw-Kaw Feathers. Commended. Finlayson, Matthew, 23 Castle Street, Edinburgh. A Tub made from the stem of a Palm Tree. An Elm Burr cut on Amisfield Estate, Haddingtonshire. Forbes, William, Forester, Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire. Dendrometer ; invented by the Exhibitor. Forgan, James, Overseer, Bonskeid, Perthshire. Large Specimens of Fungi found growing on decaying Birch at Bonskeid. Forsythe, John M., Wood Manager, Gowran Castle, Kilkenny. Fifty dressed Sections of Woods grown on the Gowran Estate. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Green, A. A., Edinburgh. A Bamboo Alpine-Stock, and a Nepaulese Chookrie. Haddington, the Earl of, per Thomas Wilkie, Wood Manager, Tyninghame, East Lothian. Forty-five kinds of Wood suitable for turning, including various kinds of Cedar, Cypress, Maple, Prunus, Pyrus, and Thorns ; Alder, Arbutus, Ash, Barberry, Beech, Birch, Box, Broom, Elder, Elm, Hazel, Holly, Hornbeam, Labur- INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 101 num, Lime, Locust, Oak, Rhododendron, Sloe, Sweet Bay, Tulip, Walnut, Whin, Yew, and other woods. Collection of 174 sections of Wood. Coniferous Tree Fossil, rough and polished. Dried Tree Leaves. Elm Burr. An interesting set of Wood Sections, showing benefits of pruning trees and evils of neglecting to prune. A large collection of Abnormal Tree Growths and Ex- crescences. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Hamilton, Robert, 29 St James Square, Edinburgh. Thomson’s Fluid Enamel for Preserving Woodwork, Stone- work, Pictures, etc. Awarded a Diploma. Several Fine Samples of Resins. Models of Nobel’s Explosives, such as are used for blasting tree stumps, Awarded a Diploma. Horsburgh, James, Forester, Yester, Haddingtonshire. Specimens of Knots or Burrs of Alder, with Carvings of heads and faces, Hunter, Dr, 18 Belgrave Crescent, Edinburgh. A curious Scottish Thorn Walking-stick, with a Bronze Miniature Head of a Staghound. An Irish Black Thorn Walking-stick or “ Shillelagh.” Hunter, William, Forester, Drummond Castle, Perthshire, Oil Painting, View of Torlum Hill. Oil Painting, Silver Fir in Drummond Park. Oil Painting, an Oak, Rustic Table for Arbour ; all the work of the Exhibitor. Commended. Hutchison, Robert, of Carlowrie, Kirkliston, Linlithgowshire. An extensive Collection of excellent Photographs of rare and remarkable British trees. Jackson, Magnus, Photographer to the Scottish Arboricultural Society, Perth. A remarkably large and fine collection of Photographs of 102 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. Remarkable Trees and other Forest subjects in Scotland, mounted in frames, in albums, and on cards. A fine section of one of the Original Larches planted at Monzie in 1738. Oak Root found near Perth beneath a seam of clay 14 ft. thick. Portion of an ancient Canoe found beneath a bed of clay 12 ft. thick and 30 ft. above the present level of the river Tay at Perth. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Jeffrey, John, of Balsusney, Kirkcaldy, Fifeshire, “The Trees and Shrubs of Fife and Kinross,” in a beautifully illustrated volume. Awarded a Diploma. Johnston, William, Forester, Munches, Dalbeattie, Kirkcudbright- shire. Dendrometer ; invented by the Exhibitor. Wire Strainer ; invented by the Exhibitor, Kay, James, Wood Manager, Bute Estate, Rothesay. Dendrometer. Wire Straining Pillar. Model of Transplanting Machine. All invented by the Exhibitor. Lothian, The Marquess of, K.T., Newbattle Abbey, Midlothian. Two beautiful Carved Oak Panels, from wood grown in Newbattle Park ; the carving being done in the Estate Carpenter’s Workshop. Three Inlaid Tables, showing neat and tasteful workmanship —two of them made in the Estate Carpenter’s Workshop, from wood grown in the Park at Newbattle Abbey. The inlaid curves of the other are made of the natural growth of a Pear Tree, which grew at Newbattle Abbey. A Collection of Fossils from Newbattle Abbey, found on the Estate. Low, Joseph, Forester, Rothes Estate, Leslie, Fife. Model of River Embankment, showing two different methods of preventing erosion ; designed by the Exhibitor. A Rustic Flower Stand, Table, and Four Stools. INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 103 Model of Rustic Bridge. Pair of Rustic Picture Frames. Two Curiosities of growth in trees. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. M‘Corquodale, William, Forester and Wood Surveyor, Jeanie Bank, Scone, Perth. Model of a useful wooden Bridge erected over the river Almond, at Lynedoch, Perthshire, 34 years ago, which is still serviceable. Designed by the Exhibitor. A Post of Douglas Fir (Abies Douglasiz) which was used in a wire fence for seven years and four months, and is. still sound, Larch Wire Fence Post which had been preserved with con- crete at the surface of the ground. Collection of 24 Specimens of Timber grown on the Scone Estates, and cut into boarding as used for Estate purposes ; including Abies Douglasii, Picea nobilis, Pinus cembra, P. excelsa, P. strobus, and P. laricio; Ash, Black Italian Poplar, Cherry, Elm, Larch, Laburnum, Norway Spruce, Scots Fir, and Sycamore. A Silver Fir (Picea pectinata) Railway Sleeper, which was in use on the Caledonian Railway at Luncarty, near Scone, over 7 years, and is still sound; while Baltic Timber Sleepers, laid at the same time, were worn out at the end of 6 years. Four Sections of Larch and Spruce, illustrating sownd and unsound timber, with Samples of the Soil which produces the sownd and wnsound Larch and Spruce respectively. Rustic Picture Frame. A Larch Stool or Stump, showing how it was nourished underground by a naturally engrafted root, for sixteen years after the tree was cut. Two Field Gates: one made from Abies Douglasii and the other from Picea nobilis, showing how suitable the wood of these trees is for such purposes. Model of Revolving “ Smoking ” Arbour, made of wood and heather, erected at Logiealmond Shooting Lodge, Perth- shire ; designed by the Exhibitor. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. 104 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. M‘Gregor, Duncan, Forester, Camperdown, Forfarshire. A 3-inch Plank of Picea nobilis, 5 ft. long by 18 in. wide, grown at Camperdown, Commended. Mackenzie, Sir Alexander Muir, Bart., of Delvine, Dunkeld. Sections of the Woods of Arbor-vitw, Eucalyptus, Cedar, and Ivy, from Algeria. Cork and Acacia Barks from Algeria. Alfa Grass from Algeria. Eucalyptus leaves from Algeria. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Mackenzie, D. F., Estate Office, Morton Hall, Edinburgh. One Range-Finder ; invented by the Exhibitor. Three Dendrometers ; invented by the Exhibitor. Silver Medal awarded for the New Dendrometer. Collection of 117 Woods grown in Scotland, in a design forming the top of a Library Table, composed of nearly 10,000 pieces, all solid, and finished in their natural colour. Bronze Medal awarded for Table and Woods. Capercailzie Cock and Hen. M‘Laren, John, Forester to the Earl of Hopetoun, Hopetoun, Linlithgowshire. Set of Tools used in Forestry :—Cross-cut Saw. Long- handled Pruning Saw. Wood Cleaver. Felling Axe. Three Hedge-bills. Two Hand-bills and Pruning Saw, showing method of carrying tools while pruning, by the use of belt and satchel. These tools have all done good service, and are fair samples of those in ordinary use in the Hopetoun Woods. One hundred and fifteen sections of different Woods. Section showing the union of Abies morinda grafted on the Norway Spruce. Eighteen Longitudinal Wood sections. Cross-sections of Wellingtonia gigantea, 1 ft. 6 in. in dia- meter; Silver Fir, 4 ft. 4 in. in diameter; and Spanish Chestnut, 3 ft. 10 in. in diameter—all grown at Hopetoun. Section of a Fossil Tree 28 feet long, found in a freestone quarry at Hopetoun. INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 105 A Collection of Conifers, including—Cupressus Lawsoniana and Thuiopsis dolabrata, grown from cuttings ; Scots Fir, showing the difference between plants raised from foreign and home-grown seed ; two plants of Cedrus Libani raised from seed collected in the Lebanon by the Countess of Hopetoun in 1865; Pinus pyrenaica grafted upon Pinus sylvestris ; and the true type of Cedrus deodara. A specimen of Norway Spruce (Abies eacelsa), blown over about forty years ago, thereafter rooting in two places along the prostrate bole of the tree, from which two trees have grown up, one to the height of 63 feet 5 inches, the other 61 feet 4 inches. A curious excrescence of an Elm (U/mus montana). Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Maxtone, Robert, Forester, Strathallan Castle, Perthshire. Harmonium made by Exhibitor from wood grown on Strath- allan Estate. Awarded a Diploma. A Staple Drawer ; invented by the Exhibitor. Self-Shutting Iron Wicket gate ; invented by the Exhibitor. Cross and length sections of the following woods :—Cedrus Libani, about ninety years old. Blown down on 27th January 1884. Height, 634 ft. ; girth at 3 ft. up, 124 ft. Abies Douglasii. Planted in 1866. Blown down on 28th December 1879 (Tay Bridge gale). Abies Douglasti. Planted in 1866 ; a fine specimen, showing very rapid growth. Picea pinsapo, about thirty years old. Cross and length sections of Bog Oak, 23 ft. long and 44 ft, broad at the root end; found in a moss at the Muir of Tullibardine. Cross section of Norway Spruce. Length section of a fine and very old Holly Tree, blown down 28th December 1879; formerly used as a target. The sec- tion shows an arrow-head and arrow points sticking in it. Six live plants of Abies Douglasii raised from seed sown in 1880; gathered from trees grown at Strathallan Castle, the seed of which was grown at Murthly Castle, the young trees exhibited being the Z’hird Generation of the Douglas Fir grown in Perthshire. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. 106 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. Methven, John, Nurseryman, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Tonquin Beans, from Virtue & Co,, Chemists, Georgetown, Demerara. Michie, John, Forester, Balmoral, Ballater, Aberdeenshire. Cross and length sections of Scots Fir from Ballochbuie Forest. The length section shows heartwood 2 ft. 11 in. wide. Live specimens of the Pine Weevil (Hylobius abietis). Collection of Dried Native Mosses, mounted in an album. Mitchell, James, Aldie Castle, Kinross. A curious section of Oriental Plane over 300 years old. Oliver, Geo., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. A fine Collection of British Insects injurious to forest trees and other plants. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Paterson, Smith, & Innes, 77 South Bridge, Edinburgh. An elegant suite of Bedroom Furniture. Commended. Rae, J. S., Forester, Dunipace House, Larbert, Stirlingshire. Four Cases of Dried Leaves collected in Scotland by the Exhibitor. Stem of Cupressus Lawsoniana, with a curious bulbous growth near the root. Model of Bridge, 20 ft. long by 44 ft. wide, which can be erected by two men in a day at a cost of less than £1. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Ravenscroft, Edward, 14 London Road, St John’s Wood, London. Thirty-eight of the original Coloured Illustrations for Law- son’s “ Pinetum Britannicum.” Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. A Highly Interesting Collection of 72 Microscopic Sections, illustrating the structure of the Stems, Roots, Leaves, etc., of Trees and Shrubs. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Rider, William H., ‘“ Forestry” Office, 14 Bartholomew Close, London, E.C. The “Journal of Forestry,” complete. Collection of Works on Forestry. INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 107 Thomas J. Syer’s Standard Instantaneous Grip-Vice, and Bench Knife. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Robertson, James, Forester, Panmure, Carnoustie, Forfarshire. Collection of Timber Specimens in frame. A Longitudinal Section of a very fine old Larch Tree, show- ing heartwood 22 inches wide. Six Small Model Baskets, made of Willows. Inlaid Portable Writing Desk, composed of upwards of 2700 pieces of 22 varieties of wood. Rustic Elm Chair for Garden or Forest. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Robertson, John, Forester, Minto, Hawick, Roxburghshire. A curious piece of wood naturally grown and shaped like a hand. Romanes, Mrs, Meadowbank, Eskbank, Midlothian. Work-box made from “Queen Mary’s Tree,” a Plane (Acer pseudo-platanus) said to be planted by her at Little France, near Craigmillar Castle, Midlothian, about the year 1561; with Shield designed by Mrs D. O. Hill. Commended. Sandeman, Mrs, 12 Royal Crescent, Edinburgh. American Boxwood Fretwork. Smith, James, Overseer, Moredun, Edinburgh. Large old Vine Stem, supposed to be over 130 years old. Commended. Smith, Thomas, Nurseryman, Stranraer, Wigtownshire. Collection of Conifers. Collection of Hybrid and other Roses. Smith, William, Chemist, Deanhaugh Street, Edinburgh. A Case of Insecticide for the destruction of vermin on trees, shrubs, ete. Awarded a Diploma. Stuart, Dr Moody, Edinburgh. Nine sections of Wood grown by the late William Gorrie at Annat, Errol, Perthshire, with particulars of age, several showing very free growth. Diploma awarded for the Collection. 108 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. Strathallan, The Right Honourable the Viscount, Strathallan Castle, Perthshire. A casecontaining the head of a Roe Deer, mountedon black Bog Oak, both of which were found in the Moss of Tullibardine. A fine specimen of a Walking-Stick made of Whin (Gorse). Sutherland, Evan C., of Skibo, Sutherlandshire. A very interesting Collection of useful Forest products, in- cluding Specimens of twenty-six varieties of Wood grown at Skibo, Three Larch and five Scots Fir Railway Sleepers. Six Beech Cubes of Wood Paving. Six Scots Fir Staves. Five Scots Fir and two Spruce Boards for making Boxes. Specimens of ‘‘ Crown” and ‘‘ Common ” Props. Specimens of natural-grown Silver Fir, Larch, and Spruce. Specimens of Bog Oak and Bog Fir. Collection of Fir Cones. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Sutherland, His Grace the Duke of, per William Baxter, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Sutherland. Sections of Oak, Ash, Elm, Plane, Beech, and Birch, showing what the Exhibitor (W. B.), after long experience, has al- most invariably found, that the close cutting off of a con- tending leader, which, as a rule, proceeds from the tree at an angle of 45 degrees, seldom fails to cause ruinous effects. Specimens of Hardwood, showing injury done by Red and Roe Deer; also specimens showing method of protecting young trees from the ravages of Deer. Small Larch Stem which was cut over fourteen years ago, and has continued alive without foliage, producing the coalescence shown. Specimens of Calcareous Incrustation on Mosses from drip- ping rock, Golspie Burn. Curious structure from Dunrobin Museum, simulating a shell, found in the interior of a Scots Fir 2 ft. in diameter. A plant of a white-leaved variety of Horse-Chestnut, growing in a tub. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Sutherland, His Grace the Duke of, per D. M‘Corquodale, Forester, Dunrobin, Sutherlandshire. INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, 109 Two length sections of Scots Fir, 151 years old. The tree had a straight clean bole of 30 ft., and contained 80 cubic ft. of saleable timber. Piece of Small Rope made by hand from Bog Fir Root Fibre, such as was made and used by the natives of Sutherland many years ago. Piece of Baltic Redwood Flooring that was laid on the top of garden mould, and became decayed in four years. A piece of a Standard ina Partition which became decayed in six years owing to its having rested on damp soil. The end of a Rafter of Strathspey Fir Wood which stood on a dry and airy wall for 100 years, and is still sound, showing that to preserve timber in buildings the best method is to protect it from damp, and give plenty air around it. The lower end of a pile which stood at the outer end of Dunrobin Sea Low-water Jetty, showing the destruction done by Lemonoria terebrand, or perforata, in eight years. Fossil Plants of Coal Measures. Cycadaceous Plant, 2 sec- tions with polished faces, from Upper Oolite formation. A section of the same not polished, with a cross section of 17 x 8 inches. Zamites from Middle Oolite, Brora, Sutherland. A Fossil Fern from Upper Oolite, Helms- dale. A Coniferous Tree Fossil from Upper Oolite, Helmsdale. Avacaritus from Middle Oolite, Brora. Section base of stem of Bog Fir, showing 380 concentric rings, found at Shiness, situated about 400 ft. above sea-level. Root Cut of Bog Fir, showing 350 concentric rings, found at Tongue, Sutherland, 100 ft. above the sea-level. Photograph of vertical section of Peat Bog, containing several horizontal layers of Scots Fir Roots, the one above the other. A set of Photographs of Hardwood Trees, illustrating those requiring pruning, and the same trees after being pruned. A collection of sections of Wood, with Photographs illus- trating the effects of good and bad pruning, and sections showing the bad effect of contending leaders when growing close together. A collection of Natural Grafts and curious Excrescences of trees. Specimens of dwarfed and contorted Scots Fir from a high altitude. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. 110 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. Sutherland, His Grace the Duke of, per J. B. Kidd, Forester, Dornoch, Sutherlandshire. Photograph of a very fine Gean Tree growing at Sidera, Dornoch, Cross section of a fine old Holly Tree, the trunk of which contained 43 cubic feet of timber. An eight feet length of the same tree, showing a defective side, the result of close pruning. Length section of the top of the same, showing where a limb had been pruned. An instructive sample of the Tops of Scots Fir Trees, from about 6 inches to 1 inch in diameter, showing the great damage done by squirrels biting the bark off them. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Thomson, B. Lumsden, of Thomson & Company, Derby, and 85 Gracechurch Street, London. A Special Model of Forester’s House built of Thomson and Company’s Vitrified Iron, which was awarded the Medal at the recent Calcutta Exhibition, not only for its dura- bility, but also for keeping the interior of buildings cool. Tindall, James, The Gardens, Sprotborough Hall, Yorkshire. Two Photographs of a grand Wych Elm growing in the grounds at Sprotborough Hall. Circumference of branches 438 ft.; girth of bole, 4 ft. up, 18 ft.; at 6 ft. up, 19 ft. 6 in.: height of stem to spring of branches, 15 ft. ; height of tree, 85 ft.; about 180 years old. Site mode- rately sheltered ; altitude, about 250 ft. ; aspect, south ; soil, strong marly loam, resting on magnesian limestone. Tree in vigorous health, making annual growths 12 to 18 in. long. Frames made of Evergreen Oak (Quercus ilez), showing a richly marbled grain. Trotter, Colonel, of Morton Hall, Midlothian. A splendid specimen of Elm Burr, and a cross section of same. Highly commended. Tweeddale, the Marquis of, Yester, Haddingtonshire. A Beautiful Model of a Temple and several Figures, all made by the natives of India, of the white ivory-like Pith of an Indian wood. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. al Watson, John, The Gardens, Stravithie, St Andrews, Fifeshire. An Ornamental Rustic Wicket Gate. Webster, A. D., Forester, Penrhyn Castle, North Wales. Two Slate Tree Labels. Specimen of Slate Fencing. Thirty-six sections of new and rare Conifere grown at Penrhyn Castle, many showing great freedom of growth. Collection of Cones of the rarer Conifers grown at Penrhyn Castle. Forty mounted specimens of the Ferns of Carnarvonshire, as illustrative of “ Forest Flora.” Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Webster John, Gardener and Forester, Gordon Castle, Morayshire. An interesting Collection of Forest Specimens, comprising : Natural Root-engrafting of the Larch. Taxodium sempervirens, with curious bulbous growth at the root. Mistletoe, showing root-growth. Ivy Stems, showing 36 natural grafts. Burr Knot on Fir Branch. Commended. Wyton, William, The Gardens, Heysham Hall, Lancaster. A Drawing-room Photograph Stand or Album, composed of 580 pieces of Wood, carved with a pocket-knife, and put together without nails, in the form of a Gothic pyramid. Awarded a Diploma. Exuisits BY MEMBERS OF THE ScoTTIsH ARBORICULTURAL SOcIETY OUTSIDE OF THE Socrety’s Court. Her Masesty THE QuEEN, Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire. A Rustic Chalet or Summer House wholly constructed of Scots Fir; several grand specimens and sections of Scots Fir Wood ; and sections of the ground on Deeside, show- ing the nature of the soil in which the Scots Fir thrives. Gold Medal awarded for the Collection. Athole, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., Blair Castle, Blair Athole, per J. M‘Gregor, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld, Perthshire. A highly instructive series of Larch sections, etc., illustrating the various stages of the ‘larch disease,” dry-rot, and blister. A Field Gate made of Larch Wood, Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. 112 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. Austin & M‘Aslan, Nurserymen, Glasgow. Collection of Hardy Conifers and other Trees and Shrubs. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Bain, William, & Co., Lochrin Ironworks, Edinburgh, Collection of various designs of Plain and Ornamental Gates, and Iron and Wire Fencing. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Barbour, George F., of Bonskeid, Pitlochrie, Perthshire. Large Section of Ash from Glen of Fincastle. Awarded a Diploma. Barrie, James, Forester, Stevenstone, Devonshire. Numerous and excellent collections of Woods, Seeds, Cones, etc., from the Stevenstone Estate. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Brandis, Dietrich, Ph.D., Bonn, Germany. Forest Flora of India, Forest Reports, ete. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. Brown, John E., Conservator of Forests, Adelaide, South Australia, Treatises and Reports on the Forests and Forest Flora of South Australia. Silver Medal. Australian Trees and Forest Illustrations. Diploma. Cleghorn, Hugh, M.D., of Stravithie, St Andrews, Fife. A series of interesting and curious Forest Articles; speci- mens of damage done to wood by Insects; Illustrations of Forest Scenery, etc. Dickson & Sons, James, Newton Nurseries, Chester. An extensive and varied collection of Ornamental Conifers and other Trees and Shrubs. Gold Medal. Collections of Tools, Seeds, Cones, ete, Bronze Medal. Elliot, Sir Walter, K.C.S.I., Wolfelee, Roxburghshire. Fine collection of Carved Woodwork from India. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Hartland, Richard, The Lough Nurseries, Cork. Two cases of Cones, sections of Irish Woods, ete. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Ireland & Thomson, Nurserymen, Edinburgh. A choice collection of Ornamental Conifers and other Trees and Shrubs. Silver Medal awarded for the Collection. INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 113 Laird & Sons, R. B., Nurserymen, Edinburgh. A collection of Ornamental Plants and Shrubs. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Lamont & Son, John, The Glen Nurseries, Musselburgh. A collection of choice hardy Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Bronze Medal awarded for the Collection. Lovat, The Right Hon. Lord, Beaufort Castle, Inverness-shire. A grand section of Larch timber from a tree grown at Beaufort Castle, 64 years of age, and containing 108 cubic feet of sound timber. Awarded a Diploma. Mackenzie, Alex., Superintendent, Epping Forest, Essex. Collection of Tree Curiosities. Plans of Lodges for Workmen. Highly Commended. Forest Illustrations. Commended. Mackenzie, John Ord, of Dolphinton, Peeblesshire. Painting of a Wellingtonia, illustrative of its gigantic pro- portions. Maxwell, Wellwood H., M.P., of Munches, Kirkcudbrightshire. A fine collection of specimens of woods grown on the Munches Estate ; and illustrations of the diseases of Trees. Methven & Sons, Thomas, Nurserymen, Edinburgh. A numerous and varied collection of Ornamental Conifers and other choice Trees and Shrubs, Gold Medal; and Special Diploma for *‘ Excellence in Arrangement.” Collection of Tools, Seeds, Cones, ete. Bronze Medal. Palmer & Son, John, Nurserymen, Annan, Dumfriesshire. Collection of Conifers and other Evergreens, Forest Trees, Seeds, ete. Smythe, David M., yr. of Methven, Methven Castle, Perthshire. Specimens of Larch, Silver Fir, and Ivy Stems, from Methven. A Fine collection of Natal Woods and Ferns. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Stuart & Mein, Nurserymen, Kelso, Roxburghshire. A collection of Conifers and other hardy Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Diploma awarded for the Collection. Whitton, James, The Gardens, Coltness, Lanarkshire. Models of Transplanting Machines and Apparatus. Diploma awarded for Small Transplanting Machine. VOL. XI., PART I. H 114 THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. Av a Meeting held in Edinburgh on the 16th of February 1854, at which Mr William M‘Corquodale, Forester, Scone Palace, Perth, presided, for the purpose of presenting a testimonial to Mr James Brown on the occasion of his appointment to the office of Deputy-Surveyor of Dean Forest, Gloucestershire, a suggestion was made by Mr William Thomson, Deputy-Surveyor, Chopwell Wood, Co. Durham, that, as Agriculture and Horticuiture had derived much benefit from Associations designed to promote their respective interests, ‘‘ something of a similar kind should be done for Forestry.” The suggestion was at once adopted by the Meeting, and the Scottish Arboricultural Society there and then originated. A Committee was immediately formed to carry out the pro- posal, the members of which were:—James Brown, Deputy- Surveyor, Dean Forest, President; William M‘Corquodale, Forester and Wood-Surveyor, Scone, Vice-President; James Alexander, Nurseryman, Edinburgh, Secretary ; John Anderson, Nurseryman, Perth, Zveaswrer ; James Balden, Forester, Lennox- love; John Balden, Forester, Bywell Castle; Mr Campbell, Alloa; Robert Cowan, Forester, Arniston; James Dickson, Forester, Charlton; Thomas Forbes, Forester, Whittinghame ; Robert Gardiner, Forester and Land Steward, Eglinton Castle ; John M‘Donald, Forester, Bargany: John M‘Laren, Forester, Hopetoun; Hugh M‘Laren, Forester, Shaw Park; Alexander M‘Leish, Forester, Alnwick Castle; James Rutherford, Forester, Buckden ; John Thomson, Forester, Culhorn ; William Thomson, Deputy-Surveyor, Chopwell; and Thomas ‘Taylor, Forester, Camperdown, Members of Conumittee. Several Meetings of the Committee were held during the year 1854, at which the Constitution and Laws were drawn up, and various matters of importance discussed and arranged for the formal institution of the Society. The results of the labours of the Committee were submitted to the first ‘‘ Annual General Meeting” of the Society, held at 6 York Place, Edinburgh, on dlst January 1855, Mr James Brown, President, in the chair, and after full consideration were unanimously approved. The following Table shows, in a concise form, the rise and pro- gress of the Society during the first thirty years of its existence, and indicates the great influence it has brought to bear, from a very modest beginning, on the Science and Art of Forestry in this country. No. of Meetings. Society Instituted. 1 COs (GO) UNIS Ct ae es, \ : Dates of Meeting. 16th Feb. 3lst Jan. 14th Nov. 12th Nov. 8th Oct. 6th Oct. 5th Oct. 7th Nov. 6th Nov. 5th Nov. 4th Nov. 2d Nov. Ist Nov. 7th Nov. 6th Nov. 4th Nov. 3d Nov. 2d Nov. Ist Nov. 6th Noy. 5th Nov. 4th Noy. dd Nov, Ist Nov. 6th Nov. 5th Nov. 7th Oct. 5th Oct. 4th Oct. od Oct. 2d Oct. 5th Aug. 1854 { 1862 { 1865 { 1873 { 1875 { President. Secretary. Abe James Brown, Deputy- , Surveyor, Dean Rorest! \ James Alexander. | John Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. | Earl of Ducie. Do. Earl of Stair. Do. | Sir John Hall, Bart. Robert M. Stark. Duke of Athole. Do. John J. Chalmers of aap \ John Sadler. Earl of Airlie. Do. Rt. Hon. T. F. Kennedy. Do. Robert Hutchison of \ Do Carlowrie. : De. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Thom Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Hugh Cleghorn, M.D., \ D of Stravithie. e: Do. do. Do, J. H. Balfour, M.D., Prof, of Bot., Edin, Un. Do. Georg Do. do. Do. Rt. Hon. W. P. Adam. Do. Do. do. Do. Do. do. Do. Do. Do. do. do. Alex. Dickson, M.D., Prof. of Bot., Edin. University. Hugh Cleghorn, M.D., of Stravithie. Do. Do. Do. Do. Marquis of Lothian, K.T. | John M‘Laren, jun.| John | ‘ SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1854 to 1884. No. pee | eeeee | /rear. President. Secretary. Prizes a ‘Treasurer. Prizes New Total = Offered. Awarded. | Members.|Members. REMARKS. Society ‘ ‘ 16th Feb, James Brown, Deputy- Instituted. } eb, | 1854 { Surveyor, Dean sae \ James Alexander. | John Anderson. as 1 | sist Jan. | 1855 Do. do. Do D oe : 101") |[ethe Boctely, Tneaibuted: 2 14th Noy. | 1855 D 5 0. Four. eS 16 85 Constitution and Laws Approved at Gi i ‘pti 3 12th N (a et Be Do. Do, Four. Three. 25 { Under Foresters, 5s. Addresses on Generel aS Subscriptions to be—Foresters and others, 10s. ; ov. | 1856 Do. do, Do. Do. six cig e 59 | Five Vice-Pranidens rst appointel, Motion TSU ES ALGER ER GAS e ent ATTACH Thomson. 4 8th Oct. | 1857 Do i. ix. 92 st issue of complete List of Members. Subscriptions fixed at— fem Bers| oni paympntiof hratiBthacription: 7 ; Fite, Do, Do Foresters, 2s. 6d. Illustrative S Pp xed at—Amateurs, etc,, 10s. 6d. ; Forest: if 4 . Seven. Six. 55 6 First Returns (50) obtai e Specimens of pruning exhibited at Meeting hy Mr M ers, (b8,\5, Under : 6th Oct, | 1988 | Earl of Ducie. a Es s 142 x iinerany (a bau aecie Pee Leen Silver Meals finat RNS TERO a hold 5th Oct. | 1859 | Earl of Stair. 2 Six. wo. 25 167 ‘irst Honorary Members elected, viz., Dr J, H. Bal iD, ‘ J 0. Do. ours wv James M'Nab, and Peter Cl jalfour, Sir Wm. J. Hooker, Dr Lindley, Prof. G. 7 7th Noy. | 1860 | Sir Jobn Hall, Bart. | Robert M. Stark. Do. ae eae 3 170 Bani ice: Presidents elected, ey resigned office, oe icy 2 5 ne. 16 2 ‘obert M. Stark aj 2 8 6th Nov. | 1861 | Duke of Athole, Do. Do Seven N ‘a BS ee ETERS Toa ee ae ere eee Naar ED es 10s, factory : : alee . ven: vane 5 159 ive prizes, of £5 each, offered, t y ie : 10 a ee 1862 { One etal ma John Sadler. Do. Five. he 2 j { Subscriptions to be 5s. Fae a alee rernied: sontelbate. mets rat Special subjects. Nurserymen’s i Noy. | 1863 | Earl of Airlie, Do : ne 63 | John Sadler appointed Soret , hee ae atl Baie a 5 Do, Four. Three. 8 5 ° ‘etary. General Meeting resolved that the Judges’ decisi E i ov. | 1864 | Rt. Hon. l, F. Kennedy. Do. Do, Five i 61 | eG Iashan’s Transplanting Machine exhibited, and Committee appointed Seren tee 2 cove ee { Pee Hae iseoet . ix. 4 162 { ‘ociety’s ‘* Motto” invented by the Secretary. Judges not to lenpoln, i to test and report, i Ginlowie: } Do. Do. septa, Four oa An eee eurebly, on Mr M‘Glashan's ‘Transplanter. mpete for prizes while holding office. Committee 13 7th Nov. | 1866 Do. do, Do. Do. a 0 { Motto “ eatin os arene ee a ae Nelson, Rinefield, Hants, for Essay on ‘* Newer Conifers,” u einer fie7 a 5 . ix. Ten, 62 | 290 ica BURORited lentes ABE auanirat Meviane tonneau! stipulations by the Author, 15 a ee Do. Do. Eleven. Four, 66 284 { Education god Tratnine of e Testimonial. The Annual Dinner egatry Olice.t The Treasurer presented with 4th Nov. | 1 9 of Foresters discussed ; Prof. bed es Hoi Do. Do, Thirteen zee a ve taught and Nearrenltnt et tatal ttn Diets Salone eying Be Or ST la WER OCeIR NES 16 ey h . 87 367 { ae ontnamiedlicateent ounisetstwA seaola on iirewarding (assist presented Medal cies to the Society. ‘ov. | 1869 Do. Xe a an imate, Dr Cleghorn of Stravithie addressed Meetin i fan in testing the Influence of Forests on ; eatereniver|(eerecteens, | tBleven. soo | dog |S eT Malesty The Queen became Patron of the Societ aoa oneal Fen ice DA diarand eaten eseay 17 | 2aNov. | 1870 oe ers i Ms Depa geen deel etaee ayers SR RS IC ei h y 0. Do. si a) cotland, and Ireland. e. Collections of Cones exhibited 18 an eeallecen ee ae - ‘eventeen, Thirteen. 85 549 { Coma at sae! to investigate the influence of Forests on Climate; the British Associatio: . . . 0. 5 ae | 8 bo, | nintsen, | muivein | 72. | oxo |{Tomet incre wrk a eng, Subnet fae a” nt eee : 2 0. 0. Do. D q and Under Foresters, 3s. Nume! —Nurserymen, Factors, etc., 10s. 6d. ; Foresters, 5s. ; 20 | stu Nov. | 1e7a |{ Hugh Cleghorn, MD, D ighteen, | Seventeen, | s2 | 65s | Toextendthe usefulness ofthe Society, tt was bibits at General Meeting of Cones, Woods, Photos, ete. oe 73 Oe Stracithie: , } Do. im ae on selected subjects ; and to Saane te sree devote two day’ s to the Annual Meeting; to have discussions 21 | Ath Nov, | 1874 Don! eds. teen, | Ten. 7 || Coa | EBoe oe et Fe et Rae nal SU eae ented Eh eachee Neereees 22 3d Nov, 1875 {t H. Balfour, M D. Do. Do. Twenty. Fifteen, 65 681 { Dr Balfour a TRauG real AagteneoraDy eet Comunittes appointed ee ee A 75 . ul. , M.D., cibly pointed out the advant: f pl . Prof. of Bot. Do. 5 f sent to Government in fay age of planting waste land in Bi f se Reek| 0 ee minus \ George Crichton. | Eighteen. | Twelve. 56 | 09g | The President ae Roa Cea Aicesreelesheca Treasirr, ice TL Ror rt 7 : B: ae wie a uorntaaltaid mayen aie O ea Gore agie mu chool; and sketched out a curriculum. Committee uM 6th Nov. | 1877] RB % Twenty. Eleven. 74 731 New Code of Laws and Regulations submitted aud Lass : 7 | Rt. Hon. W. P. Adam. Do, Do. Twenty-four. | Si ie Messrs Rider & Son, London, to publish GTR reel roma Pease 25 | oth Nov. |1878] De. ao ¥ y-four. | Sis. 4 | roo |{ Local Seoretaries (14) fist appointed. The Zreasurer araaunted by the Soaey with on TI P . 10. Do. . rees of Perthshire. ety with an Illustrated Album of 26 mauvoet, (3870 a Bi - Twenty-four. | Thirteen. 53 | 730 {iat uaenaica of the Society ; to Scone Estates, Council to inqnire and . Ee J 0. Do, TBwanty-five. || Nine eee y. Fine collections of Cones, Seeds, Fibres, Photos, etc., ex pepoee on getting a Royal Charter for 7 5th Oct, . 41 732 s to Dunkeld and Athole F\ , exhibited. et, | 1880 } Marquis of Lothian, K.. | John M* , John M: ole Forests; Dalkeith Park and Newbattle Abbe a M‘Laren, jun,| John M¢Laren, jun. | Laren; Jun appointed Seorelary, vice Jol y. Education Committee appointed. 28 4th Oct, | 1881 a aA , jun.| Twenty-eight.| Twelve, 74 740 ipssote tae) to Datphinton, weeddale mea ercati: SaaHUS eRe ee a Ue ACL GOS deceased h ni iY e' 29 3d Oct. | 188: Bo! Do. ‘Twenty-nine, | Sixteen. 53 | 745 {escon to ae ays pede atting Machine exhibited in eee and Education Reports approved 9 Do. abs on ; : Rooster Yan othian. At the suggestion of the President special priz Do. mae ae eae i ss jon remitted to the Council. Sir Richard special prizes ofleredl Bea a Pe AER Alex. Dickson, MLD., y-four. | Twelve. ro | ono |{ Excursions to Donbartonsbine an Wie, ‘Tho Counel, ite PTA ye RS OER aU SEE ER ie 2d Oct. | 1883 Hi of Bot., Edin. Do. Do, 1 British School of Forestry. Proposal to hold itaenstenal Pony i hip only ecb inmen cutheloxea Hor itn niversity. ? 5 wenty-nine, | Thirteen 70 Excursions to U y Exhibition announced. 31 5 Ww D 7 756 o Upper Strathearn and Ettrick F a 5th Aug. | 1884 { ugh Cleghorn, M.D., \ a si ie . : topic of discussion at Me ting and of ‘the Rose eete| fonds International Forestry Exhibition the chief J > -one, ‘ive, 60. 772 xcursions to Riccarton and Strathtay F m attention during the season. y Forests, International Forestry Exhibition received th i - The Society and Members exhibited numerous and valuable Cee THE INTERNATIONAL REFERENCES. K—Cape Colony. PLAN L—Mauritius. = M— Br. Guiana and St. Vincent. S—New Brunswick. | == N—Johore. O—Borneo. P—Persia. Q—Guatemala and Honduras. R--Venezueia. T—Japan. U—California. V—litaly. W—Sweden and Norway. X—Denmark. Y—General Exhibits. Z—Various. = \ | "|e e+ \E\ = South Transepts, 5 7 Centre of Main Transept, North Transepts, i West Annexe, . Centre Annexe, i East Annexe,. . . . Eest End of Main Transept, . == ° Shedding, OpenGround,. A ee ee er TuE INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION 1884 OTETEN TES! REFERENCES. PLAN OF BUILDINGS errine Eapmabye oe M—Br. Guiana and St. Vincent. A—Waroffice. S—New Brunswick. B Epping Forest (C —Dean Forest. D—New Forest, FOREIGN. E—Windeor Forest. = F—Loa Collections. N—Johore. G—General Exhibita. ] O—Borneo, H—Arboricultural Society. P—Persia. Q—Gustemala and Honduras INDIA AND CEYLON. DONALDSON'S: B-—Venezuela, Sree HOSPITAL T—Japan. U_California V—Italy. Seen W—Sweden and Norway. i : X—Denmark. bap aie arena ¥—General Exhibita Z—Various. South Transepts, . . Centre of Main Transept, North Transepts, . West Annexe, , Centre Annexe, East Annexe, . . m Eest End of Main Transe} OUTSIDE. Shedding, Open Ground, . ‘’b88l ‘HDYNANIGS ‘NOILIGIHXS AULSAYOS “IWNOILVNASLNI SUIPA i491 OUST yy OUP EW i "Id We JO SUDLT 9007 LOGLY 90267 ‘LdSSNVYL LSAM-HLYON NI SLIGIHXS S:ALBIOOS TWEYNLINOINOSAV HSILLOOS ‘’88t ‘'HDYNENIGS ‘NOILIGIHXS AYLSSYOS IWNOILVNYSLNI Tied IW VA SUBLL 206" oglpy 90957 LUNOD Ss,ALAIDOS WWANLININXYOBAV HSILLOIOS ‘y88) ‘HOYNENIGS ‘NOILIGIHXS AYLSAYOS TWNOILVNYSLNI ( ptt, HL te ‘WE WA SUDLL 2051 LOGLpY 7000 Vol. Al, Lb. LV APOOR DOG LPANS. CO M*Warlane & 1884 EDINBURGH, INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, MAIN GALLERY IN SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXHIBITS Sect. Arbor Soc. Trans. Vel AT Plo kK ea | MFarlane d& Erskine, Lith"? Edint ABIES MORIN Ds. DOUGLAS & FOULIS’ ENGLISH AND FOREIGN LIBRARY 9 Castle Street Peer eNcbot RG *~ Books sent to the Country and Changed at the convenience of Subscribers. Boxes Free. | TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY | FOR THE NEwesT Books. | 1Month. | 3 Months. | 6 Months. | 12 Months. || 4Volumes,| £0 5 0 | £015 0 | £1 5 0 | £2 2 0 |i ce i OY G6 0-1 O18 .0 112° 0 | "S151 0 | ae Ose het Oe ooo 310 0 rio 012 0 110: “0 215 0 5 5 0 30 eae aaa 215 0 6 150) |. 10:10) | re Ris | And Three Volumes Sor every additional Guinea per annum. Subse 7 -iptions may commence at any ‘date ZmeoASlLLE STREET, EDINBURGH. gS A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS ON FORESTRY, Selected from the undernoted Catalogue, which includes the Standard Works on Forestry, British and Foreign :— Lawson’s Pinetum Britannicum, fully illustrated, 52 Parts, Imp. folio, . £ Ablett’s Arboriculture for Amateurs, Crown 8vo, - : . : Ablett’s English Trees and Tree-Planting, Crown 8vo, Bagneris’ Elements of Sylviculture, Post 8vo, . Brown’s Forester, a Practical Treatise, nearly 200 W oodeuts, Roy al Bvo,. Burrows’ Science for Foresters, [lustr: ated, 16mo, Des Car’s Practical Treatise on Tree Pruning, Illustrated, 16mo, Forestry and Forest Products: Prize Essay s_-Forestry Ex hibition, 1884, ‘8y 0, Gordon’s Pinetum, Synopsis of Coniferous Plants, Last Edition, 8vo, 18s, for Grigor’s Arboriculture, New Edition, Illustrated, Crown 8vo, . Hemsley’ s Handbook of Hardy Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous Plants, 8vo, Hunter's Woods and Estates of Perthshire, Crown 8vo, . Journal of Forestry, _. Monthly Parts, ls, . : ” Yearly volutes '8yvo, Laslett’s Timber and Timber Trees, N ative and Foreign, Post 8vo - Manual of the Conifer, numerous Illustrations, Royal 8yvo, Michie’s Practical Treatise on the Culture of the Larch, Crown 8vo, | Macgregor’s Organisation and Valuation of Forests, 8vo, : Selby’ s History of British Forest Trees, Large Paper, Roy al 8vo, : Strutt’s Sylva Britannica and Scotica, 50 Htchings, Imp. folio, £9) 9s. Wood's Tree Planter, Propagator and Pruner, Illustrated, 1 2mo, bo J —" — fat et at pe AD AAININOUNN OOOH HE AMDNS — wa oy bar | SCWNOSOSCOCSCOSOCOCSCOOHCOCS SSSCSCAARVOAORGAARVQAVUSGOAAaAS A REFERENCE CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS FORESTRY, GARDENING, AND FARMING i Bares Svo, containing oe 1000 Titles———— Will be sent Gratis and Post Free to any Address, on Application. DOUGLAS & FOULIS, 9 CASTLE STREET, EDINBURGH. c SSS ee = ———— ——S = ——— CORRIMONY WIRE FENCING. ADVERTISEMENTS. WILLIAM HUME & 00. /ron and Wire Fence Manufacturers, ESTATE FURNISHERS, Erc., 91 HOPE STREET, GLASGOW. IMPROVED “CORRIMONY” FENCING FOR SHEEP, LIGHT CATTLE, AND DEER. CHEAP AND EFFECTIVE. Norr.—The Droppers in W. H. & Co.’s Corrimony Fencing are— 1. Light, yet of sufficient body of material to stand the wearing effects of exposure. 2. They present little or no surface of importance to give any hold for the wind to bear against the fence, or for snow to gather on, and weigh it down. 3. They are attached (to the already strained wires of the fence) byasimple and effective arrangement, which in not the slightest degree impairs their strength. In all these respects W. H. & Co.’s Droppers have a great advantage over others, which either (1) present too much surface ; or (2) not only present surface, but, from their form, almost invite the force of the wind, as well as largely afford lodgment to snow; or (3) have ill-considered and weakening incisions made in them as part of the method of fixing. The following is special testimony received to the merits of W. H. & Co.’s Droppers, the test of their stability having been an exceptionally severe one. From C. Brown, Esq., Agent for LORD OSBORNE ELPHINSTONE. ‘T have to state that your Droppers, with the plan of fixing them on the Corrimony Iron Fencing, have given great satis- faction. Iam not aware of a single one of them having been displaced up to this time. They have stood the test of both Deer and very severe weather.” Illustrations, Specifications, and Estimates on application. Hare and Rabbit Proof Wire Netting at extremely Low Prices. Special quotations for large quantities. Very Low Prices for 1-inch Mesh Netting for small Rabbits, Wire Netting Plant Guards, Ornamental Rabbit Proof Bordering in Lengths for Clumps and Shrubberies. Wrought Iron Tree Guards, Strained Iron and Wire Fencing, Fencing Wire and Staples, Barbed Wire, strand and solid, Continuous Bar Fencing, Hurdles, Gates, Stable Fittings, Pumps for general use, Galvanised Iron Roofing, Roofing Felt, Iron- mongery for Estates, Patent Black Varnish in 15 to 40 Gallon Casks, 1s. 6d. per Gallon; 40 Gallon Casks delivered free. CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION. ADVERTISEMENTS. THE ENGLISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. TuHIs SOCIETY now numbers over 100 Members, and the Local Secretaries are :— Mr W. B. HAVELOCK, HELMSLEY, YORKSHIRE. WM. BATY, NETHERBY, LONGTOWN. JOHN WILSON, GREYSTOKE, PENRITH. ,, JOHN BALDEN, Jun., BootHy, BRAMPTON. », A. ROSS, Skrpron CASTLE, SKIPTON. ,, H. CLARK, BLENKINSOPP, HALTWHISTLE. ,, F. W. BEADON, WINDLESTON, FERRYHILL, DURHAM. » JOHN WARDLE, Newton, STOCKSFIELD-ON-TYNE. WM. FORBES, STONELEIGH ABBEY, KENILWORTH, WARWICKSHIRE, Who will have pleasure i in furnishing any information, and taking the names of those who wish to be enrolled as Members, JOHN DAVIDSON, Secretary and Treasurer, G. H. Estates Office, Haydon Bridge-on-Tyne. TREE PROTECTIVE COMPOSITION. NATHANL AHLBOTTY, Sole Manufacturer, and now the only surviving discoverer of R. Davidson & Co.’s Celebrated Composition for protecting young Forest and other Trees against the ravages of Hares and Rabbits, It is free from any poisonous substance, encourages the growth, is easily applied by the hand or a small brush, and is strongly recommended by all parties who have used it. To be had in 56lb. Casks at 18s. One cwt. and upwards at 36s. per cwt.— Casks free. 2 » From the Forester, Westonbirt House, Gloucestershire. “It has now been used here for three seasons, and has given every satisfaction, and is a pre- ventative against the ravages of Hares and Rabbits. I think it should be more extensively used, as it does not in the least injure the trees or shrubs to which it is applied.” The above is JSrom numerous Testimonials, which may be had on application to NATHANL. AHLBOTTN, 50 SHORE, LEITH. THOMAS METHVEN & SONS Beg to request the attention of those about to plant to their Stock of SEEDLINGS AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES, Ornamental Grees and Shrubs, Rhodadendrons, Hte., WHICH IS VERY EXTENSIVE, AND IN A HEALTHY, VIGOROUS CONDITION. Samples and Prices on Application. LEITH WALK & WARRISTON NURSERIES, EDINBURGH. ADVERTISEMENTS. BAIN, YOUNG, & CO, MANUFACTURERS, 27 & 29 CROSSCAUSEWAY, EDINBURGH. \C-ELELGISSI | | | (FSI Dee sM Mehl alt y 5 <5 =X SS ey Nord: | No. 2. Made in panels to suit walks. All made and | Finished at top with Gothic Border, which erected by our own Workmen. Prices on | gives it a finished-like appearance, and made application, {in panels to suit walls. Prices on application. LARGE SELECTION OF REALLY GOOD GARDEN CHAIRS, VERY MODERATE IN PRICE. BAIN, Youne, & Co. most respectfully draw the attention of their Customers and others to their mode of Galvanised Diamond Wire Trellising, for training Creeping or any other kind of Plants on front and side walls of Residences and Garden Walls, for Fruit Trees, etc., or on any site where the same may be required. The above Trellising has been extensively supplied and erected by them for many years, and has given entire satisfaction to Professors and other authorities on Horticulture, who recommend it as being the best in use for training Plants, Fruit Trees, etc. The material being light, yet strong enough for the purpose for which it is required, and the Trellising being kept out from the wall, and the heat of the sun being equally dispensed on the Trellising and Plants, pro- duces a wonderful effect, greatly helping the growth and health of the Plants, which speedily cover the wall in a most pleasant manner. From their great experience in this class of work, B., Y., & Co. will be glad to take measurements, or, if measurements be sent, Prices will be given, thus enabling their Customers to know the entire cost previous to the work being done. ADVERTISEMENTS. Evie sYiOUINSG, & Woz GOVERNMENT CONTRACTORS, 27 and 29 CROSSCAUSEWAY, EDINBURGH. Tron and Wire Work Contractors, Wire Net- ting Manufacturers, Garden Chair, Iron Fire- Proof Store, Galvanised Iron House, Church, Roof, Shed, and Greenhouse Builders, _De- signers and Makers of all kinds of Iron and Wire Work for Garden and Horticultural pur- 8 poses. The long experience which B., Y., & Co. eee have had in this and the general class of Work required, as above, enables them to supply their Customers with Goods suitable for the various purposes for which they are required, as cheapness in price commands the best atten- tion of B., Y., & Co., and any favour accorded to them will have their best consideration. NS. \cas ues ol —— Royal Garden Chair, 3 to 8 ft. long, 30s. to 50s. — Se ee x Percent a SSS ska ey Se kt ? ¥ No. 3. Sofa Garden Chair, Strong Hurdles for Cattle and Sheep. 38s. 6d. Prices vary according to Strength, Number of Bars, and the Current Price of Iron. Drawings and prices given on application. Wrought-Iron Flat-Bar Continuous Fences, suitable for Horses, Cattle, or Sheep. Wrought-Iron Round-Bar Continuous Fencing, suitable for Horses, Cattle, or Sheep. Strong Wire Fencing, with Wood Posts, for Sheep, Cattle, or Horses. Strong Wire Fencing, with Pronged Iron Standards, for Cattle or Horses. Patent Corrimony Wire Fencing, with Patent Standards and Patent Droppers. Improved Unclimbable Hurdles, for Temporary Fences or Enclosures. Wrought-Iron Hare and Rabbit Proof Hurdles. Wrought-lron Tree Guards. Improved Wrought-Iron Hurdles, for Sheep or Light Cattle. Ornamental Wire Hare and Rabbit Proof Hurdles, Plant Guards. Ornamental Wire Garden Borders. Iron and Wire Flakes for Gardens. Wrought-Iron Kennel Rails, all kinds. Galvanised Wire Netting, machine and hand made. UDCA NAW AREA EAL LETTERS PATENT, No. 13,341, Drawing shows Bain, Young, & Co.’s Patent Corrimony Iron and Wire Fencing (the best and cheapest of this class of Fencing in the market), with Patent Lockfast Steel Droppers and Patent Lockfast Iron Standards, all of which form a most suitable, efficient, and durable Fence for Cattle, Sheep, ete., ete. Experts say this is the cheapest and Best Dropper Fence in the market. The Patent Steel Droppers and Patent Standards, Wire, ete., can be supplied to parties erecting their own Fences ; also the Patent Droppers are supplied to parties who may use wood posts or otherwise, and are easily fixed on to the Wires after the Fence is strained up. For Colonial use, where long stretches of Fencing are erected for Sheep, etc., this Patent Corrimony Fencing, on account of its cheapuess, durability, and being so easily fitted up, is highly recommended, Detailed Price Lists and Drawings Free on application. ADVERTISEMENT, A NEW DROPPER FOR CORRIMONY FENCING, AWARDED DIPLOMA OF HONOUR, INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, 1884. The cheapest as well as most efficient Dropper extant. oT oie the Highlands and elsewhere a very important and novel })) Featwres— and the many advantages it possesses over other systems for Lightness, Strength, traversing undulating sround, are well known ; but since the Handiness, and days of the primitive wooden dropper, the invariable method Durability. adopted has been to fix strips of iron to the wires, by means N.B., is a distinct departure from, and a vast improvement on, any other system in use that we know of.’—Journal of Forestry, December, 1883. The Lockfast patent consists of only two parts, while all others have at least three. All other droppers are secured by means of pins or wedges, which are liable to become loose, but s the patent of the Lockfast is in the application of the eccentric Fic. 1—_shows (one of the most powerful forces in applied mechanics), and Dropper Unfixed, while its grip is unrelenting when locked, it can be unlocked with its key, and relocked, with the greatest of ease. Mr Oaitvy of Corrimony writes :—‘‘I can express a very favourable opinion of your Patent Lockfast Dropper. I con- sider it to be the best suited for the Corrimony fence of any dropper Ihave seen. Its principleis equally simple and efficient.” Dr MAcKENZIE of Hileanach says :—‘‘ To those who need fences, I can recommend Smith’s admirable Lockfast Dropper.” Prior VAUGHAN, The Abbey, Fort-Augustus, says :—‘‘In ]} rigidness, neatness, and strength, it surpasses any I have yet met with.” Mr James A. SmitH, Commissioner for Mr Balfour, M.P., writes :—‘* Your * Lockfast Dropper’ gives great satisfaction here—it is very suitable, being handy, easy to work, and having creat gripping power.” The Manager on an extensive island estate in the West writes :—‘‘I have pleasure in giving my testimony in favour of your ‘Lockfast Dropper,’ and tha after a trial of all the patent droppers in the market.” Mr D. JoHNSTON, Wire-fencer, Foyers, writes, May 30, 1883: —“ We place from 400 to 500 Droppers in a day of 10 hours for each man; sometimes one man will place as high as 600.” Mr GC. Stewart, Forester, Invermoriston, writes :—“ They are superior to any I have seen yet.” Journal of Forestry, December 1883 :—‘‘ It is evidently the outcome of a long experience and patient study, for simple as it appears, it is a very ingenious contrivance.” ‘Martineau & Smith’s Trade Journal” says :—‘‘ The makers of the ‘Lockfast Dropper’ not only economise in the process of a manufacture, but secure for the consumer a direct saving of labour during the process of erection.” Hundreds of Testimonials have been received. We; ! i | | | | Fig. 2—shows Dropper Fixed. 1) | i | spoperncet, WILLIAM SMITH & SON, aw INVERNESS, NB, . ARE THE PATENTEES AND SOLE MAKERS OF “YE GELYDDON FENCING.” A Comprehensive Catalogue, with Price List of our Wire-Fencing Patents and Improvements, will be posted free on application. Special Quotations given for quantities delivered or erected in any part. Distance no object. Fic. 83—Side View. ADVERTISEMENTS, Bee yi eoe! KD) ee SONS (LATE DOWNIE & LAIRD,) dlurserpmen, Seedsmen, and Florists, SEED WAREHOUSE—17 SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. ESTABLISHED 1801. SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED ROMEO AEE oF ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS. Roses, Fruit Trees, Climbers, Hardy Herbaceous Plants. STOVE AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. Stove, Greenhouse, and Hardy Ferns. GARDEN SEEDS OF FINEST QUALITY. weaMES DICKSON & SONS, 32 HANOVER STREET, and INVERLEITH, Pe ENE UR Ge. CATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION. ao MM. CRICA TONS: 18 PRINCES STREET, EDINBURGH, Goldsmiths, Silversmiths, and Watchmakers. ORR =~ ne Medallists to the Scottish Arboricultural and the West Lothian Agricultural Associations. M‘FARLANE & ERSKINE, Engravers, Lithographers, and Printers, LoS) JAMES. S'QUA ree eye Ue er: Printers to the Scottish Arboricultural Society, Royal Physical Society, ete. ADV ERTISEMENTS, FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS, Fruit Trees, Roses, Herbaceous Plants, Ete. FOREST AND GARDEN IMPLEMENTS OF ALL SORTS. Priced Catalogues Free on application. IRELAND & THOMSON, Hurserymen, Seedsinen, and Dew Plant Merchants, Craigleith Nursery, Comely Bank, Edinburgh. New Golden Acre and Windlestrawlee Nurseries, Granton Road. Seed Warehouse, 20 Waterloo Place. JOHN PALMER & SON, NURSERYMEN, ANNAN, DUMFRIESSHIRE. RO A OA * * The favour of a visit is respectfully solicited. KA-Y?’S)° DEN-DR O METER Awarded a First Class Silver Medal by the Scottish Arboricultural Society. Wiru this instrument the height of trees, etc., can be instantaneously and accurately ascertained at any convenient distance from the object, without calculation. A marvel of simplicity! Should be in the hands of every one interested in Arboriculture. Price, with Full Instructions for Use, 17s. 6d. Allowance to the Trade. AGENTS— DICKSONS & CO, Nurserymen and Seed Merchants, 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. VOL. XL—PART IL SECRETARY AND TREASURER, JOHN M‘LAREN, Jun, FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. MDCCCLXXXVI. / KNOWEFIELD | NURSERIES, CARLISLE. 150 ACRES. NURSERYMEN AND SEEDSMEN BY ROYAL WARRANT TO THE QUEEN. LITTLE & BALLANTYNE respectfully invite inspection of their immense Stock, “perhaps one of the largest in Britain,” of Forest Trees, comprising MANY MILLIONS of Seedling and Transplanted hardy well-rooted Forest Trees of every description, age, height, etc., in splendid condition for removal to any part of the United Kingdom, and which may he depended upon to give the utmost satisfaction. TAME COVERT PLANTS—all_ the leading sorts im quantity, bushy, well furnished. RHODODENDRONS—Seedling and named Hybrids, Pontt- cums, ete., ete., of Various sizes. ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS in great -health. AVENUE TREES—straight, well grown, good heads, ete. FRUIT TREES, ROSES, ALPINE & HERBACEOUS PLANTS, ete. Catalogues Free. Special low prices to large buyers. Samples sent on application, and all communications promptly attended to. OOO i a I ARS ARERR ELL L STRANI ITS aaa LITTLE & BALLANTYNE, Nurserymen and Wood Foresters to Her Majesty's Government, KNOWEFIELD NURSERIES, CARLISLE. CONTENTS. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. VII. Address delivered at the Thirty-Second Annual Meeting. By Hucn CLEGHORN of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF THE HoUsE oF ComMMONS, 1885, oN ForEsTRY, VIII. The Indian Forest School. By Major F. Battey, R.E., F.R.G.S., Director of the Forest School, Dehra Dan, N. W.P., India, IX. The Douglas Fir (Abies Douglasii, Lindley). By ANcus D. WEBSTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, X. The Formation of Plantations, and their Management for the First Twelve Years. By Davin A. GLEN, Assistant Forester, Gartshore, Kirkintilloch, XI. The Corsican Pine (Pinus laricio) By ANneus D. WessTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, XII. The Present State and Future Prospects of Arboriculture in North Lancashire. By Gzorce Dopps, Overseer, Wyreside Cottage, Lancaster, . XIII. Report on a Visit in September 1881 to the Scottish and English Forests by Professors and Students from the Forest School, Nancy, France. By M. Bopper, Inspector of French Forests, XIV. The Formation and Management of Game Coverts. By ANneus D. WessTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales, Forestry IN France. By Major F. BaIey, R.E., APPENDIX. (3) 1. Former Presidents, P , : ‘ : - 2. List of Members corrected to July 1886, 3. Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish Arboricultural Society for year 1884-85, . PAGE 119 181 188 196 213 221 Sik 3) Pir hank err tA Se eh / ee hi ie! re «yw se iad, pis nat i Ore, kite leew ort ie ae yale rhe ‘ preil vt ve th oe + sea its PEP wench ete de Blanes “ =e > ' . ‘ 9 ? 4 ‘ ° * ° > ? ¢ . f 2 i Ay ‘ ct . ' i Li vy \ rl f3 teh ‘ ith} 7 He i153 Vite EQ us , . j = . AAD ee ji se) a Vie el ee eee rin i ' -“ fed eT een CANTY = elie a, fue el | ti fi hal ) PALA pai Wik yeh ply a4 Que ar w nd A 1 1 | 7 ’ ‘ Z a} ¢ hii ac Al aria A KA Pant a, i 7 ry ; 2 oh ai on \4 oy Nea aA eFaraliot atin yh Ack cigeit’: Maly Phas TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, ---——~) ———— ew will doubtless render valuable assistance when Parliament meets again. We hoped that he would have favoured us with the annual address, but, as you have been informed by the Secretary, the new President is unavoidably absent on military duty. The Society continues to fully maintain its position and numbers. There are at present—Honorary Members, 18; Life Members, 120; Ordinary Members, 600,—making a total of 738. During the year several important additions to the Library have been received, and the collection of forest literature is now extensive and valuable, including many foreign works. The difti- culty of locating the Library still remains; but the transfer of forest specimens to the Museum of Science and Art has been VOL. XI., PART III. = The Secretary will forward the Society's Publications to Members in arrear, on receipt of a remittance for the amount due. The ANNUAL MEETING will be held on July 26th, and the ANNUAL EXCURSION will be to BALMORAL on July 28th and 29th. - By Order. JOHN M‘LAREN, Jon., Secretary and Treasurer. 5 St ANDREW SQUARE, EDINBURGH, 28th June 1887. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. XV. President's Address—Delivered at the Thirty-third Annual Meeting, August 3, 1886. By Huau CLecuorn of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. GENTLEMEN, In appearing before you without any formal address, I must explain that I have just returned from Germany, where urgent business detained me longer than was expected. My term of Presidency having now expired, I cannot quit the chair without expressing my sense of the honour conferred in your election of me as President at four Annual Meetings. The Society has made an excellent choice in appointing Sir Herbert Eustace Maxwell, Bart., M.P., President for the ensuing year. He is an extensive landed proprietor, and well known for his love of Arboriculture. He has been an active member of the Parlia- mentary Committee on Forestry during two sessions, and he will doubtless render valuable assistance when Parliament meets again. We hoped that he would have favoured us with the annual address, but, as you have been informed by the Secretary, the new President is unavoidably absent on military duty. The Society continues to fully maintain its position and numbers. There are at present—Honorary Members, 18; Life Members, 120; Ordinary Members, 600,—making a total of 738. During the year several important additions to the Library have been received, and the collection of forest literature is now extensive and valuable, including many foreign works. The difli- culty of locating the Library still remains; but the transfer of forest specimens to the Museum of Science and Art has been VOL. XI., PART III. x 288 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 3, 1886. completed. The second part of Vol. XI. of the Transactions has been issued, and the contents are of special interest, including extracts from the Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Forestry, 1885; Major Bailey’s excellent account of the Indian Forest School at Dehra Din ; M. Boppe’s Report on the visit to the Scottish and English Forests in 1881 of Professors of the Forest School, Nancy, France ; and practical papers by Messrs Webster, Glen, and Dodds. During the past year several notable members have been removed from us by death. A few days ago the demise was announced of a distinguished Scottish forester, an original member and the first President of this Society, 1854-57—-Mr James Brown, LL.D., late of Craigmill, Stirling, who died at Ontario, Canada. He was well known and highly esteemed by many of the older members, and his work, ‘“‘ Brown’s Forester,” has passed through several editions, and still is a standard work of reference. One of his sons, Mr J. E. Brown, is doing excellent work as Con- servator of Forests, Adelaide, and has brought out an illustrated Forest Flora of South Australia. Among other deceased members are Mr John Ferguson, late Deputy-Conservator of Forests, Madras, Lord Waveney, and Mr Colquhoun of Luss. The premature dissolution of Parliament having brought to a sudden close the deliberations of the Select Committee appointed to consider “ whether, by the establishment of a Forest School, or otherwise, our woodlands could be rendered more remunerative ”— their report, which was issued on 10th July, contained the evidence of only five witnesses—Colonel Pearson (re-examined), Dr Croumbie Brown, Dr Schlich, Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India, Mr Julian Rogers, Secretary, Institution of Civil Engineers, and Mr Alexander Mackenzie, Superintendent, Epping Forest. The subject was pretty well threshed out, and the witnesses were all agreed on the main question, although they differed as to minor details. There was but one opinion that foresters should be instructed as to the theory of their craft. How this might be best accom- plished, and where the conveniences could be best found in Great Britain for establishing a Forest School capable of impart- ing the special knowledge acquired in Continental schools, is still open to discussion. Dr Croumbie Brown and I spoke strongly in favour of Edinburgh. Other witnesses advocated the Agricultural Colleges at Cirencester and Downton, and Cooper’s Hill Indian ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 3, 1886. 289 Engineering College, near London. When the forest school or schools might be established was left uncertain ; but that a Forest School must come, there is no doubt. In a time of extraordinary commercial depression there have been unusual obstacles to over- come, but they are being surmounted, and the day is not far distant when our foresters will have, at least, the same facilities for their proper education and training as those so long enjoyed by their Continental brethren, Now I should like to make a few remarks on the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London, During the last month I have been many times through that magnificent Exhibition, and have examined, more or less in detail, the wonderful display of material wealth there to be seen, including the vegetable and forest products of every colony in the British Empire. No one can visit the collection without feeling its great educative power ; and one could not go away from it without having enlarged views of the magnitude of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, and of their great economic resources and commercial wealth. The Empire of India, too, was worthily and admirably represented. Its exhibits were grouped into State Collections, and the whole Court gave one some idea of the productive power and resources of India, though the visitor might have some difficulty even after his survey in grasping the fact that the Court represented a popu- lation of 252 millions, and an area of cultivated land of 189 millions of acres. The handsome archway which formed the entrance to the Imperial Court was entirely composed of Indian timber. It had a breadth of 46 ft., and contained about 3000 specimens of useful timbers, including the index collection which we had in Edinburgh at the Forestry Exhibition. There were some splendid specimens of Padowk timber, and of bamboo pro- bably the finest collection that had ever been brought together. Although not specially bearing upon arboriculture, a most inte- resting sight was the reproduction of some of the curious features of an Indian bazaar, and having spent many years in India and speaking some of its dialects, I fancied myself, when in the Court and talking to its occupants, as once again among my old Indian friends. Turning again to the Colonies, one of the striking features of the Exhibition was undoubtedly the illustration afforded of colonial vegetation, both as exemplified in the collections of plants and flowers, and in the admirable photographs and drawings 290 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 3, 1886, which adorned the walls. Of these I was particularly impressed with the representations of the Australian Eucalypts and the Canadian Conifers, which were brought out in a very life-like manner. There was another point in connection with the Exhi- bition I desire to notice. That is the Conferences which were held frequently in the Conference Hall—occasionally two in a day and sometimes on three days a week. Many subjects of great interest were taken up. One day cinchona; another, tea; another, coffee; another, dyes; and so on. ‘These discussions were taken part in by men of great experience, whose opinions on the subjects dealt with were of the greatest weight. I was also present at a discussion on the forests of India, when Dr Brandis, who began his work in 1855, on the Eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, gave a summary of the results of conservancy, and graphically described the progress of Forest Administration over millions of acres stretching away to the base of the Himalaya. On this occasion there were probably not more than eighty persons present, but they were nearly all experts, and in the course of a two hours’ conference a large amount of useful information was elicited. Dr Brandis, who is a German, bore testimony to the wonderful progress of cultivation in the British Provinces and also in the native States, and showed that there had been great advances made in public works, such as schemes of irrigation, canals, etc. The last Conference during my visit was one on tropical fruits, in which valuable information concerning the capabilities of Jamaica was given by Mr Morris, lately of Jamaica, and now assistant director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. In concluding, I may refer to the Handbooks and Pamphlets published by the Exhibition authorities, and which contain an immense amount of information on both Indian and Colonial subjects, and constitute in themselves a most useful library of reference. I would advise as many of our friends as can possibly do so to go to London and see it for themselves. A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. By Major F. Battery, R.E. CHAPTER L THE LANDES AND DUNES OF GASCONY. (With Map.) INTRODUCTION, Our party, consisting of M. Boppe, five English students, Mr Beckington, an American gentleman interested in forest questions, M. Borel, a Swiss student, M. Takasima, and the writer, left Bordeaux early on the 26th April 1886 for Arcachon, We were accompanied by MM. de Monteil and Moyse, Inspectors, and M. Foulon, Assistant Inspector, who were so kind as to conduct us to the various points of interest we had come to study. Leaving the train at La Teste, we spent some time in going over a resin factory close to the railway station ; and we then walked two miles across the dunes to Arcachon. After breakfast, we made an excursion to the Mouleau block of the forest of La Teste, and passing through it, we gained the beach, which we followed, in a southerly direc- tion, for a considerable distance, until we reached a portion of the dunes, where a forest—which had- previously been established—was sold in 1863 to a private proprietor. He has neglected to maintain the works, and the result is, that the forests are being gradually ingulfed. Our long walk home over the deep sandy track, in a heavy shower of rain, the last few miles being in almost total darkness, was the least enjoyable part of the day. Next morning we travelled some miles by train, and then walked into a portion of the forest containing a number of old cluster pines (Pinus pinaster), which have been worked for resin for the last 150 or 200 years. We then walked to the village of La Teste, and caught the evening omnibus to Arcachon, On the 23th we travelled by train to Labouheyre, where we were met by M. Morch, Assistant Inspector, and M. Lamarque, 292 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. Garde-Général. The latter gentleman has been employed here since 1850, and has supervised the fixing and planting of 85 square miles of dunes. Accompanied by them, we drove to St Eulalie, a distance of 12} miles, stopping on the way to look over a factory, established in the forest for the manufacture of oil from substances contained in the pine wood ; and-we then mounted ponies, and rode to the sea-shore for the purpose of inspecting the works that have been there erected to check the formation of the dunes. We reached Mimizan, where we were to sleep, late in the evening. Next day we rode to another part of the sea coast to look at some works more recent than those we had previously seen, and also to study a locality in which the defences, which have been neglected, must now be partially destroyed and afterwards reconstructed. We then returned to Mimizan, and drove back to Labouheyre, where we visited a factory belonging to the railway company, in which pine sleepers and telegraph poles are impregnated with sulphate of copper. In the evening we took the train for Dax, on the banks of the Adour. What we saw and learnt while among the dunes will now be briefly treated under the following heads, viz. :— 1. GENERAL DescrIPTION. 2. CoNSTRUCTION OF THE WoRKS. TREATMENT OF THE CLUSTER PINE. . TAPPING FOR RESIN. . MANUFACTURE OF PRopDUCTS. UTILISATION OF THE Woop. aoe GENERAL DESCRIPTION. From the mouth of the Gironde down to Bayonne, a distance of some 125 miles, the western portion of the departments of Gironde and Landes forms a vast plain, about 18 or 20 miles wide, the soil of which is sandy and extremely poor. This tract of moor- land (Jandes), which gives its name to the southern of the two departments, is inhabited by a population, formerly almost entirely pastoral, whose villages are scattered over it, and who cultivate scanty crops upon the fields surrounding their dwellings. But from time. immemorial, and until comparatively recent years, the dandes have been subjected to a never-ceasing invasion by sand, which, driven A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 293 over the plain from the sea-shore, in the form of moving hills, called dunes, has completely covered a strip of 8 or 9 miles in width, and would, if unchecked, have ultimately laid waste the entire district. The aspect of the country, before steps were taken to improve its condition, must have been uninviting in the extreme ; the dande rase, or barren moorland, stretching towards the sea, was bounded by the dunes blanches, or white sandhills, which, rising near the coast to a height of some 230 feet, had already buried below them many a village spire, and their irresistible advance seemed to render certain the destruction of everything lying in their path. The church of Mimizan has been thus partially covered ; and, at a short distance from the village, a mound was pointed out to us, under which lies a buried hamlet. The village church of Soulac was completely overwhelmed, but was disinterred a few years ago; and M. Lamarque told us that he often ties his horse’s bridle to the top of a certain church steeple ! But this state of desolation no longer exists. The barren moor is now stocked with a nearly continuous forest of the cluster pine (Pinus pinaster), which, covering also the rolling dunes, has com- pletely arrested their advance; and from various elevated points which we ascended near the coast, as well as from La Truc, in the forest of La Teste, the dark green undulating upper surface of the pine forest meets the deep blue of the western sky, and, looking landwards, there is nothing else to be seen. Indeed, throughout the many miles which we travelled by rail, by carriage, or on horseback, through this part of the country, we became weary of the monotonous appearance of these trees. They are, never- theless, undoubtedly the saviours of the land. They not only avert the destruction of existing fields and villages, but also profit- ably occupy vast areas of sand-hills, and of the low-lying, marshy and unhealthy ground between them, thus providing employment for the population, who are nearly all engaged, during the summer months, in the collection of resin, and, at other times, in felling, cutting up, and exporting timber, or on other work which the forests offer to them. The people, however, still keep large flocks and herds, the guardians of which are to be seen mounted on stilts about three feet high, driving or following their animals through the dense undergrowth of prickly gorse and other shrubs. The climate may be described as a mean between that of the Parisian and Provengal regions; the annual rainfall, of from 28 to 32 inches, being well distributed, so that the air seldom 294 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY, becomes excessively dry, as it does during the summer on the shores of the Mediterranean; and thus, where the quality of the soil admits of it, a fairly varied vegetation is produced. But this condition is rarely satisfied, for the deep soil of the dunes is exces- sively poor, and the number of species found growing on it is extremely limited. Very few shells are found on this coast, the soil containing but little lime, and not more than from 3 to 6 per cent. of substances other than fragments of quartz. It is surprising to note what a luxuriant vegetation is produced under such circum- stances. The cluster pine, which is mixed in places with a few oaks (Q. pedunculata), and a small proportion of other species, attains considerable dimensions ; while there is a dense undergrowth, consisting of broom, gorse, heather, ferns, and other plants, which flourish on siliceous soil. On the old plain of the Jandes the sand is mixed with a considerable quantity of vegetable débris, and con- tains much iron, an impermeable stratum of ferruginous sandstone (ahios), mixed with more or less organic matter, lying at a short distance below the surface. The first works were undertaken here, in the year 1789, by M. Brémontier, an engineer, whose memory is honoured at Labouheyre by a bust, mounted on the same pedestal upon which, until the days of the Second Empire closed with the disasters of 1871, stood the statue of Napoleon III. TZempora mutantur! The Forest Department took charge of the operations in 1862. But it is certain that the cluster pine either grew spontaneously in this region, or had been introduced, long before M. Brémontier’s time ; for in the old part of the forest of La Teste, near Arcachon, we saw trees which must have been 200 years old, and the process of extracting resin from which had apparently been carried on for at least 150 years. This pine, which now constitutes the principal wealth of the district, is eminently adapted for the use to which it has been put; it grows splendidly on the soil and in the climate of the south-west coast, while it possesses a well-developed tap-root and strong lateral roots, which send down numerous secondary vertical roots to force their way deeply into the soil, thus holding it together, and enabling the tree to draw its supply of moisture from a considerable depth; at the same time the resin which it yields is a most valuable product. Although the cluster pine is found north of the Gironde, it is there much less vigorous and yields less resin ; while in the valley of the Loire it no longer grows spontaneously, and it there loses nearly all its valuable qualities. A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 295 A special law relating to the dunes was enacted in 1810, its principal features being that the State can order the planting up of any area which, in the public interest, requires to be so dealt with ; and that when the land belongs to communes or private proprietors who cannot, or do not wish to undertake the work, the State can execute it, reimbursing itself, with interest, from the subsequent yield of the forest. As soon as the money has been recovered in this manner, the land is restored to the proprietors, who are bound to maintain the works in good order, and not to fell any trees without the sanction of the Forest Department. CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORKS. The dunes are formed by the combined action of the wind and sea. Each ebb tide leaves a quantity of sand, a portion of which dries before it is covered by the next flow, and it is then liable to be blown away by the wind. The individual sand-grains, which are not, generally speaking, either sufficiently large to resist the force of the strong westerly breezes that blow from the sea towards the low plain which bounds it, nor sufficiently small to be carried away in the air in the form of dust, are driven along the surface of the ground, rarely rising to a height of more than 13 or 2 feet above it, until they meet with some obstacle which arrests their course, and thus promotes the formation of a little mound. Up this succeeding sand-grains are propelled, and on reaching its summit they fall down the sheltered reverse slope at a steep angle. In this manner sand-hills or dunes, rising sometimes to a height of 200 to 250 feet, are formed, the line of their crests being, generally speaking, perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing winds, that is, in the case of the tract between the Gironde and Bayonne, parallel to the general line of the sea-shore. This action is not completely regular. The formation of some of the dunes is com- menced close to the sea, while others have their origin at some distance from it; and fresh importations of sand either add to the bulk of those already existing, or, being blown through breaks in the chain, pass on till they encounter some other obstacle. But the sand-hills themselves are kept moving slowly landwards by the wind, which drives the upper layer of sand from the gently-sloping outer face up to the summit, whence it falls down the steep slope on the landward side, and this process being continued whenever there is enough wind to produce it, the dunes are moved, or rather 296 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. rolled, inland by slow degrees; and as fresh ones are formed near the sea, which are in their turn moved onwards, it follows that, in the course of time, the whole surface of the plain has become covered with sand-hills for a distance of several miles from the coast. The rate at which the sand thus advances is very variable. Sometimes, during many months, there is no perceptible encroach- ment, while at others the movement is very rapid, amounting to 60 or 70 ft. in the year; the average annual rate is said to be about 14 ft. But the sand-hills do not move at an uniform rate of speed. Some, overtaking those in their front, become merged in them ; while they all undergo changes of height and form, so that the whole surface of the country is continually in motion, being turned over and over to a great depth, and under these conditions it is impossible to grow anything on it. The source of the evil lies at the sea beach ; and the first thing to do evidently is to stop fresh importations of sand ; while as regards the dunes already formed, it will be seen from what has been said, that the movement, at any particular time, is confined to the sand then at the surface, and if this can be fixed during the time necessary to enable a crop of herbs, shrubs, and young trees to be raised upon it, the movement of the entire mass will have been arrested. We rode from St Eulalie, through the forests, to the coast near Mimizan-les-Bains, where M. Lamarque explained to us that the system by which this is accomplished consists in promoting the formation, by the wind, of an artificial dune, close to the sea, and, generally speaking, parallel to it at high tide. This mound absorbs the fresh importations of sand ; while, under its shelter, sowings are made, which, extending gradually inland in parallel bands, fix and consolidate the surface of the naturally formed sand-hills ; ultimately the artificial dune is itself planted with trees, and the evil is then cured for so long a time as care is taken to maintain the works, which are commenced as follows :— At a distance of about 165 yards from high-water mark, a wattled fence 40 in. high is erected, the pickets being driven 20 in. into the sand. This serves to arrest the sand, which is heaped up on the seaward side, a portion of it filtering through the wattles. After a time the fence is overtopped, and the sand, blown up the outer face, forms a steep slope on the other side. A second wattled fence is then erected, about 6} ft. behind the first, and the space between the two becoming filled up, and a mound rising over it, the sand which falls over stands at a high angle against the A FOREST TOUR AMON: THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 297 reverse side of the second wattle. In the centre of the mound, a palisade of planks, also 40 in. above and 20 in. below ground, is erected—the planks, which are of pine sapwood, 7 in. or 8 in. wide, and 1+ in. thick, being placed #ths of an inch apart. When the sand drifts up against them, a portion of it falls through the inter- vals, thus affording support on the other side ; and when they have become nearly covered, they are raised about 2 ft. out of the ground by means of a hand-lever and chains. This operation, which we saw done, is repeated from time to time, until the barrier has attained a height of about 25 feet, when a third wattle fence is con- structed, at a distance of from 5 to 6} ft. behind the inner slope ; and the top of the barrier is strengthened by means of a line of small fagots formed of pine branches, gorse, and other shrubs, which are half-buried vertically in the sand. The fagots, each of which weighs about 45 lbs., are placed at distances of 4} feet from centre to centre. During the time that elapses before the last fence is overtopped, the palisade is not raised, so that the width of the base is increased, and the top becomes broader and rounded. When the palisade, which is now moved back a short distance, is overtopped, it is raised as before, an additional wattle being placed in rear of the work ; and the building up of the mound by the action of the wind is continued in this manner, until it has attained its maximum height of from 40 to 45 ft., when its breadth is allowed to increase, until it stands on a base about 330 ft. broad. The foot of the outer slope is then about 100 ft. distant from high-water mark, the top being at least 165 ft. broad, and the slopes standing at 35 or 40 degrees. This result is usually attained in from 15 to 18 years, but the rate of the barrier’s growth is by no means regular. Strong and steady west winds are the most favourable; but when the sand is raised by squalls, it is sometimes carried inland in con- siderable quantities. The artificial dune must be broad at the top, and its profile must be such that the most violent storms do not easily “take hold” of it; but if these conditions are fulfilled, its maintenance is easy and cheap; and if the base of the outer slope be kept at the prescribed distance from high-water mark, the sea, even if it reaches it during exceptionally bad weather, does the structure but little damage. The surface of the mound is consolidated by fagots, 12 to 14 in, in circumference.and 14 to 16 in. apart, buried vertically to a depth of 16 in. in the sand, and projecting 8 to 16 in. above ground. It is also sown with gowrbet (Arundo arenaria), about 298 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 13 lbs. of seed being used per acre. This plant, which is a kind of grass,! with an underground stem and strong interlacing side-roots, has a remarkable power of keeping its head growing above the surface of the rising mound, the particles composing which are held firmly together by it. The sand subsequently left by the tide, either travels along the shore, or is taken up again by the sea and deposited elsewhere. An artificial dune, constructed in the manner above described, now extends along the coast for a distance of 125 miles, from the Gironde to the Adour. As soon as the further importation of sand over the country has been arrested by the palisade, and the covering of the future planta- tions has thus been guarded against, the sowing of the ground in rear of it is at once undertaken. ‘This is effected in successive parallel belts of about 20 yds. wide, commenced at a distance of 5 yds. from the line to which the inner slope of the dune will attain when it is completed. By beginning at this point, and working gradually away from the sea, the plantations are secured against injury by sand which has already passed the line of the barrier. If the sowings were begun elsewhere, they would soon be covered by the advance of the naturally-formed dunes over them. The land to be operated upon is roughly levelled, and a mixture consisting of 11 lbs. of pine seed, 7 lbs. of broom seed, and 5 lbs. of gourbet per acre, is then sown on it broadcast, a palisade being erected at its inner limit, so as to prevent the seed from becoming buried under sand, carried over it by land breezes ; this structure is moved back as the work progresses, so as to serve for the protection of other belts, as the sowing of each is in its turn undertaken. The sowings are carried on from October to May. The seeds are covered with branches and brushwood, laid like tiles or thatch, with their butt-ends towards the sea, and kept down by means of sand thrown upon them. The surface is thus temporarily protected, until the plants have had time to grow up and take hold of the soil. If the covering of branches is at any time disturbed by the wind, they must be at once readjusted; and should it be found that any damage has been done to the seeds or seedlings, the ground must be re-sown and re-covered with branches. The cost of the entire work is said to amount to about £8 per acre. We unfortunately did not see it in progress, but we saw some ground that had recently been treated in the manner described. We visited the artificial dune of St. Eulalie—Mimizan, which is 1 Syn. Psamma arenaria, Hooker. A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 299 now nearly completed, and M. Lamarque explained the system to us. This barrier, commenced eighteen years ago, is now about 40 feet high, and, all the ground inland having been sown, there is nothing but young pine forests to be seen as far as the eye can reach, What is now required is simply to maintain the artificial dune, which is done most scrupulously ; and whenever any move- ment of the surface commences, fagots are at once planted, and the surface is re-sown and covered. This operation was being carried out in places during our visit, and we were assured that, if such precautions were neglected, the entire work would soon be destroyed. We saw, indeed, two instances where want of proper supervision had already produced this result. The first of these was a few miles south of Arcachon, where the land was sold, in 1863, to a private proprietor, who neglected to maintain the arti- ficial barrier ; and, consequently, a “ white dune” is now in pro- cess of formation, and is gradually ingulfing the pine forest established behind it. Some endeavours have been made to arrest the movement of the sand by the erection of wattled fences inland ; but these are of no avail, and the trees are being slowly but surely overwhelmed. As we mounted the new dune from the side of the sea, we found the trees more and more deeply buried ; and at its summit we actually walked over the crowns of some which were completely covered. On the land side, the sand falls down in a steep natural slope, at the foot of which are seen masses of young seedlings, carpeting the ground between the older trees from which they have sprung. It is said that nothing can be done to remedy this state of affairs, on account of the conditions under which the land was sold, but special legislation seems urgently needed. The second instance was seen a little south of the Mimizan dune, where, the subordinate in charge having neglected his work, the wind got under the covering of branches, for a distance of several hundred yards inland, and thus caused the formation of a number of large holes or pits with steep sides. IPf these were not dealt with, the whole forest would soon be destroyed. Matters have already gone too far to admit of mere local treatment ; and the only thing to be done is to dig up the gourbet and other vege- table growth, and allow the artificial dune to be breached, so that the holes may be filled up by the agency of the wind that caused them. But when doing this it will be necessary to erect a wattled fence on the inner side of the damaged surface, so as to prevent 300 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. the sand from being carried too far inland. A fresh layer of sand will then deposit itself over the plantation; and when this has occurred, and the surface has thus been restored, the artificial dune must be re-formed, and the sowings re-made. We were assured that no other course is possible. This is an excellent instance, showing what incessant care and watchfulness are required to carry out an undertaking of this kind successfully. TREATMENT OF THE CLUSTER PINE. On our way from Bordeaux to Arcachon, we left the train at La Teste, and walked across the dunes to our hotel. The forest consists of pure pine, felled in some blocks at sixty years, and in others at seventy-two years, of age; but oaks (Q. pedunculata and Q. Tozza) are now being planted among the pines. After breakfast, we visited the Mouleau block, situated at a distance of three or four miles in a southerly direction from Arcachon. Here we found that, as elsewhere, the forest had been naturally regenerated with great success, there being a dense crop of young trees, ten years old, and from 15 to 20 feet high, upon the ground. M. Boppe explained the system of treatment adopted for the cluster pine forests of this region, The tree has special requirements in the way of soil and climate ; it will not grow upon limestone, and it cannot stand cold down to one or two degrees above zero (Fahrenheit), if prolonged for more than a week ; neither can it be grown profitably for resin at any great distance from the sea. It is most important, in the case of this, as of other species, that before the tree is introduced into any locality a careful study should be made, in order to decide whether the conditions are such as will ensure success; and a forcible argument against the introduction of new species during extensive afforestation works is, that these conditions may not be fully known at the time. For instance, the cluster pine was exten- sively planted in the Sologne and in Normandy between the years 1830 and 1880; but during the unusually cold winter of 1879-80, nearly the whole of these forests, covering in the Sologne alone an area of over 300 square miles, were completely killed off. This pine gives seed abundantly nearly every year, and its regeneration by natural means is very easy to effect. As we had previously noticed in the Maures, we found that, whenever the seed-felling had been made, there was almost invariably a plenti- A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 301 ful crop of seedlings on the ground; so that, if these could be protected against fires and grazing, the remainder of the trees might be removed, without fear of failure to obtain a fully stocked forest. The pine has long thin needles, giving very light shade, and the trees will not stand growing close together ; those only which are sufficiently far apart, vigorous, and with a well- developed crown yielding resin in large quantities. Thinnings are commenced when the young trees are from six to eight years old, and are repeated every five or six years, At twenty years of age there should be from 250 to 280 stems per acre ; and at thirty years, not more than from 100 to 120; this number being finally reduced to from 60 to 80, when, at the age of seventy or eighty years, the regeneration fellings are commenced. With this num- ber on the ground, the upper or cone-bearing branches are free, but not the lower ones; these latter should be allowed to touch, so that the natural pruning of the lowest of them may be effected. In order that the extraction of resin may be successfully carried on, it is necessary that the trees should have clean stems, free of ‘dead branches, up to a height of some 16 ft.; and in order to ensure this, it is usual, as an additional precaution, to prune away their lower branches, at the time that the first thinnings are made, that is when the young trees are not more than from six to eight years old ; but this should be done carefully, avoiding the removal of too many leaves at a time, as this would check their growth. The light cover of the pine does not afford sufficient shade to keep down the undergrowth of grass, gorse, heather, broom, ferns, and other plants, which spring up in dense masses, in proportion as the thinnings progress. These shrubs and herbs are much valued for litter and manure ; and it is customary to export them, with the dead pine leaves, for these uses, This of course prevents the accumulation of vegetable mould; but on the other hand, it is said that the practice is useful to some extent, in that, when they have been removed, the resin collectors can move about the forest freely, and the risk from fires is diminished. It would, however, be much more advantageous if an undergrowth of oak (Q. pedun- culata) could be established instead of these shrubs, M. Boppe suggested that the oaks should be planted when the pines are ten or twelve years old, at which age they have usually suppressed the shrubs that grow up with them; but M. de Monteil would prefer to put them in at the time of the seed-felling, and keep them from being choked by clearing round them. However this 302 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. may be, the introduction of the oak beneath the pine could not fail to be invaluable as a protection to the soil, The enemies of the forests are our old acqaintances the graziers and the fires; the former, mounted on their tall stilts, driving their flocks wherever grass is to be found,—that is to say, where the young seedlings are growing. It is said that article 67 of the Forest Code (which provides that grazing rights can only be exercised in those blocks which are declared out of danger by the Forest Department) cannot be brought into force here, which seems a great pity. Fires cause very great damage; for, not only is the undergrowth of shrubs, and the mass of dead leaves and needles on the ground, extremely inflammable, but the pine trees themselves are so also. Conflagrations are sometimes caused intentionally by the shepherds, who desire to extend the area of their grazing grounds ; but they are also frequently due to accidents, and it is said that they are sometimes caused by sparks from the railway engines, When they occur, they are most destruc- tive in their effects. In passing along the railway, at a distance of a few miles from Arcachon, we saw a large tract which was com- pletely bare, the entire forest having been burnt off it. Unfortu- nately there is no special legislation here, such as exists in the Maures and Esterel ; and nothing can be done but to cut fire-lines from 30 to 70 ft. wide, round, and at regular intervals through, the forests, so as to divide it into blocks of 250 acres each. These lines serve as roads, and as starting points for the counter-fires, which are lighted when occasion requires it, in order to pre- vent the spreading of the flames. On each side of the fire-lines, as well as along the main roads and railways, the undergrowth is carefully burnt off, so as to diminish the chance of accidents ; and every third year the lines themselves are dug up and all roots are extracted. This work, which is usually performed by women, whom we saw using a tool something like a large Indian hoe, costs about 5s. per acre of fire-line. The trees are sometimes attacked by a species of fungus; and it is customary to dig trenches round those which show signs of this malady, in order to prevent its spreading further. | While we were inspecting the old portion of the forest of La Teste, near Arcachon, to which allusion has previously been made, the professor explained to us that the resin is extracted from the trees, either in large quantities, so as to kill them in four or five years (Gemmage a mort = Tapping to death), or in comparatively A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 303 small quantities, so as not to cause their death (Gemmage & vie = Tapping to live). The first of these methods is adopted in all thin- nings of trees aged twenty-five years and upwards, and also in the seed-felling (of which there is only one), as well as in the final felling. The operation is commenced five years before the trees are to be cut down, and is continued for four years, the trees being removed during the fifth. The principle is to take all the resin that the tree can give, leaving it exhausted at the end of the fourth year: and to effect this, many cuts or wounds are made at the same time, their number depending on the size of the tree. Some- times there are three or four; but, in the case of large trees, there are as many as ten or a dozen, and sometimes even more. One result of this treatment, is to cause an abundant growth of seed ; and this fact has great importance when the last repre- sentatives of the crop are about to be removed, for it ensures the springing up of a full crop of seedlings. The effect is similar to that produced on fruit trees, by injuries inflicted on the branches, roots, or bark, with a view to obtain an increased crop of fruit. Trees which show signs of failing from any cause, commence to produce their successors. The second method, under which the life of the tree is to be preserved, is employed only for those trees which have been selected to form part of the final crop (arbres de place). They are not tapped until they have a girth of from 44 to 48 inches, which is usually attained when they are from thirty to forty years old; it is considered risky to take resin from them at a younger age. At first only one cut is opened, and it continues to run for five years, when another, on the opposite side of the tree, is com- menced, Then, half way between these two, a third and a fourth cut are opened in succession, and so on ; if two cuts are opened at the same time they should be at different levels, but the number should never exceed two. The above is the improved system now in vogue. But in former years it was not the custom to tap the trees to death, and the forest we visited was particularly interesting, as enabling us to see what the effects of the old practice were. Here we saw some trees of great age, showing as many as thirty-six wounds, and doubtless there were many more the traces of which we could not detect. Such trees are probably at least from a hundred and fifty to two hundred years old. They present a most remarkable appearance, the lower 15 ft. of the stem being swelled out into a VOL. XI., PART III, ¥ 304 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. sort of bottle shape, and consisting in some instances, of longi- tudinally detached fragments, through the interstices of which, light, entering on the opposite side of the tree, can be perceived. This bundle of sticks looks as if it would give way under the burden of the mighty crown which it contrives to support. M. Boppe had, however, something more important than this to which to call our attention, viz., the effect on the forest of this method of treatment, which, of course, since the tapping of every tree is continued until it dies, at a more or less advanced age, is almost exactly analagous to the selection method (jardinage). Here then was an excellent opportunity to observe the effects of this method of treating a species, which, like the cluster pine, has light cover. We certainly see a number of trees of all ages and sizes, some of them from 90 to 100 ft. high, and 12 to 13 ft. in girth ; but the ground is extremely badly stocked, much of it being com- pletely bare. When a forest is stocked with species of heavy cover, it is easy to keep trees of all ages growing together, for the taller ones do not interfere, by their shade, with the healthy growth of those which stand below them. But in the case of trees of light cover, it is impossible to obtain, by this system, any- thing but an extremely thin forest, for the young trees cannot maintain themselves alive under the shade of the older ones. For such species the regular system, with the age-classes grouped together, is the only one that can be successfully employed. On our way from Arcachon to Labouheyre we passed through some private forests, in which we saw a large number of kilns for burning pine wood into charcoal ; and we also inspected some ground which had, four years ago, been sown with a mixture of pine and broom, in lines 5 ft. apart. The young crop appeared to be in a flourishing condition. Near the forest house we saw some plantations of the cork oak (Q. occidentalis) and also of Quercus pedunculata. Some tea had also been sown as an experi- ment, but there does not appear to be much chance of its succeeding. TAPPING FoR REsIN. The cluster pine has large and abundant resin canals, the con- tents of which circulate much more freely in the sap wood than in the heart wood. In order to tap the tree, a cut, commenced near its base, is carried gradually upwards to a height of about 123 ft., but more rarely to 15 or 16 ft., and the resin, flowing A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 305 therefrom, is collected in pots and removed to the factory. This operation will now be described more in detail. Towards the latter end of February, the dry outer bark is removed by means of a special tool (barrasquite) from the place where the cut is to be made, up to a point some 4 in. higher than it will extend during the coming season. The bark is also cut off from a surface wider by about 1 in. than the cut is to be, the object being, not only to prevent fragments of falling bark from becoming mixed with the resin, but also to save the sharp edge of the tool with which the cut is subsequently to be made and renewed. Early in March the tree is again visited, and a wound of concave shape, about 4 in. wide, 2 or 3 in. high, and less than 545 in. deep, is made into the sap wood near the ground, with a peculiarly- shaped axe (abchotte). Below this a small curved zinc plate is driven into the bark, and this acts as a lip, to guide the flowing resin into the earthen pot which is placed below it. The wound 306 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY, runs freely for from five to eight days, when the upper portion of it is renewed by taking off a thin chip with the abchotte, and it is thus slightly heightened. This operation is repeated some forty times during tlie season, which extends to the 15th October, and by this time the cut has attained a height of 22 in. The semi- solid resin (galipot), of which the quantity is very small under this system, is scraped off by the hand of the workman from time to time; and, at the close of the season, the more hardened resin (barras) is removed with the barrasquite, and carried to the reser- voir. At the beginning of the second season, the bark having been removed as before, the zinc plate is driven in at the top of the old wound, and the pot, supported below by a nail driven into the tree, is placed immediately under it. The collection is then continued as before ; but when there are irregularities in the stem, or when it does not stand perpendicularly, chips of wood driven into the bark, and ingeniously arranged, guide the resin in the desired direction. The cut is increased in height by 30 in. during the second year’s work, and by a similar amount during each of the third and fourth years ; but during the fifth and last year the height is increased by 40 in. ; and the cut having attained a total height of 12 ft. 8 in., it is abandoned, and a new one is com- menced. When the tree is to be “‘tapped to death,” the cut is made to attain its total height in four instead of in five years. The pot, which is sometimes closed with a little wooden cover, so as to reduce evaporation, is, when full, emptied into a wooden bucket, in which the resin is carried to a reservoir in the forest, whence it is subsequently conveyed to the factory in barrels, each holding 520 lbs. When the cut has risen in height, so that the workman, standing on the ground, cannot reach it with the abchotte, he provides himself with a sort of ladder, consisting of a notched pine pole 15 ft. long, which he places against the tree, and on which he mounts to the required height. When the pot is too high to be reached from the ground, it is removed by means of a sliding staff, which can be extended to a length of 11 ft., and is furnished with a pair of metal arms to grasp the pot; but some- times a sharp, broad-bladed hook-like tool, something like the barrasquite, is fixed to the sliding staff, in addition to the metal arms, and with the aid of this instrument the cuts are renewed by the workman standing on the ground, without his being obliged to carry and mount a ladder. The method above described, which bears the name of its originator, M. Hughes, was explained to us A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 307 in detail, the whole operation being carried out in our presence, lt has this great advantage, that the resin is not mixed with any large amount of foreign substances, and that, as it rans down the length of a single year’s cut only, the loss by evaporation is less than formerly, when it was collected in a hole at the foot of the tree. The collection, which is usually done by contract, can also be much better carried out and supervised under the new method. It is said that a man and his wife can manage from 2500 to 3000 trees a year, It is very difficult to give figures accurately representing the annual yield of these forests in crude resin, but it is put down at from 200 to 400 lbs, ver acre, the price obtained at the factory being from 14s. 6d. to 16s. 6d. per 100 Ibs. It is also stated that a tree, tapped so as not to cause its death, yields annually from 64 to 10 lbs, of resin, a very large one having been known to give about 16 lbs. Some figures relating to last season’s sales in the Gartey and Pilat blocks of the forest of La Teste may prove of interest. The right to tap and fell, within five years, 7528 trees, aged from sixty to eighty years, and constituting the final felling on an area of 118 acres, was sold for £1592. This gives nearly £13, 10s. per acre, and a little more than 4s, 2d. per tree. The yield was estimated to be 245,055 cubic feet of timber, 125,158 cubic feet (stacked) of firewood, and 2082 ewts. of crude turpen- tine. It must not be forgotten that the above is the revenue for the last five years only; previously to this, thinnings have been disposed of, and the trees now sold have been tapped since they were about thirty years old. MANUFACTURE OF RESIN. When travelling from Bordeaux to Arcachon, we left the rail- way at La Teste to visit a resin factory close to the station. The crude resin, brought to the factory in casks, is, notwith- standing the precautions taken, found to be mixed with a cer- tain quantity of foreign substances, such as earth, chips, bark, leaves, insects, etc. After adding about 20 per cent. of the solidified resin (barras), scraped from the cuts, it is heated mode- rately in an open caldron, so as to bring it into a liquid state, when the heavier impurities sink to the bottom, the lighter ones rising to the surface. The liquified resin thus obtained consists of two distinct substances, viz., colophany, which is solid at the 508 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. ordinary temperature of the air; and spirit of turpentine, which is liquid and volatile, and some of which is lost if the caldron is over-heated. These two substances are separated by distillation in the following manner:—The liquid resin is allowed to run through a strainer into a retort, a small quantity of water being introduced at the same time. The rising steam carries the spirit of turpentine with it, and both are, after passing through a refrigerator, caught, in a liquid form, in a trough placed to receive them ; the spirit, being lighter than the water, lies over it, and is easily drawn off. The colophany is then allowed to run out of the retort, and passing through a sieve, is caught in a vat below. Thence it is poured into flat metal dishes, and allowed to harden in the sun, under which process the finer qualities attain a delicate amber colour. But there are several classes of this substance, distinguished chiefly by their colour, which is a guide to their degree of purity, and these are known by various names, and have different commercial values. The impure residue left in the caldron is distilled separately, and yields rosin and pitch. The raw resin collected from the trees in the autumn is harder and less valuable than that obtained during the spring and summer. We were told that, at the factory, 25 barrels (of 520 lbs.) of raw resin are distilled per diem in summer, and 16 in winter. The spirit of turpentine sells for 24s. per 100 lbs., and the colophany for 9s. per 100 Ibs.; but the purer kinds, for the manufacture of which only the most liquid portions of the raw resin are put into the caldron, fetch from 13s. 6d. to 14s. 6d., the price of the finest quality, known as Venice turpentine, rising to £4, 10s. per 100 lbs. Comparatively small quantities only of the finer substances are extracted. UTILISATION OF THE WoopD AND SUBSTANCES EXTRACTED FROM THE PINE TREES. The effect of tapping the pine is to cause a flow of resin towards the lower portion of the stem, which thus becomes charged with that substance, and is rendered harder and more durable than the upper part of the tree. The resinous wood is used for various purposes: very largely for railway sleepers, when it is injected with creosote or sulphate of copper. We visited a factory at Labouheyre, in which the latter substance is used for injecting A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 309 sleepers and telegraph posts ; and the superintendent assured us that, for pine wood, it is much superior to creosote. We saw many thousands of injected pine sleepers at this and other railway stations, aud were informed that they are largely employed on the lines. Planks and scantlings, of which a large stock was lying at Labouheyre, are sent for sale to Paris; while poles, extracted during thinnings, are used as telegraph posts and mine-props. Last year, when we were in the Cevennes, we found that mine- props from the Landes were employed there. Charcoal is also made in some forests. On our way from Labouheyre to St Eulalie, we visited an establishment for the manufacture of pinoleum, or pine-oil, which is used as a preservative for wood, and also, when prepared in a special manner, for burning in lamps, as a substitute for kerosine. The machinery was not working, and we were unable to study the details of the system ; but the light given by the oil, which is made use of to a considerable extent in that part of the country, is very good, and it possesses the great advantage of not being explosive. CHAPTER, LI, FORESTS ON THE ADOUR, NEAR DAX. The morning after our arrival at Dax, M. Delassasseyne, the Inspector, and M. Tellier, Garde-Général, took us to see some cork-oaks, which are grown, at a short distance from the town, like apple trees in an English orchard. Quercus occidentalis is almost identical in appearance with the cork trees we saw in Provence ; but its fruit ripens in two years, instead of one, as is the case with Q. suber. The trees, which stand isolated from one another, and are much branched at about 7 ft. from the ground, are visited once in every eight to fourteen years, when the cork is removed from the entire stem ; an average sized tree then yields about 22 square feet of cork sheets, which represent a net revenue of about tenpence a year. It is said that where Q. occidentalis occurs mixed with Pinus pinaster, it has here a tendency to drive the latter out of the field. We spent the afternoon in inspecting the communal oak (Q. pedunculata) forests of Tilhieu, situated on the right bank of the Adour, a few miles above Dax; they are inundated, two or three times a year, to a depth of 12 or 14 ft., or even more, The part 510 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY, of the forest that we entered first is of pure oak, forty years old, and about 50 ft. high ; it is to be felled at the age of one hundred and twenty years. We remarked at once that the trees had an unhealthy appearance. They were much branched, and had crooked stems, covered with twigs (branches gowrmandes) and lichen up to “ high-water mark.” Many of the larger branches were dead, while the stems were, in numerous instances, split by the action of frost; and it was evident that they required the protection of a lower stage of forest growth, which would remedy many of the existing defects. There were no seedlings on the ground, which was covered, in places, with ferns, brambles, a little gorse, and “ butchers’ broom” (Ruscus aculeatus). The forest is heavily grazed over by cows and bullocks, which, how- ever, do comparatively little harm, because the inundations, which leave a deposit of fresh soil behind them, prevent the ground from becoming hardened by the animals’ feet. M. Boppe remarked that natural regeneration is here very easy to obtain, for the oak gives seed every year, a plentiful crop occurring every second year ; and the soil being extremely fertile, growth is rapid. But the old difficulty of treating a species of light cover as a pure forest has to be encountered; if the trees stand too thickly together, they grow up tall and thin, and many branches die ; while, if heavy thinnings are made after considerable intervals of time, there is a large development of twigs on the stems. The treatment of such a forest is a very delicate operation, requiring much skill ; and the only way to achieve success, is to make light thinnings frequently. If this be not done the forest will, in all probability, be ruined. If it were possible to introduce a mixture of hornbeam, which, unfortunately, does not succeed here, this tree would serve to protect both the ground and the stems of the oaks, without interfering with their crowns; and heavier thin- nings, which would have a very favourable effect, could then be made among them. There are no kinds of harmful insects in this forest, probably owing to the periodical inundation of the ground. Passing on, we traversed a younger portion of forest, where the oak is mixed with a few elms and maples (Acer campestris) ; and, leaving this, we entered a block, in which the final fellings had been made, from two to five years previously. Here the rapid growth of the young trees was very remarkable ; those five years old having a height of 6 or 7 ft. The ground was densely covered, not only by young oaks, but also by a mass of tangled shrubs and A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. Salt brambles, which spring up immediately after the final felling has been made ; through these, the young oaks manage to force their way in two years, and they ultimately suppress them entirely. In this climate the oaks are not injured and checked by spring frosts, which occur so frequently, and do so much damage further north, We now entered the oldest part of the forest, aged from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty years, which has been subjected to uncontrolled selection fellings, and has, at the same time, been grazed over, chiefly by pigs and geese, which eat enormous quantities of acorns, as well as by other animals. Conse- quently, instead of finding trees of all ages on the ground, we saw a somewhat thin crop of old trees of great girth, which are branched and heavy topped without being tall, and are covered, in many instances, with climbing ferns, of, apparently, one of the species commonly found on the lower slopes of the north-western Himalaya. Under these large trees are seen dense thickets of bushes, between which the animals graze, and there are a few young oaks, of stunted and unhealthy appearance, which are not completely killed out by the cover, as they probably would be, under similar circumstances, in a more northerly latitude. For here the light is more intense, and they are, on this account, enabled to maintain themselves under cover of the larger trees ; but they cannot grow up, so that they do little or nothing towards the establishment of a regular gradation of age-classes. In fact the selection method cannot be successfully applied in the case of a pure forest composed of species of light cover, even when there is no grazing ; but when, as in this instance, animals are freely ad- mitted, the system fails completely. If this portion of the forest were to be simply closed at the present time, a large increase in the number of stuuted young oaks would undoubtedly follow, and some of these would push their way upwards in the more open places, but there would never be a properly constituted crop of sound and well-shaped trees of all ages on the ground. But, fortunately, an effective remedy for this state of things can easily be applied. In order to get a complete crop of young seedlings, grazing must be entirely stopped, and the dense under- growth of shrubs must be cleared. This latter process is found to act like a seed-felling, as it results in a marvellously dense growth of seedlings, which, a year or two after the bushes have been cut down, are sufficiently established to permit of the old crop being removed, and the forest is then completely regenerated, ol A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. We subsequently passed through parts of the forest where no grazing had been permitted for the last eight or ten years; but the bushes had not been cut away, neither had the old trees been removed, Here we saw a splendid crop of young seedlings in the more open places, and a quantity of suppressed growth among the bushes ; all that was wanted was to complete the operation in the manner described. When this has been done, the seedlings and bush-coppice will grow up together ; but, as has been previously mentioned, the oaks will soon push their way through the latter, and ultimately kill it out. There are here about 7500 acres of this sort of forest, all of which will, in due course, be subjected to the kind of treatment above indicated. We returned home through a block which is heavily grazed over, but contains some magnificent old trees of the most pic- turesque appearance, the effect being equal to the most beautiful parts of Fontainebleau. OhHVA PAY Bae Tt, TORRENTS NEAR BARREGES IN THE PYRENEES. From Dax we travelled by rail to Pau, where we spent a few hours, and visited the splendid public gardens, which contain beech trees almost as tall as those at Villars-Cotterets. Thence we went by Tarbes and Lourdes, and on a branch line running up one of the valleys of the Pyrenees to the terminus, which is on one of the roads passing through the mountains into Spain. Some picturesque but dirty Spanish peasants, homeward bound, were among those who left the station with us at Pierrefitte, whence we drove to Barreges. The drive was lovely ; the snow-capped granite peaks overlook- ing the stream which has cut its way into the Schist, and follows its narrow bed between almost perpendicular sides, often of great depth. Barréges is at an altitude of 4200 ft, and is used asa sanatorium for soldiers, its baths having the reputation of being peculiarly efficacious in the healing of wounds. After breakfast we started to inspect the torrent of Rioulet, on the left side of the valley. The hills are here, generally speaking, composed of firm strata, which are not liable to be washed down, and thus to cause disasters so serious as those which occur in the Southern Alps. But large avalanches are of frequent occur- A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY. 313 rence, and cause much loss of life and property. At a short distance above Barreges our attention was called to a large mass of snow, which, during the month of April last, fell into the valley, and completely blocked it up. On the opposite side works are in progress with a view to clothe the hill-sides above the cultivation and villages, and thus to reduce the danger from avalanches. We were now in a communal beech forest, which has a thin crop of old trees, with very good naturally-sown young growth on the ground; but there were many windfalls. We entered a nursery where young beech trees are raised for filling up places where the young crop is incomplete; and we then descended to inspect the large weir (barrage), which forms part of a system of works constructed in order to reduce the slope of the torrent bed. On one side of the main valley the strata are exceptionally loose, and the water, cutting its way into them, causes the sides to fall in; thus, not only is an ever-increasing area of the hill-sides themselves ruined, but much damage is done lower down by the rush of water, and the deposit of silt carried down by it. This is an example on a small scale of what occurs, with such disastrous results, in the Southern Alps. The system adopted for the treat- ment of this evil may be briefly described as consisting of a series of obstacles erected in the bottom of the ravine, and behind which the rocks, gravel, and mud brought down by the water are retained. The slope of the bed being thus reduced, while, at the same time, it is raised, and consequently widened, by these de- posits, the unstable sides receive support; and when they have been sufficiently consolidated, they are planted up. In this manner the forces of nature are directed and employed by man, to restore the damage they caused, when uncontrolled; much in the same way as they are in the treatment of the dunes, described a few pages back. The weir we inspected is constructed of masonry, and has a total height of 65 ft., including 20 ft. of foundations. It is one of those made when works of this nature were undertaken for the first time in 1862; and it was in the nature of an experiment. It is now seen that its design is faulty in many ways, and it cannot be taken as a model of what such constructions should be.! 1 On a future occasion the writer hopes to give a more complete account of the works undertaken in the Southern Alps, which are much more extensive and interesting than those which were visited near Barreges. 314 A FOREST TOUR AMONG THE DUNES OF GASCONY, On ascending to a higher level, we looked across the main valley, and noticed that a good many torrents were in process of formation on the opposite side, a mile or so below Barréges. The general appearance of the country led us to suppose that the bottom of the main valley was once filled by a glacial bed, through which the present stream has forced its way; and the secondary torrents, now cutting through the unstable sides, must be dealt with at once before they go too far. It is the intention of the Government to buy the land with this object. We next entered a plantation of Pin a crochet (Pinus montana, Miller) and Pin noir (Pinus laricio, Poir), planted in clumps, Many of these are dying off, and M. Luze, the Inspector, who accom- panied us, feels considerable anxiety regarding their future. It seems probable that the trees, having got into an unhealthy condition, are attacked by a fungus, and, subsequently, by the insects, which we found in many of those we examined, With regard to the system of planting in clumps, it is said that the plants impede one another’s growth, and that it is much better to put them in singly. These plantations extend up to an altitude of 7250 ft., larch being used above 6500. The plants are grown in temporary nurseries, which alone are suitable for mountainous regions, not only on account of the difficulty of carrying the plants over long distances, but also because the young seedlings should always be grown at the same level, and as nearly as possible under the same conditions as those in which they are to find themselves, when they have been put out. Before turning homewards, we had an excellent view of the snow-capped peaks, including the Pic du Midi de Bigorre (9440 ft.), which was close to us. We returned home by the valley of the Pontif torrent, which is in a bad state, but has not yet been taken in hand. This gave us an excellent opportunity of studying the condition in which these torrents are found, before the works to regulate them have been undertaken, Returning to Toulouse, next day we noticed that the lower spurs of the Pyrenees, which are well wooded, are, generally speaking, covered with a simple coppice of beech, cut in vertical strips. This tends to the formation of torrent beds, which indeed appeared to be commencing in many places. Thence we travelled direct to Nancy, where we arrived on the 6th of May. REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 315 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS, 1886, ON FORESTRY. In continuation of the investigations made on the subject in 1885, of which a Report appeared in last year’s 7'ransactions, a Select Committee of the House of Commons was again appointed on the 23d of March 1886, ‘to consider whether, by the establish- ment of a Forest School, or otherwise, owr Woodlands could be rendered more remunerative.” The Committee, which consisted of twenty-two members, met on the 19th of May for deliberation, and elected Sir John Kenna- way, Chairman. The Committee met again on the Ist of June, when Colonel G. Pearson, and Dr J. Croumbie Brown, were examined at considerable length. At the next meeting, held on the 4th of June, Dr W. Schlich, Mr Julian Rogers, and Mr Alex. M‘Kenzie were examined. The last meeting was held on the 18th of June, only five members attending, Sir John Lubbock in the Chair, when the following Report was agreed to :— “ Your Committee have taken some evidence upon the matters referred to them, but have not had sufficient time to conclude their investigation on account of the Dissolution of the present Parlia- ment ; they have, therefore, agreed to report the Evidence already taken to the Howse, and to recommend that a Committee on the same subject should be appointed in the neat Parliament.” It is much to be regretted that such an important investigation has been again interrupted, and that another season must pass over before any definite Report can be issued. The evidence tendered at the two meetings held by the Committee in June 1886, is of an interesting nature, and helps considerably in making the subject better understood. The gist of the evidence, bearing on the establishment of a British School of Forestry and the advantages that may be derived therefrom, is contained in the following extracts from the Report of the Select Committee, which was ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, on the 18th of June 1886. On Tuesday, Ist June 1886, the first witness called was Colonel George Pearson, who had given evidence in 1885, and in the course of further examination spoke as follows :— *“‘ Have you seen any reason to modify the opinions you expressed before the Committee last year?” ‘None whatever. Iam very 316 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. strongly impressed with the desirability of doing something to promote forest education in this country; or rather, to put it in the way of young men who may be desirous of obtaining it.” —“ You are just as strongly of opinion as ever that a forest school in this country would be desirable?” ‘Some forest education.” —“ And that not only from the point of view of our Colonial and National forests, but also with regard to woodlands in the hands of private owners?” ‘“ Yes; more especially with regard to the woodlands in the hands of private owners ; the others are more or less satisfac- torily provided for.” ‘‘ When you were before the Committee last year your evidence was mainly of a general character; but you were good enough to say that if the Committee were re-appointed you would make some more or less definite suggestions as to the course which should be pursued ; have you thought of any definite suggestions as to the course which should be pursued; have you thought of any definite suggestions to offer to the Committee?” “I have thought over the subject since, and I am prepared to suggest, not in detail but in a general way, what I think would be best adapted for the education of young men who would be likely to have charge of our forests ; more especially private forests.” “ Would you have the goodness to lay before the Committee the information you have prepared?” ‘‘ The persons for whom a forest education in England is required may be divided into two classes : first, those intended for India and the Colonies ; second, those who will seek employment at home. The education of the former is now, as far as I am aware, provided for in a satisfactory manner at Cooper’s Hill, save in one essential particular, viz., the want of a tract of forest for practical training. For the second no education has as yet been provided. They are of two classes, viz.: firstly, land agents, being young men of good position and education managing one or more estates, including the woodlands on them, with salaries varying from £200 to £500 or £600 a year; secondly, wood- reeves, wood-bailiffs, woodmen, and foresters, with salaries varying from £80 to £120 a year. There is no field, however, in Great Britain (at present, at least) in which an educated forest officer, such as we find on the Continent, might gain a livelihood. The main object, then, seems to be to provide a certain amount of practical education in forestry to supplement the present generally very useful education given to the land agent class, and at the same time to teach the wood-bailiffs and foresters who are employed under their REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. sky orders in our own private woodlands, not only the elements of sylviculture, but also the best known methods of conducting ordinary forest work, such as planting, thinning, pruning, the management of coppice, and the best way of disposing of the crop ; also, if possible, at the same time to provide a practical training station for the Cooper’s Hill forest pupils. It seems to me that the essential point, to which all others are subordinate, turns on the possibility of obtaining a sufficiently large block of forest, say from 3000 to 4000 acres, half in leaf forest and half in conifers, in a convenient locality, as a practical training ground. This tract must be placed under a trained forest officer; and for reasons of economy it seems to me that he should be the Professor of Forestry at Cooper’s Hill for the time being. Under him there must be a practical executive officer, with an ordinary woodman to do the work. If such a tract of forest could be obtained, say, in the Crown forests outside Windsor Park, the other details seem to me very easy. I should think that an arrangement might be made with the Professors of Forestry and Physiological Botany at Cooper’s Hill to give, at certain convenient periods, lectures in those subjects of a simple, practical, and useful character. The executive officer in charge of the forest should teach the pupils all kinds of practical work on the ground, including the estimation of standing crops of timber, and the measurement of fallen trees ; while occasional tours to see forest work in other places could be arranged for those who chose to follow them. In order that all societies and public bodies, interested in the good treatment of the land, should have an interest in the system of education, I think that the general direction and control should rest with a council or board, of which the Director of Kew Gardens might be ex-officio President, and the Forest Professors at Cooper’s Hill members, and to which the Royal Agricultural Society, the Highland Society, the Surveyors’ Institution, and similar bodies should send dele- gates, while two or three of the great owners of private woodlands should be requested to sit on the board. This board would be necessary to keep the teaching in touch with the requirements of the country ; and it should control the course of study, arrange for the examinations, and granting of diplomas, and regulate the scale of fees. It must have a paid secretary for correspondence. I do not think that any great expense for buildings would be necessary. There would be wanted a lecture hall, with desks, etc., handy to the forest, and a few huts, perhaps, for the students, who might 318 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. wish to stop there; also, perhaps, two or three cottages for labourers and subordinates. But I do not anticipate any large outlay, as the bulk of the pupils would live elsewhere. I should assume the probable expenditure as follows : Salary to lecturers, £500; resident lecturer and executive officer, including house rent, £350; wood bailiff, £100; paid secretary, £200 ; journeys and miscellaneous, £200. Total annually, £1350. I have not included anything for expenditure on the forest, as that should be paid for from the thinnings ; as for museums and collections, those at Kew and Cooper’s Hill should suffice for all. To meet this ex- penditure there would be the fees, not only of regular students, but it may be presumed of many wood-reeves and wocd-bailiffs, whom their masters would be likely to send there for instruction. The deficit, if any, in early years may very well be supported by Government. But it must be clearly understood, that to be success- ful, such a tract of forest must be under the absolute control of the forest professor charged with it, who must be in fact its surveyor, and subject only to the financial control of the Treasury. As for the pupils, it is to be hoped that most of the young men who seek a land agent’s career would gladly avail themselves of such a sup- plementary education with a view of augmenting their salaries in the future; that young men of a subordinate class, who seek employment as wood-bailiffs or wood-reeves, would do the same ; and that many gentlemen who are possessors of more or less acreage of woodlands would gladly send for purposes of instruction the men who now manage their forests. It is certain that all these classes would derive enormous beuefits from the establishment of such a forest school.” “At present the Professor of Forestry at Cooper’s Hill has no control over any forests in this country, I believe?” ‘* Abso- lutely none.”—‘“ And the Indian students go abroad for their practical instruction in forestry?” ‘It is intended ‘that they should do so. Ido not know that up to this time they have been anywhere; but I have nothing to do whatever with Cooper’s Hill, or the training there, and I know nothing except from hearsay about it.’—“ But your impression of the intention is, that they should go abroad for their practical instruction?” “ Yes.”—“ But you would rather that the Committee should get that information definitely from the authorities at Cooper’s Hill?” ‘ Yes.” —“ The training of a person whowas to occupy the position of a forester would, of course, be carried further than that of a person who was to be REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 319 a wood-reeve or wood-bailiff; but in many respects it would also be the same?” “Up to a certain point it would be very much the same ; but a person in the position of a land agent, who is to have the control and management of woodlands, ought to know much more, because he ought to know the effects of climate on species, so as to know what is suitable to plant in certain cases.”—“ There- fore there would be no difficulty in making the instruction which was intended for the higher grades very useful for the lower grades?” “They might be made to fit into each other. I ex- pressed myself strongly about that, I remember, last year.” ‘“‘ How long do the studies last in the French Forest School ?” ‘The training in the French Forest School extends over two years ; only it must be remembered that it extends over other subjects than forestry; there are about 45 lectures in forestry, the same number in botany, half that number in geology, and half that number in mineralogy each year.”—‘‘ How long do the Indian stu- dents remain at Nancy for that portion of their training?” ‘ They have hitherto remained there three years, that is to say, two years and eight months exactly, viz., eight months as a preparatory course before they went into the school, and during the remaining two years they followed the same course as the French pupils. In the preparatory course the pupils went through, in a preliminary manner, with one of the professors, the general subjects of educa- tion, so as to put our students generally upon a level with the French pupils, and aw cowrant with the subjects.” —“ In the case of wood-reeves and wood-bailiffs, how long would you propose to devote to their forest instruction?” TI should think from six weeks as the minimum to three months as the maximum, according to the amount of training that you might wish to give them, or that they might wish to have. A man of that sort could get all that it would be necessary for him to know in three months.”—“ You think that an owner of woodlands having an intelligent wood-reeve, if he sent him for three months to the school, would then find him fairly qualified to manage his woodlands?” “‘ Yes, certainly, three months would be ample for a man who ‘knew himself’ in a forest to manage afterwards, because he would at once pick up things when shown the reason of them.” * Although our forests in England may not be quite so well adapted as those in France and Germany for the purpose of this instruction, you consider that there are woodlands which would serve the purpose?” “It would be distinctly necessary to bring VOL, XI., PART III. Z ) 320 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY, in a tract of forest into what we should call order, and it would take years to bring it into what we should call a proper state ; but the very fact of doing that would be instructive of itself.”— “No doubt, after that process had been gone through, the forests would be more suitable for instruction than they are at present ; but I understand you say that even at present there are wood- lands which would serve fairly well for purposes of instruction ¢” “T think any intelligent and educated forester would adapt his teaching to the place.” “Out of the £1350 which you have estimated as the pro- bable cost of your forest school, a considerable amount, no doubt, would come back in the shape of fees; do you think it would be possible to form any estimate at present of what the net expense might be?” ‘It is very difficult to do so. I have talked the subject over with Mr Rogers, of the Surveyors’ Institution, and he thought that we might soon calculate upon 50 pupils.” — “That would be 50 pupils of the higher class?” ‘‘ Yes.” —“Therefore the expense probably would not be any considerable proportion of the £1350, and possibly after a time it would be self-supporting ?” “ We thought we might charge them £20 for the course ; if so, that would provide for £1000, and then you would pick up whatever you charged the wood-reeves. If their masters paid for them, no doubt you might charge them an appreciable sum; but upon the young men themselves, who hoped to get employment afterwards, you would have to put a low fee. I am not very well acquainted with the sums paid for education by those classes, but I think generally you could very soon either cover or nearly cover the sum.” —‘“Then there would probably be some young men who would go to the school with the view to obtaining employment in the Colonies afterwards?” ‘Yes; but I suppose men who would hope to get appointments in the Colonies would hardly get a sufficient amount of training here. The Colonies would look for young men who had spent more upon their education, who had been sent to Cooper’s Hill, and gone through a perfect course there.” —“ The young men who would be qualified for the Indian forest service would clearly be qualified for the Colonial forest service?” ‘Certainly ; for one or two who have failed to get appointments for India I have obtained appointments in the Colonies, and the Colonies have gladly accepted them.”—“ Is there any point which you would like to add to your evidence?” ‘JT think that embraces pretty well all that [have to say.” “Ts Cooper's Hill purely a place for theoretical instruction?” “Up REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. oi to the present time it has been entirely so ; but I have only been to Cooper’s Hill one day since a forest school has been established there, and, except that I know personally the people connected with it, I have no information about what they do at Cooper’s Hill.”— “Tt is not like the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, where they have practical and theoretical instruction combined ; there is no forest in connection with Cooper’s Hill to which the students can be taken?” “No; that is precisely what I wished to convey by my evidence. To my mind the instruction now given at Cooper’s Hill will be thrown away unless a tract of forest is provided handy to which pupils can go. I do not see how it can be carried on without it."—“ As matters stand, by the time the pupil gets into actual practical contact with forestry, he has probably forgotten all about the theoretical instruction?” ‘‘ Yes. The only way to convey instruc- tion is, after having been in the lecture-room, to take the pupils on to the ground and point out the facts. Unless you do that they do not believe it ; that is done most carefully in the Nancy College.” — “Then our pupils are compelled to go to Nancy for, what we call in medicine, clinical instruction; but the conditions of forestry in France are very different from what they are here in respect to climate and trees?” ‘No; I do not think there is much difference in France from what there is here. I sent Broillard’s book on forestry to one of my brothers, who possesses some woodlands, who wrote to me: ‘I am very much surprised to find that I have the same condition of things here as M. Broillard’s book indicates ; one would not have thought it possible that the conditions were so much the same upon both sides of the Channel.’ If you went to the Alps the conditions would be different, of course, but not upon the level in the centre of France.”—‘“ Have you calculated what would be the expense to a forester if you sent him up to study?” “It would cost him from 10s. to 12s. a week to lodge and board in some country inn, and if you added whatever the fee was, say from £5 to £10, and the journeys, that would be about the expense.” “ From the evidence you gave last year, you did not recommend that a Scottish forester should be sent up to Cooper’s Hill?” “No; Tshould hope that the Scots would establish a similar school in Edin- burgh, which would be in the same relation to their own people. It is better not to think of too many things at once; if you could establish one as a model, the others would be able to work upon it. I should never think the Scots would send their pupils to Cooper’s Hill; but if you could once start the thing here, I have no doubt a 322 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. similar school would be arranged in Edinburgh.” —‘“ You think that would be suited for practical work?” ‘Certainly, I think the in- struction would be practical; and if you had your lecture-room con- tiguous to the forest you could give both descriptions of instruc- tion; but you must have the forest handy.”—‘“ But suppose you had your lectures in Edinburgh, where could you take your young mento?” That would be the difficulty, unless any of the large landowners near Edinburgh would give up a forest to be managed in that way, as has been done by the great landowners in Bohemia, where the conditions are very much analogous.” “You think it is essential to a school of forestry to have attached to it a reserve forest as a schoolof study?” “ It is absolutely neces- sary. I think a mere teaching school is entirely useless.. I do not think that the young men who would go there would believe in it ; the theoretical instruction goes in at one ear and out at the other when unaccompanied by any practical illustration.” —“ In France is there any difficulty in obtaining such reserve forests?” ‘‘ No; be- cause the bulk of the forests belong to the Government. The Nancy school has a great part of the forest above Nancy, two divisions of it, absolutely at its disposal, with some oak forests ten or twelve miles off.” —“ In France is there any obligation upon the owners of woods and forests to place their woods at the dis- posal of the schools of forestry for the purpose of instruction?” ‘No, except by courtesy. We have frequently been into private forests, but always by the courtesy of the owner.” “‘T think you have said that any establishment at Cooper’s Hill would not meet the wants of Scotland?” ‘It is too far off.”’— “« And you hinted at the establishment of a similar forestry school somewhere in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh?” ‘“ Yes.’”—* An essential necessity for that would be a reserve forest of some 3000 or 4000 acres. You have made yourself acquainted with the management of some of the large forests in Scotland—Lord Sea- field’s you have mentioned, and Lord Lovat’s—am I to understand that they are tvo far distant from your headquarters, supposing they were at Edinburgh, or are Lord Mansfield’s, or the Duke of Athole’s, sufficiently accessible to answer your purpose?” ‘They are any of them sufficiently accessible ; they are quite sufficiently near to be utilised. The only convenience of having a forest belonging to the school is, I think, that no forest is really capable of being properly used for instruction unless it is under the command of the forest officer ; he must be able to transform it in any way he likes. The difficulty in respect to a Scottish forest school seems to be, that REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 323 it would require a larger expenditure to get possession of a tract of forest in which forestry might be taught.”—“ Assuming that were arranged within a distance of 150 miles, that distance is not, in your judgment, too far for the purpose of imparting instruction?” “No. In France we went to the forests everywhere. We put up in the village inns; it was no great expenditure, and I do not know why you should not do it elsewhere. Except in the forest of Nancy, where the pupils were taken in every day for ordinary operations, the other teaching was given round about; sometimes we went to St Gobain, Villars Coteret, and into the Jura. We travelled third-class, and stopped at the village inns, and there was very little expenditure over our excursions. But it is necessary also to have a tract of contiguous forest for daily teaching.” “ With reference to the reproduction of larches in Scotland, you stated in your evidence last year that the best reproduction you had ever seen was in the neighbourhood of Milton Castle ; can you tell us where that is?” ‘If you are looking from the Spey up to Milton Castle, it would be in the woods to your right front.”— “Ts Milton Castle the correct name?” ‘‘ No, they are the Milton Woods; it was not very far from Grantown, near Lord Seafield’s residence.” —‘‘ That was a north slope?” “ Yes.” “ Have you given your attention since last year to what you would consider the best school for sylviculture in England ; last year you had not made up your mind?” “T think the best plan would be to get a forest as near as possible to Cooper’s Hill, where there is now an educated forest officer, and put the forest under his charge with an executive officer under him.”—“Is there a sufficient amount of woodland close to Cooper’s Hill?” ‘ Yes, there are about 15,000 acres outside Windsor Park, from which I think a selection might be made.”—‘‘ Would you afford facilities for the visits of pupils to our larger forests for special instruction ?” “T think they would get there what was required for daily instruc- tion, in fact, for the exemplification of the lectures.”—‘ And what would you estimate to be the amount of forest or woodland which it would be desirable to attach to a forest school?” ‘TI think 3000 or 4000 acres would be sufficient, half in leaf forest and half in conifers. At Nancy they have 1600 hectares attached to the school; that would be nearly 4000 acres. There are two divisions of the forest, about 800 hectares in each. A hectare is two and a half acres. That is what they have considered necessary for the exemplitication of the lectures,”—“ But in the immediate contiguity of the college, from 3000 to 4000 acres would be 324 REPORY OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. sufficient for the exemplification of the lectures?” ‘* Yes.”— ‘That could be procured at Cooper's Hill, could it not?” “ Yes, subject to the approval of the Crown, because they are Crown forests. I only make the suggestion. I have no idea whatever whether the Crown would be willing to place that forest at the disposal of the forest school; but I sugyest that if it were pos- sible to obtain 3000 or 4000 acres of the forest which lie outside Windsor Park, the practical teaching of the lectures would be suffi- ciently provided for.”—“ For that reason you would prefer Cooper’s Hill to the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, as suggested by Mr Biddulph?” “Simply for this reason, that you have the Cooper’s Hill professor, whose business it is to be there; and I should think that for a reasonable remuneration you might obtain his services ; and he, on the other hand, would be glad to have a forest to which he could take bis pupils.” “You think that the science of the question bearing upon the larch disease would be well brought out in a school of forestry?” “ I think it would be one of the most useful things.”—‘‘ And then you think that our foresters, who are not generally highly-educated men, would learn sufficient scientific knowledge to enable them to put it prac- tically to a good effect in smaller woodlands, distinguishing wood- lands from the larger area of a forest?” ‘I should only give the foresters a very moderate amount of what I should call scientific training. I should only teach them the A BC of the conditions under which trees grow, and then I should take them to the forest and show them the way the trees grow ; that would be an enormous advantage. If you take our forest men, you will see that in numberless cases they cut off the arms of trees, leaving long snags, which everybody ought to knew is about the worst thing that can be done, because a hollow forms where water lodges, which works to the trunk, and tends to the decay of the tree. But if you talk to nine woodmen out of ten in this country, they will argue that they have always done that, and that it is the right thing ; whereas the experience they have had ought to have shown them to the contrary.” —‘“* The arms ought to be cut off flat?” ‘ They ought to be cut off flush. We have at the school at Nancy a complete set of specimens, showing the effect of the different ways of amputa- ting the arms of trees; five minutes’ glance at that would show you the truth of what I have stated. These were sections cut out of trees, showing where the snags had been left in, where they had been cut shorter, and where they had been cut straight, and the REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. £3 p29) growth of the wood over the wound. There are fifty or sixty different specimens showing this, and a quarter of an hour’s instruction to the pupils would convince every one of them at once, if they were at the same time shown the specimens.”—‘‘ Were those drawings, or the actual woods themselves?” ‘‘They were pieces cut out of the trees, and were shown at the Paris Exhibi- tion. Nothing could be better than that, because five minutes’ inspection and explanation to an intelligent man would show the different effects of having left the branch with a long snag, and of paring it quite close to the trunk.”—‘“ In regard to Cooper's Hill being the centre of the School of Forestry, have you any pro- position to make with regard to the establishing of an affiliated branch—let us say, of such a school in Scotland?” “I would rather not say anything about that, because I have not been in Edinburgh lately, and I could not speak from personal knowledge. But I think that the Scots must take it up, because it is naturally too far to bring Scotsmen of the forester class to Cooper’s Hill. But, as I have said all along, you cannot have proper forest teach- ing unless you have a forest under your control to which you can send your people ; and it would not be sufficient to have permission from the Duke of Buccleuch, or any other large wood-owner, to go into his woods, because his manager would say, ‘No, I have my own ways of managing, and I cannot have you interfering.’ ” ** You have expressed, on the whole, a favourable opinion of the state of forestry in Scotland as contrasted with that in England. In M. Boppe’s Appendix to the Report on the English and Scottish Forests, on page 47, he says: ‘We were also struck by the mono- tonous regularity in the height and age of the trees, unmistakable sign of their artificial origin and want of methodical management. The forest, here left to its own devices, continues growing just as the hand of man has planted it; the undergrowth is constantly grazed down by the sheep and cattle; and Nature, in spite of the immense resources at her disposal, is quite powerless to modify the work of the planter, or repair the errorscommitted by woodcutters,’”— “Tn that passage he seems to imply that, although the Scottish forests may be superior to the English, there is great room for improve- ment?” “ What he desired was to see the system of natural repro- duction introduced much more largely into the Scottish forests, considering that that would be the means of avoiding disease in the larch, and that, as Scots fir reproduces itself so very readily, it would bea great saving in the expense as compared with 326 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. planting.” —‘* M. Boppe appears to imply that, in his judgment, the beech might advantageously be cultivated more in Scotland than has been the case—that it has been somewhat neglected?” “In all my conversation with Scottish and other foresters in this country, their objection to the beech is that they have no market for it. In Buckinghamshire I have been to see the indigenous forests there ; but there is a large manufacture of chairs carried on there. In foreign countries there are a number of little things which are made out of beech, which nobody thinks of employing in this country. It is very difficult to get rid of beech. We do not use wood for fir- ing, which is one large use of it in France.”—‘‘ When you say beech is difficult to get rid off, you mean difficult to sell?” “Yes. In France it is one of the most valuable trees ; in Germany, since the introduction of coal and railways, it is one of the great problems how to sell the beech, which has been always used for firewood.” — “What M. Boppe means, if I understand his report rightly, is, that if you are growing oak or other trees, they would do very much better if you mixed them with a certain quantity of beech?” “ By ‘cultural reasons’ he means that it is so valuable for mixing with other trees, in order to get satisfactory results. He thought, and I think, certainly, that larch, if it were mixed with beech, would not be attacked with disease. We all know that the beech is the best tree you can use to mix with the oak, for example.”—‘ Does not M. Boppe wish to imply in this sentence that it would be of ad- vantage to the Scottish forests if beech were more largely used?” “Undoubtedly.” ““M. Boppe suggests that sheep might be advantageously kept out for the first forty years and the last twenty years, but that they might be admitted during the intermediate period of sixty years, and that the pasturage in that case would be very good: did he not intend to imply that, in his judgment, the Scottish foresters scarcely adopted what he considered to be the best rule with regard to the admission of sheep into forest lands?” ‘Certainly; it is a very important thing. If you allow that the life of a forest is a hundred and twenty years, you would have better grazing during sixty years of it if you kept them out during the first forty years and the last twenty years ; it would rest the land.” Then M. Boppe says: ‘It would certainly not be fair to hold the Scottish foresters responsible for the present regrettable state of affairs ; for, though they have for the most part admitted the inefficiency of the present system, they are powerless to effect any improvement so long as the landowners and general public REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 327 have not learnt to appreciate the manifold advantages to be derived from a regular and methodical management.’”—‘‘ That passage, again, appears to imply that, in his judgment, the Scottish manage- ment of woodlands might be very considerably improved?” ‘I think in that case he was thinking of the shooting, because I remember Mr Dewar saying, in Lord Lovat’s forests, that he was prevented from going into the forest for seven months in the year, and that in the months he most wanted to be there ; that he could only go into the forest for five months in the year, because it was the condition of the lease of the forests that he should not go into the forests while the red deer does were there. It was a question not of the forests, but because the contiguous mountains were leased for deer forests.” —‘Then in that particular case you think he was merely regretting that the forests were sacrificed to the shooting?” ‘I am quite sure of that.”—“Further on he says: ‘ It is, therefore, a matter of regret that among all the forests visited by us in our travels, there is not a single one suitable for the teaching of sylviculture.’””—“ There, again, he implies that, in his judgment, the Scottish woodlands might be much better managed than they are?” ‘‘ Undoubtedly ; but he rather alludes to the teaching in that paragraph.” —‘“‘But if a forest had been well managed it would be adapted for sylviculture?” ** Yes.” —“ He also was of opinion that there are very large tracts in Scotland which, properly dealt with, might be planted with ad- vantage?” “Yes, that is his opinion.”—“So that, while finding much te admire in the Scottish management, he also thought there was much room for improvement?” ‘I think he was of opinion that they knew how to get profit out of their forests very well ; but that they did not cultivate them so that they might produce the greatest profit ; that they rather sacrificed future profit to the pre- sent ; but that will perhaps always be the case with private forests, more or less.” —‘‘ At any rate his opinion was that, however well they might be managed, there were many points in which the manage- ment might be improved under a better system?” ‘Yes, he thought that instruction was much wanted by the bulk of the wood managers.” “Supposing that the Professor of Forestry at Cirencester was in charge of a certain amount of forest land, would that, in your judg- ment, be as good an arrangement as having a Government school ?” “JT went to Cirencester by the desire of the India Office to see what I thought about it as regards forest teaching. The principal reason why I thought it would not do was that, although there are 328 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. beech woods or forests, there is no fir forest very handy to it, and the education at Cirencester is a rather expensive education ; it would be difficult to dovetail the forest instruction with it. Still, 1 think that at Cirencester it would be a very good thing to have a pro- fessor of forestry for the teaching of their own pupils.”—‘“ Then your preference is not for the teaching of a Government school per se; but you do not see that in the case of Cirencester it would be easy to adapt their arrangements to the needs of a forestry school?” That is so.”—“ Your reason for thinking that it would be necessary to have a separate school for Scotland is on account of the distance?” ‘ Yes, quite so.” “With reference to the expense of Cirencester, I think one of your objections to Cooper’s Hill last year was the great expense of attending there, and that you thought that on account of the ex- pense Cooper’s Hill would hardly provide a school, which was very essential, namely, one for wood-reeves and wood-bailiffs?” ‘The arrangement I contemplated in my memorandum was only to have the instruction near Cooper’s Hill for them, but in no way con- nected with it, except so far as that the professor would have the charge of the forest and also of the education, and that practical education should be given by the officer in charge of the forest, but subordinate to the professor. I would not advocate the sending of the forest pupils to Cooper’s Hill for any other instruction.” —“ But that education would be quite distinct from the education given at Cooper’s Hill, which is given to engineers?” ‘Certainly. The only thing is, that there being a professor of forestry already there, by giv- ing him a few hundreds a year extra, you ought to be able to secure his services for giving instruction to other people.”—‘“ Suppos- ing that the woods could be got and placed under the control of the professor of a forest school, would not a forest school at Cirencester be more appropriate, that being an agricultural college, than to attach it to a college which is intended primarily for engineering ?” «But you have not got a forestry professor at Cirencester.” —“ But you suggested just now that you might have a forestry professor at Cirencester?” ‘But it is a long way from London, and therefore I look upon it that the bulk of these land agents, though there are some of them at Cirencester, yet the bulk of them get their educa- tion in London; and I think there is a great advantage in having your school as near the metropolis as you can.” “You stated just now, with regard to the School of Forestry in Scotland, that you did not consider a distance of 120 miles too far REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 329 off for the purpose of teaching forestry, in connection with the school at Edinburgh?” ‘‘ But I also contemplated that they would get into the Duke of Buccleuch’s, or some of these woods round about Edinburgh, for the purpose of daily education.”—‘ You would be aware that the Forest of Dean is very accessible from the Cirencester College?” ‘It is so, I believe.”—*“ It is only a few miles by rail?” ‘ But I prefer Cooper’s Hill. I think you would get more pupils at Cooper’s Hill than you would at Cirencester.” “ You came here more especially to give the Committee informa- tion as regards the establishment of a School of Forestry ; and I do not think we have had information exactly before us as to how long the School of Forestry has gone on at Cooper’s Hill?” “I think the Professor went there last September ; it is only just com- menced ; the pupils are doing their last year at Nancy now.”— “Then we must go further back, and ask you what steps the Indian Government took to have men educated for forest purposes ?” **T suppose it was in 1864 when pupils were first sent to Nancy. Dr Brandis organised a system of instruction upon the Continent, sending half the pupils to Germany, to Minden I think, one of the German forest schools, and the other half to Nancy.”—“ Was that under the orders of the Indian Government?” ‘‘ Yes,”—“ They en- trusted him with the carrying out of the plans?” ‘“ Yes, they entrusted him with the duty of organising a system of education. When I came home at the end of 1872 the pupils had got idle, and there was not much work being done. They were getting out of hand ; and very soon after I came home at the end of 1872, the Indian Government sent me to Nancy, to look after the pupils and superintend their education, and they transferred all the pupils very shortly afterwards from Germany to Nancy; so they were all immediately under my control, and there I remained eleven years.” —“ How many pupils had you under your charge ?”’ “ At first I had not more than three a year; but they increased very shortly after- wards, when six, seven, and eight were sent to me each year ; and of late years I had as many as twenty going through the three years’ course.” —“ Did they go free?” ‘At first the Government used to give them £50 a year to pay for their education; lately they had to pay 3500 francs, which they paid entirely themselves.” —“Are you speaking of the English or the French?” ‘ Of both ; the French had to pay for instruction there.”—‘‘ They were admitted by com- petition?” ‘Yes, and the English people were admitted by competi- tion, and after their examination (they generally had an examination 330 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. in January) they were sent to me at Nancy about the Ist of March, and from the lst of March to November they were going through a sort of probationary course under one of the professors, who took them into the forest ; they learnt French, and they got into the way of following the lectures. At the end of two years they passed out by a final examination, for which a certain standard was exacted.” —“ They paid how much each?” ‘‘The English pupils paid £144 a year and the French paid £120 a year, which went entirely for their maintenance in the school, because they paid nothing for their education. The professors were paid by the Government.” —“ The men going in for this education have to pay at Nancy about £130 a year for two years?” “ For two and a half years ; we used to calculate the whole expense incurred as some- where about £500, including journeys and the expense of the previous education.””—‘“ The French were also admitted by compe- tition?” ‘ Yes, the French were also admitted by competition.”— “‘ Would they also have to pay asum of £5001” ‘It was rather less for the French, because they were lodged in the school, and the school buildings were the property of the Government; they got in minus their lodging, but it was pretty expensive for them, be- cause they were charged for their uniforms and for the furniture of their rooms, and there were great complaints about it.”—‘‘ Is the Nancy school self-supporting?” ‘‘ There are two establishments in France, one at Les Barres for subordinates, while the Nancy school is for the superior grade. The Government grant was about 150,000 frances, or from £5000 to £6000 annually for forest education, but it did not appear from the accounts how much of the grant went to each school ; sometimes the Government favoured one and sometimes another; the professors were paid, and the school buildings kept out of the grant.” ‘“‘ Have the Indian Government ever made a suggestion to meet this difficulty of the want of a practical training station for their pupils?” Since I left the Government service two years ago, I have not been consulted by the India Office at all; 1 know nothing except what I have heard from my friends.”—‘‘ Do you believe that they have considered it?” “It is absolutely necessary they should do it ; but the present plan is that they should go abroad into the French or German forests for the practical study.”—“ Do you think that the Indian Government might be expected to contribute towards the establishment of a practical training station?” “ If they benefit by it, I do not see why they should not contribute.” —‘ You suggested REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 531 Windsor Forest as the most practicable station for learning forestry ; would there be in the area that might be allotted for that purpose varying conditions of climate, aspect, and altitude, sufficient to make it a good practical training forest?” “You would have to sup- plement it, undoubtedly ; but what is absolutely necessary for the purpose of practical explanation would probably be found there. I do not see how you can get on without something of the sort.”— “And you think it might be found for practical purposes in the Windsor Forest?” ‘‘I believe in the forests round about there it might be found.” —“ And, although 130 miles is possible to be reached from the school, it would be far better to have something you could see in the course of an afternoon’s walk?” ‘It would be abso- lutely necessary that the pupils should be able to go into some woods within an easy walk.”—“ With regard to this very interesting tour of M. Boppe in Scotland, have you any idea how the expenses of that were met?” ‘The Indian Government paid for everything ; we were met everywhere by carriages, and we were sent about very well indeed.” —“ There was nothing to show in the Paper that was handed in that it was entirely organised by the Indian Govern- ment?” “It was certainly organised by the Indian Government entirely. I was desired to go with M. Boppe.” The next witness called was the Rev. Jonny CroumpBie Brown, LL.D,, of Haddington, N.B., the well-known author of several treatises on the education of Foresters, and of works on various important branches of Forestry. In giving his evidence, which throughout bore directly on the subject, he stated as follows :— “You have kindly come here to give the Committee your idea of how or under what conditions a School of Forestry might be established?” ‘Yes. The particular point upon which I can supply information to the Committee is this: I know a good deal of the waste that is going on in our colonies. I have made myself acquainted with the most advanced furest economy of the day ; and I am also acquainted with most of the schools of forestry upon the Continent ; I have visited several, and I am prepared to state how I consider Scotsmen can be most efficiently, and at the least expense, trained up so as to manage our colonial forests advantageously. That is the particular point to which I have given attention.” —“ But the Committee are principally interested in our home forests?” ‘I am aware of that ; but the point upon which I can give infurmation principally is with reference to colonial 332 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY, forests, which are a large part of the British possessions, as much as India is, upon which much evidence has been already given.”— “The Committee looked forward with great interest to hear your evidence upon this subject; but we ought to try and confine ourselves as much as possible first, perhaps, to the necessity of such a school in view of the waste that is being committed daily ; and, secondly, as to what practical steps should be, and are possible to be taken to make up for that waste, and to raise up a class of men who will enable us to deal with our forests better than they have been dealt with hitherto?” ‘I will endeavour to give my evidence upon that aspect of the case.” ‘You have had a great deal of experience in South Africa with regard to the forests there, have you not?” ‘Yes; I know the waste which has been going on, and the consequences which have followed that waste.”—‘‘ When the Cape authorities were in want of a forest officer they had to obtain the services of a French gentleman?” ‘They got a French gentleman to look after their forests, who, when he went to the colony, could not, it is said, speak a word of English.”——“ Naturally they would have preferred to have appointed an Englishman if they could have found one competent?” ‘ Decidedly ; but there was not such an Englishman to be found.” —“ And that would be the case at the present moment ?” “Tt would be the case at the present moment, excepting that there are officials from India who have returned to this country, who might be disposed to go to the Cape as being a healthy settlement ; but there is not, so far as I know, an English forester capable of taking the management of the Colonial forests.”—‘ And there are only a very few Indian officials who are at any time available?” “Apparently.” —“And these the Government would be sorry to lose?” “T have no doubt of it.”—“‘ So that there is great need for trained foresters in this country?” ‘Very great need.”—“‘ Youare of opinion that the management of our forests and woodlands would be much more successfully carried on if there were properly trained foresters to do the work?” ‘Tam satisfied that they would be, but simply upon this ground: according to the advanced forestry science of the day, there is no hard and fast rule laid down for the management of any forest; but the students in the various schools upon the Continent are thoroughly instructed in all that pertains to the healthful growth of trees, and then they make their own appli- cation of the science to the circumstances in which they may be called to act.”—“ In fact, the establishment of a forest school would, REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 333 in your judgment, be a great advantage, not only to the colonies of which you were speaking just now, but also to the mother country ?” “« Very great.” —“ You think that a scientific education and a regular course of training on the part of those who have the management of them would very much improve the condition of our wood- lands?” ‘ Very much.” “Do you consider it would be necessary to have a tract of woodland closely contiguous to such a school?” ‘“ Not at all.”— “ But you would be of opinion that it would be necessary to have control of a tract of woodland, although it need not necessarily be immediately on the spot or contiguous?” ‘ I may state my opinion, and that is the opinion of the majority of the forest officials, forest administrators, and professors of forest science on the Continent.” —“ That the management of this particular tract of forest should be under the control of those who were charged with the instruction in the forest school ; is that so?” ‘No, not at all. The question has come up on the Continent in this form: a conference of German foresters, forest administrators, and professors of forest science was held, when the question was discussed: Is it desirable to have schools of forestry as separate and special institutions, or to have them connected with the higher schools and universities of the Continent. It was only incidentally that the question of forests came up in that connection. There were only three or four in favour of maintaining the old special schools in connection with the forests ; the rest, to a man, were opposed to it.” Then you do not think it necessary that the management of the woodlands in which the instruction is given should be under the control of those who give that instruction?” “ Although it is not necessary that it should be under the control of those communicating the instruction, it is desirable that there should be forests to which the students along with the professor may have access. They may be in the neigh- bourhood of the school; if in the neighbourhood so much the better; but they may be 100 miles off, or they may be 200 miles off. It is desirable that they should have forests to which they have access, but it is not necessary that those should be under the control or direction of those communicating the instruction.”— “ Supposing, for instance, the Cirencester College were to take up forest instruction if it had access to the Forest of Dean, that you think would be sufficient for the purpose?” “The principle would lead me to say so. I do not know the details of the Cirencester College, and therefore I cannot commit myself beyond that; but the principle involved would lead me to say so.” 334 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. “What do you think would be the most suitable situation for a forest school?” “ Edinburgh.”—“ Do you think it would be desirable to have one forest school for England and Scotland, or do you think that the conditions of Scotland are so different that it would be desirable to have twot” ‘“ My belief is that such tuition might be followed in Edinburgh as to fit English foresters for the management of English forests; but if, from national feeling or from disposition, it is considered better to have such a school as Cooper’s Hill, which is founded upon a very different model from that of our Scottish educational institutions, by all means let us have it; but my opinion is, that we could do all that is required perfectly well in Scotland.” —“ You think that one forest school would be sufficient?” “One would be quite sufficient, and there is an advantage in having one thoroughly equipped and thoroughly efficiently conducted institu- tion.” —‘* How far do you think a forest school for the use of Great Britain should be formed upon the model of the modern Continental schools?” ‘I am acquainted with every school upon the Continent, and have visited several. There are many upon the type of which a British school might be formed; there is no one to which, as a type, the British school should be conformed, much less any one which would serve as a model.”—‘* Which of their forest schools, upon the whole, do you think would be the one most nearly adapted to our requirements?” “If in Edinburgh, I should think the school in Spain.’—“If the school were established in Edinburgh what arrangements do you suggest should be made with regard to it?” ‘It depends very much upon the form that it may take. If it were a private enterprise, managed by the Scottish Arboricultural Society or the Highland and Agricultural Society, one form ; if it were connected with the Watt Institute, another ; if connected with the University, a third; if connected with the Museum of Science and Art under the Committee of Council on Education, a fourth.” — Which, upon the whole, do you think would be the best?” “I have a very strong conviction that, upon the whole, it is best that it should be connected with the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, if it were founded upon some such model as the School of Mines in London, or the School of Science in Dublin.” —‘“ You think, then, it would be better that it should be a Government school rather than be left in any way to private enterprise?” ‘It would be very much better that it should be a Government school.” REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 335 “Would you be prepared to give the Committee a rather more definite sketch as to how you would propose to arrange the sys- tem?” ‘One great advantage of its being in connection with the Committee of Council on Education is this: it is desirable to have young Scottish foresters thoroughly educated. They are fitted by heredity and by early training for giving themselves entirely to forest work ; it is, therefore, desirable that they should be specially trained. In connection with the School of Mines in London and the School of Science in Dublin there is ample provision made for the support of any of the students who require support, and yet it is not given as a dole, or as an alms, but as the result of competitive ex- amination and merit.”—“‘ Did you hear the evidence given by Colonel Pearson as to the staff he would think desirable for a forest school ?” “J did.” —“ Do you concur with that evidence?” “No. He speaks of Cooper’s Hill College; I speak of a school in very different circum- stances. The idea of having it in connection with the Committee of Council on Education rather than with the University is, that there is a possibility of a gradual development in the former case, whereas if it were in connection with the University you would be tied to one professor. Now it seems to the student of forest science as ridiculous to speak of one professor of forestry as to speak of one professor of medicine or of one professor of theology. If it were in connection with the School of Science there might be one individual, such as Colonel Pearson referred to, at first taking the whole management ; and there might be, at comparatively little expense, specialists obtained from the Continent to take particular branches of study for three weeks, or six weeks, or three months at a time, until it was seen from the results produced that it would be desirable to incur increased expenditure in getting a larger staff of officers and instructors.” “Have you prepared a detailed curriculum which you would suggest; a three years’ course of study?” “I have. My sugges- tions are as follows :— “First YEAr.—Winter Session.—Instruction to be given in the structure and physiology of trees and shrubs, and in the geographical distribution of forests; in the treatment of forests by Sartage, by Jardinage, by & tire et aire, by les compartments, or the Fachwerke Methode of Germany; in the application of this to coppice wood, with a view to securing, along with other advantages, a sustained production of wood ; and in the application of it to timber forests, according as the object may be to secure from these a maximum VOL, XI., PART III. 2A 336 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. size of timber, or a maximum produce of wood, or a maximum pecuniary return, along with natural reproduction, sustained pro- duction, and progressive improvement of the woods; and in measures to be employed in the conversion of coppice wood into timber forest, of timber forest into coppice wood, of mixed woods into either, and of either into mixed woods. With attendance on the classes in the University for the study of natural history, of mathematics, and of engineering ; or, with attendance on the classes in the Watt Institution and School of Arts for the study of mechanical philosophy and of mathematics. “ Summer Session.—Attendance on the classes in the University for the study of botany and vegetable histology, and of practical natural history, and of practical engineering ; or attendance on classes, if open, in the Watt Institution for the study of botany, and of mechanical and geometrical drawing. “ Autumn Months.—Tours of observation, with or without the teacher, in woods and forests in Britain, in France, in Germany, or in the north of Europe. “Seconp YEAR.—Winter Sesscon.—Instruction in regard to forest economy, forest legislation, and forest literature in Britain ; in France and in Germany, countries in advance of all others in forest science, and in the practical application of it to the management of forests ; in Russia, where arrangements are being made to introduce and to carry out extensively the improved forest management prac- tised in Germany and in France; in Finland, where arrangements have been made to manage the forests in accordance with the requirements of forest science; in Sweden, where the latest arrangements suggested by forest science are being carried out with vigour; in British colonies; in America, and in India, where have been introduced many of the suggestions of modern forest science, and the forest economy practised on the Continent of Europe. With the attendance of the classes in the University for the study of theoretic chemistry and practical chemistry, natural philosophy, and the practical application of the same; or with attendance at the classes in the Watt Institution and School of Arts for the study of chemistry and practical chemistry, of engineering, and of geology. “ Summer Session and Autumn Months.—Practical experience in the management of woods, or in the management of nurseries, to be acquired under the direction of approved foresters or approved nurserymen. “Tarp YEAR.— Winter Session only.—Instruction in the chem- REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. oot istry of vegetation and of soils ; in the meteorological effects of forests on moisture, on temperature, and on constituents of the atmosphere ; in sylviculture, as applied in Belgium, etc., to utilise waste lands ; in the lands of France, to arrest and utilise drift sands; in the Alps, the Cévennes, and the Pyrenees, to prevent the disastrous effects and consequences of torrents; on the Karst, in Illyria, to restore fertility to land rendered sterile by the destruction of trees ; in the United States of America, to prevent anticipated evils; in India, to secure desiderated good; in Britain, to increase amenity, covert, and shelter; and instruction in the injurious effects of cattle, insects, and various diseases on trees. With attendance on the classes in the University for the study of geology, of agricul- ture, and, if it be desired, any of the following: for the study of political economy, of conveyancing, or of bandaging and surgical appliances ; or with attendance on the classes in the Watt Institu- tion for the study of animal physiology, of German, or of French. I may add that in connection with the above stndies I would advise that a course of instruction should be given in forest botany, in forest mycology, or the study of fungi, in forest entomology, in forest ornithology, and in forest masology.” “Would you suggest that in such a school, if established, there should be any opportunity for research as to the differeut circum- stances affecting forest products?” ‘I consider that it would be exceedingly desirable. There are now established at the seats of several of the schools of forestry upon the Continent stations for research; they are not connected with the school, they are sup- ported by the Government, but placed at the seat of the school in order that the students may have the benefit of the professor there ; and in some of the schools I have referred to, as in that in Spain, where they have failed to secure such an experimental station, very great advantage has resulted from the students being encouraged by the professor to engage in research upon a smaller scale,”— “Would you propose that such a school should likewise make any experiments with regard to the suitability of particular soils, exposure, the combination or association of different trees one with another, and other similar problems?” ‘There are no objections to their doing so. These stations for research to which I have referred have an international connection ; when one is formed they communicate with the others, and state the particular department to which they intend to give their attention, and they leave the rest to the others, so that no two of them shall be occupying the same 338 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY, field of research.”—‘‘So that, although that might not be the primary object of the school, you think it would be a very con- siderable advantage?” ‘‘ Certainly.” “This elaborate course of study that you suggest is, presumably, only for those foresters who are to be employed abroad in public work?” ‘My view is that the students should be trained as stu- dents, and, if necessary, fitted for any appointment in India and the colonies, or at home, for their being thoroughly qualified scientific students of forestry, with the full knowledge of the practical appli- cation to be made of the science.”—“ What interests proprietors in Scotland more is the kind of smaller education to be given to the foresters to whom we pay, say from £80 to £100 a year; have you any plan to suggest which would lay down the principles for the systematic training of such men?” “TI consider that if such an idea as [ have thrown out were followed, such students could attend the Watt Institute at comparatively small expense. They might attend one year or more, and arrangements might be made for giving them instruction in the evening, so that they might support themselves by working in the nurseries in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. If it were considered unadvisable that they should go through a two and a half years’ course, there could be no difficulty in the pro- fessor giving a short summary of forest science in its application to practical forestry in fifty lectures or in a hundred lectures ; and the attendance upon such lectures, of course, would clearly meet the case of such persons as you have referred to. I have been long desirous that forestry should be introduced into our primary schools. The arrangements made at Kensington are such as would facilitate this being done at very little expense, and thus there would be raised up a body of well-instructed woodmen, forest labourers, and others.”—‘“ Colonel Pearson told us that he thought a sufficiently practical course might be given to foresters of this stamp in three months ; do you agree with that?” ‘I do not believe it. Referring to the views that are entertained by foresters, forest administrators who are Government officials, and professors of forest science, their general impression appears to me to be that it is desirable that when students are at college they should be at college, and that when they are in the forest they should be in the forest ; that they should be at the school the whole time, except on Saturday afternoon excursions to the forest, and then spend some time—say three months, six months, or whatever time may be allowed them — in practical work in the forests.” REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 339 “Where would you propose that they should go for their practical work from the Watt Institute?” ‘For practical work there is a number of forests which are conducted in an excellent way, and the foresters there, I have no doubt, would be willing, with the consent of the proprietors, to make arrangements for receiving such students for three months if there be a winter and a summer session, or six months if they have only a winter session. But, apart from that, an idea thrown out by Mr Mackenzie, who has charge of Epping Forest, was that a school should be established in connection with Epping Forest. And he suggested that the students should be engaged in practical work in Epping Forest, and that, after a year there, the students should go on to Windsor Forest for twelve months, or to some other of the Crown forests. I asked him if he would be willing to engage students from Edinburgh, paying them-wages and engaging them in the same way as students from the home college, and he said, ‘Certainly.’”—‘* Would the training in England be sufficient to enable a forester to carry on a Scottish forest with the different kind of trees and the different climate there?” ‘ Itis alleged that it would not. A meeting of the English Arboricultural Society was held in Newcastle a month ago, and one of the members spoke very decidedly upon the importance of having a school of forestry in the North of England, and some extensive forest at command. There is obviously an advantage in enlarging as much as possible the experience of foresters. Speaking of the Scottish foresters, I would say that I think it would be a very great advantage for them to be able to see a little of English forests, along with what they see in the management of private forests of Scotland.”—“ Then you think the general principles acquired, wherever the school might be, could be made applicable to the forests in which they were working?” “ Yes.” ‘Have you any experience of the present working in Scottish forests?” ‘ No.”—“ You cannot give an opinion as to whether they are scientifically managed enough to render them available for instruction?” ‘‘ The management in this country is so different from that which is followed in India, and upon the Continent, that, with the exception of gaining general information, and skill and handicraft, it would not suffice.”—“ It would not suffice for a man who had to go to India; but would it not suffice for a man ina Scottish forest?” “It would not enable him to manage a forest in the Colonies.”—‘ But would it enable a man to manage a 340 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. Scottish forest?” ‘It would be a very great advantage to a Scottish forester to have some months’ instruction in a college— there can be no question about that; but it would be also desirable to have training in Scottish forests to learn the application of the principles he had acquired to the woods he had to deal with.” “In regard to the waste that is going on abroad, is it your opinion that the value of wood will increase in this country?” “ Much will depend on the value of iron, and the extent to which it can be used instead of wood. One reason why so little attention has been given to scientific forestry in Britain, as compared with the Continent, is that we have fuel apart from wood at command, which they have not. We have timber brought from all countries, and valuable woods from all nations freely introduced ; and therefore there has been no necessity for the same amount of attention being given to the subject here. With regard to the relative price of home-grown timber and foreign timber, that is largely dependent upon the expense of transport. In illustration of the expense of transport to the Cape of Good Hope, I may mention that we could get timber from the Baltic at less expense than we could bring it from Table Mountain at the back of the city.”—“ May we take it as a fact that good wood, whether from our Colonies or elsewhere, is decreasing very rapidly?” ‘It is decreasing very rapidly, and the effect is not only loss of wood, but also an injurious effect upon the humidity of the atmosphere.” —“ Is it your opinion that in a few years, if iron is produced very much at the same rate it is now, and other things part passu, wood will become very much more valuable in this country than itis now?” ‘T have no doubt it will, from the dimi- nished supply ; and there are many purposes to which wood can be put to which iron is not now applied.”—‘ You spoke about various places where a school of forestry might be started. For example, you mentioned the Arboricultural Society of Scotland: would you think that that was the best institution to which to affiliate a branch of the School of Forestry; would it be better than the University of Edinburgh?” “My idea is, that the School of Forestry in Edinburgh does not require for the benefit of the students to have any other affiliated with it; there would be no difficulty in getting all the experience and observation that is required in those forests without there being a separate school of forestry established elsewhere.” — “Then you do not consider that it would be of advantage to ally a school of forestry with the Highland and Agricultural Society 1” «‘T do not think it would. Ido not think that a school of forestry REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 341 can be established in Scotland at present by private individuals ; it is necessary that some corporate body should take it up. On many accounts I think it would be advisable that the Government should take it up rather than the Highland and Agricultural Society or the Arboricultural Society, or any existing organisation.” —“ Have you formed any idea as to the probable expense of such an undertaking ; how much the Government would be called upon to contribute?” ‘TI consider that the cheapest arrangement would be one connected with the Watt Institute, towards which the Government would not be called upon to contribute anything ; but then there is the want of prestige, and I refer to the effect of prestige in preventing distinguished teachers getting pupils, and getting employment for the pupils when once they have passed through the course. The cheapest arrangement, combined with prestige, would be the establishment of a professorship in the University, because then we would have a definite sum, and we could not go beyond it. It would be more expensive, I believe, having a school of forestry organised in connection with the Committee of Council on Education; but it need not be much more expensive at first. The great expense would be, when once it has been seen, as I have no doubt it will be seen in a year or two years, that it is desirable to go on increasing the training staff.” —‘ But you have no doubt that a professor in the University of Edinburgh would answer the present purposes?” ‘ A great deal would depend upon the professor. You have no security that you would have a professor with the necessary encyclopedic infor- mation to succeed the first or the second professor, and there is very great danger of the professorship degenerating into a mere respectable sinecure. There is less risk of that, I consider, in connection with the Council of Education.”—‘‘ You would hardly expect, from a practical point of view, a forester who had not had any great training in this way, except practically, to attend classes in Edinburgh over a space of three years?” ‘‘ Hence the advantage of having what I may call an experimental or tentative course of lectures for one year and seeing what could be done, and then entering upon a larger course subsequently if this be found successful.”—“ It is your opinion that they could get sufficient information in the course of one year’s lectures independently of the practical experience in the forest?” ‘“ They would get the scientific information, with illustrations of its practical application.” —‘“ Then you propose that they should go into the practical work 342 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. of forestry at a subsequent period of their education?” Yes, and if they would attend the summer course they might keep the autumn free for this. The autumn should certainly be spent in practical work; and if there is not a summer course they should spend the whole summer in practical work. But, as has been mentioned by Colonel Pearson, on the Continent the students go great distances with the professors ; they frequently go into other countries, and if they had a professor qualified to take them to any of the countries upon the Continent of Europe, and acquainted with the languages, I have no doubt that this might be satis- factorily arranged. In the last number of ‘ Forestry’ it is suggested that they should go even to Canada.”—“ Your view would be that these young men should attend classes at the college as they attend other classes for the purpose of general education ?” ** Yes ; I consider that if in connection with the Museum of Science and Art it is only necessary to have classes in forestry, all the accessory studies can be pursued either at the University or at the Watt Institute according to the means of students. If a student be able to go to the University and attend the University classes he can do so; if he have not the means or the disposition to attend the University he can go to the Watt Institute and get a thorough instruction upon the accessory subjects, leaving no necessity for anything more being done but to provide for what are strictly forest professional studies.”—“ But you assume that the student would have to give up both time and attention to that particular study while at the University?” ‘That would be exceedingly desirable; but there are many young men who sup- port themselves by teaching while at the University ; and if the arrangements of the hours were such, and a forester wished to support himself by engaging in work in the nursery, he might then attend the evening classes of the Watt Institute for all the accessory subjects, mathematics, geology, road-making, and every- thing of that kind.”—‘“ Then he could pursue his course of instruc- tion during the ordinary curriculum of his University education ?” se Vieg:? “Tn this book of yours, entitled, ‘ Schools of Forestry in Europe,’ do you agree with this remark of Dr Hooker’s, where he says, ‘ Forestry, a subject so utterly neglected in this country that we are forced to send all candidates for forest appcintments in India to France or Germany for instruction, both in theory and practice, holds on the Continent an honourable, and even a distinguished, place REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 343 among the branches of a liberal education’?” “I agree with that fully.”—“ Do you agree also with this:—‘ Wherever the English rule extends, with the single exception of India, the same apathy or, at least, inaction prevails’?” ‘ Yes. Now, however, there is an interest taken in the subject in South Africa: there is also interest taken in it in South Australia, and a movement has been made in New Zealand since that was stated by Sir Joseph Hooker ; so that I cannot say that everywhere there is the same apathy now prevailing. There has been also a movement more or less important in Canada, and a very widespread movement in the United States of America, but at the time that statement was made by Sir Joseph Hooker it was the case.” ——“ Is it the fact that in Poland, Russia, Austria, Finland, Sweden, France, and everywhere in Germany, there have been established by the Government schools of forest science or classes in connection with existing universities ?” “That is generally the case, and many of them I have visited.”— “‘ Has not this arisen, to some extent, from the fact that from the situation of those countries the supply of timber for the purposes of fuel, and also for other purposes, has not been so accessible as it has been to usin Great Britain?” ‘Itis very largely so ; but it is also the case in the United States of America, in Canada, and in many of our colonies, that the country is being ruined by the destruction of forests, owing to the effect produced upon the humidity of the climate. It is an open question—I have my opinion upon it—whether or no-forests increase the quantity of rainfall: but whether they increase it or no, they certainly do affect the distribution of rainfall, both in time and space. The distribution of the forests may have arisen from the distribution of the rainfall ; but the forests once established, there is a very much more equable distribution of the rain in time, and of the rain in space. Besides this, great destruction has been wrought, and is still being wrought, by inundations ; and it has now been proved, beyond all question, by expensive experiments, and not only by experiments, but by extensive operations with results which have fully justified the undertaking, that there is no more efficient way of preventing inundations than planting the basin of reception with trees; and it is the most thorough way of doing so. —* In regard to the school, supposing that the students were able to spend three years at it, would you suggest that some such curriculum as is given in your book would be asuitable one for the purpose ?” “Tt would.” —* You do not attach the same importance that Colonel 344 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. Pearson did to having a practical training station upon the spot?” “ No.”—“ You think that facilities for lectures and study should be given, either in connection with the School of Art, or in connection with the University, if it were to be in Edinburgh?” “TI do, but in Edinburgh the Watt Institute is also known as the School of Art, and therefore I would say, or in the Museum of Science and Art under the direction of the Committee of Council on Education.” —“ And that those who profited by these lectures should have the opportunity of taking excursions into the woodlands of the dis- trict to see what practical illustrations they could draw?” “ Yes, both weekly excursions into the immediate neighbourhood, and more lengthened excursions between the sessions.” ——‘“‘ You recom- mend Edinburgh as the best place for such a school from your knowledge of Scotland; do you recommend Edinburgh in pre- ference to Cooper’s Hill, or in preference to any other part of England?” ‘In preference to any part either of England, Scot- land, or Ireland, I may mention, with regard to Edinburgh, that the inhabitants have, at the expense of £20,000, purchased the arboretum with the view of its being made auxiliary to a school of forestry. In Edinburgh the first International Forestry Exhibition was held also with this in view, and some thousands of the articles sent to the International Forestry Exhibition have been transferred to the Museum of Science and Art. There we have an Arboricultural Society ; all interest in Scotland in arbori- culture seems to gravitate towards Edinburgh. We have exten- sive nurseries in the neighbourhood ; we have woods at no very great distance; and an offer has been made of a cheap feu of extensive grounds, extending from the suburbs of Edinburgh to the top of the Pentlands, varying 1200 feet in altitude, and including different descriptions of timber, all tending to point to Edinburgh as a place with peculiar advantages in this point of view. Then the circumstance of having an University, where students able to pay for an University education may go for the accessory studies, and at the same time the Watt Institute, where tradesmen, and those whose means are limited, can go through a similar course of study, adds to the importance of it.” —‘‘ But there are some similar advantages to be had in connection with Kew, are there not?” ‘Ifthe arboretum in Edinburgh were made what it should be (it is now in the hands of the Government), I believe more might be done than is done at Kew with a view to the pro- motion of the study of forestry. The arboretum at Kew consists REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 345 largely of young trees; but the arboretum at Edinburgh consists largely of old trees, with every facility for making forestry a practical study.” At the meeting held on the 4th June 1886, Dr W. Schlich, Inspector-General of Forests, and at present organising the Indian Forest School, at Cooper’s Hill Engineering College, near Egham, Surrey, was the first witness examined, and, among other inte- resting details, he gave the following valuable evidence :— “Will you state to the Committee your exact position in connection with the Cooper’s Hill School?” ‘I am Inspector- General of Forests to the Government of India, and, as such, I have been deputed by the Government of India, at the request of the Secretary of State, to make the necessary arrange- ments at Cooper’s Hill for the starting of a forest school, as a branch of the college, at which officers for the forest service shall be henceforth educated.” How long have you been in the Indian forest service?” ‘Close upon twenty years.”— “You succeeded Dr Brandis at the head of the Forest Depart- ment?” ‘ Yes,” “You have expressed the opinion that, although you do not anticipate any panic as regards the timber supply from abroad, still there is every prospect that in the future the prices will tend to rise, and that woods now planted in Great Britain and Ireland may be fairly expected to be remunerative?” ‘“Thatis my personal opinion.” —‘ And that, in fact, having regard to the probable falling off in our present supplies, it is very desirable that steps should be taken to secure a better supply in the future?” “TI feel some difficulty in replying in a direct way to this question. The opinion I hold, personally, is that there is a fair field for investing a certain amount of capital in the production of timber. But whether | would exactly go as far as to say that it is desirable to do anything of that class would be another question. Still I think there is a fair field for investing in woodlands, provided the woods are planted upon surplus lands, that is to say, lands not required for agriculture. I do not believe that lands which are required, or could usefully be employed, for agriculture will under forest yield the same return on the invested capital as they would under agriculture.”—‘ The question as it stands is rather of a more general character. Take, for instance, the case of Canada; you have expressed the opinion, in your very interesting memoir, that ‘it is high time to take energetic steps towards the introduction 346 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. of proper forest conservancy measures’ into the country ; are you strongly of that opinion?” “TI am very strongly of opinion that it would, as regards the question here under discussion, be one of the most important measures which the British Government could take to introduce a proper forest conservancy into Canada.” —“ Then, as regards planting in Great Britain, are you of opinion that the surplus area is so great that extensive tracts could be set aside for forests without trenching upon the land required for agriculture?” “There is a considerable area of waste land, the details of which are given in my report.”—‘“ And though you do not wish to put the matter too strongly, the impression upon your mind is that a fair field for judicious enterprise exists in the extension of the woodlands of Great Britain and Ireland?” “ Yes, provided it is done in an economic manner.”—“ As regards Ireland you have expressed the opinion that there are probably 2,000,000 acres which might be advantageously planted in that country?” “That is a rough estimate ; about 2,000,000, I should say.” —“ Those 2,000,000 acres, as they stand at present, make a very small return; and you say that the ‘afforestation could, I have no doubt, be made to pay fairly, apart from the benefit which the people in the poorer coast districts would derive from the increase of work afforded near their homes, and the protection which the forests would give to the adjoining fields, and to cattle ;’ that is still your opinion, is it not?” “ Itis my opinion.” —“You attach great importance to the planting of parts of Treland, not only on account of the value of the products that would be derived from them, but also from the protection that would be given to the cattle?” “ Yes.”—“ As regards England, you say, ‘The total area of all waste lands amounts to 41,890 square miles. I am not in a position to state, at present, what proportion of this area is fit and available for forests, but on the whole it may, perhaps, be estimated at one-half, or 20,000 square miles in round figures. At any rate it is evident that there is sufficient room for a considerable extension of the woodlands in Great Britain and Ireland. Is that still your opinion?” “As far as the information at my disposal goes, that is still my opinion.” —“ You said, very truly, that in expressing that opinion you think it quite necessary that the planting and management of the woodlands should be economically and judiciously carried out. The establishment of a forest school would be a very important thing in that point of view, would it not?” “There can be no REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 347 doubt that the establishment of a forest school would be of im- portance, because it would be likely to disseminate better views with regard to the management of woods.”—“ Are you prepared to state to the Committee what the present arrangements are at Cooper’s Hill with regard to instructions in forestry?” ‘The Secretary of State in Council selects every year a certain number of young men from among those who have qualified in an exami- nation held by the Civil Service Commissioners. For instance, last year he selected five, and this year he has advertised for eight. There is a competitive examination held, and from those who stand at the top of the list he selects those whom he considers best suited for the appointment. Generally he begins at the top and takes those standing at the top, provided there is nothing against them; if there is anything against one of them he can strike that one out and take one lower down.”—“ Until now those young men have been sent abroad for their actual forest instruc- tion. At first a certain number were sent to France, and a certain number to Germany, but latterly they have been all sent to the forest school at Nancy?” “ Yes.”—“ Is it proposed that they should still go abroad during any part of their instruction ?” “Yes; they enter the ordinary course at Cooper’s Hill in Sep- tember of each year. They go through the ordinary course, generally speaking, until Easter ; and then at Easter they drop certain subjects, such as mathematics and geometrical drawing, and we substitute for those subjects botany and instruction in the different branches of forestry. Then, at the end of the first twelve months, they drop most of the curriculum subjects, retaining only a few, as, for instance, surveying and physics ; and their time is principally employed in the second year in the study of botany and the different branches of forestry, entomology, and, we hope, in acquiring also some elementary knowledge of law ; but the arrangements for that have not yet been made, because we have not yet arrived at the second year. At the end of the first year the present arrangement is that the students are taken for a short trip to the Continent for about three weeks, to a par- ticular forest managed in such a way as will be most useful or most instructive to our Indian forest officers. They have to study the system of management in that particular district as closely as it is possible to do in the time. That is the autumn of the first year ; and then, in the second year, having completed their theoretical subjects, they would be taken for three or four months 348 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. again to forests upon the Continent to study forest districts in various places and their management, to see the way in which the principles which they had been taught in the classroom are practically applied. We also use the forest near Windsor ; and I also expect that they will be taken on occasional visits to the New Forest, Forest of Dean, or to some forests in Scotland.”— “ Are there any facilities given to students who are not intended for the Indian Forest Service to take the course at Cooper’s Hill?” ‘““ No actual orders have been passed by the Secretary of State upon the subject, but I may confidently state that every facility will be given to outsiders who want to join the course, and I have just heard that one young gentleman proposes to join in September to study on his own account.” “Would outside students join the whole course, including engineering, or would they join the forestry course only?” “There are many who join the course on their own account ; in fact, all who take the chance of obtaining an engineer’s appointment at the end of three years. We propose that this school should be made use of by those who are not directly interested in Indian forestry. But the difficulty of not following the same course as the Indian engineers is, that those who fail to obtain employment in the forest service of India have a difficulty in finding employ- ment elsewhere ; whereas an engineer can always find work if he has failed to get into the Indian service. Having gone through the whole engineering course, he can almost certainly get employ- ment elsewhere, whereas if the arrangement for the forest service of the Indian Government were an open one, and a certain num- ber of appointments were offered for employment in India, those who failed to obtain them would probably be perfectly unable to obtain employment.” “The Committee have been informed that, at the present moment, there is a large demand for gentlemen skilled in forestry, and that there is no means of getting them; that in the case of a colony requiring such persons to take charge of their forests they have been obliged to appoint foreigners, through not finding any properly qualified Englishmen to discharge the duty?” ‘That is so to a certain extent ; but as far as the Indian Department goes, which has been mentioned in connection with that point, I should be anxious to correct a slight misapprehension by stating that the Indian Government has been most anxious throughout to assist the various colonies in that direction ; and we have sent Indian REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 349 officers to various parts of the world, to the Cape, the Mauritius, Ceylon, and Cyprus, for example; but those men are always returned to us again, for this simple reason, that the Colonies will not offer proper conditions. They want to have the men, and be able to discharge them again at their will and pleasure. At the same time, the Government of India, although ready to help the Colonies, says, ‘ We cannot let you have experienced men for the best portion of their working time, and then take them back again when they are becoming due for pension ; that is not fair. We will help you, but you must offer those men proper conditions, and if you want them for any length of time you must take them on permanently.’ The result up to the present day, with one single exception, has been that the men always return to us ; but we have been always ready to let the Colonies have the men if they will take them on permanently.”—“ Has the Indian Forest Service at the present day a larger number of officials than it requires?” “It has not; but it has always been considered good policy to help the Colonies in this way. We have a staff of about 160 superior officers, and if we let one of the officers go away, we can do with 159 until we replace him, The young men sent out from England are supernumeraries until they are absorbed into the regular scale, so that we can fill up a vacancy in the course of a short time.” “Do you think it would be better, if a forest school were organised for this country, that it should be a Government institution, rather than that the endeavour should be made to induce a private institution to develop a course of forestry instruction?” ‘I should think, generally speaking, it would hardly make any difference whether it were a Government or a private institution, provided instruction were given upon the right lines.” —‘ Colonel Pearson expressed strongly the opinion that, whether it were a private or a Government institution, it was necessary for it to have access to a certain amount of woodland of a character suitable for the purpose ; do you concur in that view?” “To train a real forester it is absolutely necessary.’”—‘‘ Dr Brown was rather of opinion that the instruction might be given mainly from lectures and books ; but you agree with Colonel Pearson that it would be necessary to have access to, and control over, a suitable extent of woodland?” ‘“ Will you let me explain what I mean a little in detail? If it is a case of officers of the class we educate for India, or if it is a case of educating practical wood managers 3D0 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. for this country, then it is absolutely necessary to have access to some forests in the vicinity which are managed in such a manner that they are fit to serve as training grounds. If, on the other hand, it is a question of giving some general ideas of forestry to land agents, as I have heard mentioned, that is to say, to gentle- men who manage large estates, but are not supposed themselves to carry out the real forest work, then a course of lectures might be arranged with occasional visits to some more distant forests. I should like to make a distinction in that respect.”—“ As a matter of fact, the Continental forest schools have in most, if not in all, cases tracts of woodland open to them for the purpose of instruction?” ‘Yes, that is true; in most cases they are im- mediately attached to a school.”—‘ Is it the invariable rule, or are there exceptions?” ‘It is not the invariable rule. I went last year to look specially at three of the principal forest schools in Germany. In the case of two of them, namely, those at Giessen in Hesse Darmstadt, and at Tharand in Saxony, the schools are in immediate connection with forests. A third, which is probably the principal forest school in Germany, is that at Munich. There the forests are not immediately attached to the school ; but there is a reason for that. The forest school there is part of the University, and the students who study there are expected to have already spent two years at another forest school of a class where there is a forest attached to the school, that is to say, the aspirants to forest appointments in Bavaria go to Aschaffenburg, where they study for two years, and there are forests immediately connected with that school. Having done that, they proceed for two more years to Munich to study forestry from a more general point of view, with the view of obtaining ultimately the highest appointments in the forest service of the country. I wished to explain that there was a special reason why there are no forests attached to this great forest school at Munich, where there are six professors of forestry, apart from the ordinary university professors.”—‘ And even in that case the students are expected to have passed a part of their course in schools which have a forest attached to them?” ‘ Yes, to do the thing properly, it is absolutely necessary to have control over a certain area of forests in the vicinity of the school.” —“ Now, with regard to the lower class of those who are employed in the management of woodlands, say, the bailiffs and wood-reeves, would you consider that in their case also a certain amount of REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. Sul! forest instruction would render them much more valuable as forest officers?” “I have no doubt it would.”—‘ You think that even if they went for a three months’ course, that would give them, though not complete instruction, still an amount of instruc- tion which would be extremely valuable?” ‘* Whether a course of three months would do that, I am not prepared to say. The curriculum for men of that class would have to be to a very large extent of a practical nature ; we would do best for that class of men by letting them work, as it were, in a sort of sample or pattern forest, and augmenting that by a series of simple lectures upon the most’ important subjects; as, for instance, a certain amount of botany, and a certain number of lectures on the principal sylvicultural subjects and the system of management generally. What I mean to say is, that it would be essential that a great portion of their training should be of a practical turn, and that therefore to do it without a forest immediately accessible would be simply impossible.”—‘“‘ Are you aware that there are a great number of landowners in this country who have a certain amount of woodlands, but not a very extensive amount, and that therefore it would not be worth their while to employ any person at a high salary, but who yet have to employ wood-reeves and wood-bailiffs ; and from the answer you have just given it seems that the practical instruction to which you have referred would be of considerable value?” ‘‘ Yes. If I were an owner of woods in England myself, and wanted a man of that class, I should, in the present state of affairs, probably send him as an apprentice for some time to one of those shrewd Scottish wood-managers ; or if there were a suitable school to which a forest was attached, which was managed in a satisfactory way, I should send him there for a time, so as to let him get a certain amount of theo- retical instruction.”—‘* Would you kindly supply the Committee with a rather more detailed statement as to the mode in which you would suggest that a forest school should be organised, having regard in the first place to the higher grade, and secondly, to the requirements of wood-reeves and wood-bailiffs?” ‘‘I shall be most happy to supply that.” * You have spoken of an area of 2,000,000 acres in Ireland as suitable for planting ; what is the general nature of that ground ; does it include bog?” ‘ Yes, to a considerable extent.”—“ There is a great deal of bog which is unsuitable for planting, is there not?” “Yes, there is, but there is also a great deal that is suit- VOL, XI., PART III. 2B 352 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. able ; anything that can be drained is suitable.”—‘“ Of course you are aware that a great deal of the Irish bog could not be drained from want of fall?” “That is so. I was only a short time in Ireland, and this report, from which the figure is taken, was written at the request of the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. I could only make a guess to the effect that probably half of the available area is fit; I could not go further than that.”—“ Have you formed any estimate of the amount of waste land available for planting in Scotland?” “I believe the area is very much larger than it is in Ireland ; practically 70 per cent. of Scotland is waste land.”—“ But it is not all suitable for planting?” ‘ Not all, but I should say a very good proportion was.”—‘“‘ Have you estimated the effect of climate and of violent gales, especially in the north part of these islands, upon the value or the profitable nature of planting?” ‘The violent gales will, no doubt, affect the returns where the woods are directly exposed to them, but I do not think that the loss would be so great as is generally assumed.”—‘ The late Duke of Buccleuch spent a great many years in planting a large extent of the south of Scotland ; anda year or two ago, in 1883, two successive gales came, and it was estimated that 1,250,000 trees went down; have you any know- ledge of a similar occurrence on the Continent?” ‘I was, last September, in a large forest district called the Bavarian Forest, which does not mean the forest of Bavaria, but is a particular very extensive district running near the boundary between Bavaria and Bohemia. I was not prepared for this question, and I could not give the exact area, but it is a very extensive forest district. In the year 1870, if I remember rightly, they had a gale in this large extent of forest which threw down so much timber that, in spite of the efforts of the officers in charge (and the management is a very good one), all the available labour had not removed all the timber in 1885 when I was there ; that was fifteen years afterwards ; some of it was entirely rotten.”——“ That of course would entail a very great loss?” ‘ A very considerable loss.” —** You alluded to Scottish foresters, and you were kind enough to call them ‘shrewd ;’ do you think there is a more practical knowledge of forestry in the north than in the south ?” * T do not know that; but I think there are more extensive forest lands in Scotland in the hands of one owner, and therefore, pro- bably, there are better forests there. There is more appearance of development in Scotland.”—‘ Your observations lead you to REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 353 the conclusion that all over the country there is a great deal of waste by ignorant planting and subsequent ill-management?” “JT should be afraid to give a precise answer in a few words to that. In my opinion, the best forest management of any area is that which is most in accordance with the wish and desire of the owner of that forest. Now the intentions and the wishes of owners of woodlands in England are often peculiar. One man may simply desire to produce beautiful trees ; another may desire to produce timber of a certain class; a third may desire to pro- duce the greatest possible quantity of timber that can be obtained from a certain area. Another may desire the highest annual return in money ; another may wish to have the highest possible interest upon the invested capital ; and another may make it subservient to shooting purposes. Those are all different aims and objects ; and I maintain that the man who manages the forest most in accordance with the intentions of the owner is the best forester.” “The ultimate profit of woodlands depends very much, does it not, upon the way they are originally planted ; whether the trees are suitable to the soil and the situation?” ‘ Very much indeed.”—-“ Do you think that there is a considerable want of men in England who are capable of advising owners of land as to that matter?” ‘I think there are a good many wood-managers in England and Scotland who are very well able to manage their business properly if permitted to do so.”—‘“ The usual men who advise owners in England are land agents, and, as a rule, those gentlemen have but small opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of forestry ; do you think it would be a great advantage generally that they should have an opportunity of obtaining a certain amount of knowledge of forestry, and the management of wood- lands?” ‘I should think that would certainly act very bene- ficially.”—“‘ And there would be no difficulty in making arrange- ments for that knowledge being given to land agents and others of that class if there were a forest school attached to Cooper's Hill?” ‘It would require special arrangements for gentlemen of that class.” Do you think those arrangements could be made ?” “Yes, they could be made.” “You stated that it might be well to send students to the Highland forests to study planting there; that would indicate your belief that the woodlands are sufficiently well managed to make them available for instruction?” “I would take the oD4 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. students there, because there are a great many things for them to see, but they could not see everything. I am now speaking of the pupils I am directly interested in training for the Indian service ; they could not see everything in Scotland.”—-“ M. Boppe expressed an unfavourable opinion of the management of the woodlands in Scotland, and said that they were not managed upon scientific principles; have you any knowledge of their management in those parts?” “I spent a fortnight there last year; I went into some of the Highland forests, and came away with a very high respect for some of the wood-managers I saw there. If the forests are not in every respect managed upon so perfect a system as gentlemen accustomed to look at it from a different point of view and under different considerations might think desirable, the reason generally was that the forester had to give way to other considerations than those of merely scientific cultivation. J came across certain men who knew very well how to manage forests, and whenever I criticised and said I would not have managed a wood in the way it was actually done, I always found that they knew how and where the mistake was; but they were also invariably able to give the explanation that it was the result of different considerations upon the mind of the owner. At present the foresters have to acquire their knowledge by a very laborious, and to the owners of the land a very costly, pro- cess; that is to say, by experience spread over a large period of years ; whereas if we had a suitable forest school we could, by gathering the experience gained in various parts of the country together, teach them in a couple of years what, perhaps, it takes men of their class twenty years to acquire by personal observa- tion. That is the principal advantage of a forest school; that it enables us to teach a young man in a limited space of time what he may otherwise spend half his lifetime in finding out.”— “ During which time he may make a number of expensive mistakes?” ‘* Precisely so.”—‘“ In your opinion are Scottish forests sufficiently well managed to make them available for the instruction of those gentlemen?” ‘As they stand now they are not.”——“‘Then why do you recommend they should go there?” ‘“T can show my men many points there; I can show them how in the most admirable manner to plant forests ; and they probably would see that better in Scotland than elsewhere; they might go a long way on the Continent before they would see planting so excellent as they would see in Scotland.” —-‘‘Then what is the REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 355 defect?” “That the management becomes irregular after- wards,” “* In addition to the forest ground that you would set apart for the use of the school, you would acquire ground for experiments in planting as well as in the treatment of trees?” ‘That we should do in that area.”——“ There are many parts of the country in which certain trees are better adapted to the soil than others?” “ We could not grow everything ; we could only in an area of that class show the treatment of a few species. But the object would be to teach the pupils the general principles on a few species ; and then, understanding the treatment of a few species thoroughly, they would be easily able, by taking them to some other localities where other species of trees are grown, to understand in a short time how to treat others.”—“ So that you would have to take the students not merely to Scotland to show them the treatment of trees, but to take them to other parts of England?” ‘ We could not transform the present area which might be made over to us into a suitable area in a hurry ; it would be a slow process.” “ Are you acquainted with Ireland at all?” “I spent three weeks in Ireland last year. 1 went to Cork and Bantry, and across to Killarney and Tralee, and thence to Limerick, thence to Galway and Clifden, and thence I went vid Westport to County Mayo, Bangor, and Belmullet, to County Sligo, through Donegal, along the north to Coleraine and Londonderry, I went round Lough Neagh, Belfast, and County Down, and then to Dublin.” —‘‘You did not see many trees, comparatively speaking, upon the coast?” ‘‘ No.”—‘* You are aware that in Queen Elizabeth’s time the country was densely afforested?” “So I understand.” —“ You, perhaps, know that it was densely afforested; you could see the axe-marks upon the stumps?” “I did not see that ; but I have seen stumps of trees in many of the peat mosses ; there is no doubt that there were forests there.” —‘ Then there is no doubt that it would be capable of growing trees if it were properly planted?” “There are proofs to that effect in the woods now standing there ; I have seen even beech growing upon the west coast of Ireland within half a stone’s throw of the coast.” —“We may take it that the forests in Ireland have almost entirely disappeared?” ‘‘There is a very small proportion now under forest.”—‘‘ That is from sheer neglect and waste?” “It has been cut down for various purposes and never been replanted.” «You suggested that it would be well for English landowners 356 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. who own woodlands to send their wood-reeves to a Scottish forest to learn something of forestry?” ‘ Perhaps I should be careful not to put it quite so general as that ; to a good Scottish forester, I would say.”—“ Would it not be the case that the instruction there would be somewhat imperfect, in view of the difference in the climate and the flora of Scotland from that of the south of England ; for instance, the Spanish chestnut would not be found in the north of Scotland?” ‘The statement I made was to this effect, that I should send him to a Scottish forester in the absence of a forest school; but, if there were a proper place for training, I should send him to the forest school.”—“ Do you think it would be better to have a school for England and a separate school for Scotland?” ‘J do not think the climatic difference between Scotland and England is so great as to make it necessary to have two schools for the two countries.”—‘‘ Would there not be a great difference geologically?” ‘‘That opens a very large question. It is generally found that, with few exceptions, most of our timber trees do not mind what is the geological origin of the soil so long as it has certain physical qualities; so that the geological question would hardly come into consideration.” “In the paper handed in last year, containing the report by M. Boppe with regard to English and Scottish forests, it is stated that ‘in the low-lying districts at an altitude of from 250 to 300 feet we found growing, both singly along the roadside and collectively in forests, magnificent specimens of oak, maple, elm, ash, beech, and lime. And again, ‘The mountain vegetation commences at about 400 feet above the level of the sea ;’ now, in the county of Surrey, would it not be the case that the deciduous vegetation, if you may call it so, the beech, the oak, and other trees, would grow at a higher altitude than they would in Scotland?” “Tf I correctly understand the drift of the question, I do not think that M. Boppe meant to say that that was exactly the limit; I believe that the distribution is to a very large extent quite artificial, according to what has been planted. I believe that in Scotland they plant the beech in the lower parts near the parks and places of that sort, and that in the mountains they plant more fir. At the same time it is quite correct that the oak in Scotland will not grow at so high an elevation as it will in England, nor in England will it grow so high as it will in France.” “You were good enough to give the Committee a rough esti- mate of the amount of acreage of waste land in Ireland and in REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 357 England. In Scotland you said that 70 per cent. of the land was waste; you have not stated how much of that was suitable for planting?” ‘That would require a very detailed inquiry. I gave a rough estimate for the three countries together, and then I dealt specially, at the request of the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, with Ireland. The one estimate of 20,000 square miles refers to England, Scotland, and Ireland.”—“ Of the 70 per cent. in Scot- land which is waste, according to your statement, have you made any estimate of what is really suitable for planting; have you considered in any way how much of the 70 per cent. of waste land is at such an altitude that it is not likely to pay for planting at all?” ‘‘There is a portion above a certain altitude which cannot be planted, but I cannot say at present how much that is.” —‘ Would you give the Committee any idea of the limit where you have seen the larch in Scotch forests?” “I think the larch in Scotland does fairly well up to 2000 ft.; above that it does not pay. I have seen it planted up to about 2500 or 2600 ft., and I thought that it did fairly well up to about 2000 feet. Probably it would have been better if they had stopped at about 1800 ft.; in some parts they might go up to 2000 ft. It depends a great deal upon the locality, but I do not think it would pay generally to plant it above 1800 to 2000 ft.".—“ In the event of a forest school being established in connection with Cooper’s Hill, would you recommend that all young men from Scot- land should be obliged to come so far as to the south of England in order to obtain the information and knowledge which is desirable upon that subject ; because the distance from the north of England or Scotland, where we want a number of young men trained in forestry, would be a considerable element?” ‘ I should say it is a matter of expense. If you have money to establish the two forest schools, it would be better to start the two; if you have not the money, and, what is also a very important thing, if you have not yet a sufficient number of people to select your teachers and professors from, it is probably better to begin with one school.”—‘‘ Upon the whole, if the conditions were favourable, you think it would be more satisfactory to have, in addition to the school at Cooper’s Hill, a forestry school in Scotland?” “T am not prepared to subscribe to that statement. There would probably be a great deal of difficulty in making satisfactory arrangements in one place, and if you start with two or three places the difficulties would be doubled and trebled, It is, how- 3508 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY, ever, principally a matter of expense ; if you can have two schools so much the better.”-—“* We have been told in this room that it would be desirable, in addition to there being a forestry school in England, that there should be a similar establishment, or possibly two similar establishments, in Scotland. Do you consider a similar establishment, if it could be arranged, would be as desirable in Scotland as it would be at Cooper’s Hill?” ‘To begin with, I do not think there would be a sufficient number of men to fill two schools.” —“ But the amount of the woodlands in Scotland being so large, are we not likely to require the advantages of education in forestry quite as much as those who are further south?” “No doubt; it is simply a matter of expense; of course it would be desirable for the Scottish foresters to have the school nearer home.”—‘ We have heard that if it is desirable that there should be one school of forestry in Great Britain, it is highly desirable that it should be upon the other side of the Tweed and not upon this?” ‘There may be a practical reason for its being at Cooper’s Hill. Seeing that we have already got an establishment at Cooper’s Hill, and that the Government of India will probably always select the best men they can find to conduct that business, you have already offered you there condi- tions which you might not be able to find elsewhere, therefore it would be probably easier at starting to make a beginning here than in Scotland. But I will go so far as to say this, that if Cooper’s Hill was at Perth, and the Government of India had made arrangements for training their officers at Perth, it would be certainly better there than that it should be at Cooper's Hill. The forests round there could be much more easily brought into condition for teaching than round about Windsor.”—‘ If the thing were first starting, you think that Perth or somewhere in the neighbourhood of the large Scottish forests, would be better than the establishment of a forest school in the south of England?” “ Tf I started with everything blank before me I would have the school in Scotland.”—‘‘ With regard to the low price of home- grown timber, you mentioned the intermittent character of the supplies from our woods, and Sir Herbert Maxwell asked you a question with regard to the destruction of the Duke of Buccleuch’s woods in 1883. Could you suggest any way in which we could avoid these intermittent sales of timber, which, as you say, diminish our profits ; or could you tell the Committee of any way than by casual operations we can increase our sales?” “J REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 359 believe the large Scottish forest owners would very considerably increase their returns from the forests if they decided to work their forests systematically. Supposing those lands were in the hands of the State, and the State were to say, we will make a working plan of operations; we will cut down so much every year for the next thirty years. Suppose the Government made an announcement of that sort, the result would be that enter- prising people would take to trading in timber, because they could rely for a series of years upon a stated quantity being thrown into the market. Under present circumstances a Scottish owner one year cuts down perhaps a 1000 acres, and the next year perhaps some other consideration arises ; perhaps he does not want money, or somebody gives him £1000 for the right of shooting the deer upon the forest ; then the merchant will be left high and dry.” “ You made a distinction, as regards the management of woods, between woods managed upon commercial principles and woods managed according to the express views and tastes of the owner?” “T made that distinction.” —‘“ Looking upon this question purely in a commercial light, do you think that the establishment of a school of forestry would tend to increase the value of our wood- lands by drawing attention to the defects in the management of our woodlands as a question of commerce, quite apart from the treatment of timber according to the views or tastes of the owner ?” “T think it would ; it would be a saving of time if nothing else.” “ Do you think the remark has had any foundation, that more success would be attained if greater care were paid to planting protection belts round the conifers?” ‘There are some plants which are flat-rooted and some deep-rooted. Upon the Continent they pay great attention where there is danger anticipated from storms to having deep-rooted species upon the windy side. There is no doubt more attention is paid to that on the Continent than there is in Scotland ; I have seen in the Thuringian Forest mixed forests of spruce and silver fir; the trees were standing in rows ; and upon the windy side, where they had for the leading tree a silver fir, they stood well, and where the leading tree had been a spruce they were all blown down.”—‘“ Do you think much of the damage which now occurs might be prevented by the adoption of some such principle?” “ Yes, very much ; but damage by storms will always occur.”—“ As to whether there should be one or two schools of forestry, that would depend upon the number of 360 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. students that would be likely to go there. In your opinion it would be better to have one well-equipped school than to have two not so well provided?” ‘ Yes, certainly; I believe that for some years to come there will not be more students than could be properly taught at one school.”—‘‘ You do not think that the distance the students would have to come would be so important a consideration as that of having a forest school thoroughly well equipped?” “T think not.”—‘‘ Do you consider that one advan- tage of a forest school would be, that there might be a certain amount of research into different questions as to the habits of insects and other matters of that sort bearing upon the manage- ment of woodlands?” ‘That is a matter I attach special im- portance to; it will form a centre of research upon questions connected with all departments of forestry ; the facts as they are observed in different parts of the country will be brought together.” —‘* You think we have a great deal to learn which even the most experienced foresters are not acquainted with?” “A very great deal indeed.”——“ And you would attach great importance to the mere fact of teaching young men what we ourselves have ob- served?” ‘“T would attach very great importance to that.”— ** At Cooper’s Hill you are proposing to utilise, for the purpose of instruction, certain portions of Windsor Forest?” ‘If they can be made available.”—‘“ That is the idea?” “ Yes.”—“ Have you visited the Forest of Dean?” ‘I have spent a couple of days there.”—“ The Windsor Forest has been chosen mainly as being nearer Cooper’s Hill?” “It has.”—‘‘ Would the Forest of Dean be as suitable?” ‘The Forest of Dean in its present state is very uniform ; there is not much variety ; itis principally oak.” —‘ Then it would be good as far as the oak is concerned, but not good in other respects?” “Ido not think the Forest of Dean is of a specially suitable character for our purposes; it is too uniform,”—‘ Are there any other woodlands in this country that you think would be suitable?” ‘I should say that even the New Forest would be a better field of instruction than the Forest of Dean, because there is more variety.” ——‘‘ You think that there are in the New Forest woodlands which might be suitable for the purpose?” “To a certain extent.”—‘“ Reverting for a moment to the question with reference to belts of hardwood trees as a pro- tection to the growing firs, would trees, such as the birch, for instance, grow up quickly enough to give protection, because that protection is required mostly when the firs have grown to a con- REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 361 siderable height ; would the birch be suitable for that purpose ?” ‘Tt would be suitable to a very fair extent; but it is not one of the best. The birch is not a very deep-rooted tree, but it has a thin crown, and consequently it is not often thrown, There are other trees which would stand more firmly, but in many places the birch in this respect is a very useful tree, where perhaps it would not be possible to grow another tree that would stand more firmly.”—‘“ The beech would be suitable, would it not?” “Where the birch would come in the beech would probably be out of the question ; the birch is a much harder tree, and it has an enormous power of accommodation ; it will accommodate itself to almost any circumstances.” —‘‘ What sort of height would you consider that a tree would require to grow to be a protection to the firs; because the time of great danger to our Scottish wood- lands would be when they were from thirty to forty years old?” ** Old trees are much more liable to be thrown than young trees ; the fringe would grow up with the rest of the forest.”—“ In one case you would have a slow growing hardwood tree and a very fast growing softwood tree?” “No doubt.”—‘ But the birch answers very fairly as a belt, and breaks the wind to a very consider- able extent?” ‘It does break the wind to a considerable extent.” “From what you say it appears that there would not be a very great demand for men who have acquired technical knowledge in regard to this question after two or three years’ study?” “I understand you to mean men who have gone through an extended course of two or three years?” “Yes?” “Ido not think that outside the Indian Forest Department the demand would be very large.” —“ If there were such a class of men as independent men in private practice, it seems to me that they would fulfil the want referred to, by going out and advising landowners in regard to private properties?” ‘I have a difficulty in replying to that question, for this reason, that even men who have been trained in a course of two years or so would not be the proper persons to be employed as advisers upon such a matter as forest management ; generally speaking, they would be good managers of a forest estate; but for giving advice after an examination of a limited duration nobody should be employed who had not had some years of practical experience himself in a forest ; owners would probably save a good deal of money by attending to this.”—“ In view of the forests of this country being in the hands of private owners, is not there a great need that those who manage those forests for 362 REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. the private owners should have an opportunity of acquiring technical instruction in forestry with a view to their conducting the business of their employers?” ‘I have no doubt that there is a certain demand for that talent.”—‘‘ Do you think that that instruction could be given by the School of Forestry?” “ All those things are matters of expense; that could certainly be arranged.” ‘‘ With regard to what you have said as to there not being a large demand for forest officials, we have in our colonies an enormous tract of woodland, have we not?” ‘“ Yes.”—‘ And none of them have any forest school at all at present?” ‘No, L do not think so.”—“ Would it not be likely that if there were a class of English speaking officials, the colonies would be very glad to avail themselves, and they would be very wise to avail themselves, of their services?” ‘They would be very wise indeed. I think I have heard of almost every case of that class which has turned up, where a man was wanted for the colonies ; and I think it is a melancholy fact that I could count them almost on the fingers of one hand, At the same time I have no doubt that many of the colonies are waking up to the im- portance of the matter now, and that some years hence the demand for men of that class will very much increase.”—“ The attention which has been called to the question will probably lead the colonies to pay more attention to their woodlands in the future than they have done in the past?” ‘I have no doubt it must come to that.”—‘‘ Do you not think that large landowners would be willing to get the services of men who have been thoroughly trained rather than to take the advice of men who had gained their experience through a series of twenty years of expen- sive mistakes?” “If they consulted their purse no doubt they would.”—“ You think there would be a considerable desire to gain that training?” “I think it would be a very good step to do so; but whether we should secure at first a large number of pupils I doubt. It was in regard to whether there should be two schools that I said there would be at first but a small demand, but after the school had been established and successfully carried on I have no doubt there would be a large demand for the education.” Mr Juan C. Rocers, Secretary to the Surveyors’ Institution, who had been examined in 1885, was next called and re-examined, REPORT QF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON FORESTRY. 363 The evidence now given by him was chiefly in support of the Institution he represented, and the advantages of a theoretical knowledge of forestry to land agents. In his advocacy of the importance of a knowledge of forestry to land agents, he stated “that a great point would be gained if the present race of land agents, who are the only possible foresters, were provided with some means of acquiring scientific information with regard to the management of woods.” Much evidence in the same strain was given by this witness, but as it had nothing in it of a practicable nature, there is no necessity for an extended report. The last witness examined was Mr ALEXANDER MACKENZIE, Superintendent of Epping Forest, who furnished the Committee with much important information, the result of a long experience, concerning the neglected condition of the woodlands in Hertford- shire, and other parts of the country, and also bore strong testi- mony to the great advantages that might be derived from their proper management by a trained and educated race of foresters. This finished the evidence taken in 1886. It is to be hoped that circumstances may be more favourable during the Parlia- mentary Session of 1887, for the completion of the duties of the Committee. Landowners and foresters are looking forward with anxious interest to the finding of the Committee, in the hope that a practicable solution may be obtained of the important question set before it, 364 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. XVI. Specifications of Works to be Executed in the Erection of a Forester’s Cottage; with Plans and Sections. By Wm. MacInrosu, 5 Thistle Street, Edinburgh. (See Plate Xf for Plans and Sections. ) Mason Work. Hecavations.—The site shall be properly prepared for the recep- tion of the building, and cleared of all the surface soil, which shall be deposited in a place to be pointed out by the Inspector. The track for the foundation shall be dug out to the solid subsoil; and all making up must be of solid building; but in no case shall the upper bed of the scarcement be nearer the finished surface than 12 inches, as shown by sections. Contractors must examine the ground as to the nature and level of same, as no extra price will be allowed for excavating or building extra foundations. Materials.—The stones shall be taken from Whitehouse Quarry, and shall be of the best quality of rock from that quarry. All stones used for dressed work must be thoroughly sound and free from clay pits, iron stain, or any other blemish. The bricks used shall be well burnt, of good sound quality from Hillhead Brickworks, 9 inches by 44 inches by 2} inches. The lime used shall be from Woodend Limeworks ; and the sand used to be clean, sharp, or river washed, free from salt or vegetable matter ; and the cement shall be Portland, weighing not less than 110 Ibs. per “striked” bushel. The mortar to be composed of one part lime to two parts sand thoroughly soured and sifted together, and to remain not less than eight days in the souring heap, and to be well mixed and beaten before being used in the works. Building.—The foundations to be formed of large flat-bedded stones laid on their natural beds, header and stretcher alternately, having all their joints well packed and flushed with stone shivers and mortar, to form scarcements 4 inches wide on each side of walls, as shown by sections, and where there are wood floors the scarce- ments shall be 7 inches wide to receive the wall plates for the joists. The whole walls over the foundations (with the after-mentioned exception) shall be of the best quality of lime-built rubble masonry, and no stone used in the face of the building to be higher than 10 inches. Bond stones shall be placed in each course at distances SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. 365 not more than 5 feet apart going two-thirds through the wall, and built from outside and inside alternately. Dwarf walls must be built under all wood and brick partitions and sleeper joists on ground floor. The walls to be hand-packed and hearted with stone and lime, sneck-harled inside, and clean pointed and cut off at every levelling outside. Inbonds, rybats, and scuntions to cross the wall, and to be 8 inches thick, and outbonds to be 21 inches long. The partition between the back wing and parts of sitting- room and parlour to be of bricks, built with a good firm bond. Bond-wood, which shall be provided by the carpenter, and shall be built by the mason into all walls, except coal place, in a hori- zontal position at distances 20 inches from centre to centre. Chimney vents to be lined with fire-clay vent linings—those for rooms and bedrooms to be circular 9 inches diameter, the kitchen vent to be oval 11 inches by 13 inches, and all to have fireclay oncomes. The vent linings to be taken 6 inches through the chimney cope, and finished with a roll. Chimney cope to be in pieces to breadth the top, and batted together with iron bats run with lead. Four openings, 4 inches square, to be formed in the walls to admit air to the sleeper joists. These openings to be furnished outside with cast-iron gratings, and securely batted into the stones with lead. The floors of kitchen, pantry, coal place, and passage leading from back entrance door to same, shall be brought up to within 3 inches of door soles, with broken stones well packed, at least 6 inches in depth ; above this 2 inches of concrete will be laid in the proportion of one part cement to five parts sharp sand and shingle, well mixed together, and to be finished to the level of door soles with 1 inch concrete in the proportion of one part cement to one part sand, properly smoothed over and hand floated. Dressed Work.—The rybats, corners, spurstones, skew-tabling, chimney heads, corners and coping mullions, soles, lintels, jambs and lintels of fireplaces, arch stones and finial of porch, shall be chisel droved, and scuntions inside to be well squared ; upstarts of roof windows, door soles and steps, and hearthstones shall be scabbled. Hearths.—The hearths on ground floor to be scabbled freestone, 3 inches thick, laid on a foundation of solid masonry, and hearths of upper floor to be of the same material and thickness, but to be bedded in concrete formed of one part cement to three parts sand, resting on strong deals laid by the carpenter—these hearthstones to have 4 inches hold of wall. 366 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. G'rates.—Grates shall be provided and laid down at the building free of charge by the employer, but shall be securely built into their proper places by the mason. The contractor to leave all holes in walls for beams, ete., and do any boring necessary, and to build or cut all raggles, beamfill the wall heads after the roofs are set, and execute all jobbing required to finish this department of the work in a tradesman-like manner, and leave the same complete in accordance with the foregoing specification, general conditions, and plans to which they refer. (See General Conditions.) CARPENTER WORK. Materials,—The window sashes and cases, outside doors and their posts, shall be of Baltic redwood. ‘The inside finishings of rooms and bedrooms, the doors of same, and staircase, shall be of Nor- wegian whitewood ; and the roofing, sarking, joisting, safe-lintels, and all other wood-work in connection with this department, not otherwise specified, shall be of matured grown, well-seasoned Scots fir. Safe-lintels.—Safe-lintels shall be placed over all voids not less than 14 inches deep for every foot in span, and to have 9 inches of wall hold. Joists.—The sleeper joists of ground floor to be 6 inches by 24 inches, placed at 18 inches from centre to centre ; and the joisting of upper floor to be 9 inches by 34 inches, and to have 9 inches of wall hold. The joisting and roofing to be carefully bridled for stairs, hearths, windows, and skylights, and all joists and rafters shall rest on wall plates 7 inches by 14 inches. Roofs.—The roofs to be constructed as shown by sections, and will consist of rafters and ties 6 inches by 24 inches, checked at the joints, and securely nailed with patent-cressed spikes, two to each joint, and of sufficient length for 3-inch rivet after going through. The roofs and framing of windows and roof of porch to be of timber 4 inches by 2 inches. At joining of roofs the diagonal rafters to be 7 inches by 3 inches, and ridge 8 inches by 14 inches. The sarking to be #-inch thick, closely jointed and securely nailed. The skylights to be of cast-iron, having proper flange frames, hinged, and having sprent bars ; that over staircase to be 36 inches by 24 inches, and all others 18 inches by 24 inches, all glazed SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE, 367 with sheet glass } inch thick, each strip in one piece, and the openings inside to be properly finished. Bond-wood.—Bond-wood 4 inches by 1 inch shall be provided by the contractor, and placed into its position 20 inches from centre to centre by the mason. The whole walls, except coal place, to be strapped with 14 inches by 1 inch straps, nailed to the bond-wood. Partitions.—The partition posts shall be 4 inches by 2 inches, placed at 18 inches from centres. Door-posts and lintels in par- titions to be 6 inches by 3 inches, checked for lath and plaster, and in stone walls the door-posts to be 5 inches by 23 inches, fixed with split bats. Stair.—The stair to be properly bracketed up with strong strings and intermediate bearer 6 inches by 2} inches, with rough brackets, the risers to be 1 inch thick, and treads 12 inches thick, with nosing. The balusters to be of cast-iron, a specimen standard to be submitted for approval, two to be fixed on each tread, and those on landing to be the same distance apart. The coping to be of best pitch pine 2} inches by 3 inches, and to have a proper twist and scroll. Floors and skirtings.—All wood floors to be laid with 14-inch dressed and ploughed flooring, securely nailed and cleared off. The whole of the upper floors to be prepared for deafening with fillets nailed to the joists 1 inch square, and resting on these fillets 2-inch ragdeals properly split, and the floors to be trimmed with trimmers 8 inches by 1} inches. All walls to be finished with skirting 18 inches thick and 7 inches deep. Windows.—The windows shall be sash windows, having pulley- pieces of l-inch deals, outer and inner facings 14-inch deals, sashes to be 22 inches thick, with hooked counter checks, double hung with patent cord or zinc chain over brass-faced pulleys 2 inches in diameter, and metal weights. Windows to have brass spring sash fasteners, lifters, and pull-down eyes. The sides, dados, and soffits of windows on ground floor to be plain lined, and finished with facings set on blocks. The angles of the sides of windows on ground floor to have 4 inches moulded facings ?-inch thick. All windows and fanlights to be primed and glazed with 26 oz. sheet glass, and lobby door to have upper panels of obscure sheet glass 32 oz., all securely fixed with oil putty. Angles for which no finishing is specified to have 1 ?-inch staff beads. Doors.—Front entrance door to be framed and panelled 2} inches thick, with inch panels moulded on both sides, and hung VOL. XI., PART III. 2 368 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. with three 6-inch double-jointed edge hinges, and to have an 8-inch cased lock and solid brass furniture, with proper stops and facings. The transom bar to be moulded, and the fanlight properly framed. The back entrance door to have side styles and top rail 2 inches thick, bottom and intermediate rails 1} inches thick, lined with #-inch dressed and ploughed lining, and to have 8-inch case lock and brass furniture hung with three 6-inch double-jointed hinges, and to have proper stops and facings, transom bar to be moulded, and fanlight framed. Doors of sitting-room, parlour, and lobby to be framed 1? inches thick, plain panels # inch thick and moulded, and to be finished with facings same as windows. Bedroom, and other inside doors, to be 14 inches thick, framed and panelled with 4-inch thick panels, and moulded on both sides 4 inches broad and # inch thick, and to have facings corresponding to the windows. Press doors to match the room doors, and to have ls. 6d. press locks and sham furniture. The sitting-room, parlour, and bed- room doors to have 6-inch mortise locks and satin-wood furniture, and case locks for all others with brass furnishings, all to be hung with 6-inch double-jointed edge hinges, and to have 32-inch stops. Mantelpieces and Shelving.—Parlour, sitting-room, and bed- rooms to have neat wooden mantelpieces as shall be directed by the inspector, and the kitchen fireplace to have a shelf 1} inches thick batted into the lintel; 36 superficial feet of shelving for kitchen, and 40 superficial feet of shelving for pantry of 1l-inch boards, dressed and ploughed, shall be fitted up where shown, supported on cast-iron brackets. Presses to be lined with }-inch dressed and ploughed deal, those in bedrooms to have one shelf and four wardrobe hooks, and all other presses to have four shelves each of l-inch deals. Sink and Water-Closet.—The sink in kitchen to be supported on proper framing, lined around and in front with }-inch dressed, ploughed, and beaded lining, part being made portable, hinged with small hinges and fixed with button snecks; and the top of sink table to be 1 inch thick. The front ends of water-closet to be covered with frames 1} inches thick, and panelled, the front being portable. The seat and lid to be of same thickness, panelled, beaded, and flushed, and hinged with two brass hinges. Partitions in coal place to be lined with 8-inch boards. Painting.—All outside wood and iron work to receive four coats of good oil paint, to be finished to a colour selected by the employer. SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. 369 All carpenter work required by plumbers or bellhangers to be provided. The window glass and all the interior of the house to be left clean at completion, and all work in connection with this department to be finished in a tradesman-like manner, and left complete, in accordance with the foregoing specification, general conditions, and plans to which they refer. (See General Conditions.) SLATER WoRK. The roof lights shall be provided by the carpenter, but securely fixed into the proper places by the slater. The roofs, including roof of porch and roofs and sides of win- dows, shall be covered with best dark blue Port Dinorwick slates, 16 inches by 10 inches, and not less than 2 inch thick. The slating to be put on with an average cover of 23 inches, each slate double-nailed with 12-lb. nails (dipped in oil when red-hot), and the slating to be fair and securely laid, and well shouldered with haired plaster. The ridges to be covered with fireclay ridge tiles, with 7-inch wings, bedded on cement, and carefully jointed and pointed with the same. The skews, raggles, and chimney-heads to be carefully pointed with cement, and the whole made weather-proof, and finished in a tradesman-like manner, according to the foregoing specification, general conditions, and plans to which they refer. (See General Conditions.) PLUMBER WORK. The roof lead shall weigh 6 lbs. per square foot; sill-pieces of skylights to be 14 inches broad, turned up inside. Angle-pieces of roof windows, chimney necks, etc., 10 inches broad, grooved into the stone. The rhones to be of cast-iron, half round, 5 inches in diameter, supported on malleable-iron straps 1} inches by 4 inch, securely screwed to sarking. The down pipes shall be round, of cast-iron, 3 inches in diameter, and secured to the walls with iron crampets ; to have rain-water heads at top, with proper covers, and shoes at bottom, and to discharge on fireclay basins with iron gratings, having sufficient sand-traps connected with the drains. Waste-pipes.—The soil-pipe to be of 6-lb. lead, 5 inches in diameter, carried 2 feet through the walls, and joined to a “ Buchan’s trap” with air-grating over it. The upper end of soil-pipe to be carried through the roof, and finished with an air-pump ventilator 370 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. (Boyle’s). The waste-pipe from sink to be trapped, having a proper overflow pipe connected with drain outside by a ‘‘ Buchan’s trap.” Stink.—The sink to be of galvanised cast-iron, 18 inches by 24 inches by 10 inches; to have all necessary fittings, including plug, socket, and chain, with overflow pipe, properly trapped. Water-Closet.—The water-closet to be Shank’s patent closet No.1, with 3-gallon patent reliable cistern, complete with brass fittings. Water Supply.—The main water supply-pipe to be of lead, #-inch bore, 7 lbs. per yard, sunk 18 inches in the ground and properly covered, and carried up to cistern and securely connected. The branches to sink and water-closet to be ?-inch diameter, and sink branch to be finished with 3-inch brass nose cock. Belihanging.—The bells to be hung on a board in the kitchen, and to weigh from 10 to 12 oz. each, and to have proper springs and carriages. The wire to be of copper No. 16, B.W. gauge, conveyed in zine tubes behind lath and plaster or under floors at angles ; to have small brass pulleys and chains, the wires to be con- veyed to sitting-room, parlour, and three bedrooms on upper floor, and front entrance door. The front entrance to have a 4-inch octagon bronze pull-sneck in the door rybat. The sitting-room and parlour to have each a pair of levers, value 7s. 6d., and bedroom levers to be of the value of 3s. ; all pulls to match the door furniture. All work to be completed in a tradesman-like manner, according to the foregoing specification, general conditions, and plans to which they refer. (See General Conditions.) PLASTER WoRK. The whole ceilings, partitions on both sides, stone walls where strapped, window sides, dados, and soffits, where not lined with wood, stair backs, etc., to be lathed with sawn and split fir lath, 2 inch, put on with cast lath nails. The whole thereafter to receive three coats of plaster, the first two coats prepared with one part lime to two and one-fourth parts clean sharp sand, and one-sixth part hair, and to be finished with a coat of fine stuff, all properly straighted, hand-floated, hand-finished, and smoothed. The whole of the upper floors to be deafened from wall to wall ; to have first a coat of hair-plaster, filled in above with smithy ashes, and finished with a coat of plaster, the whole being at least 2} SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. 371 inches thick. All window cases to be bedded in lime, and pointed with cement outside. The spaces behind all skirting to be lathed and plastered close down to the floor. The sitting-room, parlour, and front entrance passage shall be finished with 18-inch cornices, according to draw- ings to be supplied by the inspector ; and the whole to be finished in a neat, tradesman-like manner, according to the foregoing speci- fication, general conditions, and plans to which they refer. (See General Conditions.) GENERAL CONDITIONS. 1, Contractors shall provide all materials (except such materials as are otherwise expressly specified in the foregoing specifications), and provide scaffolding, tools, etc., and bear every other expense necessary to complete the works, in terms of the foregoing specifi- cations, these presents, and the plans to which they refer ; and offers for each department of the work to include all such expense. 2. Whatever is shown on the plans shall be considered as both shown and specified ; and whatever is specified shall be considered as both specified and shown. 3. The employer reserves full power to alter or vary the fore- going specifications and plans as he may think fit during the pro- gress of the works. The increase or deduction on the contract price in consequence of such alterations or variations shall either be settled by contract before being proceeded with, or be made at a valuation fixed by the inspector of works. No extras shall be allowed unless sanctioned by the inspector of works in writing, at prices agreed upon. 4. The inspector shall have full power to reject all work or materials not in strict conformity with the plans and specifications, or in his opinion not fit to be used in the works; and should the contractor, after due notice has been given him, fail to remove any such work or materials, or fail to carry on the work satisfactorily and expeditiously, so as to ensure its completion by the stipulated time, the inspector, on behalf of the employer, shall have full power, under reservations of all claims of damages against the contractor for breach of contract, to remove such work or materials, and carry on and finish the work at the contractor’s expense, and the con- tractor shall not be entitled to interfere with or molest those employed by the inspector to complete the works. 372 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. 5. In the event of any difference of opinion arising as to the true meaning or intent of any part of the plans or specifications, or as to the value of any work or material, the same shall be determined by two arbiters, of whom one shall be chosen by the employer, and the other by the contractor, with power to the arbiters to naine an oversman in the event of their differing in opinion. 6. Payments shall be made as the work progresses to the extent of 75 per cent. of the value of the work executed, as shall be deter- mined by the inspector, and the balance shall be paid when the work is completed and taken off the contractor's hands by the inspector. 7. The contractor for mason work shall be bound to commence work on the day of , and carry on the same so as to have the walls ready for the roof before the day of ; and the whole contract finished by the day of thereafter. The contractor for carpenter work shall commence roofing as soon as the walls are ready for the roof, and shall have the whole roofing finished within twelve days thereafter, and carry on his department of the work so as to have the whole completed by the day of . The contractors for plumber and slater works shall commence the roofing operations immediately the sarking is finished, and shall have the whole roofs finished within ten days thereafter, and both shall have their contracts finished by the day of : The contractor for plaster work shall commence his department whenever the walls are strapped, and have his contract completed by the day of 8. The whole and every department of the afore-described works shall be finished in a neat, substantial, and workman-lke manner, and the plans completed to the satisfaction of the inspector of works, notwithstanding that any necessary parts of the same may not have been particularly specified or noticed in the foregoing. REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 373 XVII. On the Rearing and Management of Hardwood Plantations. By A. M‘D. Grant, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. The rearing and management of hardwood plantations is one of the most important branches of Forestry. It has been ably and extensively treated by some of the most eminent arboriculturists of the day. The subject is, however, by no means exhausted. To be properly understood, it requires not only diversified experi- ence, but careful study as well. On the treatment which planta- tions receive from time to time, depends, to a very great extent, the success of the undertaking both from a utilitarian and esthetic point of view. The forester may, in fact, be said to hold the future welfare of a plantation in his hands. If, for instance, a mistake be made in the methods of planting adopted; if the distribution of the trees be not properly carried out; if the draining of the ground be injudiciously executed; or if indis- criminate pruning or thinning be indulged in, the desired ends will never be attained, the result being that the planter must suffer not only disappointment, but discouragement and loss to boot. In laying out a plantation, the first considerations to be attended to are, the nature of the soil, altitude, exposure, the manner in which the produce to be raised is to be got out of the plantation, and the particular object the plantation itself is to serve, If these points be kept in view, and if the after manage- ment be properly carried forward, there is no reason why the labours of those concerned should not be crowned with success. Hardwood plantations may be said to include those grown for scenic effect, and those for profit alone. In my opinion, however, some attention can always be paid to the landscape effect without interfering with the value of the plantation, or incurring much expense on its cultivation. The circumstances and views of the proprietor have, of course, a good deal to do with this. In most cases, however, there is generally some pains taken to enhance the beauty of the landscape, but everybody is, I should say, alive to the fact that profit is the paramount object to be attained. In treating the subject under consideration, I shall, in the meantime, endeavour to point out a course of treatment which may reasonably be expected to produce satisfactory results, both from a pecuniary and an esthetic point of view, bearing in mind, however, that profit comes first. 374 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. Fencing.—There are so many excellent systems of fencing that it would be invidious to reeommend one kind more than another. At all events, the site of a plantation should always be securely fenced, and, where ground game is plentiful, every possible means should be resorted to for keeping them from making inroads on the plants, as nothing could possibly retard their growth more than the attacks of hares and rabbits. It will be found cheaper, in the long run, to erect a proper fence at first, for the simple reason that the patching up of an inferior one is, in nine cases out of ten, simply throwing away money for no good result. Draining.—Drains should always be scored off previous to commencing planting operations. It is not, however, necessary to have them opened until afterwards. Though a good system of drainage is absolutely necessary to the welfare of a plantation— nay, contributes considerably to its financial success,—it must often be limited to what is really necessary, for the simple reason that the making and keeping of ditches increase considerably the ex- pense of a plantation. It must also be observed that over-draining would be disastrous in its results. In some instances little or no drainage is required, in others it cannot be dispensed with. The “ herring-bone” system, which is very commonly adopted, is by no means to be commended, because it impedes cart-trafiic, dragging wood, etc., etc. This system may, however, be adopted with propriety when the ground is marshy. The state of the soil has a good deal to do with the size of the drains. From 3 to 3} feet wide and 2 to 2} feet deep are the general dimensions. By looking over the drains occasionally, it can easily be seen when they require to be “scoured” out—a very necessary proceeding which must not be overlooked. Planting.—There are two distinct methods of planting, viz., pitting and notching. Pitting is admitted on all hands to be the most preferable for, at least, all hardwood plants. Notching can, however, be adopted with propriety in planting moorland with conifers, At the age at which foresters generally approve of planting out hardwoods, considerable benefit is derived from the making of large roomy pits, so that the roots of the plant be allowed to be set in their natural position, and covered up and firmed with soft earth. It will thus the more readily strike out young fibrous roots, and be enabled to develop itself the more quickly. The size of the holes should never be less than 14 inches square, REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 375 so that the planter may have every opportunity of firming the plant thoroughly, so as to keep it safely in its position. If this be not carefully attended to, the plants are easily shaken about by the winds, which process often causes them considerable damage. The pits should be filled in on the same day as they are dug. Some foresters prefer digging all the pits first, and filling them in afterwards. I do not approve of this system, for the reason that the holes, by being left open, often get filled with water, especially if the season be a wet one. It also impedes the planting opera- tions in several ways, which I need not define, and this incurs unnecessary expense. Every means should be adopted to keep down rank grass and weeds. The first and most obvious indication as to treatment in this respect is to put the turf cut off in the bottom of the pit instead of on the top, as is generally done. Another method is to cut the turf in two, and place it upside down. Sometimes, how- ever, grass, notwithstanding the efforts that are made to keep it down, grows very quickly, and every possible precaution to prevent it from obstructing the plants should be resorted to; for unless the plants are allowed a sufficiency of light and air, the process of assimilation of sap cannot go on. In order to make my meaning clear, I shall endeavour to give a brief explanation as to what this really means. The elements which enter the leaf are oxygen and hydrogen in the form of water, with some earthy matters dissolved in it. These constitute what is called crude sap. Then the process of assimilation begins. The agents in this are the green colouring matter of the leaf and the sun’s rays. The crude sap is blended with the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere, and the overplus of oxygen is separated and sent back again into the air. Thus a mixture is formed called elaborated sap, which is then transformed into cellulose, and passing down the plant, is gradually used up in the formation of new cells. Distribution.—lf the number of men employed in the planting operations be not very large, the distribution should be left to one or two reliable men. Whether the different kinds of plants be laid out singly or in groups, is, to a great extent, a matter of taste. I am, however, inclined to think that the grouping system has, if anything, the advantage over the other, inasmuch that it leaves us a double chance of distributing the plants on the soil best adapted to their growth ; and further, by planting in groups the arrangement of colour can be better preserved when thin- 376 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. ning the plantation, If, for instance, a tree of one kind be cut, more room is probably made for one of the same kind, the result being that if ultimately only one tree of the group be left, that tree will probably cover as much ground as the whole group originally did, thus leaving the colour arrangement as good as ever. To discuss these points to their full extent is, however, slightly beyond the province of this paper. Nursing.—Various systems of nursing are in practice. The one most commonly adopted, and undoubtedly the best for exposed situations, is to fill up the spaces between the hardwoods with conifers, planted 4 feet apart. As the nurses in question grow much quicker than the hardwoods, they require to be a good deal smaller, otherwise they soon begin to intrude on their neighbours (thus depriving them of light and air), and have to be cut down. In less exposed situations, and where coppice wood is in demand, the remaining spaces are filled up with plane, ash, birch, some species of dogwood, and the like. This sometimes proves itself to be an excellent plan, especially in localities where there is a good demand for props, bobbin-wood, crate-wood, and such like. When in its earlier stages, birch will be found very useful for many pur- poses. All the kinds, in fact, which we have mentioned may be utilised at whatever time it is considered necessary to cut them. Coppice may, indeed, be grown during the whole period of the standard crop’s growth without materially affecting it. Both these methods I have just described can be adopted with propriety according to attendant circumstances, such as soil, locality, ete. Special care should be taken to shield a plantation on the side most exposed to the prevailing winds. This is best accomplished by protecting the part or parts in question with a “belt” of good- sized conifers, In the vicinity of pleasure-grounds a different method—that of nursing with yews—is resorted to. This system cannot be re- commended from a utilitarian point of view, but where it is desirable to retain intact the beauties of the pleasure-ground, there is nothing to equal it. This system is specially adapted for woods in the immediate vicinity of the mansion. If skilfully and taste- fully laid owt, and intersected with rides and walks, it may be made to appear a continuation of the pleasure-grounds. We thus avoid the too abrupt termination—which is so hurtful to the eye —of ornamental spaces, and at the same time derive at least some recompense for our labour. Cypress, arbor-vite, holly, and ‘Aaah REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 377 rhododendron are also brought into requisition under the head we have just been considering. Picked plants—large, shapely, and well-developed plants—should be kept for this purpose, and the best of them put next the walks, or the parts where they are most likely to be in view. It is acommon thing to grow good poplars, planted at from 5 to 6 feet apart, in partially sheltered situations without nurses. Pruning.—This is a most important branch of forestry, but one which is, unfortunately, very often neglected. The main point in this case is to begin in time. Ifa plantation be allowed to attain a certain age before pruning is commenced, it certainly does more harm than good. Wholesale pruning of a tree twenty or twenty-five years of age, for instance, is very apt to badly injure it; hence the reason why so many experienced men are averse to pruning. If it be intended to do justice to a plantation in this respect, we must begin with the pocket-knife and hand- saw two or three years after planting, and continue using them at regular intervals up to, say, the twenty-fifth year. In commencing pruning operations, the main object to be kept in view is to regulate the growth of the tree by keeping the number of superfluous branches in check, and the undue develop- ment of others, so that the greatest quantity of timber may be secured without being intruded upon by the production of strong branches. Pruning, when resorted to in time and continued at necessary intervals, is an operation which does not cost so very much, and which is, at the same time, beneficial in a high degree to the trees. If, on the other hand, this highly-important operation be neglected, a great number of the trees will have grown into bushes, which in turn will become distorted into every shape imaginable. If pruning be resorted to at all in such cases, it must be executed ina very judicious manner. To, as it were, force such trees into a symmetrical appearance, by stripping the trunk of branches to a certain height, and by shortening those left indiscriminately, the result would be that the tree would die ina short time, or never, at least, recover from the sudden shock. When such an operation is performed in winter, if the tree should survive, the consequence will be that the sudden check on the flow of sap will cause numerous small-spray, known under the name of “ breast-wood,” to spring out all over the stem and branches. The woody deposit, which would otherwise have gone to enlarge the stem, would thus be reduced toa minimum. In 378 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. any case, the repetition of a similar process would ruin the trees entirely. The fact of the matter is, that if the trees survive such treatment at all, they merely drag out a miserable existence at best, and are entirely ruined for the purpose they were intended to serve. The experienced pruner will, however, act very differ- ently. He will commence in time, and reduce the branches gradually, so that the result aimed at may be brought about by degrees—the operations, in fact, extending over a number of years. The lower branches should be left untouched on the trees lining the outside of a plantation, and this helps, through time, to hide the stems entirely from view. Any branches which seem, how- ever, to develop themselves too quickly must be shortened at points where smaller ones spring from them, so as to force them into uniformity with their neighbours. Trees having more than one leader must have the central and most vigorous one left for its future top. The others must be removed close to the stem, or further up, if considered necessary, but in any case close to a lateral shoot. The hardwoods inside the plantation will require to be treated somewhat differently. All the lower branches will have to be gradually cut away, so that about one-third of the entire stem be left clean. Great care should be taken to cut the branches off neatly, and as close to the stem as possible. The wound should also be made smooth with a sharp knife or hand-bill. The top, if double, should be regulated in favour of the best contending leader ; and side branches, when developing themselves too quickly, should be shortened at an offshoot springing from them at any convenient point. A good few trees will, in all probability, not require to be touched at all, while others may only require a branch to be shortened here and there. In order that all exudation of sap will have ceased, and that the wounds be partly healed up before the end of autumn, all the pruning possible should be done in July and August. The sap does, moreover, not flow so readily from a recently wounded tree in those months. Pruning should not be resorted to immediately before or after thinning, but should precede that operation by at least one year. The trees will thus be enabled to recover from any slight change which may have been caused by the operation, They will also be better able to withstand any difference of temperature which may be occasioned when thinning takes place. REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 379 In removing broken, dead, or decaying limbs, great care should be taken not to damage the trees in any way by splitting or tearing the bark. In order to obviate this, heavy limbs should be cut off piece by piece. Thinning.—On the manner in which this part of wood manage- ment is carried out, depends, to a very great extent, the ultimate success of the undertaking both from a utilitarian and esthetic point of view. Attendant circumstances must entirely guide the operation in this case. The time for thinning will depend very much on the progress the plantation has made ; in consequence of which no definite rule can be laid down for the carrying forward of this part of the work. The fact, however, that all the planta- tion will not be ready for thinning at the same time, may be taken for granted. The lower and-less exposed parts will be ready for thinning some four or five years before the higher and more exposed. At all events, whenever it is found that the nurses are commencing to encroach on the hardwoods, thinning should at once commence by removing them. This does not, of course, imply that all the nurses are to be removed at once. It cannot, indeed, by any means be recommended to give the stan- dards too much play all on a sudden. Sufficient relief can be given in some cases by removing the branches of the nurses, but after a time it will be necessary to take out one here and there, in order that the desired end may be attained. In cases where the trees have become one-sided, it will be found necessary to give greater space on the side opposite to that on which they have spread. By following this plan the branches will generally shoot out in that direction, and thus equalise their tops. In order that the side branches may have an opportunity of fully developing themselves, the lines of trees skirting the outside of a plantation should be thinned the more freely. This line of action will also have a tendency to strengthen their roots, and thus enable them better to resist gales of wind. A sufficiency of light and air should always be admitted, so that the trees may grow propor- tionately. Sycamore and ash may be grown more closely than other varieties, the reason being that they are less subject to throw out strong side branches. Less freedom must be allowed when thinning the higher parts of a plantation. The reason is obvious. Light and air may be admitted longer on slopes, and especially on the lower side of the plants, than on flatter grounds; and further, if the trees be 380 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. allowed too much room, they will, owing to their elevated position and the influence of other external agencies, form flat tops and probably dwarfed stems, In after years thinning may be resorted to whenever it is found that the nurses are encroaching on the standards. It will some- times be found necessary to give trees which have attained to a proper and compact form more room than they received on pre- vious thinnings, so that they may be enabled to form shapely and widespread tops. It would, for instance, interfere considerably with the scenic effect of a plantation if bare limbs or parts of the trunks of some trees appeared above the tops of the others. After all the nurses have been removed, the plantation should stretch out before the eye in every direction, presenting an undulating- like surface of many colours—natural in all its aspects, and with nothing to mar the beauty of the picture. At what period of the plantation’s growth all the nurses will be removed, depends entirely on the progress the plantation has made ; but it may be taken for granted, at least in most cases, that the standards will derive little or no benefit from the nurses after the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. In felling the nurse trees, great care should be taken not to damage the standards. In order to successfully accomplish this, it will, in most cases, be found necessary to divest them of their branches before they are felled. This process is known to prac- tical men under the name of “lopping.” As many of the trees in question as possible should be carried out by men, because it is often highly injurious to the roots of the standards to employ horses for the purpose of dragging them out. It is absolutely impossible to lay down a definite scale as to the distances which should separate the permanent standards. From 20 to 30 feet is the general thing counted upon; but altitude, exposure, and other matters have, of course, a vast deal to do with this. With the exception of taking out really bad trees, regu- larity should certainly receive special attention. In cases where some consideration is given to the rearing of game, all indigenous undergrowth should be encouraged. By repeatedly cutting back such species as briers, hazel, and black- thorn, a thick and vigorous growth will be the result. The sides of rides and other conspicuous points throughout the plantation, should be filled in with laurels, rhododendrons, cotoneasters, barberry, yew, box, privet, and mahonia. By fixing down the REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 381 privet with wooden pegs, a thick undergrowth may soon be acquired. The only pecuniary returns hitherto realised have been from thinnings ; but though some sacrifices may have been made, it will be found that the wood remaining on the ground is now worth a considerable amount of money ; and, indeed, the presence of such a plantation on an estate will tend to enhance its value in more ways than one. Felling.—Felling should in general be done with the saw, because this instrument makes neater work and wastes less wood than the axe. The best time for felling is from September to March, inclusive. Small trees may be felled with the axe, and also large ones when it is desirable to have them cut very low. By sinking the stock towards the centre, the rain will have a tendency to lodge in the cavity thus formed, and thus hasten the decomposition of the root. When it is intended to encourage the growth of coppice, the stock should be elevated towards the centre, so that it may be better able to resist the influence of rain, and thus preserve it from rot. In cases where the bark is preserved, the trees should be felled in sunny weather, about the beginning of summer, and kept as much as possible in the shade, so as to protect them from the sun, which, by the way, encourages splitting to an alarming degree. Lotting.—In the event of the wood cut being lotted for sale, the trees should be carefully sized, and the lots neatly put together. Where a number of lots come together, they should be kept as nearly as possible in line. This process does not present any great difficulty to practical men who have been accustomed to such work, and it makes the wood have a better appearance. Wood is often drawn and huddled together in a manner which does not reflect much credit on those concerned in the operation. This probably arises from the prevalent notion that this part of forestry does not require much attention. This is, however, a mistaken idea altogether. If the wood for sale be properly ‘¢ sized,” and put up in neat and compact lots, not only the dis- poser, but the purchaser as well, will be better able to form a more accurate idea as to the approximate value of the wood before him. 382 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. XVIII. Heonomiec Forestry. By Professor G, 8S. Bouncer, London. INTRODUCTION. The most scientific department of the art of forestry is un- doubtedly the maintenance and reproduction of woodland for pur- poses of profit. In spite of the enormously extended use of iron for purposes of construction, and of purely chemical substances for tanning, dyeing, etc., the products of the forest meet us at every turn, no matter in what quarter of the globe, or amid what race of men, we may find ourselves. In our northern temperate latitudes timber, bark, charcoal, and coniferous resins are the main staple of the forester ; but within the tropics a multiplicity of other sub- stances—dyes, gums, and food-stuffs—become of an importance, economically speaking, hardly second to that of the timber, and the forest-conservator may often be as much interested in the pre- servation of a mere shrub, as in that of the largest tree. Con- siderations of space, however, enforce the limitation of the present essay to the subject of timber-trees, though their subsidiary pro- ducts have been noted en passant. The importance of a “ stock-taking” of the timber-resources of the world will be generally conceded. An acquaintance with the valuable trees of any country will be an important step, both towards their preservation from wanton extermination, and towards their introduction into other countries, which may happen to be under similar climatic conditions. Such an acquaintance it is, however, unfortunately, by no means easy to obtain. Timber is too often obtained from the less known or accessible parts of countries, but partially explored by skilled botanists ; whilst it is brought to the port of shipment without flowers, fruit, leaves, or even bark and sapwood, and under native names which often serve only to mislead. When we note the extreme ignorance often manifested as to trees, their names and natures, even by dwellers in the country, among the civilised communities of Europe, we cannot be surprised if Burmese convicts in the Andaman Islands, Australian natives, or the half-savage Indians of Guiana make mistakes as to the identity of species. It is much to be desired that the governments of every country should take steps for the botanical identification of their various vegetable productions. With regard to trees the system required is that logs of each ) ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 383 species should be prepared with the bark on—at least partly,—cut in various directions—say radially, tangentially, transversely, and obliquely ;—and that these be carefully numbered and named with incised letters, and be accompanied by specimens of leaves, flowers, fruit, and seeds. It has long been a common custom to preserve such specimens in book-like cases made from the woods themselves ; and the method, exhibited in the Japanese section of the Edin- burgh Forestry Exhibition, followed by New Brunswick in the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, of painting a detailed representa- tion of each species on a panel of its own wood, framed in its own bark and branches, is also well worthy of imitation. Such speci- mens can be readily determined botanically, and should be multi- plied both for educational use in forest, and other schools, at home, and to acquaint foreign nations with the products of the country. For the purposes of the present essay the collections of timber, ete., at the Edinburgh Exhibition of 1884, at the Royal Gardens, Kew, at the British Museum, and at the Colonial and Indian Ex- hibition, London, 1886, have been systematically examined ; but in not a few cases the neglect of the means above mentioned has entirely prevented the botanical identification of valuable species. The plan here followed is mainly geographical, this having been found most convenient as being adopted in all the above-named collections, and in Dr Cleghorn’s article on ‘‘ Forests and Forest Administration” in the Lncyclopedia Lritannica (9th edition, vol. ix., pp. 397-408), to which the present writer is deeply in- debted on this, as on former occasions, both for much substantive information, and for many useful bibliographical references. The numerous other books consulted are mostly mentioned under each country ; but special acknowledgment must be made here to Loudon’s “ Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,” 8 vols., London, 1838 ; Mr Thomas Laslett’s “‘ Timber and Timber-trees,” London, 1875; Mr Julian Rogers’ Analysis of Returns . . . relating to Colonial Timber, presented to Parliament, 1878 [C.—2197]; Re- ports respecting . . . Timber in Foreign Countries, presented in 1875 [C.—1161]; Reports by H.M.’s representatives abroad on . . . Woods and Forests, presented in 1884 [C.—4048]; the Official Guides to the Royal Botanic Gardens and the Museums of Economic Botany at Kew, London, 1885 and 1886; Herr Nord- linger’s ‘‘ Holzquerschnitte,” Stuttgart, 1862-82; the Journal of Forestry (afterwards “ Forestry”), vols. i—xi., 1877-1885 ; and to “Forestry and Forest Products,” Edinburgh, 1885. In none of VOL. XI., PART III. 2D 384 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. these books, however, is there so full a list of timber trees, and their vernacular names, as that in the present essay. EUROPE. Most of the forest trees of Europe are familiar to us either in a wild or cultivated condition, the British Isles having no species which do not occur on the Continent. The following table gives the acreage of woods and forests in the various countries of Europe from about 1875 to 1877 :— Acres. Acres. Great Britain, : . 2,187,078 | Wirtemberg, ; . 1,494,147 Ireland, : : : 328,413 | Holland, i : ; 486,229 United Kingdom, . . 2,515,491 | Belgium, ; ; . 1,073,452 Russia, ; 2 . 527,426,510 | France, : . 20,641,953 Sweden, : ; . 40,636,883 | Italy, . : : . 9,031,310 Norway, : : . 17,290,000 | Austria, : : - 2s: 2eeeise Denmark, . : : 364,474 | Hungary, . : . 19,425,600 North Germany, . . 20,047,014 | Switzerland, ; . 1,905,407 Baden, ; : BRS BY/A(Aorl Unitep Kinepom. The forest area is thus distributed :— Acres. Acres. England, . ; . 1,825,765 | Wales, . : ; ; 126,823 Scotland, . : : 734,490 | Isle of Man and the Chan- 3,240 Ireland, : , : 325,173 nel Islands, In the north of Scotland the prevalent indigenous species are Pinus sylvestris, L., the Scots fir, and Betula alba, L., the birch; but much of the pine is planted, and there are extensive plantations of larch (Larix ewropea, DC.), e.g., the Duke of Atholl’s 10,000 acres at Dunkeld. At Rothiemurchus, Inverness, where the Scots fir is indigenous, the trees have an average height of 70 feet and a girth of 43 feet. With reference to this species it is worthy of note that, on the Continent at least, it is very variable, no less than fourteen forms having been described from Savoy alone, and as these forms are of slightly different value as timber, it is important to discrimi- nate them with a view to cultivate the best. M. Vilmorin divides them into two groups—(1.) rubra, with ascending, and (2.) vulgaris, with horizontal, branches. To the latter belong the Geneva and Briangon pines; and to the former the Hagenau or German, the Scots, the Louvain, and the Riga varieties. To the last named, the most valuable type, belongs the timber from Smolensk, Vitebsk, ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 385 Tchernigov, and Volhynia. In the south of Scotland the beech (Fagus sylvatica, L.) and ash (Fraxinus excelsior, L.) are the most common trees ; whilst the sycamore maple, locally known as ‘‘ Plane” (Acer Pseudo-platanus, L.), is also abundant. The ash reaches 30 or 50 feet in height, with a diameter of from 20 to 24 inches, and is useful for tool handles, coopers’ work, crates, and many other purposes (nat. order, Oleacew). The sycamore (nat. order, Aceracee) reaches from 30 to 80 feet, and is used for cider-presses, rollers for calico printing, musical instruments, especially violins, toys, butter-moulds, ete. In England, whilst there are extensive coniferous plantations, mainly larch and Scots pine, the most prevalent trees are oaks and beech. The oak (Quercus Robur, L.; nat. order, Cupulifere) forms a trunk from 60 to 100 feet high, and is one of the strongest and most durable of woods for furniture and building purposes. It was formerly much more used in ship-building, and its bark is still in considerable demand for tanning. Two forms are well marked— Quercus pedunculata, Ehrh., and Q. sessiliflora, Salisb. The beech (Fagus sylvatica, L.), belonging to the same order, reaches 60 or 70 feet in height, and 40 to 50 inches in diameter. Its wood affords excellent fuel, and the best charcoal for most purposes ; and is also used for wedges, the best planes, tool-handles, and other turnery ; for piles ; on the Continent for shoes ; and more especially for chair making, for which purpose it is grown on the chalk hills of Buckinghamshire, near High Wycombe, from 12,000 to 15,000 loads being used yearly. Other British trees are the following :—The linden or lime (Tilia europea, L. ; nat. order, Tiliacee), the inner bark of which is “ Russia matting,” whilst the close-grained but soft wood is pre-eminently adapted for carving, and for the sounding boards of pianos; the spindle-tree (Hwonymus europeus, L.; nat. order, Celastracee), formerly used for skewers, and to some extent for gunpowder charcoal ; the buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus, L, ; nat. order, Rhamnacee), whose berries yield the pigment “ sapgreen ;” and the alder buckthorn, or berry-bearing alder (2. Frangula, L.), which under the name “dogwood” furnishes the best charcoal for making gunpowder, and is imported for this purpose from Holland and Belgium ; the horse-chestnut (“sculus Hippocastanum, L. ; nat. order, Sapindace), an ornamental tree, truly a native of Northern Greece ; the maple (Acer campestre, L.), of the same order, a small tree 10 to 20 feet high, with fine and even-grained wood, affording 386 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. good charcoal, and formerly used for bowls known as “ mazer- bowls,” spoons, etc. ; the sloe or blackthorn (Prunus communis, Huds. ; nat. order, Rosacew), used for walking-sticks; the apple (Pyrus Malus, L.) and pear (P. communis, L.), valuable fruit-trees when cultivated, both having close and even-grained wood, that of the latter being used for T squares, etc.; the rowan, or moun- tain ash (P. Aucuparia, Gaert.), a valuable nurse tree ; the wild service (P. torminalis, Ehr.), and the hawthorn (Cratequs Oxya- cantha, L.), the wood of which is one of the best substitutes for boxwood for engraving, all belonging to the same order; the box (Bucus sempervirens, L. ; nat. order, Buxinew), as yet unequalled for engraving, growing only in a few localities on limestone hills, and mainly imported from Russia and Persia; the elms (U/mus campes- tres, With. ; nat. order, U/macew), in the south of England, and the Wych elms (U. montana, Sm.), north of the Trent, much used for coffins, and formerly for water-pipes, reaching 100 or 120 feet in height, and more than 3 feet in diameter; the alder (Alnus glu- tinosa, L. ; nat. order, Betulacew), from 20 to even 70 feet high, and 8 to 16 inches in diameter, the wood of which is used for gun- powder charcoal, clogs, and packing-cases, and the bark in tanning ; the hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus, L. ; nat. order, Corylacee), ex- tremely hard, used for cog-wheels, bench-screws, mallets, boot-lasts, etc., sometimes reaching 70 feet in height and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter ; the hazel (Corylus Avellana, L.); the holly (Ilex Aquifolium, L. ; nat. order, Jlicinee), 20 to 30 feet high, used for calico-printers’ blocks, “stringing” in inlaying, Tunbridge ware, mathematical instruments, etc., ‘‘ bird-lime” being prepared from the bark; willows, especially Salix alba, L., S. fragilis, L., and S. Russelliana, Sm. (nat. order, Salicacee), light and tough woods, used for gunpowder charcoal and for various other purposes ; poplars, especially the aspen (Populus tremula, L.), which affords a valuable paper-pulp ; and the yew (Zaxus baccata, L.; nat. order, Taxinee), formerly used for bows, Among commonly cultivated exotic trees may be named Robinia Pseudacacia, L., a North American leguminous tree, used for shafts, known as “ locust,” or “acacia ;” the laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum, L.), in the same order, a beautiful tree with a handsome wood ; the planes (Platanus orientalis, L., and P. acerifolia ; nat. order, Pla- tanacee), chiefly valued for their shade ; the walnut (Juglans regia, L.; nat. order, Juglandacew), also from the south of Europe, a valuable cabinet-work, used for gun stocks ; the holm and Turkey ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 387 oaks (Quercus Ilex, L., and Q. Cerris); the Spanish chestnut (Castanea vulgaris, Lam. ; nat. order, Cupulifere), considerably grown for hop-poles ; the Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani, Loud.) and the Deodar (@. deodara, Loud.) ; the silver fir (Abies pectinata, DC.), the spruce (Picea excelsa, Link.), and the Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carriere). The last named, though grow- ing more rapidly and forming softer wood in Scotland than in its native Oregon, bids fair to become the most important timber tree of North Britain. Home-grown timber is but a fraction of that used in the United Kingdon, large quantities being imported from Canada, the Baltic, and the United States, especially deals; besides teak from India, greenheart from Guiana, mahogany from Honduras, ete. In 1885 the value of timber imported was £14,000,000, of which £4,500,000 came from Canada and the East and West Indies. Norway AND SWEDEN. The chief forests of Norway are in the east, and consist of Scots fir, spruce, and birch. Of 80,000,000 cubic feet annually exported, more than half is sent to the United Kingdom. The Norway spruce (Picea excelsa, Link.) is common to all the mountain ranges of Europe, to the Arctic Circle, reaching 150 or even 180 feet in height, and more than 15 inches in diameter. Its wood, known as “‘white deal,” or ‘ whitewood,”’ is used for ladders, scaffolds, sounding-boards, sabots, and gunpowder charcoal. In the forest nurseries of Stavanger, the chief trees cultivated are Scots fir, spruce, and willow (Salix lanceolata, Sm.), the latter species, introduced from the Netherlands, being used for hoops. The average export of timber from Norway between 1861 and 1882 was between 800,000 and 900,000 tons. Scots fir and spruce form also the staple of the forests in Sweden, the greater portion of which are in the northern and central pro- vinces. The river Dal forms the northern limit of the oak and beech in a wild state; but they are cultivated in much higher latitudes. The white birch (betula alba, L.) is found in profusion throughout the kingdom, being chiefly used for firewood, but locally for furniture, agricultural implements, etc. The aspen (Populus tremula, L.), which is also common, is used in the manufac- ture of matches and of paper pulp. The former manufacture yielded £225,000 in 1872, of which £168,000 worth were exported. Paper pulp is made also from pine-wood. It was first exported in 388 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 1872, when nearly all (to the value of £55,000) came to Great Britain. Alder, elm, and lime are also common, and attain a large size in the more favoured districts. The pine-wood is used in house and ship-building ; and both as pit props and in a manufac- tured form, as window and door frames, etc., constitutes a chief article of export, an increasing quantity annually reaching Great Britain. DENMARK. There are extensive forests of beech, the chief indigenous trees besides being spruce, Scots fir, birch, aspen, and oak. The wood of the Scots fir is known as redwood, or red deal, as distinguished from the whitewood of the spruce, but some varieties yield “ yellow deal.” The chief oak forests are on the islands of Falster and Lolland. Plantations of the Swiss Pinus montana, Duroi; the American Picea alba ; the Norway spruce (P. excelsa, Lam.) ; and the silver fir (Abies pectinata, DC.), have been extensively carried out in West Jutland. HOLLAND. There are no indigenous forests in Holland ; but beech, poplar, willow, ash, and elm are much planted. Ulmus major, L., the Dutch or sand elm, was introduced into England from Holland, and the exportation of alder-buckthorn has been already noted. The sand dunes are extensively planted with conifers. BELGIUM. There are extensive forests in Brabant, Flanders, and the Ar- dennes, the latter largely consisting of beech. GERMANY. North Germany possesses extensive forests on the Harz and Thu- ringian mountains, in East Prussia, the Odenwald in Hesse, the Westerwald and Taunus range in Nassau, and the Vosges. The chief trees are Pinus sylvestris, L., the ‘“ kiefer,” ‘‘ weissfohre,” “ gemeine fohre,” and Picea excelsa, “fichte,” “rothtanne.” The silver fir (Abies pectinata, DC.; ‘“edeltanne,” ‘ weistanne”) is abundant in the Vosges and in the Black Forest of Baden and Wiirtemburg, where we also have birch, “birke ;” beech, “rothbuche ;” and oak, “eiche ;” whilst in Bavaria the larch, “ gemeine lirche,” is exten- sively grown. In the Spessartwald, near Aschaffenburg, there are large masses of oak and extensive coniferous plantations, more than ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 389 a quarter of the area of Bavaria being under wood, much of it being mountainous, and there being a large demand for fuel. No less than twenty-three per cent. of the area of the kingdom of Prussia is forest land. The chief trees in the province of Prussia are the “kiefer” (Pinus sylvestris, L.) and “ fichte” (Picea eacelsa), which comprise three-fourths of the whole. ‘ Liirche” (Larix europed, DC.) is rare, “buchen” (Lagus sylvatica, L.), ‘“hain- buchen” or “weissbuchen” (Carpinus Betulus, L.), ‘eiche” (Quercus), ‘‘spitzahorn” (Acer platanordes, L.), “ bergahorn” (A. Pseudo-platanus, L.), “ ruster” (Ulmus campestris, Spach.), “ erle ” (Alnus glutinosa, Gaertn.), ‘ birke” (Betula alba, L.), “ sahlweide”’ (Salix Caprea, L.), ‘‘werftweide” (S. acuminata, Sm.), “linde” (Tiha europea, L.), “eberesche” (Pyrus Aucuparia, L.), and ‘“‘aspe” (Popula tremula, L.) also occur. Similar trees occur in Posen and Pomerania, “‘ Hasel ” (Corylus Avellana) being also grown in the latter province. ‘“ Edeltanne” (Abies pectinata, DC.) is recorded for Silesia, and the “ weymuths- kiefer” (Pinus Strobus, L.) and “esche” (Yraxinus excelsior, L.) also for Brandenburg. The “‘faulbaum” (Rhamnus Prangula) and “eibe” (Laxus baccata, L.) are among the chief trees of the pro- vince of Saxony, and the ‘“pappel” (Populus), ‘‘ weissfichte ” (Abies pectinata), and “ zwergkiefer ” (Pinus Punvilio) among those of Schleswig-Holstein ; otherwise the lists from the various provinces are similar to theabove. Oak is largely used for artillery purposes, and aspen and birch in ship-building. By the budget for 1880, 50,000 marks were assigned for the introduction of foreign trees, including Pinus Laricio, “swartzkiefer,” from 8. Europe ; Abies Nordmanniana, from the Caucasus ; Picea sitchensis, from Japan, together with some other conifers ; and the following species from North America :— Pinus rigida, ponderosa, and Jeffreyi. | Juglans nigra. Abies (Pseudotsuga) Douglasii. Quercus rubra. Thuja gigantea. Betula lenta. Cupressus Lawsoniana. Populus monilifera. Juniperus virginiana. Acer Negundo, saccharinum, and Carya alba, amara, aquatica, por- dasycarpum. cina, and tomentosa. The Duchy of Gotha contains 44,140 hectares of forest, 85 per cent. of which is pine, the chief other trees being beech, spruce, larch, oak, maple, ash, birch, and elm, Coburg contains 15,718 hectares of similar forests. 390 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. The Kingdom of Saxony includes about 465,000 hectares of timber land, the chief species being Quercus sessiliflora, Sm., ‘ tran- beneiche, steineiche,” Magus sylvatica, Vraxinus excelsior, Betula alba, Alnus glutinosa, Picea excelsa, Pinus sylvestris, Abies pec- tinata, and Larix ewropea. Hesse-Darmstadt includes about 168,000 acres, and Baden nearly 1,270,000 acres of forest ; Pinus sylvestris and Strobus, Picea excelsa and Abies pectinata, and Larix europea, being the prevailing conifers. Hessian fir-trees are in great demand in Holland for ship-building. The Kingdom of Wurtemburg includes 596,000 hectares, or over 30 per cent. of its area, of forest, comprising the pine-wood districts of the Black Forest, Upper Swabia, and the Jaxt Circle ; and the hardwood forests of the Swabian Alps and of the ‘‘ Unter- land.” The spruce, silver fir, and Scots fir are the chief conifers, and are mostly used as timber, much being floated down the Rhine, Spruce bark is mixed with that of the oak in tanning, and the chopped branches are used as litter. Oak, of which both Quercus pedunculata, Ehrh., “stieleiche, sommereiche,” and Q. sessiliflora, Sm., occur, is largely in demand for ship-building in Holland, and for general purposes at home. Beech is the chief fuel, but is also used for ships’ keels, by carriage-builders, and by chair-makers. Ash, hornbeam, elm, linden, birch, alder, and maples (Acer cam- pestre, L., “feldahorn ;” A. platanoides, L. ; and A. Pseudo-plat- anus, L.), are also used in carriage-building, turnery, etc., and as fuel; whilst aspen is in demand for paper and match manufacture. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. The forests of the Austrian Empire occupy 66,600 English square miles, those of Austria being more than 30 per cent. of its whole area, and those of Hungary 26°6 per cent. They are situated mainly in the mountain regions of the Carpathians, Transylvania, Galicia, Bohemia, the Alps, Croatia, and Slavonia. Spruce, silver fir, larch ; Pinws montana, Duroi; P. sylvestris, and P. nigricans, Host. (=P. austriaca, Hoss.), are the prevailing species; but beech, several species of oak, including Y. Robur, L. ; Q. lanuginosa, Th.; and Q. Cerris, L., with elm (Ulmus campestris and U. effusa) ; poplar ; chestnut, ‘“ edelkastanie ;” and walnut, “ wallnussbaum,” occur at lower altitudes, especially in the south. Dalmatia and Croatia come within the Mediterranean area, and have also Quercus Pseudo-suber, Sant. ; Q. Zlex, L.; and Q. coccifera, L., together with the olive, mulberry, and fig (Micus Carica, L.). These are mostly ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 391 cultivated, as is also the Corsican pine,! Pinws Laricio, Poir., which is nearly allied to the black Austrian pine (P. nigricans). The timber is used mainly for fuel and building purposes ; but in addi- tion to 67,000,000 cubic feet of timber, the forests are estimated to yield 4,000,000 ewts. of bark (larch and oak) for tanning, 500,000 ewts. of gall-nuts, 250,000 ewts. of turpentine and resin, and 100,000 ewts. of potash annually. The turpentine of the larch is known, from its port of shipment, as “ Venice turpentine ;” that from the silver fir as “ Strasburg turpentine.” Russia. With by far the largest forest area of any European country (4693 million acres), both absolutely and relatively to its entire extent, Russia is very unequally wooded. Two-thirds of her forests are in the north-east ; in the north-west they form from 30 to 50 per cent. of the whole area; in the central and western districts 27 per cent. ; in the south-west 2°5 per cent. ; and in Little Russia only ‘7 per cent. The spruce is the prevalent tree in the north, the Siberian larch (Larix sibirica, Led.) in the north-east, whilst Pinus sylvestris, L., has a very wide range in latitude, flourishing in the Caucasus (41} deg. N. lat.) and Crimea, as well as on the shores of the Baltic. A variety, P. /rieseana, Wich., extends further north in Lapland, Finland, and Sweden. Birch is abundant, and in the central and southern districts oak, beech, ash, lime, walnut, and box. Besides an enormous home consumption for fuel and build- ing, Russia exports coniferous wood largely from Archangel and the Baltic ports, about 7000 tons of tar per annum, paper pulp from the aspen, large quantities of ‘“‘Russia matting,” the “bast,” or inner bark of the linden (Russian “ Lipa”), Zilia europea, L., and boxwood from the Caucasus. The latter is brought to England in billets from 3 to 8 ft. long, and from 3 to 18 in. in diameter, fetching from £4 to £15 per ton. The Corsican pine (P. Laricio) is extensively planted in the Crimea; and while beech and Scots fir occur on the northern slopes of the Caucasus, on the south side we have Abies orientalis, Led., Abies Nordmanniana, Pterocarya caucasia (nat. order, Corylacee), introduced into England about 1830, and Zelkova crenata, Spach, a heavy, hard, reddish wood at heart, with a lighter and elastic sapwood, similar to its ally the elm (nat. order, Ulmacee). It takes a good polish, and is used for furniture. 1 From it pine wool and pine oil are prepared. 392 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Other important species are the ‘‘cedar” (Pinus Cembra,L.), form- ing large forests in Perm and Volgoda, the aspen, the hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), distinguished as “ white beech” from Vagus sylvatica, the “red beech,” and forming whole forests near Kieff and Poltava, the alder (Alnus incana), and the European larch (Larix ewropea) in Poland. Of the total timber output for 1880 from Government forests, of over 2,900,000 cubic fathoms, spruce constituted 37°5 per cent., pine 27°8, soft woods (birch, lime, aspen, etc.) 19:5, and hard woods (oak, beech, ete.) 8°8 per cent. Walnut and boxwood form articles of export. Plantations have been made along several railways to protect them from snowdrifts, and Pinus Pinaster has been used, with smaller plants, on the sand-plains at Aleschki, on the Dnieper. RouMANIA. Stated by Dr Cleghorn to contain two million acres of forest land, Roumania produces oak, walnut, beech, yew, silver fir, and spruce. Quercus Cerris, L., the Turkey oak, is very characteristic of the Balkan peninsula, as is also the horse-chestnut and the Macedonian Pinus Peuce. FRANCE. Though having forests in almost every Department, covering in all about one-seventh of her area, France imports large quantities of common woods, as well as the more valuable exotic kinds. The principal timber trees of France are oaks, “ chénes,” of which Quercus Robur, L.; Q. apennina, Lam. ; Q. lanuginosa, Th. ; Q. Toza, Bosc. ; Q. Cerris, L. ; Q. Pseudo-suber, Sant. ; Q. Ilex, L. ; Q. Suber, L.; Q. occidentalis, Gay; Q. coccifera, L.; and Q. pseudo-coceifera, Dsf., are indigenous. Q. Suber and Q. occidentalis are considerably cultivated in the south and in Corsica. The latter does not ripen its acorns until the second year. Cork is stripped from Q. Suber after twelve or fifteen years’ growth, and then at intervals of from seven to ten years; but the two first gatherings are useless for “corks.” Beech (“hétre”), ash (‘‘fréne”), elm (“ orme”), sycamore (“fauxplatane”), and other maples (‘ erables”), birch (“bouleau”), walnut (“noyer ”), and the Lombardy poplar (Populus JSastigiata), are important deciduous trees ; the silver fir and spruce (“sapin rouge ”) are abundant in the Vosges and Jura mountains ; and Pinus halepensis, Mill., the Aleppo pine, and P. Pinaster, Soland. ap. ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 393 Aiton, the maritime or cluster pine (P. maritima, Poiret apud Lam.), are indigenous, and much cultivated in the south. The spruce yields “Burgundy pitch” and “frankincense ;” whilst “ Bordeaux turpentine” is obtained by cutting long slips off the stem of the cluster pine, with which the dunes of the south-west coast have since 1789 been so successfully planted. Among other woods, taken mostly from those exhibited by the French Govern- ment at the Exhibition of 1867, are the following :— Alnus glutinosa, Girtn. (nat. order, Betulacew), “ Aune.” In hydraulic works. Amygdalus communis, L, (nat. order, Rosacee), ‘‘Amandier.” Same purposes, Arbutus Unedo, L. (nat. order, Hricacee), ‘‘ Arbousier.”” Charcoal. Berberis vulgaris, L. (nat. order, Berberidacece), ‘‘ Epine vinette.”’ Cabinet work and dyeing. Carpinus Betulus, L. (nat. order, Cupulifere), ‘‘ Charme.” Carts, cogs, ete. Castanea vulgaris, Lam. (nat. order, Cupulifere), ‘‘ Chataignier.” Making of gallic acid. Celtis australis, L. (nat. order, Ulmaceee), ‘‘ Micocoulier.” Whip handles, Ceratonia siliqua, L. (nat. order, Leguminose). Cabinet work and firewood. Citrus medica (nat. order, Aurantiacee). Cabinet work. Cornus mas, L. (nat. order, Cornacew). Machinery, tools, ete. Corylus Avellana, L, (nat. order, Cupulifere), ‘‘ Noisetier.” Hoops, poles, ete. Crategus azarolus (nat. order, Rosacee). Firewood. Cytisus Laburnum, L. (nat. order, Leguminose), *‘ Faux ébénier.” Inlay- ing, turning, ete. Erica arborea, L. (nat. order, Ericacee), ‘‘ Bruyére.” ‘*‘ Briar” pipes. Euonymus europeus, L. (nat. order, Celastracee). Ilex Aquifolium, L. (nat. order, [licinee), ‘‘ Houx.” Cabinet work. Juniperus Oxycedrus, L. (nat. order, Conifere), ‘‘ Goudron huile decade.” J. Sabina, L., ‘‘Sabine.” Cabinet work, pencils, ete. Olea europea, L. (nat. order, Oleacece), ‘* Olivier.’’ Cabinet work. Pinus Cembra, L., ‘‘ Pin cembro.” Cabinet work. P. uncinata. Various purposes. P. Laricio, Poir., ‘‘ Pin noir.” Building, ete. Prunus Avium, L. (nat. order, Rosacece), ‘‘ Cerisier merisier,” or ‘‘ Cerisier sauvage.” Cabinet work and firewood. P. Mahaleb. Same purposes. P. armeniaca, L., ‘‘ Abricotier.” Same purposes. Pyrus communis, L, (nat. order, Rosacew), ‘* Poirier.” Various uses, P. Malus, L., var. acerba, ‘‘ Pommier.” Musical instruments. Rhamnus alaternus (nat. order, Rhamnacee). Cabinet work and charcoal. Rhus pentaphylla (nat. order, Anacardiacee). Dyeing and tanning. Saliz alba, L. (nat. order, Salicinee), ‘‘Saule.” Various purposes. S. Caprea, L., ‘‘Saule Marceau.” Hop poles. Sorbus torminalis, Crantz (nat. order, Rosacee), ‘‘Alisier torminal.” Cabinet work. S. Aria, Crantz, “ Alisier blanc.” Good for turning and firewood, 394 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. S. domestica. Engraving, tools and musical instruments. Styrax officinale (nat. order, Styracacce). Firewood. Tilia grandifolia (nat. order, Ziliacew), ‘‘ Tilleul.’’ Carving, ete. Ulex europeus, L. (nat. order, Leywminose), ‘‘ Ajone.” Firewood.? SWITZERLAND. With one-sixth of its whole area under forest, Switzerland pre- sents a characteristically mountain flora. Its chief timber trees are Picea excelsa, DC. (= Pinus abies, L.), used for planks, building, firewood, and charcoal ; Abies pectinata, which reaches altitudes of 4000 ft., similarly employed ; Pinus sylvestris, L., preferred to the two former as fuel; P. Cembra, L., ‘ Arve” or “ Zirbelkiefer,” a white, worm-resisting wood, esteemed for milk tubs and for floor- ing; Larix europea, DC., extending to an altitude of 3000 ft., used for sleepers; Quercus Robur, L., Q. pedunculata, Ehrh., and Juglans regia, L., extending to 1800 ft., but not abundant ; /agus sylvatica, L., up to 3000 ft., the best wood for fuel and charcoal ; maples, ash, birch, hornbeam, alder, and aspen. ITALY. With only about 12 per cent. of its area under forest, Italy, owing to the Apennine range, presents a great diversity in its flora. Pinus Pinea, L., the ‘ Stone pine,” the seeds of which are eaten, and which once formed the beautiful forest of Ravenna; and the olive (Olea europea, L.), the fruit and oil of which form one of the chief products of the country, are the two most characteristic trees. The wood of the latter, used for ornamental purposes, is very beautiful. The slopes of the Alps and Apennines are clothed with chestnut and silver fir, Pinus halepensis, the manna or flowering ash (Fraxinus Ornus, L. ; nat. order, Oleacew), mulberry, beech, larch, and a variety of oaks, are also common. The mulberry (Jorus alba, L.) is grown chiefly as food for the silkworm. Among the oaks are enumerated Quercus Robur, L.; Q. Ilex, L., the ‘holm ” oak; Q. montella, Q. pyrenaica, Q. Aisculus, L. ; Q. Cerris, L. ; Q. Pseudo-suber, Sant.; Q. Suber, L.; Q. pseudo-coccifera, Dsf. ; and Q. coccifera, L., besides other forms not generally admitted as species. [See Laslett, pp. 43-76.] The service and white beam are used as in France, and, in addition to the laburnum, the hard wood of the Judas tree (Cercis Siliquastrum, L.; nat. order, Leguminose) is also indigenous. Besides the sycamore (Acer 1 See also Mathieu, “ Flore Forestitre,” 1877. ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 395 obtusatum, Kit.), which ranges into Hungary, and reaches 40 to 60 ft., also occurs; but A. platanoides, L. (“ Acero riccio”), from which sugar can be prepared, is found only in the mountains. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. The Iberian peninsula is deficient in forest; but on the north coast there is much Pinus Pinaster, and on the Pyrenees, P. Laricio, P. pyrenaica, and P. halepensis occur, which, south of Lisbon, are replaced by P. Pinea, and on the limestone mountains of Grenada by Abies Pinsapo, Boiss. The chestnut, the holm oak, and the cork oak, are the chief broad-leaved trees of the peninsula, the former being cultivated, as in Italy and Sicily, for its fruit. In leaving the consideration of European trees, reference must be made to the extensive planting of Australian species of Lucalyptus (nat. order, IMyrtacee), especially #. Globulus, in the south of Europe ; to Quercus Ballota, the acorns of which are eaten in Sardinia; to Abelicea cretica, Sm. (nat. order, Ulmacee), the aromatic wood of which is known as “ false sandal-wood ;” and to a variety of cedar discovered by Sir Samuel Baker in the interior of Cyprus. ASIA. The most comprehensive survey of the flora of Asia is perhaps that by General Strachey in the Hncyclopedia Britannica,! from which the following is mainly condensed. We may perhaps con- sider the Continent as forming nine chief botanical provinces—viz., (1.) the northern, or Siberian; (2.) that of the Southern Steppes, passing north-eastwards into 1; south-eastwards into (3.) the Thi- betan region ; eastwards into (4.) the Chinese and Japanese having much affinity with the flora of North America; (5.) that of Asia Minor, Syria, and Persia, an eastward extension of the Mediter- ranean region ; (6.) the desert region of Arabia; (7.) Afghanistan ; passing into (8.) Northern India ; and (9.) the Indian Tropical Mon- soon region. 1. SIBERIA. The absence of oak, as of heaths, east of the Urals is character- istic, though Larix sibirica, Led., shows the close connection of this flora with that of Northern Europe. Pines extend to 70 deg. N.; and 1 Ninth edition, vol. ii, pp. 692-694, s.v, ‘* Asia,” 396 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Picea cephalonica and birch are characteristic of the mountains ; and willows, alders, and poplars, of the plains. 2. The SourHeRN Steppes, TURKESTAN, and MonGo.ta, and 3. 'THIBET,— are practically treeless. 4. NortTHERN CHINA. The flora of the interior of China is but little known. Pinus koraiensis occurs in Corea, and P. Lungeana in Northern China, Larix Kempfert and Cupressus funebris are further representatives of the Gymnosperms. Oaks, among which are Quercus mongolica and Q. dentata, point to the connection of this flora with that of the Himalayas ; and other interesting trees, introduced into Eng- land about a century ago, are Magnolia Yulan (or M. conspicua, Salisb.), Kélreuteria paniculata, and Arlantus glandulosa. The “lily tree,” as the name Yu-lan signifies, reaches 40 or 50 feet in height, and is allied to other deciduous species in Japan and in the Himalayas. K6élreuteria paniculata, Laxm. (nat. order, Sapin- dace), grows only to 20 or 40 feet in height. Azlantus glandu- losa, Desf. (nat. order, Simarubee), reaching 50 or 60 feet, is known in German as “ Gotterbaum ;” in Italian, as “ Albero di paradiso.” It has been extensively planted near Odessa, and is commonly grown for ornament in England, and for shade in the eastern United States. It is the food of the Asiatic silkworm, Bombyx cynthia. The recent discovery of a tulip tree (Liriodendron; nat. order, Magnoliacee) in the interior, connects the flora of North China with the tertiary fossil floras of Europe, as well as with the existing flora of America. The following timbers from Hongkong, some of which are not, however, indigenous, were exhibited at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. They are named, according to Mr Bentham’s “ Flora Hongkongensis” (London, i861) :— Acacia arabica, Willd. (Leguminose. ) A, pennata, Willd. Actinodaphne chinensis, Nees. racez. ) Adenanthera pavonina, L. minose. ) Aleurites triloba, Forst. biacexe. ) Aporosa frutescens, Blume. (Euphor- biacez. ) (Lau- (Legu- (Euphor- Aquilaria grandiflora, Benth. (Thy- melacez. ) Artocarpus hypargyrea, Hance. (Ar- tocarpacee. ) A. integrifolia, L. Bischofia javanica, Bl. biacez. ) Camellia hongkongensis, Seem. (Ca- melliacez. ) C. reticulata, Lindl. (Euphor- ECONOMIC Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst. (Casu- arine. ) Celtis sinensis, Pers. Chrysophyllum pentagonum. tacez. ) Cinnamomum Burmant. (Lauracee. ) C. neesianum, var. petiolare. Cratoxylon polyanthum, Korth. (Hy- pericacere. ) Cunninghamia sinensis, Br. fer. ) Cyminosma pedunculata, DC. tacee. ) Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb. nose. ) Eleocarpus lancecefolius, Roxb. (Tili- acez, ) Endospermum chinense, Benth. (Eu- phorbiace. ) (Ulmacee. ) (Sapo- (Cont- (Ru- (Legumi- Engelhardtia chrysolepis. (Juglan- dacez. ) Ficus Harlandi, Benth. (Artocar- pacee. ) F. hispida, Linn. fil. I. Wightiana, Wall. Gordonia anomala, Sareng. (Camel- liacee. ) Grewia microcos, L. (Tiliacee. ) Guettardella chinensis, Champ. (Ru- biace. ) Ilex cinerea, Champ. (llicinez.) Liquidambar chinensis, Champ. (Ha- mamelidez. ) Machilus velutina, Champ. (Lau- race. ) Mangifera indica, L. (Anacardi- acer. ) Melaleuca Leucadendron, L. (Myr- tacez. ) Melia Azxedarach, L. (Meliacez.) Myrica rubra, Sieb. & Zuce. (Myri- cacee. ) FORESTRY. 397 Nephelium Litschi, Camb. dace. ) NV. longanwn, Camb. Olea marginata, Champ. (Oleacee. ) Ormosia emarginata, Benth. (Legu- minosve. ) O. pachycarpa, Champ. Paratropia cantoniensis, Hook. & Arn. (Araliaceze. ) Pentaphylax euryoides, Gardn. melliacez. ) Pinus sinensis, Lamb. (Coniferz.) Pithecolobium lucidum, Benth. (Le- guminosee. ) Quercussalicina, Blume. (Cupulifere. ) Q. Championi, Benth. Q. fissa, Champ. Q. Harlandi, Hance. Q. thalassica, Hance. Rhaphiolepisindica, Lindl. (Rosacee. ) (Sapin- (Ca- Sarcocephalus cordatus, Miq. (Rubi- acee. ) Schima Noronhe, Reinw. (Camel- liacez. ) Spondias mangifera, Pers. (Anacar- diacez. ) Stillingia sebifera, Michx. (Euphor- biacee. ) Styrax suberifolia, Hook. & Arn. (Styracacee. ) Syzygium nervosum, tacez. ) S. odoratwm, Hook. & Arn. Ternstremia japonica, Thunb. (Cam- elliacez. ) DC. (Myr- Tetranthera citrifolia, Juss. (Lanu- race. ) T. monopetala, Roxb. Viburnum odoratissimum, Lindl. (Caprifoliacee. ) Vitew Lowriert, Hook. & Arn. (Ver- benacez. ) Notes upon many of these species will be given in discussing the Indian timbers, many of them being, as, indeed, Mr Bentham points out, are three-fifths of the flora of Hongkong, indigenous to India. 398 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. JAPAN. Japan, except in some of the hilly districts, has a luxuriant vegetation. The chief forests consist of Cryptomeria japonica, the “Japanese cedar,” or “sugi,” introduced into England in 1843, It ranges chiefly from 500 to 1200 ft. above the sea, and attains a height of 60 to 100 ft., with a diameter of 4 or 5 ft. It, together with Planera japonica, “ keyaki” (nat. order, U/mace), is used for common lacquer ware. Among pines there are Pinus parvi- flora, Sieb. and Zuce. ; P. densiflora, Sieb. and Zuce.; and P. Thunbergit ; Sciadopitys verticillata, the umbrella pine ; Picea polita; Pseudolarix Kampferi, the golden larch; Thuja or Thujopsis dolabrata, Sieb. and Zuce., “hiba;” Biota orventahs, the arbor vite ; V’suga Sieboldit (= Abies Tsuga), “ Tsuganoki ;” Retinospora or Chamecyparis obtusa, the sun tree, “ hinoki,” reaching 70 ft. to 100 ft. high, which is burnt for charcoal ; and Gingko biloba, L. (=Salishuria adiantifolia), the maiden-hair tree, ‘Ishio,” being the chief other representatives of the Conifere. The evergreen oaks, such as Quercus glabra and Q. serrata, Thunb., and the maples, including Acer polymorphum and Negundo cissi- folium, are among the finest Japanese trees ; the mulberry, walnut, chestnut, and plum (Prunus pseudo-cerasus), “sakara,” are culti- vated, as is also the persimmon (Diospyros Kaki; nat. order, Ebenacee) ; and among other characteristic trees are the lacquer tree (Rhus vernicifera), and vegetable wax-tree (2. succedanea ; nat. order, Anacardiacee); the camphor (Cinnamomum camphora, Nees, = Laurus) ; Broussonetia papyrifera, the paper mulberry ; Magnolia hypoleuca, “ honoki,” used for charcoal ; the “ ailanto” (Ailantus glandulosa, Desf.; nat. order, Simarubew) ; the “yen ju” (Sophora japonica, L.), the flower-buds of which afford a dye ; and Paulownia imperialis, “ kizi,” from the wood of which the best lacquered articles are made.! 5. Asta Minor, Syria, AND PeErsIA, The flora of this area differs but little from that of Southern Europe. Quercus pseudo-coccifera is by far the most abundant tree in Syria: Q. Zgilops, whose acorn-cups are imported for dyeing under the name of valonia, Q. Cerris, and Q. infectoria, whence Turkey gall-nuts are obtained, are also Levantine species ; and 1 ¥Franchet and Savatier, ‘“‘Enumeratio plantarum in Japonia. . .,” Paris, 1875-79. ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 399 forests of oak (‘“‘mazu”’) occur also in Persia, as does also the beech (“nis ”) and elm (“‘azad”), the walnut (Juglans regia, L.), which probably has here its original home, as has also the myrtle (Myrtus communis), which yields an oil and a hard wood useful in turnery ; plane, sycamore, ash, yew, box, and juniper. Maples, hornbeams, and hazels also occur in this region ; and the terebinth (Pistacia Terebinthus; nat. order, Anacardiacee), and the cultivated Melia Azedarach, L., the “bead tree,” “ Indian lilac,” or “ pride of India,” are also characteristic features in the vegetation. The coniferee are represented by the Caucasian Picea orientalis and Abies Nordmanniana, Link., the Levantine A. ezlicica and A. cephalonica, Loud., by the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), and above all by the cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani, Loud.), which probably gives place to the Himalayan variety, C. deodara, Loud., in the eastern mountains. The cultivation of the olive is one of the chief industries of Syria, and the manufacture of articles from its beautiful wood, an important trade in Jerusalem. The “ iron- wood ” of Persia is a species of Parrotia (nat. order, Hamamelidee). 6. THe Desert Reeion oF ARABIA. The flora of this region is practically continuous with that of Northern and Eastern Africa, extending from the Cape Verde Islands into Abyssinia and round the Persian Gulf, through Biluchistan, and part of Afghanistan to the Indus. Almost all the plants are glaucous, many spinose, leaves being little developed, whilst gums and resins and pungent aromas are the rule. Trees are rare: Pistacia, Terebinthus, Celtis, Dodonea, Populus, and Phenix dactylifera, L., the date palm, being the chief. Lalsamoden- dron Myrrha, Ehrenb. (nat. order, Burseracee), yields myrrh ; and Acacia nilotica is said to have been the ancient ‘ shittim-wood ;” but this name has been also referred to Dalbergia Sissoo, the “ shisham ” of India, 7. AFGHANISTAN. At a height from 6000 to 10,000 feet we have Cedrus deodara, Loud. ; Picea excelsa, Link. ; Pinus longifolia, Roxb. ; P. Pinaster, Soland. ; P. Pinea, L. ; larch, yew, hazel, and walnut, which latter, with various evergreen and kermes oaks, descend to lower heights, where they are mixed with alder, ash (apparently the “‘ sir-kasht,” or manna-yielding Fraxinus Ornus, L.), ‘“ khinjak,’ Pistacia Khinjuk, J. E. Stocks, which yields a gum mastic, and on the north VOL. XI., PART III. 25 400 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. P. vera, L., the Pistacio ; whilst down to 3000 feet we have the olive and Zizyphus. This flora passes into that of the Western Himalayas. 8. NortTHERN INDIA. The trees which do not require the moist heat of equatorial regions, and can resist the drought from April to June, are Legu- minose, such as Butea, Bauhinia, Acacia, and Dalbergia; Bombaa, Shorea, Nauclea, and Lagerstremia. Magnoliacee, Camelliacee, oaks, and Rhododendrons are distinctive of the Himalaya, Cedrus deodara being hardly indigenous east of the sources of the Ganges, whilst Pinws longifolia forms much of the forest on the warm slopes. The tea-shrub (7hea assamica), the Aucuba, Abelia, and Skimmia are typical of the westward extension of the Chino- Japanese type; and the absence of Z%/ia and Lagus is also characteristic. Abies Brunoniana and Smithiana and the larch (unknown in the western part of the Himalayas) are found at 8000 feet in Sikim, the yew and Abies Webbiana at 10,000 feet, whilst Pinus longifolia descends to the tropical zone. In Kumaon we have a more tropical flora, including Moringa, Bombax, Butea, Anogeissus, Erythrina, Acacia, Bauhinia, Nauclea, and Ulmus integrifola, and still Pinus longifolia. In Kashmir the plane and Lombardy poplar flourish, and the vegetation, which in the higher mountains hardly differs even in species from that of Afghanistan, Persia, and Siberia, has an eminently European aspect, as has also the flora of Western Thibet, in which, however, the juniper and poplar are the only trees besides cultivated fruit-trees. The pines of the Himalayas do not yield durable timber; but the deodar is much used, the “sal” (Shorea robusta, Gaertn.; nat. order, Dipterocarpee), the “toon” (Cedrela Toona, Roxb. ; nat. order, Meliacee), and “ sissoo,” ‘“shisham,” or “ rose-wood” (Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb. ; nat. order, Leguminose), belonging to the lower levels, 2.¢., below 3000 feet, though the ‘“ toon ” reaches the altitude of 7000 feet in Sikim. Acacia arabica, Willd., the “ babil,” represents the Arabian type of North-West India. 9. THe Inp1AN Monsoon Recron.! This region includes (1.) the Dekkan, or Western Peninsula ; 1 The multiplicity of languages in India renders such a series of the various vernacular synonyms for each tree, as is given in Mr Gamble’s ‘‘ Manual,” impossible in an essay such as the present. ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 401 (3.) the Malay Peninsula, with the intervening (2.) Andaman Islands ; (4.) Sumatra; (5.) Java; (6.) Borneo; (7.) the Mo- luccas ; (8.) New Guinea; (9.) the Philippines, and, as we have already seen, to some extent South China ; and (10.) Ceylon. Dip- terocarpacee, or wood-oil trees, Apocynaceee, Ficus, and other rubber- yielding trees, and pitcher-plants (Wepenthes) are characteristic. Teak (Zectona grandis, L.; nat. order, Verbenacec) flourishes in the heavy rainfall of Southern India, the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra, its northern limit being about 25° N.; whilst the other chief trees of this area belong to the orders J'erebinthacee, Sapindacee, Meliacee, Clusiacee, Camelliacee, Leguminose, Sapo- tacee, and Lauracee. The Indian timbers in the following alphabetical list are mainly those of the celebrated “ Index collection.” Abies Smithiana, Forbes. Himalayan spruee. A, Webbiana, Lindl. Himalayan silver fir. Acacia arabica, Willd. ‘‘ Babal,” ‘‘ gum arabic ” (Leguminosee), reaching 50 to 60 feet in height and 3 to 4 feet in diameter, and forming a hard, durable wood for wheels, presses, tool-handles, etc. Its bark is used in dyeing and tanning, and its gum is “ gum arabic.” A. Catechu, Willd. ‘‘ Khair.” ‘‘ Catechu,” or ‘‘ cutch,” or ‘‘terra japo- nica,” of which 3000 tons were imported in 1877, is obtained from the heart- wood. A. ferruginea, DC. ‘‘ Khair.” A. leucophlea, Willd. Acer cesium, Willd. (Acerinee.) ‘‘ Trekhan.” A. Campbelli, Hook. fil. & Thom. A. levigatum, Willd. A. pictum, Thunb. Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Wight. (Leqguminose.) ‘‘ Mandania.” Adina cordifolia, Hook. fil. & Thom. (=Nawclea cordifolia, Roxb.). ‘“‘Haldu.” (Rubiacee.) A hard wood used in Burmah for making combs. Adenanthera pavonina, L. ‘‘ Redwood,” ‘‘red sandal-wood,” “ Rakta- chandan.” (ZLeguminose.) The hard red heart-wood is used in building and cabinet-work and as a red dye, and the red seeds for ornaments. Aigle Marmelos, Correa. ‘‘ Bael” fruit. (Aurantiacee.) Aesculus indica, Colebrooke. (Sapindacew.) ‘‘ Bankhor.” Afzlia bijuga, A. Gray. ‘‘Shoondul” or ‘*Pynkado,” a small ever- green with red-brown, hard, heart-wood; used in building and for clubs. (Leguminose. ) Ailantus excelsa, DC. (Simarubee.) ‘* Maha rukh.” Alangium Lamarckii, Thwaites. (Cornacee.) ‘ Akola.” Albizzia amara, Boivin. (Leguminose.) ‘‘Lallei.” A. Julibrissin, Durazz. ‘‘ Pink siris.” Heart-wood, almost black, used for furniture. 402 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. A. odoratissima, Benth. ‘‘Lasrin.” The very hard, dark brown heart- wood takes a good polish, and is used for wheels, oil-mills, and furniture. A. procera, Benth. ‘‘Safed Siris.” Brown, banded heart-wood, which is durable, and suited to the same purposes as the last. A, stipulata, Boivin. ‘‘Sirin.” Alnus nepalensis, D. Don. (Betulacee.) ‘* Kohi.” Alstonia scholaris, R. Br. ‘‘Chatwan” (Apocynacee.) The soft, white, perishable wood is used for blackboards, whence its name ; also for tea-chests, coffins, ete. ; and it yields a rubber. Altingia excelsa, Noronha. ‘‘Nan-ta-roop.” (Hamamelidee.) A useful tree, reaching 150 to 180 feet high, and 5 to 6 feet in diameter. Amoora cucullata, Roxb. (Meliacee.) ‘* Amur.” A. Rohituka, W. & A. ‘‘ Rohituka.” A. spectabilis, Miq. Anacardium occidentale, L. The Cashew-nut. ‘‘ Kaju.” (Anacardiacee.) Anogeissus acuminata, Wall. (Combretacew.) ‘‘Chakma.” A, latifolia, Wall. ‘‘Dhaura.” Reaches 200 feet in height and more than 3 in diameter ; has a tough, purplish heart-wood, used for boat-building, axe handles, furniture, etc. ; and has leaves which are used in tanning. A. pendula, Edgeworth. Anthocephalus Cadamba, Benth. & Hook. fil. ‘‘ Kaddam.” (Rubiacee.) Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxb. ‘‘ Kagle-wood,” or ‘‘aloes-wood,” and a resin (‘‘ Lien aloes’’) which is burnt as incense. (Thymelaceew.) Artocarpus Chaplasha, Roxb. ‘‘Chaplash.” A durable, yellow-brown wood, used for canoes, tea-chests, furniture, ete. (Artocarpacee.) A, hirsuta, Lamk. ‘* Aini.” A, integrifolia, L. ‘* Kanthal.” ‘‘Jack” fruit tree. The yellow-brown heart-wood takes a polish ; is used for furniture, cabinet work, the backs of brushes, etc. ; and yields a yellow dye. Balsamodendron Mukul, Hook. ‘‘Gugal.” (Burseracee.) Barringtonia angulata, Gaertn. Gum. (MMyrtacee.) Bassia butyracea, Roxb. ‘‘Phalwara.” Butter tree. (Sapotacee.) B. latifolia, Roxb. ‘‘Mahwa wood.” A hard, red-brown wood used for sleepers, furniture, etc., but rarely felled, as the flowers are used as food. B. longifolia, Willd. ‘‘Mee” or ‘‘Illupi” wood. Hard, flexible wood, used for a variety of purposes. Bauhinia purpurea, L. “ Koliar.”” (Leguminose.) B. retusa, Ham. ‘* Kural.” Red-white wood and ‘‘Semla Gum.” Beilschmiedia Roxburghiana, Nees. (Lauracee.) Berrya Ammonilia, Roxb. ‘‘ Halmillila.” (Tiliacew.) Betula Bhojpatra, Wallich. ‘‘Bhujpattra.” (Betalacee.) B. cylindrostachys, Wall. Bischoffia javanica, Bl. ‘* Kein.” (EHuphorbiacee.) Bombax malabaricum, DC. ‘*Shembal.” Silk cotton. (Jfalvacee.) Borassus flabelliformis, L. ‘ Tal.” Palmyra palm. (Palmacee.) Boswellia serrata, Roxb. (Burseracece. ) B. thurifera, Colebrooke. ‘“ Salei.” ‘‘ Olibanum,” used in incense. briedelia retusa, Spreng. (Huphorbiacee.) Buchanania latifolia, Roxb. ‘‘Chirauli.” (Anacardiacee.) ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 403 Bucklandia populnea, R. Br. (Hamamelidee.) Butea frondosa, Roxb. ‘‘ Dhak.” (Leguminose.) Yields a “lac.” Buxus sempervirens, L. ‘‘ Papri.” (Buxinee.) Cesalpinia Sappan, L. ‘‘ Bakam.” ‘‘Sappan-wood,” adye. (Leguminose.) Callicarpa arborea, Roxb. (Verbenacee.) Calophyllwm Inophyllum, L. ‘‘ Alexandrian laurel,” ‘‘ poon,” ‘* tatamaka.” (Guttifere.) A red-brown wood used for sleepers, spars, etc. ; yielding a resin ; whilst from the seeds is pressed an oil used as a liniment in rheu- matism. C. polyanthum, Wallich. Canarium bengalense, Roxb. (Burseracee.) C. strictum, Roxb. ‘‘ Black dammar.” A gum resin. Carallia integerrima, DC. (Rhizophoracee.) Carapa moluccensis, Lam. (Meliacee.) Careya arborea, Roxb. (Myrtacee.) Casearia glomerata, Roxb. (Camydacee.) Cassia Fistula, L. ‘‘Indian Laburnum.” (Leguminose. ) C. siamea, Lamk. ‘‘Beati.” Nearly black heart-wood, used in Burmah for mallets, ete. Castanea vesca, Gaertn. (Cupulifere.) Castanopsis indica, A.DC. (Cupulifere.) C. rufescens, Hook. fil. & Thom. Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst. ‘‘Iron-wood.” (Caswarineew.) Used also as a dye, and its ash in soap-making. ‘‘ Chow,” etc., in Borneo, 4. ». Cedrela serrata, Royle. (Meliacee.) C. Toona, Roxb. ‘‘ Toon.” ‘*Thitkado” in Burmah. Grows 80 to 100 feet high, and 20 feet round. Its brick-red, soft, durable wood, ‘‘ Moul- mein cedar,” or ‘‘ Indian mahogany ” in the English market, resists ants, and is used for furniture, carving, ete. Cedrus deodara, Loud. (Conifere.) The most durable Himalayan coni- fer ; used for sleepers, furniture, etc. ; and yields an oil, by distillation from the wood, used medicinally, and to anoint skin floats for crossing rivers. Introduced into England 1831. Celtis australis, L. (Ulmacee.) Chickrassia tabularis, A. Juss. ‘‘ Chittagong wood,” ‘‘ Chickrassi.” (Meliacee.) Hard wood with satiny lustre, used for furniture and carving. The bark is very astringent. Chloroxylon Swietenia, DC. ‘‘Satin wood,” ‘‘ Behra.” (Meliacew.) A hard, beautiful wood, taking a polish, and used for furniture, cabinet work, turnery, ete. It yields a wood oil. Cinnamomum glanduliferum, Meissn. ‘* Nepal Camphor wood.” (Law- Trace. ) C. Tamala, Nees. ‘‘Cinnamon,” ‘ Cassia lignea.” Cocos nucifera, L. ‘* Cocoa-nut palm,” ‘‘ Porcupine wood ;” used in in- laying, for rafters, etc. Nuts and fibre. (Palmacee.) Connarus speciosus. (Connaracee.) Cordia fragrantissima, Kurz. (Boraginea.) C. Macleodii, Hook. fil. & Thom. C. Myxa, L. 404. ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Corylus Colurna, lL. (Corylacew.) Croton argyratus, Bl, ‘‘Choonoo.” Hard, yellow wood. (Luphorliacee.) Cupressus torulosa, Don. ‘* Himalayan Cypress.” (Coniferw.) Dalbergia lanceolaria, L. (Leguminose.) D. latifolia, Roxb. ‘‘ Indian Blackwood,” ‘* Rosewood, ‘‘ Sitsal.” Used for furniture, carving, railway sleepers, and other purposes. D. latifolia, var. sissoides. Nilghiri blackwood, D. Sissoo, Roxb. ‘‘Sisso,” ‘‘Shisham,” ‘‘ Chittim” of Scripture (4), **Rosewood.” Hard, strong, and elastic; unequalled for wheels for gun- carriages, etc., but scarce. Dammara orientalis. ‘‘Dammar pine.” (Conifere.) Daphnidium pulcherrimum, Nees. (Lauracee.) Dichopsis polyantha, Benth. & Hook. fil. (Sapotacee.) Dillenia indica, L. (Dilleniacee.) D. pentagyna, Roxb. D. speciosa, Thunb. Diospyros burmanica, Kurz. (Ebenacee. ) D. Ebenaster. ‘* Bastard Ebony ” of Ceylon. D. Embryopteris, Pers. D. Melanoxylon, Roxb. Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxb. (= D. turbinatus, Gaertn. f. 2). ‘*Gurjun” or “‘Kanyin” wood. Wood used in building, but not durable. Yields ‘‘ourjun balsam” or wood oil. (Dipterocarpew. ) D. Kurzti, Hiern. D. levis, Ham. ‘‘ Kangin.” D. obtusifolius, Teysm. D. tuberculatus, Roxb. ‘‘ Eng.” Hard, reddish wood, used in Burmah for door-posts. Clear, yellow resin. Dolicandrone stipulata, Seem. (Bignoniacee.) Drimycarpus racemosus, Hook. fil. (Anacardiacee. ) Duabanga sonneratioides, Buch. ‘‘ Bandorhulla.” (Lythracece.) Dysoxylon binectariferum, Hook, fil. (A/eliacece. ) Echinocarpus dasycarpus, Benth. (Tiliacee.) Elwocarpus lanceefolius, Roxb. ( Tiliacew.) Ela«odendron glaucum, Pers. (Celastracea.) E. integrifolium. White wood for cabinet work. Engelhardtia spicata, Bl. (Juglandacee.) Eriolena Candollei, Wall. (Sterculiacece. ) Erythrina suberosa, Roxb. (Leguminose.) Erythroxylonmonogynum, Roxb. ‘‘Bastardsandal-wood.” (Erythroxylacee. ) Hard, dark brown wood ; takes a polish ; is used instead of sandal-wood ; and yields an oil used as varnish. Eugenia alternifolia, Wight. (Myrtacee.) EL. Arnottiana, Wight. E, Jambolana, Lam. ‘‘ Jam,” ‘‘ Jamoon,” ‘‘ Jambool.” E. operculata, Roxb., var. obovata, Kurz. Huonymus Hamiltonianus, Wall. (Celastracece. ) Fagrea fragrans, Roxb. ‘* Anan.” (Strychnacee.) Ficus bengalensis, L. ‘‘ Banyan.” (Artocarpacee.) ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 405 F. glomerata, Roxb. ‘‘ Kathgalar.” Flacourtia Ramontchi, L’Heritier. (Bixinee.) Fraxinus floribunda, Wall. (Oleacee.) Garcinia speciosa, Wall. (Guttifere.) Gardenia latifolia, Aiton. (Rubiacce.) Garuga pinnata, Roxb. ‘“ Kharpat.” (Burseracee.) Reddish heart-wood ; not durable. Used for fuel or building. Bark used in tanning, and leaves as fodder. Givotia rottleriformis, Griff. (Euphorbiacee.) Gluta tavoyana, Wall. (Anacardiacee. ) G. travancoria, Beddome. Gmelina arborea, Roxb. ‘‘Gumhar.” (Verbenacee.) A small, but valu- able, substitute for teak. Grewia asiatica, L. ‘‘Phalsa.” (Tiliacee.) Hard, yellowish wood. Bark used in rope-making. G. tiliefolia, Vahl. Gyrocarpus Jacquini, Roxb. (Combretacee.) Hardwickia binata, Roxb. ‘“‘ Anjan.” (Leguminose.) 50 to 120 ft. high. Very hard, dark red or purplish heart-wood ; very heavy and durable. Used for sleepers, etc. The tree yields agum, and the bark a strong and valuable fibre. H. pinnata, Roxb. ‘‘Kolaou.” Brown heart-wood, used in building; exudes a balsam. Heritiera littoralis, Dryander. ‘‘Sunder” or ‘‘Sundri.” From the Sundarbunds ; used for boats, beams, ete. (Stercudiacee. ) Heterophragma Roxburghii, DC. (Bignoniacee.) Holarrhena antidysenterica, Wall. ‘* Kurchi” or ‘‘ Conessi” bark. (Apo- cynacece. ) Homalium tomentosum, Benth. (Samydacee.) Hopea odorata, Roxb. ‘‘Thingan.” (Dipterocarpee.) Hard, durable, yellowish wood, heavier than teak. The chief timber of Southern Tenasserim, yielding a yellow resin or ‘‘ dammar.” H. parviflora, Beddome. Hymenodictyon excelsum, Wall. (Rubiacee.) Llex dipyrena, Wall. (Ilicinew.) I. Wightiana, Wall. Juglans regia, L. Walnut. ‘‘ Akhrot.” (Juglandacee.) Juniperus excelsa, M. Bieb. ‘* Himalayan pencil cedar.” (Cupressinee.) J. recurva, Ham. ‘‘ Weeping blue juniper.” Lagerstremia Flos-regine, Retz. ‘‘Jarul,” ‘‘ Ajhar,” ‘‘ Blood-wood.” (Lythracee.) The most valuable timber of Sylhet. Very durable in water. L. microcarpa, Wight. L. parvifolia, Roxb., var. majuscula, C. B. Clarke. ‘‘ Bandara” (=‘' Bakli” of the N. W. Provinces ?). L. tomentosa, Pres. Larix Grifithii, Hook. fil. & Thom, Eastern Himalayas. (Conifere.) Lebedieropsis orbicularis, Mill. Arg. ‘‘Garrar.” (Huphorbiacee.) Limonia acidissima, L. (Aurantiacee.) Lophopetalum littorale, Kurz. (Celastraceew.) L. Wallichii, Kurz. 406 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Machilus odoratissima, Nees. (Lawracew.) Magnolia Campbellii, Hook. fil. & Thom. Eastern Himalaya. (Magno- Uiacee. ) Mangifera indica, L. ‘* Mango.’ M. sylvatica, Roxb. Melanorrhea usitata, Wall. ‘‘ Varnish Tree of Burmah.” (Anacardiacee.) Melia Azadirachta, L. (=M. indica, Brandis). ‘‘ Neem,” ‘* Margosa.” (Meliacee.) Sacred idols and furniture made from wood ; bark a febrifuge ; and bitter, acrid yellow oil from fruit. M. Azedarach, lu. ‘Persian Lilac,” ‘‘ Bead Tree,” ‘‘ Pride of India,” ‘‘ Bastard Cedar.” ‘‘Maha Neem.” Wood for furniture ; bark, anthelmin- tic ; oil from fruit ; and seeds as beads. Memecylon edule, Roxb. (Melastomacee. ) Mesua ferrea, L. ‘‘ Nagesar,’’ ‘‘ Iron-wood.” (Guttifere.) Heart-wood dark red, extremely hard, used for gun-stocks, building, ete. In Ceylon an oil expressed from seed. M. speciosa, Choisy. ’ (Anacardiacee. ) Michelia Champaca, L. “ Champa,” ‘‘Sampagi-maram.” (JJagnoliacce.) Reaches 44 feet diameter. Olive-brown wood, soft, takes polish, durable. M. excelsa, Blume. ‘‘ Bara Champ,” ‘‘ White Magnolia.” The chief wood of Darjeeling. Miliusa velutina, Hook. fil. & Thom. (Anonacee.) Millettia pendula, Benth, (Legunvinose. ) Millingtonia hortensis, L. (Bignoniacee.) Mimusops Elengi, L. ‘‘Bakul,’’ ‘‘ Molsari.” (Sapotacce. ) M. indica, A. DC. M., littoralis, Kurz. ‘‘ Andaman bullet-wood.” Red, hard, durable wood. Morinda exserta, Roxb. (Rubiacee.) Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn. ‘‘ Horse-radish tree,” from the flavour of its bark and roots ; ‘‘ Ben”’ oil from its seeds. (Moringacec.) Morus cuspidata, Wall. (Urticacec.) M. serrata, Roxb. Myristica Irya, Gaertn. ‘‘ Maloh.” (d/yristicacew.) Nephelium Longana, Camb. (Sapindacee.) Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis, L. ‘‘ Harsinghar.” (Oleacew.) Odina Wodier, Roxb. ‘‘ Kiamil.” (Anacardiacee.) Red-brown heart- wood variously employed, but not very durable. Bark used in tanning, and gum medicinally and as size. Olea ferruginea, Royle. (Oleacec.) Ougeinia dalbergioides, Benth. ‘‘Sandan.”’ (Leguminose.) Mottled red and brown, tough, durable wood, which takes a polish, and is variously used ; and a red astringent gum. Pentace burmannica, Kurz. ‘ Thitko;” ‘‘ Kathitka” in Burmah, (7Z%- liacew.) Yellow-red, soft, light wood. Pentacme siamensis, Kurz. Pentaptera glabra, Roxb. (Combretacee.) A substitute for teak, reaching 60 to 80 feet in height and 6 to 8 feet in diameter, in Pegu. Photinia Lindleyana, Wight. (Rosacce.) Phyllanihus Emblica, lL. (EHuphorbiacec.) ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 407 Pinus excelsa, Wall. ‘‘Bhotan pine.” (Coniferw.) Reaches 200 feet in height, with cones 1 to 2 feet long. P. Gerardiana, Wall. Afghanistan and West Himalayas. P. Kasya, Royle. P. longifolia, Roxb. ‘‘Chir.” Not durable, but easily worked. Used for charcoal, tar, turpentine, and fuel, and the bark for tanning. P. Merkusii, Jungh. ‘‘Tinyu-ben.” Torches, masts. Pistacia integerrima, Stewart. (Anacardiacce. ) Pithecolobium dulce, Benth. (Leguminose.) Planchonia littoralis, Van Houtte. ‘‘Bambway Nee.’ Valuable, red-brown, hard wood. Andamans. Platanus orientalis, L. (Platanacee.) Podocarpus bracteata, Bl. (Conifere.) P. latifolia, Wall. Pongamia glabra, Vent. (Lequminose.) Populus ciliata, Wall. (Salicinece.) P. euphratica, Oliv. Premna longifolia, Roxb. (Verbenacee.) Prosopis spicigera, lL. ‘‘Jhand.” Very hard, tough, but not durable, purplish brown wood, used for fuel in the Panjab, and for building. Prunus Puddum, Roxb. (Rosacew.) Pterocarpus indicus, Willd. ‘‘ Padouk,” ‘‘ Andaman Redwood.” (Legu- minose.) A beautiful dark-red wood of large dimensions, valuable for furni- ture. The tree also yields an astringent gum known as “ kino.” P. Marsupium, Roxb. ‘‘Bija Sal,” ‘‘ Bastard Teak.” A harder, brown wood, much used for building and furniture ; it also yields kino. P. santalinus, L. fil. ‘‘Red Sanders Wood.” Hard, red banded wood, chiefly used in tanning and dyeing, but sometimes in building. Pterospermum acerifolium, Willd. (Sterculiacee. ) P. suberifolium, Lam. Quercus annulata, Sm. ; Q. dilatata, Lindl. ; Q. Grifithii, Hook. fil. & Thom. ; Q. Ilex, L. ; Q. incana, Roxb. ; Q. lamellosa, Sm. ; Q. lappacea, Roxb. ; Q. pachyphylla, Kurz; Q. semecarpifolia, Sm.; Q. spicata, Sm. (Cupulifere. ) Rhizophora Mangle, L. ‘* Mangrove R. mucronata, Lamk. Rhododendron arboreum, Sm. (Lricacee.) Rhus Cotinus, L. (Anacardiacee.) Saccopetalum tomentosum, Hook. fil. & Thom. (Anonacee.) Salix tetrasperma, Roxb. (Salicinee.) Salvadora oleoides, L. (Salvadoracee.) S. persica, L. ‘‘ Tooth-brush Tree.” Sandoricum indicum, Cav. ‘‘Thitto.” (Meliacee.) Red-wood, which takes a polish; used for carts, boats, etc. Santalum album, L. ‘‘Sandalwood,” *‘ Chandal.” (Santalacew.) Yellowish brown, very hard, scented wood, used for carving, and largely exported to China, Arabia, and England. The fragrant oil is distilled from it. Sapindus emarginatus, Vahl. ‘‘Soap-nut.” (Sapindacee.) An oil from the seeds, ’ (Myrtacee.) ” (Rhizophoracee. ) 408 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. S. rubiginosa, Baill. Scepa (Lepidostachys) Roxburghii. ‘ Kokra-wood.” Hard. (Luphorbiacee.) Schima Wallichii, Chois. ‘‘Chilauni.” (Camelliacee.) Schleichera trijuga, Willd. ‘‘Kosum.” (Sapindacew.) Strong, durable wood, used for mills, ete. The fruit is edible; the seeds yield an oil, and the tree a ‘‘lac.” Schrebera swieteniotdes, Roxb. (Oleacew.) Semecarpus Anacardium, L. fil. ‘‘Marking-nut.” (Anacardiacee.) Shorea obtusa, Wall, ‘‘Thitya.” (Dipterocarpee.) A hard, durable, dark wood, variously employed. S. robusta, Gaertn. ‘‘Sal.”” The most used timber of Northern India ; brown, streaked, hard, and durable. The tree yields a white aromatic resin, “‘Dhoona,” or ‘‘ Dammar” pitch, used in incense ; and an oil from the seeds. S. Talura, Roxb. ‘‘ Talura.” Hard, grey, building timber. S. Tumbuggaia, Roxb. Sideroxylon tomentosum, Roxb. (Sapotacee. ) Sonneratia acida, L. fil. (Lythracee.) S. apetala, Buch. Soymida febrifuga, A. Juss. ‘*Indian red-wood,” ‘‘ Rohan.” (JMeliacee) (=Swietenia febrifuga.) Heart-wood reddish black, hard and durable. Used for ploughshares, ete., and the bark as a febrifuge. Spondias mangifera, Pers. ‘‘ Hog Plum.” (Anacurdiacee.) Wood vyalue- less ; yields a gum ; fruit edible. Stephegyne parvifolia, Korth. ‘‘ Kaddam.” (Rubiacew.) Pinkish-brown wood, used for turning, ete. Sterculia fetida, L. ‘‘Jangli badam.” (Stereuliacee.) Wood valueless. S. urens, Roxb. ‘‘ Gulu.” S. villosa, Roxb. ‘* Udal.” Stercospermum chelonioides, DC. ‘*Pader.” Hard, grey, useful wood. Roots, leaves, and flowers medicinal. (Bignoniacee. ) S. suaveolens, DC. Strychnos Nua-vomica, Roxb. ‘‘ Snake-wood,” ‘‘ Kuchla.” (Strychnacee.) Brownish grey, hard wood. The alkaloid ‘‘Strychnia” is obtained from the seed, S. colubrina, L. ‘‘ Snake-wood ” of Malabar and Java, a remedy for snake- bites, S. potaturum, L. fil. ‘‘The Clearing-nut,” used to clear drinking water. ‘* Nirmali.” Talauma Hodgsoni, Hook. fil. & Thom. (Magnoliaceew.) Tamarindus indica, L. ‘‘ Tamarind,” ‘‘ Amli.” (Legwminose.) Purplish heart-wood irregularly disposed, very hard, suitable for turning. Fruit edible, and leaves used in curry. Tamariz articulata, Vahl. (Tamariscinece. ) Taxus baccata, L. Himalayas, large. (Taxinew.) Tecoma undulata, G. Don. (Bignoniacee.) Tectona grandis, L, ‘‘ Teak,” ‘‘Sagun.” (Verbenacee.) The most valu- able timber of India, very heavy and durable. Used for ship-building ; resists termites. An oil, used instead of linseed, is extracted in Burmah. Terminalia Arjuna, Beddome. ‘‘ Arjun.” (Combretacece.) b ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 409 T. belerica, Roxb. ‘‘Babela,” ‘‘Myrobalan wood.” Wood used for planks. Fruit, ‘‘ myrobalans.” T. bialata, Wall. T. Chebula, Roxb. ‘‘Harra.” Hard, grey wood, takes a polish, and is used for furniture and building. The fruit, ‘‘Chebulic,” or ‘‘ Black myro- balans,” used in dyeing. T. myriocarpa, Henck. & Mull. Arg. T. tomentosa, W. & A. ‘‘Saj” or “Sein.” Hard, dark brown, finely variegated, much used, but not durable wood. Bark used as black dye, and in tanning. Ternstremia japonica, Thunb. (Camelliacce.) Tetranthera lawrifolia, Jacq. (Laurinee.) T. monopetala, Roxb. Thespesia populnea, Corr. ‘* Tulip” or ‘‘ Portia” tree. (Jlalvacee. ) Turpinia nepalensis, Wall. (Sapindacee.) Ulmus integrifolia, Roxb. ‘‘ Papri.” (Wlmacee.) Yellowish-grey, useful wood. An oil from seeds. U. Wallichiana, Planchon. Vaccinium Leschenaultii, Wight. (Hricacee.) Vatica laccifera, W. & A. (Dipterocarpaccw.) V. lanceefolia, Bl. Vateria indica, L. Wood not valuable, but exudes a gum animi, known as ‘‘ piney varnish,” ‘‘ white Dammar,” or ‘‘ Indian copal,” which is good and hard. (Dipterocarpacee.) V. malabarica does so also. V. Tumbugaia, W. & A. Vitex altissima, L. (Verbenacee.) V. leucoxylon, L. fil., and V. pubescens, Vahl. Wendlandia exserta, DC. (Rubiacew.) Wrightia tinctoria, R. Br. ‘‘ Dudhi.” (Apocynacee.) White, hard, small wood, used in turnery. W. tomentosa, Roem. & Schult. Xanthophyllum flavescens, Roxb. (Xanthophyllacea.) Xylia dolabriformis, Benth. ‘‘ Pynkado,” ‘‘ Pyengadu,” or ‘‘ Ingazy- locarva” of Burmah; ‘‘Jambea” or ‘‘Yerool” of Bombay; ‘‘Boja” of Godavery (? = ‘‘ Acle” (Mimosa Acie) of Philippines) ; “ Ironwood” of Pegu and Arracan. (Leguminose.) Beautifully mottled, dark brown, hard, dur- able heart-wood, used for boat-building, sleepers, telegraph posts, ete. The Burmese is better than that grown in Southern India. Zizyphus Jujuba, Lamk. “ Kul.” (Rhamnacee.) Z. xylopyra, Willd. West Indian mahogany, Lucalyptus, and Cinchona are now extensively planted in India. In 1875-76 India exported over 60,000 tons of teak, 14,000 tons of myrobalans, 9000 tons of catechu, 4000 tons of shell-lac, 700 tons of caoutchouc, and 500 tons of sandalwood. [See further “The Forests and Gardens of South India,” by H. 410 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Cleghorn, M.D., ete., 1861 ; ‘ Flora Sylvatica for Southern India,” by Major R. H. Beddome, 1873 ; “ Forest Flora of North-west and Central India,” by Dr D. Brandis, 1874; “ Forest Flora of British Burma,” by Sulpiz Kurz, 1877 ; and “ Manual of Indian Timbers,” by J. S. Gamble, 1881, in which 906 species, belonging to 432 genera, are included. | (2.) ANDAMAN ISLANDS. With a generally Burmese facies to the flora, skirted with man- grove swamps, but largely composed of deciduous trees, the following are, according to Kurz (“ Report on the Vegetation of the Andaman Islands,” Calcutta, 1870), among the more important species of the Andamans, the native names being Burmese, except where otherwise stated :— Adenanthera pavonina, L. ‘‘ Bwaegyee.”’ Cabinet work. (Leguminose.) Albizzia elata, Benth. ‘‘ Beymadah,’’ Andamanese ; ‘‘ Kakho,” Burmese. (Leguminose. ) Artocarpus Chaplasha, Roxb. ‘ Kai-darek,” Andamanese; ‘‘ Toung- peing.” 100 feet. (Artocarpacee.) “Barringtonia speciosa, L. ‘*Peebdah” or ‘‘ Dubdah,” Andamanese ; ‘* Kyaigyee.” 50 feet, 25 inches diameter. Equal to mahogany. (Lythracee.) *Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lam. ‘* Bew-boc.” 60 to 70 feet, 25 to 30 inches diameter. (Rhizophoracec. ) *Calophyllum Inophyllum, L. ‘‘ Phung-nyet,” the ‘‘ Poon” of India. 60 feet, 5 feet diameter. Masts, etc. (Guttifere. ) C. Wallichit. ‘‘Pantagah.” 60 feet, 2 feet diameter. As valuable as the last. Carapa obovata, Bl. ‘‘Ooldah,” Andamanese. 40 to 50 feet, 25 to 30 inches diameter. (JMeliacce.) C. moluccensis, Juss. ‘‘ Penlayung.” Smaller, strong. *Careya spheerica, Roxb. ‘‘ Beereegah,” Andamanese. (MMyrtacee.) 60 to 70 feet, 50 inches diameter. Dillenia aurea, Sm. ‘‘Zimbjoon.” 90 to 100 feet, and 86 inches diameter. (Dilleniacec. ) Lrioglossum edule, Bl. (= Sapindus rubiginosus). ‘‘ Hseik-khyx.” 50 feet, 12 to 15 inches diameter. (Sapindacee. ) Garcinia speciosa, Wall. ‘‘ Palawah,” ‘‘Proah.”’ 50 feet, and 25 inches diameter. Heavy. (Guttifere.) *Heritiera littoralis, Dryander. ‘ Soondree,” English ; ‘‘ Pinlay-kanazoc.” 25 to 80 feet, 12 to 15 inches diameter. Durable. (Sterculiacee.) Boats, piles. Hopea odorata, Wall. ‘‘Thengan.” 60 to 70 feet, 30 inches diameter. (Dipterocarpee.) Boats, oars, ete. H. swavis, Wall. ‘ Engyin.” Similar. *Intsia palembanica, Miq. (= Xylia dolabriformis, Benth.). ‘‘ Pynkadoo.” 40 feet, 20 to 25 inches diameter. (Leguminose.) ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 411 Lagerstremia hypoleuca, Kurz. ‘‘ Babdah,” ‘‘ Pyenmah.” 80 to 90 feet, 50 inches diameter. (Lythracee.) *Mesua ferrea, L. ‘‘ Kangan”’ or ‘‘ Ganggo.” 60 to 70 feet, 29 inches diameter. Very heavy; used for furniture and house-building. (Guttifere.) *Mimusops indica, DC. ‘‘ Kuppalee theet,” ‘‘ bullet-wood.” 80 feet, 60 inches diameter. Very valuable for gun stocks, ete. (Sapotacec.) Odina Wodier, Roxb. ‘‘Huan-bal.” 50 to 60 feet, 25 to 30 inches diameter ; beautiful, close-grained. (Anacardiacee.) Podocarpus polystachya, R. Br. ‘‘Theet-kya.” 60 to 70 feet. Proposed for engraving. (Conifere.) *Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Roxb. ‘‘ Padouk,” ‘‘ Djalangadah,” Anda- manese. 80 to 90 feet, and 6 feet in diameter ; yields a Kino. (Leguminose.) Pterospermum aceroides, Wall. ‘‘ Thamajamwai-yoke.” 45 to 50 feet, 25 to 30 inches diameter. Reported valuable. (Sterewliacee. ) Rhizophora mucronata, L. ‘*‘ Bairadah,’’ Andamanese ; ‘‘ Bewmah.” 30 to 40 feet, 12 to 15 inches diameter. (hizophoracee.) Those marked with an asterisk (*) are the most valuable timbers, especially the bullet-wood. (3.) Matay PENINSULA. The following are among the chief timbers of Johore and Singa- pore, besides teak in the north of the peninsula. The names are Malay. [Leonard Wray, “Journ. Society of Arts,” (1859), vii., 428 ; Howard Newton, “ Notes and Experiments on the chief kinds of Timber in ordinary use in the Straits Settlements, Singapore,” 1884. | Afzelia palembanica. ‘‘ Miraboo,” ‘‘ Merban.” (Legwminose.) Apodytes, sp. ‘‘Darroo.” (Olacinee. ) Artocarpus, sp. “‘ Kladang.” (Artocarpacew.) Calophyllum Inophyllum, L. ‘‘ Bintangore” or “ Poon.” (Guttifere.) Canarium, sp. ‘‘ Damar Lant.” (Burseracew.) Dialium indicum. “ Krangie” or ‘‘Kranju.” Indestructible; used for Chinese anchors. Dipterocarpus, spp. ‘‘ Rengas” and ‘‘Treling.” (Dipterocarpacee. ) Dryobalanops Camphora. ‘‘ Kapur Baroos.” (Dipterocarpee.) Eugenia zeylanica. ‘‘Kayu Klat.” (Myrtacee.) Hedycarpus cauliflora. ‘* Lampong.” Hopea, sp. ‘‘Seriah.” (Dipterocarpacee. ) H. Meranti. ‘“‘ Meranti.” Rhizophora, sp. ‘‘ Bucco,” ‘‘ Bakan.” (Rhizophoracee. ) Sideroxylon malaccense. ‘‘Daru.” (Sapotacee.) Sloetia sideroxylon. ‘‘Tampinnis.” Vatica, sp. ‘‘ Rassak.” (Dipterocarpacee.) The forests of Siam contain a large amount of teak ; other trees being Garcinia (various species), yielding gamboge ; G. Mangos- 412 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. tana, L., the mangosteen ; Dwrio Zibethinus, DC., the Durian ; Isonandra Gutta, gutta percha; and Aquilaria ovata and Agallocha, Roxb., “eagle” or ‘aloes-wood,” yielding “ Lign-aloes,” a resin burnt as incense. (4 anv 5.) Sumarra AND Java. Not less than a fourth of Java is still covered with forest. In the first, or tropical zone—i.e., up to 2000 feet—Magnoliacee and Anonacee prevail, other lofty trees being Idimusops acuminata, Spathodea gigantea, and Irina glabra. In the second zone—i.e., up to 4500 feet—the chief tree is the ‘‘ Rasamala” (Liquidambar Altingia ; nat. order, Balsamifluc), which yields “ liquid storax ;” others being “‘ Puspa” (Schima Noronha ; nat. order, Camelliacee), a fine heavy, red timber ; ‘“ Ki sapi” (Gordonia excelsa; nat. order, Camelliacee) ; ‘Gadok” (Dischoffia javanica, Bl.; nat. order, Euphorbiacee) ; “Bayur” (Pterospermum Blumeanum ; nat. order, Sterculiacee), and Lpicharis densiflora (nat. order, Meliacee). Besides the sago palm, other trees are Pangium edule (nat. order, Pangiacee), a hard wood, with edible nuts and a bark used to poison fish ; ‘“‘Kayu Gabas” (Alstonia scholaris, R. Br.; nat. order, Apocynacee) ; Dipterocarpus trinervis; Podocarpus cupressina, which grows to 200 feet high in Java and Penang ; Dryobalanops Camphora, the Sumatra camphor ; Cratoxylon Hornschuchii (nat. order, Hypert- cine) ; and Engelhardtia spicata (nat. order, Juglandacee), used for cart-wheels. Cassia florida, Vahl., known as “ juar,” indigenous in Sumatra; the Surian (Cedrela febrifuga, Bl. ; nat. order, Meliacee) ; and Hucalyptus Globulus are being largely planted in Java. (6.) Borneo. Borneo possesses very extensive forests, besides mangrove swamps, and some most valuable timbers have been sent home by the British North Borneo Company ; but unfortunately they are not yet well known, botanically or commercially. Several lists have been printed at Sandakan. They include “ Mirabou,” Afzelia palembanica ; “ Rassak,” Vatica, probably three species ; “ Kayu Kapor,” Dryoba- lanops Camphora ; “ Seriah,” “ Serayah,” “ Selangan,” “ Majow,” or ‘Borneo Cedar,” probably a Hopea (Dipterocarpacee), or several species; besides valuable woods, known as “ Billian,” ant and teredo-proof ; ‘ Ballow ;” ‘“‘Compass,” allied to ‘ Mirabou ;” “Greeting,” and “ Penago,” or ‘ Panagah,’ known as “ Borneo ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 413 mahogany.” “ Billian” is also known as “ Borneo iron-wood.” Casuarina equisetifolia, “Chow” or “* Menkabang Penang,” used for masts and building; a species of Calophyllum, known as “ mast ;” sandal-wood, and a species of ebony also occur; and sago and sappan-wood are among the products of the island. (7.) Motuccas. Here, too, the woods are comparatively little known. India- rubber, gutta-percha, sandal-wood, nutmegs (J/yristica moschata, growing 20 to 30 feet high, and other species), Dammar (Dammara orientalis), and camphor are among the chief products ; and “ Am- boyna wood ” (Péerocarpus ?) is the best known timber. (8.) New GUINEA. Dense forests cover the greater part of New Guinea, the flora still retaining an Indian facies; Ficus, Casuarina, Calophyllum, Podocarpus, Diospyros, Aleurites, Canarium, Durio, and Wormia being among the chief genera of trees, with many palms, creepers, and ferns. But both Dammara and Araucaria occur ; and, on the shores of the Gulf of Papua, Zucalyptus and Pandanus, giving an Australian character to the flora ; whilst in the sub-alpine moun- tain flora there are oaks and rhodudendrons. (9.) PHILIPPINES. In a flora essentially Malayan, with a Chinese admixture, the Philippines possess no less than 200 kinds of wood worthy of trial in the arsenal at Manila. Among them are “ Padouk” (Péerocar- pus indicus), “Molave” (Vitex geniculatus and V. altessima), almost equal to the teak, ‘“‘Dongon” (Sterculia cymbiformis), “Tpel” (Eperua decandra), “Lanan” (Dipterocarpus thurifer), “ Bolongaeta” (Diospyros pilosanthera), and others known as “ Tindalo,” ‘ Vacal,” “Malac Malac,” “ Baucal,” ‘ Salomaria,” “ Anagap,” and “ Camagon.” ; (10.) Creyton. The greater part of the dry districts of the north-east of Ceylon is still forest, but the trees are mostly small. A collection of 240 species, botanically determined, with Tamil and Sinhalese names, was exhibited in the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, of which the following 56 are reserved under the recent Forest Act :— 414 Albizzia odoratissima, Benth. ‘‘Suri- yamara ;” ‘‘Hurihi,” Sinhalese, Used in building. Artocarpus integrifolia, I. Sinhalese ; and oO Kos, A, nobilis. ‘‘Del,” Sinhalese. Valu- | able timbers. Atalantia missionis. ‘* Pamburu,’ Sinhalese ; ‘‘ Kurundu,” Tamil. Azadirachta indica. ‘* Kohmba, ”’s. ;1 ““Vem-pu,” 7.2 (=Melia Azadir- achta, L.). Bassia fulva. B. longifolia, Willd. ‘*Tllupai,” tT. Used in building. *Berrya Ammomilla, Roxb. ‘‘ Hal- milla,” s.; ‘‘ Katamanakku,” T. ; ‘* Trincomalee wood.” Valuable timber. Bridelia retusa, Spreng. ‘‘ Kéta- Kala,” s. Used in building. Calophyllum Inophyllum, L. ‘* Dom- ba,” s. ; ‘* Thommakottai,” 7. C. tomentosum. “ Gurn-kina,”’ s.; and C. Walkeri. ‘‘Kina,” s. Used in building. Caralliaintegerrima, DC. ‘* Dawata,” s. Cassia Fistula, L. *¢Tirukkondel,” T. ? ‘¢ Wana-mi,” s. “‘ Ehela,” s. ; C. siamea. ‘* Wa,” Ss. Chelocarpus castanocarpus. ‘* He- doka,” s. Chickrassia tabularis, A. Juss. ‘‘ Ku- lamkilkesssasr ou Kal-otuhi,s "T: *Chloroxylon Swietenia, DC. ‘“ Bur- utu,4.8.; <°Miutiral,~°0.; **Satin- wood.” Used for furniture. Dialium ovoideum. “‘ Gal-siyam- bala,” s. ; ‘‘ Katapulli,” T. Dichopsis grandis. ‘* Kiri-hembilya,”’s. Dillenia retusa. ‘* Godapara,” s. *Diospyros Ebenum. ‘* Kalawara,” s.; ‘‘ Karunkali,” T.; ‘‘ Ebony.” D. Embryopteris, Pers. ‘‘ Timbiri,” Soe wbanichar sm: D. ovalifolia. ‘* Vedu-kunari,” T. *D. quesita. ‘* Kalu-médiriya,” s. ; ** Calamander.” 1 Sinhalese. ECONOMIC SO Wiha $5 FORESTRY. D. Thwwitesit. Dipterocarpus zeylanicus. ‘ Hora,’ ** Ho-médiriya,” s. ve | Eugenia bracteata. “Pandi-kayan,” T. E. Jambolana, Lam. ‘‘ Maha-dan,” |" 8: 5 “Naval Homalium zeylanicum. | Kurrimia zeylaniea. ‘* Etheraliya,”’ s. Lagerstremia Flos-regine, Retz. “Mnu- ruta,” s. Used in building. | Litsea sebifera. Mangifera zeylanica. ** Wild Mango.” Melia dubia. ‘* Lunu-midella,” s. Memecylon capitellatum. ‘* Dodan- kaha,” s. Mimusops Elengi, L. Sag Makular, in: *M. hexandra. ‘* Palu,” s.; °° Palat,~ T: Mischodon zeylanicus. Myristica Horsfieldia. ‘‘ Ruk,” s. Nephelium Longana, Camb. ‘‘Mora,” s.; ‘* Nurai,” Tr. Used in building. *Persea semecarpifolia. ‘* Weéwar- ane,” Ss. Phyllanthus indicus. Pterospermum suberifolium. langa,”’ s. ; ‘‘ Vinanku,” T. Sarcocephalus cordatus. ‘*‘Bakmi,”’s. Schleichera trijuga, Willd. ‘* Kon,” ‘*Liyan,” s. ** Uru-honda,” ‘** Bo-mi,” s. ‘*Etamba,” s. ; ** Munamal,”’ “ Tammana,” ‘¢* Karawu,” S. ce Ve- s.;3 °*Kulu,’ 2. ‘! Ceylon!@Onkes Strychnos Nux-vomica, Roxb. ‘*Goda- kaduru,” s.; ‘f Kanchurai,” T. Tamarindus indica, L. “ Siyam- bala,” s. Tectona grandis, L. ‘oMeaks? Terminalia glabra. *¢Maruta,” T. Thespesia populnea, Corr. ‘‘Suriya,”s. Vatica Roxburghiana. ‘* Mendora,” s. * Vitex altissima, L. ‘*‘ Milla,”’ s. V. Leucoxylon, L. fil. ‘* Nebedda,” Sios) a) Mamachites urs Walsura Piscidia. ‘‘ Kiri-Kon,” s.; *¢ Sadda-veppu, ” T. Wormia triquetra. ‘‘ Diyapara,”’ s. 2 Tamil. ‘Tekka,~ Sa ‘*Kumbuk,” s.; ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 415 Of these the chief, commercially, are marked with an asterisk ; whilst Artocarpus integrifolia, Tamarindus, and Tectona are not indigenous. [“‘ Official Handbook and Catalogue of the Ceylon Court: Colonial and Indian Exhibition,’ London, 1886. “ Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylanie,” Thwaites, 1864; and ‘ Returns relating to Colonial Timbers,” 1878. | Maovritius, Ere. Intermediate in the character of the flora, as in position, between India and Madagascar, the Seychelle and smaller Mascarene Islands have been largely denuded of their original forests. In Mauritius the Ebony (Diospyros reticulata) ; the ‘‘Tatamaka” (Calophyllum Inophyllum, L.); the “Stinking wood” (/etidia mauritiana ; nat. order, Barringtoniacee), used in foundations, because termite- proof ; the “ Benzoin” (Croton Benzoe; nat. order, Huphorbiacee) ; the “‘ Colophane” (Colophonia) ; the Madagascar “ Travellers’ tree ” (Urania speciosa); the sub-spontaneous ‘‘ Mango” (Mangifera indica, L.). ‘Tronwood” and ‘ Bois de Cannelle” are character- istic, and Lucalypti are now extensively planted. Labowrdonnasia glauca, ‘Bois de natte,” is extensively used for ship-building, cabinet-work, and furniture; Syzygiwm obovatum, in building ; and Jambosa venosa for small planks ; whilst Acacia elata yields a timber even stronger than teak. There are also many Palms, and a member of that order, the “‘ Coco de Mer,” or Double Cocoa-nut (Lodoicea sechellarum, L.), is the most characteristic, and one of the most useful plants in the Seychelles group. ‘“Tatamaka ;” “ Rosewood ” (Thespesia populnea, Corr. ; nat. order, Malvacee), used for furniture, gun-stocks, ete. ; and “Bois rouge” (Wormia ferruginea, Baill. ; nat. order, Dilleniacew), are also characteristic. Goats, cattle, and bush-fires have combined to destroy the great bulk of the fine timber forest which covered the island of Rodriguez down to the 17th century; and of the still extant trees, the com- monest are Llaodendron orientale (nat. order, Celastracew), and Latania Verschaffelti, “ Leguat’s Plantane” (nat. order, Palmacee). MADAGASCAR. Being almost completely surrounded by a forest-belt from 15 to 20 miles wide, Madagascar possesses a variety of valuable hard-wooded timber trees, which are, however, as yet but little known. The VOL. XI., PART III. 2F 416 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Travellers’-tree, or “ Ravenala” (Urania speciosa; nat. order, Mus- ace), of which every portion is of some use in building ; the “ Filao,” a species of Casuarina ; the Madagascar spice (avintsara mada- gascarvensis); and many other large and brilliantly-blossoming trees, present a facies which is tropically African or endemic, rather than Asiatic. | AFRICA. Though belonging almost entirely to the equatorial and tropical zones, Africa is divided by its desert regions into well-marked botanical provinces. That of the north, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis, belongs essentially to the Mediterranean region, Cedrus atlantica and Abies numidica on Mount Atlas recalling similar associations on the Himalayas, on Lebanon, and in Cyprus. . The Sahara is the region of the date-palm; the Soudan, that of the oil and sago palms, the baobab, and the silk-cotton; and this jungle-region is again separated by the desert region of succulent Euphorbia, Aloé, Crassula, and Mesembryanthemum from the region of Heaths and Proteacee in the south. Morocco. Though olives, grapes, figs, almonds, dates, chestnuts, wal- nuts, mulberries, and cork are cultivated, the most interesting species in Morocco are the “’arar” and the ‘‘argan.” The arar” (Callitris quadrivalvis = Thuja articulata, Shaw) is known as the “ Atlas Cypress.” It grows 30 feet in height, and its sweet-scented wood was the much valued citron-wood of the Romans, probably the ‘‘thyine-wood” of the Book of Revelation (xviii. 12), and the “alerce” of the roof of the cathedral (originally a mosque) at Cordova. This tree yields “‘Gum Sandarach,” for- merly used as “pounce.” The “argan” (Argania Sideroxylon ; nat. order, Sapotacee), though seldom exceeding 20 or 380 feet in height, has a girth of 25 feet, and yields a hard wood. Its fruit is eaten by cattle, and crushed for an oil used in cookery. The cork oak is still abundant. [Cosson, ‘Compendium Flore Atlantice,” Paris, 1881.] Atceria, Etc. With nearly 5,000,000 acres of forest, about three-fifths under State control, Algeria is rich in timber. Pinus halepensis and P. ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 417 Pinaster, with Cedrus atlantica and Callitris quadrivalvis, are the chief conifers. Quercus Suber, Q. Llex, Q. castaneefolia, and Q. ballota, with elm, ash, maple, and olive, are the chief Angiospermous trees. Cork, olives, and olive-oil, and bark for tanning, are the chief products of the forests. Tunis, once well supplied with Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), is now denuded of timber; and Egypt, rich in date-palms, has no forests, though Acacia, Tamarix, Tama- rindus, and Zizyphus reach a considerable size and form wood. The sycamore fig (Ficus sycomorus), used for making mummy- cases, was originally Egyptian. Abyssinia, the native home of the coffee, has forests on the temperate and humid mountains of the interior, which are, however, less known than the luxuriant vegeta- tion of Central Africa. CENTRAL AND WESTERN AFRICA. The timber trees of this region are not yet fully ascertained. Stanley mentions Bassia Parkii, the “Shea” butter (Sapotacee) ; Oldfieldia africana, “ African teak,” a wood introduced into Eng- land in 1819, belonging either to the Sapindacee or Euphorbiacee ; * Kola nut” (Sterculia acuminata), known by various names, and much used instead of betel; ‘“‘Cashew-nut” (Anacardium, sp.) and gigantic tamarinds. And from the colonies of the West Coast, together with other undetermined woods, we import Swietenia Senegalensis or Khaza, “Africa mahogany ;” Pterocarpus erinaceus, ** African Rosewood,” which also yields a Kino; Blighia sapida, “ Akee” (Sapindacee) ; and Carapa guineensis (Meliaceee), which also yields an oil from its seeds. It occurs also in British Guiana, and is known as “crabwood,” and the oil as crab oil. Baphia nitida, “barwood” or “camwood” (Leguminose), is used mainly as areddye. ‘Dattock,” Detarium senegalense, Gmelin (Leguminose), is a dense dark brown wood. NATAL, The timber trees of Natal, mostly growing in somewhat inacces- sible situations, have unfortunately not yet been completely de- termined. Among them are— Calodendron capense, Thunb. ‘‘ Wild chestnut.” 20 to 30 feet, and2 to 3 feet in diameter. Soft, white. (Rutacee.) Celtis rhamnifolius, or C. Kraussiana, Bernh, ‘‘Camdeboo,” ‘ soft grey stinkwood.” (Ulmacee.) 418 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Curtisia faginea. ‘*Umnoiso,” ‘ Assegai wood.” (Cornacee.) *Kekebergia capensis, Sparrm. ‘Essen boom,” ‘‘Cape ash.” Tough ; used for furniture, ete. (Meliacew.) Elawodendron croceum, DU. ‘‘Saffron” or ‘‘Safforan” wood. (Céelas- trace.) 40 to 60 feet, and 3 to 4 feet in diameter. Hard ; used for cabinet work, and the bark in tanning. *Ocotea bullata, Nees ab E. (=Oreodaphne.) ‘‘ Hard black stinkwood.” 50 to 60 feet, and 4 to 5 feet in diameter. Almost equal to teak. (Law- recece. ) *Olea latifolia. ‘‘ Black ironwood,” ‘‘ Tamboti.” (Oleacee.) Phoberos Ecklonii. ‘‘ Red pear.” (Flacowrtiacee. ) Podocarpus pruinosus, E. M., or P. Thunbergia. ‘‘ Bastard yellow wood.” (Abietinew. ) *P. elongatus, L’Herit. ‘‘ Yellow wood,” or ‘‘ white yellow wood.” 30 to 70 feet, and 3 to 7 feet in diameter. Pterocelastrus rostratus, Walp. ‘‘ White pear wood,” ‘‘ Umdogan.” 20 to 25 feet. Heavy, durable; much used for wheel felloes. (Celastracee.) *Pteroxylon utile, Eckl. & Z. ‘‘Sneezewood,” ‘‘ Neishout,” ‘*‘ Umtati. 20 to 30 feet, and 2 to 4 feet in diameter. Handsome furniture wood. (Sa- pindacece. ) Royena nitida, Thunb. ‘Black wood,” ‘‘ Zwaartbast.” 10 to 12 feet, and 6 to 12 inches in diameter. Hard, tongh, yellow with brown stripes. Fit for furniture. (benacee.) *Sideroxylon inerme. ‘‘Soft milkwood.” (Sapotacee.) *Toddalia lanceolata, Lam. (= Vepris.) ‘* White ironwood,” ‘‘ Umzim- biti.” (Xanthoxylacee.) White, hard wood, used for ploughs, axles, etc. ? Water Boom, ‘“ Umstvna,” and “ Knob-thorn,’ ‘“ Unniven- gomabile,” and many others are undetermined. Hucalyptus and Casuarina are a good deal planted for fuel, and the colony cannot now export timber ; but there are 165,000 acres of forest occupied by heavy timber, besides nearly 2,000,000 acres of mimosa or thorn jungle. The root and bark of Hlephantoriza Burcheliii, ‘‘ Intol- wana,” and much black-wattle bark (Acacia mollissima), are used in tanning, the latter being a naturalised plant. Care CoLony. The chief forests of the colony are in the south and east. Be- tween Cape Town and Port Elizabeth some 150 square miles of forest, known as Knysna, remain under Government control. East of Port Elizabeth are the forests of Alexandria, Bathurst, and East London, near the coast ; and some 130 square miles of mountain forest are on the Perie and Amatola mountains north of King William’s Town. In the mountains of Clanwilliam are the remains of mighty cedar forests, Widdringtonia juniperoides still occurring ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 419 on the slopes of the Cederberg, above the winter range of snow. Table Mountain is flanked with woodlands, especially on the south or temperate side, composed of Lewcodendron argentewm, the silver tree,” which is only indigenous in this district, and three naturalised European species—Quercus pedunculata, Pinus Pinea, and P. Pinaster. The Knysna forest exhibits a semi-tropical luxuriance, the stout yellow woods (Podocarpus), the lofty black ironwood (Olea latifolia), and the most valuable stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), rising out of a densely tangled undergrowth. The increase of stinkwood is the chief end aimed at here. In the Eastern Coast forests stinkwood is unknown, and sneezewood (Pteroxylon utile) no longer abundant ; but ‘‘ Septu” (Halleria elliptica) and “ Cape teak” or ‘‘Kajatenhout” (Atherstonea decussata) abound in the Alexandria forest ; and boxwood (Luxus ?), with two apparently valuable species known as “ bogwood” or ‘‘ Umcobeza,” and “ Un- zumbit” or “ Umtiza,” occur in those at East London. In the mountain forests sneezewood, which is now protected by Govern- ment, is the most important timber. Among the chief trees are— » Acacia horrida. ‘‘ Thorn Tree,” ‘‘ Mimosa.” Common on the Karoo and north. 20 to 25 feet, and 12 to 18 inches diameter. Bark astringent ; wood tough, variously employed. (Leguminose.) Atherstonea decussata. ‘‘ Kajatenhout,” ‘‘Cape Teak,” ‘‘ Cape Oak.” 20 to 30 feet, 12 to 18 inches diameter. Tougher than oak. Buddleia salviefolia. ‘‘Unkaza,” ‘‘salic wood.” 15 to 20 feet, 10 to 15 inches diameter. Wavy grain ; cabinet work, cogs ; veneers equal to walnut ; suitable for engraving. (Loganiacce.) Callitris arborea, Schrad. ‘‘ Cedar.” Cabinet work, ete. (Conifere.) C. cupressoides, Schrad. ‘‘Sapree wood.” 12 feet high. Calodendron capense, Thunb. ‘‘ Wild chestnut,” ‘‘ Kastanie.” (Rutacce.) Capparis albitrunca, Burch. ‘‘ Witgat Boom.” 10 to 42 feet. (Cap- paridacee. ) Celastrus acuminatus, ‘* Silk-bark,” ‘‘ Zybast.” Turnery, umbrella handles. (Celastracee.) C. undatus, L. fil. ‘‘ Koko tree.” 20 to 25 feet. Very heavy. C. sp. ‘‘ Black-wood,” ‘‘ Swart-hont.” Celtis rhamnifolia. ‘‘ Camdeboo stinkwood,” ‘‘ Umounari,” (Ulmacee.) Cunonia capensis, lL. ‘* Rood Els,” ‘‘ Red cedar.” 20 to 60 feet, 18 to 24 inches diameter. Tough wood ; takes polish ; cabinet work. (Cunoniacee.) Curtisia faginea. ‘* Assegai,” ‘‘Umguna.” 40 to 80 feet, 3 to 4 feet diameter. Red wood, very tough, heavy and elastic. Spokes, felloes, furniture, etc. (Cornacee.) Eckebergia capensis, Sparrm. ‘*‘ Essen wood,” ‘‘ Cape ash,” ‘‘ Umgwen- yuizinja.” Furniture, sides of waggons, ete. (Meliacew.) Elwodendron croceum, DC. ‘Saffron wood,” ‘‘ Umbomoana.” Edible berry. Handsome furniture wood ; bark for tanning. (Celastracee.) 420 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Erythrina Caffra. ‘‘ Kafir tree,” ‘‘Umgazi.” 50 to 60 feet, 3 to 4 feet diameter. Boxes, canoes, ete. ; seeds for necklaces. (Legwminose.) Euclea lanceolata.‘ Bosch guarri.” Hard and heavy. (Lbenacew.) E. pscudebenus. ‘*Cape ebony.” Wood jet black, hard. E. undulata. ‘‘Quar.” Heart-wood hard, heavy, deep brown. E. sp. ‘‘ Red currant,” ‘‘Umbhilakati.” Kafir pipes. Gardenia Thunbergii, I. ‘‘ Buffelsbal.” Hard, heavy wood, for clubs, tools, axles, ete. (Rubiacew.) Gonioma Kamassi, ¥. Mey. ‘‘Kamassi.” Cabinet work. ‘‘ Knysna boxwood.” Suitable for engraving. Grumilia cymosa, BE. Mey. ‘‘ Wild lemon,” ‘‘Lanumi” (=Psychotria). (Rubiacece. ) Halleria elliptica. ‘‘ Septee,” ‘‘ Oudehout.” (Scrophulariacee.) H. lucida, L. ‘‘ White olive.” Hard, tough, fine-grained. Hartogia capensis, L. ‘Ladle wood.” Resembles mahogany ; hard, suit- able for cabinet work, turning, ete. (Celastracew.) Hippobromus alata. ‘‘ Horsewood,” ‘‘ Paardepis.” White, close-grained wood, used in cabinet work. (Sapindacec.) Leucodendron argenteum. ‘Silver tree.” Ornamental leaves. (Proteacew.) Milletia Kafra? ‘‘Umzumbit” or ‘‘ Umtiza.” The hardest and heaviest wood of South Africa. Kaffir walking-sticks. (Leguminose. ) Mimusops obovata, Sond. ‘ Red milkwood.” Felloes, ete. (Sapotacee.) Myrsine melanophleos, R. Br. ‘‘Cape beech.” (Myrsinacee.) Mystroxylon Kubu. ‘* Kaboo Els.” Niebuhria triphylla, Wend. ‘‘ Witbosch-hout,” ‘‘ wittehouts,” ‘‘ white wood.” Suitable for furniture ; light and tough. Nuxia floribunda. ‘‘Viier.” (Loganiacee.) Ochna arborea, Burch. ‘‘ Roodhout,” ‘‘redwood,” ‘‘ Cape plane,” ‘¢Umtensema.” Strong, durable, suitable for engraving. (Ochnacew.) Ocotea bullata, Nees ab E. ‘‘Stinkwood” or ‘‘laurel-wood.” Little inferior to teak ; not unlike walnut. Furniture. (Lauwracee.) Olea foveolata, E. Mey. ‘‘Ironwood.” Hard, heavy. (Oleacew.) O. laurifolia. ‘‘ Black ironwood,” ‘‘Iggwanxe.” Heart-wood nearly equal to ‘‘ lignum-vitee.” O. verrucosa, Link. ‘* Olyvenhout,” ‘‘ Olive-wood,” ‘‘ Olina wood,” ‘*Umeguma.” Takes polish ; furniture. Olinea capensis or O. cymosa, Thunb., var. intermedia. ‘* Hard pear,” ‘*Umnonono.” Yellowish, very hard, tough and heavy ; suitable for musical instruments. (Oliniew. ) Platylophus trifoliatus, Don. ‘* White alder.” Plectronia ventosa. ‘‘Schaapdrolletje.” Handsome hard wood when polished. (Rubiacew. ) Podocarpus elongatus. ‘‘ Outeniqua yellow wood,” ‘*‘ Umkoba,”’ ** Bastard yellow wood.” (Conifere.) P. latifolius. ‘‘ Upright or real vellow wood,” ‘‘Umceeya.” Furniture, shingles, ete. Protea grandiflora, L. ‘* Waggon tree.”’ Felloes, etc. (Proteacew.) P. mellifera, ‘Sugar bush.” Ornamental wood, but now used for fuel and its bark in tanning. ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 491 Protea, sp. ‘‘ Terblantz.” Hard, heavy wood. Pterocelastrus rostratus, ‘‘ White pear,” ‘‘ Umdakane.’ grained ; suitable for engraving. (Celastracew. ) P. variabilis. ‘‘ Kersewood,” ‘‘ Candlewood,” ‘‘ Umbaurila.” Burns brilliantly ; bark used in tanning. Pteroxylon utile, Eck. and Z. ‘‘Sneezewood,” ‘‘ Nieshout,” ‘‘ Umtati.” One of the most durable woods in the world, ranking with jarrah and green- heart. Termite and teredo-proof. For bearings superior to brass, iron, or “lignum-vite.” (Sapindacee. ) Rhus levigata. ‘‘Taaibosch.” Turnery. (Anacardiacee.) R. Thunbergii, Hook. ‘‘Klip Els,” ‘‘ Rock ash.” Hard, heavy, and tough ; suitable for musical instruments. R. viminalis. ‘‘Karroo wood.” Tough, elastic wood, used for tent waggon hoops ; takes polish. Royena lucida. . ** Black bark,” ‘‘ Swartblast,” ‘‘ Umeaza.” (Ebenacee.) Schotia latifolia, Jacq. ‘‘ Boerbone.” Seeds edible ; bark used in dyeing ; heart-wood greenish. (Legwiminose.) Scolopia Ecklonii, Benth. & Hook. fil. (= Phoberos). ‘‘ Red pear.” Used by wheelwrights and in mill work. (Bixacew.) S. Mundtii, Benth. & Hook. f. ‘* Klipdoorn.” S. Zeyheri. ‘* Thorn” or ‘‘ wolf pear,” ‘‘Iqumza elinameva.” Useful for cogs; very hard. Sideroxylon inerme. ‘* White milkwood,” ‘‘Umgwashu.” Whitish durable wood for boats, telegraph poles, etc. (Sapotacec.) Strychnos Atherstonei, Hary. ‘‘Cape teak.” Staves. (Strychnacew.) Sycomorus capensis, ‘* Wild fig.” Light; takes polish. (Artocarpacee.) Trichocladus crinitus. ‘‘ Ouderbosch,” ‘‘Sidali.” Fuel. (Hamamelidacee. ) Toddalia lanceolata, Lamk. (= Vepris). ‘* White ironwood,” ‘‘ Umzani.” Tough and elastic like ash or hickory. (Xanthoxylacee.) Virgilia capensis, Lam. ‘‘Keurboom.” (Leguminose.) Widdringtonia juniperoides. ‘‘ Cedar.” As much as 12 feet in diameter. (Conifere. ) Xanthoxylon capense, Harv. ‘‘ Knobwood,” ‘‘ Paardepram,” ‘‘ Umnun- gumabele.” 50 to 60 feet. Variously employed. (Xanthoxylacee.) ’ Hard, close- [‘‘ Catalogue of the Exhibits of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope,” Colonial and Indian Exhibition, London, 1886. “Silva Capensis,” by L. Pappe, M.D., London and Cape Town, 1862, pp. 60, 8vo. | ATLANTIC ISLANDS. The native ebony of St Helena (Dombeya melanoxylon ; nat. order, Byttneriacee), growing 10 to 15 feet high, has been all but exterminated by goats; but Pinus Pinaster has been extensively planted. The forest of Agua Garcia, in Teneriffe, consists entirely of evergreen trees of the laurel type, among which the most abun- 422 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. dant are Persea indica, “ Veiiatico” or “ Madeira mahogany,” Laurus canariensis, [lex platyphylla, Myrica Faya, and Viburnum rugosum. Persea indica ; Oreodaphne futens, the “Til;” and Ardisia excelsa, the “ Aderno” (nat. order, Myrsinacew), occur also in Madeira. Pinus canariensis and Juniperus Oxycedrus ascend to 6400 feet in Teneriffe. The latter has been almost ex- terminated in Madeira, where the chief fuel supply is derived from the introduced Pinws Pinaster. The mountains in the Azores are chiefly covered with tree-heath (Hrica arborea, L.), Juniper (Juniperus brevifolia, Hochst., closely allied to J. Oxycedrus, L.), and Faya (Myrica Paya, Ait.) ; but Pinus Pinea is planted in the islands, SOUTH AMERICA. Though without forests on the south-east, South America begins to be a timber-producing continent in the islands of the extreme south, where ‘ Cipre” (Libocedrus tetragona) is largely felled ; whilst north of the Straits of Magellan Vagus antarctica, the “‘Chilian beech,” /. Yorsteri, and Drimys Winteri, ‘ Winter's bark,” are abundant. In the inner valleys of the Chilian Cor- dilleras there are extensive virgin forests of large timber trees ; and the same is true of the upper part of the “ Sierra” region of Peru and the “Montafia” region. Podocarpus chilensis, Thuja chilensis, and Araucaria imbricata, the well-known Chili pine, may be men- tioned as characteristic of the southern area—‘‘ Lambras ” (Alnus acuminata), “Sauco” (Sambucus peruviana), “ Queiuar” or “Oliva silvestre” (Buddleia incana), “Paccay” (Jnga, sp.), from the sub-tropical Sierras round Lake Titicaca ; and the Chinchona, Erythroxylon Coca, and rubber-yielding species of Hevea, from the Montajia region of the Eastern Andes. The scraggy ‘‘ Algarrobo” (Prosopis horrida), and the willow (Salix Humboldtiana) of the Peruvian valleys, cannot rank as timber-trees ; nor is timber an article of export ; but the Montaiia region is practically continuous with the interior of Brazil. BRAZIL. The Brazilian empire possesses virgin forests covering an area half the size of Europe ; and no less than 300 kinds of useful timber were sent from them to the Paris Exhibition of 1873. Many of these are not yet weil known to botanists ; but there is in the ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 493 Botanical Department of the British Museum a manuscript volume by the late John Miers, F.R.S., many years resident in the country, entitled, “‘ A Catalogue of the Woods of Brazil; Arranged Alpha- betically after their Vernacular Names, their Localities, Dimen- sions,” . . . in which many of them are botanically identified. ** Mattas,” or heavy forests, cover the immense humid lowland of Northern Brazil, and occur in belts in the plains of the central and southern portions of the empire ; whilst the deciduous woods of the mountain slopes are known as “ Catingas.” Language altogether fails to picture the luxuriance of the vegetation of equatorial Brazil. Among the most valuable timbers of Brazil are—Ccsalpinia echinata, ‘‘ Brazil wood ;” “ Braziletto wood,” or “ Ibiripatanga,” which is hard and heavy, and takes a polish, but is largely used as a red dye; C. ferrea, “iron-wood ;” Dalberyia nigra, ‘‘ Jacaranda,” or “ Rosewood,” the best of the genus, together with D. latzfolia ; Cedrela brasiliensis, the “cedar” of South Brazil; Arauwcaria brasiliensis, the pine of the Organ Mountains ; Jimusops alata, the “cow tree,” or “‘ Massaranduba” of Para; Physocalymma flori- bunda (nat. order, Lythracee), the “ tulip-wood;” Lecythis Ollaria, the sapucaya-nut ; Dertholletia excelsa, the Brazil-nut; Ocotea major, * Puchury ;” Persea gratissima, the “ Avocado,” or “ Alli- gator pear ;” Avicennia, the “* White mangrove,” the bark of which is used in tanning; and the numerous palms, of which Copernicia cerifera, the ‘ Carnauba,” ‘‘ Wax palm,” is the most valuable. But, rich in timber, the Brazilian forests are still richer in rubbers, gums, resins, dyes, and medicinal substances, —Siphonia elastica and Hancornia speciosa being among the chief rubber trees ; Maclura tinctoria yielding fustic, and Bixa Orellana, arnatto, FRENCH GUIANA. Clothed with dense forests, French Guiana produces many valuable timber trees. Among the Legwminosw are— Coumarouna odorata, Aubl. ‘‘ Gayac,’ (= Dipteryz). *Hymenea Courbaril, L. ‘*‘ Courbaril,” or ‘* Locust tree.” *Dicorynia paraensis. ‘“ Angélique” (=Andira inermis). An important dockyard timber. Copaifera bracteata. ‘* Bois violet,” or ‘‘ Amaranthe.” Eperua falcata, Aubl. ‘‘ Pois sabre,” or ‘* Wapa.” Andira Aubletii, Benth. ‘‘ Wacapon,” or “ £pi de blé.” Robinia Panacoco. ‘‘Saint Martin ;” and Macherium Schomburghii. ‘* Tiger-wood.” ‘*Cuamara,” or ‘‘Tonka bean” 424 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Among the Myrtacee are— Psidium pomiferum. ‘* Guava.” Cowratert guianensis. Lecythis grandiflora, Aub). L. Ollaria, L., ete. Among the Sapotacew are— *Mimusops Balata. ‘‘ Balata.” LIncuma Rivicoa. ‘ Jaune d’ceuf.” L. Bonplandii. ‘‘ Bartaballi.” Among the Lawrinew are— Nectandra Pisi. ‘* Black cedar.” Licaria guianensis (= Dicypellium caryophyllatum, Nees). ‘“‘ Licari,” ‘Clove Cassia of Brazil,” ‘‘ Rose of Cayenne,” ‘‘ Pepper-wood,” and ‘‘ Bois canelle.”’ Among the Burseracew are— Bursera gummifera. ‘‘ American gum tree,” ‘ Chibon.” Tcica altissima, Aubl. ‘‘ Cedar,” ‘‘ Carana gum.” I, guianensis. ‘* Incense-wood.” I. elemigera, ‘* Elemi tree ;” and I, Aracouchini, both yielding a medicinal gum. Other trees are Duguetia quitarensis, Benth. (nat. order, Ano- nace), the “ lancewood ;” Carapa guianensis, “ Crabwood ; ” Om- phalobium Lamberti (nat. order, Connaracee), “ zebra-wood ;” and the nutmegs, Myristica fatua and sebifera. DutcH GUIANA. Though its resources are still undeveloped, there are in the primeval forests, which cover the greater portion of Surinam, many valuable species of timber. Among them are— Bombax Ceiba. ‘‘ Kankan.” (Bombacee.) Copaifera bracteata, L. ‘‘ Purpuurhart.” (Leguminosee. ) Goupia tomentosa. ‘‘Kopie.” Used for flooring. Hymencea Courbaril, L. ‘‘ Locust,”’ or ‘‘Courbaril.” 60 to 80 feet, and 8 to 9 feet diameter. Brown, hard wood, taking a polish, and suitable for furniture. Exudesa gum. (Leguminose.) Lecythis Ollaria, L. ‘‘ Barklak.” Worm-proof. (J/yrtacee.) LIucuma mammosum. ‘*Bolletrie,” ‘‘ Paardenfleesch.”’ (Sapotacee.) Nectandra Rodiwi, Schomb. ‘‘Geelhart.” (Lawracee.) Vouacapoua americana, Aubl. ‘‘ Bruinhart.” British GUIANA. The forests of Demerara, which cover the greater part of the ECONOMIC FORESTRY, 495 country, contain hundreds of species of timber trees, suitable for almost every purpose, growing together in a mixed virgin forest. The kinds most used in the colony are—for building, “ green- heart,” “mora,” and “ wallaba;” and for furniture, “ crabwood.” These timbers are almost imperishable, resisting damp and vermin, and can be readily brought to market. Among the chief sorts determined are— Aspidosperma excelsum. ‘* Wheel-tree,” ‘‘ Paddle-wood,” ‘‘ Yarooro” ? Apocynacee. ) Anacardium rhinocarpus. ‘‘ Hooboodie,” ‘* Wild Cashew.” Not durable. Fruit and bark medicinal. (Anacardiacee.) Brosimum Aubletii, Poep. (= Paratinera guianensis, Aubl.). ‘‘ Buro-koro.” ‘*Letter-wood,” ‘*Leopard” or ‘‘Snake-wood.” (Artocarpacee.) Specific gravity, 1°333. *Carapa guianensis, Aubl. ‘‘ Caraba,” ‘‘Crabwood.” Bark used in tan- ning ; seeds yield crab oil. (JMeliacew.) ‘Caryocar tomentosum, DC. ‘* Souari” or ‘ Pekea,” ‘* Butter-nut.” (Rhizobolacee.) Specific gravity, 932. Coumarouna odorata, Aubl. (= Dipteryr). ‘‘ Cuamara,” ‘‘ Tonkin bean.” Cogs, etc. Hard, durable ; oil from seeds. (Leguminose.) Copaifera pubifiora and C. bracteata, Benth. ‘‘ Kooroobovilli,” ‘‘ Purple heart.” Handsome furniture wood. (Legumvinose.) *Eperua falcata, Aubl. ‘‘Wallaba.” Dark red. Or £. rubiginosa, Miq. (Casalpiniee.) Bark febrifuge. *Hymenea Courbaril, L. ‘‘Simiri,” ‘‘ Locust.” (Leguminose.) Yields **Gum animi ” or ‘‘ Locust gum.” Humiria floribunda, Mart. ‘*Tawaronero,” ‘‘ Bastard bullet-tree.” Good dark brown furniture wood. (Humiriacee.) Tcica altissima, Aub]. ‘‘ Kurana,” ‘‘ Cedar.” Very valuable. (Burseracee.) Izora triflorwm, Benth. and Hook. fil. (=Siderodendron). ‘‘ Hackia.” Good dark brown furniture wood, equal to ‘‘lignum-vite.” (Rubiacee.) Lecythis grandiflora, Aubl. ‘* Wadadura,” ‘‘ Monkey-pot.” Fine oil from edible nuts. (Myrtacec.) L. Ollaria, L. ‘* Kakaralli.” Takes a polish. Macherium, sp. ‘‘Itikiboura-Balli.” Inlaying, ete.; very heavy. (Leguminose. ) Maclura tinctoria, Don. “ Fustic.” Inlaying and dyeing. (Urticacee.) *Mimusops globosa, Gaertn. ‘‘ Bullet tree,” ‘‘ Buruch,” ‘‘ Balata” gum. (Sapotacee) (=Sapota Mulleri, Miq.). Oil from seeds. *Mora excelsa, Benth. ‘‘ Mora.” Furniture, ship-building; bark in tanning, and medicinal. (Leguminose.) Sp. gr.=1°029. *Nectandra Rodicwi, Schomb. ‘‘ Bibiru,” ‘‘ Sipiri,” ‘‘Greenheart.” Bark yields Bebeerine, febrifuge, and tonic. Sp. gr., 1°210. (Lawracee.) N. sp. ‘‘ Waibaima,” ‘‘ Ciroua-Balli.” More valuable than NV. Rodiai. N. sp. ‘‘ Lallifer,” ‘* Ciroua-Balli.” Omphalobium Lamberti, DC. ‘* Hiawa-Balli,” ‘‘Zebra-wood.” Hand- some furniture wood. (Connaracee.) 426 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. Ophiocaryon paradoxum, “‘Snake-nut.” Suitable for furniture. (Sabiacee. Simaruba officinalis. ‘*Simarupa.” Medicinal. (Simarubee. ) Picramnia, sp. ‘* Curuberanda,” ‘* Bitter-wood.” (Simarubew.) Pentaclethra filamentosa, Benth. ‘* Kooroo-Balli,” ‘‘Trysil.” Dark, suitable for furniture ; bark medicinal. (Legwminose.) Lucuma Bonplandii (=Achras mammosa, Bonpl.). ‘* Bartaballi.” (Sapotacee. ) Vochysia guianensis, Aubl. ‘‘ Eta-Balli.” (Vochysiacew.) TRINIDAD. Not technically belonging to the West Indies, Trinidad possesses a rich tree flora, of which the Kew Museum contains a representa- tive series from the Exhibition of 1862. Among them are :— *Achras Sapota, L. ‘‘Sapodilla” or ‘‘ Nispero.” A large tree, with edible fruit, and very hard, heavy, and durable wood, sometimes known as ‘‘ Bullet” or ‘‘ Bully wood.” (Sapotacee. ) Acrocomia sclerocarpa. ‘‘Gru Gru,” “ The great macaw tree.” (Palmacee. ) Walking-sticks ; oil from nuts. Astronium obliquum, Griseb. ‘* Yoke Yopo.” (Melastomacee.) Avicennia tomentosa, Jacq. ‘‘Mangle chine.” (Verbenacee.) Brysonima spicata, Rich. ‘* Surette.” Bark used in tanning ; wood not durable. (M/alpighiacee.) *Calophyllum Calaba, Jacq. ‘‘Galba,” ‘‘ Palo Maria,” ‘*Santa Maria wood.” (Guttifere. ) *Carapa guianensis, Aubl. ‘‘Crabwood.” (JMeliacee.) Cassia spectabilis, DC. ‘‘ Casse.” Dark, strong wood. (Leguminose. ) *Citharexylon quadrangulare, Jacq. ‘‘ Fiddle wood.” (Verbenacee.) *Chlorophora tincteria, Gaud., var. Xanthoxylon, End. ‘‘ Fustic,” ‘‘ Pale Marango.” (Moreew.) Coccoloba, sp. ‘‘Cuchape.” Hard. C. latifolia. ‘‘Stave-wood.” (Poly- gonacece. ) *Cocos nucifera, L. ‘‘ Porcupine-wood.” For inlaying. Nuts, fibre, ete. (Palmacee. ) Euterpe oleracea, Mart. ‘‘ Manaque.” (Palmacee.) Flooring. *Guaiacum officinale, L. ‘* Lignum-Vite.” (Zygophyllacee. ) Genipa Caruto, Kth. ‘‘Genipa.” Flexible. Shafts. (Rubiacee.) Hippomane Mancinella, L, ‘‘Manchineel.” Ship-building. (Zuphorbiacee. ) Hirtella silicea, Griseb. ‘‘ Cauto.” *Hymencea Courbaril, L. ‘* Locust.” (Legauminosee. ) Laurinea, spp. ‘‘ Laurier” and ‘‘ Laurier Caca.” Valuable for building. Lecythis Idatimon, Aubl. ‘‘Guatecare.” Elastic, durable. (JMyrtacee.) Licania, sp. ‘‘Gasparillo.” (Rosacee.) Malpighiacea, sp. ‘‘Cacapoule.” Durable and strong. Maximiliana insignis, Mart. ‘‘ Cocorite.” (Palmacee.) *Mimusops globosa, Gaertn. ‘‘ Balata.” (Sapotacee.) *Mora excelsa, Benth. ‘* Mora.” 100 to 150 feet, 24 to 30 inches diameter. Hard, durable, dark brown wood, for ship-building. (Zeguwminose.) ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 427 Myrtacea, sp. ‘‘ Wild Guava.” (Psidiwm, sp. ?) Durable. *Peltogyne paniculata, Benth. ‘‘ Zapateri,” ‘‘ Purpie-heart.” Very durable. Pentaclethra jfilamentosa, Benth. ‘‘ Bois Mulatre,” ‘‘ Palo Mulato.” (Leguminose. ) Rubiacea, sp. ‘* Yema de Hueva.” Ruprechtia, sp. ‘‘ Avocat.” (Polygonacee.) Sabal, sp. ‘‘Carat.”” (Palmacee.) Hard and durable. Sacoglottis amazonica, Mart. ‘‘ Cajon de Burro.” (Humiriacew.) Swartzia grandiflora, W. ‘‘ Naranjillo amarillo.” (Leguminose.) Tamarindus indica, L. ‘* Tamarind.” (Leguminose. ) *Tecoma serratifolia, Don. ‘‘ Poni.” (Bignoniacee.) Thevetia neriifolia, Juss. ‘‘ Quashy Quasher.” (Apocynacec. ) Trichilia trinitensis, Juss. ‘‘ Naranjillo blanco.” (JMJeliacew.) And * Vitex capitata, VY. ‘* Bois Lezard.” Strong and durable. (Verbenacew.) Among 211 varieties of timber trees reported on by the Surveyor- General of the island in 1876, no less than 55 furnish timber adapted for boat-building, though none is exported. Other sorts of hardwood enumerated are *S¢deroxylon masticodendron, ‘* Acoma,” or “ Mastick ;” *Andira inermis, “ Angelin ;” *Rhopala montana, “ Beefwood;” *Cedrela odorata, ‘Cedar ;” Chuncoa obovata, “Olive ;” *Piptadenia peregrina, ‘ Yoke ;” folius, “‘ Monkey Bones ;” and Pimenta acris, “‘ Pimento.” Of these woods, of which the most valuable are marked with an asterisk, many occur in the other islands of the West Indies. Calycolpus ovali- VENEZUELA. In the manuscript volume by John Miers, already referred to, is the following list of the vernacular names of nearly 200 specimens, illustrating about 140 woods sent from Venezuela to the Exhibition of 1862, to most of which scientific names have been added. It is much to be wished that this volume should be published in its entirety. The first 82 have specific gravities appended, the list being printed as it stands in the original manuscript. 1. Granadilla, : : . 1:2367. Couroupita odoratissima, Seem. 2. Nazarene, - : . 11744. Hymencea floribunda. 8. Dividivi (=152), : . 12189. Cesalpinia coriaria. 4, Palma real, ‘ : . 1:0787. Oreodoxa regia. - PP : : : : . Cocos butyracea. 5. Fiama, . : - . 173003. 6, Araguaney, : ; . 1°0985. 7. Guayacan (=158),_ . . 1°3068. Tecoma Guayacan, Seem. ” . ° . Laurel Aguacate, . Almendro, . Lecherito pintado, . Aguanoso,. c 50. . Croton, . : . Cedrillo horcon, . Tigron, . Cerezo, . Atata, Sereipo, . . ECONOMIC FORESTRY. . Gateado(=107,119,128,159), 10034. . Cartan (from the hot country), 0°8171. . Urape negro, . : . Guayabo encarnado, . . Urape rosado, . Hayo (Guayo colorado ?), . Vera (Uvero?), . . Guayabo rosado, . Cana fistola, . Guayabo blanco, . Nogal, . Majomo, . Roble, . Guyabo pauji, . Naranjo dulce, . . Huecito, . Zapaten, . Guayabo racino, . Tijerita, . Angelino, . . Naranjillo, . Paraguatan, . Laurel Angelino, . Pardillo negro, . : loco; . f ‘ . Cartan (cold country), . Olivo (99, 174), . Coba longa, . Cedro dulce, . Guarataro (77), . . Capuchino, . Cedro amargo, . Caimito (145), . Grifo, . Lecherito, . Laurel mangon, . Estoragne (154), . Guama, 0°3577. 1°0946. 0°9842. 0°8026. 0°5505. 0°7017. 06099. 0°7537. 0°6213. 0°8911. 0°5293. 0°7950. 0°6280. 0°2579. 1°0869. 0°8017. 0°9877. 0°6818. 0°8482. 0°6058. 0°5885. 0°8771. 0°7770. 0°5628. 0°7668. 0°4500. 0°6557. 1°0151. 1°0260. 1°0271. OT: 1°2479. 1°0206. 0°8575. 1°0503. 0°5587. 0°8434. 0°8758. 1°0244. 0°8015. 1°0019. 0°9311. 1°0715. 0°8301. 0°8186. 0°8586. Acacia riparia ? Bauhinia (Pauletia) multinervia. Psidium. Bauhinia (Pauletia) glandulosa. Acacia peregrina. Coccoloba Caracasanda. Cassia Brasiliensis. Tecoma pentaphylla. Bumelia buxifolia t Citrus aurantiun. Hymenea venosa ? Andira inermis. Swartzia triphylla ? Condaminia tinctoria, DC. Nectandra Laurel. Crateeva gynandra. (0) Capparis intermedia, H.B.K. Cedrela odorata. Couratert Guianensis. Simaba cedron. Chrysophyllum Caimito, L. Brosimum ? Styrax tomentosum, H.B.K. Inga Bonplandiana. . Inga vera. Persea gratissima. Geoffroya superba. Avicennia nitida. Croton coriaceus ? Bunchosia glauea. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. * 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74, 75. 76. (life 78. 79. 80. 80*. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 92: 100. 101, 102. 103. Tabacote, . Tasi (Techi?), . Naranjillo, Limoncillo, Chupon colorado, Guisanda, . Naranliae | c Guayabo sabonero, Roseta, Chupon, Espuelita, Sassafraz, . Rosa de montaia, Canella de venado, Apamate, . Lechoso, Curtidor, . Pinabete, . Haya criolla, Guamo, ; Rui : : Guarataro (37), . Llagnero., Aguacate Cimaron, Aguacate dulce, Cuji (91), . Balsamillo, Amarillo, . Alcornoquio (132), Apamate, Asajarito, Caoba (139, 126), Caritiva (141), Cotoperis, . Cuchara (124), Cuji (80), . Curarire (143), . Ebano (153), Flor amarilla (155). Guiamaré (157). Guayavo (156), . Hatata. Lata (160), Olivo (34, 174),. Pardillo (177). Vera (14, 123), . Virote. Canalete (146). ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 0°5227. 1°2432. 1°0207. 0°9183. 1°0169. Oso 7alioe 0°8239. 1:0265. 0°8821. 0°9461. 0°9473. 0°7313, 0°8477. 07646. 0°6443. 0°7864. 0°8719. 0°5825. 0°7832. 0°8921. 1°0194. 0°8777. 0°5337. 0°521. 1°0538. 0°8533. 0°8591. Myroxylon pubescens ? Swartzia tomentosa, DC. Citrosma laurifolium. Gustavia or Perigara speciosa. Gustavia fustwosa ? Inga microphylla. Nectandra cymbarun. Brownea grandiceps. Rhopala polystachya ? Lnga insignis. Couratert Guianensis. Persea, sp. ? Persea gratissima, Inga cinerea. Elaphrium Jacquinianum ? Xanthoxylum Cumanense ? . Bowdichia Virgilioides. . Swietenia Mahogani. . Prosopis. . Myrtus erythroxyloides. . Oreocallis grandiflora ? . Inga cinerea. . Lasiostoma Cureire, H.B.K. . Brya Ebenus, DC. . Psidiwm pyriferum. . Capparis intermedia. . Coccoloba caracasana. 430 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 104. Cedro (150), : A 3 ; . Cedrela odorata. 105. Roble (20), : ; : : . Tecoma pentaphylla. 106. Zapatero (24), . 4 . : . Hymenwa venosa. 107. Gateado (8, 119, 159), : ; . Acacia riparia ? 108. Mamon de venado,_. - : . Milicoca, sp. ? 109. Paraguatan (29), ; : : . Condaminia tinctoria. 110. Trompillo, : : : , . Letia guazumefolia. 111. Gateado amarello, . ; . . Acacia, sp. } 112. Canafistola du lemana santa, . . Cassia Brasiliana ? 113. Canafistola Marimazi, : ; . Cassia Bonplandiana. 114. Mosa (Palo de Mozo 2), : : . Macheriwin, sp. 115, Araguanci (6). 116. Algarrobo, ‘ : : : . Hymencea Courbaril. WN, 50 é : : : ; . Prosopis pallida. 118. Chinea. 119. Gateado (8, 107, 159), , ; . Acacia riparia? 120. Chica, : 3 ‘ . : . Lundia Chica. 121. Tussara. 122. Betun. 123. Vera (14, 101), . ; : : . Coccoloba cxracasana. 124, Cucharo (90), . 5 ; : . Oreocallis grandiflora. 125. 2 126. Caobo (87, 139), - : ; . Swietenia Mahogani. 127. Magcanilla, : : . Hippomane Mancinella, L. 128. Gateado (8, 107, 119, “159), : . Acacia riparia. 129. 130. Amargo, . : : 5 ; . Simaruba glauca ? 131. Accituno, . : : : ; . Calophyllum longifolium? 132. Alcornoquio (84), ; d ; . Bowdichia Virgilioides. 133. Balaustre. 134 Braill ( Comer tinetoria, U Poinciana insignis. 135. Balsamo, . : : : : . Myrospermum toluiferum. 136, Cuju (81, 91), . ‘ 3 ; . Inga cinerea ? 137. Clemon. 138. Ceiba, ‘ : : : ; . Eriodendron anfractuosum, DC. 139. Caoba (87, 126), : t i . Swietenia Mahogani. 140. Canjaro. 141. Caritiva (88), . . : ; . Prosopis, sp. 142. Canada. 148. Curarire (92), . F i : . Lasiostoma curari, H.B.K. 144. Caobilla. 145. Caimito (40), : : : . Chrysophyllum Caimito. 146. Canalete (103). 147. Carangano. 148. Cardon. 149. Carrato. 150. Cedro (104), : 3 : ‘ . Cedrela odorata. 151. Daguero, 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. Dividivi (3), Ebano (93), Estorague (44), . Flor amarello (94). Guayabo (96), Guaimaro (95). Guayacan (7), Gateada (8, 107, 119), ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 431 . Cesalpinia coriaria, L. . Brya Ebenus, DC. . Styrax tomentosum, H.B.K. . Psidium pyriferum. . Tecoma Guayacan, Seem. . Acacia riparia ? 160. Lata (98). 161. Lilalla. 162. Mocquillo, . Moquilea Guianensis, AubI. 163. Marfil, . Phytelephas macrocarpa. 164. Membrillo (166), . Gustavia superba. 165. Moral, : . Mora excelsa. 166. Membrillo (164), . Gustavia angustifolia ? 167. Maria, . Triplasis caracasana, Cham. 168. Macarutu. 169. Mecoque. 170. Mamon, 4 . Melicocea bijuga. 171. Manele blanco, . . Odontandra acuminata, 172. Mangle colorado, . Avicennia tomentosa. 173. Olla de Mono, . Lecythis Ollaria. 174. Oliva (34, 99), . Capparis intermedia. 175. Panjil. 176. Penda. 177. Pardillo (100). 178. Quiebrahacha, . Cesalpinia? 179. Roble (20), : Tecoma pentaphylla. 180. Vera (14, 101, 123), . . Coccoloba caracasana ? 181. Zapatero (24), . Hymencea venosa ? 182. Hoja ancha, = . Nectandra polyphylla ? In spite of its various duplicate entries and uncertain identi- fications, I have thought it best to transcribe this manuscript verbatim. Ecuapor. Possessing extensive forest resources, the character of the wood- lands of Ecuador varies strikingly with altitude. Pines occur even above 9200 feet, as in the Mexican highlands, between which level and 5500 feet there are oak, elm, ash, and beech. At lower levels we have many palms, ‘‘ Brazil-wood,” “ ebony,” ‘‘ cedar,” and other species not well known botanically. HONDURAS. The following list of the chief timber trees of Honduras (inde- VOL. XI., PART III. 2G 432 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. pendent) was drawn up in 1874 by Mr J. F. Debrot, British Vice- Consul at Omoa and Puerto Cortés :— Acacia proxima. English, ‘‘ Savicer ;” Spanish, ‘‘ Sisileon.” Heavy, red, durable. Used for sleepers, building, and naval purposes. (Legwminose.) A. vera. ‘* Acacia,” ‘‘Espino.” Firewood. Yields gum arabic. Achras Sapota, L. ‘‘Sapodilla,” ‘‘ Nispero.” Hard, dense, red, durable, Building. (Sapotacee. ) Amerimnum ebenus, Sw. ‘ Billyweb,” ‘‘ Chichipate.” Tough, elastic, durable. Resembling ‘‘ lignum-vite.” (=Brya Ebenus, DC. Legwminose.) Amyris balsamifera, L. ‘‘Rosewood,” ‘‘Granadillo” or ‘‘ Funera.” Resinous, aromatic, veined. Furniture. Exported. (Burseracee.) Bombax Ceiba, L. ‘‘ Cotton tree,” ‘‘Ceiba.” Light, soft, not very durable. (Bombacece. ) Cesalpinia echinata. ‘‘ Nicaragua” or ‘‘ Lima” wood, ‘‘ Brazil.” Dyeing. Exported. (Leguminose. ) Cedrela odorata, L. ‘‘ Cedar,” ‘‘Cedro.” Furniture and building. Ex- ported. (Meliacew.) ‘ Coccoloba uvifera, Jacq. ‘* Sea-side grape,” ‘‘ Uva de Costa.” Red, hard, durable. Turning, building, ete. (Polygonacee.) Conocarpus racemosus, L. ‘‘ White mangrove,” ‘‘ Mangle blanco.” White. Interior of buildings. (Combretacee. ) Guarea trichilioides, Gr. ‘* Bullet-tree,” ‘‘ Palo de Bala.’”’ Brown, hard, durable. Building. (Meliacec.) Guatteria virgata, Dun. ‘‘ Lancewood,” ‘‘ Yaya.” Yellow, elastic. Shafts, bows and arrows. (=Oxandra virgata, Rich. Sg m™ ) & Balsam poplar,” Jera, L. P. angustifolia Stig, algo : g : Gilead.” James. P. trichocarpa, Torrey & Gray. ‘‘ Cot- ton wood.” Thuja gigantea, Nuttall. ‘‘Red cedar.” The following species are characteristic :— Chameecyparis nutkaensis, ** Yellow cypress.” Juniperus occidentalis, Hooker, ‘‘Juni- ” per. Spach. Taxus brevifolia, Nuttall. ‘* Yew.” Pinus monticola, Douglas. ‘* Western white pine.” P. ponderosa, Douglas. ‘*red pine.” contorta, scrub pine.” ‘* Yellow,” or ED Douglas. ‘‘ Western P. Murrayana, Balfour. ‘* Black pine.” P. albicaulis, Engel. ‘* White-barked pine.” Picea sitchensis, Carviére. ‘‘ Black,” ** Sitka,” or ‘* Menzies spruce.” P. Engelmanni, Parry. ‘* Western white spruce.” Tsuga Mertensiana, Carriére. ‘* Wes- tern hemlock.” Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carriére. ** Douglas Fir,” or ‘‘ Oregon pine.” Abies grandis, Lindley. ‘* White fir.” A. sub-alpina, Engelm. ‘‘ Western balsam.” Larix Lyallit, Parlatore. L. occidentalis, Nuttall. ‘¢ Tamarac,” } SANDWICH ISLANDS. The flora of the Hawaiian group, though they are on the northern tropic, is most closely allied to that of New Guinea and Polynesia ; but three-fourths of the species are endemic. Among the forest-trees common to these other regions there are enumerated by Dr William Hillebrand? :—Alewrites moluccana, Jambosa 1 The lists of timbers of Ontario and British Columbia are mainly based on those in the official catalogue of the Canadian Court of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. 2 “Encyclopedia Britannica,” vol. xi., p. 530. 452 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. malaccensis, Alphidoxia excelsa, Dodonwa viscosa, Thespesia populnea, Cordia subcordata, Artocarpus incisa, Paritium tili- aceum, Broussonetia papyrifera, and Cordyline terminalis ; whilst among the endemic species he mentions—WMetrosideros polymorpha, Acacia Koa, and species of Sophora, Eleocarpus Sapota, Myrsine, Olea, and Pisonia. Santalum Freycinetianum is the true, and Myo- porum tenuifolium the spurious, sandal-wood of the Sandwich Isles. Pactric ISLANDS. Situated mainly between the Tropics, the islands of the Pacific have generally a humid atmosphere, in which ferns often form nearly 25 per cent. of the flora; epiphytic and other aroids and climbing peppers abound ; and palms, such as the cocoa-nut and sago, are the chief trees. In addition to breadfruit and banana, mangoes and custard apples are commonly cultivated, and the “‘candle- nut tree” (Alewrites Moluccana, Willd.) is widely distributed. Fig1 IsLanps. In this archipelago of eighty inhabited islands, exceeding in total area the principality of Wales, and now forming part of the British Empire, we have “dense forests containing numerous varieties of large and valuable trees,” especially on the south-eastern or wind- ward sides of the islands. Among the timbers, the best known and most useful are :— Acacia Richii, A. Gray. ‘‘Qumu.” Used for furniture. (Legwminose.) Afzelia bijuga, A. Gray. ‘‘ Vesi.” A durable, hard, heavy, dark brown wood, Alphitonia franguloides, A. Gray. ‘‘ Doi.” (Rhamnec.) Alstonia vitiensis, Seem. ‘‘ Drega Quru quru.” (Apocynacee.) Bischofia javanica, Blume. ‘‘ Koka damu.” Hard, durable, dark red. (Euphorbiacee. ) Calophyllum Burmanni. ‘‘Damanu.” ‘Tough, strong, light brown, and veined, (Guttifere.) C. inophyllum, L. ‘‘Dilo.” Light brown, beautifully veined, suitable for cabinet work, its seeds yielding ‘‘ Tacamahaca,” or ‘‘ Dilo”’ oil, a specific for rheumatism. Cinnamomum pedatinervium, Meisn. ‘‘Macou.” Soft. (Lauracee.) Cordia sub-cordata, Lam. ‘‘Nawa nawa.” (Cordiacee.) Couthovia corynocarpa, A. Gray. ‘‘Olo.” Good andhard. (Loganiacew.) Dacrydium elatum, Wall. ‘‘Dakua salu salu,” Durable, light brown wood, used in boat-building. Dammara vitiensis, Seem. ‘‘ Dakua.” Allied to, but larger than the New Zealand Kauri Pine, and yielding the gum-resin, ‘‘ Makadré.” (Conifere.) Dracontomelon sylvestre, Blume. ‘*‘ Tarawau Ki-Coge.” (Anacardiacee.) Eugenia effusa, A. Gray, E. speciosa, ete. ‘‘ Yasi yasi.” Good durable timbers for house-building. (JM/yrtacee.) ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 453 E. Jambosa. ‘‘Sea.” Hard. Fagrea Berteriana, A. Gray. ‘*Bua.” Soft. (Loganiacee.) Ficus speciosa. ‘‘Losi.” Tough and good. (Moree.) Guettarda speciosa, L. ‘‘Bua-bua.”’ A hard, heavy, light yellow wood, resembling box. (Rubiacew.) Hibiscus tiliaceus, L. ‘‘ Yau.” . “THOS = Q 2 . e . ce a3 3 “ungaT snipag ‘SUDIUAIWO SNUDID) T * suusaajhs snug - * “syiqou Mand - ‘usmbnog “* : * “)s7a0x0 8010 VT ° “‘padoungy 2.v0'T ‘umnunsnoodd, VY SNYNISHE : ‘pasad DIUDISDO * “ywbhysnf se ‘nlasyuuour sryndog . ‘var “ 2 ‘82.0400 se “‘pyppnounpad sno.an?) * §1018]00%9 SNUILD AT ° ‘saujsadums snug) “e “ * ‘uUDzyUOUL snuy pn “ce “ * naindind noynnaghs “wz . “ce “ce * ‘porynajphs snbogy “ee ee - ‘wadouny OYNUT ‘snunjnid-opnasd aoy *souluNy [eoluLyog ‘repap ° ‘Quer [eyo . . . “Ila 83009 * SU TOATIS OTGON ‘gonadg sepsnod : ‘gonadg ABO NN . . . “yo. eT > ‘4nuqsayp as10y7 * “nuyseyp9 ysturdg ‘rejdog Aprequio'T ‘xefdod uUBITeIy Youlg ‘yeOQ UdaISAVAT : * ‘yvo AOYINT, . . . . ‘180 eke ae . * Sug Ystpoug . . oe 1 (C MLCUV, VC . . oe 2 * ‘Qo0ag aydand . . . ‘"ooag, . . . ce . . . ‘OUT , > ‘aaoueoAg *SotUUN MOUIUOD *d0.1, JO ‘ON | 506 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE, XXI. Specifications of Works to be Executed in the Erection o / a Lorester’s Cottage. By ALEXANDER PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Glentruim, Kingussie. (See Plate XII. for Plans and Sections, ) Mason Work. Mortar to be of fresh burnt lime, and clean fresh-water sand. Lxcavations.—The tracks for the foundations to be dug out to the depth shown in the sections, or as much more as may secure a firm foundation. The foundations will be formed (as shown on drawing) of “deadies ” in single stones not less than 6 inches thick. The next course, over same, will also be in single stones, each the breadth-way laid to break bands, and of lengths not less than 3 feet 6 inches by 6 inches thick, all laid solid in beds of mortar, and the inside scarcements to be carried up to form sleeper walls. The walls throughout to be built of the best description of masonry. Stones to be laid on their quarry or natural beds. The walls and gables will be built of “‘shoddies” neatly dabbed, except back wall, which will be of hammered stones and sneck- pointed. Offices, ete., will be of brick, neatly built and pointed, as shown on plan. Proper raggles to be formed for slater, ete. All the walls to be beam filled up to roof sarking, and sneck- pointed inside after the straps are put on. Outside of all walls to be pointed with cement. Joints to be drawn level and plumb. Doorways of front and back door to get sills as shown on plan, Front door sill to be cheeked for pillars of porch. All mullions to be of single stones, and to be neatly chamfered as shown on plan. The vents to get fireclay linings, and cans to be selected, value 8s. The hearths, all of half-rubbed pavement, to be 4 feet by 2 feet by 2 inches, with back hearths, set on rubble foundations. The contractor will also supply and fit in registered grates in the parlour and bedrooms, value 12s. 6d. each ; but in the kitchen a cooking range, value 50s. Mason will or and bed all windows, doors, ete., with good hair lime. Any. alekt omission in this atncnees must be made good by the mason if clearly seen on the plan. Rubbish from foundations, etc., must be all cleared away from the job as directed. SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S CoTTaGE. 507 CARPENTER Work. All timber for roofing, doors, windows, lintels, and all wood- work, except flooring, will be of Swedish redwood. Flooring will be of Norway white-wood, well seasoned, and cut square to specified sizes. Safe lintels will be 1} inches thick to a foot of clear carry, but not less than 3 inches at smallest opening. oofing.—The roof to be formed as shown. Rafters and ties to be 63 inches by 23 inches ; and lower end of rafters, which projects over wall, to be dressed. Top side of projecting rafter will receive a ‘‘soffer” of 14 inches lining, sunk flush for sarking to come over. The gables to receive the necessary cantilevers, and to get a fretted face board 1} inches thick. The carpenter will put on the necessary fillets, etc., for the slater and plumber. ‘The roof windows will be formed as shown, with framing of 5 inches by 2 inches, lined on face above window with Z-inch lining in 3-inch breadths; also to receive face boards and rustic work as shown on plan, the ridge to receive grounds and battens 22 inches by 12 inches. The roof will be sarked with #-inch square-edged sarking. The roof of porch will be formed with rafters 6 inches by 2 inches, and sarking of 1} inches lining, with bead on edge ; and all wood-work exposed inside porch will be dressed. The pillars will be formed as shown on plan, with chamfered edges; beams running above will be 5 inches by 5 inches. The gable will be formed as shown, with projection face boards and rustic work. The paling at the side of the porch will be as shown, with cross spars and cope on top 3 inches by 24 inches. The roof of back offices will be formed of rafters 5 inches by 25 inches as shown, and sarked with }-inch sarking. Windows.—Windows to be made as shown, in the common sash form, with frames 2 inches thick ; top sashes to be hung with axle pulleys, cords, and weights, and to receive sash-fasteners and lifts, and to be glazed with 21-ounce sheet glass, after first being primed. Doors.—Outside doors, framed 2 inches thick with filleted panels, hung on 6-inch hinges, and to get lock, value 7s. 6d. All the inside doors to be panelled with frames 13 inches thick, having sunk mouldings, hung on 5-inch edge hinges, and locks, value 5s. 8d., except presses, which will get locks, value ls. 6d. Back outside door to be framed and clad 2 inches thick, and to get lock and hinges, value 5s. 6d., with frames 5} inches by 2} inches, 508 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. Joists. —The joists to be 8 inches by 2} inches, set at 18 inches apart, and covered with 14-inch mill-wrought flooring; also to be bridled at well-hole for stair. Sleepers to be 64 inches by 24 inches, set at 18 inches apart, and covered with 14-inch flooring. Outside Water-Closet will also get sleepers and flooring as above. Wall Presses.—Four lined wall presses, sides % inch, back > inch, and four tiers of 14-inch shelves, fitted into two ground floor rooms and two upstair rooms as shown. Partitions through- out to have 4-inch by 2-inch standards, prepared for lath and plaster, and to get door frames 2} inches thick to flush with plaster. Stair.—Stair to be formed as shown on plan, steps 14 inches ; stringers, 14 inches; and risers $ inch; to get turned pitch pine balusters and hand rail. Water-Closets.—Two Water-Closets to be framed and fitted up with pitch pine, one in house and other in offices, with hinged lid, and moulded, and panelled front. Sink.—Sink in scullery will be framed and fitted up with hinged door for access to pipes, with lined front, and hardwood cope 1} inches thick ; also window to get sill lining 14 inches thick to flush with cope of sink; the sink will have a hinged lid on the top, to form a table when shut. Offices. —Outside offices to get each a door of 14-inch redwood on three backings, and fastened with latches and stock locks value 5s. each. Both the Water-Closets to have a pane of glass fitted in their doors where directed, 12 inches by 12 inches. Door frames of offices to be 4 inches by 25 inches, and hung with cross-tail hinges. Three small doors and frames, to be fitted on ashes and coal houses as shown. All outside doors to get stops, with bead on edge, 8 inch thick. Inside doors to get stops and facings, with blocks. The parlour and two bedrooms will each receive a plain box pilaster mantelpiece, and the kitchen a shelf on brackets. Skirting.—All rooms, passages, etc., to get a skirting-board 2 inch by 64 inches, with moulding on edge. Shelving.—Windows to get sill lining, to flush with walls, 1} inches ; 60 feet of shelving, 12 inches broad, to be fitted up on wooden brackets where directed. All corners and angles will get corner beads. Closet at stair landing will get three tiers of shelving on each side, 18 inches broad by 14 inches thick. All stone walls to be strapped with straps 1} inches by 1} inches, as will also walls of outside Water-Closet. SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. 509 Note.—The carpenter will give all outside woodwork two coats of oil paint, tints to be selected; also to varnish and grain “oak” the outside of the door. SLATER WorRK. The roofs to be covered with Port Dinorwick slates, 16 inches by 10 inches, put on with a cover of 3 inches, double nailed, and well bonded. All raggles to be pointed with Portland cement. PLASTER WoRK. The plasterer will coat and finish in the usual way with good hair lime, all walls, ceilings, and partitions throughout, as also ceiling and walls of outside Water-Closet. Lath, to be supplied and nailed on by plasterer, to be of 4-inch red boards, split up to proper sizes. A 5-inch cornice to be run on the ceiling of the parlour. All beads to be properly relieved. Blisters, cracks, and breakages after other tradesmen to be made good. PLUMBER WoRK. The lead for all purposes to be soft melted, weighing 6 lbs. per superficial foot for ridges and flanks, and for all other purposes to be 5 lbs. per superficial foot. The ridges to be 13 inches broad, and the valleys 12 inches ; skew bottoms and chimney neck flashings to be 10 inches broad; flashings of dormers 9 inches, and soles of dormers 12 inches broad ; finial blocks to be covered with lead. The rones on all eaves to be Macfarlane’s No. 4; joints to be bedded in white lead, with the necessary stop-ends and drops to down-pipes, which will be 3 inches in diameter, secured to walls with iron holdfasts. Down-pipes to be set on 6-inch trap grating set in stone, and joined to a tile drain. The sink in the scullery to be of white enamelled fireclay, 26 inches by 14 inches by 8 inches inside, with brass plug and chain, and 21-inch soil-pipe, trapped, of 6-lb. lead, with brass cleansing screw. The soil-pipe to be carried 2 feet beyond wall, and carefully joined to a tile drain. The Water-Closet in the house to be Troyford’s white earthen- ware, set on safe of 4-Ib. lead, having the necessary 14-inch supply pipe, and two-gallon syphon cistern complete. Soil-pipe 4} inches 510 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ERECTION OF A FORESTER’S COTTAGE. in diameter, carried out two feet beyond wall, and joined to a tile drain. A 6-inch glazed spigot and faucet tile pipe will be laid from Water-Closet, as shown by dotted lines, and 4 inches tile pipe from sink and rain-water pipes, all laid with a regular fall, and jointed with Portland cement. A No. 4 Shank & Son’s Water-Closet to be placed in back offices where shown, with a 44-inch soil-pipe carried out and joined to the tile drain. Water supply.—A. concrete tank to be formed where shown on plan, 3 feet 6 inches, by 2 feet 6 inches, by 2 feet deep. The supply pipe 3 inch, 10 Ibs. per yard patent lead pipe, with #inch screw cock and stand pipe at sink, a stop cock to be placed where shown on pipe. The contract price to include digging and filling-in tracks, and putting on the water to Water-Closets and sink complete. STATE AND PROSPECTS OF ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. 511 XXII. On the Present State and Future Prospects of Arbori- culture in Hampshire. By Joun Smiru, Surveyor, Romsey, Hampshire. SITUATION. Hampshire, with the Isle of Wight, is bounded on the north by Berkshire, on the east by Surrey and Sussex, on the west by Wiltshire and Dorsetshire, and on the south by the British Channel. It is about 55 miles from north to south, and about 36 from east to west; being of an irregular oblong figure, lying between 50 degrees 34 minutes and 51 degrees 22 minutes north latitude, and between 43 minutes and 1 degree 54 minutes west longitude ; and has a total area of 1,040,000 acres. The Isle of Wight is separated from the mainland by the channel called the Solent, which varies in breadth from two to seven miles. The island has an area of 105,000 acres, which is included in the above. GEOLOGY. The soils of Hampshire are various, ranging from the rich allu- vium of the valleys, the stiff clays and the light soil of the chalk downs, to the poor sandy soil of the Upper Bagshot. A vast deposit of chalk forms the greater proportion of the subsoil, being estimated at 371,200 acres, or about one-third of the whole area. This deposit is divided into two sorts, the middle and upper ; the former towards the north and the latter towards the south. The upper chalk is soft, and contains beds and nodules of black flints ; the middle is harder and of a darker colour, and the soil generally poorer. The boundary of the chalk may be described as commencing at the north-west boundary with Berkshire at East Woodhay, pro- ceeding south-east to Street and Highclere, then east to Itching- wells ; thence south-east by east to Kingsclere, Ewhurst, Monks Sherbourne, Sherbourne St John, Chinham, Old Basing Greywell, Odiham, to Croudall ; thence south-east to the borders of Surrey, where it is only about a mile broad, recommencing at a place called Checksfarm ; thence almost due west to Easanage; from thence in a zigzag outline by Lower Froyle, Froyle, and Holy- bourne to about a mile south-east of Chawton; then a south- easterly direction by Selbourne to Empshot; thence south- VOL, XI., PART III. 2M 512 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. westerly to East Meon; then south-east by east to Buriton to the borders of Sussex. Commencing at Rowland’s Castle at said Sussex boundary, it takes a north-westerly direction to Horndean; then in a zigzag line to Bishop’s Waltham, Upham, Otterbourne, to the south of Hursley Park ; then nearly due west to Timsbury, north to Michelmersh ; then west to Mottisfont, north to Pittleworth ; then curving south-west by Bently to East and West Tytherley, where it joins the Wiltshire bed south of Norman Court. It thus occupies a large portion of the centre of the county. Within the above boundary are many detached patches of the plastic clay, a rather large deposit of which occurs at Froxfield. At Burgh- clere and Sidmonton is a deposit of the Upper Greensand. In the valleys of the rivers Test and Itchen, with their tributaries, are considerable deposits of alluvium. Detached from the great central bed of chalk are four others, namely at Deanhill, Rock- bourne, and Breamore, which are extensions of the Wiltshire bed. On the south another detached portion occurs, commencing at Emsworth, thence west to Havant, Bedhampton, Boarhunt, to the Titchfield river, returning east by Fareham, Portchester, to West Thorney, taking in the northern parts of Hayling and Thorney Islands. Within this area rises Portsdown Hill, bold and bare, to the height of 450 feet above sea-level, and here stands the monument erected to the memory of Lord Nelson. The general character of the chalk at present is down and cultivated fields, and is not naturally favourable to the growth of trees, although some writers have ventured the opinion that it was, previous to the Roman invasion, one vast forest. This is not borne out by investigation, for when the chalk is laid bare not a tree root nor the vestige of one can be found. With the exception of the yew not a root cares to penetrate the chalk pure and simple; but many an ancient specimen of the yew is to be found rearing its weather-beaten form, scarred with the blasts of centuries, on the bare and wind-swept chalky downs. The juniper also finds here a congenial home, but where there is sufficient depth of soil above the chalk most of our forest trees will thrive and produce the best of timber, particularly oak and beech ; and it may be taken generally that the quality of the timber grown on a chalk subsoil is superior to that of any other in this county. Within the area above described is to be found some of the richest wooded parks in the county, such as Hurst- bourne (Lord Portsmouth), Highclere (Lord Carnarvon), Hack- wood (Lord Bolton), The Grange (Lord Ashburton), Stratton STATE AND PROSPECTS OF ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. 513 (Lord Northbrook), Hursley (the Heathcote Trustees), Norman Court (William Baring, Esq.), and many others, besides the historical forest of Harewood, where King Edgar, in the year 963, at the instigation of Elfrida, the wife of Earl Ethelwold, and a daughter of the Earl of Devon, slew with his own hand the said Earl Ethelwold, that he might obtain Elfrida for his queen. Harewood is one large area of about 700 acres. The northern part of the county, from the chalk to the boundary with Berks, is occupied by the Woolwich and Reading beds (plastic clay), the London clay, Lower Bagshot, Bracklesham, and the Upper Bagshot beds with alluvium in the valleys, and forms part of the basin of the Thames. ; The plastic clay forms a narrow strip skirting the chalk on the north, and consists of dark blue, reddish, and yellow clays, inter- stratified with sand of various colours, and is favourable to the growth of the oak, and may be called the oak zone. The London clay comes next, skirting the plastic clay and along the Embourne and Blackwater rivers, dividing the counties of Hants and Berks, being connected by irregular bands from north to south. The mixture of this deposit with the others gives a distinctive character to the woodlands of this part of the county. On this formation is Strathfieldsaye (Duke of Wellington), rich in woodland scenery. Most of our hardwood trees thrive on the London clay. The Lower Bagshot beds occur in large and small irregular patches. They consist of brown and yellow sands, gravel both sharp and pebbly intermixed with different coloured clays, also poor sandy and peaty soil—a veritable hotch-potch of geology ; so that there is every sort of soil suitable for every sort of tree, and what are popularly known as “American plants.” IEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. XXII. Hedyerow and Field Timber. By Ancus D. WEBSTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales. Although the well-founded assertion that the quantity of hedgerow and field timber throughout Britain is in excess of that produced in our woods and forests may at first appear somewhat startling and exaggerated, yet it is nevertheless a fact, and one that forcibly brings home to us that the importance of this class of timber is far greater than is generally supposed. That hedgerow and field timber, the former in particular, is, however, gradually disappearing before farm and land improvement, is a fact that is well known to the careful observer, and we may safely add that during the next quarter or half century not one-tenth of the present quantity will be retained. Regarding the utility or otherwise of this class of timber great difference of opinion exists, some, more particularly the farming community, maintaining that it is not only injurious to crops and fences, but a harbour for game and vermin ; while on the other hand there are those, and fortunately they are in the majority, who are in favour of such trees, justly considering that these are the greatest improvers of natural scenery, and to whicl our country owes so much of its green, garden-like appearance. Partly we favour both sides of the case, and shall, previous to pointing out the most suitable trees for hedgerow and field planting, which is the principal object of this paper, briefly give our views on the matter. That many farmers have just cause for the grievance complained of we must admit, for there can certainly be no two opinions regarding the ill effect on crops generally where an undue quantity of either hedgerow or field timber exists. Wales in this respect is far from behindhand, for the number of worthless trees that stud the landscape, and, combined with useless fences, interfere with agricultural pursuits, is truly surprising, and would hardly be credited unless by those who have travelled about through the country and paid some attention to the matter. No doubt at one time, when woods were less abundant than now, field and hedgerow trees would, in many exposed districts, be invaluable for affording shelter to both man and beast ; but with the advance of the times and now fairly well wooded nature of the country generally, fully one-half of those that still exist might well be cleared away, with not only advantage to landlord and tenant, but to the general HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. dil appearance of the country as well. To those who are unacquainted with the area of ground taken up by old-fashioned hedges that are practically of no value as fences, as well as hedgerow trees, and such as are injudiciously placed in clumps, the following, as one out of many cases which came under the writer’s notice in North Wales, may be pointed out. Three small fields of, on an average, 3 acres each, contained no less than 2233 yds. of 9 ft. wide fencing ; or, in other words, the fields were surrounded by hedges of mixed quicks, hazel, elder, and blackthorn, placed on the top of raised mounds or dykes of soil, the whole taking up an average width ot about 9 feet of ground. The combined length of fencing in the three fields was 2233 yds., which, multiplied by 3, the yards in width, gives a total of 6699 yds., or nearly 14 acres of good arable land taken up by trees and fences which were worse than useless for the purpose intended, being in truth what the farmer described, a harbour for vermin, and as occasioning too dense a shade for the successful cultivation of crops in their immediate vicinity. These fences have now been removed, the three fields thrown into one, and other fencing substituted, the result being a gain of about 1 acre in 9 acres, not to speak of the advantages accruing to the farmer thereby. Similar instances of large clumps of trees exercising like mischief might also be pointed out, and that where one-fourth of the number, if judiciously placed, would not only have been more ornamental but of advantage to the farmer for both shade and shelter. These old-fashioned fences have, however, this much in their favour, that, owing to the raised mound or dyke on which both quicks and trees are planted, the roots are not nearly so injurious to the herbage in the adjoining field sides as such as have been planted on the level, but, as before stated, this seeming benefit is far more than counterbalanced by the extra width of ground used in making the dyke. With the modern system of farming and managing hedges, tree planting cannot very well go hand in hand, a fact that is every day becoming more and more apparent in the improving and laying out of farmers’ fields and fences. A well-formed, well-managed quickthorn fence should not occupy more space than 3 feet in width ; indeed hundreds of such on the home farm at Penrhyn, as well as on several of the lately improved farms on the same estate, are of such dimensions, they being well suited in every way for preventing the ingress or egress of cattle and sheep. Now in such fences we find it almost an impossibility to have trees, 552 HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. they not only causing damage to the fence, but usually attaining to a much greater diameter of bole than the hedge’s width, thereby causing inconvenience, appearing out of place, and interfering with the proper management of the fence. Under such circumstances, and where the country is but thinly wooded, judicious tree-planting in the corners of fields may be done with advantage, and will be found productive of far better results than had these been intro- duced along the line of fences. There are, however, several species of trees that can both advantageously and profitably be introduced to such fences, as various kinds of plum; but for the general run of forest trees they are unsuitable. Where the old system of hedge formation is still in vogue, the 6 or 9 ft. in width of ground usually allowed can well be planted at intervals with suitable forest trees, these, if well managed, doing but little harm either to the fence or adjoining land. Having now hit, perhaps rather severely, on some of the disadvantages of hedgerow and field trees, we will briefly look to the other side of the question, and treat the subject from a purely ornamental as well as profitable point of view, the latter, however, being dealt more fully with in considering the different species that are suitable for the purpose. Although it must be admitted that the primary object of most hedges is utility, still there is no reason why these should not be denuded to some extent of their stiff, uniform appearance, and become toned down by the fringe of beauty imparted by the judicious use of certain trees. In doing so, however, let the watchword be discretion, so that the work may not be overdone, for unfortunately to this latter can alone be attributed much of the grumbling that day by day jars in the forester’s ears regarding the evil effects produced by immoderate quantities of hedgerow and field timber. That these, when suitably placed either in the hedgerow or open field and in limited numbers, im- part an otherwise unobtainable beauty and freshness to the land- scape, cannot be denied; and even those who entertain the most utilitarian ideas on the matter must confess that were the broad face of nature stripped of its trees, other than woodland, a dull, monotonous repetition of bare hill and down would be the result. From a sanitary point of view also individual trees or those in clumps are exceedingly valuable. Suitable Trees for Hedgerow and Field Planting.—In proceeding to consider the trees that have been found most suitable for hedge- row and field planting, four important points should always be kept in view. 1. That the spread of branches is, comparatively speak- HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. 553 ing, small in proportion to the tree’s height. 2. That the roots have a downward tendency, or do not ramify to too great an extent. 3. That the timber value is such as to compensate in some degree for the cost of planting and after-management in the way of prun- ing, fencing, etc. ; and 4. That the tree is well adapted for exposed situations and standing singly. Although but rarely do we find all these good qualities concentrated in one tree, still, with careful choice and good after-management, much can be done to produce the desired effect, even in trees of a partially opposite character. That the wrong class of timber has been, and is even yet, too often planted in our hedgerows, is painfully apparent to any one who has paid attention to the subject,—trees of wide-spreading habit in both root and branch occupying positions and doing irreparable damage where, with proper selection, others of an unobtrusive nature could with advantage have taken their place. Timely and judicious pruning is of the utmost importance in the production of hedgerow timber ; but to be productive of the best results, the work must be attended to early and prosecuted at intervals, as by skilfully shortening the branches from time to time the spread of root is likewise to a great extent prevented, thereby securing as it were a double benefit for the farmer. The renovation of old and neglected trees is, however, not so easily managed ; for care must be taken not to prune or cut within several feet of the tree’s bole, but at such a distance outward, and in such a way, that the minor and secondary branches may be preserved. Now, as to the most suitable trees for field and hedgerow plant- ing, nothing in our opinion approaches the Cornish elm (Ulmus Cornubiense)—a tree that unfortunately is far too seldom seen either as a standard or in our woodlands, and for which the nurseryman more than the planter is responsible, for it is not pro- pagated in anything like sufficient quantity for the demand. As a park or fence tree this distinct and well-marked variety of the elm has much to recommend it, such as narrow spread of branches in proportion to the gigantic height it attains, suitability for exposed situations, value uf timber produced, and last, but by no means least, the very decided ornamental character it imparts to the landscape when properly placed. Near the seashore at Penrhyn Castle, both as a woodland and standard tree, the Cornish elm has done well, specimens of from 60 ft. to 80 ft., and girthing 6 or 7 ft. at a yard up, being not uncommon. ‘The narrow spread of branches is, however, the chief point of recommendation ; for even 554 HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. in the trees just referred to this does not usually exceed 5 or 6 yards, with no large boughs, but as if all the strength was exerted in the production of clean, straight stems. As a timber tree the Cornish elm has not yet been fairly tested, although, for my own part, I am fully convinced that it quite equals the parent form, unless in the graining of the wood, to which it is decidedly prefer- able, as any one must acknowledge after an inspection of the planks preserved here. Five years ago a large tree of this elm was broken over, part of the trunk being used, experimentally, for repairing a vessel in the Menai Straits ; but sufficient time has hardly elapsed for opinions to be hazarded. So far, however, I may say the results are satisfactory. In Hampshire, growing on rich alluvial soil on the chalk, the Cornish elm has attained a height of 90 ft. in 40 years, with a cir- cumference of 43 ft. at a yard up. At Stamford House, in the same county, two of these trees—one on each side of the wicket entering the park—have attained a height of fully 130 ft., with girths of between 8 and 9 ft. ata yard up. The principal advan- tages of this tree, either for hedgerow or field planting, are that no pruning is required to keep the branches in bounds; that the spread of branches is very small in proportion to the tree’s height ; that the roots do not approach too near the surface, or ramify to a great extent, so as to become injurious to crops in their immediate vicinity ; and that the-.quantity and quality of timber produced is such as to compensate for the expenses connected with planting and after-management. The English elm (U. campestris) is another tree of great value for hedgerow and field use ; and is, perhaps, more commonly used for these purposes than any other. Like the Cornish variety, though in a much less degree, it has an upward inclination, the ramification of its branches being narrow in proportion to its height ; while as an ornamental tree and valuable timber producer it has few equals. It also admits of being placed im situ when of a large size, this being a recommendation in its favour where ground game abounds ; while, as regards choice of soil, it is by no means particular, so as it is not over damp or containing stagnant water, a rather dry sandy loam suiting it best. The wood is valuable, and in demand by the cart-wright, coach-builder, cabinet-maker, as well as for coffin boards, and in the construction and repairs of sailing vessels and pleasure boats. Should necessity demand it, the elm may be pruned without fear of harm ; but it is not one of the best subjects HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. 555 for such an operation, unless the work is timely and carefully per- formed. In some of the midland English counties the elm is kept closely pruned up from its infancy, the practice being supposed to favour the production of tough, gnarled timber. As the lower branches particularly seldom spread to a great extent, and are not usually very abundant near the ground, the English elm is thus well adapted either for hedgerow planting or standing singly in fields and parks, which, combined with the shelter it affords and quality of timber produced, as well as ornamental character, renders it one of the best trees for use in the places under consideration. The British oak (Quercus Robur) is of about equal value with the elm for hedgerow planting ; indeed, by careful manipulation, it is even superior to that tree, being, perhaps, less injurious to the herbage beneath it, while its roots have a much greater downward tendency than those of the elm. As an ornamental tree and valu- able timber producer, the oak requires no praise from us, these qualities having been well set off from almost the earliest date. It bears pruning with impunity, so that all ungainly or far spreading branches can be cut back or foreshortened at pleasure ; while those near to the ground, and that in any way interfere with the fence or crops, can, by judicious management, be altogether removed, not only with advantage to those latter, but, when care- fully performed, with increased value to the tree as a timber pro- ducer. Any soil suits the oak ; but the first and clearest timber is pro- duced on strong, deep loam, and in partially sheltered situations, the tree usually assuming a stunted, many-branched habit of growth where fully exposed and growing in poor, thin soils. Several varieties of the oak are equally well adapted for hedgerow or field planting, more particularly such as have a partially upright inclina- tion and are of strong robust growth. The Lombardy poplar (Populus fastigiata).—Although of but little value as a timber producer, yet, as an ornamental tree of singular habit and appearance, the Lombardy poplar is certainly unique amongst our hardy, deciduous trees. When planted in judiciously arranged clumps in the corners of fields, or singly in the hedgerows, this poplar produces a most pleasing effect in the land- scape ; and being of close, fastigiate growth, is not in the least injurious to crops in its immediate vicinity. No tree is, however, more readily misplaced than the one in question ; and, in planting, it is well to avoid the prevalent mistake 556 HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. of placing in lines, squares, round or oval forms, or even in single specimens, but as seldom as possible, these methods being highly objectionable and devoid of good taste, that is if we desire to preserve in the landscape a natural appearance. Few trees grow so fast, and with so little injury to others, as the Lombardy poplar ; but it is very impatient of confinement, and must have room and air where healthy well-branched specimens are desired. Cool, damp soil, by the side of a stream or river, is that best suited for perfect development of this tree, although it thrives in a fairly sue- cessful manner, and attains large dimensions in soil of very ordinary quality and without superabundance of moisture. It never requires pruning, and being of a strong, sturdy nature, seldom becomes damaged or upturned, even during the most severe weather. The wood, as before stated, is of but little value, although for the making of barrows and bottoming of carts it has acquired some reputation, from its being less inclined to split than to gradually tease away. The sycamore (Acer Pseudo-platanus), as a standard tree, either in field or fence, is worthy of attention, not only for its well-known ornamental character, but value of wood produced ; it, in this latter respect, being second to none at the present time. As a farmer’s tree it is also not one of the worst ; for although the branches incline to spread, still, by careful manipulation in the way of pruning, this may be corrected without to too great an extent doing injury to the ornamental qualities of the tree. As regards choice of soil, the sycamore is not fastidious, thriving well in that of very opposite qualities if not overcharged with moisture. The timber is clean, firm, fine-grained, susceptible of a high polish, and easily worked, qualities which specially recommend it for the use of the turner, sculptor, and cabinet-maker. At the present time, perhaps, no home-grown wood is more in request than the sycamore ; indeed, the supply, at least in England and Wales, is quite inadequate for the demand. From carefully made observations, I am now fully convinced that no hedgerow or field tree repays so fully the damage it occasions to fences and the surrounding ground as the sycamore. When grown singly this tree, unlike most others, is not inclined to produce rambling and weighty side branches, but usually throws its full vigour or energy to the production of timber ; and this being marketable, even when in a comparatively young state, still further enhances the value of the tree. As an example of the present value of single grown trees of the sycamore, I may state that but re- HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. 557 cently since we felled on one farm fifty of these trees, which together realised close on £100. Neither must this be considered an excep- tional case, for sums varying from £50 to £70 have frequently been received for the same number and class of timber produced on hedge banks or in field corners, and without in any way marring the landscape, but, I might add, with considerable benefit to the re- maining trees. No other tree with which I am acquainted would, when placed under similar circumstances, have been equally re- munerative, and at the same time occasioned less damage to its surroundings. The hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), for exposed situations and poor soils, has few, if any, equal in the whole range of forest trees ; and although the timber is only of second or third-rate quality, still its thriving on poor soils and in cold, bleak situations renders the tree of particular value to the mountain farmer. Even on cold clays, where few other hardwoods could exist, and at high eleva- tions, the hornbeam seems quite at home, and attains large dimen- sions. The roots do not run near the surface, but, like those of the oak, derive sustenance at a considerable distance from the surface, which, combined with its somewhat upright inclination of growth and hardy nature, renders it well adapted for hedgerow or field planting where shelter combined with effect is required. For ordinary pur- poses—such as handles for tools, wheel-wright’s work, and, until glazed earthenware supplanted it, in the manufacture of milk vessels—the wood of the hornbeam, which is clean, white, and re- markably hard and durable, is in request. i The lime (Zilia Europea), although one of our most ornamental trees, can hardly be recommended as suitable for situations in which the underlying herbage is at stake. For this latter reason alone, however, can it be omitted from our list, and as it bears pruning well, and does not to any great extent impoverish the adjoining ground, and is at all times a pleasing object in the land- scape, it will be seen that the evil done by shade is, in a great degree, compensated for. The elegant form of the lime, combined with its luxuriant foliage and sweet blossoms, renders it a con- spicuous object wherever planted, but more particularly when placed singly in well-chosen spots on the green sward. It is usually of a pyramidal or cone shape in outline, remarkably symmetrical, and in winter when denuded of its foliage has a peculiarly pleasing appearance that is quite its own. The roots do 558 NEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. not in full grown trees spread to a greater distance than from 10 ft. to 12 ft., while the main tap-root descends to 5 ft. or 6 ft., thus not to an unusual extent poverising the soil in its immediate vicinity. For several purposes lime wood is much in request, such as for “ bottoming ” carts, in the making of waggon breaks, packing- boxes, saddlers’ and shoemakers’ cutting boards, and, most im- portant of all, for carving, it for this latter purpose being excelled by no other home-grown timber. It bears trimming and pruning well, the lower stem-branches being removable without in any way injuring the tree’s health, or, if carefully performed, marring its beauty. Grown as a hedgerow or field tree, the lime will require to have all suckers removed from its base, these soon forming a dense jungle of underwood if not attended to, and which considerably detract from the tree’s appear- ance, as well as draw stores of food which would be more profitably deposited elsewhere. Amongst coniferous trees there are few suitable for the end in question if we except the larch and Scots fir. The larch as an ornamental tree is, however, much neglected, this being attributable to an erroneous impression that the tree is of too stiff and cold an appearance either for standing singly or giving effect to the land- scape. Nothing can, however, be more averse to facts, as, when placed so that its fine form is seen to advantage, few deciduous trees are more picturesque than the larch, or offer a better contrast to the ordinary run of our forest trees. It also occasions less damage to the undergrowing herbage than most trees, while, at the same time, it enriches the soil to a great extent by the annual shedding of its leaves. As regards value of timber produced it would be superfluous for us to speak, while as a hardy tree that thrives under a variety of circumstances it can compete favourably with most others. The Scots fir, whether viewed in a useful or ornamental capacity, has much to recommend it for extensive planting, more particularly in high-lying and exposed situations. When judiciously placed no tree is more picturesque than the Scots fir, while few are better adapted for producing shelter, or more suitable for planting singly or in clumps where from exposure few other trees would succeed. As a hedgerow or field tree the Scots fir is not to be despised ; indeed for planting in the exposed corners of fields that are to be met with on most farms no tree is, perhaps, better adapted. As it usually rises to a great height without branches, it cannot be con- HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. 559 sidered as extremely injurious to its surroundings, although the shallow-running roots can hardly be spoken of as being non- injurious to the green sward. Planting and Fencing.—Whether for planting in the hedgerow or singly in the fields, good, strong, well-rooted specimens should always be used ; indeed it is well, where a home nursery is on the estate, to have these specially prepared by frequent transplantings for a few years previous to their final despatch. The nursery management will require both care and experience, so that trees with strong, fibrous roots equally distributed around the stem may be produced—lanky, ill- grown, and ill-rooted plants having but a poor chance of succeeding under the circumstances. From 6 ft. to 10 ft. in height will be found the most suitable size for the purpose under consideration. The pits for their reception should be opened of sufficient size so as to admit the roots without cramping or bending, the bottom and sides being made loose and free with a pick. All the better if the pits have been opened for some time previous to planting, the winter frosts having a beneficial effect in pulverising the soil. This is, however, seldom convenient, as, if in the field, they become filled in and trampled on by cattle, while gaps in the fences occasioned by these cannot well remain open for any length of time. The better plan, at least we have found it so, is to open the pits, plant the trees, and have these fenced in on the same day,as by this method the work has never to be done a second time, everything being finished up as the work proceeds. In planting be careful to spread the roots out in an even manner around the stem, as by so doing the tree is not only more firmly fixed in the ground, but is also enabled to collect food from all quarters. Feneing.—This should follow up at once the work of planting, as, if the young trees are allowed to remain unprotected for any length of time, cattle and ground game not unfrequently cause damage from which it takes the young plant years to recover, Hedgerow trees under certain circumstances may not require fencing further than the placing of a few of the previously removed thorns around their stems, this being often as effective, more par- ticularly where the fences are of the old-fashioned type and placed on a mound, as the best made tree guards, Where, however, the fences are of the modern type, it is always preferable to have wooden erections placed around the trees at time of planting, These guards may be of any desired shape, that commonly in use being either circular or square, the former being preferable. They VOL. XI., PART III. 2P 560 HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. are simple of erection, being made of small larch poles of not less than 8 ft. in height, driven into the ground in a circle around the tree, and at a distance of say 18 in. from it. Near the top they are fastened by nails to a hoop of pliable wood, or, as is the case here, interlaced and firmly united by strong fencing wire. Wooden erections are, perhaps, preferable to iron hurdles for fencing in hedgerow trees, as they seldom require renewing, for by the time the fence has decayed the trees will, in most cases, be out of harm’s way. Park or field trees may with advantage, and where fancy so points out, be guarded from the depredations of horses, cows, and sheep by any of the iron hurdles now commonly in use for this purpose, but where first expense is looked at, a wooden erection, but of better material and more neatly finished than that last described, will answer the purpose equally as well. Pruning and After-Management.—For at least the first twenty years after planting, careful and regular pruning of hedgerow and field timber should in all cases be attended to, bearing in mind that timely attention in this way will alone obviate the necessity for heavy prunings at any future stage of the tree’s growth. On early and judicious pruning to the classes of timber in question also, to a greater extent, depends whether or not damage is caused by these to their surroundings ; for itis well known that if branches are allowed to ramify at will, greater injury to the underlying herbage must be committed than where timely pruning and shorten- ing of all straggling branches has been attended to. Early summer pruning—say in the month of June—is to be recommended, as at that time, owing to the active circulation of the sap, the wounds heal up much quicker than when the operation is performed at any other season of the year. The pruning should be performed by a person who is thoroughly conversant with the work, haphazard cutting and hewing by an inexperienced hand, and at any season, being most injurious. If the young trees have been well cared for whilst in the nursery border, little or no attention will be required for at least three years from the time of planting out ; but after that date they should be looked over every second or third year until an age of say twenty years are attained, after which they may have their course, but a good deal will, of course, depend on the particular species of tree operated upon. As the great object in pruning both hedgerow and field trees is to develop a valuable main stem, which is only to diverge into branches at a given height from the ground, and to prevent the overgrowth of straggling HEDGEROW AND FIELD TIMBER. 561 branches further up so as to maintain a symmetrical outline, there- fore let all endeavours be directed towards the furtherance of these ends. First, then, in training young trees to a stem let it be done gradually, year by year, until the intended height is attained, which, for the object under consideration, will be from 8 ft. to 12 ft.; but on no account adopt the too oft-repeated method of cutting away all the lateral branches at once, for this is not only highly injurious to the young tree, but very unsightly as well. In removing the lower branches, cut these off at once close to the stem, and the results will be far more satisfactory than when the ruinous system of snag-pruning is resorted to ; and in doing so let the work go on gradually, say tier by tier each season, until the desired number is removed, which will give those further up the chance of becoming sufficiently numerous to bear the loss of the lower ones with impunity. All rampant or side branches should also be foreshortened by cutting back to some of the smaller branches, at the same time endeavouring to show as little appear- ance of pruning as possible, but to balance the trees by producing an easy but rather fastigiate outline. Rival leaders should also be attended to,—the worst being removed, and a few of the top shoots cut back, so as to throw additional vigour into the remaining one. If the above method of pruning is carefully and regularly carried out for the first twenty years of the tree’s growth, little or no atten- tion will be required afterwards, and they will present not only a sightly appearance in the landscape, but be almost non-injurious to crops in their immediate vicinity. The fences around each tree should also be carefully examined and repaired at least once each year, at the same time seeing that all stakes and ties are secure and serving the purpose for which they were intended. 562 1 EXPOSITION FORESTIERE INTERNATIONAL DE 1884, L’EXPOSITION FORESTIERE INTERNATIONAL DE 1884, tEPORT BY Proressor Reuss, or tHE Nancy Forest ScHoot, ON THE Forestry EXuieition AT EDINBURGH IN 1884, It is with much pleasure that we solicit the attention of Scottish foresters, and the public in general, to a valuable Report by Pro- fessor Reuss, of the Nancy Forest School, on the International Forestry Exhibition, held at Edinburgh in 1884. Professor Reuss was deputed by the French Government to report on the Exhibi- tion, and a large portion of his Report was published by it in the Minutes of the Agricultural Department, to which the forests are attached. As, however, the Report contains a great amount of matter highly interesting to foresters, but not expressly bearing on the Exhibition, and therefore not published in the Proceedings of the French Government, the Professor has determined to publish the Report in extenso at his own expense, hoping to recoup the cost of publication by its sale. It is now offered for sale at 3 frs. 73 cents, or 3s. British. The Report, which is perhaps the most comprehensive and detailed yet published on our Exhibition, covers 162 pages octavo, and is divided into four Chapters, besides an Introductory Preface, a Conclusion, and eight Appendices, There is also an excellent Index. The Preface treats of the present condition of Forest science and management in Great Britain and its Colonies, the object of the Exhibition, the building itself, and the general arrangement of its contents. Cuapter I. is divided into three parts :— Part 1 treats of the Crown forests of England, and the exhibits sent from them ; also of Kew Gardens, Epping Forest, and private forest properties and parks. Part 2 treats of the forests in Scotland, both in the Highlands and Lowlands, which were personally visited by Professor Reuss on a former occasion ; also of the exhibits sent from them, as well as by the ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, Part 3 refers to the forest literature of Scotland, and especially to the works on forestry by Dr Croumbie Brown. Cuapter II. refers to British India, its forests, forest service, and forest literature, as well as the exhibits sent from there. L'EXPOSITION FORESTIERE INTERNATIONAL DE 1884. 563 Cuapter III. is divided into four parts, and treats of the forests of the British Colonies :— Part 1 refers to the exhibits from Sierra Leone, and the Gambia, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Mauritius. Part 2 to the forests of Cyprus, Ceylon, Johore, and the Straits Settlements, and the exhibits therefrom. Part 3 to the forests and exhibits from Australia, North Borneo, and Labuan. Part 4 to the exhibits from Canada, British Guiana, St Vincent, and Tobago. Cuarrer I[V.—This chapter contains a concise, but full account of the exhibits sent by foreign governments, viz. :—France, Ger- many, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Italy, Switzerland, the United States of America, and Japan. The last country has had full justice done to it by the Professor, as indeed it deserved. It was most fully and effectively represented in the Exhibition by Messieurs Takei and Takasima ; and the pictures of forest scenery, forest maps, and illustrations of forest work, as well as the exhibits themselves, were highly instructive and interesting. The Appendices contain :—1. A classified list of exhibits. 2. List of prizes offered for competition by the committee. 3. Statis- tics of the Forest of Dean. 4. List of forest works by Dr Croumbie Brown. 5. Statistics of growth of teak from the Nilambur planta- tions. 6. Method of preserving timber employed in Japan. 7. Forest school at Tokio (Japan). 8. Regulations concerning the Forest School of Japan. We cannot commend too highly this most interesting and useful Report, not only to Scottish foresters, but to all who are interested in forestry everywhere. Scottish foresters, however, may be well proud of the minute attention and careful criticism bestowed on their Exhibition by the learned Professor, who has truly recognised the merit of this attempt on their part to bring to the serious notice of a public only too prone “to pass by on the other side,” and neglect it, a science so important to the development of the great natural forest riches of their country. Under the impression that forests always grew somehow of themselves, and that they will do so as long as the world lasts, people in general pay but little attention to the fact that civilisation, and the increase in the number of the world’s inhabitants, has changed all these conditions of Nature; and that in proportion as these conditions are more and more developed, so forests will more and more be swept away 564 LEXPOSITION FORESTIERE INTERNATIONAL DE 1884. from the earth’s surface. The increased facilities of transport, and the creation of railways, have been perhaps the most important factor in this disappearance of forests. The Professor has not lost sight of this, and he vividly brings it out in his Report, which is marked, not only by the ability and care with which it is compiled, but by the kindly and sympathetic spirit which inspired it through- out. We trust that in return for this kindly interest which Pro- fessor Reuss has taken in our enterprise, his many well-wishers here will help him to recoup the necessary expense of the publica- tion of his full Report by purchasing copies of his little work. = ~ \e = | 3 5 2 A Ap ee $5 | a ee 5 o Gnaes. a he “ Bee TF | la5|— ae % ha . | “i é Salignac B yaa . R qineb | ipa 2M artel, Pred 5 = i ae) G oudllac t) Lat ed 2 5 Bartholomew, din" - —______— = ; J.Barthol 7 aine te 0 RDO G NIE —Tongitala Wart of Great _ Set Arbor Soc. Trans. Vol_AT, EAL. Bedroom ioe 15; Cereal. Closet Bedroom Is x 14° Closet Fe Ore GO) <5 Mit UPPER. -EGiO.R FEeer M‘Farlane & Exstune, Lith? Edin® PLAN OF FORE STERS COTTAGE. - » Set Arbor Soc Trans. Vol Hf, Pl. A. il | Closet Bedroom Is’ = 14° Sitting Room Is = 14 Bedroom Is = 14° GROUND FLOOR. UPPER FLOOR 40 Lien rh f salt itd aii ail Freer FRONT ELEVATION. BACK ELEVATION ano SECTION. Pra by HE Mae aniak ———_— Scot. Arbor Soc. Trans. Vol. AL PLA UE = il A--- SECTION AT Closet M*Farlane k Erskine, Lich®? Eain™ EDROOM PLAN. Drawn by | Scot Arbor Soc Trans. Vol. PL.AW FORESTERS COTTAGE FRONT ELEVATION Is.cock o.TRAe Bedroom Bedroom BEDROOM PLAN. Sioa ty Newbies Pinealley De Ptane D Erinn, Lal Ne . ADVERTISEMENTS. ADVERTISEMENTS, L’EXPOSITION FORESTIERE INTERNATIONAL DE 1884, R EPORT by Professor Reuss, of the Forest Scnoon, Nancy, on \. the FORESTRY EXHIBITION at EDINBURGH in 1884. 162 pp. Price 3s. DOUGLAS & FOULIS, EDINBURGH. moon ES LNT Rapes GARDNO & DARL NURS ER YoMLE DN, ABER »b EEN VF SS AWARDS” TT) Se Nathant— (y\r INTERNATIONAL IESTRY EXHIGITION INBURCH Y Mark. AHLBOTTN’S CELEBRATED TREE ees PROTECTIVE OOM POs TT 2 Oa The only Award for Tree Protective Composition at the Forestry Exhibition, Edinburgh, 1884. NATHANL. AHLBOTTN, Sole Manufacturer, and now the only surviving discoverer of the above For protecting young Forest and other Trees against the ravages of Hares and Rabbits. It is free from any poisonous substance, encourages the growth, is easily applied by the hand or a small brush, and is strongly recommended by all parties who have used it. To be had in 56lb. Casks at 18s. One ewt. and upwards at 36s. per ewt.— Casks free. From the Forester, Westonbirt House, Gloucestershire. — “ Tt has now been used here for three seasons, and has given every satisfaction, and is a pre- ventative against the ravages of Hares and Rabbits. I think it should be more extensively used, as it does not in the least injure the trees or shrubs to which it is applied.” The above is from numerous Testimonials, which may be had on application to NATHANL. AHLBOTTN, 50 SHORE, LEITH. ADVERTISEMENTS. ‘*CERTIFICATE OF MERIT,” Highest Award at INrERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, CARLISLE, 1880. “SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award for Hot-Houses, at the INTERNATIONAL ForeEstrRY EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1884. **GOLD MEDAL,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1886. MACKENZIE & MONCUR, HORTICULTURAL BUILDERS AND HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS, UPPER GROVE PLACE, EDINBURGH, AND ST ANDREW'S CROSS, GLASGOW. Conservatories, Greenhouses, Vineries, Foreing Houses, and all kinds of Horticultural Buildings erected in wood or iron in the most approved manner in any part of Great Britain or Ireland, at strictly Moderate Rates. Tilustrated Sheets on Application. Splendid Illustrated Catalogues, Price 3/6. : PLANS AND SPECIAL DESIGNS. Heating with Hot-Water, Low and High Pressure, Steam heating on the return gravity and expansion system, for Hot-Houses, Swimming Baths, Private and Public Buildings. Ventilating Apparatus, Atmospheric and Mechanical. Satisfactory Results in all Cases Guaranteed. DOUG ET abed Ff OUT Tiss ENGLISH AND FORE/GN LIBRARY Geactic Street Pop N.B OU RiGee OO eer Ks" Books sent to any Pact of the Gonntee and Changed at the convenience of Subseribers. Boxes Free — Subscriptions, from One pues De annum, ees) commence at any date CLEAR: ANC E (ey AT ALOGUE OF Books at Greatly Reduced Prices BEING SURPLUS COPIES WITHDRAWN FROM DOUGEAS. & FOULIS’ LIBRARY Including also many other Works of Interest, now offered at the affixed cash prices ALSO Catalogue of Books RELATING PRINCIPALLY TO SCOTLAND CONTAINING UPWARDS OF 600 WorKS ON SCOTTISH HISTORY TOPOGRAPHY, POETRY anp BALLADS, BIOGRAPHY LANGUAGE, ano ANTIQUITIES The above are sent Gratis and Post free to any address FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS. Fruit Trees, Roses, Herbaceous Plants, Etc. FOREST AND GARDEN IMPLEMENTS OF ALL SORTS. Priced Catalogues Free on application. IRELAND & THOMSON, Durserymen, Seedsnen, and Dew Plant Merchants, Craigleith Nursery, Comely Bank, Edinburgh. New Golden Acre and Windlestrawlee Nurseries, Granton Road. Seed Warehouse, 81 Princes Street. GivsSe (IM CRT CE Roe 18 PRINCES STREET, EDINBURGH, Goldsmiths, Silversmiths, and Watchmakers. Medallists to the Scottish Arboricultural Society and the West Lothian Agricultural Association. ADVERTISEMENTS. MilLLIAM. HUME & CO; Iron and Wire Fence Manufacturers, EstaTe FurnisHers, &c., 21 HOPE STREET, GLASGOW. AU OUND VO HEXAGON GALVANISED WIRE NETTING, Acknowledged by foresters and estate managers to be the finest in the market. Rabbit Proof Meshes, 14in., 14in., and 1 in., made in A fitostouG) tb. widths. S my mt OB —N % sy > by Ko 00 YARDS, CARRIAGE PAID. Special low estimates for quantities. All kinds of Fencing Wire at low prices, and special estimates given for quantities with free delivery. Wire Netting Plant Guards, Ornamental Rabbit Proof Bordering in lengths for Clumps and Shrubberies. Wrought Iron Tree Guards, Strained Iron and Wire Fencing, Continuous Bar Fencing, Hurdles, Gates, Stable Fittings, Pumps for general use. Galvanised Iron Roofing, Roofing Felt, Ironmongery for Estates. Patent Black Varnish in 15 to 40 Gallon Casks, ls. 6d. per Gallon; 40 Gallon Casks delivered free. CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION. ADVERTISEMENTS. THOMAS METHVEN & SONS Beg to request the attention of those about to plant to their Stock of SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES, Ornamental Grees und Shrubs, Rhododendrons, Hte., WHICH IS VERY EXTENSIVE, AND IN A HEALTHY, VIGOROUS CONDITION. Samples and Prices on Applicatton: LEITH WALK & WARRISTON NURSERIES, EDINBURGH. Kstablished 1501. SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES. Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Roses and Fruit Trees. JAMES DICKSON & SONS, 32 HANOVER STREET and INVERLEITH ROW, BD IN BO Reo Ee CATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION. MFARLANE & ERS KIM Engravers, Lithographers, and Printers, 19°ST JAMES SQUARE DIN EU PGES Printers to the Scottish Arboricultural Society, Royal Physical Society, etc SEEN DIX (A) Scottish Arboricultural Society. ParroN—HER MOST ‘GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN. YEAR. 1854-55. 1855-56. 1856-57. 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 1861-62. 1862-63. 1863-64. 1864-65. 1865-66. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 1870-71. 1871-72. 1872-73. 1873-74. 1874-75. 1875-76. 1876-77. 1877-78. 1878-79. 1879-80. 1880-81. 1881-82. 1882-83. 1883-84. 1884-85. TE 1.—FORMER PRESIDENTS. MEMBERS. JAMES Brown, Deputy-Surveyor of the Royal Forest of Dean, Ditto, Wood Commissioner to the Earl of Seafield, Ditto, ditto, The Right Hon. Tue Eart or Ducts, The Right Hon. THE EArt or Srair, . Sir Jon Hatt, Bart., of Dunglass, His Grace Tork DUKE OF ATHOLE, . JouHN J. CHALMERS of Aldbar, : The Right Hon. Tur Earu or AIRLIE, . The Right Hon. T. F. Kennepy, ‘ Rosert Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., . Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, : : : Hucu CiecHorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie, Ditto, ditto, JOHN Hurron Batrour, M.D., M.A., F.R.SS.L. & E., Pri fessor of Botany in the University of Eainburgh, Ditto, ditto, The Right Hon. W. P. ApAm of Blairadam, M.P., Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, The Most Hon. THE Marquis oF LoruiAn, K.T., Ditto, ditto, Ditto, ditto, “ 5 3 ALEXANDER Dickson, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Hartree, Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, . Hueu Ciecuory, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie, Ditto, ditto, a 35 59 92 142 167 170 182 159 163 151 162 168 220 284 367 464 549 612 658 665 681 698 731 750 730 732 740 745 693 756 772 bo APPENDIX, 2.—LIST OF MEMBERS, Corrected to July 1885. The Names of Members whose present Address is not known to the Secretary are printed in italics. Law V. Members in arrear shall not receive the Z'’ransactions while their Subscriptions remain unpaid. Any Member whose Annual Subscription to the Society remains unpaid for three years shall cease to be a Member of the Society, and no such Member shall be eligible for re-election till he shall have paid up his arrears. Date of Election. 1873 1868 1864 1856 HONORARY MEMBERS. Branpis, Dietrich, Ph.D., £x-Inspector-General of Forests in India, Bonn, Germany. BULLEN, Robert, Curator of the Botanic Garden, Glasgow. HutTcuison, Robert, F.R.S.E., of Carlowrie, 29 Chester St., Edinburgh. Lawson, George, LL.D., Ph.D., Professor of Natural History and Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia. M‘Corquopater, William, Forester and Wood Surveyor, Jeanie Bank, Perth (also a Life Member by composition). TEMPLE, Sir Richard, Bart., G.C.S.I., The Nash, Worcestershire. LIFE MEMBERS. . AcLAND, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P., of Killerton, Exeter. . ApAM, Sir Charles Elphinstone, Bart. of Blair Adam, Kinross-shire. . ALEXANDER, John, Kirklees, Uda Pusalawa, Ceylon. . ATHOLE, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., Blair Castle, Blair Athole. . Batrour of Burleigh, The Right Hon. Lord, Kennet House, Alloa. . Barsour, George F., of Bonskeid, Pitlochrie, Perthshire. . Barris, James, Forester, Stevenstone, Torrington, North Devon. . Bares, Cadwallader John, of Heddon and Langley Castle, Northum- berland. . Bett, William, of Gribdae, Kirkeudbright. . Bertram, William, Ellengowan Villa, Newington, Edinburgh. . Bouckow, C. F. H., of Brackenhoe, Middlesboro’-on-Tees. . BropiE oF Bropvik£, Brodie Castle, Forres, . Brucr, Hon. Robert Preston, M.P., Broomhall, Dunfermline. . Bruce, Hon. T. C., 24 Hill Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. . Brucr, Thomas Rae, of Slogarie, New Galloway Station. . Buccitrvcn, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. . Ciay, J. Spender, Ford Manor, Lingfield, Surrey. APPENDIX. 3 Date of Election. 1865. 1872. 1876. 1875. 1865. 1865. 1880. 1880. 1884. 1867. 1876. 1882. 1877. 1871. 1875, 1883. 1872. 1875. 1876. 1881. 1869. 1874. 1881. 1866. 1856. 1884. 1880. 1874. 1867. 1880. 1874. 1884, 1871. CLEGHORN, Hugh, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie, St Andrews, Fife. CLERK, Sir George D., Bart., Penicuik House, Penicuik. Cowan, Charles W., younger of Logan House, Valleyfield, Penicuik. Craic, William, M.D., C.M., F.R.S.E., 7 Lothian Road, Edinburgh. CRAWFORD, William Stirling, of Milton, Glasgow. Cross, David G., Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh, Ireland. CuMBERBATCH, L. H., Holt Cottage, Brockenhurst, Hants. Curr, Henry, Factor, Pitkellony House, Muthili, Perthshire. Currrs, Sir Donald, K.C.M.G., M.P., of Garth Castle, 13 Hyde Park Place, London, W. DatetEisH, John J., of Ardnamurchan, 8 Athole Crescent, Edinburgh. DALGLEIsH, Laurence, of Dalbeath, 8 Athole Crescent, Edinburgh. DatHoust£, The Right Hon. The Earl of, K.T., Brechin Castle, Brechin. Dewar, Daniel, Forester, Beaufort Castle, Beauly. Duncan, Alexander, of Knossington Grange, Oakham, Leicestershire. Duncan, James, of Benmore, Kilmun, Greenock. Dunpas, Charles H., of Dunira, Dalhonzie, Crieff, Dunpas, Robert, of Arniston, Gorebridge. Eastwoop, James, The Gardens, Bryn-y-Newadd, Bangor, North Wales. Epwarps, William Peacock, 8.8.C., 21 Hill Street, Edinburgh. Exiiot, Walter, Manager, Ardtornish, Morven, Oban. Fisu, D. T., Hardwick House, Bury St Edmunds. FirzwitiiaM, The Right Hon. the Earl, K.G., Wentworth, Rotherham, Yorkshire. Forses, Arthur Drummond, Millearne, Auchterarder, Perthshire. France, Charles S., Factor to the Earl of Mansfield, Scone, Perth. Goucu, William, Wood Manager, Wykeham, York. GRAHAM, Wm., of Erins, Tarbert, Lochfyne. GRANT, Sir George Macpherson, Bart., M.P., Ballindalloch Castle, Banffshire. Grant, John, Overseer, Daldowie, Tollcross. Grimonp, Alexander D., of Glenericht, Blairgowrie. Hare, Colonel, Philpstoun House, Winchburgh. Herbert, H. A., of Muckross, Killarney. Herywoop, Arthur, Sudbourne Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk. Hops, H. W., of Luffness, Drem. . Horne, John, Director, Forests and Gardens, Mauritius, per Messrs 1876. 1874. 1869. 1884, 1866. 1880. 1882. 1876, Richardson & Co., 13 Pall Mall, London, W.C. Horssuren, John, Photographist and Portrait Painter, 131 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Husearp, Egerton, M.P., of Addington Manor, Winslow, Bucks. Hutu, Louis, of Possingworth, Hawkhurst, Sussex, Hutton, James, Bankfoot, Perth. Inctis, Alex., Breadalbane Estate Office, Aberfeldy. JEFFREY, John, of Balsusney, Kirkcaldy, Fife. JENNER, Charles, Easter Duddingston Lodge, Edinburgh. Jonas, Henry, Land Agent and Surveyor, 4 Whitehall, London, S. W. Leicester, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Holkham Hall, Wells, Norfolk. 4 APPENDIX. Date of Election, 1868. 1874. 1883. 1881. 1869. 1880. 1880. 1875. 1881. 1875. 1874. 1876, 1884. 1868. 1879. 1882. 1869. 1880. 1879. 1857. 1880. 1871. 1880. 1881. 1858. 1882. 1871. 1881. 1883. 1856. 1878. 1855. 1874. 1876. 1866. 1883. 1872. 1871. 1854. 1877. Lesuiz, Charles P., of Castle-Leslie, Glasslough, Ireland. Lesiin, The Hon. George Waldegrave, Leslie House, Leslie, Fife. Lonny, Peter, Estate Agent, Marchmont, Duns. LONSDALE, Claud, Rose Hill, Carlisle. Lorian, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.T., Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith. Lovat, The Right Hon. Lord, Beaufort Castle, Beauly. Love, J. W., care of Mrs J. Boyce, Semaphore, Lefevre’s Peninsula, South Australia. LoveLaAce, The Right Hon. the Earl of, East Horsley Towers, Woking Station, Surrey. LumspEN, David, of Pitcairnfield, Perth. LurrrELL, George F., of Dunster Castle, Taunton, Somersetshire. Macpona.p, Ranald, Factor, Cluny Castle, Aberdeenshire. M‘Dovea.t, Captain J. W., jun., of Orchill, Braco, Perthshire. Macpurr, Alex., of Bonhard, Perth. M‘Grecor, John, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld, Perthshire. M‘Inrosu, Dr W. C., Professor of Natural History, University of St Andrews, 2 Abbotsford Crescent, St Andrews. M‘Kenziz, Alex., Superintendent of Epping Forest, The Warren, Loughton, Essex. Mackenzik, Colin, J., of Portmore, Eddleston, Peebles. Mackenzik, Sir Kenneth, Bart., Conon House, Dingwall. MacRircuts, David, C.A., 4 Archibald Place, Edinburgh. MactTirr, A. W., ‘‘ Rothesay,” Bournemouth, Hants. Matcoty, Lieut.-Col. E. D., R. E., 18 Queen’s Gate Place, London, 8. W. MAXWELL, Wellwood H., of Munches, Dalbeattie. MesHAM, Captain, Pontryffydd, Bodvari, Rhyl. Micuik, John, Forester, Balmoral, Ballater. Minro, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Minto House, Hawick. MircHELL, Francis, Forester, Warwick Castle, Warwick. Moors, Thomas, F.L.S., Curator, Botanic Garden, Chelsea. Naytor, Christopher John, Brynellywarch, Kerry, Montgomeryshire. Paton, Chalmers Izett, of Belstane, Kirknewton. PortrsmoutH, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Eggesford, North Devon. PuNcHARD, Frederick, Underley Estate Office, Kirkby Lonsdale, West- moreland. RAMSDEN, Sir John, Bart., 6 Upper Brook Street, London, W. RipieEy, G., 2 Charles Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. RircuHi£, William, of Middleton, Gorebridge, Edinburgh. ROBERTSON, James, Wood Manager, Panmure, Carnoustie. Routio, The Hon. Wm. Chas. Wordsworth, Master of Rollo, Duncrub Park, Dunning, Perthshire. RosEBery, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Dalmeny Park, ‘Edinbur oh. Rosstyn, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Dysart House, Fife. RUTHERFORD, James, Agent, Kirkleatham, Redcar, Yorkshire. SmitH, Thomas Valentine, of Ardtornish, Morvern, Argyleshire (111 Grosveuor Road, London, 8. W.). APPENDIX, 5 Date of Election. 1882. 1883. 1883. 1873. 1883. 1880. 1865. 1877. 1880. 1855. 1872. 1878. 1872. 1878. 1872. 1882. 1872. 1869. 1861. 1882. 1856. 1878. 1872. 1883. 1865. 1882. 1869. 1869. 1883. 1880. 1883. 1883. 1881. 1881. 1872. 1871. 1867. 1883. 1860. SMYTHE, David M., yr. of Methven Castle, Perth. Sprot, Captain Alexander, of Garnkirk. STarrorD, The Most Hon.the Marquisof, M. P., Dunrobin Castle, Golspie. Srarr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Lochinch, Castle Kennedy, Wig- townshire. Stormont, The Right Hon. Viscount, Scone Palace, Perth. SUTHERLAND, Evan C., of Skibo Castle, Dornoch. TALBERT, Peter, Forester, Glenericht, Blairgowrie. Terris, James, Factor, Dullomuir, Blairadam, Kinross-shire. THomson, Alexander, 35 Chester Street, Edinburgh. Tuomson, John Grant, Wood Manager, Grantown, Strathspey. Trorrer, Colonel, R.A., The Bush, Edinburgh. TURNBULL, John, of Abbey St Bathans, 49 George Square, Edinburgh. UrquuHart, B. C., of Meldrum, Aberdeenshire. WALKER, Major I. Campbell, Conservator of Forests, Forest Office, Madras. WaAveENEeY, Lord, Flixton Hall, Bungay, Suffolk. WesstEerR, Thomas, Timber Merchant, South Terrace Saw Mills, Hunslet Lane, Leeds. Wemyss, Randolph Gordon Erskine, of Wemyss and Torrie, Fife. WILD, Albert Edward, Conservator of Forests, Punjab, India (care of W. Wild, Wath-upon-Dearne, Rotherham, Yorkshire). Witson, John, F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture, University, Edin- burgh. ORDINARY MEMBERS. AHLBOTTN, Nathaniel, Oil and Colour Manufacturer, 50 Shore, Leith. Arrurg, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Cortachy Castle, Forfarshire. AITKEN, Andrew Peebles, M.A., Sc.D., Professor of Chemistry, Veterinary College, Clyde Street, Edinburgh. ALEXANDER, James, of Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. ALLAN, Alex., Forester, Mitchelstown Castle, County Cork. ALLAN, John, Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. ALLAN, Thomas G., Ironmonger, Helensburgh. ANDERSON, Alexander, Forester, St Fort, Newport, Dundee. ANDERSON, Alexander, Gardener, Musselburgh. ANDERSON, David, Assistant Forester, Inver, Dunkeld. ANDERSON, George, Timber Merchant, Bonar Bridge. ANDERSON, Hector, Assistant Forester, Ardross, Alness, Ross-shire. ANDERSON, James, Forester, Early Wood, Bagshot, Surrey. ANDERSON, Peter, Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perth. ANDERSON, Thomas R., Assistant Forester, Idvies, Forfar. ANNANDALE, Robert B., Adderley Lodge, Market Drayton, Shropshire. ARCHER, James, Forester, Woodstock, Inistiogue, County Kilkenny. ARCHIBALD, Thomas, Forester, Monkwray, Whitehaven, Cumberland. ARGYLL, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., Inveraray Castle, Argyleshire. AusTIN & M‘ASLAN, Nurserymenand Seedsmen, Buchanan St., Glasgow, 6 APPENDIX, Date of Election. 1877. Barn, W. P. C., Lochrin Ironworks, Lower Gilmore Place, Edinburgh. 1880, Baines, W. M., of Bell Hall, York, 1880. BanpEn, John, Dilston, Corbridge-on-Tyne, Northumberland. 1880. Batpgn, Robert 8., Wood Manager, Castle Howard, York. 1877. Batrour, Isaac Bayley, Sc.D., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Oxford. 1877. Barciay, David, Forester, Routenburn, Largs, Ayrshire. 1884. Barrett, Robert Bell, Estate Agent, Skipton Castle, Skipton, York- shire. 1867. Barriz, David, Forester, Comlongan Castle, Annan. 1882. Barriz, John, Land Steward, Gateforth Hall, Selby, Yorkshire. 1877. Barry, John W., of Park Hill, 1 Duncombe Place, York. 1874. Barron, James, Forester, Hatfield House, Herts. 1879. Bares, Rev. John E. E., Milbourne Hall, Northumberland. 1871. Baxtrerr, Robert, Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. 1858. Baxter, William, Forester, Dunrobin, Golspie. 1870. Bayne, Lewis, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, North Wales. 1878. Brit, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Yester, Haddington. 1883. Brit, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Wemyss Castle, Dysart. 1866. Brit, James, The Gardens, Stratfieldsaye, Winchfield, Hants. 1884. Bruu, Robert, The Gardens, Morton Hall, Liberton, Edinburgh. 1884, Bert, Thomas, Factor, Portbane, Kenmore, Aberfeldy. 1869. Bircu, John, The Gardens, Windlestone Hall, Ferry Hill, Durham. 1876. Bisset, Alexander, Manager, Balfarg, Markinch, Fife. 1869. BisserrT, William S8., Overseer, Moncrieffe House, Perth. 1883, Buaxkkg, Jas., Assistant Forester, Morton Hall, Edinburgh. 1869. Boa, Andrew, Land Steward, Dalton House, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 1872. Boa, Andrew, jun., Sub-Agent, Great Thurlow, Newmarket, Suffolk. 1876. Booru, John, of Flottbeck Nurseries, Hamburg. 1857. BorTuwick, William, Forester, Dunnichen, Forfar. 1882. Boss, John, Jun., Assistant Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. 1883. Boyp, John, Assistant Forester, Kilmahew, Cardross. 1860. Bropir, James, Land Steward, Glasslough, Armagh, Ireland. 1880. Bropie, Thomas D., W.S., 5 Thistle Street, Edinburgh. 1881. Bropiz, Vernon Alex., Civil Service, Madras. 1880. BrornersTon, R. P., The Gardens, Tyninghame, Prestonkirk. 1874. Brown, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Portmore, Eddleston. 1879. Brown, George E., Forester, Cumloden, Newton-Stewart. 1878. Brown, J. A. Harvie, of Quarter, Dunipace House, Larbert. 1868. Brown, John E., F.L.S., Conservator of Forests, Forest Board Office, Adelaide, S.A. 1878. Brown, Robert, Forester, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. 1884. Brown, Thomas, Forester, Craigingillan, Dalmellington. | 1883. BrownineG, John, The Gardens, Dupplin Castle, Perth. 1870. Bryan, F. G. D., Factor, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. 1873. Brypon, John, Forester, Rothes, Elgin. 1873. Bucaan, Alexander, A.M., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, 72 Northumberland Street, Edinburgh. APPENDIX. 7 Date of Election. 1877. 1879. 1865. 1880. 1875. 1884, 1870. 1881. 1876. 1879. 1881. 1866, 1867. 1882. 1865. 1868. 1883. 1878. 1870. 1877. 1867. 1882. 1884. 1883. 1871. 1872. 1866. 1867. 1867. 1882. 1870, 1869. 1867. 1882. 1879. 1877. 1869. 1877. 1876. 1879. 1858. 1872. 1874. 1875. 1867 Bucuan, William, Forester, Grangemuir, Pittenweem, Fife. BucHANAN, Charles, Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik. BucHanan, Robert R., Forester, Duns Castle, Duns. Buppicom, W. B., Penbedw, Mold, Flintshire. Burcess, William, Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Burrows, Alfred J., F.S.1., F.L.8., Land Steward, Pluckley, Kent. CAMERON, Alexander, Forester, Countlich Lodge, Bailinluig, Perthshire. Cameron, Alex., Assistant Forester, Gask, Perth. Cameron, Donald, 9 Canon Street, Canonmills, Edinburgh. Cameron, H, W., Forester, Rosehaugh, Killen, Ross-shire. Cameron, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Rosehaugh, Killen, Ross-shire. CAMERON, Robert, Forester, Pale, Corwen, North Wales. CAMPBELL, Alexander, Forester, Old Manse, Liff, Dundee. CAMPBELL, Alex., Assistant Forester, Murthly, Perthshire. CAMPBELL, James, of Tillichewan Castle, Dumbartonshire. CAMPBELL, John, Forester, Aboyne Castle, Aberdeenshire. CAMPBELL, John M., Assistant Curator, City Museum, Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow. CANTLEY, N., Superintendent, Botanical Gardens, Straits Settlements. CHAPLAIN, George, Assistant Forester, Glamis Castle, Forfarshire. CHAPMAN, Frederick, Overseer, Wansford, Peterborough, CHIRNSIDE, Francis, Forester, Ladykirk, Berwickshire. CHOWLER, Christopher, Gamekeeper, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Curistiz, Alex. D., The Gardens, Warwick Castle, Warwickshire. CuRristiE, William, Nurseryman, Fochabers. CHURNSIDE, Robert, Forester, Edlingham, Alnwick. CLARK, David, Forester, Elie House, Elie, Fife. CLARK, James, Forester, Balvaird Cottage, Strathmiglo, Fife. CLARK, John, Ground Officer, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. CLARK, John, Forester, Kelly, Wemyss Bay. Clark, Wm., Assistant Forester, Kinniel, Bo'ness, Linlithgowshire. CoBBAN, John, Wood Agent, Wentworth Woods, Rotherham, Yorks. Cocksurn, William, Forester, Willowbank, Penicuik. CockEr, James, The Nurseries, Sunnypark, Aberdeen, Cotuins, Robt. T., Forester, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire. CoLquHouN, Andrew, Forester, Rossdhu, Luss, Dumbartonshire, CoLquHoUN, William, of Rossdhu, Luss, Dumbartonshire. CorBertT, James, Forester, Underley Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale, West- moreland, Corbett, John, Forester, Dallam Tower, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland. Coupar, George, 24 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. Coupar, Robert, Forester, Ashford, Cong, County Galway. Cowan, James, Forester, Bridgend, Islay. Cowl, John, Assistant Forester, Mountstuart, Rothesay. Cowrerr, R. W., Assistant Agent, 81 High Street, Sittingbourne. Crapse, David, Forester, Cortachy Castle, Kirriemuir, CraBBE, James, Forester, Glamis Castle, Forfarshire, 8 APPENDIX, Date of Election. 1880. 1882. 1876. 1873. 1873. 1884. 1883. 1881. 1868. 1882. 1880. 1884. 1869. 1884. 1874. 1883. 1865. 1857. 1884. 1883. 1877. 1882. 1883. 1879. 1884. 1870. 1858. 1854. 1868. 1877. 1880. 1882. 1884. 1867. 1862. 1866. 1868. 1868. 1884. 1875. 1862. 1867. CRAWHALL, George, Burton Croft, York. Crearer, John, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. Croms, James, Assistant Forester, Kelly Castle, Arbirlot, Arbroath. Crossik, John, Forester, Ballindalloch Castle, Banffshire. Cummina, Donald, Lynwilg Hotel, Aviemore, Inverness-shire. CummInG, John, Assistant Forester, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire, CunNnINGHAM, Alex., Assistant Forester, Ardross, Alness, Ross-shire. CUNNINGHAME, J. C., of Craigends, Johnstone, Renfrewshire. CUNNINGHAM, John, Forester, Ardross, Alness, Ross-shire. CUNNINGHAM, Robt., Estate Office, Hirsel, Coldstream. Curr, James, Factor, Empingham, Stamford. DALzIEL, James, Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire. DANIELS, Peter, Forester, Slindon Hall, Arundel, Sussex. Davipson, Alex., Assistant Forester, Durris, Aberdeen. Davipson, George, Land Steward, Carriden, Linlithgow. Davipson, James, Assistant Forester, Cavers, Hawick. Davipson, John, Land Agent, Greenwich Hospital Estates, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland. Davipson, John, Forester, Aldbar, Brechin. DEANE-DRAKE, Joseph Edward, Stokestown House, New Ross, Ireland. Denne, John, Jun., Greenstreet, Sittingbourne, Kent. Dewar, John, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. Dick, Archd., Assistant Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. Dickik, James, Gardener, Curraghmore, Portlaw, Waterford. Dicxson, Alex., M.D., F.R.S.E., of Hartree, Professor of Botany in University of Edinburgh (11 Royal Circus). Dickson, A., Steward, Baron’s Court, Tyrone, Ireland. Dickson & Sons, James, Newton Nurseries, Chester. Dickson & Sons, James, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, 32 Hanover Street, Edinburgh. Dickson & TURNBULL, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, Perth. Dopps, George, Overseer, Wyreside Cottage, Lancaster. Dora, Charles, Overseer, Glen Tulchan, Methven, Perth. Doragh, Andrew, Foreman, The Gardens, Knockmaroon Lodge, Chapelizod, Dublin. Dove.as, Captain Palmer, of Cavers, Hawick. Dovucuty, Wm., Forester, Langholm Estate, Canonbie, Dumfriesshire. Dow, Thomas, Overseer, Idvies, Forfar. Drummonp & Sons, William, Nurserymen, Stirling. Durr, James, Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. Durr, James, Freeland, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire. Durr, James, Wood Manager, Bells Yew Green, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Dumeuy, Edward, Timber Merchant, Inistiogue, Kilkenny. Duncan, James, Land Steward, Glack, Old Meldrum. Duncan, William, Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Dunn, Malcolm, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith. 1878. 1877. 1881. 1873. 1879. 1884. 1869. 1874. 1880. 1884. 1872. 1879. 1883. 1869. 1876. 1884. 1864. 1884. 1882. 1884. 1878. 1873. 1869. 1884. 1883. 1883. 1878. 1880. 1884. 1882. 1882. 1876. 1883. 1866. 1874. 1878. 1857. 1868. 1883. APPENDIX. 9 Date of Election. 1873. Durwanp, Robert, Manager, Blelack, Dinnet, Aberdeenshire. 1873. EpEN, The Hon. R. Henley, Minety House, Malmesbury, Wilts. 1884. Eprn, Henley, Agent to His Grace the Duke of Somerset, Bradley Estate Office, Maiden Bradley, Bath. 1876. Epwarp, John, Forester, Abercairney, Crieff. 1882. ELpER, Wm., Assistant Forester, Dundas Castle, Kirkliston, Edinburch. Exxiot, Sir Walter, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., Wolfelee, Hawick. ErskINE, William, of Oaklands, Trinity. Ewart, Andrew, Gardener, Moniack, Beauly. Ewing, David, Forester, Strichen House, Aberdeen. Fatconer, Dr John, St Anns, Lasswade. FARQUHARSON, George, Assistant Forester, Durris, Aberdeen. Fercuson, Alex., 21 Duddingston Park, Portobello. FrrRGusON, John, Oakbank, Dollar. FERGUSSON, Sir James Ranken, Bart., Spitalhaugh, West Linton. Frrauson, Wm. Hooker, Knowefield Nurseries, Carlisle. FINGLAND, John, Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. Finuay, Thos., Assistant Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. FINLAYSON, Robert, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. FISHER, William, Estate Agent, Wentworth Castle, Barnsley, Yorkshire. Fisk1n, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Rossdhu, Dumbartonshire. FLEMING, Jolin, Camperdown Saw-Mills, Dundee. Forses, Andrew, Forester, Stracathro, Brechin, Fores, A. J., Clava School, Daviot, Inverness. Forbes, David, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Fores, John, Buccleuch Nurseries, Hawick. ForseEs, Robert, Forester, Jardine Hall, Lockerbie. Fores, William, Stoneleigh Estate Office, Kenilworth, Warwickshire. ForGAn, James, Gardener and Overseer, Bonskeid, Pitlochrie. Forrest, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Allanton House, Newmains. Forrest, Sir William J., Bart. of Comiston, Edinburgh. Forrester, John, Architect, 37 Broughton Place, Edinburgh. ForsyTHE, John M., Wood Manager, Clifden Estates, Gowran, Co. Kilkenny. FoTHERINGHAM, Alex., Manager, Newholme, Dolphinton. Fouts, Thomas, Publisher, 9 South Castle Street, Edinburgh. Fowler, Alex., Assistant Forester, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. Fraser, Arch., Assistant Forester, Benmore Estate, Kilmun, Greenock. Fraser, Donald, Forester, Byram, Ferry Bridge, Yorkshire. Fraser, Frank, Assistant Gardener, Balmedie, Aberdeen. Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries, Edinburgh. FRASER, James, Forester, Cobairdy, Huntly. Fraser, L. A. S., Assistant Forester, Athy, Ireland. Fraser, P. Neill, of Rockville, Murrayfield, Edinburgh. FRASER, Simon, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeenshire. Fraser, Sweton, Assistant Forester, Kilanreoch, Glenelg, Lochalsh, 10 APPENDIX. Date of Election. 1882. French, Edward, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. 1884. 1869. 1878. 1874. 1854. 1875. 1870. 1880. 1881. 1876, 1876. 1880. 1879. 1869. 1884. 1881. 1880. 1869. 1875. 1882. 1878. 1884, 1878. 1870. 1882. 1873. 1867. 1876. 1873. 1873. 1878. 1883. 1875. 1882. 1879. 1872. 1883. 1872. 1882. 1881. 1879. 1880, 1881. 1882. Frost, Francis, Forester, Kilgraston, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire. Frost, Philip, Gardener, Dropmore, Maidenhead, ? ? ? ’ GALLETLY, James, Overseer, Bonhard, Perth. GALLOWAY, George, Estate Offices, Woodhouses, Whitchurch, Salop. GARDINER, Robert, Agent, Birchgrove, Crosswood, Aberystwith. GARDNER, George, Farmer, Carrington Barns, Gorebridge. GILBERT, James, Forester, Gallovie, Kingussie. Gintcurist, Dugald, of Ospisdale, Sutherland. GitcuRrist, William, Forester, Dickson & Co.’s Nurseries, Edinburgh. GILLANDERS, Alexander T., Forester, Skibo Castle, Dornoch. GLASSBROOK, Geo., Bailiff, Remenham Farm, Henley-on-Thames, Bucks. GurNn, David A., Assistant Forester, Gartshore, Kirkintilloch. Guioac, W. E., of Kincairny, Advocate, 6 Heriot Row, Edinburgh. Gorpon, James, Forester, 17 Avondale Place, Edinburgh. Gorpon, James W., Assistant Forester, Balmoral, Ballater. Gorrin, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Logiealmond, Perth. Goucu, William C., Assistant Forester, Wykeham, York, Gow, James, Forester, Logie Cottage, Airthrey, Stirling. Gow, Peter, Overseer, Laggan, Ballantrae, Ayrshire. Gow, Robt., Assistant Forester, Raith, Kirkcaldy, Fifeshire. Gow, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. Gow, William, Assistant Forester, Pitfour, Aberdeenshire. GrauAMrE, James, of Auldhouse, Western Club, Glasgow. Grandison, James, Errol Park, Errol. Grant, Alex. M‘D., Assistant Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. Grant, Colonel James A., C.B., C.S.I., 19 Upper Grosvenor Street, London, W. Grant, Donald, Forester, Drumin, Ballindalloch, Grant, David, Forester, Dalvey, Forres. Grant, James, Forester, Belton House, Grantham, GRANT, James, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. GRANT, James, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. GRANT, John, Assistant Forester, Balmoral, Ballater. Grant, John C,, Forester, Portsoy, Banffshire. Gray, James, Assistant Forester, Kelly, Wemyss Bay. Gray, Robert, 15 New Road, Newton-on-Ayr. GREEN, Alex., Forester, Allanton House, Newmains, Lanarkshire. GREEN, Arthur A., 58 Broughton Street, Edinburgh. GREIVE, James, Messrs Dicksons & Co.’s Nurseries, Pilrig, Edinburgh, Grieve, Walter, Forester, Tyninghame, Prestonkirk. Grigor, John, Assistant Forester, Rosehaugh, Killen, Ross-shire. HappDINGTON, the Right Hon. the Earl of, Tyninghame, Prestonkirk. Happon, Walter, Solicitor, Royal Bank, Hawick. HApFIELD, Gordon, Forest Department, Madras. HaAmitron, Donald, Assistant Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perth. APPENDIX. il Date of Election. 1873. 1880. 1866. 1880. 1873. 1872. 1882. 1882. 1878. 1860. 1880. 1882. 1869. 1866. 1877. nS 7h 1883. 1878. 1871. 1873. 1882. 1866. 1884. 1866. 1874. 1872. 1883. 1882. 1880. 1864. 1882. 1868. 1876. 1880. 1878. 1880. 1884. 1873. 1881. 1880. 1884. 1882. 1884. 1870. HAmMiI.tton, John B. Baillie, of Arnprior, Cambusmore, Callander. HAMILTON, Robert, Trinity Lodge, Trinity, Edinburgh. Harpig, Walter, Midburn, Elstree, Herts. Harwonpd, Henry, 15 Boscowen Place, Morice Town, Devonport. Harrowrr, William, Forester, Scone, Perth. HARTLAND, Richard, The Lough Nurseries, Cork. Harrrick, James, Forester, Johnstone Castle, Renfrewshire. Haueus, David, Assistant Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perthshire. Haugh, James, Assistant Forester, Colenden, Stormontfield, Perth. HAveEtock, Thomas, Forester, Raby Park, Staindrop, Darlington. Havetock, W. B., Forester, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, York. Hay, Alex., 96 Constitution Street, Leith. HaAyMAN, John, Overseer, Dumfries House, Cumnock. HENDERSON, Arch., Forester, Clonad Cottage, Tullamore, King’s County. HENDERSON, George, Assistant Forester, Cavers Estate, Hawick. HENDERSON, John, Overseer, Vogrie, Ford, Dalkeith. HeEnpeERSON, W., The Gardens, Balbirnie, Markinch. Henry, Kennedy, Assistant Forester, Hallyburton, Coupar-Angus. HETHERTON, Walter, Forester, Merton, Beaford, Devon. Hi1son, John, Forester, Ryther, Tadcaster, Yorks. Hopeart, James, Assistant Forester, Johnstone Castle, Renfrewshire. Hoacarrnu, James, Forester, Culhorn, Stranraer, Hoce, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Jardine Hall, Lockerbie. Ho«e, Thomas, Forester, Beau-Desert, Rugeley, Staffs. Home, Edward, Assistant Forester, Edington, Chirnside. Home, George, Assistant Forester, Bellstane, Drumlanrig, Thornhill. Homewoop, Chas. E., Ufton Court, Sittingbourne, Kent. Hoop, James, Assistant Forester, Freeland, Bridge of Earn, Perth. Horreroun, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. HorssurcH, James, Forester, Yester, Haddington. Hoskins, Edward, Assistant Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, Wales. Howven & Co., The Nurseries, Inverness, HU tt, Frank, Forester, Boughton Estate, Kettering, Northamptonshire. Hume, William, Iron and Wire Fence Manufacturer, 217 Buchanan Street, Glasgow. HunrTeER, James, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Hunter, John, Forester, Dunerub Park, Dunning, Perthshire. Hunter, Wm., Forester, Drummond Castle, Muthill, Perthshire. Hussey, Samuel M., Estate Office, Tralee, Hurron, James, Forester, Glenormiston, Innerleithen, Peebles. Imrig, James, Forester and Land Steward, Rossie Castle, Montrose, Incu & RIDDELL, Seedsmen, Victoria Street, Edinburgh. Innes, Alex., Assistant Forester, Ruston, Brompton, York. Innes, Richard 8., Upholsterer, 77 South Bridge, Edinburgh. IRELAND & TuHomson, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, Waterloo Place, Edinburgh, 12 APPENDIX. Date of Election. 1875. JAcKSON, Magnus, Photographer to the Society, Princes Street, Perth. 1880. JAcKson, Thomas, Princes Street, Perth. 1884. JAmEsoN, Martin, Scone Estate Office, Balboughty, Perth. 1869, Jerrrey, James, Forester, Craighall, Blairgowrie. 1874. Jounston, George, The Gardens, Glamis Castle, Forfarshire. 1883. JoHNSTON, Robert, Assistant Forester, Fryston Hall, Ferry Bridge, Yorkshire. 1870. Jonnston, William, Forester, The Lee, Lanark. 1878. Jounstonr, Adam, Forester, Coollattin, Shillelagh, County Wicklow, Ireland. 1882. JoHNSTONE, Wm., Forester, Munches, Dalbeattie. 1868. JoHNSTONE, W. W., Manager, Messrs F. & A. Dickson’s Nurseries, Chester. 1867. Kay, James, Wood Manager, Bute Estate, Rothesay. 1880. Kray, Robert B., Forester, Redcastle, Inverness. 1865. Kepztn, Walter, Forester, Arundel, Sussex. 1878. Keillor, John, 18 Clapperton Place, Sunnybank, Edinburgh. 1870. Keir, David, Forester, Blair Athole, Perthshire. 1876. KetmMAn, John, Forester, Glenkindie, Aberdeen. 1883. KemBALL, General Sir Arnold B., K.C.B., K.C.S.1., of Kembo, Uppat House, Golspie. 1882. KENNEDY, John, Forester, Flakebridge, Appleby, Westmoreland. 1873. Kennedy, John, Forester, Pitkerrald, Glen Urquhart, Drumnadrochit. 1882. KenNEepy, Walter, Forester, Skelbo, Dornoch. 1872. KENNEDY, William, Overseer, Glen Carradale, Greenock. 1880. Kerr, Wm. F., Assistant Forester, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. 1870. Kipp, James B., Forester, The Poles, Dornoch. 1881. Kipp, William, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. 1880. Kine, George, Forester, Kileoy, Munlochy, Ross-shire. 1866. Kincuorn, Adam, Forester, Rochsoles, Airdrie. 1883. Kinnear, Alex., Forester, Galloway House, Garlieston. 1878. Kntcut, Henry, Royal Gardens, Laeken, Brussels, Belgium. 1884. Knox, Henry, Forester, Brae Lodge, Maybole, Ayrshire. 1884. Kyrxer, Arthur Venables, Chard, Somersetshire. 1884. Kyrke, Richard Henry Venables, of Nantyffrith, Wrexham, North Wales. 1876. Kyrxs, R. V., of Penywern, Mold. 1865. Larrp, R. B., & Sons, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, 17a Frederick Street, Edinburgh. 1881. Larrp, William, Forester, Durris, Aberdeen. 1858. LAMoNT, John, sen., The Glen Nurseries, Musselburgh. 1873. LAuRISTON, Alexander, Nurseryman, Rufford Abbey, Ollerton, Notts. 1881. LAwnriE, Robert, Manager, Glencasley, Invershin, Sutherland. 1880. Lens, John, Wood Manager, Archerfield, Drem. 1878. Lers, John, Manager, Rossmore Park, Monaghan, Ireland. 1877. Lees, William, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. APPENDIX. 13 Date of Election. 1870. 1874. 1880. 1880. 1879. 1884. 1868. 1883. 1883. 1881. 1881. 1876. 1876. 1872. 1882. 1870. 1855. 1882. 1869. 1870. 1878. 1878. 1877. 1881. 1878. 1879. 1882. 1880. 1882. 1881. 1882. 1882. 1871. 1876. 1881. 1878. 1882. 1876. 1866. 1880, 1875. 1883. 1882. 1881. 1881. Leceat, Alexander, Forester, Vale Royal, Northwich, Cheshire. LeicH, William, of Woodchester Park, Stonehouse, Gloucestershire. LEISHMAN, John, Forester, Cavers Estate, Hawick. Lindsay, Alexander, Manager, Eythrope, Aylesbury, Bucks. Linpsay, Robert, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Linpsay, Wm., Assistant Forester, Jardine Hall, Lockerbie. Litrie, Alexander, Forester, Relugas, Dunphail, Morayshire. Litre, William, Cote, St Antoine, Montreal, Canada. Locu, Sir Henry B., K.C.B., Governor of Victoria, Australia. Low, Joseph, Forester, Rothes, Leslie House, Fife. MAcAUuULAy, James F., Forester, Castle Leod, Strathpeffer. M‘Bain, William, Forester, Clandeboye, County Down. MacsEAN, John, Forester, Kinlochmoidart, Ardgour. M ‘Cott, James M., Factor, Craignish Castle, Lochgilphead, Argyleshire. M‘Conocui&, Daniel, Forester, Houston, Johnstone. M‘Corquopate, D. A., Bank of Scotland, Carnoustie. M‘CorquopatE, Donald, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie. M‘Creath, Walter, Assistant Forester, Kelly, Wemyss Bay. M‘Curcueon, Robert, Forester, Whittinghame, Prestonkirk. MacpONALD, Alexander, Forester, Balnagowan, Parkhill, Ross-shire. Macponatp, Allan, Commissioner of Mackintosh Estates, 16 Union Street, Inverness. Macpona.p, Duncan, Manager, Mulroy, Carrigart, Letterkenny, Ireland. M‘Donald, James, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth. M‘DonaALD, Peter, Assistant Forester, Bridgend, Islay. M‘Donald, Peter, Assistant Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. M‘Dovea tt, Alex., Forester, Drumbuie Lodge, Dunkeld. M‘Ewen, Wm. C., W.S., 9 South Charlotte Street, Edinburgh. M‘Ew1y, George, J.P., Glen Ewin, Houghton, South Australia. M‘FaRLANE, John, Forester, Tarbet, Loch Lomond. M‘Gixp, John, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. M‘Gitityray, George, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. M‘GLASHAN, David, Assistant Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire. M‘GratH, Patrick, Forester, Galtee Castle, Mitchelstown, Tipperary. MacGregor, Alex., Forester, Lewis Castle, Stornoway. M‘Grecor, Duncan, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. M‘Grecor, Duncan, Forester, Camperdown, Dundee. MacGrecor, James G., Assistant Forester, Cally Mains, Gatehouse. M‘Grecor, Robert C., Forester, Tehidy Park, Camborne, Cornwall. M‘Hartier, John, Seedsman, Northgate, Chester. M'‘Intosu, Angus, Forester, Llanerch, Llanelly, South Wales. M‘Inrosu, Richard, Assistant Forester, Salton Hall, Pencaitland. M‘Intyre, Alex., Assistant Forester, Craigengillan, Dalmellington, Ayrshire. M‘Intyre, John, Wood Merchant, Cardross, Dumbartonshire. Mackay, George G., of Glengloy, Kingussie. Mackay, H., Timber Merchant, Shandwick, Nigg, Ross-shire. 14 APPENDIX. Date of Election. 1884, 1875. 1867. 1882. 1881. 1872. 1880. 1885. 1867. 1880. 1882. 1880. 1877. 1883. 1877. 1878. 1870. 1879. 1868. 1854. 1879. 1878. M‘Kay, James, Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire. Mackay, John, Lauderdale Estate Office, Wyndhead, Lauder. MAckeEnzig, Alex., Warriston Nursery, Inverleith Row, Edinburgh. Mackernzig, Sir Alex. Muir, Bart. of Delvine, Dunkeld. M‘Kernzir, Donald, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth. M‘Kenzizr, Donald F., Estate Office, Morton Hall, Liberton, Edinburgh. M‘Kernzie, James, Assistant Forester, Sauchie, Stirling. M‘Kenziz, James, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. MackeEnzi£, John Ord, of Dolphinton, W.S., 9 Hill Street, Edinburgh —Auditor. MACKENZIE, Major, of Findon, Mount Gerald, Dingwall. Macki#, James H. J., Land Steward, Invermay, Dunning, Perthshire. M‘Kiiuop, Alexander, Forester, Castle Menzies, Aberfeldy. M‘Krinnon, Alexander, The Gardens, Scone Palace, Perth. M‘Krinnon, George, The Gardens, Melville Castle, Lasswade. M‘KiInNon, John, The Gardens, Kylemore Castle, County Galway. MackintTosuH, The, of Mackintosh, Moy Hall, Inverness. M‘Laae@an, John G., Forester, The Cairnies, Glenalmond, Perthshire. M‘LArREN, Charles, Land Steward, Cally Lodge, Dunkeld. M‘LaAren, John, Ballincrieff, Drem. M‘LArgEN, John, Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. M‘LAREN, John, jun., 5 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh—WSccretary and Treasurer. M‘LAREN, John T., Overseer, Kennet, Alloa. . M‘LAREN, Peter, Forester, Lilleshall, Newport, Salop. 1866. 1867. 1876. 1872. 1866. 1882. 1885. 1865. 1882. 1874. 1884, 1881. 1884, 1880. 1873. 1871. 1876. 1884. 1879. 1873. M‘LArgEN, Peter, Forester, Altyre, Forres. M‘Lran, Andrew, Forester, Rutherford, Kelso. M‘Lean, John, Forester, 2 Alfred Place, Canonmills. M‘LEAN, Malcolm, The Gardens, Vinters Park, Maidstone, Kent. M‘LEAN, William, Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. M‘Lrean, Wm., Assistant Forester, Rosehangh, Ross-shire. Mactetsu, James, Hydraulic Engineer, Perth. M‘LELLAN, Duncan, Superintendent of Parks, 7 Kelvingrove Terrace, Glasgow. M‘LEtLAN, Robt., 5 Dowan Vale Terrace, Partick. M‘Leop, Angus A., Superintendent of City Gardens, 14 Royal Exchange, Edinburgh. MacLurg, George, The Gardens, Trinity Grove, Edinburgh. Macrakz, John, Forester, Higham, Bury St Edmonds. Maryn, Adam, Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. Marr, George, The Gardens, Hatton Castle, Turriff, Aberdeenshire. MarsHatt, Robert, Forester, Invercauld, Braemar, Aberdeenshire. MarsHAt., Robert, Bailiff, Kirklington Hall, Southwell, Notts. Martin, James, Forester, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. Masstz, Wm. H., Knowefield Nurseries, Carlisle. Maxrone, Robert, Forester, Castle Strathallan, Auchterarder. Merkie, R. A., Agent for Lord Alington, Moor Crichel, Dorsetshire. Menzizs, George, Agent, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent. APPENDIX, 15 Date of Election. 1880. Mrnzres, Wm., Forester, Dissington, Newcastle. 1854. Mrtruven, Thomas, & Sons, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, Leith Walk Nurseries, Edinburgh. 1865. Micuts, Christopher Young, Forester, Cullen House, Banffshire. 1864. Micuin, James, Forester, Wemyss Castle, East Wemyss, Fife. 1871. Mrppiemass, Archibald, Forester, Meikleour, Perthshire. 1877. Mruiuar, C. H., 5 Palmerston Place, Edinburgh. 1889. Miller, James W., Manager, Skibo Castle, Dornoch. 1883. Mriroy, Alex., Forester, Glencorse, Edinburgh. 1868. MrircHett, David, 6 Comely Bank, Edinburgh. 1884. Mircuent, David, Assistant Forester, Durris, Aberdeen. 1880. MircHeEtt, James, Forester, Fryston Hall, Ferry Bridge, Yorkshire. 1880. MircHELt, James, Assistant Forester, Airth Castle, Larbert. 1869. MircHE.Lt, James, Aldie Castle, Kinross. 1876. MrrcHet, James, Forester, Donibristle, Aberdour, Fife. 1876. MircHE.t, John, Forester, Bolton Abbey, Skipton, Yorks. 1876. More, Robert, Forester, Hafton, Kirn, Argyleshire. 1876. Morean, George, Wood Merchant, Turret Bank, Crieff. 1875. Morcan, Hugh, Wood Merchant, Crieff. 1877. Morrison, Alexander, Nurseryman, Elgin. 1877. Morrison, James, The Gardens; Archerfield, Drem. 1862. Morrison, John, Coney Park Nursery, Stirling. 1884. MorsHEeap, Frank Upton Anderson, Salcombe Regis, Sidmouth Devonshire. 1866. MurrHeap, John, Forester, Bicton, Budleigh Salterton, Devonshire. 1876. Munro, Hugh, Forester, Holkham Hall, Norfolk. 1871. Munro, James, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. 1883. Murpocu, James Barclay, Barclay, Langside, Glasgow. 1883. Murray, John, Assistant Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire. 1878. Murray, Robert R., Forester, Blarney Castle Estates, Cork. 1871. Myers, James, Forester, Kinnaird Castle, Brechin. 1882. Napier, Wm., Forester, Ballykelly, Londonderry. 1872. Newsiceine, Alexander T., Nurseryman, Dumfries. 1879. Newton, Robert P., of Castlandhill, Polmont Bank, Polmont. 1870. Nicot, William, Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. 1869. Nicot, W. R., Forester, Loudoun Castle, Galston. 1878. Ocitvie, David, Forester, The Guynd, Arbroath. 1882. OLiver, George, Assistant Forester, Snettisham, Kings Lynn. 1868. Ormiston & ReENwick, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, Melrose, 1875. PAGE, Andrew Duncan, Land Steward, Culzean, Maybole, 1857. PALMER & Son, John, Nurserymen, Annan. 1857. Parker, James, Forester, Belvoir Castle, Grantham. 1856. Parrrson, Andrew, Agent, Paultons, Romsey, Hampshire. 1879. Paron, Hugh, Nurseryman, Kilmarnock, 1876. Patton, Donald, 1 Livingstone Place, Edinburgh. 16 APPENDIX, Date of Election. 1870. Pearson, Joshua, Spirit Merchant, 14 Pitt Street, Glasgow. 1869. 1873. 1871. 1872. 1882. 1878. 1882. 1878. 1874. 1877. 1872. 1872. 1869. 1883. 1881. 1879. 1878. 1875. 1876. 1876. 1884. 1870. 1854. 1876. 1872. 1881. 1874. 1881. 1873. 1880. 1877. 1876. 1880. 1882. 1884. 1879. 1880. 1879. 1871. 1874. 1882. 1881. 1871. 1883. 1883 Presies, Andrew, Estate Office, Albury, Guildford. Penper, John, M.P., 66 Old Broad Street, London, E.C. PENDREIGH, John, Assistant Forester, Port Bannatyne, Rothesay. Purtip, John, Wood Merchant, Bonnyrigg, Lasswade. Puiip, Robt., Assistant Forester, Longleat, Horningsham, Wilts. Puities, Alexander, Land Steward, Logiealmond, Perth. Puiuuirs, Alex., Assistant Forester, Kinniel, Bo’ness, Linlithgowshire. g PircarrHuby, Alex., Forester, Brahan Castle, Conon Bridge, Ross-shire. , g Piatt, Major, Gorddinag, Langairfechan, near Bangor. Ponsonby, Charles John, Deputy-Conservator of Forests, Indian Forest Department, Baraitch, Oudh (12 Royal Circus, Edinburgh). Powner, George, Forester, Willey Hall, Bridgenorth, Shropshire. Powner, Thomas, Forester, Witley Court, Stourport, Worcestershire. Yy ‘port, Pressty, David, Glenmaroon House, Chapelizod, Dublin. ) I , Preston, Wm. M., Vaynol Park, Bangor, Wales. y ) gs Proctor, John, Assistant Forester, Kelly, Wemyss Bay. ) y y y Prykk, Walter, 1 Great Stanhope Street, Mayfair, London, W. I Mp Purpie£, Robert, Forester, Castle Blaney, County Monaghan, Ireland. Purves, Alexander Paterson, W.S., 102 George Street, Edinburgh. Rag, James 8., Forester, Dunipace House, Larbert. RAs, William Alexander, Durris Estate Office, Aberdeen. Rar, Wm., Forester, Kippenross, Dunblane. RatrrRay, Thos., Forester, Westonbirt House, Tetbury, Gloucestershire. RAVENSCROFT, Edward, 14 London Road, St John’s Wood, London, N. W. Ray, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Athronhall, Milnathort. Reip, James 8., Overseer, Kerse Estate, Falkirk. Reip, James, The Nurseries, Elgin. RENTON, James, Land Agent, Cleghorn, Lanark. RrAcu, John, Assistant Forester, Rosehaugh, Avoch, Ross-shire. RicHarpson, Adam, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Riddall, David, Assistant Forester, Kintore. Riper, William H., 14 Bartholomew Close, London, E.C. Rircuin, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Logiealmond, Perth. RircHi£, Wm., Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth. Ropertson, Alex., Assistant Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. Ropertson, Alex., Assistant Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perth. Rosertson, Charles, Assistant Forester, Old Blair, Blair Athole. Rogpertson, David M., Nurseryman, Trinity, Edinburgh. ROBERTSON, Donald, Forester, Novar, Evanton, Ross-shire. RoBERTSON, George, Overseer, Plean, Bannockburn. RosBeRrtson, George, jun., Assistant Forester, Thirlestane Castle, Lauder, Rosertson, James, Assistant Forester, Baldornoch, Blairgowrie. RospERTSON, John, Forester, Achnadrish, Tobermory. RoBERTSON, John, Forester, Minto House, Hawick. RospeERTsON, William, Assistant Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire. Rosertson, W. H., Forester, Loughcrew, Oldcastle, Co. Meath. APPENDIX. 17 Date of Election. 1883. 1869. 1857, 1880. 1874. 1881. 1880. 1882. 1884. 1874. 1867. 1884. 1872. 1865. 1870. 1858. 1875. 1879. 1871. 1870. 1881. 1883. 1867. 1883. 1881. 1879. 1880. 1880. 1867. 1883. 1870. 1881, 1877. 1881. 1880. 1870. 1874. 1883. 1869. 1882. 1869. 1872. 1868. 1869. 1880. 1873. 1883. RoBEeRTSON, Wm. M., Gardener, Rossdhu, Luss, Dumbartonshire. RoBERTSON, William W., Forester, Blinkbonny, Earlston. Rosson, Alexander, Forester, Dochfour Woods, Lochend, Inverness. Rodemer, Charles, Assistant Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire. Ross, Arch., Overseer, Skipton Castle, Skipton-in-Craven, Yorkshire. Ross, John, Assistant Forester, Balnagowan Castle, Ross-shire. Ross, James, Solicitor and Factor, Inverness. Ross, Lawson, Assistant Forester, Cavers, Hawick. RUDDIMAN, Walter, Assistant Forester, Rothes Estate, Leslie, Fife. Rutz, John, Forester, Monymusk, Aberdeenshire. RUSSELL, John, Manager, Craigie House, Ayr. RussELL, Thos., The Gardens, Keir House, Bridge of Allan. Rust, Joseph, The Gardens, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. RUTHERFORD, Andrew, Agent, Lutton, Long Sutton, Lincolnshire. RUTHERFORD, John, Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh. SANDBACH, Henry R., Hafodunos, Abergele. Sane, Edmund, Nurseryman and Seed Merchant, Kirkcaldy. Scatine, William, Willow Nurseryman, Basford, Notts. Scartu, T. W., Land Agent, Raby Castle, Staindrop, Darlington. Scott, Adam, Forester, Southwick Park, Fareham, Hants. Scort, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Foulis-Wester, Crieff. Scorr, Andrew, Schoolmaster, Forgan, Newport, Fife. Scott, Daniel, Wood Manager, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Scott, David P., 9 Renny Place, Broughty Ferry. Scott, James, Forester, Woollerton, Notts. Scott, John, Forester, Curraghmore, Portlaw, Ireland. Scott, John T., 50 Phillip Street, Chester. Scott, Walter, Overseer, Cartland, Lanark. Scott, Walter, Forester, Oxnam, Jedburgh. Scott, William, Assistant Forester, Cavers, Hawick. SHANKS, John, Forester, Kildrummy Castle, Mossat, Aberdeenshire. SHERRIT, James, Jun., Assistant Forester, Idvies, Forfar. SHIELDs, Robert, Assistant Forester, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. Shuan, John, Assistant Forester, Killen, Ross-shire. SIBBALD, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Cavers Estate, Hawick. Sim, William, Nurseryman, Forres. Sruz, John, Timber Merchant, Rafford, Forres. Smpson, James, Dalhousie Nurseries, Broughty Ferry. Simpson, Peter, Forester, Limefield House, West Calder. Sryciarr, Peter, Wood Merchant, Perth. Sinton, James, Forester, Stourhead Estate, Stourton, Bath. SKELDON, John, Assistant Forester, Duns Castle, Duns. SLATER, Andrew, Overseer, Haystoun, Peebles. Smiru, Andrew, Factor, Castlemains, Douglas, Lanarkshire. Smiru, David, Forester, Woodend, Rosslyn, Satu, G. B., Wire Fence Manufacturer, 61 West Regent St., Glasgow. Smith, Henry, Assistant gia Kailzie Estate, Peeblesshire, 18 APPENDIX. Date of Election. 1871. 1883. 1875. 1870. 1884. 1870. 1869. 1883. 1883. 1878. 1884. 1884. 1882. 1864. 1874. 1873. 1880. 1868. 1870. 1882. 1875. 1876. 1864. 1876. 1876. 1878. 1868. 1867. 1876. 1878. 1883. 1883. 1872. 1873. 1884. 1869. 1870. 1869. 1871. 1882. 1881. 1883. 1884, 1884, Situ, James, The Gardens, Mentmore, Leighton-Buzzard, Bucks. Smitu, James, The Gardens, Moredun, Liberton, Edinburgh. Smith, John, care of R. Smith & Co., St John’s Nurseries, Worcester. SmirH, John Crombie, Forester, Portmore, Eddleston, Peebles. SmitH, John Edward, Timber Buyer, 219 Rushton Road, Thornbury, near Bradford. Situ, Thomas, Nurseryman and Seedsman, Stranraer. Smith, W. Baxter, 3 Broadlands, South Norwood, London. Smiru, William, Chemist, Stockbridge, Edinburgh. SmitH, W., & Son, Patentees of the Celyddon Wire Fence, Inverness. SorHERN, Peter, Forester, Broomhall, Dunfermline. Spiers, David, Overseer, Mugdrum, Newburgh, Fife. Sprot, Colonel John, of Riddell, Lilliesleaf, Roxburghshire. STALKER, Donald, Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire. STAPYLTON, Major, Myton Hall, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire. Srark, John, Forester, Springkell, Ecclefechan, Dumfries. STEPHEN, John, Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. STEPHENS, Wm., Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. Stewart, Alexander, Agent, Bodnaut Estate, Conway, N. Wales. STEWART, John, Forester, Castlecary, Glasgow. STEWART, John, Forester, Inveraray Castle, Argyleshire. Srrwart, J. M., Cherry Tree Cottage, Nusworth, Whitefield, near Manchester. STewArtT, Robert, Forester, Stonefield, Tarbert, Lochfyne, N.B. STEWART, William, Land Steward, Dalhousie Castle, Lasswade. STIRLING, John, Forester, Cally Mains, Gatehouse of Fleet. Stuart, Charles, Forester, Glenmoriston, Inverness. Stuart, John, Assistant Forester, Kinniel, Bo'ness, Linlithgowshire. Stuart, John, Wood Manager, Castle Grant, Grantown, Strathspey. Stuart, Lewis A. G., Durris Estate, Aberdeenshire. Stuart & Merny, Nurserymen, Kelso. Sturrock, David, Assistant Forester, Panmure, Carnoustie. Sturrock, William, Assistant Forester, Wemyss Castle, Dysart, Fife. Sturt, W. Neville, Union Club, London. Swan, James, Assistant Forester, Cavers, Hawick. Swan, R. G., Auctioneer, Duns. Swinton, A, Campbell, LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Kimmerghame, Duns. Syme, David, Manager, Peter Lawson & Son, Limited, Edinburgh. Symon, John, Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. Symon, Peter, Town’s Forester, Forres. Tait, David, Forester, Owston Park, Doncaster, Yorkshire. TAyLor, David, Overseer, Barskimming, Mauchline. TAYLOR, William, Assistant Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perthshire. THompson, John, Wood Merchant, Knottingley, Normanton, Yorks. THomson, Alex., Assistant Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire. THomson, B. Lumsden, 85 Gracechurch Street, London. THoMsoN, Charles, Assistant Forester, Jardine Hall, Lockerbie. APPENDIX. 19 Date of Election. 1879. 1869. 1871. 1883. 1881. 1882. 1882. 1883. 1878. 1882. 1873. 1879. 1870. 1881. 1871. 1879. 1872. 1871. 1874. 1884. 1872. 1880. 1866. 1882. 1882. 1880. 1881. 1881. 1883. 1884. 1884, 1883. 1875. 1882. 1867. 1871. 1872. 1882. 1883. 1868. 1884. 1875. THoMmson, George B., Forester, Blenheim Park, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. THomson, Lockhart, S.S.C., 114 George Street, Edinburgh. ToMLINSON, Wilson, Forester, Clumber Park, Worksop, Notts. TroTrer, Lieut.-Col. H., of Morton Hall, Liberton, Edinburgh. Tuttocu, Donald, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. TURNBULL, John, Overseer, Brayton Hall, Carlisle. Utyatt, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Rufford, Ollerton, Newark, Notts. UNDERWOOD, Henry E., Sub-Agent, Fornham, St Genevieve, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk. VeIrcH, Charles, Assistant Forester, Portmore, Eddleston, Peebles. Veitcu, James B., Sylhet, India. WALKER, George, Forester, Balgonie, Markinch, Fife. WALKER, John, Assistant Forester, Rossdhu, Luss, Dumbartonshire. Watt, G. Young, Land Agent, Grange House, Darlington. Warson, Charles, Writer, Duns. Watson, John, Gardener, Stravithie, St Andrews. Watson, John, of Earnock, Hamilton. Watt, James, of Little & Ballantyne, Nurserymen, Carlisle. Wart, William, Forester, Nisbet House, Duns. WessTer, Angus D., Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, North Wales. Webster, John, Assistant Forester, Allanton House, Newmains. WessTEk, John, The Gardens, Gordon Castle, Fochabers. Weir, George, Leith Walk Nurseries, Edinburgh. WELSH, William M., of Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. Wemyss, Baillie, 23 Brunton Place, London Road, Edinburgh. West, J. R., Forester, Fonthill Abbey, Tisbury, Wilts. Westwoop, Wm., Manager, Belladrum, Beauly. Whan, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Cally Mains, Gatehouse of Fleet. Wuirtson, A., Assistant Forester, The Nurseries, Rufford, Ollerton, Notts. Wuitton, Peter, The Gardens, Methven Castle, Perth. WHITTON, James, The Gardens, Coltness, Wishaw. WuytE, John, Assistant Forester, Camperdown, Dundee. WILKIE, Charles, Assistant Forester, Lennoxlove, Haddington. WILKIE, Thos., Forester, Haddington Estates, Tyninghame, Prestonkirk,. WILLIAMSON, A., Wood Manager, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Witson, John, Forester, Doonpark, Dalbeattie. Witson, John, Forester, Greystoke Castle, Penrith. Witson, John, Forester, Sudbourne Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk. Wutson, Robt., Forester, Law’s Cottage, Duns. WInninc, John G., Estate Office, Branxholm, Hawick. Wv1uiE, George, Ballogie, Aboyne, Aberdeenshire. Wrton, William, The Gardens, Heysham Hall, Lancashire. YouneG, William, Forester, Lennoxlove, Haddington. 20 APPENDIX. 3.—SUBJECTS OFFERED FOR COMPETITION DURING 1884-85. Crass I1.—For Open CoMPETITION. I. For an approved Report on the International Forestry Exhibition, Edinburgh, 1884, and the benefits to be derived therefrom. (A Medal.) II. For an approved Essay on the Comparative Value of the Conifers, as Ornamental or Timber Trees, in Great Britain, giving the date of introduction of exotics and results obtained. (Five Guineas offered by Alex. Mackenzie, Esq., Superintendent, Epping Forest, Essex. ) III. For the history and details of management of the Planta- tions on an Estate for a period of not less than 20 years, giving the acreage, annual receipts and expenditure per acre. (4A Medal.) IV. For an approved Essay on economic Forestry, giving the Vernacular and Botanical names, and native countries of different trees, with the uses to which the various parts of the plant are applied. (A Medal.) V. For an approved Report on the Comparative Value of the different Timber Trees grown for profit in Great Britain, and the newer Coniferze, with rate of growth of each species in a given time. (A Medal.) VI. For an approved Report on the Plantations of which the competitor is Forester or Assistant Forester. A Medal to be awarded for the best Report from England, Scotland, and Ireland, and competition to be confined to each country. Reporter to state the extent of plantations, the kinds of timber grown, soil, situation, age, management, etc. This is a standing subject. (Three Medals, one for each Country.) APPENDIX. 21 ~_ VII. For an approved Essay on the present state and future prospects of Arboriculture in the county in which the competitor resides. This is a standing subject. (4 Medal.) VIII. For an approved Essay on the best system of managing Oak Plantations and Oak Coppice. Separate competition for England, Scotland, and Ireland. (Zhiree Medals.) 1X. For an approved Report on Coniferze, produced from home seed as compared with plants from foreign seed. (A Medal.) X. For an approved Essay on the Natural Reproduction (by self-sowing) of Forest Trees. (A Medal.) XI. For an approved Essay on the Best Method of Rearing Trees for Shelter in Deer Forests. (A Jedal.) XII. For an approved Report on an extensive and judiciously arranged Arboretum. (A Medal.) The author to describe the conditions of soil, exposure, elevation, etc., for the respective species and varieties of trees, and the age, treat- ment, cost, and mode of planting adopted. XIII. For an approved Report on the Old or Remarkable Trees on the Estate where the competitor resides, giving correct measure- ments of the circumference of the trunk, at 1 foot and 5 feet from the ground ; the height of the bole; the total height of the tree ; and its cubic contents to 8 inches in diameter. Photographs or drawings to accompany the Report. (A Medal.) XIV. For an approved Report on Timber grown in Scotland and its Uses. The writer to state the principal markets for the various classes of timber, and the use to which such timber is generally put, with other details. (A Medal.) XV. For an approved Essay on the Best Methods of Seasoning different Timbers. ‘(A JJedal.) XVI. For an approved Essay on any Disease incidental to Forest Trees. (A Medal.) 22 APPENDIX. XVII. For an approved Report (from personal knowledge) on the Forests of any British Colony. (A Medal.) XVIII. For an approved Report (from personal knowledge) on the Forests of the United States of America. (A Iedal.) XIX. For an approved Report on the system of Forest Manage- ment in any Foreign country. (A Medal.) Special reference to be made to appliances, modes of culture, and treatment not generally adopted in this country. XX. For an approved Essay or Report on any other subject connected with Arboriculture. (A Medal.) XXI. For any marked improvement on any of the Implements used in Forestry. (Models or implements to be accompanied by a Report.) (A Medal.) XXII. To any Member of the Society who shall send to the Secretary fruits or seeds of new or rare Forest Trees fit for culti- vation in this country. (A Medal.) The package to be delivered free of cost to the Society, and the prize to be awarded when fifty plants of one or more kinds have been suc- cessfully raised. These plants to be the property of the Society, and balloted for amongst Members intimating their desire to have them. Cuass II.—For Assistant FoRESTERS ONLY. I. For an Essay on the Formation of Plantations. The writer to describe all operations necessary for laying out, planting and managing Plantations for the first twelve years. (dA Medal.) II. For an approved Report on the Management of a Home Nursery. (A Medal.) III. For an approved Essay on the best size of Plants, and method of planting to produce the best results in different soils and situations, (A Medal.) IV. For an approved Essay on the Peeling and Harvesting of different kinds of British Bark used in Tanning. (4A Medal.) APPENDIX. 23 V. For the best and approved Model in Rustic Work or in Ornamental Woodwork, of any subject designed and executed by the competitor. Model not to exceed six feet in length. (A Medal.) VI. For an approved Essay or Report on any other subject connected with Arboriculture. (A Medal.) The Council particularly invite the attention of young Foresters to the foregoing subjects, as they are desirous to encourage their efforts. 24 APPENDIX. 4,—OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1884-85. PRESIDENT. Hucu Cirecnuorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie, St Andrews. VICE-PRESIDENTS. The Right Hon. the EArt or Rosrsery, LL.D., Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Aumx. Dickson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Matcoum Dunn, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith. Rosert Hurcutson, F.R.S.E., of Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Joun M‘Greaor, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld. COUNCIL. JAMES ROBERTSON, Forester, Panmure, Carnoustie. CHARLES S. FRANCE, Factor, Scone Palace, Perth. JAMES GORDON, Forester, 17 Avondale Place, Edinburgh. Joun M‘LAreEn, Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. D. F. Mackenzie, Factor, Morton Hall, Liberton, Edinburgh. Rosert Linpsay, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. JAMES ALEXANDER (of Messrs Dickson & Co.), Nurseryman and Seedsman, Edinburgh. JOHN METHVEN (of Messrs Thomas Methven & Sons), Nurseryman and Seedsman, Edinburgh. D. Scort, Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. DANIEL DEWAR, Forester, Beaufort Castle, Beauly. Wm. M‘CorquopaLs, Forester and Wood Surveyor, Scone, Perth, Rosert BAxter, Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Joun Micuis, Forester, Balmoral, Ballater. Joun T. M‘LAREN, Overseer, Kennet, Alloa. JAMES Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay. SECRETARY AND TREASURER. JoHN M‘LAREN, Jun., 5 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. AUDITOR. Joun OrD Mackenzin, of Dolphinton, W.S., 9 Hill Street, Edinburgh. JUDGES. Dr CLEGHORN (Convener) of Stravithie, St Andrews. CHARLES S. FRANCE, Factor, Scone Estate, Perth. D. F. Mackenzi8, Factor, Morton Hall, Liberton, Edinburgh. COMMITTEE ON TRANSACTIONS. Dr CLEGHORN (Convener) of Stravithie, St Andrews. Rosert Hurcuison of Carlowrie, 29 Chester Street, Edinburgh. bo or APPENDIX. CHARLEs S. FRANCE, Factor, Scone Estate, Perth. Professor I. BAyLEY BALFourR, Oxford University. Professor ALEX. Dickson, 11 Royal Circus, Edinburgh. PHOTOGRAPHIC ARTIST. MaGnvs JAcKsON, 62 Princes Street, Perth. LOCAL SECRETARIES. Scotland. DANIEL DEWAR, Forester, Beaufort Castle, Beauly. JOHN FINGLAND, Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. JAMES Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay. Donatp M‘CorquopDaLe, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie. WitiiaM M‘LEAN, Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. C. Y. Micuts, Forester, Cullen House, Banffshire. JAMES ROBERTSON, Forester, Panmure House, Carnoustie. Wit1rAm W. Rosertson, Forester, Blinkbonny, Earlston. England. JAMES BARRIE, Forester, Stevenstone Estate, Torrington, Devon. JAMES BELL, The Gardens, Stratfieldsaye, Winchfield, Hants. JAMES Durr, Forester, Bayham Abbey, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Tuomas Hoce, Forester, Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire. ANDREW PATERSON, Agent, Paultons, Romsey, Hants. JAMES RUTHERFORD, Agent, Kirkleatham, Redcar, Yorkshire. GrorcE Dopps, Overseer, Wyreside Cottage, Lancaster. JOHN WILSON, Forester, Sudbourne Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk. Ireland. JAMES ARCHER, Forester, Woodstock, Inistiogue, County Kilkenny. Rosert Coupar, Forester, Ashford, Cong, County Galway. Duncan MacponaLp, Manager, Mulroy, Carrigart, Letterkenny. The Council have resolved to open a Fund to defray the ex- penses incurred in illustrating the Society’s Transactions, and solicit contributions thereto. The following donations have been received : Professor Dickson, A : : : £1 Dr Cleghorn, : 1 D. F. Mackenzie, Vactor, Moe Hall, 4 2 The Council wish it to be known that the Society has an Album for the Photographs of Members, and the Secretary will be glad to receive contributions, CT, ABSTRA 6 N wo oo~eo I 90cF OL SG S0KF ~ ‘ , OL 9LZ : 8 61 LOFT 8 FI 08 ; 0 § LESF ~ jo sosuedxe pure ‘00939 ‘KJoIN0g oy} JO spun 49N * S[Uvg, [PUOTZe AT WOIJ UM LAPIOAO ssory ‘F8ST Jsnony pz 0} 4so10jUT Surpnypour ‘yuvg [euore Tat JuMo0y Tendep jo yunowy : ‘10jsueny, purpjoog jo yueg oiwyg oug soy pred ood Suroq ‘pung Suryurg ‘P88 LSNDNV PS +e S&C SANNA 94} JO ALVLS : ‘anuVyO Surypenbe osrerposiqy Jo Junoury * QsoleqUI YIM ‘yueq TeRUOTyeN YIM JUNO Teqdep oqut pred suorjditosqng ory jo yunoury , : * ‘sasuodxq [ej}ueprouy ‘pred syuno00y ‘qamsvaty, pure Arezadoeg 0} Arvpeg ‘