Sarerar tary] ee sit : ys ; RA LAA we path ne Mh he! oa b,) as, i) eK ahead tas} A es CTR Bay 5 \ OURAN a has ERM Sa hg Maat ia \ ; pra at yal “y POA ARs yee Pa) 42%) ‘ we PL | 6 ’ a) ew i" ee oe Ta ; APS 00 15.25) oe yy te ve Eee 68, 3 eet Ae ae Py an eee 1,4 Nove ates ‘ Cer a) sich mote Penne sree os i 0) alin FA 1a 6 jx Sa ae eu We it BS «i J LIBRARY NEW YO. o_.- -. GARDEN TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. EDITOR AND SECRETARY. JOHN SADLER, F.R.PhS., LECTURER ON BOTANY IN THE ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL, AND ASSISTANT TO THE PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND MEDICINE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. eam VOL Vib EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY NEILL & COMPANY. MDCCCLXXY. LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN TER, INDIANA al CONTENTS OF VOL. VII. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any facts or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. T.—Address delivered at the Nineteenth Annual Meeting. By Hueu Crieenorn, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras, 1I.—On the Quantity of Rain which Falls in a Wooded Country compared with an Unwooded. By Rosert Hurcuison, Esq. of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., 1II.—Report on an Arboretum at Cluny Castle, Aberdeenshire. By WitirAm Gitcurtst, Forester, Cluny Castle. With a Plan, IV.—Report on the Houston ’Pinetum. By WiriiaM TIVENDALE, Forester, Houston, Paisley, V.—Report on the Comparative Advantages of the Different Methods of Pruning. By ANDREW GILCHRIST, tease Urie House, Stonehaven, VI.—On the Value of the Corsican, Austrian, and Douglas Firs, as Timber Trees in Great Britain, and on their Adaptation to different Soils and Situations. By Roserr Hurcutison, Esq. of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., VII.—Report on a Collection of Geological Specimens, with an Out- line of the Geological and Arboricultural Features of Bute- shire. By James Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay, . VIII.—On Different Modes of Profitably Disposing of Home-Grown Timber. By Davin Tarr, Forester, Owston Park, Doncaster, IX.—On the most certain Method of getting rid of Beetles which affect Coniferze. Houston, Paisley, By Witu1amM chasse: Forester, X.—On the Best Modes of Starting from Seed, or Rearing from Cuttings or Grafts, the various newer Coniferee. By Jonny ALEXANDER, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey, . XI.—On the Distribution of Forests in India. By Drerricu Branpis, Ph.D., With a Map, yee Cee of Forests, Calcutta. XII.— Address delivered at the Twentieth Annual Meeting. By Hvueu Criecnorn, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras, XIII.—On the Natural History of Beetles and other Insects which infest Coniferze, and suggested Remedies. By Rosert Hourcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., Vice-President, : XIV.—On the Present State and Future Pr ospects of Arboriculture in Yorkshire. By Davin Tait, Forester, Owston Park, XV.—On the Different Modes of Profitably Disposing of Home- Grown Timber. Castle, By Wiu1am Gitcurist, Forester, Cluny XVI.—On the Different Modes of Disposing of the Produce of Woods and Plantations. Hampshire, . By AnpREw PEEBLES, Highclere Castle, PAGE 80 84 146 159 lV CONTENTS. PAGE XVII.—The Different Ages at which various Timber Trees may be most profitably felled in different soils and situations. By Lewis Bayne, Forester, Kinmel Park, North Wales, «RS XVIII.—On the Natural Production or Self-Sowing of the Common Silver Fir (Picea pectinata). By Witi1am Gitcnrist, Forester, Cluny Castle, Z 180 XIX.—Note on a Wood damaged by Gases from Calcining ‘of Iron- stone. By ANDREW ‘SLATER, Forester, Loftus, Yorkshire, 184 XX.—On a new Transplanting Machine. By JAMES Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay. (Plates I. and IT), : 186 XXI.—On the Altitude and Appearance of the Wellingtonia gigantea. By Roserr Hurcenison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., &e. (Plate III.), : ; Se ely XXII.—The Self-Sown Oak Trees of Sussex. “By R. W. Ciurron, . 194 X XIII.—Address delivered at the Twenty-first Annual Meeting. By Hueu Cuiscuorn, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras, . H «89 XXIV.—On the Literature of Scottish Arboriculture. By Rozerr Hourcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., 211 XXV.—On the Present State and Prospects of Arboriculture in Aberdeenshire. By Wix.i1Am Gitcurist, Forester, Cluny Castle, 235 XX VI.—On the Draining of Plantations, by Open or Covered Drains. By Lewis BaYng, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, -. 00 XXVII.—On the Conservation of Old and Remarkable Trees in Britain. By Rozert Hurcaison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., . 269 XXVIII.—On the Use of Steam Power in Forestry. By D. F. M‘Kenzts, Forester, Meldrum House, : 269 XXIX.—The Advantages of Planting in Groups, or in Mixed Planta- tions, so as to combine Profit with Landscape Effect. By WILLIAM Gorrik, Rait Lodge, Edinburgh, 274 XXX.—Report on the Meteor ological Observations made at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the Influence of Forests on Climate, par- ticularly Rainfall. By AuLExanpER Bucuan, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, 285 AcP Py ND LX, Abstract of Accounts for 1871-72 and 1872-73, . : : : 23 is 1873-74, aaa List of ‘Members, corrected to Ausust 1873, ‘ , i : i 2 be 1874, : ; Be Ee ms March 1875 : : : 6 48 Prize Essays, &c., for 1872-73, . ; F py: ; 18 5 - 1873-74. 3 : : 5 : : 42 Wirt? ‘ : ; ; : ; 66 Laws of the Society, : ; ; 4 20, 44, 69 Office-Bearers for 1872-73, ; : i : : ‘ 21 F 1873-74, ; Ree 5 1874-75, ; : ; : : : 70 ERRATUM. Page 199 line 4 from bottom, for 1847 read 1874. Yas Fan ee LPP ORONO It TRANSACTIONS OF THE : | | SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY VOL. VIL—PART IL EDITOR AND SECRETARY. JOHN SADLER, F.RPhS,, LECTURER ON BOTANY IN THE ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL. AND ASSISTANT TO THE PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND MEDICINE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, CVRNAARAAA RANA ARAEAAARAARRAAAAAS. pet > YU BEE Er Ss Aas iy ln > oe Oe i PALL Drs TAN SSNPS ASRS ELEN . EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY NEILL & COMPANY, MDCCCLXXIII. ANICAL = NOV 16 1972 CONTENTS. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any facts or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors, I —Adadress delivered at the Nineteenth Annual Meeting. By Hucn CiecHorN, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras, : . : : ; ° : if I1.—On the Quantity of Rain which Falls in a Wooded Country as compared with an Unwooded. By Roserr Hurtcutson, Esq. of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., . 4 . : : : 10 I1I.—Report on an Arboretum at Cluny Castle, Aberdeenshire. By WILLIAM GiLcupistT, Forester, Cluny Castle. With a Plan, . 19 I1V.—Report on the Houston Pinetum. By WiiirAmM TiIvENDALE, Forester, Houston, Paisley, . : : : : 38 Y.—Report on the Comparative Advantages of the different Methods of Pruning. By Anprew Gitcurist, Forester, Urie House, Stonehaven, . : : - : A : 40 VI.—On the Value of the Corsican, Austrian, and Douglas Firs, as Timber Trees in Great Britain, and on their Adaptation to different Soils and Situations. By Roserr Hutcnison, Esq. of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., . : : ° : : 52 VIL—Report on a Collection of Geological Specimens, with an Outline of the Geological and Arboricultural Features of Buteshire. By James Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay, : ae 60 VIII.—On Different Modes of Profitably Disposing of Home-Grown Timber. By Davip Tart, Forester, Owston Park, Doncaster, 72 1X.—On the most certain Method of getting rid of Beetles which affect Conifer, By WittiaAm TIveNDALE, Forester, Houston, Paisley, : : : : é ‘ 5 80 X.—On the Best Modes of Starting from Seed, or Rearing from Cuttings or Grafts the various newer Conifere. By Joun ALEXANDER, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey, —. 84 XI.—On the Distribution of Forests in India. By Drerricn Branpis, Ph.D., Inspector-General of Forests, Calcutta. With a Map, 88 APPEND1AX. List of Members, corrected to August 1873, ; : : z 1 Prize Essays, &c., for 1872-73, . 5 : ; F : 18 Laws of the Society, : F : : : ; 20 Office- Bearers for 1872-73, : . ; : i ; 21 PAGE —— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. I. Address delivered at the Nineteenth Annual Meeting. By Hucs CiecHorn, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras. GENTLEMEN,—On taking the chair to which the General Council has called me, my first duty is to thank you for the honour conferred in electing me as President of this Society, an honour which I had little reason to expect, considering that twenty-six years of my life have been spent out of Scotland, and that I am personally unknown to a large proportion of the members. I greatly regret that the notice given to me was so short, that it has not been possible for me to prepare an address suited to the occasion; but I beg to assure you that I will discharge to the best of my ability the duties of my office, and exert myself to promote the interests of the Society. Eighteen years have elapsed since our association was formed, and though at first its growth was slow, it has been steady. It now embraces in its membership about 600 names, and advances with enlarged prospects of usefulness. The printed Transactions supplied to all our members have reached the seventh volume; these give the best clue to what is being done amongst us. In looking over them for my own information, and for suggestive material in addressing you, I observe a decided improvement in the prize reports; some are very valuable papers, while none are without interest. These records show a wish on the part, ofmany of the members to enlarge their stock of knowledge, and here I may remark, that though we may often go over what appears to be the same ground, we must not relax our exertions as if we had attained to the full extent of know- ledge; let us make sure of what we have already acquired, and then VOL. VII. PART I. A 2 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. press on seeking to add our quota towards the stock of mutual help and general information, which can only be increased by individual effort. We who are met together on this occasion are, with few exceptions, practical foresters, and it is as such that I am proud to address you. As foresters loving our calling, we are in constant converse with nature, but we are none the less a busy people, with our hands generally full. We have for the most part as much to do as we can do well, in discharging the routine duties of our position, often more than any ordinary strength or industry can dispatch in a satisfactory manner. We are, therefore, rarely inclined to travel out of the record—to undertake work which does not press. We can seldom get far enough before our duties, or high enough above them to con- template them ab extra, and as a whole, to speculate, classify, con- solidate, or systematise. We answer the immediate call; we meet the immediate claim ; we provide for the immediate emergency; we are practical men of business, not philosophers ; we apply ourselves energetically to understand and transact whatever affair is before us; but we scarcely ever find time to regard questions in their con- nections and with reference to long eras or to distant generations. What is forced upon us we do; what is not forced upon us we postpone. This, I take it, is the case of most of those I am addressing. For myself, many of the best years of my life have been spent in the direct charge of very extensive forests, and I can therefore sympathise very keenly with those who feel that the engrossing nature of the duties of to-day interferes with that foreseeing provision for the future which distinguishes the profession of a forester more perhaps than any other. Not that I mean to convey that the life of a forester can be lived without thought, and much thought being given to the effect on the future of the labours of to-day; but all must feel that the day’s need too frequently overshadows the morrow’s requirement, however strongly they may realise that a forester who makes no provision for the wants of the future is un- worthy of that title. And it is in managing forests of small extent, such as many whom I address have charge of, and the property of private individuals, whose circumstances rarely admit of their sacrificing the present to the future, that the truth of my remarks becomes more apparent. Few private individuals can afford to take that higher view ot forest conservancy which wishes to make provision for generations os ae * ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. 3 yet unborn, and fewer still, perhaps, realise the extent of their, so to speak, national responsibilities to maintain the forests which they possess, It is but three months ago that the newspapers recorded the facts of high floods in England, France, and Italy, accompanied with most serious damage in various places. That these floods, primarily due to excessive rainfall, are aggravated by the more general drainage which the improved agriculture of the present day _ has introduced, there is no doubt, but it is equally certain that the denudation of the mountain tops has greatly contributed to this result, and with the removal of their verdant clothing, we have to regret not only the washing away of soil from the slopes once covered with forest, but to mourn over homesteads and villages once smiling and now abandoned, and vast areas of richly cultivated land overwhelmed and made barren by the detritus of mountain torrents in their now aggravated impetuosity. It is the destruction of forests which has led to this desolation. How vast is the influence of the forests of a country! They affect the humidity of the air and earth; they influence the temperature ; they afford important shelter from the east winds, the mistral and the sirocco ; they create springs, and they tend to control the flow of rivers. The teaching of “savans” (Humboldt, Herschel, and Arago), the records of travels (Marsh, Pallas, and Sandys), the sufferings of nations (Italy, Spain, and Greece), have sadly demon- strated these facts, even in very recent times. In what way forests arrest the progress of flights of locusts in the East, of coffee-borers and other noxious insects, has now, by careful investigation, been placed beyond doubt ; and it is believed by many that they set a limit to malarious vapour, and also to rust spores which infect cereal crops. The productiveness of grain fields is in- creased by establishing plantations, the health of the cattle is im- proved, the evil of drifting sand is checked, as for example by planting the Pinus maritima on the dunes of France ; thus in many ways the material prosperity of a country is bound up with the maintenance of a due proportion of woodland suitably distributed. During the first stage of colonisation in most countries, as for instance Australia, India, and America, and while settlers are thinly scattered, demands on the wood supply are usually so limited as not to cause undue destruction of indigenous forest, nor to occasion alarm for future requirements. But immigration goes on, agricultural industry is extended, railways are formed, all these causing encroachments on 4 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. the forests to take place, and ultimately denudation follows, with its many attendant evils; and often when itis too late the maintenance of forest riches for the first time engages the attention of the legis- lature. That such has not been the result in our own country is doubtless. due to our insular position, and to our rich resources of mineral fuel. Of the first, and the advantage we thereby possess of being able to draw supplies from all quarters of the globe, nothing short of a con- vulsion of nature can deprive us; but in regard to the second, the recent disturbance in the labour market may well make us thankful that the time has not yet come when the sinister prognostications of our experts as to the remaining extent of our coal measures have been fulfilled, so far as to oblige us to resort much to vegetable fuel as a substitute. In this connection, I may be permitted to express my conviction that much good may result from the present labour movement in the introduction of coal-cutting machinery, and the consequent diminution of the number of human beings employed under ground, and in the needful economising of the back-bone of our national wealth—our coal. And in this last remark, foresters will at once recognise, though indirectly, the importance of their calling. It is where timber is the fuel in use for domestic purposes that the value of the forester’s work has come to be most appreciated, and we accordingly find that in foreign countries destitute of coal resources, or backward in their development, the legislature has been compelled to intervene to provide for the maintenance of the forests. If, then, we would profit to the utmost by the experience of others in this important branch of economics, we must not rest content with a knowledge of the results attained in the narrow sphere presented within our own native land, or of the way in which those results have been reached ; most valuable as such knowledgeis, the conditions under which it has been accumulated, though diverse, are not suffi- ciently comprehensive to afford the conclusive data which will be obtained by a study of the matured system of conservancy and re- production that has grown up in those countries where vast forests are held by the state in trust for the people, and the operations are conducted on a scale commensurate with the interests involved, not only in the immediate present, but in the long distant future. Bearing in mind what I have already said as to the circumstances which gradually lead to the ultimate denudation of countries, it will be no matter of surprise to you to learn, that in an empire in which we are all deeply interested, which numbers a population of probably ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. 5 200,000,000 of people distributed in many parts more thickly than in Lancashire or the country round Glasgow, and in which but few Europeans, and probably not one native, have ever eaten a meal cooked with coal, a fuel famine has for years been impending. The introduction into India of railways, and the rapidly increased demand for timber for sleepers and fuel, at length forced the attention of the Government to the vital question of forest management. In the year 1856, when engaged in multifarious duties as a medical practitioner and Professor of Botany in the medical college of Madras, I was unexpectedly called upon to organise a forest service, and to take charge of the forests in south India, a territory three or four times as large as Great Britain. I had had no training in my youth specially to fit me for such a duty; but the need was urgent, and trained foresters were not to be had; if they had been available, the want of the language and ignorance of the habits and products of the country would have rendered them comparatively useless. It is true that at the time I was engaged in teaching botany, to which I had long devoted much attention, and in my youth I had been accustomed to rural life in Scotland, circumstances which were allin my favour. When, with considerable misgivings, I undertook the duty, the natural forests in most parts of. the country had been ruthlessly wasted by felling and burning, and no system had been adopted to regulate the cutting, or to provide for the wants of future generations by preserving existing forests or forming new plantations. Magnificent trees were sacrificed for in- significant purposes, and planks were not sawn, but hewn with an axe, one tree furnishing a single plank. The State therefore stepped in to arrest the waste, and to adopt measures for husbanding the resources for present use, and for the supply of posterity. In course of time, after preliminary explorations and valuation surveys, the country was divided into districts, each of them as large, many of them larger, than Perthshire, and placed under the charge of one assistant conservator or forest ranger. My duties for twelve years necessitated much and rapid travelling in order to become acquainted with the forests over which I had been called to exercise some control. These forests are scattered over a great extent of country, sometimes dotted here and there in small patches, seldom in compact masses. My duties were to ascer- tain the proprietary rights (if any existed), or rights of pasturage, which wandering tribes possess, to mark out the first class forests to be reserved by Government, to separate the tracts attached to 6 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. villages, to frame leases with native chiefs, to establish and inspect depéts for timber, to supply the Indian Navy, the gun-carriage factory, and various public works, and to arrange annual auctions for the general wants of the country. How different is the experience of foresters in Britain! They are generally engaged, not in the husbanding of stateforests, where the good of generations yet to come guides your measures, but in forests belonging to private individuals, where the chief objects are, to meet the current demand for estate purposes, and to yield a good annual revenue. Woodlands in private hands are everywhere managed on the same economical principles as other possessions, and many pro- prietors will always sell their woods, unless they believe that it is for their pecuniary interest to preserve them. In no other country of the world is there such careful arbori- culture as in Britain; and it is in Scotland that many of the most beautiful and extensive British forest plantations have been formed (such as the famous larch plantations in Blair Athol, superintended by Mr Macgregor). But most valuable as your training has been for the exercise of your calling in Scotland, it can hardly be denied that a training on a more comprehensive system than is possible under the peculiar circumstances of our little island, to which I have already alluded, would be valuable for a larger sphere of action. In this I think you will agree with me, although the conditions of my connection with forest management (to which I am indebted for this opportunity of addressing you) are such as naturally predispose me in some measure to look for guidance, where the conservation of forests has been the result of circumstances similar to those of India, and the management of which has grown up under like con- ditions. / But should I fail to carry your assent to this opinion, you will, I am assured, bear with me, when I say that, considering the responsi- bilities placed upon a state forest department, we cannot make too sure that the agents employed in it have the widest opportunities possible of seeing forest operations conducted on a large scale, and that their training is arranged so as to take full advantage of the ripe experience available in those countries in which state forests have long existed, as well as of that skill and experience which is to be found at our own doors. A main essential in forest operations is economy, and it is on the magnitude of the scale on which operations are conducted that economic results largely depend. The adaptation of means to ends is a ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. i here involved ; and though it would be altogether incorrect to say, that what answers on a small scale will not answer, or will answer only in a less degree, on a large scale, there can be little doubt that those who have to administer on a large scale should first study administration on a large scale; for the results of a mistake which on a small scale may be insignificant, may on a large scale be fatal. It is in this view that the differences between the administration of private forests and of government domains are so marked ; and whether we confine our view to the more ordinary operations of forest conservancy and working, including the agency by which timber should be got out of the forest, or embrace within our gaze those allied operations, such as the making of forest surveys, the demarcation of forest tracts, the transport and cutting up of timber, the construction of slides and roads, &c., we must feel that in the matter of the adaptation of means to ends, we should lose much experience if we confined ourselves to the experience available in our private forests, or in any one country whatsoever. I may mention to you some of the most striking differences that occur to me bebween the management of Scotch and Indian forests. One great point of difference is, that with many of you, much atten- tion is given to crnamental effect ; I, on the contrary, had to do with dark unfrequented forests, where there was often no human eye _except that of those employed in forest work. Another difference is, that while our forests are subject to depredations by hares, rabbits, and in some places by deer, the Indian forests are exposed to the rooting up of wild hogs, to the browsing of goats, many of the deer tribe, and above all of camels, whose hard palate, strong teeth and jaws, enable them to break off and masticate thorny branches as thick as the finger. Again, from the vast extent and scattered position of Indian forests, to encircle them with fences, living or dead, is almost a physical impossibility ; the usual method of demarcation is by the erection of boundary pillars between which extends a broad belt of cleared ground. This has to be cleared annually, and is useful for checking the ingress of forest fires, which are of frequent occurrence, and are often productive of serious damage. The circumstances regarding the carriage of heavy timber in India are peculiar, and the transport is generally effected by means of trained elephants or buffaloes. The former valuable animals are now becoming scarce, and it is for many reasons desirable, if not essential, that foresters for India should acquire some experience 8 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. in moving long and heavy logs over difficult ground, in the furma- tion and use of slides, and in floating timber both in rocky moun- tain torrents, and in large flowing rivers. In the Himalayan pine forests, the felling usually takes place in summer, but the slipping and launching of the logs often takes place in October and November when snow is on the ground ; con- sequently there is much that is suggestive for our Himalayan forests in the Swiss and Bavarian Alps, Again, I have no doubt that the timber trade of Norway, and the lumber operations in Canada, where the rafts often contain many hundred thousand cubic feet, would afford much instructive information to those charged with floating operations on our great Indian rivers, as the Irrawady, the Godavery, and the Indus. The floating arrangements in Strathspey, where artificial floods are produced by storing water in a succession of small dams, are very instructive. Most of the youths who have lately gone to India had an opportunity of seeing these operations under the guidance of Mr Grant Thomson, but I know of few forests in India where this identical system of engineering would be found to answer; it would, however, be suggestive to those in similar difficulties. There are various collateral duties falling to foresters in India, which you would scarcely think came within their province. I allude to the preparation of charcoal, and the collection and manufacture of tar and empyreumatic products, which will some day become a matter of great importance in India ; further, the collection and manufacture of lac, gums, and resins, as gamboge and kino, the collection of India-rubber, the preparation of potash, and the impregnation of timber by means of antiseptic substances— creosote, chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper, or corrosive sublimate. At the late meeting in Brighton of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the grant of L.20 was again renewed, for the purpose of taking observations on the effect of the denudation of ‘timber on the rainfall in North Britain. It is to be hoped that the arrangements for conducting the investigation may be judiciously made and successfully carried out, in correspondence with the ener- getic secretary of the Meteorological Society. At the same meeting an instructive paper was read “On the Distri- bution of Forests in India” by Dr Brandis, Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India. The writer divides the country into arid, dry, and moist zones, according to the yearly average rain- fall in each ; and the extent and direction of the several zones were clearly marked out in a coloured map. It was characterised by the ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 6, 1872. 9 savans present as a most able and valuable contribution to the physical geography of India, containing truly philosophical views. The paper has appeared in “ Ocean Highways,” a monthly record of geographical progress, (Oct. 1872, p. 200.) In England, forest literature has not yet, in my opinion, taken the place which it ought to occupy. In Germany, France, and Italy, there are thousands of volumes and several periodicals, both monthly and quarterly, devoted to sylviculture. There is an annual almanac, giving the names and duties of several hundred forest employés in the service of the state. In these days, when almost every branch of industry starts its own organ, it is not improbable that a Forest Journal may be successfully maintained a few years hence, in which all forest questions could be freely discussed. I have now, gentlemen, in a cursory way, sketched some of the terrible consequences of neglecting the natural forests of a country, as contrasted with the benefits of careful conservancy. Many of the facts and places alluded to have come under my own observa- tion in the course of duty as a government servant. I have been favoured with opportunities of visiting the woods of Madeira, the sandy deserts of South Africa, a very large part of British India, the plains of Egypt, the arid island of Malta, classical Sicily, and the rich though sadly denuded shores of Italy. From one and all of these I am ready to acknowledge that I have learned something, both of the difficulties to be overcome and of the success granted to persevering efforts in arboriculture ; and were it my lot again to return to India, the remembrance of what I have seen in my various visits to the fine woods of Scotland and the state forests of England, would prove highly useful and instructive. Every country has its peculiar difficulties, but along with these we see special adaptations to overcome them, and the application of the right means to the end desired is ultimately crowned with success. VOL. VII, PART I, L 10 ON RAINFALL IN A WOODED COUNTRY II. On the Quantity of Rain which falls in a Wooded Country as compared with ai Unwooded. By Ropert HuTcuison, Esq. of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E. The important question of the influence of forests upon the rain- fall, the temperature, and the humidity of the air in a country is one so complicated, and demanding for its accurate solution obser- vations both extensive and prolonged, that it need not excite surprise that meteorologists hitherto, although admitting the im- portance of such an inquiry, have taken no practical step towards the solution of this interesting problem. From time to time, no doubt, attention has been called to the subject, but only in a casual or very general manner ; and the fact remains, that in the United Kingdom, redolent as she,is with scientific inquiry, no society or institution has as yet given its direct bent to the question of the effects of either the overplanting or the denudation of timber upon the rainfall of the country, and consequently in an indirect manner upon the health of the com- munity. It is, therefore, satisfactory to know that this Society has undertaken such an inquiry, and that through its exertions we may hope for definite action being taken in this interesting and useful line of investigation. For several years past, both in France and in Denmark, by the aid of the Academy in the one, and of the Agricultural Institute of Copenhagen, and more recently of the Government itself, in the other, organised and complete systems of careful observations have been going on, and already very interesting facts have been deduced. To some of the general results of these tabulated observations we shall by-and-bye refer in this paper, with the view of directing the attention of members of this Society to what is being done in other countries regarding a matter of equal importance to our own, and which must prove of deepest interest to themselves individually as practical arboriculturists ; and it is but fair to state that much of the subject matter of this paper is translated and collated from the French reports of M. Becquerel, who undertook the inquiry and observations for several years in different parts of the arrondissement of Montargis (department du Loiret), and of M. Lacour Danois, who was in 1869 intrusted with a similar scientific mission by the Government of Denmark. AS COMPARED WITH AN UNWOODED. 11 We have abundant authority to prove that the belief in the material influences which a wooded district exerts upon the rainfall, and in the equally appreciable effects, though in a diametrically opposite direction, which are caused by excessive denudation of woodlands, exists in the minds of philosophers of acknowledged enlightenment in our own country. For example, Sir John Herschel, arguing that to a very great extent the climate of a country is under man’s control, states—‘‘It is chiefly in his clearance or allowance - of arborescent vegetation, and in his artificial drainage of the soil that his influence is perceptible.” * And again, in his report to the Meeting of the British Association in 1865, ‘“‘ On the rainfall of the British Isles,’+ Mr Symons asserts that the annual mean rainfall is decreasing appreciably upon an average of nearly 4 per cent. over the whole area of the country, but especially along a tract of land extending from Cornwall to the Wash ; and this defi- ciency he attributes partly to the extensive clearances of timber, and partly also to the divergence of the flow of the springs by ground drainage, now considered so necessary for the high-farming of the present day, by the advanced agricultural knowledge of the period. If then it be true, that the overfelling of timber and the excessive drainage of our fields tend to diminish the rainfall, and if a certain quantity of rain at certain seasons be requisite to maintain the equilibrium of healthy climate, and to prevent the recurrence of periodic droughts, and short crops, whether root or cereal, it is then clearly essential that there should be an adequate extent of wooded surface properly distributed over the area of the country. The main questions then come to be, Is it true? And next, What would, for Great Britain, be an adequate and properly distributed acreage of woodland ? As, however, it may be held that as yet the proposition is not proved to be true that in this country the presence of a certain counterbalancing proportion of plantation is requisite to maintain a certain proportion of rainfall over the whole area, it may be as well to defer meanwhile following out this branch of the subject in detail, and we shall, therefore, at present only remark, that taking the total acreage of Great Britain at 57,000,000 acres, of which probably about 2,600,000 are under plantation and woodland, or barely 14 pet cent. we find an amount which, if we except the relative proportion of wooded lands in Portugal, is considerably under that * Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects. Weather and Weather Prophets. + Proceedings of British Association, 1865. iz ON RAINFALL IN A WOODED COUNTRY of any other country! If we even assume the calculation of Col. Sir Henry James, R.E.. chief of the Ordnance Survey Department, who estimates that in England alone the proportion of wooded area is equal to 24 per cent., we still find a considerable deficiency as compared with similiar areas of other countries, with the one ex- ception already noticed. Thus we find— Country. Total Areas. bib wceet rs eae 29,216 i 29, 12 France, { a Ee ee fo bor 17 per cent. imp. acres acres { 135,738,240 * * | Germany, i acres | tod ) | Pees {| 144,799,84( 15,850,837 or 11 per cent. acres acres 6,849,812 319,102 = es { _ Dan. téndes | Dan. tondes |S° © Giles ieee | Therefore it appears that the importance of the subject now under consideration has forced itself upon State notice; and in many countries of the continent,—as, for example, in Germany, France, Hanover, and now also in Italy,—as it is well known, schools of forestry exist, and laws are rigidly enforced in relation to the con- servancy of woods. Large tracts of fertile acres, producing the finest cereal crops in the world, now flourish in Hungary, where formerly arid sterility prevailed. This has been brought about by the judicious distribution of plantations in zones, and in large masses in the district of the Vosges; and even in our own Indian empire, so important is it now deemed to conserve the forests of the different provinces, that it forms a separate department of imperial control ; and, according to the words of the present Under Secretary of State for India (Mr Grant Duff), “had we known thirty years ago what the importance of forest conservancy is for India, L.30,000 per annum, now requisite for irrigation, would have been saved to the Indian exchequer;” and we may be permitted to add, much of the misery and starvation caused by periodical rice famines would have been avoided. The soil of the Himalayas is very similar to that of a great part of the area of Scotland. The difference consists in climate chiefly, and if the proper distribution of wood and its conservancy can modify and ameliorate the fickle climate of a large portion of India, or at least is considered conducive to such bene- * Owing to the recent amalgamation of the German Empire these figures cannot yet be quoted. AS COMPARED WITH AN UNWOODED. 13 ficial results, why should steps be neglected at home, or investi- gations as to the efficacy and value of such steps be overlooked ? There are many tracts of land in Scotland which might be advan- tageously planted up, and thereby, we cannot doubt, the capricious rainfall be modified, and surrounding pastures and fields at higher altitudes brought under the ploughshare. Doubtless in this respect much, very much, has been already done, but still there remains a considerable amount to reclaim, and an undue severity of climate to improve, in many districts. Why is it that at the present day, in Lanarkshire and Peeblesshire, and in other counties also at elevations of 800 and 1200 feet above sea-level, noble specimens of many of the recently introduced Alies Douglasii are to be seen? It is entirely due to previous judiciously arranged plantations, having so ameliorated the soil and climate that, interspersed with the native fir or hardy spruce, we now see the Douglas pine vieing with them in luxuriance. And if planting be so important, and plays so prominent a part in those respects we have alluded to, we hold it to be no less essential for the due distribution of rainfall throughout the country, for to a great extent it is regulated by such local in- fluences. But assuming, then, that for climatic purposes, a due balance of acreagé under wood is to be maintained in any country, how is the precise amount of land to be so occupied to be ascer- tained? ‘This is a very difficult question to solve, and one requiring much careful analysis of the separate individual requirements of different countries and their capabilities. For instance,in one country, whose necessity for wood as its staple of fuel, and whose consump- tion of such may be an increasing one—as, for example, in Russia— a much larger area would be requisite, unless indeed rapid-growing trees were planted as crop, and felled as they advanced in blocks from year to year. Of course, the larger the body of land the greater would be the amount essential for hygienic purposes, or climatic balance. And again, the other necessities of the economy of the country must be looked to, such as the area for food-produc- ing or flesh-growing crops. Germany, for example, we find requires fully 20 per cent. for agricultural purposes ; France in 1868 had 17 per cent, under wood, and for her own requirements this was found much too sinall a proportion of plantation. To provide for equal rainfall distribution, therefore, the mode that appears most feas- ible and at the same time consistent (if it is found after sufficient investigation, that a standing area of woodland is essential to the welfare of any country), is for the Government, as in the case of 14 ON RAINFALL IN A WOODED COUNTRY India, to take the necessary acreage of State forest-land under its con- trol, and to set it apart for the purpose. Were such a plan followed out in England, a Government school of forestry might thus easily be established, and young men trained there for service in the Indian or other colonial forests, instead of, as at present, being under the necessity of sending aspirants to Indian forest vacancies abroad to the schools of Germany or France. If such an establishment be found beneficial for the education of the youth of this country (specially for the Indian civil service), as Cooper’s Hill College, in London, why should not some similar establishment be organised for the Indian forestry department? This is, however, apart from the immediate subject before us, and to return from such a digres- sion, we may remark, a propos of the necessary quantity of land re- quired for plantations properly distributed over the area of the country with a view to equal distribution of the rainfall, that the present condition of England may safely be assumed as a basis, and her present supply of woodland as at least a fair normal one ; and since we find that, as there are estimated to be in England 2,600,000 acres under wood, against a total of 57,000,000 acres, it follows that we may assume 1 acre in 22 as a _ requisite pro- portion for shelter, health, and climate. Having thus far noticed the general aspect of importance which the subject presents, and passing over, In the meantime, the burden of proof that trees and plantations do exert those influences upon the rainfall of a country, which it has been asserted pertain to their presence or absence, we may take up the question, what dves influence the rainfall of a country ? So numerous are the causes which lend their influences to affect, for increase or decrease, the quantity of rain that falls over any large surface, such as the area of a country, that it is very difficult to state one a priori. Even if we were in possession of an accumulated mass of facts and statistical observations extending over several years, such as have been collected in France and Denmark, we should find that many purely local or casual circum- stances intervene to throw doubts upon the results deduced from even the most carefully ascertained hygrometric observations. Taken in the abstract, however, we may mention what we consider the four primary elements at work in increasing or diminishing rain- fall generally :—1. Atmospheric pressure ; 2. Neighbourhood of the sea ; 3. Prevailing winds, according as these are dry or moist ; and, 4. Altitude. But while these all act more or less powerfully AS COMPARED WITH AN UNWOODED. 15 according to circumstances in producing rainfall, there must always be others, which, although entirely local, and probably therefore more difficult to define or specify, are nevertheless of considerable potency in their agency, and these must be known before we can determine the climate of any locality with regard to humidity. In fact, curious and conflicting discrepancies may ffequently be observed between the quantity of rain which falls in two situations proximately situated to each other, and at the same altitude, at the same distance from the sea, and exposed to the same wind, which will then force upon us the undeniable conclusion that the variation is due to local shelter, or from the one situation being exposed (while the other is not) to moist winds, being situated on a height, or in a valley. We may here mention a fact which has been frequently vbserved. When the clouds, wind-driven, and careering along at no great elevation above the earth’s surface, approach or encounter a mountain, or sometimes even a small hill only, they are seen per- haps to rise, and attaining thus to a colder stratum of air, they become condensed into rain; and may we not, therefore, believe that forests or plantations of timber, when the clouds are very low, produce the same results, varying probably with the seasons? Of course, any such influence will be intensified, and rendered the more sensitive, in proportion to the area of the plantation or forest, and as the masses of woodland are more or less considerable. Upon this point, however, until the contemplated hygrometric observations from a variety of stations under suitable conditions have been obtained and tabulated, it is impossible to speak with anything like certainty ; and it is just one of those many interesting points which, apart from all theory or preconceived notions on the subject, it is desirable to settle conclusively if practicable, and that can only be done in any complicated: problem or dark unsolved mystery, by applying to it the lantern of experiment and careful observa- tion. This necessitates the establishment in different parts of the country of observatories, in each of which daily records must be made of the temperature of the air and of the sun, as well as of the quantity of water which falls wnder woods, on the margins of the same plantations, and at distances more or less remote from these woods. For a society like the Scottish Arboricultural Society, it may be perhaps better, at first, at all events, to confine the registers of its observers only to the rain-gauges in these situations, leaving those concerning the thermometers, as optional at present, upon those willing to undertake their registration. 16 ON RAINFALL IN A WOODED COUNTRY, Something of this description has been undertaken several years ago in France by M. Becquerel, who in 1868 had established, with the help of the academy, five observatories in different parts of the arrondissement of Montargis (department du Loiret), in each of which daily observations have been made since the month of July 1868, until, we presume, the ill-omened recent Franco-German war put a stop to all such peaceful study. The results of these observa- tions, however, we are unfortunately unable at present to communi- cate in this paper. They will, however, be obtained and published at a future opportunity. In Denmark also, the Agricultural Institute of Copenhagen have obtained similar observations, taken at fourteen different stations in the interior, near forests, and at a distance from them ; and more recently, in 1868, M. Lacour Danois was entrusted with a similar and more minute scientific mission by the Danish Government. The results arrived at by the various observations contained in the tables annexed to his report are briefly as follows :— The localities in which the observations were made form two distinct groups,—the first, in Jutland; the second, in Zeeland. The one consists of ten observatories, the other of four. The observations were first commenced in September 1862, and were continued till 1869. Their discussion has shown that the quantities of water which fell at 9 leagues and at 2 leagues, differ from each other from 243 to 129 millimetres; whilst in other localities, in the middle of the forests, on the outskirts, at 5 leagues distant, and in an unwooded country, the differences do not exceed above 30 milli- metres. Similar results were obtained from the Zeeland groups of observatories, with regard to the quantity of rain which fell in forests, and 2 leagues distant. These are differences too small to justify us in concluding that in Denmark more rain falls by reason of forests than at a distance from them. In inquiring whether the seasons do not influence the distribution of rain, it has been ascertained that, generally speaking, the rainfall of summer and autumn is nearly double that of winter and spring. Denmark is in the region in which the summer rains are prolonged into autumn; we have besides discovered this fact which is not without interest, that in six localities there falls a little more rain in summer and in autumn than in winter and spring in the middle of the forests and on their borders than at a distance of from 2 to 5 leagues distant. In other localities the reverse is found to be the case. Ought this fact to be attributed to local causes? It is impossible to tell. The observa- -AS COMPARED WITH AN UNWOODED. £7 tions made bring out distinctly the facts above related. We may, however, remark that Denmark, being situated between two seas— the ocean and the Baltic—possesses a very damp climate, which, of course, renders local influences less powerful. Passing now to the observations made in five localities in the department du Loiret, from August 1865 to April 1868, in a circle of about 20 kilometres (124 miles), in the middle of woods, under trees, on the outskirts, and in unwooded positions ; and upon a comparison of these with similar registers taken at Paris, it is found that in a space of eight months, one-fourth more rain fell in wooded than in unwooded localities. But whether or not this is an infal- lible fact, it is premature as yet to assert from the absence of a sufficient number and variety of observations. M. Becquerel also compared the quantities of rain which fell in places shaded by trees with what fell in places outside the woods, in order to ascertain how much water was retained by the branches, according as they were cr were not in leaf, and he proved the following fact, which of course was to have been expected, that the portion retained by the branches is greater in proportion as the rain is less heavy. When the branches are in full foliage, there was 0°47 of the quantity of water which falls in an unwooded plain so retained, while it is about one-half of that quantity in winter, the effect varying according as the leaves are more or less shaken by the wind. ‘“ What then becomes,” he asks, “‘of the water retained by the branches and leaves?” and answers his query, as follows :— “ It is probable that the portion which escapes evaporation descends by the trunk and the roots into the soil and subsoil, where it sup- plies the lower springs.” Without venturing upon more definite statistical data, for want of a sufficient number of observations, in 1868, M. Becquerel came to the fair conclusion that, throughout the arrondissement du Loiret mere rain falls in wooded than in un- wooded districts, a conclusion which, there is little doubt, will be amply verified by his subsequent collection of observations, under the same conditions, not only in the same department, but also in different parts of France and abroad. ‘hese observations he con- templated combining with others on temperature, from researches conducted by means of instruments for determining the degree of humidity in the air above trees and under them. What these researches have resulted in, we shall be obliged, from the length of this paper, to delay tu another occasion. Suffice it to say, that all such undertakings, however initiatory 18 ON RAINFALL IN 4 WOODED COUNTRY. even, are laudable in themselves ; and with a mass of such accurate details as this indefatigable Frenchman has so interestingly col- lected and recorded, and with his observations to aid in guiding us to similar researches in the wooded districts of Scotland, useful documents may be obtained for the solution of the important question of the influence of forests and trees upon the rainfall, the temperature, and the humidity of the air in a country. REPORT ON AN ARBORETUM. 19 Ill. Report on an Arboretum at Cluny Castle, Aberdeenshire. By WI1L1AM GitcuristT, Forester. The premium offered by Messrs Lawson and Sons being for a “Report on the most extensive, complete, and judiciously arranged Arboretum,” it is well to state atthe outset that the arboretum at Cluny Castle cannot lay claim to the two first requirements, and the third is _ partly a matter of taste guided by local circumstances. However, as it contains upwards of 360 varieties of ornamental trees and shrubs, I submit a report thereon. It consists of two detached divisions ; in the one, the plants are grown singly, to promote and exhibit their ornamental capabilities ; in the other, most of the same species are mingled with ordinary forest plants, so that their value as timber- producing trees may be compared with the varieties now in general use when grown under the same circumstances. The planting of both divisions was begun in the spring of 1868, and the principal plants were planted in the spring of 1869; but as the results are already somewhat different, it will be better to note each division separately. 1, The division containing the ornamental specimens may be described as a belt about 400 yards long, with an average breadth of 21 yards, in the form of an easy reversing curve, exposed to the south-east, and sheltered on the north-west by an almost parallel belt of hardwood trees. The elevation is from 280 to 350 feet above sea- level, as per Ordnance Survey. The soil is a light brown loam, and the subsoil gravelly, of variable depth. In some parts it is very hard, and almost impenetrable at from 12 to 15 inches from the surface. Previous to being planted, it was old pasture land with a rough foggage. There are a few old stone drains; but as the ground has a rather steep declivity to the south and south-east, and shows no symptoms of undue wetness, it was not thought necessary to put in more drains. In December 1867, the ground was trenched from 15 to 18 inches deep, at a cost of about L.11, 10s. per acre, and a few of the specimen trees planted without any particular arrangement. During the early spring of 1869 all the plants were replanted, and arranged in the following order :— A gravel walk, 44 feet wide with grass borders, runs through the centre, and on each side of the walk there are three parallel lines. The first line is on the south-east ‘or outside, and consists of deciduous shrubs ; the second line, of coniferous trees and shrubs alternately; the third line, next to the walk, of dwarf evergreen Me 20 REPORT ON AN ARBORETUM. shrubs; the fourth line, on the ofher side of the walk, is similar to the third, and the fifth line to the second. The sixth line is com- posed of hollies, hawthorns, and some of the newer varieties of dwarf-growing deciduous trees. A portion near to the centre being broader than the average, the fifth and sixth parallel lines are slightly deviated from. Between the parallel lines and the hard- wood belt on the north-east side is a strip of mixed trees and shrubs planted closer than the others, to form a background and screen from the old belt. In the parallel lines the plants are 15 feet apart, and generally single specimens, except some of the smaller varieties, which are in groups of three or four plants. The whole are arranged so that the shrubs and dwarf varieties may be grown as underwood, and the larger varieties allowed sufficient space for development. The first or outside line contains specimens of Berberis Darwinii, dulcis, and vulgaris ; Cornus (dogwood) alba, mascula, variegata, sanguinea ; Cotoneaster Simonsii ; Deutzia corymbosa and scabra ; Genista, varieties ; Hippophae rhamnoides (buckthorn) and salici- folia ; Leycesteria formosa; Lonicera xylosteum, and tartarica ; Philadelphus coronarius, grandiflorus, latifolius, nanus, verrucosus, and Zeyheri; Potentilla fruticosa, Ribes aureum, Menziesii, sangut- neum, atro-sanguineum, and flore albo ; Spirea udiantifolia, arie- folia, callosa, corymbosa, Douglasii, Foxti, and opulifolia ; Sym- phoricarpus occidentalis and racemosus; Syringa Josikea, persica, alba, Charlemagne, Charles X., grandiflora, Triomphe d Orleans, and Prince Nottiger ; Viburnum Opulus, rosea, and sterilis, double Guelder rose. The second and fifth lines and the broad portion in the centre are composed of specimens of Abies Albertiana, canadensis, Douglasii, excelsa, firma, taverta, monstrosa, pendula, Menziesii, orientalis, Smithiana ; Araucaria imbricata ; Biota orientalis ; Cedrus atlan- tica, Deodara and Libani; Cupressus Lawsoniana, stricta, macro- carpa, and nutkaensis ; Juniperus chinensis, hibernica, and recurva ; Picea amabilis, bracteata, Cephalonicu, Fraseri, grandis, lasiocarpa, magnifica, nobilis, Nordmanniana, Pichta, Pinsapo ; Pinus austriaca, Benthamiana, Cembra, excelsa, Laricio, and ponderosa; Retinospora obtusa, and pisifera; Wellingtonia gigantea and variegata; Taxus fastigiata and Nidpathensis ; Thuja gigantea, Lobii, occidentalis, and Warreuna. In the third and fourth line on each side of the walk are Abies clanbrasiliana ; Biota aurea and elegantissima ; Cephalotaxus + REPORT ON AN ARBORETUM. al drupacea ; Cryptomeria japonica and Lobbii ; Juniperus canadensis, caucausica, rigida, drupacea, excelsa, excelsa strictu, argentea ; Retinospora filifera, plumosa, and squarrosa ; Sequoia sempervirens ; Taxus elegantissima, variegated silver and golden; Alaternus, two varieties, green-leaved and variegated ; Arbutus, several varieties ; Aucuba japonica, male and female; Azalea, six varieties; Buxus (boxwood), several varieties not named ; Daphne Laureola,, Meze- reum, atropurpureum and alba; Ilex, variegated hollies, twelve varieties; Laurestinus, varieties; Ligustrum japonicum and ovali- folium; Mahonia aquifolia and japonica; Pernettya floribunda and mucronata ; Tamarix gallica ; Rhododendron (hybrid), twelve varieties. Besides these, it is intended to introduce 100 named varieties of rhododendrons during the incoming season. In the sixth line are specimens of Acer Negundo, rubrum and stricta; Betula asplenifolia, laciniata, pendula and populifolia, varieties of double-flowering cherries ; Cratcgus (flowering thorns), varieties, including coccinea, Douglasii, latifolia, Macnabiana, and odoratissima, Paul’s new double crimson, regince pendule pur- purea, single and double scarlet, double pink and white. These are planted alternately with varieties of hollies, including Ilex angus- ° tifolium, blotch-leaved, Dowingtonense, Dutch, Hodgensii, hedge- hog, hybridum, latifolium, laurifolia, myrtifolium, nobilis, regina (Queen), gold and silver, serratifoliu, pictum, tricolor, Scotica, yellow-berried, &c.; Quercus austriacus, Fordii and Lucombi. In the strip of mixed trees and shrubs between the sixth parallel line and the belt of hardwood trees are, Acer campestre, austriacum, circinatum, colchicum, Douglasii, eriocarpum, Leopoldii, macrophyl- lum, monspessulanum, Neapolitana, opalifolium, pensylvanicum, Pseudo-Platanus, burettia, purpurea, albo-varieqata, Corstorphine, saccharinum, tartaricum ; Afsculus (horse-chestnut) Hippocastanum coccinea, flore pleno, rubra, spectabilis and rubicunda; Alnus americana, cordifolia, glutinosa, asplenifolia, Hudsonica, incana, orientalis, ovata, serrulata, &c.; Amygdulis (almond) dulcis, pedunculata, persica flore pleno and alba; Betula (birch), several varieties ; Carpinus (horn-beam) americana, betulus, heterophylla and incisa; Carya (hickory tree) alba and amara; Castanea (chestnut) Americana, vesca, asplenifolia, cochleata and crispa variegata ; Cytisus (laburnum), several varieties; Fagus (beech) asplenifolia, cristata, pendula, purpurea, &c.; Fraxinus (ash) Caroliniana, aurea, aucubefolia, integrifolia, nigra, sambucifolia ; Juglans (walnut); Liriodendron tulipifera; Mespilus (medlar); Morus + 22 REPORT ON AN ARBORETUM. (mulberry) nigra and rubra; Platanus (plane) nepalensis, acerifolia, occidentalis, orientalis, &c.; Populus (poplar) alba, new variety, Abele, balsamifera, canadensis, canescens, cordata, Caroliniana, dilatata, Lindleyana, nivea, tremula, pannonica, &c.; Pyrus, several varieties not named; Rhamnus catharticus and frangula ; Salix acuminata, ulba, pendula, and new silvery, amularis, argentea, Babylonica, caprea, Kilmarnock and American weeping, pentandra, golden, Huntingdon, Bedford, &c.; Sambucus (elder), scarlet-fruited and other varieties; Tilia (lime) alba, europea, asplenifolia, grandi- folia, &c.; Ulmus (elm) crispa, fastigiata, gigantea, purpurea, Camperdown, weeping, pendula, &c. Besides these, there are com- mon and Portugal laurels, Scots yews (varieties), hollies of sorts, Pinus montana and maritima, and other forest trees, as also small plants of the commoner coniferous trees and shrubs, mentioned as being in the parallel lines. These trees are planted too close to remain permanently, but they are regularly root-pruned, so that they can be removed at any time, the chief object being to test the hardiness and suitableness of the different sorts for the district, and to have specimens of as many varieties as possible, so that they may be permanently planted in suitable places when their individual characters are known. A number of the hardier varieties have already been removed, and others substituted in their places. Some of the willows and poplars are not expected to become large trees, as the situation is not suit- able; but some of the specimens are so interesting that it is thought desirable to grow them for a time for reference and as a contrast with the other varieties. There are two small rockeries (one at each end), and growing in these and on a stone wall adjoining are varieties of ivy, lonicera, brambles, briars, &c. As the planting has been done at different periods, the exact cost cannot be stated, except for the spring of 1869, when the divi- sion was laid out and the plants arranged. During that season the wages for work in connection with planting, &c., amounted to - L.38, 10s.; and during each season since there has been about L.4, 15s. expended (exclusive of cleaning) in root-pruning, replant- ing, &c. The original cost of the plants is shown in the annexed table. The result of the planting of this division in 1869 may be said to have been a complete success, as only one of the conifers (Abies Smithiana) was lost. A few of the deciduous plants went back, REPORT ON AN ARBORETUM. 23 but have sprung again from the root. During the first winter most of the doubtful varieties were protected from frost by spruce branches, and each succeeding winter the small tender plants have been protected by the same means. In the spring of 1871, Picea Pichta was slightly frosted, and P. Pinsapo and cephalonica lost their leaders from the same cause, but they have again got leading tops. The late frosts this spring (1872) slightly affected some of the larger varieties, including Picea nobilis, glauca, but the - damage has not been followed by serious results. Two of the best P. nobilis had 14 inches broken off their main leaders in the month of July last, when they were in full vigour, and the young shoots in a brittle state. Heavy birds alighting on the tops were supposed to be the cause, and to prevent this occurring to any of the others, small wood stakes were attached to the main stems, reaching above the tops, so that birds might alight on the stakes and not on the tops. No similar accidents have occurred since. Some of the Cedrus Deodara and Libani were overgrown and bushy before planting, and required severe pruning before leaders could be procured, but with these exceptions, and the removal of double leaders and foreshortening with the finger and thumb of extraneous lateral shoots when in a young and soft state, these plants have received no other treatment. Il. The second division is about 500 yards to the west of that already described. The form is triangular, containing about 34 acres. Elevation, soil, and subsoil similar to No. 1. Exposure to the west and north-west ; sheltered from the south-east. Previous to planting, it was old pasture; but it was deep-ploughed and thoroughly harrowed before being planted in the spring of 1868 with a mixture of ordinary forest trees at about 34 feet apart. The plants and planting cost about L.6, 10s. per acre. The ornamental trees, to which I shall refer, were planted in the spring of 1869, their introduction being an afterthought, consequent on the planting of division No. 1, the object being to test them along with the ordinary forest trees. It would be useless to enumerate all the plants in this division, as, with the exception of some of the newer and rarer sorts, most of the varieties planted in No. 1 occur also in No. 2, with the addition of Pinus Jeffreyii, monticola, Murrayana, Pallasiana, and pyrenaica. The shrubs and dwarf varieties are arranged on the south-west side (parallel to which a carriage-drive passes), and the taller varieties to the background. The coniferous trees are planted 24 REPORT ON AN ARBORETUM. at 30 feet apart, and the principal hardwood trees in the centres. For the first two years the ground was kept regularly cleaned, but for the last two years only about eight yards in width, next to the carriage-drive, has been dressed, the plants being closely met on the rest of the ground. The ordinary hardwood trees, as also the spruce, larch, and Scots fir, are making rapid growth; but it will be seen from the annexed table that some of the ornamental varieties are doing better, espe- cially Picea grandis and nobilis, Abies Douglasii and Menziesit. The true pines were all very small when planted, but they are also doing well, particularly the Austrian, Corsican, ponderosa, and pyrenaica. Some of the Wellingtonias had the points of their lateral shoots frosted on the 8th of October, and less slightly, Abies Menziesii and Smithiana, Picea nobilis and magnifica. Some of the Acers were also slightly touched, but no trees appear to be materially damaged, except the Wellingtonias ; however they may soon regain their appearance, as the tops are not affected. At the same period none of the plants in the other division were the least injured. The whole of the shrubs along the side of the carriage-drive, although fully exposed, are doing remarkably well ; but being chiefly the same varieties as in the other division, the names are not repeated in the table, as it is only for the timber- producing trees that this division is noticed. It will be seen from the table that the coniferous trees in this division are making greater top growths than in No. 1, but less laterals or spread of branches. No doubt this is owing to the con- finement, but as they are all taking girth of stem along with top growths it will be interesting to compare and note progress. In the meantime, it is well to keep in view that in No. 1 the plants were much larger when planted, and all selected; while in No. 2 they were much smaller, and not particularly selected. The column stating the cost of plants shows a great difference in original prices. All the trees in both divisions were planted by pitting in the usual manner, without manures or artificial stimulants of any kind. Owing to the ground having been trenched or ploughed, the rough turf was generally brought to the surface in making the pits, but it was carefully chopped up before being put into the pits again. As a matter of course, the best of the soil was put next to the roots of the plants, and great care was taken to place the roots at the proper depth and as naturally as possible. The names of the coniferous plants in No. 1 division are shown REPORT ON AN ARBORETUM. 25 in enamelled letters on “ Maw’s terra-cotta labels,” suspended by galvanised wire stakes in front of each plant. The names of the others are written on zinc labels, with a preparation sold for the purpose, and the labels are, as a rule, attached to one of the branches of each plant by copper wire. Seeing that this “arboretum” has been recently formed, and that new varieties are being constantly added, it would be pre- mature to state how the different sorts of plants are likely to succeed. However, the annexed tables give a comparative view of their progress, and affords some criterion as to the prospects of future success :— Note.—Since the above was written the following sorts have been added to the collection — Abies Englemanii, Biota semperaurescens, Cephalotaxus Fortunei, Juniperus filicoides, Sabina, Schottii, vir- giniana, glauca; Taxus adpressa, glauca, Dovastonii, erecta, ericoides, and others; Thuja occidentalis, pendulu; Arbutus, 12 named sorts; Buxus pendula, variegata, and 6 named sorts; Ber- beris Belstaniana, Jamiesonit, empetrifolia; Cerasus Azoricus, and myrtifolia, Corylus, 14 sorts named; Quercus coccinea, Rubus leucodermis, &c. (TABLE. VOL. VII. PART I. 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Pe Bg TL ‘ON wowstare | “T “ON WoISAT 4809) Bas g *sJUv JO soureyy @o | SS | He | Jo ypMory [vnuy | Jo TIAL) [BIULL * . Fh ‘ponuyuoo—INAWALVGS AULV IO J, 37 REPORT OF AN ARBORETUM. “Apavy oymub pure ‘Ajoaty SMO.L ‘spvoy Surpvords-opr oavy ysour pre ‘poqyeas [TV ‘UOISIAI, “[] ‘ON UL Ayperoodso ‘oa. AOA SULLY) ‘T[eurs ore yod sv szuvpd nq ‘SerpoMvA OUT, *TJOM AOA LULMOIS [TV ‘SOTJOIIVA [B.IOAVG *ApOOIF SMO.LS INC ‘<]peotpotsed ysomye qsoay Aq punois oy} 0F ynO {| ‘paromopy oavy szur[d osoyy JO LoI1ON WOSVOS SITY} POLOMOTT *STOSBAS OMY JSUT OY} SULIMp paloMo] *paxlomoyf ou svy gnq “queid pow4oy ouy W ‘op ‘od ‘MOSVOS SIT} POLOAOT *‘mosvas or} Jo avd yvors Sump ATooIy S1OMOTT *A[OOIF SOMO AT *IOMOT UL ToT TNoovrs puv Ayjord Aro A *MOTPOOT[OO SIt[} IOJ OSIv] OOF, ‘OMOIS ysvy AIvUTpAovIyXo WH *g001} OTIODAC TM Loy Jt THAAQnop ynq ‘Surqsotequr AprepMoyAeg *SILIVULOYT -—_~_ a te DW WDDDDODDErDDWDDDODD & DIO1I9DD DW AAI SS — oa " 0 & & & 0) 4) 0 9g 0 2 (0) J! 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ZL Ole! ol a0 9¢ | FZ | ZL | 8 Ha at = bt) et | oe | fee ‘uy | “Uy | ‘Uy | “Uy ZLST/LZ8T|OL8T 6981 ‘IT “ON WOIsTarg jo WMory jenuUy aL ONG UOISTATC jo TJAMOLyH [wuUUy *‘panuyjuogo— INUNALVLS AiLvVTOdV J, ine ree ¢/ /T yore g/ Se al “4809 698 GL8T 698T 698T 698T GL8T GL8T GL8T 6981 OL8T 698T 698T 698T 698T 698T 698T 698T 698T OL8T 698T 698T 698T 698 698T 698T 698T 698T GL8T * salqonea “UMMM r A SOOUVA MOU F LY4O * — suynpued [rieaos u * uaoprodumg : * BUBYUOUT SUA) * — eTpoyrpuvas BILOJue[dse : ‘ : Bye y * eaxdowmgy BIT, : * VBOlT[VS XLUVUILY, * — LOSIAON doug suvoTIO,p ayduLoly, c * BLoyIpuBIs ‘ "XX soprvyp : * SUSVIUOLIVTLD ° * BOIS10q * veyisor vourtg Iva Z ‘sndavowoydusg Y * eros ndo, : ; ~ -Texour ‘ : TISVLSNO(, : * — wsoqutt.too ‘ : * wsor[vo : ; VILOJLLLV * —-erpoyueIpe veatdg : poy Jopreos (xopyq Wout -W0d) BIST snonquisg NIVA MOU Q Toyo “XI[Vg *sqUvTg JO SON 38 REPORT ON THE HOUSTON PINETUM. IV. Report on theHouston Pinetum. By WILLIAM TIVENDALE, Forester, Houston, Paisley. In the spring of 1867 we were allowed to take about two acres of ground to be planted as a Pinetum. It is situated at an elevation of nearly 100 feet above the level of the sea, and has a north- eastern exposure. The soil is a good light loam, of considerable depth, resting partly on gravel and partly on sand, and is very well adapted for growing most of the coniferous trees. This piece of ground had formerly been enclosed by a dry stone dyke on the south and east, by a stone and lime wall 6 feet high on the west, and by a strong wire fence on the north. The stone and lime wall being on the public road, and in good repair, was allowed to stand, as also the wire fence; but the dry stone dyke, being no longer required as a fence for cattle, &c., was removed, the small stcnes being left for bottoming the walks of the pinetum. A row of old hardwood trees being on the side of this fence, under the drop of which pines will not grow, we had to trench a border about 24 feet wide, and as deep as possible, without injuring the roots of the trees. This being done, we proceeded to make the walks ; the soil was taken out to the depth of 12 inches, and 48 inches wide, and put on the trenched border which was to be planted with evergreens. 6 inches of small stones were put in the bottom of the walk, which were blinded with an inch of engine ashes; 3 inches of fine gravel was laid on the top of the ashes, leaving the edge of the walk about 3 inches high. As it. was necessary to keep out hares and rabbits, we put up wire netting, the posts for which were cut from matured larch trees, 4 feet long, and 3 inches by 24 inches square. They were driven 1 foot into the ground, at 6 feet from post to post; 6 inches of soil were taken out with the spade all along the outside of the row of posts, anda rafter of larch was nailed to the posts under the natural surface of the ground. A No, 8 wire was threaded through the tcp meshes of the netting as it was being rolled out along the side of the fence ; this wire is strained at the ends of the fence ; the netting is then tightened, and the wire is stapled to the posts, about 2 feet 10 inches above the ground, leaving about 2 inches to be stapled to the rafters under the surface, which prevents rabbits from creeping under the wire netting. The soil taken out for the rafter is again put in, and made firm by tramping with the feet, and all made level. — _ ee V Maple, Lnglisle On ee wise er % l ¢ Pinus ie 2) estrut. UTUL Ss Z i Bz: UUlS GUS e. at ne a 2) rh ao ee ) PL. hf? LY 77. rs CO SU Wa He C arinacaradniee I Moymeih Tine \* Grsiegn fine > 4 Evergreen Hels Portugal Laurels. \° Bhododendrons. (/1ex Aguifolium ] 23W32\/\3W323V323 W323V323W w2320/23 20232 02320232020 cement Ot Oe ts Oe te O ees | Mee fr Ee bs Oe tks te Ort Reem eb Pe | Teh [ieee Ie eee ee ee to ho ee ee ie Ne Pw Pol. N. ® Pee eile t hh dh I Bee eo Co a BS Bs 2 Ov ORR oes rie cardi as red es meee = |) Ge Ee OE: Oe T N 4 eee inal. Pe fe d-> f+ eo ee aes Excl Ocha S| Se Me ei epee Pode) oe | OF. O- ++ OT) UN TO OHS a ee ae ce ee a e pee 2) Poe Ds bh A X eee hb eb oe A ee ea peed | he Ne eR bee Re Ne Leos oe Sieh OL one4) 6) ae) 6: hie. site ee ee ee ac oe 230.+HN ~N-°s oN? N i. eee pee? | PR i sas cnie a 3 ee vy O+- Nee os he Ko ® ® @ @ DIAGRAM. A Pius excelra D Biz 00S (Gye lL Amaia Riise Yew N Mala Bega Ome ¥ H : : ( Taxus fastigrata) W (Acer campestre, (Pinus Austriaca 2) BPs wnsigrus E Widkrugteria gigantea Lice Cephalonia Mipeanzaecen 3) Pipees Mlbbertvcaree restrut Spanish | Sit er Fir ; yes) Castanea Vesta "cea pectinata, C Arzucarva unbricata F (ears Dondara Ne Turica aera Wiz agua miami ee : Gist ; P inl f ae iar Oe Strobus ) O-4+-6-4+:-0-4+ \, Rc OREM iy crete tle tet ie idee rae Ap (O)a sp uw @)a Ge afejads o @)aspo O)odh o OCjoge so @ oar oOo Gp 2 ocr OO)c bd OOo Cea Keo a COO Eo OyoG. 0 {0) Bea lo loo fresh steal oll 5 || | | Pee ene 3 CROROM Gg Ede Oo REL Omer og o@)ocao 13 oO soo te)oo o 13008 o)ocn oO |e Oa (cos ao) ), (Wao 2! [Peet soa eee fo ol ! I I: i ll of ! I ce Il We to Io} 6 iio hte Il Pc ff] N- 1 col Nite hes: Pi] N- I Para N- 1 Beil N- I I | aS O REE iON ps ean Sa) dae Byrd tt. collet Meco [| tou AA (ced co Teor [ont bic It Real eo eect tis . ° . 5 5 3 |e oe eee INFOS o 12 Ges oxoye Mille dt ouleadh el oil - Geilo eos [lo {lo sao) Gels) at ols o iPeOR ioe ece f:Seoni] 1/0) 9 O% « R26) Oo ahs Oe ae AMER fall co (Pool oT . wo bw bo “Ic o . . . 1. OurLinE oF THE GEOLOGY OF BUTESHIRE. The following are the numbers and names (so far as known to me), with the localities where the specimens accompanying this Report Granite, Names. Granite Crystals, Granite, Junction of Granite and Slate, Slate Rock, Old Red Sandstone, Barytes, Old Red Sandstone Conglomerate, Carboniferous Sandstone, PP 9? Sandstone, Sandstone, Hematite, Sandstone, Shale, Stigmaria, Ironstone, Ironstone, Limestone, Limestone, Limestone Coral, Producte, Product, Limestone with Pro- ducte, Conglomerate, Conglomerate, Claystone Porphyry, 9 Where obtained. Roza Burn, Globe Hill, Ploverfield, Globe Hill, Roza Burn, Auchnagallan, Glen Sannox, Corrie, Brodick, Invercloy, Corrie, 9 Scriden, Kilpatrick, Craig Dubh, Arran. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. 61 ' No. Names. Where obtained. 28. Claystone, Lawlash Burn, Arran 29. by a 30. Pitchstone, * nf 31. Pitchstone Porphyry, Brodick, e 32. Trap Rock, Dippin, 33. + es M 34, " Lamlash, e 35. 5 Ascog, Bute. 36. Mica Schist, _- North Bute. 37. s — 5 38. -~— 39, Felspar, -- 40, Clay Slate, — 41. Greywacke, - 9 42. Columnar Sandstone, = South Bute. 39 Instead of attempting any generalisation of the geology of Bute- shire on my own part, I beg to offer a few extracts from Dr Bryce’s Work on the Geology of Arran and Bute :— ‘ Island of Bute—The length of Bute from Garrochhead to But- tock Point is 14% miles, and the average breadth about 3 miles. The total area, including Inchmamock, is 31,835 acres. Three deep depressions or valleys traverse Bute perpendicular to its longer axis, dividing the island into four portions, and marking the boundaries of distinct geological formations. They terminate on either side in bays or indentations of the land, formed here, as in most other cases, at the points of least resistance, the junctions, namely, of dissimilar strata. Those on the east side are the well- known bays of Kames, Rothesay, and Kilcattan. The low tracts in question show no rock én situ, but are filled with shingle and alluvial deposits, concealing the junctions, strata of peat, and occasional shell beds. The elevation above the sea-level nowhere exceeds 30 feet; and as this is also very nearly the height of the terrace encircling the island, it appears that when the sea stood at that ancient level, Bute consisted of four islands separated by narrow channels. The various strata exhibited in Bute are the terminal portions of those great bands of rock, sedimentary and igneous, which extend across the country from sea to sea; mica slate occupies the northern portion, between the Kyles on the north and Kames and Ettrick Bays on the south. The rock has its usual character and aspect, and rises into hills of nearly 1000 feet elevation. The district 62 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. south of this, bounded by the Rothesay valley, consists of the two upper slates, the common clay and chloritic. Subordinate to these are great beds of quartz rock, the most considerable of which forms the high ridge called Barone Hill. The portion extending from Rothesay Valley to Kilcattan is occupied by red sandstone; and finally, the southern portion, with a substratum of red sandstone, consists mainly of various rocks of the trap family, erupted through and overlying the sandstone. The accompanying outline of the island (fig. 1) shows the relation of these strata to the valleys or depressions, which are obviously a part of the system of parallel fractures ranging N.E. and S.W. across Scotland, and probably due to the upheaval of the mountains of the Central Highlands. The sandstone is in the place of the old red, as succeeding the slates, and has much of the mineral character of this formation in other districts. Along the eastern shore in several places, and again at Kileattan, beds of limestone occur subordinate to it; but unlike the Arran limestones in the same subordinate positions, they have no fossils containing much siliceous matter, they are of little economic value, and thus have many analogies with the cornstones of the old red, such as occur near the base of Ben Lomond, and in several localities in Arran, the march of Achab Farm, the Fallen Rocks, Glen Loig, and Kilchattan.* a, Kames Bay ; 4, Rothesay ; c, Kilcattan ; m, mica slate; n, clay and chlorite slates ; ss, red sandstone; ¢, trap; 7, the terrace. The dikes of Bute are composed of greenstone or basalt, and are very numerous, especially on the east coast. ‘They traverse the strata in various directions, and in some cases can be traced for several miles continuously, preserving nearly the same width and direction throughout. The north shore of Bute is classic ground in the history of the glacial beds of Scotland. It was from an exami- nation of the shell beds found here that Mr Smith of Jordanhill was first led to recognise the arctic character of these deposits. Arrun.—the island of Arran is 20} miles long from N.N.W. to S.S.E., 104 miles broad, and with the Holy Isle and Piadda * Professor Geikie considers all the sandstones to be newer than the old red. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. 63 includes an area of 103,953 acres. The number of rock formations, sedimentary and plutonic, which are found within this limited space is truly remarkable, perhaps unparalleled in any tract of like extent on the surface of the globe; while the varied phenomena which they present in their mutual contacts and general relations to one another are of the highest import in theoretical geology. A line running from the north angle of Brodick Bay almost due west to Iorsa water foot divides the island into two nearly equal portions, strikingly different in their geological structure and in their outward features. The northern half consists of a mass of peaked and rugged granite mountains, intersected by deep wild glens, which diverge from a common centre and open seaward on a narrow belt of low land. This belt forms a terrace marking the ancient sea-level, and is bounded inland by cliffs pierced with caves and otherwise sea-worn. The southern half of the island consists of a rolling table-land, bleak and unpicturesque inland, but breaking rapidly down seaward into a coast border of great romantic beauty. The general elevation is from 500 to 800 feet, and the irregular ridges which traverse it, most usually in a direction nearly east and west, rise from 1000 to upwards of 1600 feet. The granite nucleus occupies the central and by far the greater portion of the northern half of the island. The three mountain groups already described, with the glens and valleys penetrating and dividing them, consist entirely of this rock. It is remarkable, however, that at no point does the granite reach the coast. It is everywhere enclosed by a narrow band or framework of clay slate, of the second or dark-coloured variety, which completely encircles the nucleus. On the east side of the granite nucleus, above Corrie, this slate band is extremely narrow. On the western side it is much broader; but the lower micaceous band appears only in patches in the promontories ; west of Catacol it is not seen in any great bodies till we pass into Cantire. The encircling band of clay slate is succeeded on the east and south by a band of Old Red Sandstone, which, like the slate band, is of irregular breadth. It begins to overlie the slate at the Fallen Rocks on the north-east coast, and occupies the shore thence to the march of Achab Farm, half-a-mile north of Corrie. Here it retires inland, the Carboniferous formations taking its place on the shore, crosses in a narrow band to the west of Maoldon, and stretches thence continuously westward, around the border of the slate, to the mouth 64 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. of Muchrie Water. Between this point and Dougrie, near Torsa water foot, it attains its greatest breadth. A line from the north side of Brodick Bay to Dougrie very nearly marks out its line of junction with the slate. The southern half of the island, southward of the Old Red Sand- stone boundary above defined, that is, from the String Road and valley of Muchrie Water to the south end, is composed of several members of the Carboniferous series, broken through and overlaid by various igneons rocks, chiefly those of the greenstone type. The prevailing rock and substratum of the whole southern plateau is red sandstone, varying from a fine compact structure to that of a coarse conglomerate. A band of this sandstone extends also along the eastern shore northwards to Corrie, and again from the Fallen Rocks north- west to the Scriden, at the northern extremity near the entrance of Loch Ranza. Subordinate to this sandstone are beds of limestone abounding in fossils of true carboniferous types, with beds of shale and coal, in which are found fossil plants and shells such as charac- terise these strata in the basin of the Clyde. Arran is extremely rich in rocks of the trapean order; most of the known species occur, and also those numerous varieties by which they graduate into one another. They form great overlying masses, capping the sandstone of the southern plateau, and rising into the highest hills of this division of the island. They are interposed amid the sedimentary deposits, in huge sheets or beds conformable to the stratification, and cut through all the rocks alike, from the lowest to the highest in vertical or slightly inclined dikes, which range continuously across great horizontal distances. The trap rocks of Arran may be arranged in three classes, accord- ing to their composition:—The Felspathic, comprising porphyry, claystone, compact felspar, and pitchstone; the Hornblendic, as diorite and amygdaloid; the Augitic, as basalt and dolerite. Great Cumbrae.—This island is three miles long, and one and a- half broad. The surface rises gently towards the middle, and the height nowhere exceeds 500 feet; the southern shore presents some low rocky clifis; on the other sides the ground descends by grassy slopes and sandstone ledges. Great Cumbrae corresponds in geological structure with the middle region of Bute, and consists of red sandstone haying a sliglit northerly dip, traversed by numerous trap dikes, invaded by sheets of the same rock, but not overlaid by trap except in one spot on the west coast, where a small patch occurs. The sandstone is generally of a deep red colour, almost the only ex- ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. 6d - ception being found in the small islets forming the harbour of Mill- port, which consists of white and grey sandstone. Strata of conglo- merate structure are occasionally met with; and the ridges on the west formerly showed some thin limestone beds interstratified with sandstone, but these have been worked out. No fossils have been met with ; but there can be little doubt that the sandstone is of the same age as that of South Bute, most probably lower carboniferous. Little Cumbrae.—The Lesser Cumbrae is about two miles long and one mile broad, and in its bolder outlines strongly contrasts with the sister isle; its highest peint has an elevation of about 800 feet. In geological structure and in altitude it corresponds with the southern division of Bute. Pladda.—This islet is attached to Arran by a whin dike, over most parts of which there is broken water at low tide. The island consists almost wholly of a dark-coloured trap rock, the sandstone foundation appearing only on the north-eastern shore. IJ. ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. Island of Bute.—The extent of enclosed plantations in Bute is about 1600 acres. The principal portion is the policy woods of Mount Stuart, the remainder being a number of detached belts and plantations in the south and north parts of the island. The plantations to the south of Rothesay rest on the earboni- ferous formation, those to the north on the slate formation. Though there is a considerable breadth of trap rock in the middle and south portions of the island, there is no wood of any consequence to afford conclusive evidence of the advantages or disadvantages of such under- lying formation to the growth of trees. At the same time, from the character of the herbage, the dry nature of the soil and substratum, caused by the numerous intersects with which the underlying rock abounds, we should suppose that trees would grow well where there is sufficient depth of soil. The policy woods of Mount Stuart have an elevation of from 10 to 150 feet, with an east exposure, and are completely sheltered from the west storms. The portion immediately round the mansion- house is of considerably older date than the outer portions, in all probability dating back to the commencement of the mansion-house —1712—which gives an age of 160 years. The outer portions average from 30 to 62 years old. The part of the policy woods along the sea-shore rests at the bottom of the old sea terrace, and is very few feet above high-water mark. ‘The rock in a great many 66 ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. parts is within less than a foot of the surface. The soil is a deposit of gravel or gravelly soil—the remains of the ancient sea beach— and is damp from imperfect drainage in a great many places. Still the trees have grown remarkably well. Though the surface is naturally flat and damp, yet in long-continued droughts the soil becomes exhausted, as was evidenced four years ago (1868), when several fine spruce firs succumbed for want of nourishment. The higher portion of the policy woods is principally composed of mixed hardwoods, with a few Scotch, spruce, larch, and silver firs, and stands above the level of the ancient sea-cliff (from 40 to 80 feet above present sea-level). The soil varies from a sandy loam to a gravelly clay. There are some fine trees in this portion of the woods. Spanish chestnut thrives remarkably well, and the lime- tree avenue and beech walk are specially admired. The latter, according to the old fashion, is perfectly straight, and of considerable length, and lies betwixt the cliff and the sea. The beeches are from 100 to 120 feet high, and resemble a vast Gothic arch when viewed from one end. There are also several specimens of rare and beau- tiful plants in the flower-garden ; and such is the mildness of the climate, that exotics, which are raised in few places in Britain, are found here in a vigorous state. Miss Sinclair alleges that they have mistaken Bute for the tropics, and continues :—“ Cape heaths flower luxuriantly in the open air, remaining out all winter, as well as standard plants of the Magnolia grandiflora, which have risen to the height of 18 or 20 feet. Sweet almonds ripen; geraniums are on fire with scarlet flowers ; fuchsias and camellias have been enlisted among the hardy plants; and we observed two thriving cork trees. In short, it seems that that which flowers once a year elsewhere blossoms twice here ; and what grows 6 feet high in other places of the empire grows 12 in this more favoured spot.” The outer and detached portions of plantations to the north, south, and west of Mount Stuart are composed principally of larch, Scotch and spruce firs, and have mostly a south or south-west exposure, with an elevation of from 50 to 500 feet. The soil varies from a clayey loam to a thin gravelly till with a rocky bottom (con- glomerate). Where the situation is sheltered, with a fair depth of soil and perfect drainage, the trees have generally grown well. Where the situation is exposed to the west winds, the trees are con- siderably inferior, the larch, more especially along the exposed sides, being much blasted. The plantations in the northern half of the island rest on the slate ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. 67 formation. The greater portion is composed of larch, with a mixture of spruce and Scots firs. Exposure—north and north-west, with an elevation of from 50 to 500 feet. The soil generally very thin ; but where the surface is of a loose rocky nature, and the drainage natu- rally perfect, larch trees grow well, and are generally more healthy than those grown on the carboniferous formations, or south portion of the island. There are several portions of coppice wood in the middle and north end of the island ; but these are of comparatively little value, and the land could be turned to more profitable account if cleared, drained, and planted with larch, Scots and spruce firs. Along Ascog shore, east of Rothesay (carboniferous formation), there is a fine margin of wood along the sea-cliff. There are “also several specimens of the rarer coniferze in the villa gardens here and near Rothesay ; and at Kames Castle, North Bute, there are a number of fine old park trees, Inchmarnock.—This island is of the same formation as North Bute. The soil is of a clayey nature with a tilly bottom. With the exception of a margin of birch and hazel scrubwood along the east side and south end of the island, there is no wood of any note. The small scrub is cut and used as firewood or for fencing purposes by the farmers on the island. Great Cumbrae.—The wooded portion of this island lies along the east and west sides of the road leading from the south to the north end, and extends to about 90 acres of mixed plantation, 45 years old, with an elevation of from 50 to 184 feet above the sea-level. The greater portion has a south-west exposure, and the soil (except in the hollow parts) is very thin, with a rocky bottom. The Scots and silver firs have grown best... On some of the poor and rocky parts, the larches are not more than 4 inches in diameter. On the best ground the largest Scots and silver firs average 12 to 15 inches in diameter at 5 feet from the ground. In the college grounds near Millport there are a number of fine araucarias, about 14 years old, averaging from 9 to 16 feet in height. Little Cumbrae.—There is no wood on this island, only a scanty herbage. Pladda.—This is only a rocky islet. Arran.—The extent of enclosed plantations on the island of Arran is about 1250 acres, of which 800 acres are from 42 to 60 ‘ years old, and 450 acres from 14 to 25 years old. With the excep- tion of a few scattered portions of wood, planted within the last twenty 68 ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. years, the greater portion of the enclosed plantations is in the imme- diate neighbourhood of Brodick Castle. The wood round the castle, with the exception of a part of the wood at the mouth of Glen Roza, which rests on the Old Red Sandstone, is all on the Carboniferous formation. Exposure—east, with an elevation of from 50 to 500 feet. The wood to the west of the castle is composed of larch, Scots and silver firs, about 45 years old. The soil varies from a peaty soil to a clayey loam, intermixed with freestone and slate shingle, with _granite boulders. The Scots firs, though Having been pretty close drawn up, are rather coarse grown; and though there are several fine Scots firs in this portion of the plantation, the larches are gene- rally the largest trees and the most thriving. To the north of the castle, along both sides and to the north of Merkland Burn, the wood consists chiefly of oaks, which are not in a thriving state, being much fogged and stunted, which no doubt is much aggravated by the damp state of the ground. To the south of the castle, on north side of Roza Burn, the wood is composed principally of Scots and spruce firs, 42 years old. To the west of this part of the wood is principally larch, with a row of planes on the west or storm side. The trees, though evidencing the effects of the storm at the mouth of Glen Roza (leaning very much to one side), are remarkably healthy :—no dead tops are to be seen. Though there are a number of larch and spruces which measure 15 inches in diameter 5 feet up, the greater proportion would class under the largest size of propwood. On the south side of Roza Burn there is a fine clump of mixed wood ; and, with the exception of a few trees in the north- west corner of the plantation, they are equally healthy to the last. It may be noted that the junction of the Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone is somewhere near the centre—south and north of this plantation, also through the upper corner of the last-mentioned plantation—on north side of Roza Burn. ‘The junction is not definitely seen, the bottom of the burn being obscured with gravel and granite boulders. There is also a piece of fine wood, composed principally of larch and Scots fir, with a few silver firs, oak, and beech, about 60 years old, between Brodick church and school-house. The larch and Scots fir average 9 to 16 inches in diameter 5 feet up. Immediately behind the castle there is a plantation, about 25 years old, with a few old Scots fir and silver firs as standards. Several of the silver firs are 120 feet high. There is also a clump of larch about 12 ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. 69 years old, planted in the centre of the old wood to the west of the castle ; but the greater proportion have been destroyed by the deer, which are very numerous here. With the exception of a small por- tion of wood to the east and west of Invercloy, this comprises the principal portion of the wood round Brodick Castle. The plantations in the south end of the island have been mostly planted within the last fifteen years. Exposure—south and south- east, with an elevation of from 100 to 500 feet. With the excep- tion of the young plantation at Lag, the larch of which seem to be in an unhealthy and diseased state, they are all remarkably healthy, though much in want of thinning. At Lamlash and neighbourhood, the glens are more or less fringed with a margin of natural wood, composed of plane, birch, alder, and elder. At White House there are a number of fine silver firs, and some fine shrubs; also, near the north end of Lamlash village there are several fine araucarias, about 15 feet high. Near the shore, along side of the road leading from Lamlash to Brodick, there are a number of beech and Scots firs about 80 years old. The next to be noticed is a margin of birch coppice-wood, along the sea-cliff from Brodick woods to Glen Sannox, and from Loch Ranza to Dugarry. Hazel is very scarce in most parts. Though the above are the principal localities of the birch or coppice wood, straggling trees are seen more or less in all the glens near the shore in Arran. On the west side of the island, immediately above the shore, we observed numbers of elder trees more than a foot in diameter. The only piece of wood of any note on the slate formation is 35 acres of young plantation, 25 years of age, immediately above the shore, at Whitefarland, on the west side of the island, which has an elevation of from 20 to 300 feet, with a full west exposure to the sea. It is composed principally of larch, with a few ash and alder intermixed, with a double row of planes along the shore. Con- sidering the nature of the ground, which is a rough rocky face, and exposed as this plantation is to the storms of the Atlantic, the trees are remarkably healthy. The planes are very healthy, averaging 9 inches in diameter 5 feet up. The hills rising immediately behind this plantation must act an important part in warding off the storm from the lower ground. As evidence of the mildness of the climate on the east side of the island, Dr Landsborough remarks, “that in Cromla garden (near Corrie) the oleander (Nerium oleandev) stood a winter in the open 70 ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. air, without protection of any kind, and flowered well in the green- house the following summer. The gorgeous Rhododendron noble- anum is in bloom the whole winter; so also is Genista Atleana, (5 feet in height). A myrtle, planted out in 1862, now 84 feet in height,and more in circumference, flowers magnificently every season. This year (1871) there were planted Cyathea dealbata, perhaps the most beautiful of tree ferns. An Australian gum tree, and also the beef-wood or she-oak (Casuarina quadrivalvis), the most singularly picturesque tree of the Australian flora, being a tree paddock pipe.” T visited Cromla garden in October 1872, that I might see for myself, and beg to testify that the plants, with the exception of the gum trees (Eucalyptus), which have been injured in some way, are equal to all that has been stated regarding them, though the garden is now much neglected. For the sake of comparison, I append the following dimensions of the most noteworthy trees in Buteshire :— Name. | Where Growing. | Age. | Height. Wii) Ash (common), . . | Mount Stuart | 160 aide | 9 fo aa PAs’ Adamie” jc: 0: Rothesay 220.| Seni Bisel OL HAG D7 gaa ea do. =< «4 gee ae Uae | Beech (common), . | Mount Stuart 160. ... {13 | PELE reese a ei fe aa | i | ee) Oriental Plane, . . do. on3. pee 8 0 Lite Tree,’ = do. es 2 ie 5 Palip. Pree; =~. i ys: do. nip ene 0 Evergreen Oak, . do. 1601. 2. Hornbeam, . . . | do. 160]. ee 0 Sweet Chestnut, . | do. 160] 2) ait 9 make MOS 2 do. 160) oe 6 * « Adam” and ‘‘Eve” are two remarkable old ash trees on the roadside, a little to the south of the town of Rothesay. The largest, ‘‘ Adam,” having become much decayed, the trunk completely hollowed out, and only a thin shell of wood and bark on the one side keeping it in life, the largest limbs, some of them 3 feet in diameter, had to be cut off three years ago, to prevent it from being blown down. The first and second year after the limbs were cut off. it gave signs of vigorous life by sending out several shoots from 2 to 3 feet in length ; but last year (1871) its race seems to have been run, and it now stands a hollow dead trunk, a monument of former greatness. The age of this tree was ascertained by counting the annual rings of one of the limbs. Most of the wood being perfectly sound, part of it was made into seats, which were placed along the shore to the east of the town. ‘‘ Eve’”’ is still vigorous and healthy, and likely to be so for many years. We have no means of knowing the age of this tree; but it must be considerably younger than ‘‘ Adam.” ARBORICULTURAL FEATURES OF BUTESHIRE. 71 Name. Where Growing. | Age. | Height. epee | ‘Turkey Oak,. . . | Mount Stuart | ... Sais ay a aa Ue ac Cork Oak (Quercus | Ae 36| 99 | 2 9 Delcry, =~. - - = J : Abies Douglasii, . do. 12 |) 30 ak Abies morinda,. . do. 36 |» 30+) 2 5 Araucaria imbricata, do. 12 9 ths Araucaria imbricata, do. 15; 154] 1 1 Cupressus macrocarpa, do, a 26 am Cedrus Libani, . . do. cel OO Waa Ee Larix europea, . . do. ee Sie vee 3 Picea pectinata,. . do. AUN SOG *FRa eorEG Pinus sylvestris,.. do, va wird els 7 Taxus baccata, . . do. ee 60 | 8 4 Wellingtonia gigantea, do. 134.42 3 Robinia Pseudo-Acacia. do. 36°| .43 2 9 Cedrus Deodara, . do. 36] ‘a0 Po 0 Cryptomeria Lobbu, do. Git Gass eee Ly Pinus Strobus, . . do. ape 30 6 0 mrauearia, . . . tothesay 18) 22 | fh 10 mraacaria, . .. « | Millport 14] 16 P eracaria. 7. *, Brodick Castle} 20} 24 Es abu Abies morinda,. . do. a 14 é Cedrus Deodara, . do. 3 20 1 iia Pinus austriaca, .. do. ie Lei Sc hOaiae Pinus sylvestris, . do. id: cto tne 3 Larix europea, . . do. ete Peg 9 | Where the age is not known, the column is blank, Though the foregoing is but an imperfect review of the arbori- culture of Buteshire, still it is hoped that it may be worthy of acceptance, ~I bo ON DIFFERENT MODES OF VIL. On Different Modes of Profitably Disposing of Home- Grown Timber. By Davin Tair, Forester, Owston Park, Doncaster. This subject is one well worthy of the attention of landed proprietors and their foresters. As timber is a crop which occupies the ground about sixty years on an average, it is very fitting that we should consider the different methods in use for disposing of it, and choose the one which will bring in the largest return, as the question of woodlands being profitable may be greatly affected by the disposing of the timber crop. In considering this subject, I have stated the various methods of disposing of timber with which I am acquainted, and have given iny opinion on their respective merits, viz. :- — 1st, Selling standing timber. 2d, Selling fallen timber by auction. 3d, Do. do. by tender. Ath, Do. do. privately. 5th, Do. do. ina manufactured state. The selling of growing timber, which is very general through- out the country, is a common mode of disposal; but is, I believe, more common in England than in Scotland. Its advan- tages may be described as follows :—First, if the bidding at the sale does not reach the reserved valuation, the timber can be left standing, and if in a healthy condition will improve in value; Secondly, the sale can be managed at much less expense than if the timber is cut down previous to being sold. When sold in this way the common plan is to go through and number each tree, and put a valuation on it,—all the propwood or small poles being simply marked and counted, and an average taken of what they contain. A reserve price is then made out; and if the intending purchasers do not bid up to that figure, there is no sale till some future time. After the timber is sold, the purchaser sends men into the wood and has the timber cut down and taken off the ground at his own expense, the conditions of sale generally binding him to have it removed before a certain date, otherwise it becomes forfeited to the vendor. Some “conditions” are extremely binding in this respect, others are quite the reverse, and very much to be condemned. For instance, a sale came under my notice a few weeks ago (in Dee. 1871), the time fixed for having the timber off being March 1873. PROFITABLY DISPOSING OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. ta A quantity of the wood sold was fast-growing ash, so that besides the damage done to the trees that were to remain, the timber mer- chant, by letting the timber stand till October 1872, will have several hundred feet of wood more than he had at the time of the sale. I will now state some of the disadvantages of selling timber in this way. When a sale takes place, it is generally in lots valued at from two or three hundred up to several thousand pounds. The higher the value of the lot, the fewer there are who can purchase it, and consequently there is less competition; and it sometimes occurs that there is an understanding among the bidders at a sale which one is to be the purchaser, the others having what they want out of the lot at a certain price; but it may be answered, if the timber brings the reserved valuation, the proprietor will have got its value. To this I would reply, that even the most practical valuer cannot tell within a foot or two what a tree contains ; and in large trees the difference is of course greater, and valuators, as a rule, always try rather to keep below than above the exact measure. If we suppose a fall of timber to be taken down containing 4000 trees, and each of the trees to be 1 foot over the measure calculated to be in it—which would be very near the mark—we have at once 4000 feet of timber, which, valued at 9d. per foot, gives L.150. I con- sider that to be a very near case. In fact timber-merchants con- sider their servants have not valued timber properly if a tree when fallen does not yield several feet above what they calculated to be in it. There is a fall of timber being taken down in this neigh- bourhood at present, where many of the trees are turning out as much as from 12 to 16 feet above the estimated contents. These are all clean grown beech, worth Is. per foot. Another great disadvantage of this method is, the letting strange men into the plantation to cut down the timber. I know it is argued by some that this is no disadvantage, as it can be arranged that the proprietor’s men shall cut down the timber ; but if this is to be done at the proprietor’s expense, it should be done previous to being sold ; and if at the timber-merchant’s expense, the workmen become his servants for the time being. The common practice with timber-merchants is to engage men to do the work at so much per 100 feet, and the greatest carelessness is the result. Ihave always found that men working in this — way break other trees to any extent, before they would take the trouble of lopping the one they are engaged in cutting down. Then there is the drawing out of the trees with horses. In this VOL. VII. PART I. FE 74 ON DIFFERENT MODES OF operation much damage is often done by carelessness, the men who are doing the work having no interest in being careful. The result is, that many trees get barked to an extent from which they never recover. I have heard gentlemen who have had large experience in the management of estates, argue greatly in favour of this method of selling timber; but I have never found any practical forester, or wood manager, declare that it was the most satisfactory way of doing the work committed to their charge. The reason it finds favour with estate agents and factors may generally be traced to the cheapness whereby sales conducted in this way can be effected ; an argument which should be sufficiently answered by taking into consideration the fact that timber-merchants have generally to pay a higher rate of wages for felling, &c., than landed proprietors are able to do it for; and it is very clear that the expense of such work must be made up in some way. There are cases where this may be the best way of disposing of a lot of timber. For instance, if it is growing on an outlying estate, where there is not a regular staff of workmen kept, or where there is a difficulty in obtaining the necessary funds for carrying out the work. When it is thought best to sell standing timber, I should recommend selling by tender, for reasons mentioned under that heading. Selling felled timber by auction.—This is a method of disposing of timber which is pretty general in most parts of Scotland, and occasionally in England ; and I consider it by far the most profit- able way of disposing of timber. No doubt it is more expensive in the first place ; but my opinion is that, when properly managed, it more than repays all expenses in the end. I have always found this way of disposing of timber gives more satisfaction both to a proprietor and forester, the only objectors to it being extensive timber-merchants. I offer the following reasons for giving preference to this method :— Ist, In this way trees can be felled much more satisfactorily, being done by the proprietor’s own men. 2d, Timber can be properly classed, and sold in lots to suit pur- chasers. 3d, By selling it in small lots, greater competition is created, and a higher price generally realised. 4th, Being divided among several purchasers, it can be sooner removed off the ground. PROFITABLY DISPOSING OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. 19 On the first reason it is not necessary to make many remarks, as every one acquainted with the matter knows that men who are constantly employed on an estate take an interest in doing their work as well as they can, for the sake of their own character ; while timber-merchants’ men attend only to their masters’ view of the matter ; and the only interest they generally show, is in dressing off the end of the tree they have cut down, not caring if, in doing so, they severely injure several other trees. The second reason stated above speaks strongly in favour of this mode of disposing of timber, as classing is what may be called the vital point in this part of a forester’s business. There are many different trades carried on, requiring different classes of timber. If a large mixed lot is sold, it is not a consumer, but a dealer, who becomes the purchaser, who then sells it out to different parties as their various wants require. Now by classing the timber and sell- ing it in small lots, this third party is done away with, and different consumers can come forward and buy what suits their purpose. In support of the foregoing statement, 1 may mention a case that came under my notice a short time ago. The lot offered for sale was mostly plane or sycamore trees, and was exposed for sale by tender. Three timber-merchants gave in offers for it, the highest being L.30; but as that was considerably under the reserved valuation, the timber was kept and sold by auction some time afterwards, when a manu- facturer of sycamore furniture being present, it was knocked down to him at L.46. The same party who offered by tender L.30, offered L.45 at the auction sale. As regards the third reason given above, it is clear that if a lot of timber is sold worth L.1000, the number of people who can make the purchase is very much smaller than if the same quantity of timber was exposed for sale in a hundred separate lots. The class of purchasers who are able to purchase the smaller lots have, where large quantities only are sold, to purchase at a greatly increased price from the larger buyers. The fourth reason I have given for preferring this method of dis- posing of timber is of some consequence on estates where the pro- prietor is in favour of preserving game, as in that case it is a nuisance to have carters coming into the woods to lift timber at certain seasons; therefore, by having say twelve purchasers, the timber can be much sooner removed than if there was only one purchaser for the same quantity. On the estate where I am at present, the timber was formerly 76 ON DIFFERENT MODES OF sold standing in one lot; but not proving satisfactory, it has lately been sold by auction in small lots, after being cut down ; and since that method was adopted, we have had coal-pit proprietors, con- tractors, bobbin-makers, boat-builders, pianoforte-makers, mill-owners, &e., attending our sales, and buying what suited their various wants. To give an idea of the cost of felling and putting the timber into lots, I give a statement of what was paid here this year for that work :— 16,172 feet of timber realised, . : . di a Topwood, . ; ; . : Zo OO Li15e OG Cost of felling, i : ; Lbo tog Cost of putting into lots, including horse hire, . : , : 19-@8:2 a6 Cost of cutting out topwood, ON fa Cost of lotting do. : 313° © Deduet ————— io OG Profit, L.670 10 6 The above quantity of timber was sold in 112 lots. In carrying out the sale, I had every tree measured exactly as it was cut down, and the contents marked on the end of the tree; and afterwards, when they were put in lots, I was enabled to get the exact contents of each lot by copying it off the trees as they were brought forward. I had different sorts and qualities kept in separate lots, the size of a lot varying from 100 to 1200 feet. No doubt the sum of L.80 looks a large amount to pay for labour, but it would have been impossible for timber-merchants to do it so cheaply; and although there is no way of knowing exactly what the difference would have been had the timber been sold standing, yet, from previous experience, I have no hesitation in saying that we would have got for it much less than the net profit realised. I will now make a few remarks on the selling of timber by tender. In certain cases I highly approve of this mode of disposing of timber. For instance, if it is a quantity of oak, or Scotch fir, or any other lot of timber of one class; but I certainly do not recommend it where a mixed lot is to be disposed of, as all the advantages which I hold are to be gained from classing the timber are entirely lost. PROFITABLY DISPOSING OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. 77 One great advantage of this method is the cheapness with which a sale may be effected. Of course, I recommend it to be cut down previous to being sold ; but where it is desirable to sell a lot of timber standing, I recommend tender instead of auction sale. When sold in this way, the plan generally adopted is to inform the timber-merchants who are likely to become purchasers by circular of the number of trees and quality of timber to be disposed of, and the date by which the offers must be sent in, said offers to be in accordance with conditions of sale specified ; and as none but timber- merchants of good standing would be informed of the sale, the highest offerer should become the purchaser, upon agreeing to and signing the conditions mentioned. Selling Timber Privately.—This mode of selling timber—al- though adopted on some estates for disposing of large quantities of timber, both standing and fallen—is only suited for supplying a local dealer with a few trees (by privately I mean where only one merchant is invited to become purchaser). As competition is the life of trade, I prefer it in every instance where it can be brought into play. And if a lot of timber reaches the value of L.20, I should certainly say, sell it by tender. When there are only a few trees to be sold, they should be cut down and measured, the market price per foot being charged for them. Selling Timber in a Manufuctured State-—On some estates there is a saw-mill, at which timber is cut up into boards, palings, stobs, pit-props, gate-posts, &c., and sold. Some people recommend this method as a profitable way of disposing of inferior lots of wood ; but I think there are stronger reasons against than in favour of it. For instance, to keep the saw-mill going, some trees are very likely to be cut down and sawn up that ought to have been left growing; besides, I have no doubt the extra money got for the wood is spent in manufacturing it, as there are not the appliances or division of labour to work with that are found in an establishment fitted up for that particular trade. J am certainly of opinion that on every large estate there ought to be a saw-mill, especially where water-power is available; but this should be used only to cut up wood for estate purposes, or to supply the tenants with fencing material at market price. I have not said anything about ‘conditions of sale,” in eres to any of the methods mentioned, as different districts require different conditions ; but care should always be taken not to make too loose arrangements about the payment of timber, as many people seem 73 ON DIFFERENT MODES OF to have an idea that timber should almost be given away. Now, as timber is a crop that stands long before giving any return, one would think the very reverse should be the case ; yet I am aware of certain districts where there is no difficulty in getting payment in three months from date of sale, or by giving 5 per cent. discount of getting ready money ; and still on some estates, in the same district, twelve months’ credit, or 10 per cent. discount, is given. In conclusion, I would say that ‘“ the best mode of profitably dis- posing of timber” is a subject well worthy of more consideration than it generally (or at least often) receives. Perhaps a few remarks on the disposing of forest produce, that does not come under the classification of timber, as well as the dif- ferent uses it is put to, may be interesting to some of the members of this Society. In some parts of England there is a ready market for hop-poles, rails, hedge-stakes, rods for scarlet runners, pea-stakes, thatch-pegs, and top-wood, made up in faggots or bundles. In Worcestershire ash is grown as coppice-wood, and cut down at about sixteen years’ growth for hop-poles, bean-rods, &c., and is generally sold at about L.14 to L.16 per acre, the purchasers doing all the work, and leaving about sixty plants to the acre to grow to a larger size. Every little piece of wood is used up; and, last of all, the small tops, or brushwood, are tied up in faggots, and sold at the rate of 2s. 6d. per score. These are used in all the west and south of England, and throughout Wales, for heating ovens for baking bread, brick ovens being used in that part of the country. As far as has come under my notice, that appears to be about the general price for faggots. In some places the tying up of the faggots is let by contract, the price paid being about 8d. per score ; and in some parts of Wales I have known arrangements made with a dealer who paid 3s. for every 100 bundles he tied up, himself finding men to do all the labour. This, however, was within three miles of a coal pit. In the same neighbourhood rails, net-stakes, &c., are sold at, 1d. per yard. In Yorkshire small rods, $ an inch in diameter and 3 feet long, are sold at 6d. per 100, and are used by farmers in thatching stacks. Stronger rods, and 8 feet long, are used for scarlet runners to climb up, and sell readily at 6d. per score. The same class of rods also sells readily to crate-makers, and picked rods about the same size are sought after by skip-makers, for which a better price can be got. (Skips are a sort of crate, used at manu- factories for packing the finer sorts of cloth in.) Hedge-stakes are PROFITABLY DISPOSING OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. 79 sold at 8d. per score, and are about 2 inches in diameter and 5 feet long ; net-stakes, which are straighter and stronger, sell at 18d. per score ; rails sell about 1d. per yard, and may be described as a size less than pit prop-wood. Small wood tied up in faggots is unsale- able in that part of the country, no brick ovens being used. There is a partial call for the small top-wood at 1s. per cart-load. No doubt in future the increased price of coal will create a greater demand for all sorts of firewood throughout the country. In Scotland there is little demand for small top-wood, which is either burned up or left for game cover. There is also little done in the way of disposing of the rods cut up in brushing a plantation, although there are some exceptions. On some estates I have known pea stakes sold at timber sales by auction. I have also known rods for crate making being sent a distance of forty miles at a remunera- tive price. There is no doubt that by a little exertion a market might be found for a large quantity of such produce as above de- scribed, at least on estates situated near a railway station, within thirty or forty miles of a manufacturing town. 80 ON THE MOST CERTAIN METHOD OF IX. On the most certain Method of getting rid of Beetles which affect Conifere. By WILLIAM TIVENDALE, Forester, Hous- ton, Paisley. In the spring of 1865, I was requested by a landed proprietor to look at three young plantations which were very much damaged by the ravages of insects, and to suggest if anything could be done to get rid of them. On inspecting these plantations, I found that the trees had been three years planted, on ground previously occupied by a crop of trees, principally Scotch pine, and that the insects which had done so much damage to the trees were the wood beetles—AHylobius abietis of Germar, and Hylurgus piniperda of Fabricius, two of the most destructive pests that arboriculturists have to contend with. The number of trees destroyed by these beetles exceeded 140,000. in tract No. 1, extent 16 acres, planted with Scotch and Austrian pines, larch, and a few spruce and silver firs, at 3 feet apart, more than half of the trees were completely destroyed ; in tract No. 2, extent 13 acres, planted at 3 feet apart, with Scotch pine, larch, and a few spruce, more than two-thirds were rendered useless; and in tract No. 3, extent 144 acres, not a living plant was seen, save about a dozen of larches in a corner of the plantation which was a little damp, and even these were injured to such an extent that they did not look likely to live over the summer. On reporting this state of matters to the proprietor, he expressed his determination to get rid of the pests, if possible, in No. 1 and No. 2 plantations; but, as there were no plants in No. 3 worth saving, he put cattle in to graze for a year or two, to see if that would tend to diminish the evil. Hylobius abietis is 4 inch long, 3} inch in circumference, of a bright grey colour, and beautifully spotted over the cases of the wings. It makes its depredations upon all sorts of Conifers, but the Scotch pine is, doubtless, its favourite. In its attack upon the tree, it generally begins immediately above the surface of the ground, and eats greedily the bark all round, and gradually upwards, leaving the trees peeled into the alburnum, when they soon die. In the case of older trees, it makes no attempt to eat the rough bark on the bole, but seeks its way to the branches, and preys upon their tender bark. Here it does not eat the bark all round as‘it does on the stems of the young tree, but makes an attack here and there on the upper GETTING RID OF BEETLES WHICH AFFECT CONIFER. 81 side of the branch, and seldom, if ever, makes a second attack at precisely the same place, which is the cause of their being far less injurious to large than to small trees. I find that the wounds they make in the bark of the branch soon heals, leaving the tree little the worse, | Aylurgus piniperda is a small dark-coloured beetle, 5%, inch long, and about +4 inch in diameter. It attacks the young trees in the same way as I have described, but upon older trees it has a different mode of working. It bores into the centre of the last formed ter- minal shoot, eats through the pith, seldom making its exit till it has arrived at the base of the bud, when it descends in search of another shoot to destroy in the same way; the shoots thus robbed of their pith soon wither, and hang on the tree for months before they drop off. Five years ago, anumber of Weymouth pines under my charge were fearfully infested with this insect, fully half of the ter- minal shoots of the branches were hanging brown, yellow, and sickly by its ravages. I had all the affected shoots cut off with the pole shears, gathered carefully, and burned in a brisk fire. A cure was the result, the trees being now in a vigorous growing state, and apparently none the worse of having had such a quantity of their young shoots cut off. Having shortly described the two beetles, their modes of operation, and the best method of getting rid of the small beetle upon large trees, I shall now detail our method of getting rid of both kinds of beetles in the young plantations referred to. The first thing I did was to pare off all the grass from 8 to 10 inches round the trees that were not affected, and those that were affected, but likely to recover ; this had a considerable tendency to keep the beetles off the trees, and made them easier seen when they were upon them. We then got a few carts of Scots fir branches from a recently thinned plantation, had all the small twigs and the most of the leaves cut off them, then we laid the branches here and there between the plants all over the plantations; the beetles congregated upon and under the branches, and preyed upon them with voracious avidity; a num- ber of boys were set to gather the beetles off the trees and the branches. Each boy was supplied with a small glass phial, sus- pended by a cord from a button-hole of his jacket to allow the bot- tle to hang straight while the boy stooped in search of the beetles ; each bottle had a wooden stopper. The boys, with a careful old man in charge to see that*they did their work properly, searched the branches and trees for the beetles, which preyed in great numbers 82 ON THE MOST CERTAIN METHOD OF on and under the branches. Not one beetle of either kind was found upon the young trees for fifty that were upon the branches, which had to be lifted with great care, otherwise the beetles would drop from them among the grass and be lost for the time; the beetles were often found lying on their backs when the branch was lifted, so that it was necessary to look where the branch had marked the grass, for even with the utmost care in lifting it some of them quit their hold. I have seen a boy take 7 beetles, large and small, off one branch, or rather stick, about 34 feet long; the branches are better to be a little heavy, as they lie more firmly on the grass, and more readily arrest the progress of the beetles in search of food. The beetles generally begin their devastations about the middle of April, and carry on the work of destruction till the middle of June; then few are to be found till the beginning of August, when they again be- come more numerous till abcut the middle of September, after which there is scarcely one to be found, even in places where they have not been destroyed. I have heard it said that the best time to gather beetles was at 4 a M., as that was their principal feeding time. In my experience this is not the case. I have looked for them from between 3 and 4 a.m. to between 9 and 10 p.m., and invariably found them most numerous upon the trees and branches from 8 to 11 a.m., and from 4 to 7 P.m., and on wet days they are only found on the under side of the branches. They keep well in the shade both on the trees and the branches when the heat of the sun is strong; they neither like much heat nor much cold. We gathered the beetles in the two plantations for 5 weeks in the spring, and 3 weeks in the autumn of 1865, and the number de- stroyed was 15,100. We gathered again in the following spring, when we captured 2300, and in the autumn we only got 100; total, 17,500 beetles. I do not think we collected more than one small beetle for twenty of the large ones. The beetles were counted by the man in charge, at dinner-time and at night. Each boy’s gathering was marked in a book; the boys knew this was done, and it made them strive with each other who would gather most. The beetles were counted upon a large flat stone, and after the number was ascertained they were destroyed with a small flat stone. These plantations were beat up with weeping birch, plane, Scotch fir, and larch, in the spring of 1867, and are growing well without any appearance of beetles. Plantation No. 3, after cattle being in it for three years, had to be cleared of the beetles in the same way as Nos. 1 and 2. They were only gathered one season, however, before planting. Pits were made GETTING RID OF BEETLES WHICH AFFECT CONIFER. 33 for all the principals, which should be done in all old Scotch fir ground ; this plantation, too, is doing well. When it is desired to plant immediately after a crop of Scots fir is cut down and cleared away, it should be proved whether the ground is in a foul state or not. This can be done by keeping a quantity of the branches when burning up all the brush, and have them spread over the ground in spring, when it will soon be seen if beetles are there, and, if they are, gather them during spring and autumn. Plant during the winter months, pit all the principals, 7.e., the hardwood and Scotch firs, and slit the larches, strew a quantity of fresh branches over the ground in the following spring, gather the beetles this year again, and there will be little fear of the plants being afterwards injured. I have planted Scotch fir on ground which had been under a crop of Scotch fir immediately after the trees were cut down and cleared away, and none of the plants were injured by beetles; but this plantation was under the manage- ment of an able forester, who always kept his woods in first-class order, and never allowed Scotch fir branches to lie and rot on the ground. Asa proof that the decaying branches of Scotch fir trees are not only a harbour for, but the origin of beetles, I will give an instance. Six years ago I lifted as many Scotch firs and spruces, out of a plantation which required thinning for the first time, as was suf- ficient to plant an acre of ground fora screen ; after these were lifted, I thinned the plantation, and in consequence of other estate improve- ments going on, there was not time to burn the branches, and they were left to rot on the ground. I never detected the slightest ap- pearance of beetles in this plantation previous to the thinning, nor after it till this spring, when I found many of the side branches had been attacked by the large beetle—Hylobius abietis. If the beetles had been on the trees previous to this thinning, those that were lifted would likely have had them too, but upon those there was not a beetle nor the trace of a beetle to be found. ‘There- -fore I advise all Scotch fir rubbish to be gathered and burned up as a great means of getting rid of beetles. 84 ON THE BEST MODES OF STARTING X. On the Best Modes of Starting from Seed, or Rearing from Cuttings or Grafts the various newer Conifere. By JOHN ALEXANDER, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. Every plant can be reared from its seed, and, theoretically, this ought to be the best and surest mode of propagation. But as this cannot always be done, other modes of propagation have been re- sorted to, such as by cuttings and grafts. We at present treat only of the coniferze or cone-bearing trees and shrubs, and shall refer to them—First, of those reared from seeds; secondly, from grafts; and, thirdly, from cuttings. 1. Conifere from Seeds. The cones should be gathered in tlie winter season, and after- wards exposed to the sun, or to a gentle heat on a kiln, to facilitate the separation of the seed from the cones. In the Scotch fir, and others of like nature, the cones open in a very short time after they are treated as above. Those of the Weymouth pine, silver fir, and balm of Gilead fir, give out their seed with still less trouble; while, on the other hand, the cones of the Pinus Pinaster (cluster pine), Pinus Pinea (stone pine), and allied species, do not open their scales for several months, although treated in the same manner. The cones generally opened by kiln heat are those of the Scotch pine, spruce, and larch. But there are others, as those of the cedar of Lebanon, which should be left for a year at least before the seeds are taken out; this being necessary on account of the soft nature of the seeds and the great quantity of resin which the cones contain while growing, and which they discharge on being kept for some time after they are gathered. A fact which the writer has verified during the last two years may be mentioned as a guide to cone-gatherers. In the year 1870, twenty cones were gathered from each of ten different trees, whose ages were approximately ascertained by counting the concentric circles in other trees felled beside them. The cones were carefully opened, and all the seeds of the ten different sets sown in separate beds, when the following was the result :— The seeds of 20 cones from a tree 300 years old produced 10 plants. 250 5 - 13: &, 200 33 B04: ? THE VARIOUS NEWER CONIFER, 85 150 years old produced 74 plants. Pda i Ay eb ntdOGe: ‘65, LOO iyi, on AGE lt. OY. [te = OS eho git ld | eee hoy is igre AO te: The same experiment was tried in 1871 with other trees, when the result was much as in 1870. It would thus appear that the best trees to take cones off for seed are those averaging about 100 years. Above 100 or 120 years the seed becomes less fruitful; at any rate, the fact remains that the cones of trees, when they reach their prime, are more fruitful than those of old ones. April is the best season for sowing all kinds of conifers, should the weather prove favourable, in order that the seeds may sprout the earlier. It is a good plan to place them in a bag, and then have the bag steeped in water for two or three days. After this let the seeds be taken out and dried gently in the sun before being sown. The soil should be soft and rich, mellowed by the preceding winter’s frost, and carefully dried, and raked as fine as possible. The rarer sorts are generally sown in pots, but the more common in beds 3$ feet wide. The seeds of the Scotch pine require a covering 4 inch in depth; those of the Weymouth pine # inch ; and those of the stone pine, 1} inch. The cedars are generally sown in broad pots or boxes filled with light sandy loam and covered $ inch. In the case of the larch the seeds require } inch, while, again, those of the spruce fir require about an inch. ‘Those of the silver fir and balm of Gilead from 4 to ? inch. The seeds of the black and white American spruces are smaller than those of any of the preceding species, and therefore require a light covering. It is sufficient to cover these seeds and no more. Strict attention is required, both as to the quality of the soil and the thickness of the covering ; for although the plants from these seeds prove extremely hardy when grown up, yet they are very tender in infancy. It is a common practice to leave the plants in these beds for two years, but this is not to be recommended. They should, if possible, be lifted in the end of the first year in March or April, according to the weather, and then bedded out in lines six inches apart with 30 or 40 plants to the lineal foot. At the end of the second year they should be again lifted, and this time lined in rows 9 inches apart, and about 18 or 20 plants to the lineal yard. In the course of the third year these plants are fit for being trans- 86 ON THE BEST MODES OF STARTING planted into a forest or pleasure ground, as the case may be; they will then be from 6 to 9 inches high, and if larger plants are wanted they may either be left in the lines or transplanted to others. 2. Conifere from Grafts. Trees not too full of resin can be propagated by cuttings and grafts, and often make good plants. The process of grafting is well known to every nurseryman, and need not be here explained. But it may be remarked that the graft commonly known as “tongue upon tongue” is superior tothe other modes, suchas ‘‘side” grafting, “cleft” grafting, and “crown” grafting. The great art consists in fitting exactly theinner bark of the scion to the inner bark of the stock, and keeping them in close contact till union takes place; and the ‘“‘ tongue” or “ whip” grafting, as it is sometimes called, answers this purpose best in case of Conifers, for among other reasons it admits of being performed even on the smallest twigs. The grafts will not succeed unless the scion and stock be of the same species, or, at least, of the same genus. ‘The scions are generally young twigs of last summer’s growth or young branches, and are grafted on to the stocks in the case of Conifers, immediately after they are cut from the parent stem. This should be done when the sap begins to ascend freely through the inner bark of that which is to form the stock. The proper season is easily known from a tree putting forth its buds. Of the Conifers from grafts or cuttings all the Picea and Pinus are best from grafts when seeds cannot be got. The Piceas will gvaft and grow well on the silver fir (Picea pectinata). The Pinus genus takes on different varieties of stocks. For example, those that bear a resemblance to the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris) grow very well on that species as a stock. Varieties such as Pinus monticola, P. Lambertiana, &c., make the finest trees on P. excelsa or P. Strobus (Weymouth pine). All the varieties of Abies are grafted on the common spruce, and all the Bitas and Thuja orientalis varieties on the Chinese Arborvite, and Cephalotaxus on the common yew. ‘The Cupressus Lawsoniana, which is easily reared from seed, can be used as a stock for all its varieties and those of allied species. 3. Propagation by Cuttings. These should be taken from the side shoots of plants when the sap is in full motion, as in the case of grafts. They should consist of last year’s growth with a small part of the previous year’s wood. THE VARIOUS NEWER CONIFERA, 87 The old wood causes them to strike better. The cuttings from Coniferze will grow in almost any soil, but a loamy and cool subsoil is best for bringing the trees to perfection. The varieties of Retinospora make fine plants from cuttings, as also, those of yews and Thujopsis. Wellingtonias are reared better from cuttings than grafts, but the variegated forms are commonly grafted on the original species. Cedrus, Cephalotaxus, Cryptomeria, Dacrydium, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys elegans, and Pseudo Larix, with many of the cypresses, can be propagated by cuttings. Of Conifers, not already mentioned, the following may be propagated, either by cut- tings or grafts—most kinds of junipers, the Libocedrus chilensis, L. decurrens, Torreya grundis, T. taxifolia, and the white cedar. We have now seen how the different varieties of Conifers are propagated from seeds, grafts, and cuttings ; and it may be repeated that the first is the best mode of propagation where practicable, and of the other two, rearing from cuttings is generally to be preferred to that from grafts, for the latter often send out lateral instead of upright leaders. 88 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. XI. On the Distribution of Forests in India. By Dierricu BranNvis, Ph.D., Inspector-General of Forests, Calcutta. (With a M ap.) This paper is reprinted from ‘‘ Ocean Highways,” Oct. 1872. In all countries the character of forest vegetation mainly depends on soil, climate, and the action of man. In India the greater or less degree of moisture is perhaps the most important element in this respect. Moisture and rainfall are not identical terms. Dew and the aqueous vapour, dissolved in the atmosphere, or the water derived from the overflow of rivers and from percolation, are sources of moisture as important for the maintenance of arborescent vegeta- tion as the fall of rain and snow. It would greatly facilitate the labours of the forester, and of the botanist who inquires after the geographical distribution of forest trees, if the amount of atmospheric moisture and the formation of dew during the seasons of the year in different parts of India had been sufficiently studied; but, in the present state of our knowledge, we must be satisfied with dividing India into regions and zones according to the more or less heavy rainfall during the year. The arid region, with a normal annual rainfall of less than fifteen inches, occupies a large proportion of the north-west corner of India, from the Salt range in the north, to the mouths of the Indus in the south, and from the Suleiman range in the west to the Aravulli Hills in the east. It includes the southern portion of the Punjab, the province of Sindh, the States of Bhawul- poor, Kairpoor, Bikanir, Jessulmir, and the greater part of Marwar. Throughout this vast region, which covers an area equal to that of the kingdom of Prussia, with a population of about twelve millions, the rains are not only scanty but most uncertain. It is not a rare occurrence for several years to pass in succession without any showers, and then there is a heavy downpour, generally in winter, and occasionally in August or September. There are, however, no regular winter or summer rains. A scanty, thorny scrub on the hills gives ample employment to the botanist, for it is here that the repre- sentatives of the Arabian and Persian flora mingle with the vegeta- tion which is peculiar to India; but the work of the forester is mainly confined to the belts of low country along the Indus and its great branches. In Sindh, for instance, the area of forest land at the disposal of the State covers 350,000 acres, all situated on the fertile alluvial soil on both banks of the Indus, some of which is inundated annually by the summer floods of this large river, the remainder being moistened by percolation.. In lower and middle ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 89 Sindh a large portion of these forests consists of the babool (Acaciu arabica), more or less pure, with a shade so dense that very little grass or herb grows under the trees. In northern Sindh extensive shrub forests of tamarisk, with standards of acacia and a poplar (Populus Euphratica), cover large tracts along the banks on both sides of the river. As the Indus changes its course from time to time, leaving dry last year’s bed, and breaking through at another place, forming a new channel, the fresh banks and islands which are thus thrown up are covered at once by a dense growth of self-sown seedlings of tamarisk, with a sprinkling here and there of the acacia and poplar; while in other places large tracts of old forests are carried away by the encroachments of the river. Outside these forests, a little further inland, but still to a certain extent under the moistening influence of the river, are vast tracts of kundi or jhund, an acacia-like tree (Prosopis spicigera), Salvadora, and an arborescent, leafless Caper (Capparis aphylla); and further north, in the Punjab, where the rainfall is more regular, and its annual amount approaches or exceeds ten inches, dry and scanty woods, mainly composed of Prosopis, Capparis, and Salvadora, cover a vast extent of country ou the high ground between the rivers of that province. These wood- lands are commonly known under the name of rukhs, and they extend far into the second zone, which may be termed the dry region of India, and in which the normal rainfall is between fifteen and thirty inches. There are two zones of dry country,—one surrounding the arid region on the north and east, in a belt from 100 to 200 miles wide, leaving the foot of the Himalayan range about Umballa, touching the Ganges at Futtehgurh, and including Delhi, Agra, Jhansi, Ajmere, and Deesa. This I propose calling the northern dry zone; its natural forest vegetation is scanty, but better than that of the arid region. In some of the states of Rajpootana there are extensive woodlands care- fully preserved, to furnish cover for game, a regular supply of wood and grass, and in times of drought, pasture for the cattle of the vicinity. In the north these woods consist of Acacia and Prosopis; further south, mainly of a species of Anogezssus, a beautiful tree, with small leaves, drooping branches, and dense foliage, which clothes the slopes of the old fort of Chittore and other hills in Meywar, and is the principal tree of the sacred groves of that country. On the Aravulli hills in Meywar, where cultivation mainly depends on the water stored up in tanks, the value of preserving the scanty thorny scrub on the hills, in order to regulate the filling of the tanks from VOL. VII. PART I. G 90 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. rain, is recognised by some of the larger landholders, Nor must we forget that we owe the maintenance of the forests in Sindh and of the rukhs in the Punjab entirely to the action taken by the former rulers; and that during the first period after the occupation of the country, the action of the British Government has not in all cases been favourable to the preservation of the forests and woodlands in the arid and dry regions of India. Great exertions have, however, been made of late years to make up in some measure for past neglect in this respect, and in the Punjab extensive plantations have been established since 1865, which now cover upwards of 12,000 acres, the main object in the formation of these new forests being to pro- vide fuel for the consumption of the railways, and fuel and timber for the large towns in that province. ‘The first commencement of these plantations was made by Dr J. L. Stewart, the author of seve- ral valuable books and papers on the vegetation of North-Western India. There is a second dry region in the Peninsula, comprising part of the Deccan, the Maidan or open country of Mysore, and several districts of the Madras Presidency. Exceptionally moist places are within its limits, such as Bangalore, which, being situated 3000 feet above the sea, has thirty-five inches rain; but upon the whole, and excluding such hills as rise considerably above the table- land of South India, this belt, which stretches from Nassick in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, has a normal rainfall of less than thirty inches. This belt includes Poona, Bellary, and Kurnool in the north, and Madura and Tinnevelly in the south. Over a great part of it is found the sandal-wood (Santalum album), a small tree with fragrant heart-wood, which comes up here and there in bushes and hedges, but does not grow gregariously, and does not form pure forests. Large quantities of this delightfully fragrant wood are used for carving and inlaid work, as incense in Hindoo temples, and there is a considerable export of it to China, Outside these two dry zones the normal annual rainfall exceeds thirty inches, save north of the first great snowy range of the Hima- laya, where rain and snow are scanty, and the country consequently arid and bare. The rest of India has a rainfall greater than that of Europe. Yet really thriving forests are only found where the fall exceeds forty inches, and rich luxuriant vegetation is limited to those belts which have a much higher rainfall. It must be borne in mind that the annual mean temperature of Central Europe ranges between 45° and 60°, while that of India is as high as 75° to 85°. Undera higher temperature a larger amount of moisture is required to pro- ON. THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 91 duce rich vegetation. At the same time, in India, the supply of ~moisture is unequally distributed over the seasons of the year. In most districts the year divides itself into two unequal parts,—a long dry season, and a short rainy reason. In most provinces of India the principal rains are summer rains, due to the prevalence during that season of the south-west monsoon, and the most humid regions are those tracts which are fully exposed to the influence of these moist south-westerly winds. In addition to these, there are Christ- mas or winter rains in Northern India, but they only last a few days, or at the outside a week a two, and are, moreover, extremely uncertain and irregular. On the eastern coast of the Peninsula the summer rains are slight, the principal fall coming with north-easterly winds in October and November. But in the greater part of India the dry season lasts from November to May, the rains commencing between May and July, and ending between August and October. In the moister districts the rains commence early and last longer, while in the dry belts there is rain only during two or three months of the year; and in the arid region the rainfall is altogether uncertain. The temperature during this long dry season is cooler at first and warmer afterwards. The mean temperature of the three months, December, January, and February, generally termed the cool season, ranges between 60° in the Punjab, and 79° in the south of the Penin- sula. During these months dew is formed more or less regularly, and contributes much to the maintenance of vegetation, particularly in the dry and arid zones. Radiation is so powerful during this season that frost is not of uncommon occurrence in the plains and lower hills of northern and a part of Central India. These night frosts have interfered much with the satisfactory progress of the plantations in the Punjab, and as far south as Sukkur on the Indus, in latitude 27° 30’, and the Satpoora range in the Central Provinces, in latitude 23°, frost is a serious difficulty in arboriculture. As far south as Calcutta, ice can be made on carefully prepared beds covered with straw, shortly before sunrise on a still, clear morning. The mean temperature of the three months which follow, which are generally called the hot season, is 75° in the Punjab, 85° along the coast line, and 90° in the interior of the Peninsula, and this dry heat, with the hot scorching winds which blow over a great part cf India during these months, makes this season extremely trying to forest vegetation. With the exception of the extensive evergreen forests of the Himalaya, and the limited tracts of evergreen forests in the plains and lower hills of the humid regions, the great mass of forests in 92 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. India are deciduous, and they are bare and leafless during the hot season. During this time of the year, the sojourn in the Indian forests is not pleasant. No shade, no protection against the fierce rays of the sun, great-scarcity of water in many parts, and a tent or hut with a temperature in its coolest part of 105°,—these are condi- tions of existence which are not easily forgotten. Deciduous, how- ever, as applied to trees is a relative term. The only difference is, that an evergreen tree retains its leaves longer than one which is called deciduous. Thus the spruce and silver-fir retain their needles from seven to eleven years, the Spanish Pinus Pinsapo and the Araucaria retain them even longer, hence the full foliage and the dense shade of these trees. On the other hand, the needles of the Corsican and Austrian fir (Pinus Laricio) remain three to four years ; and the Scotch fir, with lighter foliage, has needles of two or three years only on its branches. The Sal tree (Shorea robusta), one of the most important timber trees of India, with strong, hard, heavy wood, which forms extensive forests along the foot of the Himalaya and in the eastern part of Central India, retains its leaves nearly twelve months; the old leaves fall gradually, and the foliage gets thinner and thinner, until the new flush of leaves breaks out in March or early in April. So that although a sal forest is hot during that time of the year, and there is not much shade, yet the tree is never completely bare. The Teak tree, on the other hand, which may be called the king of Indian timber trees, on account of its useful, dur- able, strong, and yet not very heavy wood, sheds its leaves as early as January, and is leafless for four or five months, though this again depends upon the supply of moisture, for in low humid places the tree often continues green throughout February. Fortunately for foresters in the hot dry provinces of India, there are to be found in most dry deciduous forests one or two kinds which break out in leaf sconer than the others, and I have spent many an hour during the heat of the day under the grateful shade of what we call the forester’s friend (Schleichera trijuga), a tree remarkable for its extremely heavy wood, the cubic foot weighing, when perfectly dry, over 70 lbs., or nearly three times the weight of common deal. The grass and fallen leaves, in these dry, deciduous forests, dry up rapidly during this season, and towards March and April every- thing is so scorched that it is as inflammable as tinder, so that the smallest spark is sufficient to create a conflagration. These jungle- fires are almost a regular annual institution in the deciduous forests of most provinces. In some instances, they are caused by accident, ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 93 but in the majority of cases they arise from the temporary clearings made by cutting and burning, and the custom of the herdsmen to burn down the old grass in order to cause the fresh tender shoots to spring up as fodder for their cattle. It is true that these fires clear the ground, and make walking through the forest easier; and, up to the present time, many otherwise observant people in India have been of opinion that these fires are not mischievous, and might in some cases be beneficial. The damage, however, done by them defies calculation. Millions of seeds and seedlings are destroyed, trees of all ages are injured, and often killed, the bark is scorched and burnt, the wood exposed to the air, dry rot sets in, and the tree gets hollow and useless for timber. One of the most remarkable facts in the working of the Indian forests in the plains and lower hills has been the large proportion of hollow and unsound trees. In many forests one-half, in others three-fourths of the mature trees are hollow. Toa certain extent this is due to the old age of the timber felled; but experience elsewhere proves that old age can only account for a small proportion of the hollow and unsound trees. The annual jungle-fires are the principal cause of this mischief. In this respect all deciduous forests in India suffer alike. With regard to repro- duction, that is, the growth of seedlings, some trees are better off in this respect than others. Thus the Sal trees ripens its seed about the commencement of the rains, after the jungle-fires have passed through the forest. The young plants thus germinate at once in great abun- dance. The jungle-fires of the coming season kill a good many, and cause a large proportion of the others to grow hollow; but in the dense mass of seedlings which clothes the ground under the parent trees in a sal forest, the damage done is comparatively small. This, to a certain extent, explains how the sal forests are nearly pure, the stronger tree in the matter of reproduction predominating over all the rest. The Teak, on the other hand, ripens its seed early in the dry season, the jungle-fires consume large quantities of it; a smaller proportion of seedlings spring up, and these are either killed or cut down to the root year after year by the fires. Meanwhile, the root- stock increases in size every year by the action of the shoots, which come up during the rains, and at last, often after the lapse of many years, it produces a shoot strong enough to outlive the fires. Thus what appears a seedling plant of teak is in most cases really a coppice shoot from a thick gnarled root-stock, bearing the scars of succes- sive generations of shoots, which were burned down by the annual fires. 94. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. Protection against fires isnot an easy task in our European forests. Many square miles of Scotch fir in Eastern Prussia, where this widely spread tree is the prevailing kind, have at various times been burned down, and in the cork oak and Pinus maritima forests of Provence the ravages have been terrible, the long summer drought of Eastern Europe and of Southern France having in this respect the same effect as the long dry season in India. But in India the task has been a particularly difficult one. ‘Che first step was to con- vince people that these fires were injurious, and when that was accomplished, to isolate the tracts to be protected by clearing broad firepaths round them, and burning down, early in the dry season, all grass and leaves in a broad belt surrounding the forest. The credit of having been the first to take in hand this important work on a large scale is due to Colonel Pearson, in those days in charge of the forests in the Central Provinces, and now holding a most important position in the Forest Department under the Government of India. It is mainly due to his energy and perseverance that fires have been kept out for more than six years from a large forest tract of thirty square miles, called the Bori Forest, producing teak, baimboos, and various useful trees, in the Satpoora range. The effect has been marvellous, and if these exertions are steadily continued, this forest promises to become one of the most valuable in the central parts of India. ; From what has been said, it will be understood, that in the plains and lower hills of India the annual repose of arborescent vegetation is not caused by the cold of winter, but mainly by the drought of the hot season. Shortly before the rains set in, or with the early showers which precede the monsoon, most trees clothe themselves with fresh green, and in the arid region, where the periodical summer rains are wanting, the summer floods of the river revive the forest growth on its banks after the long drought of the dry season, In those parts of India which have a heavy monsoon, the temperature is generally somewhat lower during the summer months, June, July, and August, than during the preceding hot season. Thus it is that on the western coast of the Peninsula the mean temperature of the hot season is 85°, and that of the three succeeding months, when the sky is overcast with clouds, and the force of the sun’s rays is rarely felt, is only between 80° and 82°. On the Burma coast also, in Akyab, Rangoon, and Moulmein, the mean temperature of the mon- soon months is somewhat lower than that of the preceding hot sea- son. The relief from the incessant powerful action of the sun’s rays, ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 95 brought about by the storms of the monsoon, and the cloudy and rainy weather which follows, is delightful. It is not the vegetation only which revives; the whole animated nature feels the pleasant change. This relief is denied to the arid region. Here, in the north- west corner of India, the temperature continues to rise higher and higher with the sun, and the result is, that in June, July, and August, the highest mean temperature is found in the arid zone of India. Thus Multan has a mean temperature of 77° during what is termed the hot season in other parts of India, and of 92° during June, July, and August; and at Jacobabad, in Sindh, the mean tem- perature during these months is as high as 96°. Where, however, sufficient water is supplied by irrigation, these high temperatures stimulate vegetation in a remarkable manner. The station of Jacob- abad is a striking example of the effect of water supply in that climate. It was founded in 1844 by General Jacob, in the midst of a barren, treeless desert. A canal was led to it from the Indus, and now the plain is a dense forest of babool and other trees, upwards of sixty feet high, sheltering the houses and gardens of the inhabitants. A ride of a few miles takes you into the desert which skirts the hills of Beloochistan, a level plain of splendid, fertile, alluvial soil, but hard, naked, and barren, like a threshing floor, without shrub, herb, or grass, except in the vicinity of the canals, where vegetation is rich and luxuriant. In the Himalayan hills, vegetation rests in winter as it does in Europe, and in the vast tracts of those mountain ranges the forester finds himself surrounded by forms similar to, and in a few cases identical with, the trees and shrubs of Europe. ‘The climatic condi- tions are analogous, though not identical. At the higher elevations the year divides itself into the four seasons with which we are fami- liar in Europe, but the main supply of moisture is in summer, and the summer rains are preceded by a long dry season, which is much warmer than the spring is in Central Europe. In the outer ranges, the rains are heavy, but the whole falls in torrents within a few months, and has not, therefore, the same effect upon vegetation as the uniformly distributed moisture of our own climate. ‘There are other points of difference in the climate of the higher Himalayan ranges and of Central Europe, and this explains that some of the hardiest Himalayan trees, which grow at an elevation of 12,000 feet, within a few thousand feet of the line of perpetual snow, such as the silver fir (Pinus Webbiana), refuse to thrive in Great Britain and on the Continent. Even the Deodar (Cedrus deodara) and the blue 96 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. Himalayan pine (Pinus excelsa), which are common in parks and gardens in England, do not thrive in many parts of Europe. There is a great difference in the total rainfall in the outer and inner belts of the Himalayan forests. At Simla, and in the vicinity, on the outer ranges, the fall is from seventy to eighty inches, and here the Deodar attains a diameter of two feet in from sixty to eighty years. ‘The moist southerly currents which prevail in summer pass over the hot plains of the arid region without depositing their mois- ture; but as soon as they are brought into contact with the cooler air of the hills and forced upwards into regions of less atmospheric pressure, condensation begins, and their surplus moisture is deposited in the shape of torrents of rain. Thus, there is on the outer ranges of the north-west Himalaya a narrow belt, not more than thirty miles wide, with a rainfall exceeding seventy-five inches. Further inland the fall decreases rapidly—Kotgurh, for instance, distant forty miles from Simla, has thirty-eight inches only. Beyond the first snowy range the rains are scanty. Here, at the same elevation as in the vicinity of Simla, the Deodar takes from 150 to 200 years to obtain a diameter of two feet; higher up the valley, at a distance, as the crow flies, from the plains of 120 miles, spontaneous arborescent vegetation ceases entirely, the last being the tree juniper (Juniperus excelsa), fine specimens of which may be seen growing in Kew Gardens, The moist zone, with a normal annual rainfall, exceeding seventy- five inches, which comprises the outer Himalaya, extends north-west as far as the Dhaoladhar range, which borders the fertile district of Kangra. Beyond this the fall even on the outer hills is less. Thus . the station of Abbotabad, between the rivers Jhelum and Indus, has only forty-one inches. South-eastward the moist zone widens. In Lower Bengal the line which indicates its limit passes through Dacea, reaching the coast west of Chittagong, so that Assam, the Khasia hills, Silhet and Cachar, Tipperah, and Eastern Bengal, are all included. This, the north-eastern moist region of India, also com- prises Arracan and the coast districts of British Burma. The eastern portion of this extensive moist belt has a much heavier rainfall than the north-western portion, and here again it is heaviest on the moun- tains. Thus, Darjiling, in British Sikkim, at an elevation of about 7000 feet, has 125 inches; and Cherra, the former Sanatarium on the Khasia hills, at 4000 feet, has an annual fall of 600 inches, or fifty feet. On the Burma coast also the rainis heavy. Thus Akyab, the chief town of Arracan, has 219; Tavoy, further south, on the ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 97 Tenasserim coast, has 201 inches; and Rangoon, situated at some distance from the sea in a wide extent of nearly level country, has eighty-five inches. On the higher mountain ranges of this extensive moist region, forests of pines and other conifers extend from the north-west Hima- laya southwards to the mountains of Burma. The Deodar has iis eastern limit in Kumaon, but there are other coniferous trees, which extend over the eastern part of the Himalaya range. One of the finest of these is Pinus Khasiana, which is found as far south as the high mountains between the Salween and Sitang rivers in British Burma. These mountains are the seat of a numerous Karen popu- lation, formerly an idle, drunken, and lawless race, which, through the teaching of Christianity, brought to them by American mission- aries, have become an industrious, sober, and peaceful people. Some of their villages are in the midst of these splendid pine forests, and I have often, when coming from the teak forests in the hot valleys of the Salween and Sitang, been refreshed by the delightful fragrance and cool shade of the pine trees on these hills. But, as if to remind the botanist that, though in a pleasant, cool mountain climate, he is within the tropics, and only 19° distant from the equator, there is an underwood of the sago palm (Cycas) under the pine trees, and most of the Karen villages are surrounded by the gigantic bamboo, which ‘yields the posts, rafters, walls, and floors of their houses. The joints of this bamboo are so large that they are used as water pails and buckets. There is another pine tree in Burma, nearly related to a Japanese species, which grows at a lower elevation in the midst of the dry and hot tropical deciduous forests. These tropical and subtropical pines, however, are not yet of much practical importance. The production of teak timber is the main object which the forester has in view in those parts of the country. The export of teak timber from Rangoon is of old date; but, under the Burmese rule, the quantity exported never came to any very large amount. When the province of Tenasserim became British in 1826, the Attaran forests, which are situated south of the town of Moul- mein, were worked with great energy, and yielded large quantities of excellent timber. The supply from that source, however, soon diminished, and thus the attention of timber traders was directed to the extensive teak-producing forests beyond the British frontier, on the Salween river and its tributaries, and from that time the impor- tation of foreign timber into Moulmein has steadily increased until within the last few years, when the quantity floated down decreased, 98 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. mainly because the stock of good timber in the vicinity of the river and its tributaries had gradually become less. Soon after the annexa- tion of Pegu, in 1853, the forests of that province were placed under a regular system of administration, and in 1858 this system was ex- tended to the forests in the province of Martaban and Tenasserim. The result has been, that, without impairing their productiveness, the out-turn of the forests in British territory has gradually been raised from an insignificant figure to a very considerable amount; so that within the last five years they have yielded between one-third and one-half of the total quantity of teak timber brought to the principal sea-ports. The timber trade of the Burma ports is not large as com- pared with that of Canada, yet it is of considerable importance, the export amounting to about 100,000 tons annually, with a value of about L.700,000. The forests in the king of Burma’s territory, in Siam and the Karenee country, are much more extensive and rich in fine timber than those in our own territory ; yet, unless placed under a regular system of management, they will surely be exhausted before long, and on that account we must, to a great extent, look to the forests within British territory for the maintenance of the supply in future. It is satisfactory that the efforts to protect and improve the forests in British Burma have also financially been remunerative. Within the last four years the gross revenue from these forests has fluctuated between L.64,700 and L.98,400, and the net annual sur- plus to the State has been between L.31,900 and L.56,500. The teak tree in Burma, as elsewhere, is found in the dry decidu- ous woods, never forming pure forests, but always growing in com- pany with a large number of bamboos and other trees. Its growth is rapid while young, but slow at a more advanced age. In 1862 I sent a few teak poles, thirty feet long, to the great London Exhibi- tion; they had attained that size in two years, in a moist part of the country, on rich soil, and protected from fire. On the other hand, the results of researches made regarding the age of mature trees have led us to the conclusion that more than 100 years are required onan average for the teak tree to attain a diameter of two feet. The fires clear the ground annually of dry leaves and grass, which would otherwise form vegetable mould, enrich the soil, and keep it moist and loose. The bare ground, exposed to the full force of the sun, dries up rapidly with a hard baked surface, the rains of the monsoon rush down the hills and slopes, and the ashes, the remains of the fires, are washed away, without contributing much to the nourish- ment of the trees. Thus the fires do not only injure the regenera- ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 99 tion of the forest, cause the timber to grow up hollow and unsound, but they also impair the productiveness of the soil, and retard the rate of growth of the trees. In Burma the fires are principally caused by the practice of toungya cultivation. The forest, instead of being converted into permanent fields, is cut down in January; and in March or April, when the large mass of stems, branches, and bam- boos, which cover the ground, have become sufficiently dry, it is burned. On the first rainfall, rice, cotton, and vegetables are sown, and yield an abundant harvest, no ploughing and digging, only weed- ing and reaping being necessary. In some cases a second crop is taken; but after that, and more often after the first crop, the field is abandoned, a fresh piece of forest is selected for burning, and in this manner destruction spreads rapidly over large areas. Some of the finest teak forests in British Burma have been destroyed by these clearings; and, with the steady increase of population under British rule, the injury done by this erratic kind of husbandry has become enormous. This mode of wandering cultivation is practised through- out the wilder parts of India; in Mysore, where it is known under the name of kumri, it was possible, about twenty years ago, to pro- tect the forests by stopping this practice throughout the country. This result was mainly due to the exertions of Dr Cleghorn, for many years Conservator of Forests in the Madras Presidency, and afterwards employed by the Government of India in the organisa- tion of forest administration in the provinces of Northern India. In Burma, such a summary course of procedure was not found practi- cable, and instead of protecting the whole of the forests, all that could be done was to prohibit toungya clearings in a limited extent of the best teak-producing tracts, and in those localities which were set apart for the formation of new teak forests by planting. The selection and demarcation of these tracts, which will eventually be the State forests in that province, has not progressed rapidly, and these reserved forests in Burma do not yet amount to more than about 80,000 acres, 1600 acres of which have been covered with teak plantations. Besides the dry, deciduous teak-producing tracts, there are in the moister parts of the lower hills of Burma extensive and most luxuriant evergreen forests, composed of a large variety of trees, often 200 feet high and more, and so dense that except on the numerous paths trodden by wild elephants, or on the scanty foot- paths which lead from village to village, it is almost impossible to penetrate through them. The forester classifies trees with special 100 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. reference to the amount of light which they require. The Scotch fir, for instance, demands a great deal of light; its seedlings will not readily spring up and thrive under the shade of its own kind or of other trees. The beech, spruce, and silver fir, on the other hand, can stand a great deal of shade; their seedlings will maintain themselves a long time in the cleep shade of the forest, growing very slowly, making very little progress; but when a clearing is made accidentally or intentionally, they will shoot up with great vigour. Where woodlands ure managed on a large scale, the peculiarities of each kind of tree are carefully studied, and the treatment of the different classes of forest is adapted to them. In India, teak demands a great deal of light. On the other hand, most of the trees which compose the tropical evergreen forest will stand a great amount of shade; and thus it happens that the underwood of these dense forests does not only consist of shrubs and climbers, but to a great extent of seedlings of the very trees which form the dense shady roof overhead. When one of these old giants falls, the mass of seedlings takes a start, and as they all strive upward to the light they draw each other up to a great height, the weaker plants perish- ing in the fierce struggle for existence. The trees in these forests cannot, however, either in height or growth, be compared to the Wellingtonia of California or to the Eucalyptus of Australia. The tallest tree which I have seen and measured in India was 250 feet high and 38 feet in girth. This was a species of upas tree (Antiaris), in the Thoungyeen forests of British Burma. Such dimensions, how- ever, are never found in the deciduous forests. The tallest teak tree measured by me was 102 feet to the first branch, with, perhaps, an additional 50 feet of crown above. Teak trees with clear stems, 60 to 80 feet to the first branch, are not rare in the moist regions of India. I have found them in Burma, in the Dang forests, north of Bombay, and in those glorious but hot forests of North Canara, which are probably the most extensive and richest teak forests remaining in British India, ‘Teak of such size and length is only found in very favourable localities, where the young trees had grown up close together on rich dry soil, in dells or sheltered valleys, - generally in company with tall bamboos, and where they were thus compelled to draw each other up to that height. Luxuriant vegetation, under the influence of an abundant supply of moisture, has its drawbacks, however, as well as its advantages. Thick masses of tall grass and weeds spring up in the teak planta- tions of Burma, smother the young trees, and greatly increase the ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 101 risk of fire. Worst of all are the climbing plants with which the teak, sal, and other forests in all moist tracts abound. Huge creepers, like gigantic ropes, often as thick asa man’s thigh, and thicker, stretch from the ground to the top of the trees : they give off numberless branches, and their foliage completely covers and smothers the crown of the tree of which they have taken possession. When a young tree is attacked by one of these gigantic climbers, the stem remains short, gets crooked and deformed, and makes no progress in growth. In Burma several kinds of epiphytic Ficus attack teak and other trees; the seed germinates in a fork or in a hollow of the trunk, sends down its roots, which eventually enclose the stem as with a network. At last the tree dies, and the Ficus spreads its massive but useless limbs in all directions. In the sal forests of Oudh the creepers were particularly heavy and numerous when these tracts came into our hands. Owing to several favourable circumstances, it was possible in that province at once to set apart and demarcate a large area of forest land as State forests, and the work of cutting the creepers was at once taken in hand and completed at a consider- able outlay ; so that now these forests are almost entirely cleared of large climbers, and the young sal has a chance of growing up straight, and forming valuable timber. Much smaller in area than the north-eastern moist region is that which extends along the western coast of the Peninsula. It begins north of Bombay, and, guided rather by the character of the vegeta- tion than by meteorological observations, which in those wild tracts we do not possess, I have included in it the northern Dangs, a dense and most feverish forest district at the foot of the Khandeish ghats. The eastern limit of this western moist zone runs nearly parallel with the crest of the ghats, but ata short distance from the ghat line. The moist zone thus includes the edge of the ghats, their western slope, and the hilly country between the ghats and the coast line. Its width varies from 50 to 100 miles. Surat, with 47 inches of rain, is outside ; Bombay, which is included, has a fall of 72 inches only, but Tanna, a few miles inland, has 102. Further down the coast, the rainfall is heavier. Rutnagerri has 115 inches, Vingorla 118, and Cananore 123. But the heaviest fall in this zone is on the crest of the ghats. Here, as on the outer ranges of the Himalaya, and the Khasia hills, the moist currents of air coming from the west, which strike against the steep face of the ghats, are forced upwards into a cooler and more rarified air, and the consequence is an extremely heavy downpour during the monsoon. Thus the Sana- 102 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. tarium of Mahableshwur, south of Bombay, 4300 feet above the sea, has a fall of 250 inches; but Panchgunny, at a distance of only 10 miles inland from the crest of the ghats, has 50 inches; and Poona, 30 miles from the ghat line, has a fall of only 27 inches. This rapid decrease of moisture inland explains that the western limit of the southern dry belt runs within a short distance from the crest of the ghats. At the southern extremity of the Peninsula the rain near the coast diminishes, so that Cape Comorin, with 28 inches, and Palamcotta, with 22, fall into the southern dry zone. Forest vegetation in the western moist region is in places fully as luxuriant as in Burma and Eastern Bengal. There are the same great classes of dry deciduous forest, with the jungle-fires as a regular, annnally recurring institution, and the moist evergreen forests, including what are commonly called the Sholas of the _ Neilgherries, into which the jungle fires do not enter. The rich variety of trees in both descriptions of forest has been carefully studied by Major Beddome, the present head of the Forest Depart- ment in the Madras Presidency, and author of the first forest flora published in India, containing a full account of the trees and shrubs of Southern India. In the forcing climate of Malabar, in the heart of this moist region, is the oldest and as yet most extensive teak plantation in India. Commenced in 1844 by Mr Conolly, then Collector of that district, its present extent is upwards of 2500 acres. A hundred acres on an average were planted annually, so that there is a regular succession of thriving plantations, the oldest being now twenty-eight years old, with tall stems 70 to 80 feet high, a splendid instance of the rapid growth of the teak tree in its youth, under good care and in a favourable climate. The uorthern half of the western moist zone is in the Presidency of Bombay. In this part of India a regular administration of the public forest-lands was attempted as early as 1846, and the result of the early attention paid to this matter may be seen in a large and steady forest revenue, between L.82,000 and L.125,000 annually during the last six years, one-half of which has been a net addition to the general revenues of the Empire. At the same time, the forests in several districts of the Presidency have considerably increased in value; they now contain a larger stock of growing timber than at the time that conservancy was commenced, and plantations have not been neglected. While thus a good deal has been done to increase the growth of useful indigenous trees, the introduction of foreign trees has not ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 103 been neglected in India. The splendid table-land of the Neil- gherries, which is raised 7000 feet above the hot plains, is in places getting rapidly covered with forests of exotic trees. From Australia several kinds of Eucalyptus and Acacia were introduced about twenty-five years ago, and they have made such progress that the station of Ootacamund is now almost surrounded by a forest of these trees. Their rate of growth is wonderfully fast, much faster than that of the indigenous trees. At the same time, young forests of the quinine-yielding Cinchonas are coming up in many places. The management of these Cinchona woods will probably be similar to the treatment of oak coppice in England; for though oak bark has not one-twentieth the value of Jesuit’s bark, it is the bark in both cases for which these woods are mainly cultivated. There will, however, be that difference, that while oak coppice in Europe, after having been cut over, requires from fourteen to twenty years to yield another crop of bark, Cinchonas appear to grow so rapidly that they may probably be cut over every eighth or tenth year. Fever is the great scourge and calamity of India, for natives as well as for Europeans. Cinchona bark, and more so pure quinine, are the only effective remedies, and, if they were less expensive, millions in India would be benefited by them. The natural forests of the more valuable kinds in South America are approaching exhaustion. Experience has sufficiently proved that some of the most valuable species succeed well on the Neilgherries, in Ceylon, and on the lower hills of British Sikkim, and that they yield an abundance of quinine. But the localities where the best kinds can be grown in India are limited, and it would be well if as much of the available area as possible were planted with Cinchonas. It has been said that India owes more to the Portuguese than to any other nation in the matter of plants and trees introduced from abroad, and certainly the papaya, cuava, custard-apple, cactus, pine-apple, and agave, all naturalised more or less directly through their agency, bear testimony, in almost all parts of India, to the skill and activity of the early Portu- guese settlers. On the other hand, it is due entirely to Lritish enterprise and energy that the Coffee tree, which was introduced about a hundred years ago by a Mussulman saint from Arabia into South India, and first cultivated on the Bababooden hills, in Mysore, is now grown in numerous extensive well-managed plantations ; that Tea, the existence of which in India was hardly known forty years ago, has become an important, annually-increasing article of export ; and, lastly, that the Cinchona tree was successfully intro- 104 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. duced from South America, and promises to be one of the greatest blessings to the people of India. So much will be clear from these remarks, that in the climate of India the luxuriance of arborescent vegetation is a sure index of moisture. A glance at the map might tempt us to go further, and to say that the limits of distribution of the different species in India seem to depend in a greater degree on moisture than on other climatic conditions. The northern limit of Teak, it is true, seems to be more influenced by the temperature of the cold season than by moisture. Natural Teak forests are not found where the mean teniperature of the three cool months is considerably less than 60°, though the tree will stand occasional night frosts, which are not uncommon in some of the valleys of the Satpoora range. But no teak is found on the Aravulli hills about Ajmere, though that place has a mean tempera- ture of 65° during the cold season. In this direction it apparently is the want of sufficient moisture which has limited the further ex- tension of the species by natural means. By cultivation, this, as most other trees, has been extended far beyond its natural limits ; numerous fairly-growing teak trees are found in gardens in Bengal, the north-west, and even in the Punjab ; a teak plantation has been commenced in Sikkim; and it has been proposed to cultivate this valuable tree on a large scalein Assam. Within certain limits the teak tree does adapt itself to different conditions of soil and climate; but limits there are, and, as far as our present knowledge goes, it thrives best with a rainfall above 30 inches, a mean temperature during the three cool months of between 60° and 80°, and during the rest of the year between 70° and 90°. Teak is spread over a great part of the dry belt of Southern India, but only as poor coppice, yielding a scanty crop of poles and rafters, and never attaining any large size. : The Sal tree is found in two large belts, one extending along the foot of the Himalaya range from Assam to the Sutlej river, with a few outlying patches beyond, and the other occupying the eastern part of Central India. The Sal depends, to a much greater extent than the teak, on certain peculiarities of soil; it is mainly found on sandstone, conglomerate, and gravel, but does not thrive on the heavy clay-soil which overlies the extensive trap-rocks of the Deccan and part of Central India, and this peculiarity may have a considerable influence in limiting the area of its distribution. It stands more cold than teak, but it does not seem to thrive with less than 40 inches of rain. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 105 A far more limited range of distribution has the Caoutchouc tree (Ficus elastica), a tree which is frequently grown in conservatories and drawing-rooms in this country and on the Continent ; so much so, that in Germany it goes by the name of the Berlin weed. Its milky juice yields a description of India-rubber, not equal to the excellent Para rubber, the product of an altogether different kind of tree in Brazil, but which may be capable of improvement by a more careful method of collection. In India this Caoutchouc tree has only been found in the moist forest skirting the Eastern Himalaya from Sikkim to Assam, and at the foot of the Khasia and Cachar hills. A humid atmosphere, and equable temperature throughout the year, seem to be the principal conditions of its free growth. The mean temperature in the stations nearest to the caoutchouc forests is between 60° and 65° in the cold season, and 80° and 85° in the three hottest months. The conditions of existence under which the Deodar grows at the north-western end of the Himalayan range are altogether different. To begin with, it demands a certain elevation ; as a rule it does not thrive in the north-west Himalaya under 4000 feet, but it ascends to 10,000 and at times to 12,000 feet. As to mean temperature, a range between 35° and 50° in the cold season, and 65° to 75° during the three summer months, seems to suit it best. As regards humidity, the Indian cedar does not go beyond certain limits of drought and moisture. In the Sutlej and other Himalayan valleys it disappears where the arid region commences, although the con- ditions of soil, temperature, and elevation are not unfavourable. Again, it is wanting in the Eastern Himalaya, where the rainfall exceeds 100 inches. The Deodar is so closely allied to the Cedars of Lebanon, the Taurus, and the Atlas mountains, that botanists find it difficult to keep them distinct as species. A close comparison of the climatic conditions under which these western cedars grow, with the climate of the north-west Himalaya, may lead to interest- ing results regarding the history of the spread of these beautiful and useful trees. It is not, however, climate, soil, and the action of man in historic times alone, which determine the area over which plants or trees are actually found at the present time; other far more remote causes have been at work, the study of which forms the most interesting part of botanical geography. The forester, how- ever, has to take things as they are, and to him the most important point is to ascertain the conditions most favourable for a vigorous growth of those trees which pay best, and which yield the largest VOL, VII. PART I. H 106 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. quantity of timber and other forest produce within a certain time on a given area. The other trees indicated on the map, Babool and Sandalwood, are satisfied with a moderate supply of moisture. The Babool tree is spread over a great part of India, but it is wanting or does not grow well in the moist zones. Without irrigation it seems to grow best under a rainfall between 15 and 60 inches; and where moisture is supplied from below, it thrives well in the driest parts of India. The Sandalwood is at home in India mainly in the southern dry zone: it demands a hot dry climate. In gardens it is grown in many of the more humid districts, but the heartwood is less fragrant and less valuable. The tree is not, however, limited to India; it is also found in the Indian Archipelago, and there are other species of the same genus yielding sandalwood in the Fiji and other islands of the Pacific, from whence it is largely exported to China. What has here been advanced makes it sufficiently clear that there exists an intimate connection between the climate of India and its forest vegetation, The practical aspect of the subject, how- ever, has not yet been touched upon. Well may the question be asked, why we should trouble ourselves concerning the maintenance and improvement of the forests in a country which has a civilisation many centuries older than our own, which has existed and has main- tained an immense population so long, without feeling the want of any systematic care of its forest lands. I must ask the reader at once to dismiss the idea that by preserving and improving the forests of India we may hope materially to change and improve its climate. It is a widely spread notion, entertained by many writers who are competent to judge, that forests increase the rainfall, and that the denudation of a country in a warm climate diminishes its moisture. Much of what is known regarding the history and the present state of the countries round the Mediterranean seems to support this theory, but it has not yet been established by con- clusive evidence. In India, where, directly or indirectly, the success or failure of the crops depends on rain at the right time and in suit- able quantity, it is natural that the conservancy and improvement of its forests should have been regarded as one of the means to be employed for a better regulation of the rainfall. Many remarkable facts are recorded, which seem to show that in comparatively recent times, the denudation of certain tracts has been accompanied by changes in husbandry, indicating a diminished or less regular rain- ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 107 fall. There is not yet, however, sufficient evidence to prove that a material deterioration of the climate has been the result of denuda- tion in any part of India. Much less has it been established that by preserving and extending the forests we may hope considerably to increase the rainfall. Not that a country covered with forests is not under certain circumstances likely to have more frequent and heavier showers than a hot barren desert, but there is no pro- spect of our carrying out in India any measures on a sufficiently large scale to effect any appreciable improvement of the climate. In the moist zones, and in a large portion of the intermediate region, the country would not benefit if the total annual rainfall was in- creased. The land would undoubtedly produce more frequent and heavier crops if we could by any means more equally distribute the moisture over all seasons of the year. The seasons in India, however, are regulated by the dry north-easterly winds which prevail during one half of the year, and the wet south-westerly currents which reign during the other half; and these again are the results of the rotation of our globe, the position of the sun, and the distribution of land and water on our hemisphere, and of other cosmic pheno- mena which will not be affected by any forest cultivation in India. What might be extremely useful would be to increase the rainfall in the arid and dry regions, where the cultivation of the land to a great extent depends on irrigation, and where a dry season causes famine of the most terrible character. If by any means we could increase the atmospheric moisture in the drier districts of the Deccan, in parts of Mysore, Rajpootana, Sindh, and the Southern Punjab, these countries might maintain a dense population in pro- sperity. But of such improvements all prospect is denied to us. If it were possible to cover any large proportion of these dry districts with forests, the stratum of air overlying the top of these forests would undoubtedly be cooler and moister, and during the south- west monsoon this would certainly bring down a few additional showers. But it is not possible. Save along the banks of rivers, there is no moisture to raise and to maintain such forests, which I fear will remain a fond hope not to be realised in our time. — By preserving and improving the woods along the coast of the western ghats, it has been stated that the rainfall in the dry country beyond might be increased. As far as our knowledge reaches at present, it seems probable that heavy forests along the edge of the ghats, and in their vicinity, have the effect of increasing the local fall of rain along this belt; but if this is the case, the westerly winds 108 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. will be drained of their moisture, even to a greater extent than if there were fewer forests, and there might possibly be less condensa- tion and less rainfall in the dry country beyond. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that every grove and every group of trees in the dry and arid regions of India is a blessing, the value of which cannot be estimated too highly ; and though we may not be able to raise extensive forests in these districts without irrigation, yet a great deal can be done by improving and extending the wooded tracts along the borders of the dry country. Save in the most arid districts, mere protection from cattle, cutting, and fires is sufficient to produce, not, it is true, dense forests, but brushwood and grass, which certainly, in a small way, serve to keep the ground cooler and moister. There is no country in India where the beneficial effects of mere preservation of brushwood tracts in a dry climate may be better studied than in some of the native states of Rajpootana. Such chiefsas the Rajah of Kishengurh, the Thakoors of Bednore and of Humeergurh, and their ancestors, have set a good example, which the forest officers of the British Government will do well to imitate. Whatever views may be held regarding such slow, gradual, and limited effects of forest growth upon the climate, there is no doubt that, in a hilly country, forests enable us in many cases better to husband the existing water supply for irrigation. Whether the drainage from the hills is collected in tanks and artificial lakes, as is the case in Rajpootana and Mysore, or whether it is employed to feed canals, to carry water, fertility, and wealth into distant districts, the object is the same, to utilise to the utmost the water supply available during the year. Experience in India and elsewhere has proved that where hills are bare, the rain rushes down in torrents, carrying away loose soil, sand, and stones, silting up rivers and canals, breaching or overflowing dams and embankments; but that where the hills are covered with meadows, fields, or forest, the super- ficial drainage is gradual, the dry weather discharge of rivers regular, the springs better supplied ; in short, all conditions united to ensure the more regular and useful filling of tanks and canals ; and in many cases the attainment of these objects is in itself of sufficient im- portance to justify measures for the preservation and improvement of natural woodlands, and for guarding against the denudation of hilly tracts. The preservation of forests may be made necessary by other objects of a cognate nature ; for instance, in order to protect roads and bridges in hilly tracts, to guard against landslips, to pre- ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 109 vent. the formation of ravines, the silting-up of rivers, and other mischief which may follow the denudation of hilly tracts. Nor is it at all impossible, that in some cases the preservation and extension of arborescent vegetation may have a beneficial effect upon the sanitary condition of a district. The late unhealthiness of Mauritius has generally been ascribed to the gradual denudation of the island ; and public feeling there has been so strong upon the subject that legislative measures have been proposed to facilitate the re-foresting of the waste lands. Too much importance must not, however, be attached to the value of forests in India from a sanitary point of view. The district of. Rutnagerri, which is situated south of Bombay, between the coast and the ghats, has been densely in- habited for centuries ; and in consequence mainly of the practice prevailing in the Concan, of manuring the fields with ashes of leaves and branches, the whole district hag gradually been denuded of trees, save groups of pollards, which are annually lopped for manure, groves of palms, and fruit trees in gardens. Yet this district is proverbially healthy ; more so than the adjoining British districts, Tanna and Colaba in the north, and Canara in the south; nor is there any proof that the rainfall of the Rutnagerri district is less than it ought to be with regard to its position on the coast. Never- theless, even here denudation has done serious mischief. Several of the short tidal streams of this part of the Concan, which were navigable in former times, have gradually silted up, and are now useless, except for very small craft. Beyond all doubt, however, forest conservancy in India has - become necessary in order to meet the growing demands for timber, wood, and other forest produce. Under the influence of peace and security, which all parts of the country are enjoying under British rule, prosperity is increasing rapidly in most provinces. The peasantry of entire districts, who have hitherto been content to live in miser- able huts, desire to build good substantial houses and to use better furniture. Hence an increased demand for bamboos, wood, and timber. In certain forest tracts the watershed of the timber trade has entirely changed since the American war has stimulated the export and cultivation of cotton. From the forests of north Canara, the former export of timber was all seawards, and fortunately it was not of great importance, and has not exhausted the forests. . The export inland was trifling. Since the American war, however, a considerable demand of timber and bamboos for the cotton produc- ing tracts east of Dharwar has sprung up, and a brisk trade is now 110 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. carried on in that direction. Similar changes in the lines of export have taken place in the Kandeish Dangs, and elsewhere in many places. The rapid construction, within the last twenty years, of railways, canals, and public buildings of all descriptions, has created large demands for timber and wood. Although a considerable pro- portion of the railway sleepers laid on the Indian lines were brought from Europe, the demand in India for this item alone has been so heavy, that within the last fifteen years extensive forest tracts have been denuded of nearly all their standing marketable timber, to furnish railway sleepers. In every respect, therefore, the drain upon the resources of our Indian forests is heavier now than it was formerly, and is likely to remain so; and unless the small extent of remaining valuable forest is carefully managed, with a view to its regeneration, there will certainly be difficulties hereafter. For the law that an increased demand will always produce an increased supply does not hold good when the supply requires one hundred years to become available. It is not, however, timber only the permanent supply of which we must endeavour to secure for the benefit of coming generations. There seems no prospect of finding coal in sufficient quantity in North-Western India. Railways and steamers in the Punjab and Sindh burn wood, and will probably continue to do so. At the same time, the demand for fuel in the towns and villages of Northern India will increase. Hence the necessity of extensive plantations, and of careful management both of the scanty woods on dry ground, and of the more productive forests along the banks of the rivers. These are the future requirements of India in this respect, and they must always hold the first place in the consideration of public mea- sures of this nature. For, after all, if it were not for the benefit of the people of India, there would be no reasonable ground for under- taking the arduous task of preserving and improving its forests, On the other hand, the interests of trade may justly claim to be heard in this matter. Sandalwood, cutch (the produce of Acacia catechu), caoutchoue, lac, teak timber, and numerous other kinds of forest produce, are important articles of export from India, and the niaintenance of a sufficient supply to satisfy the requirements of trade is a matter of great moment. Nor does the export of these articles benefit the merchant only ; it adds largely to the prosperity of the people of India. These are the principal reasons why forest conservancy in India is necessary. A more difficult question is, how the objects we have ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 111 in view are to be attained. Forests, like all other landed property, can be either in the hands of the State, of towns, village-communities, or other public bodies or corporations ; or, lastly, in the hands of private individuals. ‘There are thus two ways of accomplishing our object. Either the State must, by legislation, subject all forest property to a certain control for the public benefit, reserving to itself the right of compelling the proprietor to manage it in accord- ance with certain rules and prescriptions laid down from time to time, as circumstances may require. In many European countries this plan has been more or less successfully pursued, and in most is still maintained with regard to forest land which is the property of municipalities, villages, and public corporations. In France, for instance, the management of all these classes of forests is under the control of the State Forest Department; and, upon the whole, the system works well. Similar arrangements exist in Prussia and in other German countries.. Private forest property, however, is prac- tically free in most European countries. Nearly all European States hold large forest domains in the hands of Government, and this makes it possible to maintain an efficient body of public forest officers, with practical experience, competent to manage or to control the forests of other proprietors. Italy has, it is true, of late years pursued a different policy, but its success is doubtful. The greater portion of the State forests and of the ecclesiastical estates, which might have been formed into State forests, have been sold; and the project of a law, placing such tracts of private and other woodlands, as may from time to time appear necessary, under the control of the State forest officers, has repeatedly been discussed, but as yet without any practical result. In India, everything tends to show that the State must endeavour to retain as many of the more important forest tracts as possible in its own hands. In the first instance, this seems the only way of forming an efficient body of forest officers with practical experience. In the second instance, the control of forests in the hands of other proprietors will, in India, always be a peculiarly difficult matter. Not that the formation of village forests, and their regular manage- ment under the control of State forest officers, would not be a most desirable object to aim at. Certainly, the advantages of well- managed communal forests are great. The public property thus created cannot readily be converted into cash, and wasted by an improvident generation. It yields a fixed and certain annual 112 ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. revenue, available for roads and other public improvements. In many parts of continental Europe, long experience has shown that well-managed communal forests increase the prosperity of com- munities and their inhabitants, facilitating at the same time the development of healthy municipal institutions. And though at present it would be premature to expect the people of India to appreciate the advantages of such institutions, the time will cer- tainly come when the importance of proposals tending in this direction will be recognised. But so much seems certain, that the State ought not to undertake the control of forests of other pro- prietors until its own forest officers have the needful practical expe- rience, and are competent to manage them to the best advantage. The general principle, that the more valuable forests should as far as practicable be formed into State forest domains, has, after much opposition, gradually been acknowledged in most provinces of India; and in some provinces the process of demarcating these State forests has made considerable progress. From a late return, I gather that the area of the reserved forests in the provinces under the government of India, outside those of the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, but including the forests leased from native princes, is estimated at 9800 square miles, or 6,200,000 acres. In India, these forests are called ‘reserved forests,” as they are formally reserved from sale, except by the express permission of the Supreme Government. By way of comparison, I may mention that the Crown forests of England cover 112,000 acres, the State forests of France upwards of 2,500,000, and the State forests of the kingdom of Prussia upwards of 6,000,000. The area here given for India, however, includes a large extent of forests which are not the property of the State, but which are only leased for a definite time from native chiefs and princes. It also includes a large extent of woodlands, which have not yet been finally demarcated, or in which, though the State may be the pro- prietor, the surrounding agricultural population exercise rights of pasture, of cutting wood and timber, and, in some cases, of clearing ground for cultivation. In a few provinces, such as Sindh and the Central Provinces, circumstances were favourable at the time of demarcation, and the State acquired at once absolute proprietorship of these forest lands free of all prescriptive rights. In other pro- vinces, the gradual adjustment and extinction of these rights, which materially interfere with the protection and systematic management of the forests, will be a work of time, which will require much care, ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS IN INDIA. 113 patience, and conciliatory treatment of the people concerned. In this, as in other matters relating to the administration of forests in India, we are guided by the experience gained in this country, and on the Continent of Europe, in dealing with rights of commons and other prescriptive rights in forest land. There has been much thoughtless talk, as if the natives of India, in burning the forests and destroying them by their erratic clearings, were committing some grave offence. If the matter is carefully analysed they will be found to have the same sort of prescription which justifies the commoner in the New Forest io exercise his right of pasture, mast, and turbary. Such rights, when the public benefit requires it, must be extinguished ; but the wild tribes of India have the same claim as the holder of prescriptive-forest rights in Europe to demand that provision be made for their reasonable wants and requirements. The State forest domains in India are thus in course of formation only ; the greater mass of them is in a poor and exhausted state ; many are burdened with heavy rights of pasture and other pre- scriptive demands. For many years to come they must be worked most sparingly ; considerable sums must be expended on the demar- cation and survey of boundaries, on roads, the clearing of streams, on plantations, and other improvements. At the same time, all these operations and the protection of these extensive tracts require large and expensive establishments.. These are the reasons why the administration of the public forests in India has not yet within the short period of its existence yielded any large surplus revenue to the State. The gross income of the Government forests in British territory has within the last three years fluctuated between L.420,000 and L.465,000 ; but the charges have been high, and the highest net surplus of the year has amounted to L.160,000 only, and in another year fell as low as L.86,000. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that, financially also, the forma- tion of State forests in India, and their methodical management, will eventually be an important source of revenue and strength to the Government. In this, as in all matters, the first commence- ment has been difficult. The idea of providing for coming genera- tions may to many appear an unnecessary waste of time; but when the present generation begins to derive substantial benefits from these measures, then their value will doubtless be fully recognised. q a) = e' i ' Q J ie Ty yo ] ‘ wr - as Meta Cee tk) 4 4 4 ’ a 5 - 7 , rites ; . od :) s-9. \ > + > aT. . © 4 . , - Bras gireny ‘ i ‘ x S . ‘ 4 + ? . 4 ‘ j - - ' = ‘ s , - * be s f ; ie) & ,. « > f 7 ~ - iy. ‘ 6 on f i 3 1 A A , en erik f ‘ D ‘ . < 7 hee ~ M al | : es a te Gee bi. Buty Pere fe Pr ayetiee wee i. pepper ike youd ni L- a4 Pw Vy aan ¢ al at = mins res a i i : a 7 7 : “on Vs : zs on » - | * : * 2. ° : RAINFALL ann FOREST TREES w INDIA. 90° Mi cl SS [ FOREST TREES. RAINFALL. DEODAR (Cedrus Deodara) Arid Zone f= SAL (Shorea robusta) less than ISinches BABOOL (Acacia arabica) Dry Zone = CAOUTCHOUC|Ficus elastica ) 15 to 30 inches Sealo of English Miles. SANDAL (Santalurn album.) Moist. Zone 100 50 0 100 20 © 300 400° 800 TEAK (Tectona. grandis) above 75 inches ee The figures express Ue average yearly Rainfedl ae inches (hus. WOMBAX -72 in. Drawn byA. Kath Johnstone, FRG. 8. IL ie |_| 70° T, Petit & C® Litho, London, PES SPRL PPP IDI “ y TRANSACTIONS OF THE ; SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY VOL. VIL—PART IL. . EDITOR AND SECRETARY. 4 JOHN SADLER, F.RPhS., LECI URER ON BOTANY IN THE ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL, AND ASSISTANT TO THE PROFESSOR OF r * BOTANY AND MEDICINE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY NEILL & COMPANY. MDCCCLXXIV. j CON TENTS The Society, as a body,is not to be considered responsible for any facts or” opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. XII.—Address delivered at the Twentieth Annual Meeting. By Hvueu CuiecHorn, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras, XIII.—On the Natural History of Beetles and other Insects which infest Conifere, and suggested Remedies. By Roserr Hourcuisoy of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., Vice-President, _- XIV.—On the Present State and Future Prospects of Arboriculture in Yorkshire. By Davin Tart, Forester, Owston Park, ©. XV.—On the Different Modes of Profitably Disposing of Home- Grown Timber. By Witt1am Gitcurist, Forester, Cluny Castle, : ; ans : XVI.—On the Different Modes of Disposing of the Produce of Woods and Plantations. By Anprew Pereszes, Highclere Castle, Hampshire, XVII.—The Different Ages at which various Timber Trees may be most profitably felled in different soils and situations. By Lewis Bayne, Forester, Kinmel Park, North Wales, XVIJI.—On the Natural Production or Self-Sowing of the Common Silver Fir (Picea pectinata). By Wititiam GiILcHpRistT, Forester, Cluny Castle, XIX.—Note on a Wood damaged by Gases from Calcining of Iron- stone. By ANDREW SLATER, Forester, Loftus, Yorkshire, . XX.—On a new Transplanting Machine. By James Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay. (Plates I. and IL), XXI.—On the Altitude and Appearance of the Wellingtonia gigantea. By Roxserr Hvrcnison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., &e. (Plate III.), . : : : ; XXII.—The Self-Sown Oak Trees of Sussex, By R. W. Ciurtoy, APPENDIX. Abstract of Accounts for 1871-72 and 1872-73, List of Members, corrected to August 1874, Prize Essays, &c., for 1873-74, Laws of the Society, ; ‘ : ‘ : ‘ ¥ Office- Bearers for 1873-74, PAGE “115 123 137 146 180 184 186 190 194 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. hee XII. Address delivered at the Twentieth Annual Meeting. By Hueu Ciecuory, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras. GENTLEMEN,—In taking the chair to-day, I have to thank you for calling me again to the office of President of our Society, and to express the pleasure I feel at seeing so many of you. It gratifies me to meet you in this lecture hall, with which I have many pleasing associations ; itis by the courtesy and kindness of Professor Balfour, the Regius Keeper of the Garden, we have assembled here, and the very walls speak to us of the science of Botany, some know- ledge of which every forester is expected to possess. And much that you will see to-day in this beautiful garden is calculated to stimulate you to extend your knowledge regarding the objects which meet you in daily life. As a large proportion of those present have recently joined our ranks, it may not be inappropriate to refer briefly to some points in the history of this Society, and to congratulate ourselves on its prosperity and progress since its commencement in 1854. From the records I learn that the duties of Secretary were performed by Mr J. Alexander (of Messrs Dickson & Co.) from 1855 to 1858, the first volume of “ Transactions” being edited by Dr George Lawson, now Professor of Natural History and Chemis- try in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1858 the secre- tariat devolved on Mr Robert Stark, nurseryman, lately deceased, who continued to act until in 1861 the duties were taken up by our present efficient Secretary, Mr John Sadler. The first President chosen in 1855-6-7 was Mr James Brown, the well-known author of “‘ The Forester,’ who, with his two sons, has done much for the advancement of Arboriculture. In 1857 the late Earl of Ducie was President, and contributed a valuable paper, entitled ‘‘ Remarks on the Effects of Geological Position on certain Conifers.” His successors were the Earl of Stair, 1858; Sir John Hall of Dunglass in 1859; the late Duke of Athole, 1860; Joln J. Chalmers of Aldbar, 1861; Earl of Airlie, 1862; Right Hon. T. F. Kennedy of Dunure, 1863; Robert Hutchison of Car- lowrie, 1864, who remained in office till 1872, and who has laid us under great obligations by his continued exertions on behalf of the Society. Financially, the Society has had a very fluctuating experience. VOL. VII. PART Il. I 116 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. For some years the income was extremely small. The following table, compiled from the records, shows the receipts since 1858 :— 1858-59, . .. —. 1.53) 1866-67, “sane 1859-60, ..... .. 100 | 1867-68, "=. 1960-61,. . ... .. 50 |.1868-69, * | nie 1861-62, ... . |. 81] 1869-70, .. nes 1862-63, °. . |, $81] 1870-71, ° 2 ene 1863-64, 2° © 5 °°. - 87) 1sy1-7o2 rr ig64-65,. - ..’. 48187973) 7 [een-tee, ot eee There is reason to hope that, with growing popularity and an increasing number of members, the income will now steadily rise, as the funds are still inadequate to meet many desirable objects connected with our Society, such as the wider circulation of our Pro- ceedings, the formation of a library, and grants for scientific inquiry. The examination of our printed Transactions proves that a con- siderable change is taking place in the subjects to which our attention is directed. During the first four years I find that out of 25 papers and reports the great majority were on purely prac- tical subjects connected with the routine duty of a British forester, such as drainage, pruning, thinning, fencing, and the like; but a wider scope has lately been given to our efforts, and papers have been recorded on the influence of climate and soil, the growth of various introduced trees, improved instruments, continental systems, Indian forestry, and collateral branches of science. The estimation in which our Transactions are held may be in- ferred from notices in journals, and from the following letter of Dr Brandis, Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India, a very high authority on forest science and administration, with whom I was long associated, and from whom I have often derived valuable information :— “T write to express to you my obligations to the Scottish Arboricultural Society for sending me their Transactions, which contain numerous most interesting and instructive papers. I beg to suggest that copies of these volumes be sent to the leading forest schools and associations of foresters on the Continent. I feel assured they will be. received with pleasure, and this may ~ lead to a mutual interchange of publications. I shall be obliged by your conveying to the Council the expression of my cordial wishes for the prosperity of the Society.” ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. 127 I feel assured that it will be mutually beneficial to comply with the request to send our Transactions to the officials and associations named by Dr Brandis, and to cultivate as far as possible a free interchange of experiences. This will tend to fulfil the object of the deputation which it was proposed last year should visit the Continent, and we may hope to receive in Scotland some of the eminent foresters of those countries, to whom we could show much that would be highly interesting and instructive. Among the materials for an address on the progress and state of forestry in Britain I specially notice a small volume of Re- ports on Forest Management in Germany, Austria, and Great Brita, lately printed by order of H.M. Secretary of State for India (Duke of Argyll). The table of contents indicates details of the system adopted in various countries. Captain Walker, who spent some time in the Scotch forests of the Duke of Athole and the Earls of Mansfield and Seafield, describes their manage- ment, and also fully explains the system of forestry in operation in some States of Germany and Austria, which he studied when in Europe on leave from India. Mr Gustay Mann contributes a paper on the silver fir and spruce forests of the Hartz. Mr G. Ross gives an account of the laws and regulations of the village and ecclesiastical forests in the province of Hanover, and also a paper on plantations of Scotch fir on moor-pan soil in Germany. Mr J. W. Webber writes on the natural oak forests of Sussex, and Dr Brandis concludes the volume with some excellent suggestions on the professional studies of Indian forest officers at home on leave. Selections from this volume might with advantage be reproduced in our Transactions. The following passage relating to Scotch fir forests in Germany I may quote by way of example :— “In the plains of north-east Germany, Hanover, Brandenburg, Saxony, the extensive Scotch fir forests, which are mainly re- generated by sowing and planting, should be visited. Insects have been the great difficulty in many of these tracts, and in some cases an attempt has on that account been made to revert to natural regeneration. In the eastern provinces of Prussia forest fires have been most destructive. The Scotch fir forests of Fran- conia (Steigerwald, Hauptsmoor, near Bamberg) are principally maintained by self-sown seedlings. In these forests the successful employment of an underwood of beech to improve the growth of the Scotch fir should be noticed. In the forest tracts round Kloster Ebrach the results of this system are seen in the shape of 118 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. magnificent stems, with dark red heartwood, which fetches a higher price than oak. A different sort of management may be studied in the sandy alluvial plains of Hesse-Darmstadt. The forest crop (Scotch fir, and sometimes oak) is made to alternate with cereal crops. This remarkable system should be studied in the grand ducal forest district of Viernheim, where it is in force on an area of 5000 acres. The forest crop is cleared and rooted up, and the ground is then planted in lines with Scotch fir, on better soil, mixed with oak (the Scotch firs acting as nurses to the oak), and potatoes are planted between the lines. The second year a crop of rye, and then two more crops of potatoes and rye are taken. In this manner the young plants are sheltered during the first four years of their existence, and the ground is kept clear of grass. Under the peculiar circumstances of the locality, deep but moist sand, much exposed to late frosts in spring, this system answers admirably, the growth of the trees is better than where no crops are taken off the ground (in the vicinity), and in addition there is a surplus from the agricultural part of the operations. Forest officers from Burmah will be glad to see this system, which is analogous to what was introduced in 1864 in the teak plantations near Toungoo.” On the 24th of March 1873, a paper was read by Mr William Brown, at the Institution of Surveyors, London, on “ Beech Woods and Larch Plantations,” which was followed by an interest- ing discussion recorded in the Transactions of that Society, vol. v. pt. ix. The remarks of the various speakers (Messrs William Menzies, John Clutton, &c.) contain the testimony of practical men as to what they have seen and practised themselves, but very con- tradictory statements are recorded. For instance, Mr Clutton, a high authority, averred that ‘‘ his experience of late years in Eng- land and Scotland led him to believe that the larch is a doomed tree ;? while Mr Brown and Mr Sedgewick think that the plant- ing of larch in suitable soils should be encouraged, and that it will pay remarkably well. When persons of long experience, entitled to every consideration, enunciate opinions so opposite, surely it should be our endeavour to test the matter and to expiscate the truth, dealing with the question on scientific principles and in a scientific manner. With regard to the influence of the denudation of trees on the rainfall of North Britain, which has been repeatedly alluded to at our meetings, I may mention that a brief preliminary re- port of the Committee’s proceedings was read at the British ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. 119 Association at Bradford in September. Two localities were selected after much correspondence, and in one (Carnwath) the recording of systematic observations has commenced. The subject is con- fessedly a most difficult one to investigate, and I would caution you against forming conclusions from the experience of one or two years, and not to expect much from the observations in one locality. In regard to this inquiry, “ Man and Nature,’* by the Hon, G. P. Marsh, United States Plenipotentiary at Florence, is a most interesting and valuable work, treating the subject broadly and generally, recording many remarkable facts in history and physical geography ; but the author does not attack the subject instrumentally, or enter upon a rigid inquiry based upon numerical data. Indeed, our best meteorologists admit that we are not in a position at present to grapple with the problem directly by instrumental obser- vation. For, from the capricious distribution of the rainfall at all times, many years must be allowed to elapse (at least twenty or thirty years) before the influence of forests on the rainfall can be unmistakably indicated from the data collected by gauges, suppos- ing even that rain gauges are planted over a district in positions suited for the proper investigation of this question. The only satisfactory means of investigation that can be recom- mended as likely to lead to successful results is to consider it as part of the more general question, viz., the influence of forests on climate, particularly on the two great elements of climate, tempera- ture and humidity. This branch of the question has not been investigated with so much success as has attended Mr Marsh’s inquiries into that part of the problem with which he deals. In- deed, the examination of the temperature and humidity can only be said to have commenced. ~ In France, Becquerel has given a good deal of attention to the question, and published the results of his investigation concerning it, but these are unfortunately unaccom- panied by the requisite details, and the conditions under which the temperatures were observed are not stated with sufficient exactness. Signor Rivoli in Italy, Paul de la Cour in Denmark, and some others, have done a little in the investigation of the subject. But Mr Buchan, Secretary to the Scottish Meteoro- logical Society, informs me that the most systematic series of observations set on foot in the prosecution of this inquiry are those of Ebermeyer in connection with the forest school at Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, of which the results are regularly published. * London 1864, and Florence 1870. 120 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. The ground already gained is valuable chiefly as being suggestive of what may be expected in future, and the most likely methods to be adopted in prosecuting the inquiry. So far as concerns results already obtained, however, extremely little is positively known. The rapid rise in the price of coal, to which I alluded last year, has attracted the attention of the Legislature, and a Coal Commission Blue Book has appeared, while scientific opinions on the state and prospects of our mineral fuel supplies have during the past year been communicated from many quarters. In a country where the winter is long and severe, the supply of fuel at a moderate price is as essential to the common welfare as a sufficient supply of food. Indeed, every man who has any regard for the comfort of the poorer classes must be watching with interest all the schemes and discussions for saving fuel. And in what way, it may be asked, is this connected with the work of foresters? "When we see saraples of peat compressed by various processes exhibited at the Society of Arts, and notice that four companies with large capital have been formed in different parts of Great Britain for the purpose of manufacturing peat-moss into a useful fuel, it seems certain that the branches and fragments of our woods, which are now in many places unsaleable, may be disposed of to advantage. This would, of course, greatly stimulate the planting of rocky hills and waste places not now utilised, where trees might grow with very little attention. I have endeavoured to make calculations to prove the practicability of firewood sales in Scotland, but so much depends on soil, climate, growth, and proximity to a market, that it is not possible to give reliable figures. That the value of firewood will rise much may reasonably be doubted on account of the rapid and cheap means of communication, and because the dearness of fuel would operate as a check to productive industry. In country villages where a supply of firewood is available, wood is still used for firing, and in large towns faggots are in great demand. But from the analysis of manufactured peat by Clayton’s process, it seems probable that this article will come into more general use than wood fuel. The estimated cost of this peat at the manufactory is about 8s. per ton. A recent analysis which has been made shows that it gives 8000 cubic feet of gas per ton. Many insects are most injurious to forest trees, and compara- tively little has been recorded concerning them. In this country it is known that our most useful trees have their particular enemies. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. 121 Ash is assailed by Hylesinus fraxini, elm by Scolytus destructor, larch by Bostrichus laricis, Scots fir by Hylobius abietis and Hylurgus piniperda, willow by Trochilium erabroniforme (the lunar hornet sphinx),and others. The plane, maple, and walnut suffer less severely. Much interesting and reliable information about insects is given in Selby’s “British Forest Trees” and Loudon’s “ Arboret. Britannicum.” In like manner, incalculable mischief is caused in India by the destructive agency of white ants and other insects. One insect (Bostrichus) reduces the bamboo to an impalpable powder ; another’ infests the seeds of tamarinds (Calandra tamarindi), which crumble to dust ; and the coffee-bug (Coccus coffee) has been destructive to coffee estates in Ceylon and Coorg. In some parts the carpenter bee (Xylocopa) bores through posts, rails, and beams, occasioning serious injury to houses. In visiting wood depots one cannot fail to observe the damage caused by timber-eating beetles, and it is important to trace out the history of these destroying agents and to apply a remedy. Any observations upon the natural history, economy, and proceedings of such insects as are injurious to trees (living or dead), and any detail of experiments made for the destruction of the insects, or for preservation from their attacks, might be of much practical utility. Figures of the insects in their different states, and specimens of the wood showing the effects produced, would enhance the value of such communications. The highest authorities known to me in this country regarding insects which attack forest trees are Mr James Hardy, Penmanshiels, Ber- wickshire, and Mr Albert Miiller, Norwood, London,* who have devoted themselves to this branch of entomology, and whose opinion might be valuable to those whose trees are suffering from the depredation of insects. This leads me to dwell for a moment on the importance of quickening your power of observation. The forester, like the farmer, has to watch the seasons, the destructive effects of insects, and many incidental circumstances, including the rise and fall of the markets, which hasten or retard his felling operations, the profit or loss being materially affected by his shrewdness and judgment in availing himself of all advantages. In selecting trees to be felled, the condition and qualities of each individual tree have to be examined as a farmer studies the peculia- rities of his cattle. Some trees are of a more rapid growth than others ; these should be left as long as this quality shows itself, * Appointed Director of the Zoological Garden, Basle, Switzerland. 122 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 7, 1873. and such as have increased but little should be selected as the first disposable. I believe it is common to find men engaged in forestry more enthusiastically attached to their profession than in any other calling ; they are always surrounded by nature, which ever presents some new aspect to interest and delight those who study her. And here I would suggest that the long evenings of the coming winter would be well spent in acquiring some knowledge of the “‘scientia amabilis,” illustrations of which surround us here. By a knowledge of the structure and properties of the plants you see daily in the exercise of your calling, the pleasure enjoyed in your work would be vastly enhanced. The study of the structure of our common woods with the help of an ordinary pocket lens cannot fail to be both interesting and useful. You must not lose the opportunity to-day of visiting the Museum of Economic Botany, where you will see some objects familiar to you, and many from distant countries fitted to attract your wonder and admiration. The Pinetum formed under the superintendence of Mr M‘Nab contains the finest collection of Coniferze I have ever seen, and they are arranged so skilfully that a careful inspection cannot fail to prove instructive to such as have already some knowledge of the habits and requirements of this family. In conclusion, I regret to say that the Society has to lament the loss during the year of several distinguished members. Amongst others, Professor Davidson, Veterinary College; Mr Robert M. Stark, nurseryman, formerly our Secretary, the author of a popular “ History of British Mosses ;” Mr M. Buist, factor at Tyninghame ; and Dr J. L. Stewart, an Indian botanist, who, while Conservator of Forests in the Punjab, submitted valuable reports on forest questions in that province. Two years ago Dr Stewart offered a prize for an essay, to be sent to this Society, on the present state of the cultivation of Cedrus Deodara in Great Britain and Ireland, which I regret to say has not yet. been competed for. Although Dr Stewart has passed away, the prize is still offered, and it is hoped will soon be won. ON INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFER. 123 XIII. On the Natural History of Beetles and other Insects which infest Conifere, and suggested Remedies. By ROBERT HurTcuHison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., Vice-President. The insect world, with its teeming myriads of devouring creatures, varying so infinitely in habits, instincts, forms, and organs, is prin- cipally distinguished as to its functions, which may be said to be discharged with a view to great and general benefit and utility to the numerous species themselves, as well as with the object of destroying or removing nuisances which would otherwise deform or possibly infect the earth and its inhabitants. Many insects may, indeed, be said to be the earth’s scavengers, the pruners of nature’s too luxuriant productions. But while a counterpoise is thus established and maintained for the purpose of checking any ten- dency to overgrowth in the vegetable kingdom, it not unfrequently happens that by the same agency the projects of man, in regard to the cultivation and use of many staples of vegetable economy, are frequently seriously interfered with, and sometimes altogether marred, by the predacious and destructive attacks of many of the species of this great division of the animal world. The study of entomology, and the consideration of its classification into (1st) insects which are beneficial to the growth of plant-life by destroying others in their larva state, which would prove, if unchecked in population and distribution, most injurious to many trees, shrubs, and plants, and (2dly) insects which are themselves parasitical and inimical to the health and development of vegetable life in many forms, is a subject of the deepest interest to the close observer of nature, and especially so to the student of arboriculture, as well as to every lover of forestry who is practically engaged in that all-engrossing occupation. Itis with the insect world, in the latter of the two subdivisions to which we have referred, that we purpose now to deal, and attention will be mainly confined in this paper to the most prominent and most popularly known species which attack coniferous trees, and ravage no less seriously the newer introductions of this family than they do our common Scots fir and other older and more commonly planted varieties of Conifere. It has been universally observed that trees of the pine tribe, » most frequently affected in their young stage by the attacks of insects, are those which are planted in soil previously cropped by 124 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BEETLES the same description of trees. This will also be the case even although the previous crop may not have been affected in the least degree by such ravages, thus clearly showing that the cause of the destruction to the second crop does not lie in any sort of infection or transmission of the disease (if so it may be called) from the former occupants of the soil, but rather from the growth and establishment of larvee in the ground itself, engendered probably by the dry condition of the soil caused by the previous cropping and absorption of the moisture by the numerous roots left in the ground after felling. This theory is supported by the fact, that fre- quently after thinning young fir plantations insects are observed to attack a district where they had not been previously known. Probably the dried nature of the substratum of soil, intensified by the continued absorption of moisture by the old roots left in the ground, and also by the sprouting of some of the hardwood stools, may afford congenial habitats for the incubation and increase of these obnoxious enemies to the fir tribe. Some authorities attribute the appearance of insects in such cases to the harbour afforded to the little animals in the decaying stumps, and to the weakened growth in the young wood of the trees left in the plantation from the diminution of moisture in the soil; but it appears more pro- bable that the real cause lies in the drier state of the soil itself (independently of the thinning process), affording a suitable and congenial site for the base of the operations of the insects, rather than in the harbour afforded to them by the decaying stumps of trees thinned out. Thinning tends to produce stronger instead of weaker shoots of young wood upon the survivors, and the roots of trees felled will remain for a year or two in a sound condition, whereas the attack of the insects upon the plantation generally com- mences almost simultaneously with the process of thinning. In further support of this proposition, it may be stated that in any wood where the attacks of beetles or other insects are observed after thinning, it will be found that, if there happens to be a ‘wet bit” (i.e, a part less well drained than the rest), the trees there are happily exempt from the inroads of the invaders during the earliest stages of their attack. A careful observer of forest economy has already observed this fact in his own expe- rience.* Another fact worthy of notice here, and to which par- ticular reference will be made hereafter, is that these marauders of coniferous plantations seem greatly enamoured of the cut and drying * W. Tivendale, Scott. Arbor. Soc. Trans., vol. vii. p. 80. AND OTHER INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFERA. 125 twigs and branches from early prunings or thinnings. It has been frequently observed that they prefer locating themselves among these cut branches to any other shelter or cover, so long as they find them in a fresh, although drying, condition; and they will invariably settle on them rather than on any part of the growing trees themselves. This predilection for shoots in a semi- - dry or half-withered state is further attested by the circumstance, that insects which attack the fir tribe invariably commence upon a subject already evincing indications of sickness or decay. This is apparent in woods where no pruning or thinning has afforded them an opportunity of selecting their favourite haunts among felled branches and stools, and in the absence of such they are universally found to select apparently sickly specimens in preference to very robust and healthy plants, the juices of luxuriant and vigorous growths being probably too strong and rank in their vitality for their slower insect development and economy. One explanation of this generally observed preference of insects of various orders for diseased or sickly specimens of the trees they prey upon, is given by M. Audouin, Professor of Entomology in the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle at Paris, who has closely studied and noted the habits of many insects, and there appears to be good ground for accepting it as authentic and reliable. He thinks that the quasi-incipient decay of the tree is due, not to any inherent failure in the plant-life of the specimen, but to the attacks and boring operations in the bark of the tree caused by the search of the male insects (chiefly) for food, which injures the bark, inducing an unhealthy foliage; into these subcortical bor- ings the female deposits her eggs; and so what we usually ascribe as the primary cause of the tree’s sickness is merely the secondary result of the creature’s operations, which are really an attack, in the first instance, upon a healthy tree for food. These borings weaken and exhaust the functions of the bark, whereupon the female deposits her eggs in the previously made workings of the male insect, while the act of burrowing and depositing the eggs and of so injuring the tree are commonly supposed to be confined only to trees which previously evinced signs of decay. In the Review Entom. (iv. p. 115), Silbermann also states, upon the authority of Dr Ratzeburg, that the large weevil (Pissodes notatus) attacks the bark of young pines with its trunk, and thus renders the trees un- healthy, prior to the female depositing her eggs in them. The modes of insect attacks upon coniferous trees may be directed 126 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BEETLES towards the root, the bark, or the tender young shoots; but, in any case, their preference for the apparently weaker growths and con- stitutions holds good, whatever may be the method of attack, and whether their victim be a recently planted seedling or a mature tree. They probably, in the first instance, feed on their prey, and then breed in the cavities which their predacious attacks have made. The season when insects are most injurious to coniferous woods is generally from the beginning of April to the end of June, and again from about the beginning of August till the middle or end of Sep- tember, in favourable and mild weather or ordinary seasons. Of course, cold or wet weather may affect their operations, but, as a rule, these are the times of the year during which the greatest havoc is com- mitted. Hot and dry summer weather, especially if succeeded by a cold, dry, frosty winter, favours the dissemination and increase of forest-feeding insects. The warmth of summer fosters their breeding, because by its genial influence their period of trans- formation from the larva state is shortened, and abundance of time is afforded for several broods to mature in succession; and when the following winter is dry, a superabundant number of insects will be found in the ensuing spring; while, on the other hand, should the summer season prove wet and deficient in sunshine, and the following autumn and winter be damp, intensely cold, or snowy, the numbers of insects, whose increase had been pre- viously checked by the adverse summer, will be materially les- sened in the following spring, and the destruction to the woods for the time will be proportionately less severe. These remarks prin- cipaily apply to insects which affect the bark of pines, especially the silver fir (Picea pectinata), and confine their attacks to the tree through that medium, selecting chiefly those old trees the bark of which is not very hard. They direct their attack, in the first instance, to apparently weakly or dying specimens, or settle upon felled timber, feeding upon the stagnated sap of the inner bark, to which they bore, by the aid of their sharply-toothed jaws, in a direction slanting upwards as far as the sap wood, and from thence the female hollows out a perpendicular canal about 3 or 4 inches in length in the inner bark, with small niches close to- gether on each side ; in these she deposits her eggs, which are small round white objects, and, having covered them up with a slime of her own secretion, the larvee are hatched in about fourteen days, and they again cut for themselves ramifying passages in all directions, which widen as they proceed, and resemble alphabetical AND OTHER INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFERA. 127 letters in appearance, whence the insect has sometimes been popu- larly styled the “ Typographer Beetle,” or Bostrichus typographus (Fabricius). Should silver firs be scarce in the plantation, or the insects be so numerous as to overrun all the trees of that species, they will next attack any other fir or pine that may be most convenient. The full period necessary for the development of this mischievous little creature is about eight weeks from the egg to the full-grown beetle, and there are generally two broods in each season, the last sometimes remaining (owing to cold or wet weather) concealed dor- mant under the bark of the tree till the following spring, when they are fully developed. The injury to the silver fir by this insect will thus be seen to be effected by the destruction of the sap-wood, which every arborist is aware will insure the speedy death of the tree, even when otherwise perfectly sound and luxuriant. A short description of this most destructive insect may here be interesting. It is, when full grown, a beetle of from 2 to 24 lines long, and about 1 to 1} lines broad, and hairy. On its first development to the perfect state, and while still under the bark, it is of a rusty yellow colour, becoming darker by degrees, and upon its escape to the open air is of a brownish black ; jaws sharply toothed ; eyes dark brown ; wing-cases deeply punctured, broader behind, deeply and obliquely impressed ; the impressions with crescent-shaped margins, which have from 4 to 6 irregular teeth, Thorax and sternum always darker than the wing-cases. The female is distinguished by a thicker abdomen, and is less covered by the wing-cases. The larva or maggot is 3 lines long, wrinkled and white when it leaves the egg, soon becoming yellowish at the head; the back reddish striped; jaws sharp; antennze short; feet six in number and yellowish. The nymphs or pupz are white and soft at first, becom- ing harder and yellower by degrees; they are almost the form of the beetle, only with pale indications of the wings, and with the feet drawn up under the body.* The bark-boring order of insects are not only very numerous, but they are probably, from their mode of attack, the most destructive of all to whose ravages the pine family are liable. Not only is their process of destroying the inner bark and alburnum very detri- mental to the tree, but the myriads of little cell-holes which they cut in the bark, even if their further operations be suspended or prevented, interrupt the course of the descending sap, and admit * Kollar on Insects, Loudon’s Translation, p. 358. 128 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BEETLES the percolation of rain and other ungenial weather, which causes the bark to peel off, causing permanent injury to the tree. These bark-burrowers belong principally to the family of Scolytide, includ- ing the genera Scolytus, Hylesinus, Hylurgus, Tomicus (Bostrichus), &c. They may be distinguished into two classes, viz., those that bore into the heart and body of the trunk of the wood, and those that confine their inroads to the inner bark with its adjacant sap- wood oralburnum. Probably in the case of coniferous trees, the operations of these internal wood-borers are chiefly of the latter description ; while there are many insects which attack hardwood timber, and do not confine their inroads to the inner bark, but chiefly burrow into the heart of the trunk itself, rendering even large willows, poplars, oak, elm, and other timber trees so hollow as to be easily blown down. Of these destructive creatures are the stag-beetle family (Lucanide); and the very widely-branched tribe of Capricorn beetles, including Prionus, Cerambyx, Lamia, Stenocorus, Leptura, Rhagium, Gnoma, Saperda, Callidiwm, and Clytus (Fab.) Nor are the ravages of these mischievous creatures apparent and important in the forest and plantation alone, but very frequently the doings of some of them only become known in after years, when trees apparently sound have been felled and converted into timber for construction purposes. This is owing to the length of time sometimes necessary for the full development of the larvee of many of the species. For example, in the order of Hymenoptera, one genus called Sivex is peculiarly destructive to fir timber. In woods in Yorkshire, Stephens reports that whole plantations of firs have been known to be destroyed by the operations of its larvee under the bark. Two of the most conspicuous and destructive members of this genus are Sivex gigas and juvencus, both of which have been known to issue from the wood of joists and floor- ing in houses, after the timber had been wrought up and used for three years. The other principal bark-boring beetles which affect Coniferee are Tomicus pinastri, laricis, micographus, typographus (already re- ferred to), and chalcographus, which are happily, however, less known in Great Britain than in the continental forests. We have, however, more common in this country, the well-known Hylurgus piniperda, and the two large weevils, Pissodes notatus and pini.* Another secondary ailment, which frequently befalls the victim of these bark- * This insect is said to be commonin Rannoch. AND OTHER INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFER. 129 destroying insects, arises from the permanent disruption between wood and bark caused by the innumerable earwigs, spiders, flies, wood-lice, &c., which take possession of the cavities, allured by the exuding sap, no less than by the shelter which the loose bark affords. We have in Scotland little conception of the damage done to forests by these insects. Numerous instances are on record of the extent of their prevalence and ravages. In Germany and Austria, for example, it is stated that 80,000 of the Bostrichus typographus have been found in one tree; and so great is the vitality of this little pest that nothing short of fire will destroy it. In the beginning of last century it was unusually abundant in the Hartz forests, and con- tinued in immense numbers for several years—first in 1757, when its ravages were very severe ; again in 1769 and in 1783, when the total number of its victims in the forests mentioned amounted to 1,500,000; and the indirect result of its destructive agency was that the industrial pursuits of the surrounding country were seri- ously crippled, and in some localities actually suspended. Cold and wet seasons, however, in 1784 and in 1789, tended greatly to diminish its numbers. In 1790, however, it reappeared, and again in 1796, when serious fears were entertained for the safety of the few remain- ing fir trees, which the ravages of former years had spared.* But in addition to the insects which infest pines by burrowing under the bark, there is an equally numerous and destructive host whose ravages are carried on with similar precision in other ways, by attacking the foliage or the rocts of the tree. The well-known substance termed “ honeydew” is said to be the secretion of a species of Aphis. The larch in this country is infested with an aphis whose wax-like ‘“cottony” filaments are well known, and are often so abundant as to whiten the entire tree, and ultimately (if not removed or checked) to cause its destruction, Then again, there are other deposits caused by the Aphide, which, although in themselves very beautiful, resembling as they do, when their mechanism is closely examined, fruit, blossoms, flowers, &c., are yet, if allowed to spread to undue proportions, full of danger, and sometimes convey total destruction to the tree. These deposits refer to the secretions of the Aphis abietis. The larvee of several moths also attack fir and other trees by destroying their foliage, viz., Dendrolimus pini, Psiluria monacha, Achatia piniperda, Bupalus piniarius, Orthoteenia turionana and resinellu, &e. The three species of saw-fly (Lophyrus pint and rufus, and Pamphilius * Latreille, Hist. Nat. ix. 194. 130 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BEETLES erythrocephala) tend further to swell the number of the enemies of the pine tribe, no less by their annual destruction of the leaves of the year, than by their pertinacity of attack, causing the unfortu- nate tree to draw upon the undeveloped resources of the next season’s supply, to make up the deficiency thus caused in the present, This process, if repeated for a very few years, certainly terminates fatally for the tree. The ravages of the insects we have just referred to are, however, chiefly confined to the continent of Europe, while in Great Britain their attacks, although they have been noticed, are not as yet to any great extent frequent or urgent. They have certainly been known to exist in Great Britain in several localities, but many of them appear not to be indigenous, so it may probably be assumed that their larvee have sometimes been imported either with seed or upon plants from the Continent. As some of the varieties, such as Pissodes notatus (Fab.), already referred to, have of recent years become more common in the United Kingdom, it is probable that it has thus been introduced. This remark applies also to Acanthocinus edilis (Linn.), a little mischief-worker, called in some districts “the timber man.” Thus we see that there are many species of insects whose destructive propensities are confined to the leaves, bark, and shoots of the fir tribe, but there are also others whose operations are directed to the annihilation of the seeds and cones. These are devoured, whether ripe or unripe, with great avidity. To this class belong Eupithecia togata (Hb.), whose larve are very destructive to the dried seeds of Scots fir, the Phycis abietella (Za.), which, in addition to tunnelling into the cones of Pinus sylvestris, Pinus mart- tima, and other firs, and destroying their vitality, lodge themselves in the decaying wood of the tree, and thereby hasten the process of dissolution. The colour of all these insects at one period of their existence so closely resembles the bark and other portions of the tree, that their detection is exceedingly difficult. Indeed, so well is their presence concealed by this means, that their existence upon the tree attacked is first known by numerous spots of resin being seen oozing from the bark. If examined carefully, each of these spots will be found to cover a small aperture, in which the insidious enemy has securely located, himself. In this manner whole trees, and ultimately entire plantations, are overrun and seriously damaged. The list of those insects which attack roots and subsist upon them is fortunately less numerous and important. Their ravages AND OTHER INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFER. Toe are chiefly directed against dead and decaying roots of cut trees, The best known of this class is the Hylobius abietis, which may be taken as the type of the whole. It is one of the largest of the British Curculionide, or weevil family. The destruction caused to pine plantations in this country by the attacks of the Hylurgus piniperda, and the wide area over which (both in England and Scotland) it has been observed, demand more than a passing notice in a paper like the present. It is very commonly found upon the Scots fir and Weymouth pine (P. Strobus), and many other conifers, detracting oftentimes by its ravages from their deservedly admired, picturesque, and interesting appear- ance. This beetle belongs to the same family as one whose attacks upon the common elm (U/mus campestris) are well known in Scotland— namely, the “Scolytus destructor,’ whose ravages upon the elms in St James’ and Hyde Parks, London, created some years ago con- siderable interest and attracted public attention. The injury done by the Hylurgus piniperda consists in its destruc- tion of the leading shoots of the fir or pine which it attacks. It is incessant in its operations when these are fairly commenced, and the following narrative of the mode and progress of its attack, by Mr John Lindley, will give an accurate idea of the rapidity and devastating effects of this insect’s operations :— “For the purpose of observing its proceedings more narrowly” (says Mr Lindley), “ I placed a shoot of the Scots fir under a glass with the insect. In about three hours after, it had just begun to pierce the bark at the base of one of the leaves; its mandibles seemed chiefly employed, its legs being merely used as a means of fixing itself more firmly. Four hours after, its head and thorax were completely buried in the shoot, and it had thrown out a quan- tity of wood, which it had reduced to a powder, and which nearly covered the bottom of the glass. In sixteen hours more it was entirely concealed, and was beginning to form its perpendicular excavation, and was busily employed in throwing back the wood as it proceeded in destroying it. There were evidently two kinds of this sawdust, part consisting of shapeless lumps, but the greater portion of very thin semi-transparent Jamellw, or rather shavings, which presented an invariably regular spiral appearance. I now examined it every day till the fifth, when I found it had emerged through the central bud at about an inch from where it had first commenced.” Of this most destructive pest there are several varieties well VOL. VII, PART II. K 132 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BEETLES known throughout the United Kingdom, which may be specified as follows :— Hylurgus piniperda, Linn. Hylurgus angustatus, Gyll.=ater, » rufus, Mars. Mars. » obscurus, Mars. » vrhododactylus, Mars. » prtcens, Mars. » ater, Fab. =: niger, Mars. » Bolett, Mars. They are found principally in June, July, and August, under the bark of the trees they have attacked. Hitherto it seems to have been the general opinion that they molested only diseased or decay- ing and feeble trees. Some authors even assert (Selby amongst others) that in no single instance have they ever been known to attack a tree in perfect health; but this point we have already re- ferred to in this paper, and we think it is conclusively shown, from recent observations of their habits, that, in their incipient stages of attack, so insidious are their movements, that it is only after a time their presence is detected, and then the vigour of the tree has already begun to decline, and thus the insect is assumed to be the result rather than the cause of the tree’s failure. As it would be impossible within our prescribed limits to describe and specify all the insects which are injurious to the pine family, or whose ravages tend to retard the progress of that interesting class. in our gardens and arboreta, we can only name a few others whose predatory habits are well known in certain localities, before passing on to notice some of the means of prevention which appear at least feasible, if not thoroughly effectual, for the prevention of the pro- eress of the mischief which these animals occasion. In some situations the EHrnobius mollis (Linn.) is frequently found upon both Scots fir (P. sylvestris) and Pinus maritima. Like the Hylurgus piniperda, it lives at the expense of the tree; but Perris (a French naturalist) asserts that it only attacks sickly or ailing plants. To this, as has already been stated, we object, and need not recapitulate the reasons. Blastophagus piniperda (Linn.), Hylastes ater (Payk.), and Hylastes palliatus (Gyll.), which in some places is very abundant, are all extremely destructive. One of the most fatal enemies of the silver fir (Picea pectinata), and which it is to be feared is increasing in many parts of the country, especially in low-lying situations and in deep or heavy soils, is the Bostrichus typographus (Fabr.) This insect confines its attacks to the leading shoots of the tree. -These it disfigures by AND OTHER INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFER. fa) settling upon their bark, and sucking the juices of the plant till the young wood is literally killed. It spreads with marvellous rapidity over whole trees, and frequently causes total destruction to every young silver fir in a plantation. Young thriving trees of about eight to twenty feet in height appear to be most vulnerable to its attacks. The first appearance of the tree being infested with this plague is to be noticed upon the main stem and under side of the branches and young shoots, where it presents the appearance of a pure white minute substance in small patches close together, which, when microscopically examined, are found to consist of an adhesive cotton-like substance or covering, within which numberless clusters of the eggs of the creature are deposited, and occasionally the insect itself may be found. Gradually the whitened appearance spreads, and with wonderful rapidity the entire bole and branches seem to be dusted over with this downy matter, containing myriads of animals, each busily engaged with its sharp though minute proboscis in tapping the juices of the tree. Their settlement upon any tree will continue for two or three years, till, from first presenting a dwining and unhealthy look, the unfortunate victim falls into a decline from which Nature cannot recover it. The spectacle pre- sented as the progress of decay proceeds is indeed melancholy ; the top branches and terminal shoots die first, and gradually, tier by tier, the handsome branches wither off, and in a very few seasons the tree is killed to the ground-line. This insect never attacks the leaves, but confines its ravages entirely to the bark of the young shoots and bole. A nearly-allied species of Bostrichus (B. laricis) is very common upon the larch. It does not, however, prove so fatal in its attacks. This insect is commonly and appropriately called “ the larch blight,” from the appearance which it gives the tree when first attacked. The eggs may easily be detected concealed in the crevices of the young bark, and in the hollows around the buds, where they abound in winter time, and are easily discernible by the naked eye, like minute round black grains. They propagate in spring with mar- vellous rapidity, covering leaves, branchlets, and stem with a small black covering, which gradually whitens as those creatures weave for a covering and protection from rain, a thick, white, viscid, woolly- like substance from their numerous pores, and which is the cause of that sticky and clammy feeling so well known in connection with the larch tree. Happily, as has already been stated, the ravages of this little creature are seldom fatal, although it lives upon the juices 134 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BEETLES of the plant, sucked out by means of its sharp proboscis, and ac- cording to the moisture and temperature of the season are its attacks more or less severe. For instance, if, by reason of unpropitious frosty winds in spring the opening foliage of the larch should suffer a check, the trees so affected are more likely to be overtaken by the subtle and interminable exertions of its army of little enemies ; and after such a season the larch trees present a sicklier hue, and have a more viscid feeling, than in a season when their vitality has flowed in an unchecked tide into a rapidly-developed foliage and blossom. But while thus presenting the dark side of this picture of Nature in her forest economy, it should also be borne in mind that although a long catalogue of most destructive little insects has been named, there is also a very numerous class of insects which are not only not detrimental to the coniferous or even hardwood trees, but are directly beneficial to them, and especially to the pine tribe, in destroying, and thus keeping in check, other insects which are in themselves destructive, and many of which have been named in the foregoing pages. For example, in the United States of America there exists a small black ladybird, with two red spots on its wing-covers, named Chilocorus bivulnerus, which is remarkably useful in destroying bark lice and pine-tree scale. Another small ladybird, Exochomus gnexi, which is of a red colour, with two black spots on its wing-covers, and of similar habits, is also frequent, and deserves protective attention. Many of the ichneumon flies destroy whole acres of caterpillars infesting fir trees; and without the aid of such small predacious and parasitic allies, destructive insects would increase to such an extent as to render all forest labour unavailing. It is well known that while there are multitudes of noxious insects devastating whole forests, there are also many useful little animals which by their opera- tions may be said to act as the good genii of ‘all trees, and chiefly of the coniferous tribe. By diminishing the numbers of the injurious, they check their otherwise too rapid increase; and it is the more necessary to state this fact prominently, because, while the planter sees only the damage which is done by the obnoxious creatures, he seldom observes those little insects and their opera- tions which, unappreciated because unseen, are silently, but not the less surely, engaged in counteracting the pernicious operations of the destructive myriads. To encourage and foster the increase of the innocuous classes of insects should be the aim of every one connected with woodland management or plantations This AND OTHER INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFERA. 135 may, indeed, to a considerable extent, be achieved by preventing the too frequent and indiscriminate slaughter of many species of small birds and other forest denizens; for it is a remarkable fact that the smaller birds feed much more generally (by a wise pro- vision of Providence) upon such insects as happen to be injurious to tree life than upon the harmless varieties. One of the most useful insects in attacking and destroying many of those allied species which are injurious to the pine tribe is the Thunasinus formicarius (Linn.), and the destructive abilities of this small creature are truly marvellous, depositing its eggs not unfrequently in the wood-boring larve themselves, as well as in the bodies of many other descriptions of very destructive insects, and also in the larvee of numerous kinds of destructive beetles which live between the bark and wood of decaying trees. While it will thus be seen, from the foregoing cursory sketch of some of the numerous enemies of Coniferz, that their name is truly “Legion,” it yet remains that some remedial measures should be pointed out to check the ravages of these incursive hosts, and so preserve the healthful amenity of our beautiful coniferous favourites. The first suggestion that naturally falls to be offered, with the view of preventing, or at all events of retarding, the attacks of predacious insects, is the entire removal, after felling or thinning any planta- tion or strip, of all brushwood, refuse, or root stumps, which may be left. Indeed, the instant transport of these outside the wood, and their immediate consumption on the spot, is the first safe- guard which can be suggested for healthy plantations. In the case of woods where insect attacks have become apparent upon silver firs, Scots firs, or other common nurses, the immediate fellmg and removal for burning of the infected victims may tend to stay or lessen the plague. Paring off the grass all round infected trees, to the distance of a yard on each side, and burning the turf along with the diseased plant, is also a good and frequently an effectual remedy. Where it is practicable, and can be economically done, it is well, before planting any strip or ornamental belt of wood, to plough the ground deeply. This not only turns over the sod and affords less cover for insect life therein, but also affords a deep soft bed for the young roots of the new plantation, and thereby induces a rapid and healthy start, which is always beneficial to a newly-formed wood. Early thinning, boldly and fearlessly accomplished, so 136 ON INSECTS WHICH INFEST CONIFERZ. as to admit of a free circulation of air among the young plants, and to prevent overcrowding and other obstructions to the radiation from the earth’s surface, and evaporation from the trees themselves in their young state, has likewise a salutary effect in preventing the inroads of insect vermin. This is especially the case with larch plantations, for moss-covered bark, engendered by damp, close, and confined situations and habits of the tree, are fruitful of disease, and harbour innumerable parasitical foes of the pine tribe. When plan- tations have been once thinned, and are fairly established in growth, it suits very well to allow the second thinnings and prun- ings to lie in the wood for a year after being cut, and then to remove them suddenly in midsummer and burn them up. [By this plan a vast number of those insects which prefer settling upon fresh cut and drying shoots and branches are destroyed; but as, gene- rally speaking, in a first thinning of any wood, their presence would be rather in the way than otherwise, the plan suggested may be found effectual with a second or third thinning—say when the trees are sufficiently apart, and are probably from 12 to 18 feet high or thereby, so that a free circulation of air can play through them without being interrupted to any extent by the felled branches and other prunings during the first season after the thinning process has been effected. To prevent harbours for insects in hard-wooded plantations, the stools should be cut as /ow as possible, so as to prevent sprouting, and the formation of cluster heads and bush-like forms. Notre.—Coloured illustrations of several of the insects mentioned in the foregoing paper are being executed, and will be given to the Society, by Mr Hutchison, in the next part of the Transac- tions.—Ep. ON ARBORICULTURE IN YORKSHIRE. 13% XIV. On the Present State and Future Prospects of Arboricul- ture in Yorkshire. By Davin Tait, Forester, Owston Park. Arboriculture is daily becoming of more importance, not only to landed proprietors, but to the commercial interests of the nation. Foreign timber has lately risen in price about 50 per cent., the result of which has been to raise the price of that grown at home to an equal, and in some cases even a greater amount. It is, notwithstanding, astonishing to find so much ignorance existing in regard to arboricultural matters, both in a practical and a scientific light. Plantations are too commonly looked upon simply as game preserves, not existing for any benefit to the country, or even to the owner, except as affording sport to a limited section of the com- munity. It, however, only requires a slight acquaintance with the subject to show that, while they conduce to a certain amount of sport, they are of infinitely greater importance as a source of revenue to the proprietor, and also to the agricultural and commercial inte- rests of the country. In the following remarks I will deal with the subject from a practical point of view, and shall endeavour to give a description of the prominent features of arboriculture in Yorkshire. In this country we must expect to find the proprietor of woodlands consulting his own taste in their management, —that is, whether he will have them kept merely as game pre- serves, or managed so as to increase the revenue of his estates. If proprietors can be shown that it is their interest to lay out and manage their plantations in a scientific manner and on sound prin- ciples, we may expect them to look at the subject more from an arboricultural point of view, and make the consideration of shoot- ing or hunting a secondary matter, so far as their plantations are concerned. In laying out plantations in this county, as elsewhere, pro- prietors have been influenced by various motives. Love of sport, ornament, shelter, and profit have all contributed to the increase of woodland property. The result is, that plantations have not always been laid out to the best advantage, or the most suitable trees planted in different soils and situations. Fences.—The thorn hedge is the most common, the management 138 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS at a certain period of its growth being peculiar to the county— viz., when the hedge becomes overgrown, which it is sometimes allowed to do to form shelter, it is laid over, and a fence about the common height formed without cutting down. This is done by cutting the stem two-thirds through about six inches above the ground, and laying it over at an angle of about forty-five degrees. Small stakes are driven into the line of fence about two feet apart to keep the layer in its place. The cut which has been made is sloped neatly to prevent water from lodging, and left open, so as to give young shoots plenty of air. If a strong fence is required, small rods are twisted in along the tops of the stakes to bind it. Where an old hedge is thin, this sometimes makes a good fence, as the layers fill up the thin places, but the necessity for such treat- ment is the result of mismanagement at an earlier period. The laying of hedges is not nearly so common now as it was. The bills used for switching or trimming are heavy, and the handles long ; sometimes the blade inclines backward at an angle from the handle. When at work, the hedger uses both hands to hold his bill, and works with his face towards the hedge. Sometimes the work done is very neat ; often, however, it is of au inferior descrip- tion. There are matches throughout the county for hedgers trying their skill, but unfortunately in some districts these are being discontinued. Dry-stone dykes are also common in the hilly dis- tricts of the county. Iron fencing, too, in all the different styles, is being extensively used. Draining.—This is an important adjunct of arboriculture; and a large extent of this county being flat, were no artificial means employed to convey the water off the land, a large tract would be marshy ground and stagnant water, instead of fertile fields and luxuriant crops. Even with an extensive system of drainage, the low- lying districts are periodically visited by floods more or less disas- trous. Last year (1872), in the month of July, we had in one district 11,000 acres under water, and it was calculated that damage was done to crops to the extent of L.50,000. Had the damage done to plantations been included, the estimate must have been much higher. Many trees of large size were killed, and many acres of young plantations destroyed. What were thriving young trees from 12 to 20 feet high, as well as full-grown specimens, may this year be seen standing leafless. The varieties which have suffered most are ash, wych, elm, and larch. These are the trees we would have expected to suffer most by long exposure to water OF ARBORICULTURE IN YORKSHIRE. 139 stagnant on their roots. Oak on the same ground was uninjured, which may be from its roots drawing nourishment deeper in the ground. The drainage of ground before planting, and the most careful attention to drains afterwards, are of the greatest import- ance to the profitable rearing of timber in a district such as above described. Planting.—It is difficult to say what amount of care has been bestowed on the selection of trees to form existing plantations, without knowing what the primary object of planting may have been. It is a common fault to find existing plantations formed exclusively of oak, which when small fetches a comparatively small price. This may be accounted for by the high price obtained for oak at the time of the plantations being formed, but the object would have been better attained by planting oak at suitable distances for the permanent crop, and filling up between with larch and other kinds. Much of the land, however, is very suitable for growing oak, a wood which, when matured, commands a good price. Although larch will not grow to a large size on clay lands, it thrives well until it is suitable for coal-pit purposes, when a remunerative price can be obtained for it. Young trees for planting are generally obtained at public nurseries, of which there are several in the county, some of large extent. Many proprietors prefer getting trees from Scotland, being of opinion that trees grown under the influence of a northern climate are more hardy, and succeed better after removal. There is a good deal to be said in favour of this view. It is a great shock for trees to be planted out in a bleak situation after being crowded in a nursery; and it appears a sound view, that if reared in a colder and more ungenial climate, they will be less susceptible to the change than if planted out in the locality in which they have been nursed. This, however, only holds good as regards trees of small size, as when plants are large the shorter distance they are removed the better. The operation of planting is generally done by digging pits 4 feet apart, which, in the low clay lands, is the only suitable method. The same difficulty of pro- tecting young trees from the ravages of hares and rabbits exists as in other parts of the country, the only effectual cure being either to have them all killed, or to put wire-netting round the whole of the plantation. or several years after being planted, the young trees are liable to suffer from late spring frosts, the ash and larch being the varieties most affected. Pruning.—This is a branch of forestry that one does not see 140 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS practised so often in this county as it ought to be, and in many instances where attempts are made to prune, the trees acted upon (which are generally those grown in hedge-rows) are more disfigured than benefited by the operation. Thinning of Plantations.—Besides all other arguments in favour of early thinning, we have the advantage of a ready market for even the earliest thinnings, which are used by farmers, gardeners, crate-makers, &c., for various purposes, the price obtained repaying the cost of labour. Yet I fear there is a tendency rather to neglect thinning at this stage, and afterwards to do it too severely. On many estates even of considerable size no qualified forester is kept to whom this duty can be intrusted. In such cases a professional timber valuator is called in whenever it is thought desirable to have a sale of timber. To him is intrusted the duty of thinning the plantations, and putting a value on the trees to be cut down. This state of things is very objectionable, and is rendered more so in some cases by a percentage being allowed the valuator on the money drawn at the sale. That is certainly an inducement to get in the largest possible amount of cash, but it may be to the ruin of the plantation, by thinning too severely or removing trees which should have been left. On small estates, where there is not sufficient employment for a forester, some disadvantage of this kind must be submitted to. It is obvious, however, that where a qualified person is in charge, whose professional character depends on the manner in which he discharges his duties, he will take more interest in his work than a person only called in for the time being. It must be understood that the class of persons here spoken of is very different from the landscape gardener, being simply valuators, and not professing to understand the thinning or general management of plantations. Thinning requires much attention in all cases, but particularly in a picturesque or hilly district. There is not only the welfare of the plantation to be con- sidered, but also the shelter of adjoining land and the beauty of the landscape. An important part of thinning here is clearing out the underwood, which can always be profitably disposed of, and, if of hazel or ash, is much sought after. It can be cut with most advantage at from six to ten years’ growth. When a quantity of wood is marked for sale, the common method adopted is, in the first place, to have all the underwood cut and sorted, the different classes tied up into bundles, and carried to the roadside. Any plants likely to make good timber trees are left in open spaces, OF ARBORICULTURE IN YORKSHIRE. 141 or to take the place of trees to be felled. In some cases the under- wood is sold, standing, by auction, the purchaser doing all the labour. I do not, however, approve of this method. Cutting Down and Disposing of Timber.—Felling is generally done by contract by timber merchants’ men, or when it is cut down previous to sale by the proprietors’ own men. Contracts are objec- tionable in this work, as the men are less careful in preserving standard trees; but where it is difficult to obtain competent men for estate work, it is the only way of solving the labour difficulty. The methods of disposing of timber may be classed under two heads, viz., selling it standing, and cutting it down previous to its being sold. The first method is much more common throughout the county, and sales of two or three thousand pounds value are effected in this way. There are many objections to this method, but I merely give the system of management practised in the county. Cutting down timber previous to sale is becoming more common year by year, and were proprietors or their managers giving the subject the attention it deserves, it would soon be general. There are various methods adopted for arranging a sale of timber, but selling by auction is the most common. When the timber is felled, sometimes the number of feet, in other cases no particulars, are given, and it is generally more satisfactory to allow purchasers to satisfy themselves on different points. As I have before stated, much of the timber grown is oak, and it would strike a traveller through the county in summer to see a number of trees standing minus the bark and branches. ‘The practice is to strip the trees of their bark, and let them remain a month or two before being felled, to prevent their splitting from the heat of the sun. When there are no branches for the men to stand on when taking the bark off, iron spikes are driven into the tree for that purpose, and those who are used to it can get the bark off very quickly, but I have not found the price obtained repay the extra labour. Trees of large dimensions are certainly much benefited by the operation, and when required for estate use it well repays the extra expense incurred. This work is invariably done by contract, the price paid at the pre- _ sent time being from L.1, 15s. to L.2 per ton, and the price paid for cutting down is from 6s. to 10s. per hundred feet. On Measuring Timber.—In many districts of the country, when trees are felled, the trunk or bole is sawn through where it becomes knotty, but the general custom in Yorkshire is different, the tree being dressed out as far as it will girth six inches on the side. 142 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS When quoting prices per foot, the two methods make a considerable difference ; in the one case there is only the best of the timber, in the other the rough top is included. Owing to felling being done by contract, the timber is measured out very exact, and the contents marked on every tree with a timber scribe. A quarter of a foot is always included in the measurement, and it is no uncommon thing to see a tree containing 80 or 100 feet have an odd quarter or half foot marked onit. This exactness of measurement has arisen from timber merchants buying the trees standing ; and bringing their customers to the plantation to select wood to suit their purposes, the measure marked on the tree forming the basis on which the bargain is com- pleted. There is much to be said in favour of exactness in measure- ment, as it forms a reliable guide for reference at any future time, but it is a duty often very loosely performed. Another feature in timber measuring here is, that no allowance is made for bark except when oak timber is sold standing ; the measurement is then cal- culated under the bark. There is no good reason why an allowance should be made for bark—an allowance which varies in different districts of the country, and which can never be exact. It would be very desirable to attain uniformity in this respect throughout the country. Of course, where an allowance is made for bark, the price per foot will be higher. The class of wood used for pit purposes, in many districts sold by lineal measure, is here sold by cubic measure, so that small trees containing only half a foot of wood are measured in that way. When sold by lineal measure much time is saved in measuring, but the cubic measurement is the most exact. The Demand for Timber in the County.—Perhaps in no other part of the United Kingdom can higher prices be realised for timber than in the south and west of Yorkshire, to which district this paper chiefly applies. The following list of prices received for timber on an estate in the south of Yorkshire this year (1873) will form the best criterion for judging as to the demand. When comparing prices with those in other parts of the country, the pecu- liarities in measuring before mentioned require to be kept in view. The prices here quoted were received for the timber lying in lots in the plantation, two or three miles distant from a railway station. Cartage to station cost the purchaser from twopence to three- pence per foot, according as the access to the wood was easy or otherwise, after which it was carried on the railway an average of 25 miles before arriving at its destination :— OF ARBORICULTURE IN YORKSHIRE. 143 ahs Fourth Class. soy aes of First Class. Second Class. Third Class. (Handle-wood & : pit-prop size). Years | Price Years | Price Years Price Years | Price old. | per ft. old. per ft. old. per ft. old. per ft. Ss yas Ss. . Sc ae PAS Mud. fs ib eyd 60 | 2 5||50to60}/1 9 50 0 10 30 LD Ader =. = . — — 36 ile 7 = = — = Beech) 5), 4) 3 80 | 1 6|/60to80/1 3 — — — — PATCHY Mey Ltn ie — — 6 a — — —_ — Elm (Wych) . 60 1 3 — = = — 30 ne 0 Elm (English) 120 he 6 60 1 3 || 50to60}] 0 10 — — arch. a2 a s E Fe 2} S Z ° a 3 : Soe| S82) 58/28 bcOl Fel eel ek| eb | sa ( 28/38) e8 | o soe(E/ ES | Ze leet|2c/S8 (SS) bee) Fe|2e/Fe| 8 BSS Seg er FPeees!/2o/B 5] Baw a BlSae0n]/aS al 4 PSF Ey Sbiigee cee BleG eel “er cools B:lvec Pal @| 2 Fe gl 2 p =o Bale cca (awa) SB Si ee oe eae) Pate Se tere a VOL. VI]. PART II. ‘panag lijqniyoud aq una saony waquaz, yoryn yo sol quasafiip oy, Huynoygy—atay J, 180 ON THE NATURAL PRODUCTION OR XVIII. On the Natural Production or Self-Sowing of the Com- mon Suver Fir (Picea pectinata). By WILLIAM GILCHRIST, Forester, Cluny Castle. In a plantation on the estate of S , in the county of Aberdeen, my attention was arrested by detached plants and scattered groups of young silver firs. The person accompanying me, who had been connected with the plantation for upwards of forty years, assured me that there had been no plants of any description planted there since he knew the plantation. On closer examination I found seedlings ranging from two to fifteen years old, and came to the conclusion, that here was an ascertained fact which ought to be communicated to the Scottish Arboricultural Society. The part of the plantation in which the seedling silver firs are found is said to have been formed about the end of last century, but the date cannot now be accurately ascertained. At present it appears to be from eighty to eighty-five years old. The larch forms rather more than half of the crop, the remainder being Scots fir and spruce, with a few silver firs, beech, lime, plane, and birch. No regular mode of thinning appears to have been adopted, my com- panion informing me that during his time nothing had been done beyond supplying the tenants with wood for fencing and fuel, except when a hurricane blew down a lot, which had to be cleared out and sold. The trees are therefore tall and much drawn, except some near the outside of the plantation, which have had more space. The larches are of fine quality (when sound), tall, clean in the boll, and the bark free from blister, but many are ‘‘royed” at the root. Six years ago a large quantity of the smallest larches were cut for fencing, and almost all were “royed” at the root ; a number of the larger spars were cut during the present year, and it was ascertained. that fully four-fifths were more or less affected with the disease. The spruces are also inclined to be “royed,” and show signs of being at maturity. The Scots firs are quite sound, but, like the spruce, are evidently mature; their timber is good but rough, the branches being strong and coarse; the bark is also, with slight exceptions, very rough, and most of them have lost their leading tops. Some of the silver firs still have main leaders, but others have lost them, and gone off into numerous lateral shoots. The original silver firs are models of beauty and symmetry, some, notwithstanding their close confinement, being clothed with branches almost to the ground. These branches are small, and do not give the trees the rough ap- SELF-SOWING OF THE COMMON SILVER FIR. 181 pearance they generally have when so closely furnished with branches. The timber is quite sound, and of good quality. They also appear to be in perfect health, and will probably increase in value for some years to come; long after the spruce, larch, and Scots fir are decayed or cut down, the silver firs may remain with their progeny at all ages springing up around them. The cubic contents of the silver firs are considerably greater than that of any of the other trees. The measurements of the largest trees will demonstrate this :—(See p. 182). These measurements present a striking contrast in favour of the silver fir, and it is even greater in reality, as the latter are not nearly so much tapered as the others. This is not owing to their having been grown under more favourable circumstances, as in one instance two silver firs, which are bracketed in the table, are growing at 24 feet apart, and most of the others have been so closely mixed up with the other varieties, that the larch and Scots fir were growing under the drip of the silvers, and even amongst their branches. These particulars are mentioned to show that the situation appears to be well adapted for the growth of the silver fir. The soil is a light brown loam, containing a large percentage of granitic and vegetable matter, with large granite boulders cropping out on the surface. The subsoil is gravelly clay, resting upon granitic gravel, much used for blinding metal on roads, but which on ex- posure turns rather clayey and soft, especially after frost. Where the silver firs are growing, the exposure is north-east by north. The ground is steep, rising at a gradient of about 1 in 23. The altitude, as per Ordnance Survey, ranges from 580 to 750 feet above sea-level. The general configuration of the ground is conical, steeper towards the north and east. The extreme altitude of the hill is 974 feet; the average height of the surrounding cultivated land being 740 feet from south-east to north-west by west, and 450 feet from north-west to south-east by east. Seedling silver firs are found growing close to all the large trees, but are more numerous in some places than in others, and particu- ’ larly in spaces that have been partially opened up by hurricanes. In these open spaces the seedlings are chiefly from eight to twelve years old, a few being about fifteen years. A number are from two to five years old. In fact, they are to be found at all ages from two to fifteen, but from eight to twelve and from two to five are most numerously represented. The theory that I would advance is, that the presence of these seedlings is due to the hurricanes of October 1860 and February 1868. On both these occasions many trees were ON THE NATURAL PRODUCTION OR 182 oro wo eS ss 0 oD DD OD Ds OD Ds OD (oe 1S) oa | a i SS eC) soo OGD © rx v ro) io ul “4a } ‘Ur ° “POT 9 | “O07 E Dwmontdtnt Dd © ©O Sd 2 mo owntty YH Wot twat st Hes} bien) | = 2 0 8b 2 © “4007 T 4B 9dvjJING WOLF YIELD “HOUYT "alg SLOOS ‘aonudg Se - Sr ae ole: Sp i Go) pas Ou She oe O- Fle Ra eo 09-169 ~ 64 Se eee Os | fe) O Ol eS Cell coup pal -2. pale OF 6 Pleo 294i Of lsOee vl G. ae || Zea Oe Glee 27) TiaG.All ey 189.5 Ga, te Gees Ul 94) UL 34] “UL “9a |) 9007] UL 94) UL FH) Ul “3A 90009 | 900K | “300TT || ., | “300L9 | “300K € | “JOON T qe o0vjIng UlO1 bee ROc9) = 48 9dBjING WOT ude AGES) Lh tO GP eG aes 69> |.@ 2S cGaeD oS OLS] P6rs 0b 7024408 Ss Geo he. She OF 8a Le sO ae ae eee Pel ES Lae 63 6 7 Of S= [ch 23) ee FD Sr Sore O= 98h Zo aeaeee G9 -|-oo Oaebee 99 || "ORS sors 4B ddBpING WOTF YIALD ‘saad, jsabunTy fo Juawainsvapy Hunoyg—a tay J, “Ul UAATIS “ SELF-SOWING OF THE COMMON SILVER FIR. 183 uprooted ; and after the trees were cut and cleared off, the roots were taken out for fuel. Portions of the surface were thus opened up, and the seeds germinated and grew readily. Seedlings being most numerous between the ages of eight and twelve, and between two and five, would seem to confirm this theory ; but apart from this, seedlings of all ages are most numerous in a partially opened space near the outside of the plantation, where roots for fuel have been periodically grubbed out. It has also been observed that larch and Scots fir seeds germinate most readily in plantations where roots have been holed, and after wind-blown trees have been cleared off. All this is only theory, and I will not pursue it further, but the fact remains that seedlings of the common silver fir are growing in K plantation. That fact having been ascertained, the circumstances most favourable for their further development or reproduction can be observed and noted. Seedlings are not to be found beyond a radius of 60 yards from the old trees, and this extreme distance is invariably up the hill. Throughout the plantation within this radius of the old trees there are several silver firs from thirty-five to forty years old, about 38 feet high, and from 2 to 24 feet in circumference at 3 feet from the ground ; these may also be natural reproductions. In some parts of the plantation there are a few self-sown plants of the common spruce, as also a few larches, but the almost total absence of Scots fir seedlings is curious. Indigenous birch, rowan, raspberry, and holly grow freely from seed, and broom in some of the more open spaces, along with Vaccinium Myrtillus and Calluna vulgaris. The natural herbage in the plantation where the silver firs are growing consists principally of the following :— Flowering plants.—Cardamine hirsuta, Digitalis purpurea,* Galium saxatile,* Goodyera repens, Hypericum pulchrum, Luzula pilosa, Oxulis Acetosella, Ranunculus acris and repens, Rumex Ace- tosa and Acetosella, Stellaria Holostea, Tormentilla officinalis, Trien- talis europea, Scabiosa succisa, Viola canina, Veronica Chamedrys and officinalis ; as also the beautiful and rare Linnea borealis. Grasses. — Agrostis vulgaris and canina,* Aira flecuosa,* Anthox- anthum odoratum, Festuca ovina, Holcus mollis and lanatus. Ferns.— Pteris aquilina, Blechnum boreale, Asplenium Filix- femina, Aspidium Filix-mas and dilatata, Polypodium Dryopteris. Mosses.—Dicranum scoparium ; Hypnum loreum, purum, proli- ferum, splendens,* triquetrum, and undulatum ; Polytrichum com- mune. * Those marked * are most plentiful. 184 NOTE ON A WOOD DAMAGED BY GASES XIX. Note on a Wood damaged by Gases from Caleining of Ironstone. By ANDREW SLATER, Forester, Loftus, York- shire. The wood is within five hundred yards of the calcining hearths, and is twenty acres in extent; it consists of oak, ash, elm, plane, black Italian poplar, horse chestnut, Spanish chestnut, holly, lime, alder, common spruce, Weymouth pine, larch, Scotch fir, and silver fir. The calcining hearths were in operation in the spring of 1870, and as soon as the oak and holly were in foliage the leaves became white round the edges, and soon after white spots appeared all over the leaf. The other hardwood trees were little affected that year, but all the pine tribe were much damaged the first season, and although part of the foliage remained green, wood was not made that season nor since, and last autumn (1872) they were all dead except the Scotch fir, which retained a few green leaves till it was felled this spring. The elm, ash, plane, alder, and lime were not much damaged the first two years, but since then they have made no wood, The Spanish chestnut had the same appearance the first season as the oak, and the horse chestnut was sheltered by other trees from the effects of the fumes, so that I cannot say what the effects would have been upon them had they been exposed. The black Italian poplar is the only tree that is not affected in any way; it is as healthy as can be, and made good shoots this season (1873), although exposed more than the other kinds, being at least 40 feet higher than the other trees. There are two acres of wood, ten years old, consisting chiefly of black Italian poplar, with larch and Scotch fir as nurses. The poplars are all in robust health, without the least sign of blemish on their leaves, but the nurses are nearly all dead or dying. The wood was very healthy previous to 1870, but now it has the appear- ance of being burned with fire, and that part of the estate looks very desolate. The twenty acres were sold and a portion cut down and barked, part of which had the bark as adherent to the wood as at mid- winter ; it is still standing. We cut and barked four acres of oak adjoining the above planta- tion, and the bark came off well; it is the same distance from the calcining floors as the other, but is screened from them by a rise in the ground, and I believe that if screens were erected round the FROM CALCINING OF IRONSTONE. 185 hearths the gas could be prevented from spreading to the injury of any crops around them, whether of grain or wood. There is a large percentage of sulphur in the ironstone, and while the stone is under- going the process of calcining, sulphurous acid gas is generated, which is very destructive to vegetation; but being more than twice as heavy as common air, it does not rise much higher than the top of the heaps, and might be confined within proper screens. The gas has an offensive smell, which is never felt far from the works, unless when carried along by the wind. Notre.—tThe effects of different gases on trees and vegetation generally is an important subject, and demands the attention of proprietors and foresters at the present time, in order that more information may be obtained. Some valuable papers have been published of late years treating of the subject. Reference may be made to the following :—Gladstone “‘On the Growth of Plants in various Gases,” ‘“ Philosophical Magazine,” 4th series, vol. ii. p. 215; Turner and Christison “ On the Effects of Poisonous Gases on Vegetation,” “Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,” vol. Xxviil. p. 356 ; Livingston “ On the Effects of Narcotic and Irri- tant Gases on Plants,” “Transactions of the Edinburgh Botanical Society,” vol. vi. p. 380.—Eb. 186 ON A NEW TRANSPLANTING MACHINE. XX. On a new Transplanting Machine. By James Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay. (Plates I. and II.) Having a number of trees to transplant in spring (1873), and there being nothing more suitable for the purpose than a common janker used for transporting logs, I carefully considered the con- struction ot those machines that have been in use for some time, such as M‘Glashan’s and M‘Kay’s (referred to in Brown’s “ Forester”), as well as the old-fashioned janker ; it appeared to me that none of them possessed the simplicity and power necessary for carefully lift- ing, removing, and transplanting trees. The old-fashioned janker un- doubtedly possesses sufficient power, but the tree is put to a severe test at the outset by being torn from the ground by physical force, and the roots and branches rudely dragged along the ground, and the earth jostled from the upturned root at every movement. Certainly a more barbarous way of pulling a tree out of the ground could not be devised. The construction and mode of lifting the tree by M‘Kay’s machine is certainly more satisfactory than with the janker. Still the means of getting the wooden bars placed under the root are somewhat imperfect, and cannot bear up the weight of the tree so effectually as if placed immediately under the root—the planks being placed along the outer edge of the ball, thereby straining the roots. The raising of the tree is also performed in a slow and cumbrous manner, being effected by common hand screws, and the chain made to pass round the planks on which the tree rests. In regard to M‘Glashan’s machine, however effective it may be in raising shrubs or moderate-sized plants, it seems to me to be un- suited for removing trees of large size ; for though it may be possible to lift a large plant, it is evident that if part of the ‘“ ball” should be detached, the plant would fall to the ground, not having suffi- cient support between the spades. Having considered all these matters, I set about contriving how to obviate the difficulties. It occurred to me that a common hay- compressing machine possessed the elements of what was wanted. I may state that this is simply a square frame, with a movable bottom, which is compressed against the hay by chains wound round two strong iron axles by means of two strong ratchets and levers—one ratchet and lever being fixed on each axle. Still, though the levers and chains possessed the power wanted to raise any given weight, the difficulty was, how a solid platform could to be got under- neath the tree without running the risk of tilting it over. It ap- 7 — non = tL ae ee es I. A (ho is wt Re ‘ - , ay - * € Ny water box a aa a 7) ~ > » a &. he". » a) , 2a Waters «* Ye rm ‘ - A ; J * aoa) : ' ie ‘“3s1vos “LAaa 6 3 Z 9 Ss v € 2 1 be) 9 2) = IN) Weeliel Qqnnou’d “ANIHOVI) ONILNYTdSNVU] IIA LOA. SWery “90S “Logry }09S$ SLL Sec iaiea 1334 6 8 L 9 S v € 2 1 0 9 Zz > NU Coy We bZ Pel St E a ais e el eon ee ~—U wr SSS Sr RSS t} ON A NEW TRANSPLANTING MACHINE. 187 peared to me that an effectual way of overcoming this difficulty was to have strong iron bars driven under the “ ball,” and to have the chains for raising the tree made with large rings at the same distance apart as the bars are from each other, and placed over the ends of the bars, the ends of the chain being wound round the axles, as in the case of the hay machine. Difficulties being so far overcome, the next thing was to have a suitable frame placed on wheels for trans- porting the trees to their new site. Nicety being useless, and not having time to construct all the necessary appliances, I got a pair of common broad waggon-wheels and axle, with the axle and wheels of a buggy used for transporting timber, and with these we performed satisfactory work. I will now give the details of the machine used, The machine (see Plates I. and II.) is simply a frame formed of two strong beams placed on two axles with broad wheels. The beams are 13 feet long, 10 inches broad, by 4 inches thick ; and, in order that the frame may be solid and strong when in use, and at the same time easily disconnected when placed in position for the removal of a tree, the side-beams are bolted to two cross planks, which lie immediately above the axles, the frame being kept solid and at the required distance apart in the middle by the blocks of wood placed between the beams, and in immediate contact with the jamb-bolts, which keep the machine knit together when in use. A bar of beechwood, 7 feet long and 4 inches square, is placed on the top of each of the beams, a part being hollowed out for the axles to turn in; and to keep the axles from canting over in lifting or removing a tree, they are kept in their place by iron covers bolted down to the beech bar referred to. The axles are 5 feet long and 24 inches in diameter, and are placed about 4 feet 9 inches apart, a strong ratchet and lever being fixed on each of the axles, and a keeper placed under each of the ratches. To facilitate the turning of the machine, the front wheels are made to turn half round under the frame by means of a locker-bolt, which passes down through the end of the frame and the axle of the fore wheels. For the porta- bility of the machine, shafts are attached to the front of the frame, either double or single, as necessity requires. (See Plates.) In proceeding to lift a tree, a trench is dug round at a distance, proportioned to its size, and of such a depth as to be completely under the roots. In order to lighten the “ball” the extremities of the roots are cleaned of superfluous soil with a common fork or grape. Before placing the machine in position, a sloping trench is made on opposite sides of the tree, so that the tree may be easily drawn on the level ground. After having the trench cleared out, and the 188 ON A NEW TRANSPLANTING MACHINE. roots well undermined, the iron bars are driven under the “ ball.” In driving the bars they must be held so as to come out parallel to each other, and on the same level on the opposite side of the “ ball,” and at the distance apart the large rings in the chain are from each other, so that the chain may be easily placed over the ends of the bars. Next, one end of the frame is disconnected from the connect- ing bar and axle on which it rests, and the machine run into the trench till the tree stands nearly in the centre of the frame. The connecting bar is again bolted and placed on the axle as before. The winding axle and lever, which have been removed to admit the tree, are also placed in position, and the chains fixed to the hooks at the end of the axles. All being now ready for lifting the tree, the levers are raised and lowered alternately, which causes the ratchets and axles on which the chains are wound to advance one tooth at a time. This is continued till the root is clear of the ground. When raising the tree, if it is found to be lower at one -end of the machine than the other, raise the lower side a tooth or two while the opposite lever remains stationary. In order to keep the tree from canting over, two pieces of plank are placed be- tween the root and the bottom edge of the frame—one on each side of the tree. These, and four ropes which are fastened about 15 feet up, and attached to the four corners of the machine, are an effectual means of keeping the tree in position during its removal. The machine may be drawn out of the trench in various ways, according to circumstances; by men, by block and tackle, or by yoking horses, and taking it to the new site at once. When coming to a part of the road with considerable incline, in order to prevent the possibility of an accident, should the machine get ‘under-way,” the horses should be unyoked and the machine drawn cautiously by men only; and to counteract the jolting of the machine when being drawn along a rough road, four pieces of vulcanised india-rubber should be placed between the axles and frame. The outer edge of the wheels should also be covered with several plies of matting or old sacks, or should the rough part of the road be of limited extent, the line of wheels may be covered with straw. After the tree is drawn to the new site, and the pit ready for its reception, the machine is run into the centre of the pit, the trench being kept sufficiently wide and deep to admit of a quantity of fresh soil being placed under and around the roots. The machine being brought to the proper position, the levers are pulled down, and the keepers thrown out of gear, and a tooth allowed to escape each time till the ball rests on the ground. ON A NEW TRANSPLANTING MACHINE. 189 If the tree should lean to one side, have that side raised and soil placed under the root and well firmed up (so that it may not sub- side afterwards, a point of particular importance), till the tree stands in a vertical position. The next process is to have the frame disconnected as before and run clear of the tree. The iron bars are next pulled from under the roots by means of a horse and tail-chain. All the apparatus being now clear, the soil-is filled in and the work ecmpleted. We transplanted thirty oaks, several of them upwards of 30 feet high, and from 5 to 7 inches in diameter, besides a number of large yews and other shrubs; and, although the most of them were carried upwards of half a mile, we have not had a single failure— in fact, any person that did not know that the oaks were newly planted would never detect it from their appearance. It may be stated that the trees were in no way prepared previous to transplanting, and the operations were carried on in all suitable weather from the end of February till the end of April. In fact, one large lime was in full leaf before being transplanted. The oaks are fine healthy trees, clean in the bark, and had they not been turned to account in the above way, would have been thinned out and probably made into stobs; but by transporting them as de- scribed, we have filled up the lines of the old vistas, and produced an effect in a few weeks which would have taken thirty years to accomplish by planting small saplings. Notr.—A number of trees were moored in the usual way with strand wire, to prevent the possibility of them being “‘ wind-waved ;” but the balls and roots being so solid and perfect, all such appliances proved superfluous. The chains for raising the tree are formed of § inch iron, 11 feet 3 inches long, with six rings in each, each ring being 44 inches in diameter. Lengthening hook-chains, 18 inches long, are kept in reserve should the chains prove too short for any particular speci- men. In practice I found six rings were unnecessary, four rings and bars in the middle of the chain immediately under the root being sufficient. When six bars were used the outer ones tended to compress the edges of the root. The bars are formed of round iron, about 8 feet long. The outside bars are 2 inches in diameter, and the two centre bars 14 inch in diameter. Any measurements not given here may be obtained from the plans. The cost of the appliances, irrespective of wheels and axles, was L.16. 190 ON THE ALTITUDE AND APPEARANCE OF XXI. On the Altitude and Appearance of the Wellingtonia gigantea. By Rosert Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., &e. (Plate III.) Travellers from the Sierra Nevada, and other high altitudes of California, have told us, and enthusiastic writers have pictured in words of glowing interest, and enriched with varied anecdote, delineations of this mighty giant of the woods in its own native habitats. But much as we may value such descriptions, and interesting as they undoubtedly are in themselves, they but convey to the mind’s eye of the arborist in this country an imperfect vision and idea of what a personal inspection with the eye of sense alone, of the form, appearance, and proportions of the actual tree itself, could thoroughly and conclusively realise. To what height and dimensions the Wellingtonia may ultimately attain in Great Britain, where it has now been fairly acclimatised, it is of course impossible to foretell; the rapidity of annual growth with which it has in- augurated its career in all sorts of situations, augurs well for its attaining, in no distant decade of years, to majestic proportions, equal at least to the dimensions of any of our well-known and established timber trees of the coniferous family, if not (as is more probable) superior to all of them in this respect. In the meantime, forecasting what the appearance of the landscape of our native hill sides may be in future generations, from the numerous acquisitions of rare beauty of foliage, hue, and form, which have been made of recent years to our arboricultural flora, and indulging in the fancy that these newer conifer may attain, in this the land of their adoption, their usual dimensions in their native homes, the accompanying interesting illustration (Plate IIL) will do more to convey to the members of this Society a vivid picture of how most of our tallest monuments and noblest edifices will appear relatively to the dimensions of a full-grown Wellingtonia, and how they will be dwarfed by its towering proportions. This illustration of a most interesting subject I have been able to present to the members of this Society by the kindness of my friend, John Ord M‘Kenzie, Esq. of Dolphinton, in whose posses- sion is the original oil painting from which it has been taken. The picture is understood to have been painted many years ago, for and under the directions of the late Colonel James Fergusson, H.E.LC.S., a brother of Sir Adam Fergusson, and a great friend (as Scott. Arbor Soc. ‘rans i 1 VE “ul +) TIT. THE WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA. 191 Sir Adam also was) of Sir Walter Scott, and from whose inter- course, probably, his love of trees was derived, or, at all events, fostered. The picture is drawn on a scale with Lord Melville’s Column in St Andrew Square, Edinburgh (150 feet in height.) The picture accurately represents one of the giant firs, seen and measured by the celebrated travellers Lewis and Clarke, in their journey across the American continent. It was measured “with great care,” we are told by Humboldt in his “ Aspects of Nature,” and was found to girth round the stem, “at 64 feet from the ground, 42 feet; its stem was 300 feet in height, and totally destitute of branches for the first 192 feet.” This specimen, it will thus be seen, 1S by no means one of the largest of these mammoth trees, many others of those in the Mariposa, Frezno, and Calaveros groves in California being both loftier and more gigantic in circumference. For example, Mr Hutchings, in his ‘‘ Scenes of Wonder in Cali- fornia,” records the girths of no fewer than 132 of these trees, being about one-half the number of the entire grove. Looking over these measurements as given by Mr Hutchings, we find that three of the Wellingtonias exceeded 100 feet in circumference, two of them were between 90 and 100 feet, and the others varied from about 30 feet to 90 feet in girth. Many of the trees in the Mariposa grove had attained 250 feet in height; several even 300 feet ; while one fallen giant, with bark gone, and its sides long since charred by fire, measured over 100 feet in circumference, and had probably attained not less than 350 feet in height. The largest of all these famous trees, however, measured in its fallen grandeur and decay, 33 feet in diameter across the butt of the stump; and as it was destitute of bark, there is little doubt that in full vigour it had girthed 120 feet in circumference, or 40 feet diameter. ‘“‘ Only about 150 feet of the trunk remained entire, yet the cavity where it fell is still a large hollow beyond the portion burned off; and upon pacing it, measuring from the root 120 paces, and estimating the branches, this tree must have been 400 feet high. We believe it to be the largest tree yet discovered.’* Such are a few facts regarding the altitude and dimensions of the Wellingtonia gigantea in its native habitats. The sites in which it appears to thrive most luxuriantly, and to attain its largest dimensions, are in sheltered valleys or gorges in the Nevada range, where the soil is deepest and subsoil moist. This quite accords * Hutchings’ ‘‘Scenes of Wonder in California.” London: Chapman and Hall, 1865, p. 148. 192 ON THE ALTITUDE AND APPEARANCE OF with what we have ascertained regarding the progress of the tree in this country. Although it will thrive in almost any soil and exposure, and will withstand severe frosts like that of 1860-61 with little and only temporary damage, yet the progress made by specimens placed in favourable circumstances as to soil, subsoil, and shelter, are most apparent. In deep loamy soil, with a subsoil tending to stiff clay, unlike many of the coniferous family, the Wellingtonia thrives best; and in any soil, if only the subsoil be damp and retentive of moisture, it will succeed admirably even in an exposed situation in Scotland. The spring winds of March and April singe and brown its foliage occasionally, and the warm sunshine during the day and chilly frosty nights of May retard and blight its development of young shoots ; but all these impediments it overcomes, and plants of 20 to 30 feet in height, which in many places in April and May in any ordinary year present a very brown and withered aspect, will be found by the month of July quite vigorous and healthy in appearance, and to have entirely shaken off their sickly aspect of the spring time. We are perhaps too apt, in considering the merits of such an acquisition as the Wellingtonia, as regards ultimate utility, to be carried away by our admiration of its handsome pyramidal form, hardiness, and beautiful foliage and habit, and to overlook its pros- pective value as a timber-producing tree. As yet few individual specimens have been cut down in this country, and these only from accidental circumstances, and hence there have been few opportunities hitherto of judging of its likelihood of becoming a valuable timber tree. If, however, we judge so far by appearances, and compare the characteristics of the Wellingtonia in habit and growth with our ideal of what a first-rate timber tree should be, we shall find that it possesses these points in singular eminence. We have hardihood, large development of trunk and stem, rapidity.of growth, straight- ness of habit, smallness of branch shoots starting from the stem, all combined ; and, it may be added, in so far as experience has hitherto found from a few examples which have been tried from home-grown trees, apparent durability of timber. The wood is light, tough, rather coarse in the grain, but very easily wrought, and not unlike the wood of the poplar, or saugh, or white cedar. In its older and more matured stages of growth, the value and texture of the wood will be found to be much improved, and to present a closer and finer grain. The soil and climate of Ireland seem to be peculiarly well adapted for the Wellingtonia, and many instances might be recorded of very THE WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA. 193 handsome and thriving specimens occurring in various districts. One in particular is perhaps deserving of special notice here, as being probably at the present time the tallest specimen in the United Kingdom ; we refer to the tree at Cecil, county Tyrone, which, although only planted fourteen years ago, is already about 45 feet in height, and growing luxuriantly. In looking at the illustration, one cannot fail to be struck by the bare and scant appearance of branches forming the head of the tree, a peculiarity very unlike the habit of the young specimens of the Wellingtonia as known to us in this country; but the representa- tion, as the writer has learned from an eye-witness of the big trees, is quite accurate. The peculiarity of the trees in their native habitats is not their umbrageous heads or wide sweep of branches, but their immense massive trunks, A traveller in California in 1873 gives the writer the following account of his visit to the giants :—“ On my way to the Losamite valley I took the Mariposa ‘trail,’ and there with two friends, one the travelling artist of the ‘ London Illustrated News,’ went seven miles out of the way through the pine forest on horseback to see the big trees, as they are called. This was on the 9th May last (1873). With regard to the altitude at which the trees are grown I cannot inform you exactly, but it could not be less than from 5000 to 6000 feet above the level of the sea. The highest of the trees, the guide told us, were over 300 feet high ; but in a forest, with other trees intervening to obstruct the sight, it is difficult, on getting to a proper distance, to get a full view of any tree in particular so as to form a judgment of its actual height. The big trees all had the appearance of being withered or withering at the top, and their height did not at all correspond with their circumference. As my object in going to see the trees was more for pleasure than with any scientific purpose, I was not provided with a measuring line to take the dimensions of any of them, but for curiosity, the three of us and the guide with our horses, got as close as we could to the root of one of the largest, and we did not half encircle it.” It is a curious fact that two cones of the genus Sequoia (Welling- tonia) have been found in a fossil state in this country. May we not, therefore, in introducing this tree be only restoring to the flora of Great Britain one of its former treasures, now long extinct, and unknown for countless ages ? 194 THE SELF-SOWN OAK WOODS OF SUSSEX. XXII. The Self-Sown Oak Woods of Sussex.* By RatpeH W. CLUTTON. In this paper I propose to inquire into the following matters connected with the growth and management of self-sown oak woods. Oak will grow in almost any description of clay, from the poorest and stiffest toa good deep loam. As the oak, in its earliest stages of erowth, has a long tap-root, a deep soil, free to a certain depth from rock, is necessary to its rapid development. Oak will grow with considerable luxuriance in a gravelly soil, but, on arriving at a size fit to be called timber, it becomes what is termed shaky, and it will be found on felling to be little more than a bundle of laths, utterly unsuitable for the uses to which oak timber is generally put. The Position of Oak Woods as affecting their Growth.—There is no tree grown in England more sensitive of exposure to wind than the oak, and the best and fastest growing woods are those in sheltered positions, well inland. ‘There is a tract of country in the south-east of Sussex, lying between Battle and Hailsham, the soil of which is well adapted to the growth of oak, but which, from its nearness to the sea—about ten miles as the crow flies—fails to produce, except in very deep narrow gills, other than short stumpy trees with bushy boughs, evidently thrown out as a protection against the south-west wind. These trees produce knotty and unsaleable timber. About thirty or thirty-five years ago, the planting in St Leonard’s Forest was begun with larch and oak, the proportion being about five of larch to one of oak. Since the larches were seven or eight years old, they have been gradually thinned out, and, though in no case have they thoroughly dis- appeared, the land is fairly planted with straight-grown silver- rinded tellars, which bid fair in due time to become a fine oak © forest. This land is ordinary forest land. Effect of the Periodical Cutting of Underwood.—The periodical cutting of underwood affects the growth of trees, as it affords the only opportunity of thinning woods; thus the thinnings are at longer intervals than, perhaps, is best for the growth of oak timber. The custom in the Wealds of Surrey, Sussex, and Kent is to cut the underwood at intervals of from eight to twelve years. Under- wood is usually sold by auction in November, and in the following * An abstract of a paper read at an ordinary general meeting of the Institu- tion of Surveyors, February 16, 1874. THE SELF-SOWN OAK WOODS OF SUSSEX. 195 spring the oak trees are inspected, and such thinning as is required is then done. If the timber only was considered, a shorter interval of, say, five or six years, would be better; but as the underwood is an important portion of the profits, it is impossible to make the most.of it until it becomes large enough for conversion into hop- poles, hoops, &c. As to the age at which the timber causes injury to underwood, supposing there is a full plant of tellars at any given fall, for the next two cuttings (say, for twenty years) there will be little difference found in the value of the underwood, which averages from L.8 to L.10 per acre. The next three cuttings will be reduced, on an average, about one-half, and afterwards the periodical cutting will be sold for a very small sum, viz., L.1 to L.1, 10s. per acre, which will not pay for rates, fencing, and ditching. Pruning Oak Woods.—Not only is pruning unnecessary—for, if thinning is done gradually, allowing the oak trees to draw each other up to such height as may be required, the lower branches will of themselves drop off—but it is actually injurious, as every timber merchant or village carpenter knows. And the boughing of oak trees materially affects the value of the timber when felled, though the tree, when pruned, may be only 20 or 30 years, and, when cut, 150 years old. When the boughs are thrown off by nature, as they are most perfectly under careful management, the bark gradually closes over the part from which the bough dropped, and it becomes impossible to define the former position of the bough, nor would any sign of it be found when the tree is cut; but, should the tree be pruned, an unsound knot, ora sore in the tree, is at once formed, allowing the water to penetrate the trunk where the branch was cut off. This will rot, and a black dead piece of wood will be found in the centre of the tree when it is cut. The bark will, no doubt, usually close over the wound made; but this will take some years, and, before it is closed, the mischief will be done; and, in old trees, it not unfrequently happens that the perfect closing over the wound by young wood causes a species of dry rot. Thinning and Clearing.—As I stated above, the time for thinning woods is when the underwood is cut. The greater part of the timber of the weald in question is grown with underwood. The underwood is cut, on an average, once in ten years. At each cutting, trees which have attained a good size, and show symptoms of diminished growth, are felled, and open spaces are thus obtained for a fresh crop. The same opportunity is taken for thinning the young tellars, and of saving such further young plants as have come up since the VOL. VII. PART II. ) 196 THE SELF-SOWN OAK WOODS OF SUSSEX. last cutting of the underwood, that is, ten years previously. In thinning tellars and young trees, it is of the utmost importance that the leading trees should be left, and the inferior ones cut. For the ultimate crop the trees should stand from 20 to 30 feet apart. ~The great aim of every forester should be to keep the trees thick enough to draw each other up to the height required, so as to have a clear stem of from 20 to 40. feet, as the case may be, and so to gradually thin them as not to abruptly admit the wind, and thus cause them to be checked in growth. Any checking of growth is speedily detected by the throwing out of a quantity of “rushy” boughs, as they are called. We have now carried our wood up to the age of from seventy to eighty years. If the trees have been properly managed, little further thinning will be required until their clearing, unless the timber is left for a longer period than 100 years for large shipbuildings. After a wood has been cleared of a natural crop of oak, and the underwood has grown for a period of ten years, it will generally be found, at the next cutting, that a good crop of self- sown oak tellars is fairly scattered over the ground. The tellars are usually marked with paint, and are excepted from sale. At this first cutting the young oak trees will be about the same height as the underwood; and, if the underwood is fairly good, the chances are that it will be unnecessary to thin the tellars at all, more than by a woodman going round and chopping down with a hatchet any inferior trees. During the next five or six cuttings the real work of thinning must be executed. Profits.—1 now come to the question of profit, whether timber or underwood pays best, taking a certain period of time, say 100 years. Assume an acre of underwood of a fair average description in Kent, Surrey, or Sussex, no oak trees being allowed to be grown upon it, but kept entirely for underwood. I will suppose that it has a good set of stems upon it. This underwood is worth, to sell, upon an average of L.10 per acre at ten years’ growth; and it may be assumed, for the purpose of rental value, that underwood selling for L.10 or L.12 per acre, is worth the same number of shillings rent; this will be found a close approximation-if worked out. This acre of wood- land will therefore produce a rent of 10s. per annum, and go on producing the same description of underwood for the 100 years with occasional filling up. Take,secondly, an acre of woodland under similar conditions with regard to underwood, but allow tellars to grow upon it; there will be found little or no difference in the value of the under- wood for the first twenty years. During the next forty years the THE SELF-SOWN OAK WOODS OF SUSSEX. 197 underwood will have diminished in value; but we may fairly calcu- late that the trees which have been cut in the course of thinning, after twenty years, will have made up any loss in the value of the underwood in this period. In fact, the produce is much more than enough to make up the loss of profit from underwood. For the remainder of the 100 years the underwood will pay very little, and the thinnings will not produce more than enough to pay expenses. In the foregoing observations I have assumed that underwood sold at L.10 per acre is worth a rental of 10s., and that for sixty years the underwood and tellar thinnings together will produce fully 10s. per acre. From the latter period, and up to 100 years, when I assume the timber will be fit for felling, little or no revenue will be derived. The rental of 10s. per annum accumulated for forty years at 4 per cent., gives, in round figures, L.50 per acre. The following is an instance of a wood of 4 acres near Reigate, which was planted in 1830 with oak and other trees. JI have no record of any thinnings prior to 1866. In April 1866, twenty-eight oak trees, containing 111 feet, and 208 tellars, were cut and sold for L.42. In April 1872, thirty-nine oak trees, containing 216 feet, were cut and sold for L.21. In 1873, seventy oak trees were cut which were valued at L.40. This wood was sold, and the timber on it valued very accurately, in 1872. There were 375 oak trees, containing 2600 feet of timber, and a few other trees, valued together at L.247, being at the rate of L.60 per acre. The above sum of L.60 per acre gives a rental of 11s. per acre at 4 per cent., and beyond that, of course, is the sum of money received for the thinnings. The trees in this wood will not require much more thinning. It is, I think, apparent that the oak-growing districts, in which underwood and timber are grown together, produce a much larger profit on an ave- rage of 100 years, than it is possible for oak plantations alone to produce, as, during the earlier periods of growth, underwood pays an income when the land planted with oak pays nothing. . . \ mi . a” - ~ ‘ ” N . ‘ > s ' ty ’ é { ‘ - ’ Ps f if : j . ’ i ‘ e4 = ‘ - é . « i - ~ . / . * F. 1 . —s ¢ . SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY | VOL. VIL—PART IIL. EDITOR AND SECRETARY. JOHN SADLER, F.RPhS. LECIURER ON BOTANY IN THE ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL, AND ASSISTANT TO THE PROFESSOR OF ) BOVANY AND MEDICINE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. ¢ ‘ EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY NEILL & COMPANY, MDCCCLXXV. eee eT CONDENS The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any facts or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. s XXITI.—Addvess delivered at the Twenty-first Annual Meeting. By Hucu Cuirenorn, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras, XXIV.—On the Literature of Scottish Arboriculture. By Roxperr Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., XXV.—On the Present State and Prospects of Arboriculture in Aberdeenshire. By Witttam Gincurist, Forester, Cluny Castle, XXVI.—On the Draining of Plantations, by Open or Covered Drains. By Lewis Bayne, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, > XX VII.—On the Conservation of Old and Remarkable Trees in Britain. By Rosert Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., XXVIIJ.—On the Use of Steam Power in Forestry. By D. F. M‘KenzteE, Forester, Meldrum House, ; j XXIX.—The Advantages of Planting in Groups, or in Mixed Planta- tions, so as to combine Profit with Landscape Effect. By Witiiam Gorrie, Rait Lodge, Edinburgh, XXX.—Report on the Meteorological Observations made at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the Influence of Forests on Climate, par- ticularly Rainfall. By Atrexanper Bucnan, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, ANP ON Dyas Abstract of Accounts for 1873-74, : ; ‘ ‘ "s List of Members, corrected to March 1875, ; ; : 2 Prize Essays, &c., for 1874-75, . : : ; ; yy Laws of the Society, Office-Bearers for 1874-75, PAGE 199 269 274 285 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. 199 X XIIL.— Address delivered at the Twenty-first Annual Meeting. By Hucu Ciecnory, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Conservator of Forests, Madras. GENTLEMEN,—The time has again returned when, according to custom, a word of encouragement, and I hope I may say of instruc- tion, is wont to reach you from this chair. Twice you have been pleased to elect me your President, and this is the third time that I have been called upon to address you at the Annual Meeting. The framing of an annual address is no easy task, and many general subjects suitable to bring to your notice have been discussed over and over again by my predecessors. Perhaps, however, I can- not do better on this occasion than refer briefly to the rise and progress of arboriculture, and advert to some facts and proceedings in this and other countries which bear upon the advancement of the science which has brought us together to-day. I think that our Society has reason to regard its quiet progress during the past year with some degree of satisfaction. The rell of members has received a considerable number of working recruits, and the new part of our Transactions contains some excellent articles, and quite sustains the character of its predecessors. There are fifteen essays to be reported upon by the judges to-day, relating to nine subjects offered for competition, and only five of the subjects advertised have not been taken up. Arboriculture comprises all that relates to the culture of trees, and is one of the great divisions of agriculture. It is a branch of rural economy of much more recent date than either the culture of grain and herbs, or the breeding and rearing of cattle. The cultiva- tion of those plants which supply the food of man and of the ‘domestic animals occupied his attention exclusively for many ages ; whilst the timber required for houses, ships, machines, and for fuel, was found in the native woods. Artificial plantations appear to have been formed in Germany sooner than in any other country, apparently in the fifteenth century. In Britain planting was begun, though sparingly, a century later. The Hon. G. P. Marsh (“The Earth as Modified by Human Action, 1847, p. 307”) thus describes the condition of Britain in the sixteenth century, when wood fuel began to be scarce :— “ Contrivances for economising fuel were of later introduction in this country than on the Continent. Before the introduction of VOL. VI. PART III. P 200 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. a system of dainage, the soil, like the sky, was, in general, charged with humidity ; its natural condition was unfavourable for common roads, and the transportation of so heavy a material as coal by land, from the remote counties where alone it was mined in the Middle Ages, was costly and difficult. For all these reasons, the consump- tion of wood was large, and apprehensions of the exhaustion of the forests were excited at an early period. Many authors of the sixteenth century express fears of serious evils from the wasteful economy of the people in this respect.” Harrison, in his curious chapter ‘‘Of Woods and Marishes,” date 1550 .p., in Holinshed’s compilation, complains of the rapid decrease of the forests, and adds :—‘‘ Howbeit this much I dare affirme, that if woods go so fast to decaie in the next hundred year of Grace, as they have doone and are like to doo in this, . . . itis to be feared that the fennie bote, broome, turfe, gall, heath, firze, brakes, whinnes, ling, dies, hassacks, flags, straw, sedge, reed, rush, and also sea cole, will be good merchandize even in the citie of London, whereunto some of them euen now haue gotten readie passage, and taken vp their innes in the greatest merchants’ parlours. . . . I would wish that I might live no longer than to see foure things in this land reformed, that is: the want of discipline in the church; the couetous dealing of most of our merchants in the preferment of the commodities of other countries, and hindrance of their owne: the holding of faires and markets vpon the sundaie to be abolished and referred to the wednesdaies: and that evrie man, in whatsoeuer part of the cham- paine soile enjoieth fortie acres of land, and upwards, after that tate, either by free deed, copie hold, or fee farme, might plant one acre of wood, or sowe the same with oke mast, hasell, beech, and sufficient provision be made that it may be cherished and kept. But I feare me that I should then liue too long, and so long, that I should either be wearie of the world, or the world of me.” (Holinshed, reprint of, 1807, pp. 357, 358.) It is evident from this passage, and from another in p. 397, that though sea coal was largely exported to the Continent, it had not yet come into general use in England. “It is a question of much interest when coal was first employed in England for fuel. I can find no evidence that it was used as a combustible until more than a century after the ’ Norman Conquest (1150 4.p.). It has been said that it was known to the Anglo-Saxon population, but I am acquainted with no passage in the literature of that people which proves this. . .. Coal is not mentioned in King Alfred’s Bede, in Glanville, or in Robert of ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. 201 Gloucester, though all these writers speak of jet as found in England, and are full in their enumeration of the mineral products of the island.”* Planting was not general in Britain till the end of the seventeenth century, when the introduction of exotic trees was facilitated by the interchange of plants by means of botanic gardens, which in that century were established in various countries. The Botanic Gardens at Oxford and Chelsea, the oldest in England, were in ex- istence in the middle of the seventeenth century, and the Edinburgh Botanic Garden was founded nearly two hundred years ago, though it was only in 1822 that it was established in its present site. Evelyn’s “Sylva,” which appeared in 1664, gave a great stimulus to arboriculture, and there is no doubt that the ornamental plantations in which Britain surpasses all other countries, are in some measure the result of his labours in this direction. During the general war at the beginning of this century, the price of timber became very high, owing to the greatly increased demand, and the difficulty, from the unsettled state of affairs, of obtaining supplies. Under the expectation that such prices were to continue, planting was by very many in Britain ardently undertaken and carried out. It has, however, long been evident that capital in- vested in this way does not yield an early return; hence the rage for planting merely with a view to profit has declined, but there is a greatly increasing taste for the planting of parks and pleasure grounds, and for the introduction of trees and shrubs from foreign countries. The rapid growth of the timber trade in the last decade might be illustrated from official records: while our hedgerows have been stubbed out and our strips of planting disappear, often unwisely, to make way for cereal crops and rearing of stock, foreign timber, now so essential to our constructive requirements, has been extensively imported from many quarters. The Board of Trade returns show how great and increasing is the annual importation of timber, and that the production within our own island is comparatively insignificant. The supplies on our East Coast are obtained from Norway, Sweden, and the Baltic ports, while the wants of our western market are met with timber from the great continent of America. The following table shows the total imports and their estimated value during the last three years :— * See also Evelyn’s Diary, ii. 25, 26. ’ 202 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. QuanTITY. VALUE. Year ending 31st December. Year ending 31st December. TIMBER (Hewn). 1871. 1872. 1873. 1871. 1872. 1873. Loads. Loads. Loads. £ £ £ From Russia .. . 191,280 | 258,879 | 840,702 399,955 | 559,112 810,284 Sweden and Norway 462,225 | 509,898 | 700,097 810,216 910,448 | 1,551,536 Germanys). sees 334,290 275,125 262,818 841,557 854,887 | 1,009,107 British N. America 451,312 443,484 365,875 || 1,807,959 | 1,798,441 | 1,806,642 Other countries. 209,528 295,247 401,898 822,478 | 1,047,140 | 1,504,799 Total . . . . | 1,648,635 | 1,782,633 | 2,071,390 || 4,682,165 | 5,170,028 | 6,682,368 TIMBER (Sawn or Split, Planed or Dressed). From Russia .. . 515,596 634,677 754,666 || 1,239,170 | 1,530,745 | 2,239,243 Sweden and Norway | 1,491,988 | 1,523,195 | 1,535,852 || 3,012,345 | 3,349,616 | 4,431,184 British N. America 703,800 788,288 954,356 || 1,830,446 | 2,206,405 | 3,130,185 Other countries. 137,117 141,189 170,849 430,265 486,897 723,896 Totals «0%. wes 2,848,501 | 3,087,349 3,415,723 || 6,512,226 | 7,573,663 | 10,524,508 Loads. Loads. Loads. Staves (all sizes) . . 88,119 66,102 86,488 606,854 642,046 854,115 Mahogany (tons) . . 29,256 33,291 52,343 || 280,134 | 367,471 | 604,001 —Timber Trades’ Journal, vol. i. p. 244. There are several subjects connected with the pursuits of our Society upon which much information has been elicited during the past year to which I shall simply refer before passing on to what is doing in other countries. The “ Timber Trades’ Journal,” a fort- nightly paper, has recently been established for the purpose of affording a medium of intercommunication between producers and consumers of wood at home and abroad. It contains much reliable information regarding the principal timber markets in Europe and America. The ‘“ Gardener’s Chronicle” and “ Agricultural Gazette” have also during the year had many articles on the subject of forestry, contributed by well-known members of this Society. Our riend Mr M‘Nab has drawn attention to two subjects of consider- able importance :—Ist, The disfiguration of roadside trees by the un- skilful lopping to which they are subjected to make way for tele- graph wires (“ Bot. Soc. Trans.,” xi. 453); 2d, The preservation of remarkable or old trees (‘‘ Bot. Soc. Trans.,” xii. 44 and 96); which appears to be a matter coming within the scope of our Society, on which his matured views might find expression in our Transactions. Sir Robert Christison has vigorously laboured in the same direction, expiscating the records of old trees and measuring the dimensions of the fossil plants in this neighbourhood (“ Roy. Soc. Trans.,” xxvii. 203, ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. 203 and ‘Bot. Soc. Trans.,” xii. 167). An -interesting work by Mr Menzies, Deputy-Surveyor of Windsor Forest and Park, is in the press (“ Forest Trees and Woodland Scenery, as described in Ancient and Modern Poets”), which contains much useful information, and depicts in chromo-lithograph some of the finest specimens of trees in the royal demesne. The use of steam-power in uprooting trees has been adopted in some districts, with a view to economising labour in stubbing out the roots; but there can be little doubt that the timber, especially of soft-wooded trees, is materially damaged by the process, and the depreciation in value must be set against the diminution of labour. It is a source of great regret to me that I have never visited the forests of North America, which have given to us so many of the trees successfully cultivated in this country, such as the Weymouth and Douglas pines, Cupressus Lawsoniana, the gigantic Sequoia, Taxodium Sempervirens, the tulip-tree, snowberry, and many others. When the first settlers landed on the shores of the western world, they found the country covered with primeval forests, which had to be felled and cleared to make room for their settlements and the production of food. The supply of wood was then considered inexhaustible; as cultivation proceeded westwards, new forests revealed themselves, stretching far beyond any knowledge which the settlers possessed of their extent. Gradually the great lumber trade of Canada and the United States sprang up, which has sup- plied our western ports with timber for ships and houses. The wants of the great American continent itself, with its rapidly- increasing population and its enormous export trade, have mean- while grown immensely. The unparalleled facilities for internal navigation afforded by the numerous American rivers, have proved fatal to the forests, which have become so sparse in accessible situa- tions, that at last it has been found necessary to legislate for the preservation of what remains; and in place of a superabundance of wood, matters are thus described (“ Gard. Chron.” 1847, vol. 11. 459 :— ‘“‘ Lumber operators and consumers in Pennsylvania are awakening to a knowledge of the important fact that the timber resources of the province are not inexhaustible, as they have long been con- sidered. The State was once one of the leading pine producers in the Union. The dense forests bordering the Susquehanna, and traversed by its many tributaries; the mountains of the Monon- gahela Valley; and, in fact, the tall, majestic trees that covered thickly much of the area of whole counties in the State, were a few 204 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. years ago thought to contain pines enough to comply with the law of supply and demand for the present, and to furnish timber for a future, however distant. That impression the march of events has thoroughly dispelled. The forests of the Delaware Valley have yielded no pine for years, and the resources of the Alleghany and Monongahela have been drawn so largely to supply the markets of the East, that im a comparatively short time their pine forests will be exhausted. . . . A significant and alarming fact is, that the coal regions, once famous pine-producing counties, cannot now supply enough to furnish timber for props for the mines. From supplying all home demands and exporting large quantities of pine, these counties have become importers, paying more per thousand for what they purchase than they obtained when selling the same product. .. . Taking a liberal estimate, less than four years will exhaust the pine supply of the Susquehanna Valley, and the now comparatively neglected hemlock spruce (Abies Canadensis) will become the staple in the lumber trade of that section, as it has been for years in the Delaware region.” “In a few years the great lumber marts of the East must necessarily depend entirely on the great forests of the West, and the rapidly- decreasing pinewoods of the South. Are these inexhaustible? Is not the fact that the once mighty pine-producing State of Pennsyl- vania is so nearly bereft of this great source of wealth, that the date of its exhaustion is easy of computation? There is ample food for reflection on the importance of timber culture in this country con- tained in these facts.”—Montreal Gazette. Let us turn to the forestal condition of the southern provinces of France, the climate of which, as compared with Britain or the northern states of America, is extremely mild. Little snow falls except on the mountain ranges; the frosts are light, and the sum- mers arelong. The fig and vine flourish everywhere, the olive up to 43° N. Lat., and on the south coast the orange, lemon, and date-palm grow freely. The forest trees are of a southern type, such as the umbrella pine; various evergreen oaks and many broad-leaved trees of persistent foliage characterise the landscape. In the seventeenth century it was found that there was an increase of prosperity and of population in Lower Provence, while there was an alarming decrease in the wealth and population of Upper Provence. Much land had been rendered arable by clearing of the forest, but it was found that the augmented violence of the mountain torrents (from the Alps) had buried in sand and gravel more land than had been reclaimed ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. 205 by clearing. In 1843 the political economist Blanqui graphically described the great evils which follow extended clearing, and ravages of torrents, where there is not a bush to shelter a bird, and where, when a storm bursts over the mountains, masses of water deluge the valley, overflowing the fields and stripping off the soil. The attention of the State was earnestly directed to the evils of denuda- tion and the action of torrents; and the measures of the French authorities have been vigorous and successful. The conservative action of the woods has been generally recognised by the public of France, and the government has enacted laws for the protection of existing forests and for the formation of new ones. The quantity of timber required in France is enormous, and the serious point is that the increase in the consumption is in in- verse proportion to production. Dearth of wood is certain in the future, unless determined action be taken to replant and bring waste land under forest cultivation. The consumption of wood in the coal mines of France is very large; a great part of the supply is obtained from Switzerland and Savoy, and the cost increases annu- ally. One mining company has purchased all the available land fit for growing timber in the neighbourhood, and already possesses a fine young forest of considerable extent (3000 acres). The government devotes annually a certain sum to replanting forest land, but this is found to be quite insufficient; it therefore seeks to stimulate private enterprise by offering grants and rewards to those who cultivate or extend their forest lands. It is well known that other countries are not so well supplied with timber asformerly. Russia, Sweden, and Norway, which have to a great extent met the demands of our eastern ports as well as those of the northern coast of France, have begun to consider the state of their forests, and to regulate the annual felling of pines. Let us now turn for a moment to the state and progress of forestry in British India. On referring to ‘“‘ Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Gardening,” Edinburgh, 1850, a work constantly consulted by all who are interested in arboriculture and horticulture, I find Indian forests summarily disposed of in the following passage, p. 304 :—“ Forest trees do not naturally abound in Bengal; the teak tree Tectona grandis, is the oak of the East, and grows in abund- ance in the hilly kingdoms of Burma and Pegu, whence Calcutta is supplied for the purposes of naval architecture. Whether it will ever be found worth while to cultivate this tree in Bengal appears very doubtful. The bamboo is the timber used in the general 206 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 4, 1874. economy of the country.” About the time this was written (1850), the Government of India began to be seriously embarrassed by the scarcity of timber; its attention was directed to the management of the indigenous forests, and as you are aware a special department has been organised within the last twenty years in that great empire, charged with the care of the wood, and a considerable number of trained assistants have been sent out, who are intro- ducing correct principles of management. As the administration of the forests advanced, the want of hand-books to enable officers to acquire a knowledge of the trees, shrubs, climbers, &c., in their ranges was increasingly felt, and nothing perhaps indicates so clearly the growing importance of that department, as the almost simultaneous appearance of two illustrated works of great value on the trees of India, published lately under the auspices of Govern- ment. These are Stewart and Brandis’ “ Forest Flora of North-West, and Central India,” and Beddome’s “ Flora Sylvatica of Southern India.” i - : four do % ini aie 7 f? dliw bavevie M5 yort da Ad ii} Yar te peruse SHE G25, ilele bawuin + wok off Ddaeg Ly oti dire pie? ah Do (.d) dare pe tet aes ~e so Ristigiourtal? ty ehoon vil Bininde dey of: da Gatdobs “winters, Sdb gee pAs ; ll ys * op ka . 7 . 4 4 go 7 - 7 ‘W - oe » “2 : ae : , . > F aii et a ll bo Number of Days it Blew in Certain Directions. sw. W. |N.W.| Calm. ree toa wel 2h Of by Oo Pee Oboe PR - 6 lO} 8 merece) io | bf @) -d 1 — bo ie [e) ~] eo i — bo Tan (St) ~I © lor) SS io — Feat bo for) — ie) | or So — Mean Velocity in Miles per Hour. 14 Days. —— ooo Amount. Inches. 2°81 | 5-78 - Abstract of Meteorological Observations made by Mx WitutaM Corrie at Gallowhill and Winterlaw, both places being i the immediate neighbourhood of Carnwath, from 16th September 1873 to 30th September 1874. ‘TAB — THERMOMETEKS IN STEVENSON’S LOUVRE-BOARDED BOX AT A HEIGHT OF 4 FEET ABOVE GROUND. | | WIND. | e REGISTERING THERMOMETER. HYGROMETER. RAIN, Ee de j 9 AM, i Oakes Number of Days it Blew in Certain Directions. Mean ae 2, | %8 Es Pe ee Hun in Miles ss Sh 5 es D Wet. o Elastic Ye Dew Elastic | dity. ee Es | dz 2: |" © | Point. | Foree. Jog] | Wee | point. | vores. Joon) 3: |NE| E |sz.| s. |s.w.| w. |wawcam) Hour, || "2% jAmoune es sl [Sea 2a a J [a 1873. 6 ° ° ° ° ° ° © ° ° Inch. : O ° ° Inch. Tuches, (| Gallownit, .| 688] 338 | 35:0) 572) 418] 154] 495 | 522] 484] 445] 04] 75 | 473] 45:6] 43-7] 285] 8811 9| | 1/1 9 lee mi Winterlaw, .| 68:6 | 341 | 34:5 | 566) 42:0] 146] 49-3] 51:6) 486] 456] -307] 80 | 47:2] 45-9] 44:5] -293 a1} d Sa 20 1G Ls tO) ae 6 | 2:81 | (| Gallowhil, .| 551] 209] 342] 486] 358] 198] 42-9] 43:3] 49:0] 404] 252] 90 | 409] 403] 395] -243| 95 (CcrOREB Tit Winterlaw, . | 547 | 21-4] 33:3] 48-1 | 35°9 | 12-2) 42:0 | 4276 | 41:5] 40:3] -249 |] 91 41:0 | 404!) 39-9] -249 05} See |e2h tO) Sal) Sui) Gr lnOnll Suit 1d 15 5:78 . | Gallowhil, .| 511] 20-0] 311] 43:3] 340] 9:3] 387] 393] 38:3] 37-0 92 | 387] 379 | 36:8] -220| 94 Novempen, { | Winterlaw, .| 51-0] 207 | 303] 433] 338] 951] 386] 39:3] 38-4 | 37-2 93 | 385 | 380 | 37-3 | -223 a6} MY a SNe ats CI ayy SUT SI ae! fh eye _ (| Gallowhill, . | 524] 224] 300] 450] 361] 89| 406] 411] 402] 389 93 | 41-4] 407| 39:8] -246| 95 is DeceapER, { Winterlaw, . | 59:0 | 26:0] 26-0] 45:3] 361 | 9:2] 40-7] 41-2] 404] 39-4 94 | 41-4] 409! 403] -951 | 96 \ OL EN Ne Cette SU a alee Hh teh | eye 1874. | "(| Gallowhit, .| 48:5 | 25:0] 235 | 434] 340] 9-4] 387] 39:0] 381] 36:9] -920] 93 | 30-2) 383! 371] -229| 93 2 |JaNvaRY, ) Winterlaw, .| 50:2 | 25-:0| 25:2 435 | 33:9 | 9:6] 38-7 | 391] 38:3] 373] -293| 94 | 39-2| 385 37-6 | -296 aad Py Oy Of Vy 2) Ie 1s) 0} 0} to) I ty | gra _ | Gallowhil, . | 48:3) 19:8] 985] 495 | 31:3 11:2) 369] 382] 37-0] 35:3] 206] 90 | 366] 35-7 345 201) 92)| es: : Funvany, || wWinterlaw, | 484 | 19:0} a94| 42-4 | 31:5 | 100| 37-0| 381| 371 | 35-7] -209| 91 | 366| 350| 349 | a98| oat} 2| 2| 2] 4] 8] 7] 3] 2] 1] a her tee Gallowhil, .| 566 | 199] 36-7} 47-4 | 35-4] 120) 41-4) 428] 411) 391) 238] 86 | 398] 38:7) a7-3| -223| 91 f [Minow {| Svintelew, <| sra| 197 | ar7| 475 | s54| 191) ais} 45-0 | 410| 30-0) -o47| 89 | 400| 304 | a70| 30 ost] 2] 2] 2] 2} 412) 9) 2] 0) ar | as | oat Gallowhil, .| 696 | 305] 391| 531) 374] 167) 45:3) 475 | 442] 405) -259| 77 | 43:8] 422] 4031] 249] 87] , Aw, . .1| Wintadaw, | 719| 300| 41-9 | 542| 374| 168| 48| 47-9 | 444| 400| -o53| 70 | 40 | 42: | 408 | 250 eoth 2| 2) 2] 3] 7] 9] 8] 0] 2) a6 | aa | v7 i Gallowhil, . | 622] 280] 342| 51-7] 37-2] 145) 445] 465] 43:3] 30-7) -245| 78 | 43-7] 425] 4111 258] 90) {ATA = « 4 Winterlaw, .| 64-9 | 97:5 | 37-4) 53:5 | 37°3| 162) 454) 47-6] 441] 40:2) 249! 7G | 43-7 | 495) 411 | -958 90} SP TRS TO Sea Eas SC S| a ated Gallowhill, .| 70:6| 31:1] 39:5] 621 | 485) 196] 523] 555| 508| 464] -317| 72 | 511) 490| 468] -329) 95 | E Pose, 4 Winterlay, .| 72:1 | 313| 408] 640 | 431 | 209| 536] 57-0) 521) 47-6) -329| 70 | 509 | 49:0] 47-0] -323| 87 i za a sca anal aca ares es aL } eiieene | Gallowhil, .| 781] 401 | 38:0) 647 | 495] 159) 571| 50:5) 55-7 | 52:3] -303| 7s | 562] 546] 531) -403| 89)| | eae 4 Winterlaw, .| 79:4] 40:1 | 39:3| 65-8 | 49:7] 1o1] 57-8 | 601 | 56-4| 53:21] -405| 78 | 561 | 54-41 59:8 | -401 | Be ON Dy VY 2) 6) 1h) G4) Oy A) LO) fy | 8305 ihe Gallowhil, .| 707 | 398] 309] 606 | 471] 135] 539) 548) 51-7] 48:7] -343| 79 | 517) 506| 49:5| 354! 99 |e : faa {| Svintorum, || T4{ 401 310| ora] 472 | 12] o43| 552| 528| 505| 368 | a5 | 517 | 507| 497| 307 | 93 | NY Me) EE ely ee MMU Tae Se | oe | ees {| Gallowhill, .| 63:3] 920] 913] 572] 442| 130] 507| 534] 512] 49:0] -347| 85 | 49-7 | 489| 481 | -336| 94) ) |SHPreMBER, 4 | Wintorlaw, .| 63-4] 340 | 29-4 | 444 | 132] 51-0 | 53-7 | 512] 48:8] -343| 83 | 498 | 48:9 | 48:0] -335| 94) u OTE 2 Daye tay L8H le (85) 210) 10) Bs UT Wes ae les 7| Gallownil, .| 781 | 198| 683] or7| ae7| aso doo | 4o7| 4e0| a0! 208! 85 | 424 | 4a| 420) 207) 92110, o =a a ye ’ ; Yum =) Winterlaw, .| 794 | 190| 6o4| 622] 388 | 194] 455 | 471 | 4e9| 425] -a72| 89 | 44 | 43-4 | 422] gon | oayy 17 | *? | 92/10) 59 nae) 83) 10) 10) 14 | 168 |ae-80 APPENDIX (A) Scottish Arboricwltural Society. PATRON. : HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN. LIST. OF MEMBERS CORRECTED TO AUGUST 1878. * Life Members. + Members who have given Subscriptions, in order to form a Capital or Sinking Fund. All Subscriptions are payable at the Annual General Meeting in November. Members whose Subscriptions are Two Years in Arrear are not entitled to receive the Transactions. HONORARY MEMBERS. Batrour, John Hutton, M.D., A.M., F.R.SS.L. and E., Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Buen, Robert, Curator of the Botanic Garden, Glasgow. t+Hurcutson, Robert, F.R.S.E., of Carlowrie, Kirkliston, Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia. M‘Nas, James, F.B.S.E., Curator of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, +Tuomson, William, Deputy Surveyor, H.M. Chopwell Woods, Burnop- field, Durham. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Anis, Alexander J., Esq., Rockville, Linlithgow. Arrutz, The Right Hon, the Earl of, Cortachy Castle, Forfarshire. Arrcuison, William, Forester, Workington Hall, Cumberland. ALpER, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dunse’ Castle, Dunse. ALEXANDER, James, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. _ ALEXANDER, James, jun., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. ALEXANDER, John. ALEXANDER, John, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. a Lawson, George, LL.D., Ph.D., Professor of Natural History and. rr Sy alee ppmanbidhdes PS Se ae a oF 2 APPENDIX. Aan, Andrew, Rankeillor, Cupar, Fife. +Axuan, John, Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Awnpverson, Alexander, Forester, St Fort, Newport, Dundee. Awnverson, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Awnverson, Alexander, Gardener, Oxenford Castle, Dalkeith. ANDERSON, James, Bangholm Nursery, Edinburgh. ANDERSON, James, Meadowbank, Uddingston. AnveErson, John, Newstead Abbey, Nottingham. +ANDERSON, John, Nurseryman, Perth. ANNAND, Charles, Forester, Cromar Estates, Tarland, Aberdeenshire. ANNANDALE, Robert Burns, The Gardens, Fonthill, Tisbury, Wilts. ARCHER, James, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. ArcHER, John, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. tARcHIBALD, Thomas, Forester, Virginia, Co. Cavan, Ireland. Aryort, Alexander, Hedger, East Wemyss, Fife. Aryort, Robert A., Messrs Sharpe & Co., Seed Merchants, Sleaford, Kent. Asupown, Samuel Harding, Land Agent, Uppington, Wellington, Salop. Austin & M‘Auvsuayn, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Glasgow. Baicriz, Andrew, Forester, Mote Park, Ballymurry, Co. Roscommon. BaierieE, William, Forester, Echo Bank, Old Dalkeith Road, Edinburgh. Baiiuie, William, Wood Manager, Cortachy, Kirriemuir. Barn, A., Steam Saw Mills, Forres. Bay, William, Lochrin Iron and Wire Works, Edinburgh. Barrp, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Drumpelier, Coatbridge. BAwvEN, James, Forester, Lennoxlove, Haddington. Ba.vEN, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Hawthornden Cottage, Lasswade. +Ba.ven, Peter G., Forester, Vaenol Park, Bangor, North Wales. tBALDEN, William, Appleby Castle, Appleby. +BALLANTYNE & Son, Messrs John, Nursery and Seedsmen, Dalkeith. BatuincAL, Robert, Factor, Eallabus, Islay. *Barsour, George F., Esq., of Bonskied, Pitlochry, Perthshire. tBarrtz, David, Forester, Durris, Aberdeen. +BarriE, James, Forester, Stevenstone House, Torrington, Devonshire. Barter, Frederick, Assistant Gardener. Bary, David, Forester, Lowther Castle, Penrith. Baty, William, Forester, Netherby, Longtown. Baxter, Robert, Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. +Bayne, Lewis, Forester, Kinmel Park, St Asaph. Bresiz, Harker, Forester, Littledale Hall, by Lancaster. Bece, John, jun., Factor, Durris, Kincardineshire. Bett, James, Strathfieldsaye, Winchfield, Hants. Bex, James, Forester, Newcastleton, Carlisle. *Bexx, William, Esq., of Gribdac, Kirkcudbright. Bennett, Alexander, Forester. APPENDIX. - 3 Berry, George, Horningsham, Warminster, Wiltshire. Berry, Thomas Walter, Forester, Brynkinalt, Chirk, N. Wales. Biecr, Matthew, Esq., Islip, Thrupston. Bircu, John, Assistant Gardener, Tinnchinch, Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow. +Brrniz, John, Normanby Park, Brigg, Lincolnshire. Bisserr, David, Land-Steward and Forester, Alva House, Stirling. Bissert, William 8., Land-Steward and Hurester, Moncrieffe House, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire. Buacktey, John, Factor, Milton and Castlemilk, Glasgow. Buair, Peter, Dunse. +Boa, Andrew, Land-Steward, Dalton House, Neweastle-on-Tyne. Boa, Andrew, jun., Assistant Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. Boa, James §. M., Agent, Fettercairn, Fettercairn. +Bortuwick, William, Forester, Dunnichen, Forfar. *Bosanquet, Rev. G. H., Broom-y-Close Court, Llanwarne, Ross, Here- fordshire. Boston, Thomas C., Robert Kerr, Nurseryman, Liverpool. Bortomer, Frederick, Gardener, Mackree Castle, Ballisodare, Sligo. +Bropig, James, Land-Steward, Glasslough, Armagh, Ireland. Broveu, Robert, Forester, Balnagowan, Tain, Ross-shire. Brown, J., Bretby, Burton-on-Trent. Brown, James, LL.D., Nurseryman and Wood-Surveyor, Craigmill, Stirling. Brown, James, Carnwath House, Carnwath. Brown, John E., Craigmill, Stirling. tBrown, R. E., F.G.S., Estate Agent, Wass, Oswald Kirk, Yorkshire. Brown, William, Land Valuator and Estate Agent (N. America). Browy, William, Nursery and Seedsman, Stamford, Lincolnshire. +Bruce, Peter, Esq. Brucsz, The Hon. T. C., 24 Hill Street, Berkeley Square, Tondom W. Bruce, T. R., Esq., of Slogarie, Lauriestown, Castle-Douglas. Bryay, F. G. D., Factor, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Bucuan, George, Forester, Bakewell, Derbyshire. Bucuanan, Robert, Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Buist, Matthew, Factor, Tynninghame, Prestonkirk. Burnett, James, Assistant Forester, Durris, Aberdeenshire. Burns, Alexander, Hedger, Glamis Castle, Glamis, Forfarshire. Bussens, William, Stow Hall, Downham, Norfolk. Cauper, Frederick, Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeenshire. CaupeEr, R. M., Agent, Myton Hall, Borobridge, York. CatLocutn, John, Assistant Forester, Houston, Paisley. Cameron, Alexander, Forester, Countlich Lodge, Ballinluig, Perthshire. Cameron, Angus, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. Cameron, Henry, Assistant Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perth. Cameron, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Novar, Evanton, Ross-shire. 4 APPENDIX. +Cameron, John, Assistant Forester, Fowlis Wester, Crieff, Perthshire. Cameron, Robert, Forester, Galtie Castle, Mitchelstown, Co. Tipperary. CampBELL, Alexander, Forester, Gray House, Liff, Dundee. +CAMPBELL, James, Esq., of Tillichewan Castle, Dumbartonshire. CampBELL, John, Forester, Aboyne Castle, Aberdeenshire. CAMPBELL, Peter, Assistant Forester, Invereshie, Kingussie. Carrnpurr, Andrew, Forester, Abbeyleix, Queen’s Co., Ireland. CarRMICHAEL, John, The Gardens, Glen Tulchan, The Cairnies, Perth. CHALMERS, James, Duchal, Port-Glasgow. Cuambers, William, Esq., Haford, Aberystwith, Wales. CHAPLAIN, George, Assistant Forester, Glamis Castle, Glamis, Forfarshire. CuapMAn, James, Assistant Forester, Grinkle Park, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire. Cuappiow, John, Glencoin Cottage, Patterdale, Penrith. Curistigz, David, Forester, Abington House, Lanarkshire. +CuuRNSIDE, Francis, Forester, Ladykirk, Berwickshire. CuurnsIDE, Robert, Forester, Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Criarx, David, Assistant Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. Cuark, James, Forester, Balvaird, Fife. Cuark, John, The Nurseries, Cupar, Fife. +CuarK, John, jun., Forester, Esslemont, Ellon, Aberdeenshire. +Ciark, J., Forester to the Earl of Kintore, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. CuarK, Thomas, St Andrew’s, Miltown, Dublin. *OLecHORN, Hugh, M.D., of Stravithy, St Andrews, Fife (Prsideent). +CLecHorRN, William, Forester, Ayton Castle, Ayton. Cierk, Sir George D., Bart., Penicuik House, Penicuik. CosBan, John, Wood Agent, Wentworth Woods, Rotherham. Cocxsurn, William, Forester, Coats, Penicuik, Cocker, James, Nurseryman, Aberdeen, Coiittvawoop, Rev. R. G., Irton Vicarage, Carnforth, Cumberland. Cooxss, Rev. H. W., Astley Rectory, near Stourport. Cooper, George, Messrs Hurst & Son, Leadenhall Street, London. Corset, James, Forester, Underley Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmore- land. +Cowan, James, Forester, Bridgend, Islay. Cowan, Robert, Forester, Park, near Paisley. Cows, John, Luffness, Drem. Cowix, John, Assistant Forester, Mount Stuart, Rothesay. +Crappe, James, Forester, Glamis Castle, Glamis, Forfarshire. Crate, Charles, Forester, Warthill, Aberdeenshire. +Craic, James, Overseer, Dougalston, Milngavie, Glasgow. Craic, Nathan, Cherry Cottage, Anowe Park, Birkenhead. Crate, Richard, Forester and Gardener, Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Craic, Robert, Levens Hall, Milnthorpe. Cranston, G. C. Trotter, Esq., of Harvieston, Gorebridge. APPENDIX. Ou *CrawrorD, William Stirling, Esq., of Milton, Glasgow. +Cricuton, George, Esq., 18 Princes Street, Edinburgh. +Cross, David G., Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh, Ireland. CruicKsHANKS, Robert, Forester, Ballykilcavan, Stradbally, Queen’s Co. CunnincHam, D., The Gardens, Darnaway Castle, Forres. CunniIncHAM, John, Forester, Ardross Castle, Ross-shire. Currie, John, Gardener, Salisbury Green, Edinburgh. +Curtter, D., Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. DauetetIsH, John J., Esq., 8 Athole Crescent, Edinburgh. Dauuis, Joseph, Forester, Blandpant, Llandyssil, Carmarthenshire. Datrympte, Charles, Forester, Mitchelstown Castle, Mallow, Co. Cork. DanieEts, Peter, Forester, Slindon Hall, Arundel, Sussex. Darien, James, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queens- ferry. +Daruine, John, Forester, St Martins, Perthshire. Davipson, James., Coonoor, Neilgherries, 8. India. +Davinson, John, Forester, Aldbar, Brechin. Davinson, John, Forester, Firth, Roslin. tDavipson, John, Overseer and Architect, Belmont Castle, Meigle. Davinsoy, Richard, Scottish Colour Works, Leith. Davipson, W., Leager House, Chuseburn Grange, Newcastle-on-Tyne. +Dawson, John, Messrs J. & J. Dawson, Alloa. Dey, Richard, Ealing, London. Dempsey, Charles, Assistant Forester, Powerscourt, Enniskerry. Dewar, Colonel A., of Vogrie, Ford. +Dicxson, George, Stonvar, Lochearnhead. Dickson, J., Messrs Edmonston Brothers, 9 Dame Street, Dublin. Dickson & Sons, Messrs James, Nursery and Seedsmen, Chester. +Dicxson & Sons, Messrs James, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Dickson, Thomas, Nursery and Seedsman, Chester. Donps, George, Overseer, Leinster Estates, Prospect House, Athy. Don, John, Assistant Forester, Cullen House, Cullen. Dowatp, Alexander, Forester, Druim-a-Choish, Glen Etive, arey uiBe Donaupson, J., Forester, Brechin Castle, Brechin. Dove as, J., Gahdenoe Kilkea Castle, Mageney, Co. Kildare. +Dow, Thomas, Forester, Idvies, Forfar. +Downie, Lairp, & Laine, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Doyte, James, Land Steward, Heywood, Ballinakill, Queen’s County. Drummonpd Brorugrs, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Drummond & Soys, Messrs William, Nurserymen, Stirling. Durr, James, Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. tDourr, James, Melound, Aberlemno, Forfar. Durr, James, Assistant Forester, Damside Estate, Auchterarder. Duaay, Charles, Assistant Forester, Cally House, Gatehouse. 6 APPENDIX. *Duncan, Alexander, Esq., of Knossington Grange, Oakham, Leicestershire. Duncan, John, Assistant Forester, H.M. Chopwell Wood, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Duncan, William, Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. *Dunpas, Robert, Esq., of Arniston, Gorebridge. Duyy, David, The Gardens, Heaton Park, Manchester. +Dunn, Malcolm, The Gardens, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Dykes, Thomas, Factor, Maybole, Ayrshire. Earnsuaw, L., Forester, Morpeth, Northumberland. Epear, Thomas, Forester, Torry, Fife. Epmonpson, T., Proprietor of ‘Gardeners’ Record,’ 9 Dame Street, Dublin. Eisank, Right Hon. Lord, Darnhall, Eddlestone, Peebles. Exuiot, Robert, Forester, Blairquhan, Maybole, Ayrshire. E.woop, Edwin, Assistant Forester, Dissington Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Farrpairy, William, Land Steward, Manderston, Dunse. Fenny, James, Forester, Fetteresso, Stonehaven. Fereuson, A., Gosfield Hall, Hallstead, Essex. Frercuson, James, Forester and Land Steward, Cleghorn, Lanark. Fercuson, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Lambton Park, Fence Houses. Ferniz, Robert, Forester, Balearres, Colinsburgh, Fife. Fertes, Francis, Assistant Hedger, Ury House, Stonehaven. FineianD, J., Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. Fryn, P. W., Forester, Borris House, Borris, Co. Carlow. *Fisu, D. T., Hardwick, Bury-St-Edmunds. Fisuer, William, Forester, Wentworth Castle, Barnsley, Yorkshire. +Forses, Andrew, Forester, Stracathro, Brechin. Forean, James, Wellwood Cottage, Kinnoull, Perth. Forrest, William, Melfort Cottage, Lochgilphead. Fouts, Robert, Forester, Fordel, Inverkeithing, Fife. Fowter, Archibald, The Gardens, Castle Kennedy, Stranraer. France, Charles, Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire. +France, C. S., Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik. +Francez, George, Overseer, Glenelg, Lochalsh, France, James, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire. Fraser, Archibald, Assistant Forester, Knock Castle, Largs. +Fraser, Duncan, Forester. Fraser, James, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Fraser, P. Neill, Esq., Canonmills Lodge, Edinburgh. Fraser, Hugh, Stanwell Nursery, Edinburgh. : Fraser, Simon, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeenshire. +FraseEr, Thomas, Forester, Oriel Temple, County Louth. FREEMAN, Timothy, Messrs Osborne & Sons, Fulham, London. Frost, Philip, Gardener, Dropmore, Maidenhead. APPENDIX. 7 +Garpiver, R., Wenalt House, Crosswood, Aberystwith, South Wales. GARDINER, James, Forester, Hawkstone Park, Salop. Garean, James, Land Steward, Kells, Moynally, Co. Meath, Ireland. Garver, John, Assistant Gardener, Cantley Hall, Doncaster, Yorkshire. Geixtg, P. M., Factor, Cortachy, Kirriemuir. GerrisH, Edward, Wood Overseer, Maiden Bradley, Bath. Grsson, William, Nursery and Seedsman, 14 Lower Ormond Quay, Dublin. Gipson-MattLanp, Sir A. C. R., Bart., M.P., Cliftonhall, Ratho. GiLBERT, James, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. +Gitcurist, Andrew, Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. Giucurist, Daniel, Messrs Main & Co., 15 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. tGitcurist, William, Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. GoopFELLow, Andrew, Forester, Wolfelee, Hawick. Goopizr, George, Assistant Gardener, Heaton Park, Manchester. Gorpon, James, Assistant Forester, Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Gorpon, John, Forester, 17 Bonaccord Street, Aberdeen. Gorrigz, Archibald, Forester, Holkham Hall, Holkham. t+GorriE, William, Rait Lodge, Trinity, Edinburgh. _ +Gossrp, James, The Nurseries, Inverness. +Gossip, Robert, Crawford Priory, Pitlessie. *tGoueu, William, Wood Manager, Wykeham, York. Gow, James, Forester, Camperdown, Dundee. Gow, John L., Factor, Raith, Kirkcaldy. GraHAm, Andrew, Assistant Factor, Dunse Castle, Dunse. GrRANDISON, James, Assistant Forester, New Scone, Perth. Grant, Donald, Forester, Drumin, Ballindalloch. *GRANTHAM, George, Esq., Barcombe Place, Lewes, Sussex. GREEN, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. GREEN, William, The Gardens, Carlowrie, Kirkliston. GREEN, William, Assistant Forester, Charleston, Malmesbury, Wilts. +Greie, Gavin, Forester, Parkhill, Aberdeen. GRIEVE, George, Gardener, Dalkeith. Grikve, James, Messrs Dickson and Co., Nurseries, Leith Walk, Edin- burgh. tGricor, John, Nurseryman, Forres. *Grimmonp, Alex. D., Esq., of Glenericht, Blairgowrie. GuTHRIE, Colonel, Carlogie House, Carnoustie. +Hatt, Peter, Forester, Huntly Lodge, Huntly. Hamitton, David, Forester, Tillichewan Castle, Alexandria, Dumbarton- shire. Hanpasypr & Davinson, Messrs Thomas, Nursery and Seedsmen, Mussel- burgh. Harpir, A., Manager, Monboddo, Fordoun. t+tHarpir, Walter, Forester, The Hall, Norwell, Newark, Notts. b 8 APPENDIX. Harpwick, John, Syston Park, Grantham. +Haartey, A., Penybout, Radnorshire. Harroip, George, Gardener, Mount Henrie, Queen’s Co., Ireland. Hart, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Yester, Haddington. Hartnanp, Richard, The Lough Nurseries, Cork. Havetock, Thomas, Forester, Raby Park, Staindrop, Co. Durham. Hayman, John, jun., Overseer, Dumfries House, Old Cumnock. HeEtmMAN, George, Assistant Gardener, Hetman, William, Gardener, Heywood, Ballinakill, Queen’s County. tHenperson, Archibald, Forester, Guisachan, Beauly. Henperson, David, Forester and Land Steward, Doneraile Court, Co. Cork. Henperson, John, Land Steward, Knockdrin Castle, Mullingar. HeEnpeErRsOoN, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Henpry, David, Bangholm Nurseries, Edinburgh. HeEppurn, James, Forester. +Heppurn, William, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. Hermiston, James, Assistant Forester, Floors Castle, Kelso. Heruerton, Walter, Forester, Cresseley, Pembrock. Hix, John, Land Steward, Whitehill, Lasswade. +Hoeartu, James, Forester, Duthill, Strathspey. Hoge, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefurd- shire. Hoop, William, Gardener, Glasslough, Ireland. *Hops, H. W., Esq., of Luffness, Drem. Hog, George, Assistant Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill. HorspureH, James, Forester, Yester, Haddington. Hume, Andrew, Forester, Wansford, Peterborough. Hume, John Kippen, Forest Department, India (49 Grange Road, Edin- burgh). +Hunter, Patrick, Overseer, Bonskeid, Pitlochry. Hunter, William, Forester, Castlemilk, Glasgow. Hussey, 8. M., Estate Office, Tralee. *Horu, Louis, Esq., of Possingworth, Hawkhurst, Sussex. +Hurron, James, Forester, Moy, Forres. IRELAND, John, Seed Warehouse, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Jackson, Martin, Forester, Wass, Oswald Kirk, Yorkshire. Jamieson, D., Thoresby Park, Ollerton, Nottinghamshire. JEFFREY, John, Esq., Balsusney, Kirkcaldy, Fife. JEFFREY, John, Forester, Craighall, Blairgowrie. Jounston, James, West Valleyfield, Culross, Perthshire. Jounston, William, Fencer, Lee, Lanark. Jounstong, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. JOHNSTONE, Alex., Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. ee APPENDIX. 9 +Jonnstone, William, Stanstead Park Nursery, Forest Hill, London, E. Joss, John, Assistant Forester, Crathes Castle, Aberdeenshire, tKay, James, Forester and Hedger, Bute Estate, Rothesay. +Kepzir, Walter, Forester, Arundel Castle, Arundel, Sussex. Kerr, David, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld, Perthshire. Kerrn, Davidson, of Messrs Keith & Co., George Street, Edinburgh. +Kemp, John, Assistant Forester, Midmar, Aberdeenshire. Keynepy, Duncan, Assistant Forester, Erskine House, Glasgow. Kewnnepy, F., Seed Merchant, Borough, London. Kennepy, G. G. Allan, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Grantown. Kerwnnepy, William, Overseer, Carradale, Greenock. Kerr, Robert P., Nursery and Seedsman, Liverpool. Kipp, James, Assistant Forester, Morden Park, Surrey, 8. W. +KineaHorn, Adam, Forester, Rochsoles, Airdrie. *Kinnear, William Balfour, Esq., Foo Chow, China. Laine, James, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Lamserton, Hugh, Forester, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. Lamont, John, Inverleith Nurseries, Edinburgh. Lamont, John, jun., Inverleith Nurseries, Edinburgh. +Lauper, William, 36 Coburg Street, Gateshead. Lawson & Son, Messrs Peter, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Leeeat, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Abernethy Nursery, Strathspey. LersHman, Richard, Forester, Muncaster Castle, Ravenglass, Cumberland. Lemon, Thomas, The Gardens, Convamore, Ballyhooly, Ireland. Lenox, William, Forester, Keir, Dunblane. *Lesiig, Charles P., Esq., of Castle Leslie, Glasslough, Ireland. Lippe t, Rev. J. R., The Manse, Kirkliston. Linpores, Gavin, Assistant Forester, Dunglass, Cockburnspath. Linxstong, James, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Lirrir, Alexander, Forester, Castle Menzies, Aberfeldy. Loraine, Edward, Esq., The Riding Mill, Northumberland. Lorian, The Most Hon. The Marquis of, Pinnelheugh House, Jedburgh. M‘Auister, Alexander, Rossie Priory, Dundee. Macsern, J., Land Steward, Stobhall, Perth. M‘Catium, James Thyne, Nursery and Seedsman, 60 Buchanan Street, Glasgow. M‘Catuvuy, G. K., Esq., of Braco Castle, Braco. M‘Cox1, James, Assistant Forester, 158 Queen Street, Whitehaven. +M‘Corqvopatez, Donald, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie. M‘Corquopate, D. A., Assistant Factor, Panmure, Forfarshire. +M‘CorquopaLz, William, Forester, Scone Palace, Perth. M‘Creatu, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Culzean, Maybole, Ayrshire. 10 APPENDIX. M‘CutcHeon, Robert, Assistant Forester, East Milton, Drumnadrochit, by Inverness. M‘Doxatp, Alexander, Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. M‘Dona.p, Charles, Superintendent, Phcenix Park, Dublin. M‘Dona.p, Donald, Assistant Forester, Underly Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland. f +M‘Donatp, John, Forester, New Scone, Perth. M‘Fapyen, Duncan, Forester, Dunmore, Stirling. M‘Gratu, Patrick, Assistant Forester, Galtie Castle, Mitchelstown, Co. Tipperary. M‘Grecor, Archibald, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. *M‘Grecor, John, Ladywell, Dunkeld, Perthshire. M‘Grecor, W. S., Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perth. M‘Harpy, Charles, Forester, Castle Newe, Strathdon. M‘Hartiez, John, Seedsman, Northgate, Chester. M‘Intosu, Angus, Forester, Glashill, Killeigh, King’s County. Mackay, John, West Dean Estate, Chichester. M‘Kay, James, Forester, Whittinghame, Prestonkirk. M‘Kay, Thomas, Forester, Crosswood Park, Aberystwith, S. Waises. M‘Keiru, Archibald, West Coates Nursery, Edinburgh. M‘Ke viz, William Ross, Landscape Gardener, Cemeteries Office, Dundee. M‘Keyziz, Donald F., Forester, Meldrum House, Aberdeenshire. Macxenzig, Alexander, Warriston Nurseries, Edinburgh. *Mackenzie, Colin J., Esq., of Portmore, Eddleston, Peebles. Mackenziz, James, 1 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. Mackenzi£, John Ord, Esq., of Dolphinton, 7 Royal Cirens, Edinburgh. M‘Kenzir, K. Stewart, Esq., Brahan Castle, Dingwall. Mackxrntosu, R. T., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinbargh. M‘Laecay, John, Forester, The Cairnies, by Methven. +M‘Laren, Hugh. M‘Larey, John, Ballencrieff, Drem. +M‘Laren, John, Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. M‘Laren, John, Forester, Darnhall, Eddleston, Peebles. M‘Laren, Peter, Forester, Altyre, Forres. +M‘Laren, Peter, Sub-Agent, Sittenham, York. M‘Lean, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Rutherford, Kelso. M‘Leay, Hector F., Esq., Carnwath House, Carnwath. M‘Leay, John, Forester, Swainston, near Newport, Isle of Wight. M‘Lean, Malcolm, The Gardens, Gosford, Drem. M‘Leay, William, Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. M‘Leay, William, Messrs Methven & Sons, Nurserymen, Edinburgh. M‘Le.tian, Duncan, Superintendent of Parks, Glasgow. M‘Leop, Alexander, Forester, Gosford, Drem. M‘M11iay, Samuel, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. APPENDIX. 4 Macnaucuron, Alexander, Esq., §.8.C., Arranmore Villa, Stanley Road Edinburgh. M‘Naventon, Archibald, Forester, Williamwood, Cathcart, Glasgow. M‘NEIL1, James, Forester, Abercairney, Crieff. M‘Neutt, D., Timber Agent, Kirriemuir. M‘Ragz, Duncan, Assistant Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. M‘Ragz, John, Forester, Auchendennan House, Alexandria, Dumbarton- shire. M‘Ragz, Robert, Assistant Forester, Cullen House, Cullen. M‘Rircute, T. E., Esq., 4 Gayfield Square, Edinburgh. *M‘Tirr, Alexander Walker, Esq., of Durris, Aberdeenshire. Mary, John, Assistant Forester, Cullen House, Cullen. +Main & Co., Messrs A. & J., Wire Fence Manufacturers, 7 Renfield Street, Glasgow. Matcouim, George, Bangholm Nursery, Edinburgh. MairTLANnD, William, Assistant Forester, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. +MarsHat., J., Forester, Lambton Park, Fence Houses, Durham. MarsHAt., James, Forester, Preston, Dunse. MarsHALL, Robert, Forester, Horton Manor, near Epsom, MarsHatt, William, Sandhoe, Hexham. Martin, George, Forester, Dunecht House, Aberdeen. Martin & Sons, Messrs, Nurserymen, Cottingham, Hull. Marutigson, Donald, Meikleour, Perth. Maxton, Robert, Forester, Strathallan Castle, Auchterarder. *MaxweE.t, Wellwood H., Esq., of Munches, M.P., Dalbeattie. Me rose, John, Wood Merchant, Queen Street, Perth. Metros, William, Forester, Byram Hall, South Mitford. MENZIES, , Agent, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent. Menzixs, William, Forester, Craigton Cottage, Causewayhead, by Stirling. Meruven, John, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. *+tMeEtTHvEN, Thomas, Nursery and Seedsman, 15 Princes Street, Edin- burgh, Treasurer. +Micutz, Christopher Young, Forester, Cullen House, Cullen, Banffshire. +Micutz, James, Forester, Wemyss Castle, Kirkcaldy. . Mrpptemass, Archibald, Forester, Dunans House, Colintraive, Greenock. Mine, James, Forester, Glenmuick, by Ballater. +Mitter, John, Forester, Ochtertyre, Stirling. Minto, The Right Hon. The Earl of, Minto House, Hawick. +MrrcHett, David, Nursery and Seedsman, Bangholm House, Edinburgh. Mrircuett, Forbes, Esq., of Thanestone, Kintore. MircHeEt, Garlies, Nurseryman, Stranraer. _ MircHe.t, James, Aldie, Kinross. MrtcuELL, James, Forester, Knossington Grange, Oakham, Leicestershire Morrat, Adam, Forester, Hindlip Hall, Worcester. Morrat, Henry, Forester, Monkray, Whitehaven, Cumberland. 12 APPENDIX. Morrat, James, Forester, Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith. Morrart, John, Forester, Kimerghame, Dunse. *Moorg, Thomas, F.L.S., Curator, Botanic Garden, Chelsea. Morrison, John, Coney Park Nursery, Stirling. Morrison, R., Nurseryman, Elgin. Morr, William, Esq., of Inistrynich, Argylishire. +Mourrweap, John, Forester, Kindease, Invergordon. Mcttens, J., Gardener, Abbeyleix, Queen’s County. Mocwro, James, Forester, Invermorriston, Inverness-shire. Monro, James, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. -Morpuy, William, Leith Walk Nursery, Edinburgh. Murray, David, Forester, Dunira, Perthshire. Murray, G. W., The Foundry, Banff. Morray, Robert, Nurseryman, Lanark. Murray, Robert, Forester, Bangholm Nurseries, Edinburgh. Mytes, James, Forester, Portmore, Eddlestone, Peebles. Net, Archibald, Forester, West Grange, Culross. Nicot, W., Assistant Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. Nicot, William, Forester, Pitcaple, Aberdeenshire. +Oaitvy, David, Assistant Forester, Cortachy, Forfar. O’ NEILL, Richard, Auctioneer, Old Castle, Co. Meath. +Ormiston & Renwick, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Melrose. +Patmer & Son, Messrs John, Nurserymen, Annan. +ParkeER, James, Forester, Belvoir Castle, Grantham. ParkKER, Robert A., Nursery and Seedsman, Lanark. +Paterson, Andrew, Surveyor, Exton, Oakham, Rutland. Paterson, Charles, Factor, Castle Menzies, Aberfeldy, Perthshire. Paterson, William, Gardener, Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire. PreEsBLes, Andrew, Highclere Castle, Newbury, Berks. PENDREIGH, John, Assistant Forester, Port Bannatyne, Rothesay. Puruir, John, Wood Merchant, Bonnyrigg, Lasswade. +Puiuip, Robert, Minsterley, Shrewsbury. Pierson, Joshua, Forester, Old Shields, Airdrie. Piriz, John, Forester, Blackhall, Aberdeenshire. *PortsmouTH, The Right Hon. The Earl of, Eggesford, North Devon. Powerscourt, The Lord Viscount, Powerscourt, Enniskerry, County Wicklow. PownER, George, Forester, Willey Hall, Broseley, Shropshire. PowneEr, Thomas, British Workman’s Rooms, Wellington. Pressey, D., Gardener, Knockmaroon, Chapelizod, Dublin. Price, J., Forester, Garnstone Castle, Hereford. tPrine Ee, John, Implement Depot, 1 Victoria Street, Edinburgh. APPENDIX. 13 Rarr, James, Forester, Castle Forbes, Whitehouse, Aberdeen. RamsneEN, Sir J., Bart., M.P., Buckden, Skipton, York. RankINE, Thomas, Nurseryman, Hamilton. Rarrray, Thomas, Forester, Westonbilt House, Tetbury, Gloucestershire. +Ravenscrort, Edward, Farmer Office, India Buildings, Edinburgh. Rayson, William, Messrs Veitch, Royal Exotic Nursery, King’s Road, Chelsea. +Rerp, George, Nursery and Seedsman, Aberdeen. Rerp, James, Assistant Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. +Ricuarpson, Alexander, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. Rieuy, William, Messrs King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, London. Rintout, Henry, Bowerswell, Perth. Rircuiz, Henry, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells. +Rircuin, Walter, Forester, Dinas Mawddwy, Shrewsbury, N. Wales. Rosertson, D., Albert Hotel, Hanover Street, Edinburgh. Rosertson, David, Forester, Myton Hall, Borobridge, Yorkshire. Rosertson, George, Forester, Benmore, Kilmun, Greenock. Rosertson, James. Rosertson, James, Forester, Drummond Castle, Crieff. Rosertson, John. Rosertson, John, Forester, Minto House, Hawick. Rosertson, John, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. RoBERTSON, , Forester, Markree Castle, Collooney, Co. Sligo. Rosertson, P. S., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. Rosertson, Thomas, Forester. Rosertson, William W., Forester, Carolside, Earlston. +Rosson, Alexander, Overseer, Lude, Blair Athole. Rorson, David, Assistant Forester, Arthur Stone, by Meigle. Rosson, John, Forester. Rosson, Ralph, Nursery and Seedsman, Hexhain. Roperr, Hugh, Factor, Cleland, Motherwell. *RosEBERY, The Right Honourable the Earl of, Dalmeny Park, Edin- burgh. *Rosstyn, The Right Honourable The Earl of, Dysart House, Fife. +RusseEx, John, Craigie, Ayr. RussE LL, Robert, Forester, Mostyn, Holywell, N. Wales. Rust, Joseph, The Gardens, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. +RoutTHERFoRD, Andrew, Forester, Bowmont Forest, Kelso. +RuTHERFORD, James, Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh. +RuTHERFoRD, James, Agent, Kirkleathum, Redcar, Yorkshire. RutwHerrord, John, Assistant Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh. RvutTHERFORD, Robert, Manager, Invereshie, Kingussie. RurHeErRForD, Thomas, Hothfield, Ashford, Kent. +Sapier, John, F.R.Ph.S., Experimental Cottage, Edinburgh.—Seecretary. 14 APPENDIX. tSamson, John, Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. +SanpBacu, Henry R., Esq., Hafodunos, Llanrwst, Denbighshire. Scartu, T. W., Land Agent, Keverstone, Staindrop, Darlington. Scott, Adam, Forester, Southwick Park, Fareham, Hants. Scort, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Newton Don, Kelso. +tScort, D., Wood-Manager, Darnaway Castle, Forres. +Scort, David, Forester, Dornoch, Sutherland. Scort, John, Forester. +Scorr, John W., Esq., Delgany, County Wicklow, Ireland. Scorr, Walter, Forester, Oxnam, Jedburgh. Sgaron, Allan, Assistant Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. Service, George, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. SERVICE, James, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. SHAND, James, Gardener, Meldrum House, Aberdeenshire. Saanks, John, Forester, Kildrumy Castle, by Mosset. Suepparp, John, Tweedside Cottage, Roehampton, Surrey. Sm, William, Nurseryman, Forres. +Simeson, J., Forester, Alloa Park, Alloa. ~ Srupson, Peter, Assistant Forester, Daughty Mill, Kirkcaldy. +Smrpson, Thomas, Forester, Glenferness, Nairnshire. Sinton, David, Assistant Forester, Charlton, Malmesbury, Wilts. Sinton, J., Stourton, Bath. Sinton, John, Forester, Charlton, Malmesbury, Wilts. SKELDoN, John, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Sxirvine, Archibald, Forester, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, York. Sxirvine, William, Nursery and Seedsman, Liverpool. +Siater, Andrew, Forester, Lofthouse, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire. Sater, Andrew, jun., Assistant Forester, Aske, Richmond, Yorkshire. +Smart, A. H. SaitH, A., Factor, Douglas Castle, Lanarkshire. +SmirH, James, Forester, Donibristle, Aberdour, Fife. Smiru, James, The Gardens, Exton Park, Oakham, Leicestershire. Smit, John Crombie, Assistant Forester, Drummond Castle, Crieff. Surtu, Thomas, Nurseryman, Stranraer. Situ, W. Baxter, Messrs Little & Ballantyne, Nursery and Seedsmen, Carlisle. Smiru & Simons, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Howard St., Glasgow. +Smiru & Son, Messrs William, Nurserymen, Aberdeen. Sotty, Professor Edward, F.R.S., Parkstone, near Poole. SomMERVILLE, Samuel, M.D., F.R.C.P., 17 Hart Street, Edinburgh, Spence, Charles, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. STaLkeEr, Donald, Assistant Forester. Srapyiton, Major, Myton Hall, Borobridge, Yorkshire. Srark, Robert M., 21 Verulam Terrace, Hammersmith, London, W. SrgEE LE, David, Forester, Skene House, Aberdeen, APPENDIX. 19 Srevenson, David, Forester, Hawkhead, Paisley. +SrEvensoy, James, Forester, Cobham Park, Surrey. Srrwart, Alexander, Chancelot House, Ferry Road, Edinburgh. Stewart, Alexander, Forester, Grinkle Park, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, York- shire. Stewart, D., Manager, Dalnarert, Aviemore. SrewartT, James, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Stewart, John, Forester, Blair Athole, Perthshire. Stewart, John, Assistant Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. Stewart, J. Lindsay, M.D., Conservator of Forests, Punjaub, India. Stewart, Peter, Gardener and Forester, Castle Wellan, Co. Down. Srewart, William, Land Steward, Dalhousie Castle, Lasswade. Stewart, William, Nurseryman, Dundee. Srewart, William, Assistant Forester, Underley Hall, Kirkby. Stewart, William, Assistant Forester, Logie Almond, Perth. Srrane, William, Assistant Forester, New Scone, Perth. Stuart, John, Forester, Castle Grant, Strathspey. tSruart, Lewis A. G., Forester, Nethesdale House, Turriff. ~ Sruart, William, Forester. Stuart & Mein, Messrs, Nurserymen, Kelso. Surriz, James, Evington, Ashford, Kent. Sway, R. G., Auctioneer, Dunse. Symp, David, 1 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh.—A uditor. Symon, John, Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. Symon, Peter, Forester, Forres. Tarr, David, Forester, Owston Park, Doncaster, Yorkshire. Tart, Walter, Seedsman, 45 Chapel Street, Dublin. +TALBERT, Peter, Forester, Glenericht, Blairgowrie. ‘aytor, David, Barskimming, Mauchline. TayLor, George, Forester, Monymusk, Aberdeenshire. Taytor, George, Nursery and Seedsman, Inverurie. THomson, James Scott, Castle Strathallan, Auchterarder. *+THomson, John Grant, Wood Manager, Grantown, Strathspey. Tuomson, Lockhart, Esq., 22 Coates Crescent, Edinburgh. ‘Tuomson, Thomas, Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. THornton, Thomas, Heatherside, Frimley, Surrey. TivENDALE, William, Forester, Houston, near Paisley. Tomuinson, J., Brocklesby Park, Ulceby. Tomurinson, Wilson, Assistant Forester, Belvoir Castle, Grantham. Trorrer, Colonel R. A., The Bush, Edinburgh. TuRNBULL, James, Nurseryman, Hawick. TURNBULL, R. E., West Mount, York. TURNBULL, William, Assistant Forester, Bowmont Forest, Kelso. Turner, James, Assistant Gardener, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. 16 APPENDIX. Tweepi£, John, Forester, Dinglass, Cockburnspath, Berwickshire. *Urquuart, B. C., Esq., of Meldrum, Aberdeenshire. Verrcu, John, Nurseryman, Falkirk. Veircu, William, Hedger, Arniston, Gorebridge. Waovopinerton, David, Crosshouse, Airdrie. Waopbps, Philip, Gardener, Moore Abbey, Co. Kildare. Wa ker, William, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Watt, G. Y., jun., Esq., Exchequer Office, Durham. Wauace, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. WALLACE, , Forester, Panmure, Carnoustie. +Warp, James, Forester, Hawkhead Abbey, Paisley. WartereER, Anthony, Nurseryman, Knaphill, Surrey. Waters, Denis, Forester, Kelburn Castle, Largs. Waterson, A., Assistant Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, N. Wales. Warson, John, The Gardens, Stravithy, St Andrews. Watson, William, Assistant Forester, Peth, Longtown, Cumberland. Watson, W. J., Nursery and Seedsman, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Wart, James, Messrs Little and Ballantyne, Nurserymen, Carlisle. Wart, William, Forester, Nisbet House, Dunse. *W AVENEY, Lord, Flixton Hall, Bungay, Suffolk. WEAVER, James, Forester to the Marquis of Lothian, Mount Teviot, Jed- burgh. +WEAVER, James V., Forester, Mount Teviot, Jedburgh. Wesster, David, Bangholm, Edinburgh. Wesster, J., The Gardens, Gordon Castle, Fochabers. WetsuH, Duncan, Gardener, Mount Merrion, Dublin. +WetsH, James, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. +WetsH, William M., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. Wemyss, Randolph Gordon Erskine, Esq., of Wemyss and Torry, Fife. West, Charles Elis, Land Steward, Cartoon, Maynooth. Wuitus, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Wuite, George, Seedsman, Paisley. +WuiterorD, Robert, Assistant Hedger, Bute Estate, Rothesay. Wuytr, David, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. *Wixp, A. E., Assistant Conservator of Forests, Punjab, India (6 George Street, Sheffield). Wiis, B. 8., Paradise Nursery, Upper Holloway, London, N. Wutson, John, F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture, University of Edin- burgh. Witson, John, Forester, Knowefield Nurseries, Carlisle. Witson, John, Forester, Auchendolly, Castle-Douglas. Witson, John, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. APPENDIX. tL? Witson, John, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Witson, Peter, Forester, Whitehill, Lasswade. tWitson, Robert, Forester, Pewsey, Wilts. Witson, Stephen, 132 Union Street, Aberdeen. Woop, James, Factor, Haighall, Lancashire. Woop, John, Gardener, Hatton Castle, Aberdeenshire. Wrutir, James, Assistant Forester, Douglaston, Milngavie, Glasgow. + Wy uz, George, Estate Overseer, Ballovie, Aboyne. YELLOWLEES, George, Wood Merchant, Galashiels. Youne, John, Messrs Imrie & Son’s Nurseries, Ayr. Youne, William, Assistant Secretary, Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society, 33 South Bridge, Edinburgh. ~ SUBJECTS OFFERED FOR COMPETITION DURING 1872-73. I. For the best and approved Report on the most extensive, complete, and judiciously arranged Arboretum. Ist Prize, the ** Lawson Prize” of Five Guineas ; 2d Prize, a Medal. The arboretums reported on in 1872 are excluded. II. For the best and approved Essay on the present state and future prospects of Arboriculture in the county in which the com- petiter resides. 1st Prize, Five Guineas (offered by David Mitchell, Esq., Nurseryman, Edinburgh) ; 2d Prize, a Medal. II. For the best and approved Essay on the literature of Scottish Arboriculture. 1st Prize, Three Guineas (offered by the President) ; 2d Prize, a Medal. IV. For a full and complete, but succinct and well-written account, from published descriptions,—with authorities distinctly quoted,—personal observation, and experiment of the history and present state of the cultivation in Great Britain and Ireland of Cedrus Deodara (C. Libanotis, and C. atlantica, all now classed as _one species). Special Medal, value Three Guineas (offered by Dr J. Lindsay Stewart, Conservator of Forests, Punjab); 2d Prize, a medal. V. For the best and approved collection of Cones exhibited from and grown in the county in which the competitor resides. 1st Prize, Five Guineas (offered by Messrs Thomas Methven and Sons, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh) ; 2d Prize, a Medal. The prize collection to become the property of the Society. VI. For the best and approved collection of prepared sections of different kinds of Wood grown in the county in which the com- petitor resides. (A Medal.) VII. For the best and approved series of geological specimens illustrating the different rocks and formations on which Forest Trees and Shrubs grow in the county in which the competitor resides. The specimens to be accompanied by a Report. (A Medal.) VIII. On the employment of Locomotive Engines in Forestry, especially for the transit of timber, and on the working of portable saw-mills. (A Medal.) IX. For an approved Report on the Plantations of which the Competitor is Forester. (Zhree Medals.) One to be awarded for VEE APPENDIX. des, . the best Report from each of the countries—England, Scotland, and Ireland—and competition to be confined to each country respec- tively. X. For an approved Report on the management of Forests in Germany, France, and other places on the Continent. (A Medal.) XI. For an approved Report on the different Ages at which the various sorts of Timber Trees usually grown in Scotland may be most profitably felled in different soils and situations. (A Medal.) XII. For an approved Report on the Diseases most incidental to Forest Trees, including those that affect the roots as well as the bark, branches, and foliage. (Limited to Assistant Foresters and Working Woodmen.) 1st Prize, a Medal ; 2d Prize (offered by Mr R. E. Brown), copy of “ Brown’s Forester.” XIII. For an approved Report on the results obtained by expe- -rience of Seedlings of Conifers, being the produce of trees grown in Britain, as compared with plants obtained from foreign-ripened seed. (A Medal.) XIV. For an approved Report on the natural history of Beetles and other insects which affect Coniferee—their modes of operation upon the tree, and suggestions as to a remedy for their attack. (A Medal.) XV. For an approved Report on the comparative advantages of the different methods of Pruning. (A Medal.) XVI. For an approved Report on the different modes of profitably disposing of Home-grown Timber. (A Medal.) XVII. To any Member of the Society who shall send to the Secretary from abroad, cones or seeds of Forest Trees of new or rare varieties capable of germination and of thriving in this country. (A Medal.) XVIII. For an approved Essay or Report on any other subject connected with Arboriculture. (A Medal.) XIX. For any marked advantageous improvement on any of the Implements used in Forestry. (Models or Implements to be accom- panied by a Report.) (A Medal.) . For conditions of Competition, see Proceedings of Annual General Meeting of 6th November 1872. All Essays, Reports, and Implements intended for Competition must be given in to the Secretary not later than 25th September 1873 —each bearing a motto, and being accompanied by a separate sealed envelope bearing the sume motto outside, and containing a card with the motto, name, and address of the Competitor. 20 APPENDIX. Abstract of the Laws of the Scottish Arboricultural Society, as amended to 6th November 1872 :— The object of the Society shall be the promotion of the science of Arboriculture in all its branches, by periodical meetings of the Members for the reading of Papers ; by offering Prizes for Essays and Reports on the Practical Operations of Forestry, and publication of the same ; and by such other means as may be found advisable. The Society shall consist of the following classes of Members :-— 1. Proprietors, Factors, Nurserymen, and others, paying an annual subscription of Half-a-Guinea ; 2. Head-Foresters, and others, paying an annual subscription of Five Shillings; 3. Assistant Foresters, paying an annual subscription of Three Shillings. Any Member may become a Life-Member by compounding for his annual subscriptions by a single payment—those of the First Class paying Five Guineas ; and those of the Second and Third Classes, Three Guineas. The Society shall elect a limited number of Honorary Members,— gentlemen who have acquired eminence in the science of Arboricul- ture, or who are otherwise deemed worthy. All annual Subscriptions shall be payable in advance, at the Annual General Meeting in November. In addition to the annual subscriptions above stipulated, the Society shall receive, from those friendly to its objects, Donations of larger or smaller amount. A Candidate for admission into the Society must be recommended by at least one Member, and shall, on payment of his annual sub- scription, be immediately admitted a Member of the Society, subject to the revision of, the first General Meeting thereafter. Any Member of the Society introducing a New Member shall be held responsible for the first year’s subscription of such party. The affairs of the Society shall be conducted by a President, five Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor, and a Committee of fifteen Members,—these office-bearers to be elected annually at the General Meeting in November ; the three Members of Committee at the top of the list to gv out annually, but one to be eligible for re-election. A General Meeting of the Members shall be held on the first Wednesday of November annually, for the election of New Members, the appointment of Office-Bearers, the reading of Papers, awarding of Prizes, and other business. JOHN SADLER, Secretary. ee APPENDIX. oT OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1872-73. PRESIDENT. HUGH CLEGHORN, of Stravithy, M.D., F.R.S.E. VICE-PRESIDENTS. Joun Hutton Batrovur, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University, Edinburgh. Witttam M‘Corquopa.ez, Forester, Scone Palace, Perth. JoHn Grant THomson, Wood Manager, Grantown, Strathspey. Rosert Houtcuison, Esq., of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E. We.tiwoop H. Maxwe tt, Esq., of Munches, M.P. SECRETARY. Joun Saver, F.R.Ph.S., Lecturer on Botany in the Royal High School, and Assistant to the Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. TREASURER. THomas Meruven, of Messrs T. Methven and Sons, Nursery and Seeds- men, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh. AUDITOR. Davin Synge, 19 George LV. Bridge, Edinburgh. COUNCIL. CuHaARLEs S. France, Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik. ANDREW RvuTHERFORD, Forester, Bowmont Forest, Kelso. R. T. Mackintosu, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. Joun ANDERSON, Nurseryman, Perth. GeorcE Rem, Nursery and Seedsman, Aberdeen. Rosert Broveu, Forester, Balnagowan, Ross-shire. Joun M‘Laren, Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. Hueu Fraser, Stanwell Nursery, Edinburgh. Davip Mircuett, Bangholm House, Edinburgh. Rosert Fouts, Forester, Fordel, Fife. Joun M‘Greeor, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld. Wiuuiam Gitcarist, Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. ALEXANDER Ricuarpson, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. James Morrat, Forester, Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith. JAMEs SuiTH, Forester, Donibristle, Fife. APPENDIX B. GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNTS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY Sor the Year ending 5th November 1872. CHARGE. To Balance in Bank, . £9 9 1} ;, Annual Subscriptions for 1871- 2, 59 18 0 », Arrears, 2 18 6 = Subscription to Sinking Fund, 0 3 0 », Life Membership Subscriptions, 26 5 0 », Robert Hutchison, Esq. of Carlowrie (Donation), 610 0 », Peter Lawson & Sons (Donation) 5 5 0 ;, Lhomas Methven & Sons (Prize), Pir a, 0 ,, C. Y. Michie (Donation), 012 0 ,, Copies of Transactions Sold, ; : OIG! 0 ' ,, Received for Advertising in Transactions, per Keith & C 0. hares 0 ;, Interest, : : WSs \2 £133 0 7 DISCHARGE. By Balance from last Account, . ‘ ; : zee ie MS. | », Neill & Co., for Printing, . : : : : 49 6 0- », Mould & Tod, for Receipt ety : : : 018 6 ») Secretary’s Salary, : ; : 20 00 ;, Paid for Prizes, Medals, &c., ; ‘ : 19 13 0 ;, Paid over to Sinking Fund Account, : : : mA he at, ,, Annual Dinner, Extra Expenses, . é ; . 2° L6 4 ,, Postages, &c., per Secretary, : : : : 1010 7 ys per Treasurer, : ‘ : : Tee Ome oe Advertising, Stationery, &c., : : 214 2 », Balance in Bank, . . , : : £ Sh », Balance on hand, ‘ : : ; : : th 3 £133 0 7 CAPITAL OR SINKING FUND ACCOUNT. CHARGE. To Donation and Life eters scene de : iL GS. (0 », Interest, 2 : 3 0: 2 2 LEE LF 2 DISCHARGE. By Balance in Bank, . - : : : ; ED SO2 SIt tir Ss I have examined the State of the Affairs of the Scottish Arboricultural Society for the year ending 5th November 1872, comparing the same with the books and necessary vouchers, all of which I find to be correct, leaying balance in bank in connection with General Account, Four pounds three shillings and one penny, and owing by Treasurer Seven pounds seven shillings and threepence, being in all to the credit of the Society, besides unpaid subscriptions, the sum of Eleven pounds two shillings and fourpence sterling, and showing a balance in bank to the credit of the Capital or Sinking Fund, the sum of Eleven pounds seventeen shillings and twopence sterling. Epinsureu, 5th November 1872. Davip Syme, Auditor. € GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNTS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY for the Year ending 4th November 1873. CHARGE. To Balance in Bank, 5 ne onvhand: », Robert Hutchison, Esq. of Carlowrie (Special Prize), », Peter Lawson & Son (Special Prize), ,, Admission to Exhibition of Woods, . ,, Transactions Sold, . : ,, Coniferous Seeds Sold, », Annual Subscriptions ‘for 1872- 3, ,, Arrears, Life Membership Subscriptions, », Sinking Fund, », Inter est, ,, Balance due, National Bank, DISCHARGE. By Expenses connected with Exhibition of Woods, ,, Paid for Medals and Prizes, ,, Advertising, Stationery, &c., », Neill & Co., for Printing, », Secretary's Salary, », Postages, &c., », Paid over to Capital ‘Account, ,, Balance on hand, : CAPITAL OR SINKING FUND ACCOUNT. CHARGE. To Balance from last Account, , Paid over from Ordinary Account, », Lnterest, f : DISCHARGE. By Deposit Receipt with National Bank, £60901 (oie tes 5 5 0 5 5 0 013 0 219 5 20 0 8415 6 510 0 42 0 0 OB 0 1986.10 25 15 11 £187 5 2 £11 9 4 31 6 6 7 62a 60 0 0 20 0 0 1218 3 3615 0 710° 0 £187 5 2 £1117 2 3615 0 0°56 7 £48 17 9 £48 17 9 £48 17 9 I hereby certify that I have examined the above Statement of Affairs of the Scottish Arboricultural Society for the year ending this day, along with the necessary vouchers, and find the same correct, showing on the General Account a balance in Treasurer’s hands of Seven pounds ten shillings (from which the sum of £5, 18s. falls to be transferred to the Capital Account), and balance due to the National Bank of Twenty-five pounds fifteen shillings and elevenpence ; also find in the Capital Account the sum of Forty-eight pounds seven shillings and ninepence sterling, lodged with the National Bank on deposit receipt. Edinburgh, 4th November 18738. Davin Syme, Auditor. Scottish Arboricultural Society. PATRON. HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN. LIST OF MEMBERS CORRECTED TO AUGUST 1874. * Members who have given Subscriptions, in order to form a Capital or Sinking Fund. All Subscriptions are payable at the Annual General Meeting in November. Members whose Subscriptions are Two Years in Arrears are not entitled to receive the Transactions. HONORARY MEMBERS. Baurour, John Hutton, M.D., A.M., F.R.SS.L. and E., Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Branpis, Dietrich, Ph.D., Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India. ButueEN, Robert, Curator of the Botanic Garden, Glasgow. *Houtcuison, Robert, F.R.S.E., of Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Lawson, George, LL.D., Ph.D., Professor of Natural History and Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia. M‘Nas, James, F.B.S.E., Curator of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. *THomson, William, Deputy Surveyor, H.M. Chopwell Woods, Burnop- field, Durham. EEE MEM BERS: Anam, The Right Hon. W. P., of Blairadam, Kinross-shire, M.P. Barzoour, George F., of Bonskied, Pitlochry, Perthshire. Bett, William, of Gribdae, Kirkcudbright. Bosanquet, Rev. G. H., Broom-y-Close Court, Llanwarne, Ross, Here- fordshire. 26 APPENDIX. Brucg, Hon. T. C., 24 Hill Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. CiecHorn, Hugh, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithy, St Andrews, Fife (Pre- sident). CrawForD, William Stirling, of Milton, Glasgow. Dewar, Colonel A., of Vogrie, Ford. Douncay, Alexander, of Knossington Grange, Oakham, Leicestershire. Duwpas, Robert, of Arniston, Gorebridge. Fisu, D. T., Hardwick, Bury-St-Edmunds. *Gouau, William, Wood Manager, Wykeham, York. GranTHAM, George, Barcombe Place, Lewes, Sussex. Grimmonp, Alexander D., of Glenericht, Blairgowrie. Hors, H. W., of Luffness, Drem. Hora, Louis, of Possingworth, Hawkhurst, Sussex. Kryyear, William Balfour, Foo-Chow, China. Lesti£, Charles P., of Castle Leslie, Glasslough, Ireland. M‘Grecor, John, Ladywell, Dunkeld, Perthshire. MAcKENZIE, Colin J., of Portmore, Eddleston, Peebles. M‘Tirr, Alexander Walker, of Durris, Aberdeenshire. MaxweE.u, Wellwood H., of Munches, Dalbeattie. *MrtHvVEN, Thomas, Nursery and Seedsman, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh (Treasurer). Minto, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Minto House, Hawick. Moors, Thomas, F.L.S., Curator, Botanic Garden, Chelsea. PorrsmootH, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Eggesford, North Devon. RoseBery, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Rosstyy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Dysart House, Fife. Srair, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Lochinch, Castle Kennedy, Wigtown- shire. *TALBERT, Peter, Forester, Glenericht, Blairgowrie. *THomson, John Grant, Wood Manager, Grantown, Strathspey. Trotter, Colonel, R.A., The Bush, Edinburgh. Uraquuart, B. C., of Meldrum, Aberdeenshire. Waveney, Lord, Flixton Hall, Bungay, Suffolk. Wemyss, Randolph Gordon Erskine, of Wemyss and Torry, Fife. Witp, A. E., Assistant Conservator of Forests, Punjaub, India (6 George Street, Sheffield). Witson, John, F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture, University, Edinburgh. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Anpig, Alexander J., Rockville, Linlithgow. ArR.i£, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Cortachy Castle, Forfarshire. Aircuison, William, Forester, Workington Hall, Cumberland. Aver, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. ALEXANDER, James, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. ii iN ei res eee tt ¥o" bo ~I APPENDIX. ALEXANDER, James, jun., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. ALEXANDER, John, ALEXANDER, John, Assistant Forester, Benmore House, Greenock. ALEXANDER, William, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. Aan, Andrew, Rankeillor, Cupar, Fife. *ALLAN, John, Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Anverson, Alexander, Forester, St Fort, Newport, Dundee. Anverson, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Anperson, Alexander, Gardener, Oxenford Castle, Dalkeith. Anpverson, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Hawkhead, Paisley. ANDERSON, James, Bangholm Nursery, Edinburgh. AnveErson, James, Meadowbank, Uddingston. Awperson, John, Newstead Abbey, Nottingham. *AnbERSON, John, Nurseryman, Perth. ANNAND, Charles, Forester, Cromar Estates, Tarland, Aberdeenshire. ANNANDALE, Robert Burns, The Gardens, Fonthill, Tisbury, Wilts. ARcHER, James, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. ArcHER, John, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. * ARCHIBALD, Thomas, Forester, Virginia, Co. Cavan, Ireland. Arnott, Alexander, Hedger, East Wemyss, Fife. AsuHpowy, Samuel Harding, Land Agent, Uppington, Wellington, Salop. Austin & M‘Ausuan, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Glasgow. Baicriz, Andrew, Forester, Mote Park, Ballymurry, Co. Roscommon. Baierig£, William, Forester, Echo Bank, Old Dalkeith Road, Edinburgh. Batuute, William, Wood Manager, Cortachy, Kirriemuir. Barrb, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Bawpen, James, Forester, Lennoxlove, Haddington. BaLpEN, Joseph, Overseer, Houghton Estate, Preston. *BaLpDEN, Peter G., Forester, Vaenol Park, Bangor, North Wales. *BALDEN, William, Appleby Castle, Appleby. * BALLANTYNE & Son, Messrs John, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, Dalkeith. BaALLinGAL, Robert, Factor, Ellabus, Islay. *Barrig, David, Forester, Durris, Aberdeen. *Barrig, James, Forester, Stevenstone House, Torrington, Devonshire. Barrer, Frederick, Assistant Gardener. Barty, David, Forester, Lowther Castle, Penrith. Baty, William, Forester, Netherby, Longtown. Baxter, Robert, Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. *Bayne, Lewis, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, North Wales. Brest, Harker, Forester, 19 Tarvit Street, Edinburgh. Bree, John, jun., Factor, Durris, Aberdeenshire. BELL, James, Strathfieldsaye, Winchfield, Hants Betz, James, Forester, Newcastleton, Carlisle. Bennett, Alexander, Forester. 28 APPENDIX. Berry, George, Longleat, Horningsham, Warminster, Wiltshire. Berry, Thomas Walter, Forester, Brynkinalt, Chirk, N. Wales. Biece, Matthew, of Islip, Thrupston. Bircg, John, Assistant Gardener, Tinnchinch, Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow. *BirniE, John, Normanby Park, Brigg, Lincolnshire. Bissert, David, Land-Steward and Forester, Alva House, Stirling. Bissett, William §8., Land-Steward and Forester, Moncrieffe House, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire, Buair, Peter, Dunse. *Boa, Andrew, Lang-Steward, Dalton House, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Boa, Andrew, jun., Assistant Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. Boa, James 8. M., Agent, Fettercairn, Fettercairn. *Bortuwick, William, Forester, Dunnichen, Forfar, Boston, Thomas C. Botromer, Frederick, The Gardens, Mackree Castle, Ballisodare, Sligo. *Bropvig, James, Land-Steward, Glasslough, Armagh, Ireland, Brovueu, James, Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. Broveu, Robert, Forester, Balnagowan, Tain, Ross-shire. Brown, J., Bretby, Burton-on-Trent. Brown, James, LL.D., Nurseryman and Wood-Surveyor, Craigmill, Stirling. Brown, James, Carnwath House, Carnwath. Brown, John E., Craigmill, Stirling. *Brown, R. E., F.G.8., Agent, Famley Hall, Otley, Yorkshire. Brown, William, Land Valuator and Estate Agent (N. America). Brown, William, Nursery and Seedsman, Stamford, Lincolnshire. *Bruce, Peter. Bruce, T. R., of Slogarie, Lauriestown, Castle-Douglas. Bryan, F. G. D., Factor, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Brypon, John, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Bucuay, Alexander, F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, Edinburgh. Bucuan, George, Forester, Bakewell, Derbyshire. Bucuanayn, Robert R., Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Buryett, James, Assistant Forester, Durris, Aberdeenshire. ‘ _ Caper, Frederick, Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeenshire. CaLLocuHin, John, Assistant Forester, Houston, Paisley. Cameron, Alexander, Forester, Countlich Lodge, Ballinluig, Perthshire. Cameron, Angus, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. Cameron, Henry, Assistant Forester, Linkwood, Elgin. Cameron, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Novar, Evanton, Ross-shire. *CameERON, John, Assistant Forester, Fowlis Wester, Crieff, Perthshire. Cameron, Robert, Forester, Galtie Castle, Mitchelstown, Tipperary. CAMPBELL, Alexander, Forester, Gray House, Liff, Dundee. APPENDIX. 29 *CAMPBELL, James, of Tillichewan Castle, Dumbartonshire. CampBELL, John, Forester, Aboyne Castle, Aberdeenshire. CAMPBELL, Peter, Assistant Forester, Invereshie, Kingussie. Cairnpurr, Andrew, Forester, Abbeyleix, Queen’s Co., Ireland. CaRMICHAEL, John, The Gardens, Glen Tulchan, The Cairnies, Perth. CHALMERS, James, Duchal, Port-Glasgow. CuampeErs, William, of Haford, Aberystwith, Wales. Cuap.ain, George, Assistant Forester, Glamis Castle, Glamis, Forfarshire. CHAPMAN, James, Assistant Forester, Grinkle Park, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire. Cuarriow, John, Glencoin Cottage, Patterdale, Penrith. Curistiz, A. D., Foreman, Heaton Park Gardens, Manchester. Curistiz£, David, Forester, Abington House, Lanarkshire. *CHURNSIDE, Francis, Forester, Ladykirk, Berwickshire. CuurnsibE, Robert, Forester, Edlingham, Alnwick. Ciark, David, Assistant Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. Cuark, James, Forester, Balvaird Cottage, Strathmiglo, Fife. CxarKk, John, The Nurseries, Cupar, Fife. *CLARK, John, jun., Forester, Esslemont, Ellon, Aberdeenshire. *CLARK, J., Forester to the Earl of Kintore, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. Crark, Thomas, Beechwood Gardens, Bortly, Hants. Cxiark, William, Assistant Forester, Hawkhead, Paisley. *CLEGHORN, William, Forester, Ayton Castle, Ayton. CueErRK, Sir George D., Bart, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Coxppan, John, Wood Agent, Wentworth Woods, Rotherham. Cocxksurn, William, Forester, Coats, Penicuik. Cocker, James, Nurseryman, Aberdeen. Cottinewoop, Rev. R. G., Irton Vicarage, Carnforth, Cumberland. CooxEs, Rev. H. W., Astley Rectory, near Stourport. Cooper, George, Messrs Hurst & Son, Leadenhall Street, London. Corset, James, Forester, Underley Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland. *Cowan, James, Forester, Bridgend, Islay. Cowan, Robert, Forester, Park, near Paisley. Cows, John, Luffness, Drem. Cowr1g, John, Assistant Forester, Mount Stuart, Rothesay. *CRABBE, James, Forester, Glamis Castle, Glamis, Forfarshire. *Craic, James, Overseer, 192 Bonnington Road, Edinburgh, Craic, Nathan, Cherry Cottage, Anowe Park, Birkenhead. Crate, Richard, Forester and Gardener, Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Craic, Robert, Levens Hall, Milnthorpe. Cranston, G. C. Trotter, of Harvieston, Gorebridge. CRANSTON, James, Assistant Forester, Floors Castle, Kelso, *Cricuton, George, 18 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Crossi£, John, Forester and Ground Officer, Ballindalloch Castle, Ballin- dalloch, Banffshire. 30 APPENDIX. *Cross, David G., Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh, Ireland. CRUICKSHANKS, Robert, Forester, Ballykilcavan, Stradbally, Queen’s Co. Cummine, Donald, Assistant Forester, Newbattle, Dalkeith. Cunnincuam, D., The Gardens, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Counntyeuam, John, Forester, Ardross Castle, Ross-shire. Curriz, John, Gardener, Salisbury Green, Edinburgh. *CouT er, D., Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Dateveisy, John J., W.S., 8 Athole Crescent, Edinburgh. Da.tas, Joseph, Forester, Blandpant, Llandyssil, Carmarthenshire. DatryMPLe, Charles, Forester, Mitchelstown Castle, Mallow, Co. Cork. Daniz ts, Peter, Forester, Slindon Hall, Arundel, Sussex. Darien, James, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. *Daruine, John, Forester, St Martins, Perthshire. Davipson, James, Coonoor, Neilgherries, 8. India. *Davinson, John, Forester, Aldbar, Brechin, Davinsoy, John, Forester, Firth, Roslin. *Davipson, John, Overseer and Architect, Belmont tole Meigle. Davipson, Richard, Scottish Colour Works, Leith. ie W., Leager House, Chuseburn Grange, Newcastle-on-Tyne. *Dawson, John, Messrs J. & J. Dawson, Alloa. Dean, Richard, Ealing, London. Dempsey, Charles, Assistant Forester, Powerscourt, Enniskerry. Dick, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. *Dicxson, George, Stronvar, Lochearnhead. Dickson, J., Messrs Edmonston Brothers, 9 Dame Street, Dublin. Dickson & Sons, Messrs James, Nursery and Seedsmen, Chester. *Dicxson & Sons, Messrs James, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Dickson, Thomas, Nursery and Seedsman, Chester. Donps, George, Overseer, Leinster Estates, Prospect House, Athy. Don, John, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Donan, Alexander, Forester, Woodhall House, Airdrie. Donapson, J., Forester, Brechin Castle, Brechin. Dovetas, J., Gardener, Kilkea Castle, Mageney, Co, Kildare. *Dow, Thomas, Forester, Idvies, Forfar. *Downte, Larrnp, & Larye, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Dore, James, Land Steward, Heywood, Ballinakill, Queen’s County. DrumMonp Brotruers, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Droummuonp & Sons, Messrs William, Nurserymen, Stirling. Durr, James, Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. *Durr, James, Melgund, Aberlemno, Forfar. Durr, James, Wood Manager, Bayham Abbey, Tunbridge Wells. Duean, Charles, Assistant Forester, Cally House, Gatehouse. Duncan, Charles, of Woodend, Rothesay. Duncan, John, Forester, Blandpant, Llandyssil. APPENDIX. a | Doncay, William, Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Duwntopr, Alexander, Factor, Luftness, Drem. Dunn, David, The Gardens, Heaton Park, Manchester. *Dunn, Malcolm, The Gardens, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Durwarp, Robert, Manager, Blelack, Aberdeenshire. Dyxes, Thomas, Factor, Maybole, Ayrshire. Earnsuaw, L., Forester, Morpeth, Northumberland. Even, The Hon. R. Henley, Estate Agent, The Coigne, Minchinghampton. Epa@ar, Thomas, Forester, Torry, Fife. Epmonpson, T., Proprietor of ‘Gardeners’ Record,’ 9 Dame Street, . Dublin. Evipank, Right Hon. Lord, Darnhall, Eddlestone, Peebles. Exxior, Robert, Forester, Blairquban, Maybole, Ayrshire. Ewinea, David, Assistant Forester, Urie House, Stonehaven. | Farrpairn, William, Land Steward, Manderston, Dunse. Fereuson, A., Gosfield Hall, Hallstead, Essex. Fereuson, James, Forester and Land Steward, Cleghorn, Lanark. Fereuson, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Lambton Park, Fence Houses. Ferntz, Robert, Forester, Balcarres, Colinsburgh, Fife. Ferres, Francis, Assistant Hedger, Ury House, Stonehaven. Finexanp, J., Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. Finn, P. W., Forester, Borris House, Borris, Co. Carlow. Fisuer, William, Forester, Wentworth Castle, Barnsley, Yorkshire. *Forses, Andrew, Forester, Stracathro, Brechin. Forsss, Wiillam, Assistant Forester, Castlecary, Denny. Forean, James, Wellwood Cottage, Kinnoull, Perth. Forrest, William, Melfort Cottage, Lochgilphead. Fouts, Robert, M.D., Cairnie Lodge, Cupar, Fife. Foutts, Robert, Forester, Fordel, Inverkeithiny, Fife. Fowter, Archibald, The Gardens, Castle Kennedy, Stranraer. Francs, Charles, Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire. *FrancgE, C. 8., Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik. *FRANCE, George, Overseer, Glenelg, Lochalsh. France, James, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire. Fraser, Archibald, Assistant Forester. *FRASER, Duncan, Forester. Fraser, James, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Fraser, P. Neill, Canonmills Lodge, Edinburgh. Fraser, Hugh, Stanwell Nursery, Edinburgh. Fraser, Simon, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeenshire. *FraseR, Thomas, Forester, Oriel Temple, County Louth. Freeman, Timothy, Messrs Osborne & Sons, Fulham, London. Frost, Philip, Gardener, Dropmore, Maidenhead. 32 APPENDIX. *GARDINER, R., Wenalt House, Crosswood, Aberystwith, South Wales. GarpiverR, James, Forester, Hawkstone Park, Salop. Garcan, James, Land Steward, Kells, Moynally, Co. Meath, Ireland. Garner, John, Assistant Gardener, Cantley Hall, Doncaster, Yorkshire. GerxtE, P. M., Factor, Cortachy, Kirriemuir. GERRISH, Edward, Wood Overseer, Maiden Bradley, Bath. Gieson, William, Nursery and Seedsman, 14 Lower Ormond Quay, Dublin. Grsson-Marrianp, Sir A. C, R., Bart., M.P., Cliftonhall, Ratho. GILBERT, James, Forester, Ardverikie, Kingussie. *GiLcHRisT, Andrew, Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. Giicurist, Daniel, Messrs Main & Co., 15 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. *GILcHRIST, William, Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. GLenpinninG, George P., Dalmeny Park, South Queensferry. GooDFELLow, Andrew, Forester, Wolfelee, Hawick. Goopier, George, Assistant Gardener. Gorvon, James, Assistant Forester, Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Gorpon, John, Forester, 17 Bon-Accord Street, Aberdeen. Gorrtr, Archibald, Forester, Holkham Hall, Holkham. *Gorriz, William, Rait Lodge, Trinity, Edinbargh. *Gossip, James, The Nurseries, Inverness. Gow, James, Forester, Camperdown, Dundee. Gow, John L., Factor, Raith, Kirkcaldy. Granam, Andrew, Alma Cottage, St Boswells. GRANDISON, James, Assistant Forester, New Scone, Perth. Grant, Colonel James A., C.B., C.S.L, 7 Park Square, Regent’s Park, London. Grant, Donald, Forester, Drumin, Ballindalloch. Grant, James, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. Grant, John, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. Green, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. Green, William, Assistant Forester, Charleston, Malmesbury, Wilts. Grerr, Robert, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. *Greric, Gavin, Forester, Parkhill, Aberdeen. Grieve, George, Gardener, Dalkeith. Grieve, James, Messrs Dickson and Co., Nurseries, Leith Walk, Edinburgh. *Gricor, John, Nurseryman, Forres. Gurtupiz, Colonel, Carlogie House, Carnoustie. *Hatt, Peter, Forester, Huntly Lodge, Huntly. Hamitton, David, Forester, Tillichewan Castle, Alexandria, Dumbarton. Hamitton, John B. Baillie, of Arnprior, Cambusmore, Callander. Hawnpasype & Davipson, Messrs Thomas, Nurserymen, Musselburgh. | Harpe, A., Manager, Monboddo, Fordoun. *Harpiz, Walter, Forester, The Hall, Norwell, Newark, Notts. *Harizy, Andrew, Penybout, Radnorshire. APPENDIX. oo Harroxp, George, Gardener, Mount Henrie, Queen’s Co., Ireland. Harrower, William, Forester, Glen App, Ballantrae, Ayrshire. Hart, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Yester, Haddington. Hartuanp, Richard, The Lough Nurseries, Cork. Havexock, Thomas, Forester, Raby Park, Staindrop, Co. Durham. Hayman, John, jun., Overseer, Dumfries House, Old Cumnock. Heazz, William, Dean Park Nurseries, Edinburgh. Hetmay, George, Assistant Gardener. Heiman, William, Gardener, Heywood, Ballinakill, Queen’s County. *HeEnpDERSON, Archibald, Forester, Clonad Cottage, Tullamore, King’s County. Henverson, John, Land Steward, Knockdrin Castle, Mullingar. Henverson, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Henpry, David, Bangholm Nurseries, Edinburgh. Heppury, James, Forester. *HEPBURN, William, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. Hermiston, James, Assistant Forester, Floors Castle, Kelso. Heruerton, Walter, Forester, Heanton, Satchville, Bedworth, N. Devon. Hix, John, Land Steward, Whitehill, Lasswade. Hitson, John, Assistant Forester, Floors Castle, Kelso, *Hogartu, James, Forester, Duthill, Strathspey. Hoae, Thomas, Forester, Hampton Court, Leominster, Hereford. Hoop, James, Assistant Forester, Langlee, Jedburgh. Hoop, William, Gardener, Glasslough, Ireland. Home, George, Assistant Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill. Horspurau, James, Forester, Yester, Haddington. Hume, Andrew, Forester, Wansford, Peterborough. *Hunter, Patrick, Overseer, Glenarm Castle, Larne, Ireland. Hunter, William, Forester, Castlemilk, Glasgow. Hussey, Samuel, M., Estate Office, Tralee. *Hurtron, James, Forester, Moy, Forres. Jamizson, D., Thoresby Park, Ollerton, Nottinghamshire. - JEFFREY, John, of Balsusney, Kirkcaldy, Fife. Jerrrey, John, Forester, Craighall, Blairgowrie. JOHNSTON, James. Jounston, William, Fencer, Lee, Lanark. Jounstong, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. JounstoneE, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. *Jounstone, William, Bangholm House, Ferry Road, Edinburgh. Joss, John, Assistant Forester, Crathes Castle, Aberdeenshire. *Kay, James, Forester and Hedger, Bute Estate, Rothesay. *Kepzig, Walter, Forester, Arundel Castle, Arundel, Sussex. Kerr, David, Forester, Blair Athole, Perthshire. *Kemp, John, Assistant Forester, Midmar, Aberdeenshire. 34 APPENDIX. Kennepy, Duncan, Assistant Forester, Erskine House, Glasgow. Kennepy, F., Seed Merchant, Borough, London. Kennepy, G. G. Allan, Assistant Forester, Gothic House, Morden, Surrey. Kennepy, Joun, Forester and Ground ne, Glen Urquhart, Drumna- drochit. Kennepy, William, Overseer, Carradale, Greenock. Kipp, James, Assistant Forester, Morden Park, Surrey, S.W. *KinaHornN, Adam, Forester, Rochsoles, Airdrie. Larne, James, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Lamserton, Hugh, Forester, Orwell Park, Bucklesham, Ipswich. Lamont, John, Inverleith Nurseries, Edinburgh. *LAuDER, William, Messrs Carr & Co., Timber Yard, Walker-on-Tyne. Lauriston, Alexander, Assistant Forester Meldrum House, Old Meldrum. Lawson & Son, Messrs Peter, Edinburgh. Leeeat, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Abernethy Nursery, Strathspey. LEIsHMAN, Richard, Forester, Muncaster Castle, Ravenglass, Cumberland. Lemon, Thomas, The Gardens, Convamore, Ballyhooly, Ireland. Lenox, William, Forester, Keir, Dunblane. Lippet1, Rev. J. R., The Manse, Kirkliston. Linporgs, Gavin, Assistant Forester. Liyxstong, James, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Lirrie, Alexander, Forester, Castle Menzies, Aberfeldy. Loraine, Edward, The Riding Mill, Northumberland. Lorutan, The Most Hon. The Marquis of, Pinnelheugh House, Jedburgh. M‘Arnsu, Robert, Assistant Forester, Drumore, Stirling. M‘Autster, Alexander, Rossie Priory, Dundee. Macseta, J., Land Steward, Stobhall, Perth. M‘Catuium, James Thyne, Nursery and Seedsman, 60 Buchanan Street, Glasgow. M‘Cauuvm, G. K., of Braco Castle, Braco. M‘Cott, James, Forester, Clifton Park, Kelso. *M‘CorquovatEz, Donald, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie. M‘Corquopate, D. A., Assistant Factor, Panmure, Forfarshire. *M‘CorquopaLe, William, Forester, Scone Palace, Perth. M‘Creatu, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Culzean, Maybole, Ayrshire. M‘Curcueon, Robert, Assistant Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. M‘Dona.p, Alexander, Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. M‘Donatp, Charles, Superintendent, Phoenix Park, Dublin. M‘Donatp, Donald, Assistant Forester, *M‘DonaLp, John, Forester, New Scone, Perth. M‘Fapyen, Duncan, Forester, Dunmore, Stirling. M‘Gratu, Patrick, Assistant Forester, Galtie Castle, Mitchelstown, Co. Tipperary. APPENDIX. 35 M‘Grecor, Archibald, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. M‘Grecor, W. S., Forester, Dupplin Castle, Perth. M‘Harpy, Charles, Forester, Castle Newe, Strathdon. M‘Hartigz, John, Seedsman, Northgate, Chester, M‘Intosn, Angus, Forester, Glashill, Killeigh, King’s County. Mackay, John, West Dean Estate, Chichester. M‘Kay, James, Forester, Whittinghame, Prestonkirk. M‘Kay, Thomas, Forester. M‘Kerru, Archibald, West Coates Nursery, Edinburgh. M‘Kenziz, Donald F., Forester, Meldrum House, Aberdeenshire. Mackenzig, Alexander, Warriston Nurseries, Edinburgh. MackeEnzi£, James, 1 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. Mackenztg, John Ord, W.S., of Dolphinton, 7 Royal Circus, Edinburgh. M‘Kenzir, K, Stewart, of Brahan Castle, Dingwall. Macxiz, John, Assistant Forester, Ballogie, Aboyne. Mackrntosu, Rh. T., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. M‘Laeay, John, Forester, The Cairnies, Methven, Perthshire. *M ‘Laren, Hugh. M‘Larey, John, Ballencrieff, Drem. *M‘Laren, John, Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. M‘Laren, John, Forester, Darnhall, Eddleston, Peebles. M‘Laren, Peter, Forester, Altyre, Forres. *M‘Laren, Peter, Sub-Agent, Sittenham, York. M‘Lean, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Rutherford, Kelso. M‘Leay, John, Forester, Swainston, near Newport, Isle of Wight. M‘Lean, Malcolm, The Gardens, Gosford, Drem. M‘Lzan, William, Forester, Eglinton, Castle, Irvine. M‘Leay, William, Messrs Methven & Sons, Nurserymen, Edinburgh. M‘LE.LLAN, Duncan, Superintendent of Parks, Glasgow. M‘Leop, Alexander, Forester, Gosford, Drem. M‘Miuay, Samuel, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Macnaucuton, Alexander, §.S.C., Arranmore Villa, Stanley Road Edinburgh. M‘Naveuroy, Archibald, Forester, Williamwood, Cathcart, Glasgow. M‘NEILL, James, Forester, Abercairney, Crieff. M‘NEILL, James, Forester, Houghton Hall, Rougham, Norfolk. M‘NeE 11, D., Timber Agent, Kirriemuir. M‘Rar, John, Forester, Auchendennan House, Alexandria, Dumbarton- shire. M‘Rag, Robert, Assistant Forester, Cullen House, Cullen. M‘Rircuie, T. E., W.S., 4 Gayfield Square, Edinburgh. Matin, Joun, Forester, Bryan Hall, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire. Marin & Co., Messrs A. & J., Wire Fence Manufacturers, 7 Renfield Street, Glasgow. 36 APPENDIX. Matcoum, George, Bangholm Nursery, Edinburgh. Maitrianp, William, Assistant Forester, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. Marr, John, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. *MarsHALL, J., Forester, Lambton Park, Fence Houses, Durham. MarsHALL, James, Forester, Preston, Dunse. MarsHAL., Robert, Forester, Horton Manor, near Epsom. MarsHaAt., Robert, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Martin George, Forester, Dunecht House, Aberdeen. Martin & Sons, Messrs, Nurserymen, Cottingham, Hull. Marutsson, Donald, Meikleour, Perth. Maxton, Robert, Forester, Strathallan Castle, Auchterarder. MeEtrosz, John, Wood Merchant. Metrosz, William, Forester, Byram Hall, South Mitford. Mewnzigs, George, Agent, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent. Menzizs, William, Forester, Craigton Cottage, Causewayhead, by Stirling. Metaven, John, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. *Micuiz, Christopher Young, Forester, Cullen House, Cullen, Banffshire. *Micuikz, James, Forester, Wemyss Castle, Kirkcaldy. Mipptemass, Archibald, Forester, Dunans House, Colintraive, Greenock. Mitye, James, Forester, Glenmuick, by Ballater. *MILLER, John, Forester, Ochtertyre, Stirling. *MircHELL, David, Nurseryman, Edinburgh. MitcuHe t, Forbes, of Thainstone, Kintore. MrircueEt., Garlies, Nurseryman, Stranraer. MircueE.t, James, Aldie, Kinross. MircHeti, James, Forester, Knossington Grange, Oakham, Leicestershire. Morrat, Adam, Forester, Hindlip Hall, Worcester. Morrat, Henry, Forester, Monkray, Whitehaven, Cumberland. Morrat, James, Forester, Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith. Morrat, John, Forester, Kimmerghame, Dunse. Morrison, John, Coney Park Nursery, Stirling. Morrison, R., Nurseryman, Elgin. Muir, William, of Inistrynich, Inverary, Argyllshire. *Muiruead, John, Forester, Bicton, Budleigh Salterton, Devonshire. Muttens, J., Gardener. Monro, James, Forester, Invermorriston, Inverness-shire. Munro, James, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Monro, John, Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. Morray, David, Forester, Dunira, Perthshire. Murray, Robert, Nurseryman, Lanark. Mytss, James, Forester, Portmore, Eddlestone, Peebles. Net, Archibald, Forester, West Grange, Culross. Newpsieeine, Alexander T., Nurseryman, Dumfries. Nico, W., Assistant Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. APPENDIX. or Nicot, William, Forester, Pitcaple, Aberdeenshire. Norman, David, Nursery Foreman, Dean Park Nurseries, Edinburgh. *Oartvy, David, Assistant Forester, Cortachy, Forfar. O’Ner11, Richard, Auctioneer, Old Castle, Co, Meath. *Ormiston & Renwick, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Melrose. *PatmMER & Son, Messrs John, Nurserymen, Annan. *ParKER, James, Forester, Belvoir Castle, Grantham. Parker, Robert A., Nursery and Seedsman, Lanark. *PareErson, Andrew, Surveyor, Exton, Oakham, Rutland. Paterson, Charles, Factor, Castle Menzies, Aberfeldy, Perthshire. PEEBLES, Andrew, Highclere Castle, Newbury, Berks. PrenvDeER, John, M.P., of Minard Castle, Argyllshire. PEnpDREIGH, John, Assistant Forester, Port Bannatyne, Rothesay. Puiurp, John, Wood Merchant, Bonnyrigg, Lasswade. *Puiuip, Robert, Minsterley, Shrewsbury. Pierson, Joshua, Forester, Old Shields, Airdrie. Piris, John, Forester, Blackhall, Aberdeenshire. Powerscourt, The Lord Viscount, Powerscourt, Enniskerry, County Wicklow. Powner, George, Forester, Willey Hall, Broseley, Shropshire. Powner, Thomas, British Workman’s Rooms, Wellington. Presstey, D., Gardener, Knockmaroon, Chapelizod, Dublin. Prices, J., Forester, Garnstone Castle, Hereford. Rart, James, Forester, Castle Forbes, Whitehouse, Aberdeen. RaAMSDEN, Sir J., Bart., M.P., Buckden, Skipton, York. RANKINE, Thomas, Nurseryman, Hamilton. Ratrray, Thomas, Forester, Westonbilt House, Tetbury, Gloucester- shire. : *RAVENSCROFT, Edward, “ Farmer” Office, India Buildings, Edinburgh. Rea, Archibald Henry, Assistant Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. *Rerip, George, Nursery and Seedsman, Aberdeen. Reip, James, Assistant Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Ricuarpson, Adam, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. *RIcHARDSON, Alexander, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. ‘Rieny, William, Messrs King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, London. Riytovu, Henry, Leith Walk Nurseries, Edinburgh. Ritcuiz, Henry, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells. *Ritcuiz, Walter, Forester, Dinnas Mawddwy, Shrewsbury, N. Wales. Rosertson, D., Albert Hotel, Hanover Street, Edinburgh. Rosertson, David, Estate Manager, Curraghmore, Portlaw, Waterford. Rosertson, George, Forester, Benmore, Kilmun, Greenock. RoBERTSON, James. 38 APPENDIX. Rozertson, James, Forester, Drummond Castle, Grief. Rovgerrtson, John. Roszertson, John, Forester, Minto House, Hawick. RogBertson, John, Assistant Forester. Rogertson , Forester, Markree Castle, Collooney, Co. Sligo. Rosertson, P. 8., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. Rosgertson, Thomas, Forester. Rosertson, William W., Forester, Carolside, Earlston. *Rogson, Alexander, 10 Hospital Street, Dundee. Rosgson, David, Assistant Forester, Arthur Stone, by Meigle. Rogson, John, Forester. Rosson, Ralph, Nursery and Seedsman, Hexham. Roncer, Hugh, Factor, Cleland, Motherwell. *RUSSELL, John, Craigie, Ayr. RussE., Robert, Forester, Mostyn, Holywell, N. Wales. Rust, Joseph, The Gardens, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. *RuTHERFORD, Andrew, Forester, Bowmont Forest, Kelso. *RUTHERFORD, James, Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh. *RUTHERFORD, James, Agent, Kirkleatham, Redcar, Yorkshire. RutHeERFoRD, John, Assistant Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh. RUTHERFORD, Robert, Manager, Invereshie, Kingussie. RvutTHERFORD, Thomas, Hothfield, Ashford, Kent. *SapieR, John, F.R.Ph.S., Experimental Cottage, Edinburgh.—Secretary. *Samson, John, Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. *Sanppacu, Henry R., Hafodunos, Llanrwst, Denbighshire. Scartu, T. W., Land Agent, Keverstone, Staindrop, Darlington. Scorr, Adam, Forester, Southwick Park, Fareham, Hants. ; Scorr, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Newton Don, ‘Kelso. *Scorr, D., Wood-Manager, Darnaway Castle, Forres. *Scort, David, Forester, Broadford, Limerick. Scort, John, Forester. *Scorr, John W., Delgany, County Wicklow, Ireland. Scott, Walter, Forester, Oxnam, Jedburgh. ScrimcEor, James, Under Forester, Altyre, Forres. Seaton, Allan. Assistant Forester, Curraghmore, Portlaw, Co. Waterford. Service, George, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Service, James, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. SHanp, James, Gardener, Meldrum House, Aberdeenshire. Suanxs, John, Forester, Kildrummy Castle, by Mossat. Suepparp, John, Tweedside Cottage, Roehampton, Surrey. Sm, William, Nurseryman, Forres. *Surpson, J., Forester, Alloa Park, Alloa. Simpson, Peter, Assistant Forester, Daughty Mill, Kirkealdy. *Simpson, Thomas, Forester, Glenferness, Nairnshire. APPENDIX. 39 Sinton, David, Assistant Forester, Charlton, Malmesbury, Wilts. Sinton, J., Forester, Stourhead, Bath. Sinton, John, Forester, Charlton, Malmesbury, Wilts. SKELDoN, John, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Sxirvine, Archibald, Forester, Duncombe Park, Helmesley, York. Sxirvine, John Finlay, Assistant Forester, Duncombe Park, Helmesley. Sxirvine, William, Nursery and Seedsman, Liverpool. *SiaTeR, Andrew, Forester, Lofthouse, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire. SuiaTer, Andrew, jun., Assistant Forester, Aske, Richmond, Yorkshire. *Smart, A. H. Surry, A., Factor, Douglas Castle, Lanarkshire. Suiru, G. B., Wire Fence Manufacturer, 56 West Regent St., Glasgow. *Smiru, James, Forester, Donibristle, Aberdour, Fife. Smiru, James, The Gardens, Exton Park, Oakham, Leicestershire. Smiru, John, Forester, Windmill Cottages, Ladybank, Fife. Smiru, John Crombie, Assistant Forester, Drummond Castle, Crieff. Smiry, Thomas, Nurseryman, Stranraer. Suity, W. Baxter, Messrs Little & Ballantyne, Nursery and Seedmen, Carlisle. Smit & Smuimons, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Howard St., Glasgow. *Smitu & Son, Messrs William, Nursery and Seedsmen, Aberdeen. Sou.y, Professor Edward, F.R.S., Parkstone, near Poole. SomERVILLE, Samuel, M.D., F.R.C.P., 17 Hart Street, Edinburgh. SPENCE, Cliarles, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. SrauKer, Donald, Assistant Forester. Sraprtton, Major, Myton Hall, Borobridge, Yorkshire. STEELE, David, Forester, Skene House, Aberdeen. STEPHEN, James, Forester, Dochfour, Inverness. STEPHEN, John, jun., Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. STEVENSON, David, Forester, Kelly, Wemyss Bay, Greenock, *STEVENSON, James, Forester, Cobham Park, Surrey. Stewart, Alexander, Chancelot House, Ferry Road, Edinburgh. Srewart, Alexander, Forester, Gringle Park, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, York- shire. Stewart, D., Manager, Dalnavert, Aviemore. SrEewart, James, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Stewart, John, Forester, Blair Athole, Perthshire. Stewart, John, Forester, Castlecary, Denny. Stewart, Peter, Gardener and Forester, Castle Wellan, Co. Down. Stewart, William, Land Steward, Dalhousie Castle, Lasswade. Stewart, William, Nurseryman, Dundee. Srewart, William, Assistant Forester, Underley Hall, Kirkby. Stewart, William, Assistant Forester, Logie Almond, Perth. Srrane, William, Assistant Forester, New Scone, Perth. Stuart, John, Forester, Castle Grant, Strathspey. 40 APPENDIX. *Stuart, Lewis A. G., Forester, Netherdale House, Turriff. Srvart, William, Forester. Sroart & Mery, Messrs, Nurserymen, Kelso. Surriz, James, Evington, Ashford, Kent. Sway, R. G., Auctioneer, Dunse. Swinton, A. Campbell, LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Kimmerghame, Dunse. Syme, David, 1 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. Symon, John, Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. Symon, Peter, Forester, Forres. Tait, David, Forester,,Owston Park, Doncaster, Yorkshire. Tait, Walter, Seedsman, 45 Chapel Street, Dublin. Taytor, David, Barskimming, Mauchline. Tayor, George, Forester, Monymusk, Aberdeenshire. Tartor, George, Nursery and Seedsman, Inverurie. THomson, James Scott, Strathallan Castle, Auchterarder. THomson, Lockhart, 8.8.C., 22 Coates Crescent, Edinburgh. Tuomson, Thomas, Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. THornton, Thomas, Heatherside, Frimley, Surrey. TIvENDALE, William, Forester, Houston, near Paisley. Tomurnson, J., Brocklesby Park, Ulceby. Tomirnson, Wilson, Assistant Forester, Belvoir Castle, Grantham. TURNBULL, James, Nurseryman, Hawick. TuRNBULL, William, Assistant Forester, Bowmont Forest, Kelso. Turner, James, Assistant Gardener, Blithefield Hall, Rugeley, Stafford- shire. TWwEEDIE, John, Forester, Dunglass, Cockburnspath, Berwickshire. VertcH, John, Nurseryman, Falkirk. Veircu, William, Hedger, Arniston, Gorebridge. Wanpprneton, David, Crosshouse, Airdrie. Waobps, Phillip, Gardener, Moore Abbey, Co. Kildare. Watxer, George, Forester, Collessie, Ladybank, Fife. WaLker, William, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Watt, G. Y., jun., Exchequer Office, Durham. Watuaceg, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. *WarpD, James, Forester, Hawkhead Abbey, Paisley. Warerer, Anthony, Nurseryman, Knaphill, Surrey. Waters, Denis, Forester, Kelburn Castle, Largs. Waterson, A., Wood Manager, Glenart Castle, Arklow, Co. Wicklow. Watson, Tahun: Gardener, Stravithy, St Andrews. Watson, William, Assistant Forester, Peth, Longtown, Cumberland. Watson, W. J., Niecy and Seedsman, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Wart, James, Tors Little and Ballantyne, Nurserymen, Carlisle. APPENDIX. 41 Wart, William, Forester, Nisbet House, Dunse. Wesster, David, Bangholm, Edinburgh. Wesster, J., The Gardens, Gordon Castle, Fochabers. Wetsu, Duncan, Gardener, Mount Merrion, Dublin. *Wutsu, James, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. *WrusH, William M., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. West, Charles Elis, Land Steward, Cartoon, Maynooth. Wuituis, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. White, George, Seedsman, Paisley. *WHITEFORD, Robert, Assistant Hedger, Bute Estate, Rothesay. Wituiams, B. §., Paradise Nursery, Upper Holloway, London, N. Wi.uiams, Robert, of Bodelwyddn, St Asaph, North Wales. Witson, John, Forester, Greystoke Castle, Penrith. Wutson, John, Forester, Auchendolly, Castle-Douglas. Wixtson, John, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. Witson, John, Assistant Forester, Sudbourn Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk. Witsoy, Peter, Forester, Whitehill, Lasswade. *Wixson, Robert, Forester, Pewsey, Wilts. Witson, Stephen, 132 Union Street, Aberdeen. Woop, James, Factor, Haigh Hall, Lancashire. Woop, John, Gardener, Hatton Castle, Aberdeenshire. Wruiz, James, Assistant Forester, Douglaston, Milngavie, Glasgow. *WYLLIE, George, Estate Overseer, Ballogie, Aboyne. YELLOWLEES, George, Wood Merchant. Youne, John, Messrs Imrie & Son’s Nurseries, Ayr. SUBJECTS OFFERED FOR COMPETITION DURING 1873-74. I. For the best and approved Essay on the Pruning of Timber- trees, considered physiologically, and in relation to the production of the greatest value. (Prize of Five Guineas offered by George Reid, Nursery and Seedsman, Aberdeen.) II. For the best and approved Essay on the Literature of Scottish Arboriculture. (Prize of Five Guineas offered by the President.) III. For a full and complete account, from published descrip- tions (the authorities distinctly quoted), personal observation and experiment, of the history and present state of the cultivation in Great Britain and Ireland of Cedrus Deodara (C. Libani, and C. atlantica, allnow classed as one species). (Special Medal, value Three Guineas, offered by the President.) IV. For the best and approved Report on the most extensive, complete, and judiciously arranged Arboretum. (A Medal.) The Arboretums described in 1872 are excluded. V. For the best and approved Essay on the present state and future prospects of Arboriculture in the county in which the com- petitor resides. (A Medal.) Yorkshire and Aberdeenshire are excluded, having been reported in 1873. VI. For the best and approved Report on the conservation of Old ~ and Remarkable Trees in Britain. (A Medal.) VII. For the best and approved Report on the Drainage of Plan- tations, both by Open and Covered Drains. (A Medal.) VIIL For the best and approved collection of Cones exhibited from and grown in the county in which the competitor resides. (A Medal.) Wigtownshire is excluded, having been reported in 1873. IX. For the best and approved collection of prepared sections of different kinds of Wood grown in the county in which the com- petitor resides. (A Medal.) X. For the best and approved series of Geological Specimens illustrating the different rocks and formations on which Forest Trees and Shrubs grow in the county in which the competitor resides. The specimens to be accompanied by a Report. (A Medal.) APPENDIX. 43 XI. On the employment of Locomotive Engines in Forestry, especially for the transit of Timber, and on the working of portable saw-mills. (A Medal.) XII. For the best and approved Report on the distances at which Forest Trees, coniferous and hardwood of different species, should be planted apart in different soils, altitudes, and situations. (A Medal.) XIII. For an approved Report on the Plantations of which the competitor is Forester. (Three Medals.) One to be awarded for the best Report from each of the countries—England, Scotland, and Treland—and competition to be confined to each country respec- tively. Those counties already reported on are excluded. XIV. For an approved Report on the management of Forests in Germany, France, or other places on the Continent. (A Medal.) XV. For an approved Report on the different Ages at which the various sorts of Timber Trees usually grown in Scotland may be most profitably felled in different soils and situations. (A Medal.) XVI. For an approved Report on the Diseases most incidental to Forest Trees, including those that affect the roots as well as the bark, branches, and foliage. (A Medal.) XVII. For an approved Report on the results obtained by expe- rience of Seedlings of Coniferze, being the produce of trees grown in Britain, as compared with plants obtained from foreign-ripened seed. (A Medal.) XVIII. To any Member of the Society who shall send to the Secretary from abroad, cones or seeds of Forest Trees of new or rare varieties, capable of germination and of thriving in this country. (A Medal.) XIX. For an approved Essay or Report on any other subject - connected with Arboriculture. (A Medal.) XX. For any marked improvement on any of the Implements used in Forestry. (Models or Implements to be accompanied by a Report.) (A Medal.) For conditions of Competition, see Proceedings of Annual General Meeting of 5th November 1873. All Essays and Reports intended for Competition must be given in to the Secretary not later than 25th September, and all Collections of Cones, Woods, and Geological Specimens not later than 25th October 1874—each bearing a motto, and accompanied by a separate sealed envelope bearing the same motto outside, and containing a card with the name and address of the Author. 44 APPENDIX. Abstract of the Laws of the Scottish Arboricultural Society, as amended to November 1873. The object of the Society shall be the promotion of the science of Arboriculture in all its branches, by periodical meetings of the Members for the reading of Papers; by offering Prizes for Essays and Reports on the Practical operations of Forestry, and publication of the same; and by such other means as may be found advisable. The Society shall consist of the following classes of Members :— 1. Proprietors, Factors, Nurserymen, and others, paying an annual subscription of Half-a-Guinea ; 2. Head-Foresters, and others, paying an annual subscription of Five Shillings; 3. Assistant Foresters, and others paying an annual Subscription of Three Shillings. Any Member may becomea Life Member by compounding for his annual subscriptions by a single payment—those of the First Class paying Five Guineas ; and those of the Second and Third Classes, Three Guineas. The Society shall elect a limited number of Honorary Members,— gentlemen who have acquired eminence in the Science of Arboricul- ture, or who are otherwise deemed worthy. All annual Subscriptions shall be payable in advance, at the Annual General Meeting in November. In addition to the annual subscriptions above stipulated, the Society shall receive, from those friendly to its objects, Donations of larger or smaller amount. A Candidate for admission into the Society must be reeommended by at least one Member, and shall, on payment of his annual sub- scription, be immediately admitted a Member of the Society, subject to the revision of the first General Meeting thereafter. Any Member of the Society introducing a New Member shall be held responsible for the first year’s subscription of such party. The affairs of the Society shall be conducted by a President, five Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor, and fifteen Coun- cillors—these office-bearers to be elected annually at the General Meeting in November ; the three Councillors at the top of the list to go out annually, but one to be eligible for re-election. A General Meeting of the Members shall be held on the first Wednesday and Thursday of November annually, for the election of New Members, the appointment of Office-Bearers, awarding of Prizes, the reading of Papers, Discussion on selected subjects, &c. JOHN SADLER, Secretary. ba | APPENDIX. Ai OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1873-74. PRESIDENT. Hueu Cuircuory, of Stravithy, M.D., F.R.S.E. VIOE-PRESIDENTS. Wetuiwoop H. Maxwe u, of Munches. Rosert Hurcurson, of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E. Joun Grant Tuomson, Wood Manager, Grantown, Strathspey. Rozert Fouts, Forester, Fordel, Fife. Wituiam Gitcurist, Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. COUNCIL. Joun AnpDERSON, Nurseryman, Perth. Grore@E Rep, Nursery and Seedsman, Aberdeen. Rogerr Broveu, Forester, Balnagowan, Ross-shire. Joun M‘Laren, Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. Hueu Fraser, Stanwell Nursery, Edinburgh. Davin Mircuett, Nurseryman, Edinburgh. Joun M‘Greeor, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld. ALEXANDER Ricuarpson, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. James Morrat, Forester, Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith. James Suita, Forester, Donibristle, Fife. Professor Batrour, M.D., F.R.S., University, Edinburgh. Witu1aAm M‘Corquopatr, Forester, Scone, Perth. Wituiam Tuomson, Deputy-Surveyor, H.M. Chopwell Woods, Durham. Joun Aan, Forester, Dalmeny Park, South Queensferry. James Micuig, Forester, Wemyss Castle, Kirkcaldy. SECRETARY. Joun SApuLeER, F.R.Ph.S., Lecturer on Botany and Zoology in the Royal High School, and Assistant to the Professor of Botany in the Univer- sity, Edinburgh. TREASURER. Tuomas Meruyen, of Messrs T. Methven & Sons, Nursery and Seedsmen, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh. AUDITOR. Joun OrpD Mackenzig, of Dolphinton, W.S. JUDGES. Witu1am Gitcurist (Convener), Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. James Ratt, Forester, Castle Forbes, Aberdeen. Witi1am Gouen, Wood Manager, Wykeham, York. COMMITTEE ON TRANSACTIONS. The Secretary (Mr Sapter), Editor, with Dr CLecuorn, Mr Hurcuison, and Mr Witir1am Gorris, as a Consulting Committee. — ¥ i te P * * - ’ : ‘. = es 3 . “ 4 = £ S = = g ‘ : ‘ 4 - * a - ad ; ; be + 8 n! rf a! 3 ~ ——_ “4 e ie — bs 4 es oT hunters t*. it atu. as PS one -¥ 3 ey Stet = 9 . : . ce 2 m =. a é 7 é es : a ; | 7 = Ps 3 { eit ) . ' = : rz , ‘ - > = a oP +: é he ey = ‘ « . es ‘ Fr ae i . = a = o- > © » é ‘ Fs : - : ‘ a y , = . we - a . = ~ @ 5 ‘ ~ Seasild . ae g : * - . - =~ - - A z 4 é ‘ . - ” 7 8 - 4 4 4). Var 2 pra PS ett A be ; - s —e ; / ‘ p Pi ia « Z - 7 . ™ be - ss ~ 7 : PA, F, = A : ® | : os by rT “yy ‘ a * . i hs - ¢ 7 ue, ma ie 2 os! ) ii “i ue 5 it) ESS ae, ry anes My aah, ape! eary) « aw aro vasa Be a iwi 4 i ‘ > - ' » . £ - ~/ aes ¥ al ~ '. ey 7 : ay = 4 L Se a “en GPa oe a . a GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNTS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY For the Year ending 31st October 1874. CHARGE. To Balance on hand, . ‘ : : : £/ 10° 0 , David Mitchell (Special Prize), j : . 5 5 0 is ; Received for Copies of Transactions Sold, : ° . Or ate ,, Interest on Sinking Fund Account, ; 2 5 4 DO OL) Ordinary Account, ; : : 09 0 ,, Annual Subscriptions, : : : : : Of 7 26 », Arrears Recovered, . ‘ ; ‘ ‘ 39 0 6 ,», Life Membership Subscriptions, ; : ‘ : yah he 0, », Balance due Bank, . ; Z ; ; : 138s Zz £196 2 7k DISCHARGE. By Printing and Publishing Transactions, : F « £16 6 oe Advertising, Stationery, &c., . : : é 418. 0 », Prizes and “Medals, ‘ ; i F : 13) 9570 », Secretary's Salary, ‘ 5 ‘ : 25 <0) 0 >, Expenses connected with Annual Meetin (0a * 4 Seno »» Postages, &c., : : eee 1315 4 »» Paid over to Capital Account, s : ‘ 5 29/8) 10 », Balance due Bank last year, 4 ; : ; PASM AG LiAl »» Interest, : A : ‘: z . : OP tars re Balance on hands. =: 5 : A j ; 419 7} £196 2 72 CAPITAL OR SINKING FUND ACCOUNT. CHARGE. To Balance, including 7s. 9d. interest, . en este al, oth , Received Life Membership Subser iptions from Ordinar y Account, 24 3 0 ae ; Paid to Account of Sum due Capital Account, : ‘ Di gowO », Interest on Deposit Receipts, . . ; : Lol aae ds £80 3.4 DISCHARGE. By Deposit Receipt, —. ‘ : - £7718 0 », Interest paid over to Ordinar y Account, : ; : 2 Oo 4 £80 3 4 EpINBuRGH, 3d November 1874.—Having examined the foregoing Account of Charge and Dischar ge, and the relative Capital or Sinking Fund Account be- tween the Scottish Arboricultural Society and their Treasurer, Mr Thomas Methven, for the year ending’31st October 1874, and compared the same with the vouchers and instructions thereof, I have to report that the same are accu- rately stated and sufficiently vouched. At the close of the Account of Charge and Discharge there was a balance due by the Society to the National Bank of Scotland of Thirteen pounds eighteen shillings and twopence (£13, 18s, 2d.), and there remained in the hands of the Treasurer a sum of Four: pounds nine- teen shillings and sevenpence halfpenny (£4, 19s. 74d.). The amount of the Sinking Fund is now Seventy-seven pounds eighteen shillings (£77, 18s.), which is placed on Deposit Receipt by the N ational Bank in name of the Society. JOHN ORD MACKENZIE, Auditor, é Scottish Arboricultural Society. PATRON. HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN, LIST OF MEMBERS. CoRRECTED TO Marcu 1875. * Members who have given Subscriptions, in order to form a Capital or Sinking Fund. All Subscriptions are payable at the Annual General Meeting in November. Members whose Subscriptions are Two Years in Arrears are not entitled to receive the Transactions. HONORARY MEMBERS. Batrovur, John Hutton, M.D., A.M., F.R.SS.L. and E., Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh—President. Branpis, Dietrich, Ph.D., Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India. Butten, Robert, Curator of Botanic Garden, Glasgow. *Hourcuison, Robert, F.R.S.E., of Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Lawson, George, LL.D., Ph.D., Professor of Natural History and Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia. M‘Nas, James, F.B.S.E., Curator of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. LIFE MEMBERS. Avam, The Right Hon. W. P. of Blairadam, Kinross-shire, M.P. Barzour, George F., of Bonskied, Pitlochry, Perthshire. Bet, William, of Gribdae, Kirkcudbright. Bosanquet, Rev. G. H., Broom-y-Close Court, Llanwarne, Ross, Here- fordshire. Bruce, Hon, T. C., 24 Hill Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. CurcHory, Hugh, M_D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithy, St Andrews, Fife. CrawForD, William Stirling, of Milton, Glasgow. APPENDIX, 49 Dewar, Colonel A., of Vogrie, Ford.4 Duncay, Alexander, of Knossington Grange, Oakham, Leicestershire. Duypas, Robert, of Arniston, Gorebridge. Fisu, D. T., Hardwick, Bury-St-Edmnnds. Firzwituiam, The Right Hon. The Earl, K.G., Wentworth, Rotherham Yorkshire. Gorpon, John, of Cluny Castle, Aberdeenshire. *GouaH, William, Wood Manager, Wykeham, York. Grant, John, Forester, Bridge-of-Wier, Renfrewsbire. GranTHAM, George, Barcombe Place, Lewis, Sussex. Grimmonp, Alexander D., of Glenericht, Blairgowrie. Herpert, H. A., of Muckross, Killarney. Horr, H. W., of Luffness, Drem. Hours, Louis, of Possingworth, Hawkhurst, Sussex. Innes, James, of Wroxton, Banbury. Kinnear, William Balfour, Foo-Chow, China. Lestiz, Charles P., of Castle-Leslie, Glasslough, Ireland. Macpownatp, Ronald, Factor, Cluny Castle, Aberdeenshire. M‘Grecor, John, Ladywell, Dunkeld, Perthshire. MackeEnziz£, Colin J., of Portmore, Eddlestone, Peebles. M‘Timr, Alexander Walker, of Durris, Aberdeenshire. MaxwE LL, Wellwood H., of Munches, Dalbeattie. *Meruven, Thomas, Nursery and Seedsman, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Minto, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Minto House, Hawick. Moors, Thomas, F.L.S, Curator, Botanic Garden, Chelsea. Portsmouts, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Eggesford, North Devon. Riptey, G., 2 Charles Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. Rosesery, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Rosstyn, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Dysart House, Fife. Starr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Lochinch, Castle Kennedy, Wigtownshire. *TALBERT, Peter, Forester, Glenericht, Blairgowrie. *THomson, John Grant, Wood Manager, Grantown, Strathspey. Trotrer, Colonel, R.A., the Bush, Edinburgh. Uraquuart, B. C., of Meldrum, Aberdeenshire. Waveney, Lord, Flixton Hall, Bungay, Suffolk. Wemyss, Randolph Gordon Erskine, of Wemyss and Torry, Fife. Win, A. E., Assistant Conservator of Forests, Punjaub, India (6 George Street, Sheffield). Witsoy, John, F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture, University, Edinburgh, ORDINARY MEMBERS. Anpisz, Alexander J., Rockville, Linlithgow. Arruiz, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Cortachy Castle, Forfarshire. Arrcuison, William, Forester, Workington Hall, Cumberland. 50 APPENDIX. ALDER, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. ALEXANDER, James, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. ALEXANDER, James, jun., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. ALEXANDER, John. ALEXANDER, John, Assistant Forester, Benmore House, Greenock. ALEXANDER, William, Assistant Forester, Lochlinchart Lodge, Dingwall Atay, Andrew, Rankeillor, Cupar, Fife. *ALLAN, John, Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Awnperson, Alexander, Forester, St Fort, Newport, Dundee. AnpeERsON, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. AnpeErson, Alexander, Gardener, Oxenford Castle, Dalkeith. Anverson, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Hawkhead, Paisley. ANDERSON, James, Bangholm Nursery, Edinburgh. ANDERSON, James, Meadowbank, Uddingston. ANDERSON, John, Newstead Abbey, Nottingham. *ANDERSON, John, Nurseryman, Perth. ANNAND, Charles Forester, Cromar Estates, Tarland, Aberdeenshire. ANNANDALE, Robert Burns, The Gardens, Fonthill, Tisbury Wilts, ARcHER, James, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. ARCHER, John, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. *ARCHIBALD, Thomas, Forester, Virginia, Co. Cavan, Ireland. Arnott, Alexander, Hedger, East Wemyss, Fife. AsHpown, Samuel Harding, Land Agent, Uppington, Wellington, Salop. Austin & M‘Ausuan, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Glasgow. Baicriz, Andrew, Forester, Mote Park, Ballymurry, Co. Roscommon. Baicri£, William, Forester, Echo Bank, Old Dalkeith Road, Edinburgh. Batiuiz, William, Wood Manager, Cortachy, Kirriemuir. BarnsripeeE, C. M., of Dissington Hall, Newecastle-on-Tyne. Bairp, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. BapEN, James, Forester, Lennoxlove, Haddington. Ba.ven, Joseph, Overseer, Houghton Estate, Preston. *BALDEN, Peter G., Forester, Vaenol Park, Bangor, North Wales. *BaLpEN, William, Appleby Castle, Appleby. *BALLANTYNE & Son, Messrs John, Nursery and Seedsmen, Dalkeith. BALLINGALL, Robert, Factor, Eallabus, Islay, by Greenock. *Barrik, David, Forester, Durris, Aberdeen. *BaRRIE, James, Forester, Stevenstone House, Torrington, Devonshire. Barter, Frederick, Assistant Gardener. . Barron, James, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. Baty, David, Forester, Lowther Castle, Penrith. Baty, William, Forester, Netherby, Longtown. Baxter, Robert, Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Baxter, William, The Gardens, Riccarton, Currie. *Bayne, Lewis, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, North Wales. APPENDIX. 51 Brae, John, jun., Factor, Durris, Aberdeenshire. Bex, James, Strathfieldsaye, Winchfield, Hants. Betu, James, Forester, Newcastleton, Carlisle. Bett, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Bewnert, Alexander, Forester. Berry, George, Longleat, Horningsham, Warminster, Wiltshire. Berry, Thomas Walter, Forester, Brynkinalt, Chirk, N. Wales. Bieer, Matthew, Marsham Hatch, Ashford, Kent. Brreuw, John, Assistant Gardener, Tinnchinch, Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow. *BirniE, John, Normanby Park, Brigg, Lincolnshire. Bisserr, David, Land-Steward and Forester, Alva House, Stirling. Bissett, William, 8., Land-Steward and Forester, Moncrieffe House, Bridge of Harn, Perthshire. Buarr, Peter, Dunse. *Boa, Andrew, Land-Steward, Dalton House, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Boa, Andrew, jun., Assistant Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. Boa, James 8. M., Agent, Fettercairn, Fettercairn. *BortTuwick, William, Forester, Dunnichen, Forfar. Boston, Thomas C., Nurseryman, Liverpool. Bortomer, Frederick, The Gardens, Mackree Castle, Ballisodare, Sligo. *Brovig, James, Land-Steward, Glasslough, Armagh, Ireland. Brovueu, James, Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. Brovueu, Robert, Forester, Balnagowan, Tain, Ross-shire. Brown, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Portmore, Eddleston. Brown, J., Bretby, Burton-on-Trent. Brown, James, LL.D., Nurseryman and Wood-Surveyor, Craigmill, Stirling. Brown, James, Carnwath House, Carnwath. Brown, John E., Craigmill, Stirling. Brown, William, Land Valuator and Estate Agent (N. America). Brown, William, Nursery and Seedsman, Stamford, Lincolnshire. *Bruce, Peter. Bruce, T. R., of Slogarie, Lauriestown, Castle-Douglas. Bryan, F. G. D., Factor, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Brypon, John, Assistant Forester, Inverleith Nurseries, Edinburgh. Bucuan, Alexander, F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, Edinburgh. Bucuan, George, Forester, Bakewell, Derbyshire. Bucuanan, Robert R., Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Burnett, James, Assistant Forester, Durris, Aberdeenshire. Caper, Frederick, Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeenshire. Cattocutn, John, Assistant Forester, Houston, Paisley. Cameron, Alexander, Forester, Countlich Lodge, Ballinluig, Perthshire. Cameron, Angus, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. 52 APPENDIX. Cameron, Henry, Assistant Forester, Linkwood, Elgin. Cameron, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Novar, Evanton Ross-shire. *CAMERON, John, Assistant Forester, Fowlis Wester, Crieff, Perthshire Cameron, Robert, Forester, Galtie Castle, Mitchelstown, Tipperary. CaMpBELL, Alexander, Forester, Gray House, Liff, Dundee. *CAMPBELL, James, of Tillichewan Castle, Dumbartonshire. CamMPBELL, John, Forester, Aboyne Castle, Aberdeenshire. CampBELL, Peter, Assistant Forester, Invereshie, Kingussie. CarrnpurFr, Andrew, Forester, Abbeyleix, Queen’s Co., Ireland. CarRLIsLEz, John, of 49 Hanover Street, Edinburgh. CARMICHAEL, John, The Gardens, Glen Tulchan, The Cairnies, Perth. CuAtmers, James, Duchal, Port-Glasgow. Cuamsers, William, of Haford, Aberystwith, Wales. CHAPLAIN, George, Assistant Forester, Glamis Castle, Glamis, Forfarshire. CHAPMAN, James, Assistant Forester, Grinkle Park, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire. CuappLow, John, Glencoin Cottage, Patterdale, Penrith. Curistiz, A. D., Foreman, Heaton Park Gardens, Manchester. CurisTIE, David, Forester, Abington House, Lanarkshire. — *CHURNSIDE, Francis, Forester, Ladykirk, Berwickshire. CHURNSIDE, Robert, Forester, Edlingham, Alnwick. Ciark, David, Assistant Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. CiarKk, George, Liberton, Edinburgh. Cuark, J., Nursery and Seedsman, Messrs Fowler & Co., Glasgow. *CLARK, J., Forester to the Earl of Kintore, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. CiarKk, James, Forester, Balvaird Cottage, Strathmiglo, Fife. Ciark, John, The Nurseries, Cupar, Fife. *CuarK, John, jun., Forester, Esslemont, Ellon, Aberdeenshire. Cuark, Thomas, Beechwood Gardens, Bortly, Hants. Ciark, William, Assistant Forester, Hawkhead, Paisley. CLEETON, Edward, Curator, Albert Park, Middlesboro’. *CLEGHORN, William, Forester, Ayton Castle, Ayton. CuERK, Sir George D., Bart., Penicuik House, Penicuik. Coppayn, John, Wood Agent, Wentworth Woods, Rotherham. Cocxgurn, William, Forester, Coats, Penicuik. Cocker, James, Nurseryman, Aberdeen. Cooxss, Rev. W. H., Astley Rectory, near Stourport. Cooper, George, Messrs Hurst & Son, Leadenhall Street, London. Coreet, James, Forester, Underley Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland. *CowAn, James, Forester, Bridgend, Islay. Cowan, Robert, Forester, Park, near Paisley. Cowe, John, Luffness, Drem. Cow1E, John, Assistant Forester, Mount Stewart, Rothesay. Cowrer, R. W., Assistant Agent, 81 High Street, Sittingbourne. *CRABBE, James, Forester, Glamis Castle, Glamis, Forfarshire, APPENDIX. 53 *Craia, James, Bailiff, Weston Park, Shifnal, Salop. Craic, Nathan, Cherry Cottage, Anowe Park, Birkenhead. Craic, Richard, Forester and Gardener, Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Craic, Robert, Levens Hall, Milnthorpe. Cranston, G. C. Trotter, of Harvieston, Gorebridge. Cranston, James, Assistant Forester, Floors Castle, Kelso. *CricHToN, George, 18 Princes Street, Edinburgh—TZreasurer. Crossiz, John, Forester and Ground Officer, Ballindalloch Castle, Ballin- dalloch, Banffshire. *Cross, David G., Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh, Ireland. CruicKsHAnks, Robert, Forester, Ballykilcavan, Stradbally, Queen’s Co. Cummine, Donald, Assistant Forester, Newbattle, Dalkeith. Cunnincuam, D., The Gardens, Darnaway Castle, Forres. CunnincuaM, John, Forester, Ardross Castle, Ross-shire. Curri£, John, Gardener, Salisbury Green, Edinburgh. *CuTieR, D., Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Dauetrisu, John J., of Ardnamurchan, 8 Athole Crescent, Edinburgh. Dats, Joseph, Forester, Blanepant, Llandyssil, Carmarthenshire, DatryMP_E, Charles, Forester, Mitchelstown Castle, Mallow, Co. Cork. DanteEts, Peter, Forester, Slindon Hall, Arundel, Sussex. Darien, James, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. *Daruine, John, Forester, St Martins, Perthshire. Davinson, George, Land-Steward, Carriden, Linlithgow. Davipson, James, Coonoor, Neilgherries, 8. India. *Davipson, John, Forester, Aldbar, Brechin. Davipsoyn, John, Forester, Firth, Roslin. *Davipson, John, Overseer and Architect, Belmont Castle, Meigle. Davipson, Richard, Scottish Colour Works, Leith. Davipson, W., Leager House, Chuseburn Grange, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Dawson, James, Forester, Kilmun, Argyleshire. *Dawson, John, Messrs J. & J. Dawson, Alloa. Dnay, Richard, Ealing, London. Dempsey, Charles, Assistant Forester, Powerscourt, Enniskerry. Dick, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. *Dicxson, George, Stronvar, Lochearnhead. Dicxsov, J., Messrs Edmonston Brothers, 9 Dame Street, Dublin. Dickson & Sons, Messrs James, Nursery and Seedsmen, Chester. *Dicxson & Sons, Messrs James, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Dickson, Thomas, Nursery and Seedsman, Chester. Donps, George, Overseer, Leinster Estates, Prospect House, Athy. Don, John, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Donatp, Alexander, Forester, Woodhall House, Airdrie. Dowapson, J., Forester, Brechin Castle, Brechin. Dovetas, J., Gardener, Kilkea Castle, Mageney, Co. Kildare, 54 APPENDIX. *Dow, Thomas, Forester, Idvies, Forfar. *DowniEe & Larnp, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Doyze, James, Land-Steward, Heywood, Ballinakill, Queen’s County. Drummond Broruers, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Edinburgh. Drummonp & Sons, Messrs William, Nurserymen, Stirling. Dorr, James, Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow. *Durr, James, Meleund, Aberlemno, Forfar. Durr, James, Wood Manager, Bayham Abbey, Tunbridge Wells. Duean, Charles, Assistant Forester, Cally House, Gatehouse. Duncan, Charles, of Woodend, Rothesay. Duncan, John, Forester, Blanepant, Llandyssil. Duncan, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Meldrum House, Old Meldrum. Duncan, William, Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Dunuop, Alexander, Factor, Luffness, Drem. Dunn, David, The Gardens, Heaton Park, Manchester. *Dunn, Malcolm, The Gardens, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Durwarp, Robert, Manager, Blelack, Aberdeenshire. Dykes, John, Nursery and Seedsman, Kilmarnock. Dyxes, Thomas, Factor, Maybole, Ayrshire. Earnsuaw, L., Forester. Even, The Hon. R. Henley, Estate Agent, The Coigne, Minchinghampton. Epear, Thomas, Forester, Torry, Fife. Evrpank, Right Hon. Lord, Darnhall, Kddlestone, Peebles. Exxiot, Robert, Forester, Blairquhan, Maybole, Ayrshire. Ewine, David, Assistant Forester, Urie House, Stonehaven. FAarrBAIRN, William, Land Steward, Manderston, Dunse. Frereuson, A., Gosfield Hall, Hallstead, Essex. Frreuson, James, Forester, Benmore and Kilmun Estutes, Greenock. Frereuson, John, Forest Department, Madras. Frreuson, Joseph, Assistant Forester, Lambton Park, Fence Houses. Ferrniz, Robert, Forester, Balcarres, Colinsburgh, Fife. Fertes, Francis, Assistant Hedger, Ury House, Stonehaven. Fryeuanp, J., Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. Finn, P. W., Forester, Borris House, Borris, Co. Carlow. FisHer, William, Forester, Wentworth Castle, Barnsley, Yorkshire. *ForbeEs, Andrew, Forester, Stracathro, Brechin. Fores, William, Assistant Forester, Castlecary, Denny. Forean, James, Wellwood Cottage, Kinnoull, Perth. Forrest, William, Melfort Cottage, Lochgilphead. Fouuts, Robert, M.D., Cairnie Lodge, Cupar, Fife. Fouuis, Robert, Forester, Fordel, Inverkeithing, Fife. Fowter, Archibald, The Gardens, Castle Kennedy, Stranraer. France, Charles, Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire. APPENDIX. 55 *FRrANcE, C. S., Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik. *FRANcE, George, Overseer, Glenelg, Lochalsh. France, James, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire. Fraser, Archibald, Forester, Skipness Castle, Tarbert, Greenock. *FrasEerR, Duncan, Forester. Fraser, James, Forester, Cabairdy, Huntly. Fraser, James, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Fraser, P. Neill, Canonmills Lodge, Edinburgh, Fraser, Hugh, Stanwell Nursery, Edinburgh. Fraser, Simon, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeenshire. *Fraser, Thomas, Forester, Oriel Temple, County Louth. Freeman, Timothy. Frost, Philip, Gardener, Dropmore, Maidenhead. Gattoway, George, Park Hall, Oswestry, Shropshire. *GARDINER, R., Wenalt House, Crosswood, Aberystwith, South Wales. GARDINER, James, Forester, Hawkstone Park, Salop. Garean, James, Land Steward, Kells, Moynally, Co. Meath, Ireland. Garner, John, Assistant Gardener, Cantley Hall, Doncaster, Yorkshire. GerxKi8, P. M., Factor, Cortachy, Kirriemuir. GerrisH, Edward, Wood Overseer, Maiden Bradley, Bath. Gisp, John, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Gipson, William, Nursery and Seedsman, 14 Lower Ormond Quay, Dublin. GILBERT, James, Forester, Ardverikie, Kingussie. *GritcHRist, Andrew, Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. Giicurist, Daniel, Messrs Main & Co., 15 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. *Gitcurist, William, Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. GLENDINNING, George P., Dalmeny Park, South Queensferry. GoopvreLtow, Andrew, Forester, Wolfelee, Hawick. GoopizER, George, Assistant Gardener. Gorpon, James, Assistant Forester, Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Gorpon, John, Forester, 17 Bon-Accord Street, Aberdeen. Gorriz, Archibald, Forester, Holkham Hall, Holkham. *GorRIE, William, Rait Lodge, Trinity, Edinburgh. *Gossip, James, The Nurseries, Inverness. Gow, James, Forester, Camperdown, Dundee. Gow, John L., Factor, Raith, Kirkcaldy. Gow, John, jun., Assistant Agent, Grinkle Park, Saltburn-by-the-Sea. GraHam, Andrew, Agent, Ormesby House, near Middlesboro’. GRanDIson, James, Assistant Forester, New Scone, Perth. Grant, Colonel James A., C.B., C.S.1., 7 Park Square, Regent’s Park, London. Grant, Donald, Forester, Drumin, Ballindalloch. Grant, James, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. Grant, John, Assistant Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. 56 APPENDIX. Green, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole. GreEN, William, Assistant Forester, Charleston, Malmesbury, Wilts. GREER, Robert, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. *GREIG, Gavin, Forester, Parkhill, Aberdeen. GRIEVE, George, Gardener, Dalkeith. GRIEVE, James, Messrs Dickson and Co., Nurseries, Leith Walk, Edinburgh. *Gricor, John, Nurseryman, Forres. GutuRiE, Colonel, Carlogie House, Carnoustie. *HALL, Peter, Forester, Huntly Lodge, Huntly. Hamiuton, David, Forester. Hamitron, John B, Baillie, of Arnprior, Cambusmore, Callander. HanpasypE & Davipson, Messrs Thomas, Nurserymen, Musselburgh. Harpikz, A., Manager, Monboddo, Fordoun. *Harvigz, Walter, Forester, The Hall, Norwell, Newark, Notts. *Haruey, Andrew, Penybout, Radnorshire. HARROLD, George, Gardener, Mount Henrie, Queen’s Co., Ireland. Harrower, William, Forester, Glenapp, Ballantrae, Ayrshire. - Hart, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Yester, Haddington. Hartianpd, Richard, The Lough Nurseries, Cork. Havetock, Thomas, Forester, Raby Park, Staindrop, Co. Durham. Havetock, William, Forester, Dilston, Corbridge, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Hayman, John, jun., Overseer, Dumfries House, Old Cumnock. Heats, William, Dean Park Nurseries, Edinburgh. Heiman, George, Assistant Gardener. Heiman, William, Gardener. Henperson, Alexander, The Gardens, Dalziel, Motherwell. *HenpERsON, Archibald, Forester, Clonad Cottage, Tullamore, King’s County. HENDERSON, John, Land Steward, Knockdrin Castle, Mullingar. HeEnpDERSON, John, Forester, Cardoness, Gate-House, Kirkcudbrightshire. Henverson, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Henpry, David, Bangholm Nurseries, Edinburgh. Herpory, James, Forester. *HEpPBuRN, William, Assistant Forester, Altyre, Forres. Hermiston, James, Assistant Forester, Floors Castle, Kelso. HetTHERTON, Walter, Forester, Heanton, Satchville, Bedworth, N. Devon, Hitz, John, Land Steward, Whitehill, Lasswade. Hitson, John, Assistant Forester, Floors Castle, Kelso. *Hocartu, James, Forester, Duthill, Strathspey. Hoae, Thomas, Forester, Hampton Court, Leominster, Hereford. Hoop, James, Assistant Forester, Langlee, Jedburgh. Hopp, William, Gardener, Glasslough, Ireland. Home, Edward, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Home, George, Assistant Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill. Horspureu, James, Forester, Yester, Haddington. APPENDIX. 57 Howrr, Charles, Eden Cottage, Largo, Fife. Huesarp, Egerton, M.P., of Addington Manor, Winslow, Bucks. Home, Andrew, Forester, Wansford, Peterborough. *Hunter, Patrick, Overseer, Glenarm Castle, Larne, Ireland. Hunter, William, Forester, Castlemilk, Glasgow. Hussey, Samuel M., Estate Office, Tralee. *Hourtton, James, Forester, Moy, Forres. TRELAND, John, Seed Warehouse, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Jamieson, D., Thoresby Park, Ollerton, Nottinghamshire. JEFFREY, John, of Balsusney, Kirkcaldy, Fife. JEFFREY, John, Forester, Craighall, Blairgowrie. JounsTon, George, The Gardens, Glamis Castle, Glamis. JOHNSTON, James, Jounston, William, Fencer, Lee, Lanark. JOHNSTONE, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. JounstoneE, Alexander, Forester, Lee Castle, Lanark. *JoHNSTONE, William, Bangholm House, Ferry Road, Edinburgh. Joss, John, Assistant Forester, Crathes Castle, Aberdeenshire. *Kay, James, Forester and Hedger, Bute Estate, Rothesay. *Kepzi£, Walter, Forester, Arundel Castle, Arundel, Sussex. Kerr, David, Forester, Blair Athole, Perthshire. *Kemp, John, Assistant Forester, Midmar, Aberdeenshire. Kenmare, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Killarney House, Killarney. Kenvnepy, Duncan, Assistant Forester, Underley, Kirkby, Lonsdale. Kewnepy, G. G, Allan, Assistant Forester, Gothic House, Morden, Surrey. Kewnnepy, John, Forester and Ground Officer, Glen Urquhart, Drumna- drochit. Kennepy, William, Overseer, Carradale, Greenock. Kipp, James, Assistant Forester, Morden Park, Surrey, S.W. *Kincuorn, Adam, Forester, Rochsoles, Airdrie. Kriycuorn, James, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse, Larne, James, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. LAMBERTON, Hugh, Forester, Orwell Park, Bucklesham, Ipswich. Lamont, John, Inverleith Nurseries, Edinburgh. LanpretH, Burnet, of Bloomsdale, near Philadelphia, U.S. *LAUDER, William, Messrs Carr & Co., Timber Yard, Walker-on-Tyne. Lauriston, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Meldrum House, Old Meldrum. Leceat, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Abernethy Nursery, Strathspey. Leren, William, of Woodchester Park, Stonehouse, Gloucestershire. LeisHman, Richard, Forester, Muncaster Castle, Ravenglass, Cumberland, 58 APPENDIX. * Lemon, Thomas, The Gardens, Convamore, Ballyhoolly, Ireland. Lenox, William, Forester, Keir, Dunblane. Lustiz, The Hon. George Waldegrave, Leslie House, Leslie, Fife. Lippert, Rey, J. R., The Manse, Kirkliston. LinksTong, James, Assistant Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh. Lirrie, Alexander, Forester, Relugas, Dunphail, Morayshire. Loraine, Edward, The Riding Mill, Northumberland. Lorutan, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, Pinnelheugh House, Jedburgh. M‘Arnsu, Robert, Assistant Forester, Castle Menzies, by Aberfeldy, M‘Auister, Alexander, Rossie Priory, Dundee. Macsetu, J., Land Steward, Stobhall, Perth. M‘Catium, James Thyne, Nursery and Seedsman, 60 Buchanan Street, Glasgow. M‘Catium, G. K., of Braco Castle, Braco. M‘Cott, James, Forester, Clifton Park, Kelso. *M‘CorquoDaLz, Donald, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie. M‘CorquopatE, D. A., Assistant Factor, Panmure, Forfarshire. *M‘Corquopa.Ez, William, Forester and General Wood Surveyor, Jeanie Bank, Perth. M‘Crearu, Hugh, Assistant Forester, Culzean, Maybole, Ayrshire. M‘CurcHeEon, Robert, Assistant Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn, M‘Donatp, Alexander, Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. M‘Donatp, Charles, Superintendent, Phcenix Park, Dublin. M‘Dona.p, Donald, Assistant Forester. M‘Fapyen, Duncan, Forester, Dunmore, Stirling. M‘Grata, Patrick, Assistant Forester, Galtie Castle, Mitchelstown, Co. Tipperary. M‘Greeor, Archibald, Assistant Forester. M‘Harpy, Charles, Forester, Castle Newe, Strathdon, M‘Hartiz, John, Seedsman, Northgate, Chester. M‘Intosu, Angus, Forester. Mackay, John, West Dean Estate, Chichester. M‘Kay, James, Forester, Whittinghame, Prestonkirk. M‘Kay, Thomas, Forester, 3 Harbour Terrace, Aberystwith, S. Wales. M‘Kerru, Archibald, West Coates Nursery, Edinburgh. Mackenziz, Alexander, Warriston Nurseries, Edinburgh. M‘Kenziz, Donald F., Forester, Meldrum House, Aberdeenshire. MackeEnzik, James, 1 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. Macxkenzigz, J. Ord, W.S., of Dolphinton, 7 Royal Circus, Edinburgh— Auditor. M‘Kenziz, K. Stewart, of Brahan Castle, Dingwall. Macktg, John, Assistant Forester, Ballogie, Aboyne. Macxintosu, R. T., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. M‘Lacan, John, Forester, The Cairnies, Methven, Perthshire, APPENDIX. 59 *M ‘Laren, Hugh. M‘Laren, John, Ballencrieff, Drem. *M‘Laren, John, Forester, Hopetoun House, South Queensferry. *M‘Laren, John, Forester, Darnhall, Eddlestone, Peebles. M‘Laren, Peter, Forester, Lilleshall, Newport, Salop. *M‘LarsEn, Peter, Sub-Agent, Sittenham, York. M‘Lean, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Rutherford, Kelso. M‘Leay, John, Forester, Swainston, near Newport, Isle of Wight. M‘Lean, Malcolm, The Gardens, Gosford, Drem. M‘Leay, William, Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine. M‘Leay, William, The Gardens, Eaglejurst, Fawley, Southampton. M‘Letxay, Duncan, Superintendent of Parks, Glasgow. M‘Leop, Alexander, Forester, Gosford, Drem, M‘Leop, Angus, The Gardens, Newbaittle Abbey, Dalkeith. M‘Lzop, J., Nurseryman, Crieff, Perthshire. M‘Mutan, Samuel, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. M‘Nas, Malcolm, of 59 North Hanover Street, Edinburgh. Macnaveuton, Alexander, 8.8.C., Arranmore Villa, Stanley Road, Edinburgh. M‘Naveuton, Archibald, Forester, Williamwood, Cathcart, Glasgow. M‘NEILL, D., Timber Agent, Kirriemuir. M‘NEItL, James, Forester, Abercairney, Crieff. M‘NEILL, James, Forester. M‘Rag, John, Forester, Coplawhill Nursery, Glasgow. M‘Rag, Robert, Assistant Forester, Cullen House, Cullen. M‘Rircuig, T. E., W.S., 4 Gayfield Square, Edinburgh. Matin, John, Forester, Bryan Hall, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire. Main & Co., Messrs A. & J., Wire Fence Manufacturers, 7 Renfield Street, Glasgow. Martuanp, Sir A. C. R., Bart, M.P., Cliftonhall, Ratho. MairLanp, Wiliam, Assistant Forester, Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire. Matcoim, George, Bangholm Nursery, Edinburgh. Manson, Robert, The Nurseries, Kelso. Manton, William, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. Marr, John, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. * MARSHALL, J., Forester, Lambton Park, Fence Houses, Durham. MarsHALL, James, Forester, Preston, Dunse. MarsHALL, James, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth. MarsHatt, Robert, Forester, Horton Manor, near Epsom. - MarsHatt, Robert, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan, Greenock. Martin, George, Forester, Dunecht House, Aberdeen. Martin & Sons, Messrs, Nurserymen, Cottingham, Hull. Marursson, Donald, Meikleour, Perth. Maxton, Robert, Forester, Strathallan Castle, Auchterarder. Me rose, John, Wood Merchant. 60 APPENDIX. Me rose, William, Forester, Byram Hall, South Mitford. Menzigs, George, Agent, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent. Menzixs, William, Forester, Craigton Cottage, Causewayhead, by Stirling. Meruven, John, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. *Micure, Christopher Young, Forester, Cullen House, Cullen, Banfishire. *Micui8, James, Forester, Wemyss Castle, Kirkcaldy. Mippiemass, Archibald, Forester, Dunans House, Colintraive, Greenock. Mixyg, James, Forester, Glenmuick, by Ballater. *Miuuer, John, Forester, Ochtertyre, Stirling. *MircuE.y, David, Nurseryman, Edinburgh. MircHE 1, Forbes, of Thainstone, Kjntore, MircuHet.1, Garlies, Nurseryman, Stranraer. MircHeEtt, James, Aldie, Kinross. MircHeEtt, James, Forester, Knossington Grange, Oakham, Leicestershire. Morrat, Adain, Forester, Hindlip Hall, Worcester. Morrat, Henry, Forester, Monkray, Whitehaven, Cumberland. Morrat, James, Forester, Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith, Morrat, John, Forester, Kimmerghame, Dunse. Morrison, John, Coney Park Nursery, Stirling. Morrison, R., Nurseryman, Elgin. Moir, William, of Inistrynich, Inveraray, Argyleshire. *MurrHeEaD, John, Forester, Bicton, Budleigh, Salterton, Devonshire. Munro, James, Forester, Invermorriston, Inverness-shire. Munro, James, Assistant Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Munro, John, Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. Murray, David, Forester, Dunira, Perthshire. My zs, James, Forester, Portmore, Eddlestone, Peebles. Nem, Archibald, Forester, West Grange, Culross. Newstiecine, Alexander T., Nurseryman, Dumfries. Nicot, W., Assistant Forester, Loudon Castle, Galston. Nicot, William, Forester, Pitcaple, Aberdeenshire. Nicort, Alexander, The Gardens, Clova, by Lumsden, Aberdeenshire. Norman, David, Nursery Foreman, Dean Park Nurseries, Edinburgh. *Oaiivy, David, Assistant Forester, Cortachy, Forfar. O’Ner11, Richard, Auctioneer, Old Castle, Co. Meath. OxtreR, John Clement, of Beauchamp House, Enfield, Middlesex. *Ormiston & Renwick, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Melrose. *Patmer & Son, Messrs John, Nurserymen, Annan. *ParkER, James, Forester, Belvoir Castle, Grantham. Parker, Robert A., Nursery and Seedsman, Lanark. *PareRson, Andrew, Surveyor, Exton, Oakham, Rutland. Paterson, Charles, Factor, Castle Menzies, Aberfeldy, Perthshire, APPENDIX. 61 Prrsies, Andrew, Highclere Castle, Newbury, Berks. Penper, John, M.P., of Minard Castle, Argyllshire. PenpReIen, John, Assistant Forester, Port Bannatyne, Rothesay. Puitie, John, Wood Merchant, Bonnyrigg, Lasswade, *Puiurp, Robert, Minsterley, Shrewsbury. Pierson, Joshua, Forester, Old Shields, Airdrie. Piriz, John, Forester, Blackhall, Aberdeenshire. Puarr, Major, Langairfechan, near Bangor. Powerscourt, The Lord Viscount, Powerscourt, Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow. Powner, George, Forester, Willey Hall, Broseley, Shropshire. Powner, Thomas, British Workman’s Rooms, Wellington, Shropshire. Pressey, D., Gardener, Knockmaroon, Chapelizod, Dublin. Price, J., Forester, Garnstone Castle, Hereford. Ratt, James, Forester, Castle Forbes, Whitehouse, Aberdeen. Ramspey, Sir J., Bart., Buckden, Skipton, York. Rankine, Thomas, Nurseryman, Hamilton. Rarrray, Thomas, Forester, Westonbilt House, Tetbury, Gloucestershire *RAveENscrorFT, Edward, “ Farmer” Office, India Buildings, Edinburgh. Raw tence, James, of Bulbridge, Wilton. Rea, Archibald Henry, Assistant Forester, Ury House, Stonehaven. *Reip, George, Nursery and Seedsman, Aberdeen. Rep, James, Assistant Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith. Renton, James, Forester and Land-Steward, Cleghorn, Lanark. Ricuarpson, Adam, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. *Ricwarpson, Alexander, Land-Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. Rieuy, William, Messrs King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, London. Riytovut, Henry, The Gardens, Hawick Hall, Alnwick. Rireutz, Henry, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells. *RitcHi£, Walter, Forester, Dinnas Mawddwy, Shrewsbury, N. Wales. Rosertson, D., Albert Hotel, Hanover Street, Edinburgh. Rosertson, David, Estate Manager, Curraghmore, Portlaw, Waterford. Rosertson, George, Forester, Benmore, Kilmun, Greenock. Rosertson, George, jun., Assistant Forester, Thirlstane Castle, Lauder. Rosertson, James. Rosertson, James, Forester, Drummond Castle, Crieff. Rogertson, John, Rosertson, John, Forester, Minto House, Hawick. Robertson, John, Assistant Forester. Rosertson, Robert, Forester, Markree Castle, Collooney, Co. Sligo. Rosertson, Peter, Gordon Castle, Fochabers, Morayshire. Rosertson, P. §., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. Rosertson, Thomas, Forester. Rosertson, William W., Forester, Blinkbonny, Earlston, *Rosson, Alexander, Duchfour Woods, Lochend, Inverness, 62 APPENDIX. Rosson, David, Assistant Forester, Arthur Stone, by Meigle. Rozson, John, Forester, 15 Supple Street, Bishopfields, Chestrie. Rosson, Ralph, Nursery and Seedsman, Hexham. Roneer, Hugh, Factor, Cleland, Motherwell. Ross, Archibald, Overseer, Skipton Castle, Skipton-in-Craven, Yorkshire. Roz, John, Forester, Monymusk, Aberdeenshire. *RuSSELL, John, Craigie, Ayr. Russet, Robert, Forester, Mostyn, Holywell, N. Wales. Rost, Joseph, The Gardens, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. *RuTHERFORD, Andrew, Forester, Bowmont Forest, Kelso. *RUTHERFORD, James, Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh. *RUTHERFORD, James, Agent, Kirkleatham, Redcar, Yorkshire. RurgerrordD, John, Assistant Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh. RvuTHERFORD, Robert, Manager, Invershie, Kingussie. RuTHERFORD, Thomas, Hothfield, Ashford, Kent. *Sapier, John, F.R.Ph.S., Experimental Cottage, Edinburgh—Seeretary. *Samson, John, Forester, Abernethy, Strathspey. *SanpBAcuH, Henry R., Hafodunos, Llanrwst, Denbighshire. ScartuH, T. W., Land Agent, Keverstone, Staindrop, Darlington. Scorr, Adam, Forester, Southwick Park, Fareham, Hants. Scorr, Andrew, Assistant Forester. *Scorr, D., Wood Manager, Darnaway Castle, Forres. *Scort, David, Forester and Land-Steward, Broadford, Limerick. Scort, John, Forester. *Scort, John W., Delgany, County Wicklow, Ireland. Scorr, Walter, Forester, Oxnam, Jedburgh. ScrrmcEor, James, Under Forester, Altyre, Forres. Szaton, Allan, Assistant Forester, Curraghmore, Portlaw, Co. Waterford. Sepewick, A. O., of 38 High Street, Watford, Herts. Service, George, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. SERVICE, James, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse, Service, Robert, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. SHAnND, James, Gardener, Meldrum House, Aberdeenshire. SHanks, John, Forester, Kildrummy Castle, by Mossat. SHEPPARD, John, Tweedside Cottage, Roehampton, sai Sim, William, Nurseryman, Forres. Sue, John, Timber Merchant, Rafford, Forres. *Srupson, J., Forester, Alloa Park, Alloa. Snrpson, Peter, Assistant Forester, Daughty Mill, Kirkcaldy. *Srmpson, Thomas, Forester, Glenferness, Nairnshire. Sryton, David, Assistant Forester, Charlton, Malmesbury, Wilts. Sinton, J., Forester, Stourhead, Bath. Sryton, John, Forester, Charlton, Malmesbury, Wilts. SKELDoN, John, Assistant Forester, Dunse Castle, Dunse. APPENDIX. 63 Sxkirvine, Archibald, Forester, Duncombe Park, Helmesley, York. Sxirvine, John Finlay, Assistant Forester, Duncombe Park, Helmesley. Sxirvine, William, Nursery and Seedsman, Liverpool. *SLATER, Andrew, Forester, Loftus, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire. Siater, Andrew, jun., Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. *Smart, A. H. Smiru, A., Factor, Douglas Castle, Lanarkshire. Smiru, G. B., Wire Fence Manufacturer, 56 West Regent St., Glasgow. *Smitu, James, Forester, Donibristle, Aberdour, Fife. Smiru, James, The Gardens, Mentmore, Leighton-Buzzard, Buckingham- shire, Smyvu, John B., Forester, Melville, Ladybank, Fife. SmirH, John Crombie, Assistant Forester, Drummond Castle, Crieff. Smiru, Thomas, Nurseryman, Stranraer. Smitu, W. Baxter, Messrs Little & Ballantyne, Nursery and Seedsmen, Carlisle. Smitu & Simmons, Messrs, Nursery and Seedsmen, Howard St., Glasgow. *Smitu & Son, Messrs William, Nursery and Seedsmen, Aberdeen. Souty, Professor Edward, F.R.S., Parkstone, near Poole. Srence, Charles, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. SraLKeER, Donald, Assistant Forester. Srapy.LTon, Major, Myton Hall, Borobridge, Yorkshire. Srark, John, Assistant Forester, Woodhall, Airdrie. STEELE, David, Forester, Skene House, Aberdeen. STEPHEN, James, Forester, Dochfour, Inverness. SrerHEN, John, jun., Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen. Srevenson, Alexander, Forester, Cahir Estates, Co. Tipperary. SrEvENsON, David, Forester, Kelly, Wemyss Bay, Greenock. *STEVENSON, James, Forester, Cobham Park, Surrey. Stewart, Alexander, Edinburgh. Srewart, Alexander, Forester, Gringle Park, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, York- shire. Stewart, D., Manager, Dalnavart, Aviemore. Srewart, James, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. Stewart, John, Forester, Blair Athole, Perthshire. Stewart, John, Forester, Castlecary, Denny. Srewart, Peter, Gardener and Forester, Castle Wellan, Co. Down. Stewart, William, Land-Steward, Dalhousie Castle, Lasswade. Srewarr, William, Nurserymen, Dundee. Srewart, William, Assistant Forester, Underley Hall, Kirkby. Stewart, William, Assistant Forester, Logie Almond, Perth. SrracHan, W. B., Manager, Dalkeith Nurseries, Dalkeith. Srrane, Alexander, Forester, Rendlesham Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk. SrraneG, William, Assistant Forester, New Scone, Perth. Sruart, John, Forester, Castle Grant, Strathspey. 64 APPENDIX. Sruart, Lewis A. G., Forester, Netherdale House, Turriff. *Struarr, William, Forester. Sruart & Mery, Messrs, Nurserymen, Kelso. SutTriz£, James, Evington, Ashford, Kent. Swan, R. G., Auctioneer, Dunse. Swiyron, A. Campbell, LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Kimmerghame, Dunse. Syme, David, 1 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. Symon, John, Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn. Symon, Peter, Forester, Forres. ‘ait, David, Forester, Owston Park, Doncaster, Yorkshire. Tarr, Walter, Seedsman, 45 Chapel Street, Dubiin. Taytor, David, Barskimming, Mauchline. TayLor, George, Forester, Monymusk, Aberdeenshire. Taytor, George, Nursery and Seedsman, Inverurie. THomson, James Scott, Strathallan Castle, Auchterarder. Tuomson, Lockhart, 8.8.C., 22 Coates Crescent, Edinburgh. THomson, Thomas, Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. TuHornToN, Thomas, Heatherside, Frimley, Surrey. TIVENDALE, William, Forester, Houston, near Paisley. Tomuinson, J., Brocklesby Park, Ulceby. Tomutnson, Wilson, Assistant Forester, Belvoir Castle, Granthani. TURNBULL, James, Nurseryman, Hawick. TourRNBULL, William, Assistant Forester, Bowmont Forest, Kelso. ‘Turner, James, Assistant Gardener, Blithefield Hall, Rugeley, Stafford- shire. Twerepi£, John, Forester, Dunglass, Cockburnspath, Berwickshire. Veircy, John, Nurseryman, Falkirk. Veitcu, William, Hedger, Arniston, Gorebridge. WappineTon, David, Crosshouse, Airdrie. Waopps, Phillip, Gardener, Moore Abbey, Co. Kildare. WALKER, George, Forester, Collessie, Ladybank, Fife. Waker, William, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik, Wat, G. Y., jun., Exchequer Office, Durham. WaLLacg, Andrew, Assistant Forester, Drumpellier, Coatbridge. *W arb, James, Forester, Hawkhead Abbey, Paisley. Warerer, Anthony, Nurseryman, Knaphill, Surrey. Waters, Denis, Forester, Kelburn Castle, Largs. Warerson, A., Wood Manager, Glenark Castle, Arklow, Co. Wicklow. Watson, John, Gardener, Stravithy, St Andrews. Warson, William, Assistant Forester, Peth, Longtown, Cumberland, Warson, W. J., Nursery and Seedsman, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Watt, James, Messrs Little and Ballantyne, Nurserymen, Carlisle. Wart, William, Forester, Nisbet House, Dunse. APPENDIX. Wexsster, Ancus, D., Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuik. Wesster, David, Bangholm, Edinburgh. WexsstEr, J., The Gardens, Gordon Castle, Fochabers. Wesster, John Blaikie, Verner’s Bridge, Moy, Ireland. Wetsu, Duncan, Gardener, Mount Merrion, Dublin. *WeELSH, James, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. *WetsH, William M., Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. West, Charles Elis, Land-Steward, Cartoon, Maynooth. Wuittis, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Penicuik House, Penicuil. Wuire, George, Seedsman, Paisley. *WHITEFORD, Robert, Assistant Hedger, Bute Estate, Rothesay. Wittiams, B. S., Paradise Nursery, Upper Holloway, London, N. Wituiams, Robert, of Bodelwyddn, St Asaph, North Wales. Witson, John, Land-Steward and Forester, Borthwickbrae, Hawick. Witson, John, Forester, Greystoke Castle, Penrith. Witson, John, Forester, Auchendolly, Castle-Douglas. Witson, John, Assistant Forester, Arniston, Gorebridge. Witson, John, Forester, Sudbourn Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk. Wixtson, Peter, Forester, Whitehill, Lasswade. *Witson, Robert, Forester, Pewsey, Wilts. Witson, Stephen, 132 Union Street, Aberdeen. Woop, James, Factor, Haigh Hall, Lancashire. Woop, John, Gardener, Hatton Castle, Aberdeenshire. Worma.p, J. D., W.S., 93 Princes Street, Edinburgh. Wrutiz, James, Assistant Forester, Douglaston, Milngavie, Glasgow. *WYLLIE, George, Estate Overseer, Ballogie, Aboyne. YELLOWLEES, George, Wood Merchant, St Boswells. Youne, James, of Durris, by Aberdeen. Youne, John, Messrs Imrie & Son’s Nurseries, Ayr. SUBJECTS OFFERED FOR COMPETITION DURING 1874-75, I. For the best and approved Essay on the Pruning of Timber- trees, considered physiologically, and in relation to the production of the greatest value. (Prize of Five Guineas offered by George Reid, Nursery and Seedsman, Aberdeen.) II. For a full and complete account, from published descrip- tions (with authorities distinctly quoted), personal observation and experiment, of the history and present state of the cultivation in Great Britain and Ireland of Cedrus Deodara (C. Libani, and C. atlantica, allnow classed as one species). (Special Medal, value Three Guineas, offered by Dr Cleghorn.) III. For the best and approved Report on the most extensive, complete, and judiciously arranged Arboretum. (A Medal.) The Arboretums reported on in 1872 are excluded. IV. For the best and approved Essay on the present state and future prospects of Arboriculture in the county in which the com- petitor resides. (A Medal.) Yorkshire, Hampshire, and Aberdeenshire are oxalate having been reported on. V. For the best and approved Report on the Old and Remark- able Trees on the estate on which the competitor resides; correct measurements of the circumference of the trunks, at 1 foot and 5 feet from the ground, must be given; also height of tree, spread of branches, &c. Photographs are desirable. (A Medal.) VIL On the Economic Value of the Effects of the Gale of October 21, 1874, upon Trees of Position, and Woods in Scotland, with Statistics of the details of these Losses. (A Medal.) VII. For the best and approved collection of Cones exhibited from and grown in the county in which the competitor resides. (A Medal.) Each cone (or series of cones of one species) must be accompanied by a label giving the name of the species, the estate and county where produced, and the year grown. The Prize collection to become the property of the Society. Wigtownshire is excluded, having been reported in 1873. APPENDIX. 67 VIII. For the best and approved collection of prepared sections of different kinds of Wood grown in the county in which the com- petitor resides. (A Medal.) Each section must have a label attached, bearing the name of the wood and the estate and county where grown. The Prize collection to become the property of the Society. The successful competitors for woods in 1872 cannot compete. IX. For the best and approved series of Geological Specimens illustrating the different rocks and formations on which Forest Trees and Shrubs grow in the county in which the competitor resides. The specimens to be accompanied by a Report. (A Medal.) The successful collection to be the property of the Society. Bute- shire, having already been reported on, is excluded. X. For the best and approved Report on the distances apart at which Forest Trees, of different species, should be planted in differ- ent soils, altitudes, and situations. (A Medul.) XI. For an approved Report on the Plantations of which the competitor is Forester. (Three Medals.) One to be awarded fer the best Report from each of the countries—England, Scotland, and Ireland—and competition to be confined to each country respec- tively. Reporters must state the extent of plantations under their charge, the kind of timber grown, soil, situation, management, age, &e. The counties already reported on are excluded. XII. For an approved Report on the management of Forests in Germany, France, or other places on the Continent. (A Medal.) Special reference to be made to any appliances or modes of cul- ture and treatment not generally adopted in this country, but followed in such arboricultural schools as those of Nancy and Hanover, and elsewhere abroad. Foreigners are specially invited to compete. XIII. For an approved Report on the different Ages at which the various sorts of Timber Trees usually grown in Scotland may be most profitably felled in different soils and situations. (A Medal.) XIV. For an approved Report on the Diseases most incidental to Forest Trees, including those that affect the roots as well as the bark, branches, and foliage. (A Medal.) XV. For an approved Report on the results obtained by expe- rience of Seedlings of Conifers, being the produce of trees grown in Britain, as compared with plants obtained from foreign-ripened seed. (A Medal.) XVI. To any Member of the Society who shall send to the Secretary from abroad, cones or seeds of Forest Trees of new or rare species or varieties, capable of germination and of thriving in this country. (A Medal.) To be awarded when fifty of any sort, or fifty plants in all, have been successfully raised. These plants to be the property of the 68 APPENDIX. Society, and to be balloted for amongst Members intimating their desire to have them. The packages to be delivered free of cost to the Society at any British port. XVII. For an approved Essay or Report on any subject con- nected with Arboriculture. (A Medal.) XVIII. For any marked advantageous improvement on any of the Implements used in Forestry. (Models or Implements to be accom- panied by a Report.) (A Medal.) For conditions of Competition, see Proceedings of Annual General Meeting of 4th November 1875. All Essays and Reports intended for Competition must be given in to the Secretary not later than 25th September, and all Collections of Cones, Woods, and Geological Specimens not later than 25th October 1875—each bearing a motto, and being uccompanied by a separate sealed envelope bearing the same motto outside, and containing a card with the name and address of the Author. APPENDIX. 69 Abstract of the Laws of the Scottish Arboricultural Society, as amended to November 1874. I. The object of the Society shall be the promotion of the science of Arboriculture in all its branches, by periodical meetings of the Members for the reading of Papers ; by offering Prizes for Essays and Reports on the Practical operations of Forestry, and publication of the same; and by such other means as may be found advisable. II. The Society shall consist of the following classes of Members : —1. Proprietors, Factors, Nurserymen, and others, paying an annual subscription of Half-a-Guinea ; 2. Head-Foresters, and others, paying an annual subscription of Five Shillings; 3. Assistant Foresters, and others paying an annual subscription of Three Shillings. III. Any Member may become a Life Member by compounding for his annual subscriptions by a single payment—those of the First Class paying Five Guineas; and those of the Second and Third Classes, Three Guineas. IV. The Society shall elect a limited number of Honorary Members, —gentlemen who have acquired eminence in the Science of Arbori- culture, or who are otherwise deemed worthy. V. All annual subscriptions shall be payable in advance, at the Annual General Meeting in November. VI. In addition to the annual subscriptions above stipulated, the Society shall receive, from those friendly to its objects, Donations of larger or smaller amount. VII. A Candidate for admission into the Society must be recom- mended by at least one Member, and shall, on payment of his annual subscription, be immediately admitted a Member of the Society, subject to the revision of the first General Meeting thereafter. Any Member of the Society introducing a New Member shall be held responsible for the first year’s subscription of such party. VIII. The affairs of the Society shall be conducted by a Pre- sident, five Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor, and fifteen Councillors—these office-bearers to be elected annually at the General Meeting in November ; the three Councillors at the top of the list to go out annually, but one to be eligible for re- election. IX. A General Meeting of the Members shall be held on the first Wednesday and ‘Thursday of November annually, for the election of New Members, the appointment of Office-Bearers, awarding of Prizes, the reading of Papers, Discussion on selected subjects, &c. JOHN SADLER, Secretary. 70 APPENDIX. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1874-75. PRESIDENT. Joun Hurron Barrour, M.D., M.A., F.R.SS.L. and E., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. VICE-PRESIDENTS. The Right Hon. W. P. Apam, of Blairadam, M.P. Hueu Ciecuorn, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithy, St Andrews. Wettwoop H. Maxwett, of Munches, Dalbeattie. Roserr Hurcutsoy, F.R.S.E., of Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Joun Grant THomson, Wood Manager, Grantown. COUNCIL. Joun M‘Laren, Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. Hucu Fraser, Stanwell Nursery, Edinburgh, Davin MircHeti, Nurseryman, Edinburgh. Joun M‘Grecor, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld. ALEXANDER Ricuarpson, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge. James Morrart, Forester, Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith. James Surv, Forester, Donibristle, Fife. Witut1am M‘Corquopate, Forester and General Wood Surveyor, Jeanie Bank, Perth. vant TuHomson, Deputy-Surveyor, H.M. Chopwell Woods (de- ceased), Joun ALLAN, Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh.. James Micuig, Forester, Wemyss Castle, Kirkcaldy. Tuomas Merruven, Nursery and Seedsman, Edinburgh. CuHar.ezs S. France, Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik. D. Scorr, Wood Manager, Darnaway Castle, Forres. Joun AnpDERsoN, Nurseryman, Perth. JUDGES. Wiuiam Gitcurist (Convener), Forester, Cluny Castle. Joun M‘Larey, Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry. D. Scorr, Wood Manager, Darnaway Castle, Forres. COMMITTEE ON TRANSACTIONS. The Secretary (J. SADLER), Editor. Dr Circuorn, of Stravithy, St Andrews. Roxsert Hurcuison, of Carlowrie, Kirkliston. Witu1aM Gorriz, of Rait Lodge, Edinburgh. SECRETARY. Joun Sapuer, F.R.Ph.S., Lecturer on Botany and Natural History in the Royal High School, and Assistant to the Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. TREASURER. : GxorGe Cricuton (of Messrs G. & M. Crichton), 18 Princes Street, Edinburgh. AUDITOR. Joun OrpD Macxenziz, W.S., of Dolphinton. = = > 5 4 nn * a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIET TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. EDITOR AND SECRETARY JOHN SADLER, F.R.P.S., LECTURER ON BOTANY IN THE ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL, AND ASSISTANT TO THE REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, VOL. VUL “ eT Bz ree EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY M‘FARLANE & ERSKINE. MDCCCLXXVIII. CONTENTS OF VOL, VIL The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any facts or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. PAGE I, Address delivered at the Twenty-second Annual Meeting. By JouN Hutron Batrour, M.D., M.A., F.R.SS.L. & E., Pro- fessor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, - - 1 II. Experiments in Planting Sand-hills. By JAmes HvTTOoN, Forester, Moy, - - : . - . 19 III. On the Present State and Prospects of Arboriculture in Hamp- shire. By ANDREW Purses, Highclere Castle, Newbury, . 25 IV. Pruning in relation to the’Production of Timber. By Joun B, SmytTu, Forester, Duff House, = : - 5 54 | V. The Failures of the Larch. By WitL1AM Gorriz, Rait Lodge, Trinity, : 5 ; : : : : 61 VI. On the Age at which various Timber Trees in Scotland may be most Profitably Felled. By D. F. M‘Kernziz, Forester, Mel- } drum House, . < : ‘i 5 5 70 VII. On the Distances at which Forest Trees should be Planted on } different Soils and Situations. By Lewis Bayne, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, é : 4 A : 77 VIII. The Age of Trees, ; : , ; - c 84 IX. On the most Profitable Mode of disposing of Home-grown Tim- ber. By D. F. M‘Kenztn, Forester, Meldrum House, . : 88 X. Onthe Anatomical Structure of the Leaf as a means of determining the species of Abies. By W. R. M‘Nas, M.D., Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, Dublin (with Plate), - 93 XI. Onthe Timber Supply of Australia. By the Hon. Mr Kricnavrr, Member “of Legislative Assembly of South Australia. With Note by R. Hurcutson of Carlowrie, V.-P.S.A.Soc., so LO — vi XIII XIV. XVIII. XIX, XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXYV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. CONTENTS. . On the Cheapest and most Effectual Means of Clearing Land for Planting. By D. F. M‘Kewnziz, Forester and Overseer, Meldrum House, Old Meldrum, On the Disease of the Larch. By D. F. M‘Kewnziz, Forester and Overseer, Meldrum House, Old Meldrum, i Report on Old and Remarkable Trees growing on the Estates of Bayham Abbey and Wilderness Park, in the County of Kent. By James Durr, Wood Manager, Bayham Abbey, . On the Arboriculture of the County of Kent. By James Durr, Wood Manager, Bayham Abbey, Tunbridge Wells, . On the Deleterious Effects of Sulphur upon Iron Fencing. By Tuomas WILKIE, Forester, Invergarry, Fort-Augustus, . Report on the Meteorological Observations made at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, By ALEXANDER BucHAN, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, . On Two New Modes of Fencing. By THomas WILKIE Forester, Invergarry, Fort-Augustus, = 5 % On Insects Injurious to Forest Trees, and their Destruction. By Matcotm Dunn, Palace Gardens, Dalkeith, . . Brief Account of the Royal Forest School at Vallombrosa. By Hueu CiecHorn, M.D., Stravithie, St Andrews, On the Best Method of Seasoning Timber. By THomas Wixi, Forester, Invergarry, Fort-Augustus, Address delivered at the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting. By the Right Hon. W. P. Apam of Blairadam, M.P., The Movements of Fluids in Stems, considered in relation to the Felling and Seasoning of Timber. By W. Ramsay M‘Nas, M.D., F.L.S., ; > : - Report on the Forests of India. By C. F. Amery, Forest Department, North-West Provinces, India, On Forest Schools. By Rey. J. CroumBiz Brown, LL.D., On the Woods and Plantations of the Mackintosh Estate in Brae Lochaber. By JAmMEes Hutton, Sub-factor, Roy Bridge, Kingussie, P : : ; - On the Use of Dynamite and Tonite in Forestry. By D. F. M‘KeEwnziz£, Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire, 7 On the Best Kinds of Wood for Charcoal, and the Process of Charring. By Roperr Baxrer, Forester, Dalkeith Park, , 3 , A : A PAGE 136 140 147 153 165 168 171 173 182 190 193 203 213 225 233 241 246 CONTENTS. XXIX. Cryptogamic Plants Injurious to Forest Trees, and their Treatment. By Matcorm Dunn, the Palace Gardens, Dalkeith Park, - p , XXX. Report on the Meteorological Observations made at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, in connection with the Influence of Forests on Climate. By ALEXANDER BucHAN, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, . XXXI. On Tree Measurements. By Sir RopertT CuristIson, Bart., APPENDIX (A) . Abstract of the Annual Account for the Year 1874-75, . List of Members, corrected to January 1876, . Subjects offered for Competition during 1875-76, - . Abstract of the Laws of the Society, as amended to November 1875, . Office-bearers for 1875-76, . ; : 5 of WD Ee APPENDIX. (B) . Abstract of the Annual Account for the Year 1875-76, . List of Members, corrected to February 1877, . Subjects offered for Competition during 1876-77, . Office-bearers for 1876-77, © ON A APPENDIX () 10. Abstract of the Annual Account for the Year 1876-77, . é 11. List of Members, corrected to March 1878, 2 3 - 12. Subjects offered for Competition during 1877-78, - : 13. Office-bearers for 1877-78, . : : : : - 14. Laws of the Society, ‘ : ‘ : : 4 vil PAGE 250 25 26 at 47 49 50 68 71 72 a «~ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. VOL. VIIL—PART I. EDITOR AND SECRETARY. JOHN SADLER, F.R.PhLS., LECTURER ON BOTANY IN THE ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL, AND ASSISTANT TO THE PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. WM, Z NT S - LIBRARY oa » new YORK Ay 4 2 1979 CONTENTS. The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any facts or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective authors. I. bt he RV. v. VI. VII. Vit IX. om oF bD Address delivered at the Twenty-Second Annual Meeting. By JOHN Hutron Batrour, M.D., M.A:, F.R.SS.L. and E., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, . Experiments in Planting Sand-hills. By JAmMEs HurTrton, Forester, Moy, On the Present State and Prospects of Arboriculture in Hamp- shire. By ANDREW PEEBLES, Highclere Castle, Newbury, Pruning in relation to the Production of Timber. By Joun B. SmyrvuH, Forester, Duff House, .. The Failures of the Larch. By Witi1AM Gorrie, Rait Lodge, Trinity, . ; : ; ; : On the Age at which various Timber Trees in Scotland may be most Profitably Felled. By D. F. M‘Kenziz, Forester, Mel- drum House, On the Distances at which Forest Trees should be Planted on different Soils and Situations. By Lewis Baynz, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele, The Age of Trees, . On the most Profitable Mode of disposing of Home-grown Timber. By D. F. M‘Kenztz, Forester, Meldrum House, APPENDIX. . Abstract of the Annual Account for the Year 1874-75, List of Members, corrected to January 1876, aed . Subjects offered for Competition during 1875-76, , . Abstract of the Laws of the Society, as amended to Nov ote 1875, . Office-bearers for 1875-76, PAGE 84 88 ————————— Gy & MES Bees aN 18 PRINCES STREET, EDINBURGH eee eee as DESIGNS MADE AND ESTIMATES FURNISHED FOR PRESENTATION PLATE MARBLE CLOCKS ranging in Price from 80s to £80 Ormolu Clocks and Side Ornaments for the Brawing Boom MABBIAGE PRESENTS in great variety CONSISTING OF Huuit Spoons SALTS BISCUIT BOXES WAITERS CRUET FRAMES Ecco FRAMES FISH CARVERS FINE GIL CABD TBAYS TOILET SETS MINIATURE FRAMES fod ee BEST ELECTRO-PLATED TEA SETS from £7:108 to £15 from £10] tor S70 W 7 Ng Gj SMCRICHTON-£. a \ Js i i >| ABawmue IF A MAGNIFICENT ASSORTMENT OF JEWHLLEBY af the most ARTISTIC DESIGNS lonogram Fockets IN GOLD ano ENAMEL ALSO MOUNTED IN GEMS BROAD Golk Derklets ENGAGEMENT RINGS IN DIAMONDS ‘RUBIES SAPPHIRES EMERALDS AND OTHER GEMS Strom 20/- to £200 PEBBLE JEWELLERY SILVER TEA SETS trom £24 to £50 CARRIAGE CLOCKS WITH ALL THE LATEST IMPROVEMENTS from £83:10s to 20 Guineas LADIES" GOLD WATCHES GENTS’ GOLD WATCHES SILVER WATCHES : LADIES’ GOLD WATCH CRADNS GENTS" GOLD CHAINS G. & M. CRICHTON I8 PRINCES STREET, EDINBURGH from £5 to £25> from £10 to £50 from £2 to £15 from £3 to £20 from £3 to £30 Ags * 7 =A i ~ - a . ip § ' Md : é fe, a : b. a Sit ; wh a re ee ) € phase amiga - BT aie~ 4 i a > ae ipsa eee Sch ade We cans, i een Cs me f 4 > oll a 3m Lies n 4 % oy ; ’ . ha Tw ; i, bd , - ' ‘ Nae ‘ 1 P 4 = ’ ‘ s y ' . « a t be Arte ADVERTISEMENTS. NURSERYMEN AND SEEDSMEN TO THE QUEEN, AND MOST OF THE NOBILITY AND LANDED PROPRIETORS IN THE KINGDOM. FRANCIS & ARTHUR DICKSON & SONS, SEED GROWERS, MERCHANTS, AND NURSERYMEN, 106 EASTGATE ST., AND UPTON NURSERIES, eS ee FARM SEEDS, FIELD ROOT SEEDS.—Turnips, Mangolds, and other Field Root Seeds of Specially Select and Improved Stocks. We have for many years devoted much time and the greatest possible pains to the Improvement of Field Roots, by con- tinued progressive Selection of Roots of the most perfect type. Our Stocks of these are therefore so pure and fixed in character, and altogether of such high- ca qualities, that they cannot be excelled, and are very superior to those gener- ally offered. CLOVERS, RYE GRASSES, and NATURAL GRASSES.—Finest Samples all thoroughly cleaned and perfectly free from weeds. Samples and Prices on appli- cation. MIXED NATURAL GRASSES and CLOVERS for PERMANENT PASTURES, ROTATION CROPS, &c., composed of the Finest Seeds, are prepared to suit every description of Soil, Situation, and Climate. Ee FARM SEEDS of the Value of £2 and upwards sent Carriage Free to any Railway Station in the Kingdom. VEGETABLE AND FLOWER SEEDS, These Seeds are of the most select character, each having been saved from the Purest and Best Stock known of its kind, and they are such as cannot fail to merit the approval of the most fastidious cultivator. GARDEN SEEDS of the Value of £1 or upwards sent Carriage Free to any Station, NURSERY DEPARTMENT, We respectfully invite attention to our almost unlimited Stock of Trees and Plants of every kind and size, all of splendid quality, much superior to those generally offered in Nurseries, which includes :— Forest Trees, Puants for Coverts, HEDGEs, &c. HARDY ORNAMENTAL TREES, CONIFER®, &c. EVERGREENS, FLOWERING PLANTS, and SHRUBS. Fruit TREES.—Over 20 Acres, Magnificent stuff. Many Fruiting Trees. Rosres.—Many Acres, Extra Strong Blooming Plants. VineEs.—Well-ripened, for Planting and for Fruiting in Pots, STOVE and GREENHOUSE PuantTs, &c., in perfect health. F, & A. D. & Sons’ Nurseries cover more than 150 Acres, and their Trees and Plants have the important recommendation of being—1st, unusually hardy; 2d, remarkably well-grown ; and 3d, abundantly rooted. The extremely bleak and exposed situation of their Nurseries renders their Plants unusually robust and hardy ; and their practice of planting thinly on the ground, and repeated transplantation, causes compact, handsome growth, with abundance of roots so that safe removal to any distance is insured without per- ceptibly retarding the growth of Plants. *,* Inspection Invited.—Note to ask for the ** Upton.” NURSERIES, 2s. Cab Fare from Chester Station. The following Illustrated and Descriptive Priced CATALOGUES will be forwarded FREE by POST on application :— FOREST AND HARDY ORNAMENTAL AGRICULTURAL SEEDS, TREES, SHRUBS, Xe. VEGETABLE AND FLOWER SEEDS, FRUIT TREES, DUTCH FLOWER ROOTS, STOVE AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. | ’ ROSES AND HOLLYHOCKS. ADVERTISEMENTS. THE LAWSON SEED & NURSERY COMPANY Garver TE), EDINBURGH anp LONDON, Successors to the late Firm of PETER LAWSON & SON, The Queen’s Seedsmen, &c., Most respectfully invite personal inspection of the NURSERIES, comprising GOLDEN ACRE, WINDLESTRAWLEE, WARDIE, and BANGHOLM, which abound in every description of Forest TrEEs, ORNAMENTAL TREES and SHRUBS, Fruit TREEs, Rosxs, &c., &e. 8 CATALOGUES FREE UPON APPLICATION. London Address: 54 BISHOPSGATE STREET WITHIN, E.C. Registered Office: 1 GEORGE IV. BRIDGE, Edinburgh. PLANTING SEASON. THOMAS METHVEN & SONS Beg to request the attention of those about to plant, to their Stock of SEEDLING & TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES, ORNAMENTAL TREES anp SHRUBS, RHODODENDRONS, &c., which is very extensive and in a healthy vigorous condition. Samples and Prices on application. LEITH WALK AND WARRISTON NURSERIES, EDINBURGH. a ADVERTISEMENTS, ESTABLISHED 1833. SEEDLING anp TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES AnD GENERAL NURSERY STOCK. Weare. LALR YD & SINCLAIR, NURSERYMEN, SEEDSMEN, ayp FLORISTS, DUNDEE. Nurseries—Monifieth and Broughty Ferry. Ten minutes walk from Monifieth Station (Caledonian Railway). To Landed Proprietors and their Agents. WILLIAM GORRIE, LANDSCAPE GARDENER, GARDEN ARCHITECT, CONSULTING FORESTER, &c. Terms for Advice, Plans, Reports, &c., may be had on application. Address—RAIT LODGE, TRINITY, Epinzurcu. IRON FENCING. Fencinc, Improved WIRE Frencinc, Iron HurpLes, TREE and PLANT Guarpbs, FreLD and ENTRANCE GATES, IRon BripcEs, STasLE FITTINGS, &e., &e. Game-Proof and Poultry Wire Netting at Greatly Reduced Prices. A new Illustrated Catalogue is now Published and will he forwarded free on application. Lawn-Mowers by all the Best Makers, GARDEN SEATS and CHatrs, Rou- LERS, WATER BARROWS, SYRINGES, ORNAMENTAL WIRE HurpLes, WIRE ARcHWAYS and BorpERING, Iron and Wire EspaLiers, PEA-TRAINERS, SEED PROTECTORS, &c., &c. 25 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh; and Clydesdale Iron Works, Possil Park, Glasgow. ADVERTISEMENTS, CHARLES FRANCE & SON, NURSERYMEN, SEEDSMEN, anp FLORISTS, LANARK. Forest Trees, Ornamental Trees, Fruit Trees, Shrubs, and Roses. GREENHOUSE anp BEDDING PLANTS, &c., &c. Reports and Specifications for laying down New and filling up Old Plantations, Valuations of Growing and Cut Timber, &c., &e. Contract Planting Executed on the most Moderate Terms. Gardeners, Foresters, and Land-Stewards, Recommended. Gentlemen who apply to us will find the characters of the individuals we may recommend such as we describe. The Nurseries are Five minutes’ walk from Lanark Railway Station. BALFOUR’S BOTANICAL WORKS. I. CLASS-BOOK of BOTANY. Third Edition. 8vo, pp. 1114, with 1800 Wood Engravings. Price 21s. Il. INTRODUCTION TO PALHONTOLOGICAL BOTANY. §8vo. Illus- trated. Price 7s. 6d. Ill. MANUAL OF BOTANY. New Edition. Crown 8vo, with 963 Wood En- gravings. Price 12s. 6d. Ty. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. New Edition, with 427 Wood Engravings. Feap. 8vo. Price 3s. 6d. This Work is used at the Examinations of the Highland and Agricultural Society. By J. Hutton Batrovur, M.D., Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Epinsurcu: ADAM & CHARLES BLACK. This day is published, I. HANDY BOOK OF ORNAMENTAL CONIFERS, and of RHODODEN- DRONS and other AMERICAN FLOWERING SHRUBS suitable for the Climate and Soils of Britain. With descriptions of the best kinds, and con- taining Useful Hints for their successful cultivation. By HucH FRasErR, Fellow of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Crown 8vo, 6s. A New Edition, revised and enlarged. II], DOMESTIC FLORICULTURE, WINDOW GARDENING, and FLORAL DECORATIONS. Being practical directions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement of Plants and Flowers as Domestic Ornaments. By F, W. Bursipce. Crown 8vo, with numerous Tllustrations, 7s, 6d. A New Edition, enlarged and brought up to the present time. Ill, HANDY BOOK of the FLOWER GARDEN. Being practical directions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement of Plants in Flower Gardens all the Year Round. Embracing all classes of Gardens, from the largest to the smallest. With Engraved and Coloured Plans. By Davip THOMSON, Editor of The Gardener. Crown 8yo, 7s. 6d. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EDINBURGH AND LonpDoN, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. I. Address delivered at the Twenty-second Annual Meeting. By Joun Horton Batrour, M.D., M.A., F.R.SS.L. and E., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. I am deeply sensible of the honour which you have conferred upon me, in electing me President of the Scottish Arboricultural Society, and I shall now endeavour to discharge a part of the duties of that office, by giving you a short address, at the com- mencement of another Session. Since we last met we have to record the death of one of our oldest Members, who may be called the father of the Society, William Thomson, Chopwell. He was born in Fifeshire, on the estate of the Earl of Moray, in 1828. When he was quite young the family removed to Inverness-shire, where his father acted as Forester on the estate of Petty till the year 1843. During this time William attended school at Ballochy, where he obtained the rudiments of his education. In 1843, his father, having been appointed Forester to the Earl of Stair, removed to Wigtonshire. Here the son acquired his first knowledge of forestry. Lord Stair’s woods and plantations in Galloway are very extensive and varied, and afford ample opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of arboriculture. Thomson’s father was a thorough practical forester, and gave excellent instruction to his son, who, after serving his apprenticeship, went to Cally and acted as journeyman. When twenty years of age William accepted the superintendence of the woods of the Marquis of Londonderry at Wynyard Park, and remained there till 1851. After filling various situations with credit and efficiency, Mr Thomson was, on VOL, VIII, PART I. A 2 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. the recommendation of Mr Brown, appointed in 1853 to the sur- veyorship of the Chopwell Woods, which office became vacant about that time. At Chopwell he carried out plans, previously suggested by Mr Brown, and he did so to the entire satisfaction of the Crown. His work there is well known to all foresters, and need not be dwelt upon. He was the founder of this Society, and took a deep interest in its proceedings and its prosperity. He died suddenly from heart-disease, leaving a widow and five chil- dren. Our Society has now fully attained its majority—having existed twenty-one years—and the number of its Members has largely increased. Good work has been done by associating together Scottish arboriculturists and others interested in forestry, by holding an annual meeting for the reading of papers and for discussion, as well as by the publication of “ Transactions,” which now amount to seven volumes, and embrace papers on many important ques- tions connected with the cultivation and preservation of forests. The reputation of the Society has been widely extended, and we have Members from all parts of the United Kingdom, as well as from foreign countries. Many landowners have joined our ranks, and I trust that ere long we shall number on our list a larger number of pro- prietors in Scotland. The subject of forestry is of great import- ance, whether we regard the landscape, the climate, or the re- sources and productions of a country. Our object is to encourage this department, to see that our foresters are properly instructed ; that our woods are judiciously managed ; and that thus the pro- sperity of our country is advanced. The effects of trees on the climate of a country were long ago noticed by Humboldt, who showed that, by the rash cutting down of trees and the denudation of countries, the water supply of large districts had been seriously injured, and the character of the climate changed for the worse, while, at the same time, the means of procuring timber and fuel were destroyed. The great function of the leaves of trees is the evolution of oxygen gas, by means of which the purity of the atmosphere is maintained, This function of plants is antagonistic in its results to animal respiration, for while the latter takes oxygen from the atmosphere and replaces it by carbonic acid, the former remove carbonic acid, fix carbon, and give out oxygen. The processes of respiration and combustion are pouring into the atmosphere a large quantity of carbonic acid es on ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. 3 gas, while the leaves of plants are constantly removing it, and under the action of light substituting oxygen. The life of man and animals is thus intimately connected with the vegetable pro- ductions of the globe, not merely as regards the materials for their food, but also in reference to the air they breathe. ‘“ How inter- esting,” says Johnston, “is it to contemplate the relations, at once wise and beautiful, by which dead organic matter, intelligent man, and living plants are all bound together! The dead tree and the fossil coal lie almost useless things, in reference to animal and vegetable life ; man employs them in a thousand ways as min- isters to his wants, his comforts, or his dominion over Nature ; and in so doing he himself directly, though unconsciously, minis- ters to the wants of those vegetable races, which seem but to live and grow for his use and maintenance.” When forests are destroyed, as they are everywhere in America by the European settlers, with an imprudent precipitation, the springs are entirely dried up, or become less abundant. In those mountains of Greece, which have been deprived of their forests, the streams have disappeared. The inconsiderate felling of woods, or the neglect to maintain them, has changed regions noted for fertility into scenes of sterility. The sultry atmosphere and the droughts of the Cape de Verd Islands are attributed to the destruction of forests. In large districts of India the climate and rainfall have deteriorated from a similar cause, and the Government are now using means to avert and remedy the mis- chief. In wooded countries, where the rains are excessive, as in Rio Janeiro, the climate has been improved by the diminution of the trees. Gardner says, that since the axe has been laid on the dense forests surrounding the city of Rio Janeiro, the climate has become dry. In fact, so much was the quantity of rain diminished, that the Brazilian Government was obliged to pass a Jaw prohibit- ing the felling of trees in the Corcovado Range. Miller states that the cultivation of grain, which has so completely transformed one part of the wilderness of Australia, has already exercised a most beneficial influence on the increase of rain, The conservation of forests is unquestionably a subject of great importance. It is now occupying the attention of the Govern- ment of India, and of many other Governments, and it will sooner or later engage that of all our colonies. The physical history of every country proves incontestably that a mode- rate extent of forests, especially on mountain slopes and ele- 4 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. vated rocky ground, where tillage is impracticable, promotes in a high degree both the agricultural and manufacturing interests of individuals, as well as the physical soundness and productive resources of extensive countries. It appears that the influence of forests in a physical, economical, and hygienic point of view, is deserving of a more complete investigation than it has yet re- ceived, By felling trees which cover the tops and sides of moun- tains, men in every climate prepare, at once, two calamities for future generations—the want of fuel, and the scarcity of water. In reference to the climate of Malta, and the want of trees in the island, Mr Milne Home has written to me as follows :— - “Having been a couple of months in Malta, and seen the evils arising from want of water, I wrote a paper on the subject, which appeared in the Transactions of the Scottish Meteorological Society. Copies of this paper having been sent to Malta, the Governor and Legislative Assembly appointed a Commission of scientific men to take my paper into consideration. The Com- mission reported in favour of my views. In order to carry them out, the Governor (Sir Patrick Grant) sent a message to the Assembly to recommend £1000 a year to be appropriated for ten years, to carry out the scheme of planting the island. The Assembly agreed to vote £800 a year for ten years. “The scheme was begun to be put in operation in 1873, so that there has been scarcely time to have many plantations made, and still less to judge of the effects. But I have received written reports mentioning the places where plantations are being formed, and specifying the kinds of trees planted. ‘There is, as you will understand, no possibility of getting young trees from any other country. It is only by seed got from other countries, and grown in the island, that young trees can be raised, in order to be formed into plantations. I can only say, further, that the scheme is in progress, though, of course, many years will elapse before any good effects can become visible.” Mr Milne Home’s plan, you will thus perceive, has been taken up in earnest by the authorities of Malta. His proposals have been favourably noticed in foreign journals, and reprinted by the Austrian Meteorological Society. In the last part of our Transactions (p. 285), there is a report by Mr Buchan on the Meteorological Observations made at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the influence of forests on climate, particularly as connected with rainfall, The observations have been carried ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875, 5 on for some time by Mr Currie at Winterlaw and Gallowhill, Lanarkshire, kindly placed at the disposal of the committee by Mr Maclean, Carnwath. The results are interesting, and are given in a tabular manner in the Transactions (vol. vil, p. 285). They are, however, still imperfect. It will require a series of years to bring out satisfactory results. It is, therefore, of im- portance that the committee should continue the work, and that Mr Currie, who is an excellent observer, should be engaged to carry on the observations. The work requires some extra expen- diture in the way of instruments, etc., for which the sum of £8 or £10 will be required. If the investigation is carried on, the committee will be able to report to the British Association meet- ing at Glasgow in September. Forests may thus be regarded as influencing, in a marked degree, the climate of a country. They are also necessary for the production of timber ; and, in this point of view, it is of great im- portance that trees should be properly planted, and that their roots and branches should have free scope. If we wish trees to be firmly rooted, we must allow the branches to spread freely. When they are so planted that the branches and leaves of contiguous trees do not interfere with each other, and thus all parts are exposed to air and light equally, the roots spread vigorously and extensively, so as to fix the plants in the soil, and to draw up copious supplies of nourishment. But in crowded plantations, where the branches are not allowed freedom of growth and exposure, the leaf-buds are either arrested or feebly developed and the roots are of necessity injured. They do not spread, and the trees are lable to be blown over by the wind ; they exhaust the soil in their vicinity, circumscribed by the roots of the trees around; their functions become languid, and thus they react on the stem and branches, so that the additions to the wood are small, and the timber is of inferior quality. In such a plantation there is a marked difference between the trees on the outside and those in the centre; the former, having their branches and leaves fully exposed on one side, grow with com- parative vigour, and form excellent timber on that side of the stem where light and air are admitted ; while the latter, hemmed in on all sides, are drawn up like bare poles, and produce a small amount of ill-conditioned wood. A crowded plantation, in which the trees are allowed to increase in size until they interfere with each other, cannot be easily reclaimed ; for every attempt at 6 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. thinning in this advanced stage of growth is accompanied with the risk of exposure to the blast, which speedily levels trees having no firm hold of the soil. Forests, in some countries, are the chief source whence fuel can be obtained, and it becomes necessary to guard the plantations, to see that the trees are properly cultivated for the purpose, and that the stock of fuel is kept up by constant renewed planting. Dr Cleghorn, our late President, so far back as 1851 called attention to the need of commencing a system of forest conservancy in India, with a view to securing a permanent supply of timber and fuel, and he pointed out the danger of their exhaustion unless proper means were taken for the protection of the forests. I understand that the organisation of the Indian Forest Department is steadily progressing, and that there are now about seventy trained officers distributed over the numerous provinces of that vast empire. An Annual Report on the valuation surveys, and the progress of the work in all the districts, is published, and may be consulted in the library attached to the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. It is worthy of notice that a Forest Conference was held at Simla on 4th October. Dr Brandis, President, and thirty-four officers were present. This is the third annual gathering for considering diffi- cult questions of forest administration. The first number of a monthly periodical called The Indian Forester, edited by Mr Schlich, was published at Calcutta in July. It is intended to supply a medium for the interchange of ideas among forest officers, and for the record of observations and experiments. In his late address, Sir John Hawkshaw, at Bristol, pointed out the importance of economy in fuel, the enormous consump- tion of it at the present day, and the risk of exhaustion of our coal beds. His remarks on the expediency of economising fuel apply even more strongly to those countries in which the chief supply is furnished by the forests. The conservation of forests in many countries thus becomes a very important matter, and nowhere is this more necessary than in our Indian possessions. It is essential, therefore, that a proper staff of officers and men should be employed in the department of forestry in India. Such a staff can only be obtained by the proper training of men for the purpose. In Continental countries, espe- cially in France and Germany, forestry is taught as a regular system, practical instruction and lectures being given in the forests, the extent of which gives large scope for the training of young ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. 7 foresters. There can be no doubt that forest schools might be established in this country, which would fulfil all the important conditions required for the student. There are certain matters connected with forest management which may be best illustrated on a large scale, but there seems to be no reason why our students of forestry should be sent to the Continent for their training. There ought to be sufficient means in Britain for imparting practical instruction in the management of forests. The Secretary of State for India has adopted the plan of send- ing the students abroad. By so doing, the students are compelled to study the language of these countries in the first instance, for it is impossible to understand lectures and demonstrations without a thorough knowledge of the language in which they are given, and especially with the peculiar technical language used (and which cannot be got in books). Much time is thus spent, which might be better employed in studying some of the languages of India, so as to fit the forester for his employment in that country. I am disposed to think that the education of foresters should be conducted on some such plan as the following :— In the first place, we must suppose that students have had a fair education in English, arithmetic, writing, and composition. Instruction should next be given in the elements of natural sciences, especially botany, with its bearings on arboriculture, the nature of soils, and their adaptation for different kinds of trees, along with a knowledge of elementary chemistry. In studying botany, the young forester should attend to the mode in which plants are nourished, the functions of the root, stem, and leaves, the structure of the wood, the effects of vegetation on climate, rain- fall, etc., the diseases to which trees are liable, and the mode of prevention and cure. The necessary information in regard to the elementary sciences can now be acquired at many of our schools, A certain amount of knowledge of Latin is valuable for the names of trees. The instruction given in science should not be merely from books, but should be by practical demonstration, and by teaching the principles of forest cultivation. Schools for practical forestry might be established in the vicinity of well-wooded districts, where draining, planting, thinning, pruning, felling, drying, and trans- portation could be practised, and the remedies for diseases tested. I believe that the requisite instruction for candidates for the forest departments in India and our colonies could be acquired 8 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. in this country if Government took up the matter, and called in the aid of the Scottish Arboricultural Society. If the student acquires a thorough knowledge of the principles and practice of Arboriculture in this country, he could easily get the additional information required for such countries as India in the way of forest management and rules. These details must be acquired on the spot, as they vary in different places. The Highland and Agricultural Society is now offering burs- aries for youths who prosecute natural science studies in schools, especially such departments as botany, physical geography, chemistry, and geology. The announcements are as follows :— 1. That the Society shall grant annually ten bursaries of £20 each, and five of £10 each, to be competed for by pupils, at schools to be approved of by the Directors, which include, or are willing to introduce, the teaching of chemistry, and the follow- ing branches of natural science—physical geography, botany, and geology, into their curriculum. 2. That the £20 bursaries shall be tenable for one year at the University of Edinburgh for the purpose of enabling the holders to take the classes necessary to qualify for the Society’s Certificate or Diploma; and the £10 bursaries to be tenable for the same period, to enable the holders to receive another year’s preparation at the schools. 3. That the bursaries shall be determined by examination held in Edinburgh by the Society’s examiners. For instruction in arboricultural principles botanic. gardens in this country offer many facilities. There is at Kew an excellent arboretum, illustrating all the most important trees now culti- vated in this country. Dr Hooker has done excellent service in this respect, following in the footsteps of his distinguished father. We have, in the Botanic Garden here, a very good collection of forest trees, but the space is far too limited for the purpose of arboricultural study ; and, hence I have requested Government to purchase grounds, lying in the vicinity of the Garden, for an Arboretum. There is now an opportunity of acquiring Inverleith grounds, on the west of the Garden, and I hope that Govern- ment will not lose the opportunity now offered of acquiring them, from the trustees of Fettes College. These grounds have been recently visited by many eminent arboriculturists and landed proprietors, and all agree in the importance of securing them. The difficulty, on the part of the Treasury, is the purchase money. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. 9 I hope that this may be removed by the indefatigable exertions of our Lord Provost, so that this addition may be made to the Botanic Garden, and may be supported by an annual Government grant. The following is the proposal made in a recent document entitled The Edinburgh Municipal Police Amendment Act :—‘ That the Magistrates and Council be empowered to acquire by agreement, or, failing such agreement, compulsorily, under the Lands’ Clauses Consolidation (Scotland) Acts, for the purpose of enlarging the Royal Botanic Garden in Inverleith Row, all or so much of the lands of Inverleith, situated to the west of the said Royal Botanic Garden, as may be considered necessary.” I may here express my obligations to Lord Provost Falshaw, the Duke of Buccleuch, the Lord Justice-General, the Right Honourable W. P. Adam, M.P., Sir James Elphinstone, Sir Robert Christison, and Dr Lyon Playfair, for the warm interest they have taken in the matter. The grounds now proposed to be incorporated with the Botanic Garden are well situated, have a varied surface, a fine exposure, and are enclosed to a considerable extent. Our Society has supported the scheme, and last year memorial- ised Government on the subject. The matter is an urgent one, and will be again brought under the notice of Government; and I hope that the Members of our Society who are also Members of Parliament, will give their support. Sir Robert Christison, in his opening address to the Botanical Society last session, entered fully into the importance of acquiring the Inverleith grounds for an Arboretum. The address is pub- lished in the Transactions of the Society for 1875. Various important publications on Arboriculture have been recently issued ; among others, I may mention a work by Messrs Dupont and De la Grye, on the “ Physiology, Culture, Productive Quality, Industrial, and Commercial Uses of Indigenous European and Foreign Woods,” which contains ample details on all these subjects. The work is drawn up by a naval architect and a con- servator of forests. It is hoped that it may be translated into English. The authors commence with the physiology of plants, and make remarks on the effects of climate, elevation, moisture, and dryness on the cultivation of trees. Next, they treat of cultiva- tion ina commercial point of view. The forest statistics of various countries are then noticed ; and remarks are made on the working of forests and the production of charcoal ; on the quality of timber 10 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. and its defects ; the mode of desiccation and the quantity of water existing in wood at different seasons; the felling of timber and the machinery to be used in its manipulation. The attention of our colonies also has been directed, of late years, to the conservation of forests and the cultivation of trees fitted for various economical purposes. I would especially allude 10 reports on the durability of New Zealand timber in constructive work, ete., recently published in that colony.* One of these is by Mr T, Kirk, who points out the differences observed in the durability of timber in different localities, arising chiefly from the following causes :— lst. Trees having been felled during the growing season. 2d. Timber having been used immediately after being felled. 3d. Trees having been felled before the heart-wood was suf- ficiently matured. 4th. The use of defective timber, whether shaky, worm-eaten, or soft, from having been grown in unsuitable situations. 5th. Defective workmanship. No care having been taken to exclude rain from imperfect joints, exposed hewn beams left with a concave upper surface, so as to retain rain, etc. 6th. The application of paint and tar, etc., to the surface when the timber is in an unseasoned condition. Mr Kirk also states that it is important that timber for public works should be selected in the forest by some competent person, so that unsuitable timber, whether defective from having grown in situations not naturally adapted for the particular kind required, or from not having arrived at maturity, might be rejected at the outset. The seasoning of timber also requires special attention. Mr Kirk alludes to the various attempts made to increase the durability of timber by the absorption of mineral solutions. Mr Kirk has given a list of the more important trees in Australia, with their qualities. A report has also been given by Mr J. M. Balfour, engineer at Dunedin, on the strength of the New Zealand woods, and by Captain E. W. Ward on their capability of bearing pressure. In Vol. VIL. of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institu- tion, edited by Dr Hector, issued July 1875, there is a valuable paper on Forest Culture by Mr F. C. Firth. In this article the author speaks of the effects of forests on the landscape, as a shelter for birds which devour insects, as well as for timber and for * See Article in Edinburgh Review for October 1875. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. 11 fuel. He dwells specially on the destruction of forests, and makes the following remarks :— “The effect of the destruction of forests is the result of the per- sistent and reckless disregard of a plain natural law. To strip a semi-tropical country of its forests is to convert it into an arid deserte In more temperate countries denudation of timber pro- duces barrenness of soil, increases insect life, creates drought, diminishes rain, accelerates evaporation, causes floods and un- timely frost, lessens the production of food, diminishes population, and finally degrades a nation. The glory of many an ancient empire has departed with its forests. To-day Persia and Spain present sad but warning spectacles of desolation and degradation, which, though partially due to various causes, have been intensified by the destruction of their forests.” Mr Firth points out the necessity for conservation of forestsin New Zealand, otherwise some of the best trees, such as the Kauri, will be doomed to extinction. He maintains that Government should not sell for cultivation any forestland. The forest lands in the hands of natives ought to be purchased by Government as quickly as possible. Mr Firth points out that forestry, as practised in Europe, can only apply to the cutting of timber in New Zealand in its general principles because the trees there are much larger than in European forests. The Kauri (Dammara australis), and many other forest trees, vary from 3 feet to 9 or 10 feet in diameter, and grow on the sides of valleys or gullies more or less precipitous. It is not easy to know how trees of this diameter, and running up to 70 or 80 feet without a branch, can be felled without inflicting much damage on the surrounding young timber. Baron von Mueller, director of the State Garden, Melbourne, has published a pamphlet on Australian Vegetation. In speaking of the baron’s exertions, the Marquis de Beauvin, in his “ Voyage Round the World, 1866-68,” says :— “ Besides the charming public gardens at Melbourne, there is a Botanical Garden situated on a verdant hill. This is the little kingdom of Dr Mueller. The misfortune of Australia is the want of water. Dr Mueller wishes to remedy this; he is succeeding, He distributes over the interior of the country thousands of shrubs and young trees reared in his nurseries. Little streams form rapidly round the young woods. The results are splendid already ; and each year confirms this, On barren plains he has created woods and streams in more than a hundred places.” 12 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875, Recent reports have also been given on the Bavarian forests, and Professor Ebermeyer has written a work on the study of the Physical Influence of Forests on the air and soil, their effect on the climate, and their hygienic importance. The following is an extract from a letter by Mr M‘Vean, Japan :— ““YoKOHAMA, 10th August 1875. “The other day the Minister of Public Works called and asked if I could help him to get some Indian tree seeds. For some years back in this country the people have been using up all the timber to make charcoal, and have neglected to plant new trees, so now they are nearly out altogether, and some of the mines cannot be worked for want of coal and charcoal. What is wanted specially are some quick growing trees suitable for the making of charcoal, also some of the best hardwood trees of different kinds, and generally the seeds of useful trees, and especially hard woods.”’ ~The New York Times declares that the reckless destruction of the American forests is fast producing a condition in which there will be occasion for real alarm. In the whole United States, we are told, there is left but one really great tract of timber. It lies in the far extremity of the country, and consists of about one-half of Washington Territory, and one-third of Oregon. California has perhaps about 500,000 acres. In New York there is no con- siderable forest left, except the Adirondach Region. Railroads have been the means of levelling at least 150,000 acres of trees annually for ties, of which there are 60,000,000 yearly required. Farmers are also enormous consumers of trees. The extravagant waste of timber, caused by the felling of forests and burning of the trees to bring the land under cultivation, goes on still at a fearful rate. From 1860 to 1870 no less than 12,000,000 acres of forests were thus wantonly destroyed. For fuel, also, vast tracts are cleared. It took 10,000 acres of forest to supply Chicago with fuel for one year, 1871. The necessity for a Com- mission of Forestry, and the need of efficient law for the preserva- tion of forests in all the United States, needs no further argument than these facts. Another important question is the growing of trees in our towns and cities. This is most important not merely as regards amenity and landscape beauty, but also in reference to hygiene. The Bir- ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875, 13 mingham Town Council has voted £1000 for the purpose of planting trees in the open spaces of that town, and protecting them with guards. It is difficult for trees to grow well in the midst of dwelling-houses, unless space is allowed, and unless means are taken for consuming smoke, especially in the case of mills and manufactories ; and of preventing the issue of noxious vapours, such as sulphurous acid and hydrochloric acid. The injury done to trees by alkali works is very great. This subject was investi- gated many years ago by Sir Robert Christison and Professor Turner of London, and they found that a very small amount of these gases in the atmosphere, even so little as 5555 part, Injured the leaves of trees, and made them fall off. A. subject of great importance, and which must necessarily engage the attention of foresters, is the causes of disease and decay in forest trees. This subject has been strongly brought under notice by the falling off in the Larch, and other forest trees. The most common causes of disease are,—improper soil, ungenial climate, frosts, long-continued rains, great drought, violent storms, parasitic plants, insects and worms. The diseases of plants may be divided in the following way :— 1. Diseases which are caused by an excess or deficiency of those agents which are necessary for the vigorous growth of plants; such as soil, light, heat, air, and moisture. 2. Those which are either originally caused, or, at all events, aggravated and modified by the attacks of parasites, more particularly belonging to the natural order Fungi. 3. Those due to the action of poisons, either taken up from the soil or from the atmosphere. 4. Those caused by mechanical injuries of different kinds, as by the attacks of animals, more particularly insects. Diseases caused by changes in the atmosphere are often epidemic, and spread over extensive districts of country. Those which are due to parasitic fungi are propagated by contagion—the minute spores being carried by the winds. Exciting causes operate with great intensity in cases where plants are previously predisposed to disease. Thus, if a plant is in an enfeebled or weak condition, it is very liable to suffer both from epidemic and contagious diseases. The cryptogamic diseases of plants must be considered con- tagious, since they are produced by the contact of one portion of organic matter with another. The contact of diseased cells pro- duces disease in healthy cells. The action is analogous to what takes place with ferment when introduced into a saccharine liquid. 14 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. The liability of the plant to the development of epidemic disease is produced by the state of the atmosphere as regards moisture, the prevalence of hot or cold weather, the amount of light, and probably the electrical condition of the air and earth. The natural decay of plants also renders them liable to attacks of fungi, ete. Thus leaves, before they fall, are often affected. The trunk and branches of a tree become most frequently gangrenous when they have attained maturity. Most epidemic diseases may be averted by keeping plants properly exposed to light, air, and moisture. The influence of the sea breeze, carrying with it saline matter, is prejudicial to most plants. Plantations are frequently injured from this cause. A good illustration is seen at Gosford, near Edinburgh, where the trees, on reaching the top of a wall, are stopped in their growth by the sea breeze, and their tops form an inclined plane proceeding inwards from the wall as a base. Some plants withstand this influence better than others.* The following trees, shrubs, and herbs have been recommended as withstanding the sea air :-— Acer Pseudo-Platanus. Hippophae conferta. Pinus Strobus., Tamarix gallica. Pinea. —— germanica. Cembra. Pyrus japonica. Pinaster. _ Leycesteria formosa, Quercus Ilex. Spirea salicifolia. Pyrus Aria. Colutea cruenta. Hippophae rhamnoides. Sambucus racemosa. The attacks of parasitic fungi cause extensive injury and disease in trees. Some think that the spores of fungi coming into contact with the plant act both as the predisposing and exciting cause of disease ; others, perhaps more correctly, think that some change is first produced in the cells, which enables the spores to find a nidus, and then the disease goes on rapidly, assuming a peculiar type on account of the presence of the fungus. Dry rot is a disease to which the wood of trees is liable. It may be traced, in the first instance, to some alteration in the woody tissue produced by moisture or other causes, and the sub- sequent development of a fungus which spreads its mycelium through the texture, and produces rapid disorganisation, Trees * See two Papers by Mr William Gilchrist and Mr C, Y. Michie, in vol. v. of the Transactions of the Society. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, NOVEMBER 3, 1875. 15 growing in wet and ill-drained soil are subject to rot. The more abundant the alburnum or sap-wood, the more liable are trees to decay. The disease which has recently attacked the larch is attributed by some to the roots reaching ungenial soil, and to the production of dry rot. This rot in the larch begins in the heart- wood, near the root, and it spreads outwards ; layer after layer crumbling like saw-dust. Among the crumbling mass is to be found, in abundance, the mycelium of some fungus. When the rot has reached the alburnum a thick leathery white formation appears between the bark and wood, which formation is identical with the appearances connected with dry rot. In dry rot the decay takes place, in the first instance, in the contents of the woody tubes, and thus a suitable soil is supplied for the spores of fungi, such as Merulius lacrymans or vastator, and Polyporus destructor. When these plants begin to grow, they spread their mycelium with great rapidity. IEf air is allowed to circulate freely around wood, dry rot does not attack it, But if it is placed in a damp situation, without a circulation of air, then decay takes place. The spawn of the dry-rot fungus deprives the woody tubes of their contents, for the purpose of getting the nourishment it requires, and the wood loses its consistency and toughness, the walls of the tubes becoming brittle, and ruptured. The great cause of decay in wood is moisture. Wood in a dry state may be preserved for a long time, as may be seen in the case of wood in some old buildings, as Westminster Hall. Saw- dust is wood in small pieces ; when wet it soon rots, but when dried thoroughly it may be kept for an indefinite period. To have timber in the driest state, it ought to be felled between the fall of the leaf and the spring, the nearer the former time the better. The timber of some trees is much more subject to decay than that of others. The wood of the cypress is very durable. Dilan. 20 0 0O| 8th and 9th,, F 1d. .0> 0 » 56 5 Gihiies 18 0 0/}.10th ss . Shr nO a0) TE Oo A fay os. 17 0 0| Final cutting, - LOS OE 0 £140 0 0 £420 0 0 By these figures it will be seen that the profits from underwood during the early periods of growth are much in excess of larch plantations. Thirty-eight years after planting, the returns are nearly equal, but from that date the larch profits are far in excess of those accruing from alder gullies. Perhaps a more equitable comparison might have been made with hop-wood, hurdle-rods, or hop-poles, all of which are grown in soil suitable for larch. None, however, except hop-poles, give so large or so quick a return as alder gullies. Hop-poles under careful supervision would be a little in excess, but no coppice wood can compare with larch plantations, which yield larger returns in a given time than any other crop. In Berks and Oxon innumerable willow pollards adorn the banks of the Thames. The principal produce of these pollards is firewood, and the returns are often meagre and unsatisfactory. In Hampshire they are not so numerous, but frequently occur in the water meadows, and by the sides of rippling brooks and streams. What an improvement it would be to introduce the black poplar in these positions—a valuable tree almost unknown in the south, but superior to willow pollards, both in remuneration and scenic effect. In its young state it is not so valuable as the larch, but this is more than compensated by its rapid growth. Black poplar matures timber of large dimensions sooner than any other tree. In forty years from planting the final cutting may take place, so that the planter may often realise the profits in his lifetime. The following statement shows the approximate profits, exclusive of ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. 43 expenses, of an acre of black poplar, at fixed periods of five years :— STATEMENT SHOWING THE Proceeds oF AN ACRE OF BLACK POPLAR IN Forty YEARS. At 10 years old, 1st thinning, . : ‘ Ul. ets |, o 2d es : : : il. », 20 ‘s 3d 93 : : Soto: 3M) Sa oe zs 4th ss, : : sae Or oe » 90 es pc), ; ; “eee OO moO 5 Gul. +2. 5, ; : i. OU 1. CO AU 4s final cutting, . ; Pe SY AC gel £210 OO From this it appears that an acre of black poplar may realise a clear profit of £270 in forty years, or an annual rental of £6, 15s. for the time the crop has occupied the land. This will appear large to those who cut from time to time without keeping a record of their transactions. They will be astonished to see such profits from a crop of which the first and second thinnings are quoted as “nil.” But the black poplar, comparatively worthless when young, is one of our most profitable timber trees, well adapted for planting on tracts of wet, cool soil, of little value for agriculture. The Lombardy poplar is better known, and frequently planted adjacent to farmhouses and villa residences, for ornamental pur- poses. The timber is of little value, but is of rapid growth, and the tall conical heads, towering like church spires, are excellent landmarks, and break the monotony of level masses of trees, Their extreme height renders them more susceptible of motion than other trees, and the least blast makes them wave from top to bottom. They form a natural and beautiful accompaniment to buildings, and small clumps are more effective than single speci- mens. These and the aspen poplar are the only two varieties well known in the south. The tremulous motion of the leaves of the aspen is curious, and has occasionally given rise to supersti- tious notions, The long, grey, horizontal branches are not devoid of beauty, but as an ornamental tree it will never take a prominent position. Its wide-spreading roots ramify beneath the surface, and produce numerous suckers which render it unsuitable for lawns or 44 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND PROSPECTS OF pleasure grounds. When the trees attain a large size, they are invariably hollow in the centre; but even when the timber is sound, it is short-grained and of little value. It is curious that the two poplars best known and most cultivated in the south, are those of least value for timber. The Abele tree, or great white poplar, produces timber superior to either of the preceding, grows rapidly, and is more ornamental, but like the black poplar it is practically unknown in Hants. It makes a tall and graceful specimen, with smooth, silvery bark, spreading head, and beautiful white woolly leaves. Its silvery appearance, especially when agitated by the wind, contrasts well with trees of a glossy green or sombre hue. It would prove a great acquisition to English parks and pleasure grounds, and yet it rarely occurs in our most picturesque landscape scenes. Jt delights in a moist loam and sheltered situation, but does not succeed if exposed to prevailing winds. The timber is of good quality, makes excellent flooring, and, in common with all varieties of poplars, has the commendable advantage of being peculiarly uninflammable. In treating of mixed hardwood plantations, I give precedence to the oak, because it is more extensively cultivated than any other tree. The oak is indeed the “monarch of the forest,” and stands unrivalled for majestic grandeur and picturesque effect. Its principal characteristics are the great firmness, power, and strength with which it takes a secure hold of the ground, stout- ness of limbs, twisting of branches, short elbows, abrupt twigs, horizontal arms, expansive head, and bold irregularly swelling out- line. Other remarkable characteristics might be mentioned, such as extreme longevity, extraordinary dimensions, hardness, and durability (what Shakespeare terms the unwedgeable and gnarled oak). It has been termed the bulwark of Old England, the key- stone of her “wooden walls,” and the mainstay of her navy. The bark also is extolled as a useful article of commerce, and an un- failing source of profit. In regard, however, to the “wooden walls” alluded to, and the large profits from bark, these are things of the past. Iron ships are rapidly superseding those wooden walls, and there is no longer the great demand for oak timber of large dimensions. Those knees and elbows that foresters were once so careful to preserve intact, have not the fictitious value which once prevailed. The time has passed for reserving low, crooked, staghorned oaks for Government contractors, and strip- ping Spanish chestnut of large dimensions to send to the dock- ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. 45 yards instead of oak, is also obsolete. Oak bark, which formerly sold readily for £12 or £13 per ton, is now difficult to dispose of at one-third the amount; still the oak continues a favourite tree, and is cultivated extensively not only as coppice timber, but in forming new plantations from acorns or transplanted trees. It is very accommodating in regard to soil and situation, but luxuriates in a deep heavy loam resting on a substratum, through which water percolates freely. When the roots meet with obstructions in passing through the strata, the stem and large limbs pursue a similar deviating course, which produces those knees and elbows once so valuable, and still so picturesque. This character is most distinctly seen when the oak is planted in a heavy soil superin- cumbent on chalk. While the roots remain in the surface soil, the tree grows rapidly and erect; but as the roots approach the chalk the vigour decreases, and it acquires a bushy habit of growth, ‘This peculiarity is strongly marked in several enclosures of the New Forest; not from the roots coming in contact with chalk, but from being planted in poor, gravelly soils, equally un- suited to their healthy development. The New Forest, on the whole, is well adapted for oak, but there are extensive tracts of light, gravelly moorland, which can never produce oak of large size. To plant such tracts with oak-trees and Scotch fir would be injudicious. All soils capable of producing a healthy crop of oaks will grow larch firs, the best nurses for hardwoods. They occupy less space than Scotch firs, are more valuable at all ages, do not overtop the permanent trees so soon, require less attention to pre- vent damage to the main crop, promote a better circulation of air, and are decidedly the most appropriate nurse trees. When Scotch fir and oaks are planted together, one or other of the crops is out of place. If the land is not good enough to grow larch of useful size, oaks are certainly not admissible ; and if it is capable of producing healthy oaks, Scotch firs should be discarded for a better nurse, and more profitable tree. When oaks are planted in poor moorland soil, a large proportion never start into growth, and those that become established take such devious paths in search of food, that they soon exhibit the same peculiarity as those planted on the chalk formation of North Hants. Sucha case, however, would not be a fair example of the capabilities of the New Forest to produce navy timber. In former times, some of the finest oak timber sent to our Government dockyards was supplied from it, and it still boasts of many magnificent trees, 46 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND PROSPECTS OF containing three to four loads of timber each. The New Forest is in the southern division of the county, and its geological forma- tion is London clay, or plastic clay sand and marl. An imaginary line, from Liphook in the east to Winchester and Salisbury in the west, divides the county into two large divisions. Geologically, these consist of chalk and chalk marl in the north, and London clay and plastic clay sands in the south. These London clays are cold and retentive; but if not too wet, and the superincumbent soil of an adhesive nature, they produce magnificent oaks and excellent timber. Light, sandy, or gravelly soils on substratums of cold plastic clays have a tendency to grow oaks short of stem, with large bushy heads. This is caused by the roots ramifying rapidly in the light, warm surface soil, and producing masses of fibrous rootlets incapable of penetrating the impervious subsoil. If, on the contrary, the superincumbent soil is adhesive, the roots acquire a tapering and pointed form, with strong penetrating rootlets, which overcome almost any resistance. This propensity to produce fibrous rootlets in warm soils, and to become “ carrotty rooted” in heavy soils, is common to all trees, but is more marked in some species. Every forester has probably observed that shallow roots produce short stems, and that twisted grotesque heads indicate the same general formation of roots. This explains why the oaks planted in the New Forest gravels are never likely to make noble specimens, or produce valuable timber. Hardwood Plantations are advantageously treated as a whole, as it seems undesirable to classify the several varieties. The term mixed hardwoods is indefinite, and may include few or many sorts, planted alternately, massed according to the number of varieties, or indiscriminately mixed. The sorts generally planted in the south are oak, ash, birch, beech, and lime-tree. The English elm (Ulmus campestris) is grown extensively in hedge-rows but seldom in enclosures, and the Spanish chestnut, sycamore, and plane trees, are rarely planted except for ornament. The varieties enumerated are placed according to the frequency in which they occur in our woods. The ash frequently occurs in mixed hardwood plantations and is a useful and profitable acquisition, In them it is difficult to define its value as a crop, but when planted in masses it affords more certain data. In deep loamy soils and sheltered situations the ash is a profitable tree. It is a rapid grower, can be closer confined than most hardwoods, and is valuable at all ages, In the south 3500 trees may be planted to an acre, and as the ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. 47 smallest thinnings can be disposed of at remunerative prices, we may calculate on selling 2700 at a profit. This, however, can only be expected in favourable situations, and where hares and rabbits do not prevail. It is disputed among practical foresters whether the ash or the larch is the most profitable crop in a given number of years. Some uphold the ash, others the larch, and others maintain that a combination of the two gives the best results. Much depends on the nature and condition of the soil. Cool, moist, loamy soil, in which ash luxuriates, is not suited for a healthy crop of larch, and vice versd. If the crops in each case are equally adapted to the surrounding circumstance, then the locality in which they are grown will exert a controlling influence on the final results. A larch crop under favourable conditions is undoubtedly the most profitable in Scotland, yet in the south of England the case is occasionally reversed. Larch commands a ready sale in this county, but prices are not so well sustained where the local demand is limited, as where there is easy access to collieries, If large consumers are distant from the plantations, the expense of transit limits competition, and depreciates the value of the timber. Consequently larch, though easily disposed of, does not command such prices as in the mining districts of the north. Again, ash thinnings are put to more varied uses in England than in Scotland. The suitability of ash to various industries causes a continually increasing demand at advancing prices. During the past five years the price has advanced 5d. per cubic foot, and the value of small thinnings in a proportionate ratio. In the same period the price of larch has only advanced 2d. per foot, and small poles have not altered in value. Thus we must con- sider the locality in which the crop is to be grown when deciding these respective crops. The following statement shows the approximate value of an acre of ash in Hamp- shire in seventy years. We suppose the trees are planted at 34 feet apart, and allowing for 800 casualties, we have 2700 for thinnings. 48 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND* PROSPECTS OF ACRE OF ASH PLANTATION. At 6 years thin out 700 trees at 5s. per 100, Deduct expenses of thinning, ete., At 10 years thin out 600 trees at 10s. per 100, Deduct expenses, etc., ‘ At 14 years thin out 400 trees at 25s. per 100, Deduct expenses, etc., - At 18 years thin out 250 trees at 6d. each, . Deduct expenses, ete., At 22 years thin out 150 trees at 1s. each, Deduct expenses, ete., At 26 years thin out 120 trees at 1s, 8d. each, Deduct expenses, etc., At 30 years thin out 100 trees at 3s. 6d. each, Deduct expenses, ete., At 35 years thin out 80 trees at 5s. each, Deduct expenses, etc., At 40 years thin out 60 trees at 10s. each, Deduct expenses, etc., At 45 years thin out 60 trees at 25s. each, . Deduct expenses, etc., At 50 years thin out 50 trees at 30s. each, Deduct expenses, ete., At 55 years thin out 40 trees at 40s. each, . Deduct expenses, etc., At 60 years thin out 40 trees at 50s. each, . Deduct expenses, etc., At 70 years, final cutting, 50 trees at 60s. each, Deduct expenses, etc., Expenses of sales and original planting, Trenching and making good the ground, Net proceeds of an acre of ash in seventy years, £1 15 20 Le OR 0 ae Up (0) 1 TORO 6) 0) 0) 2-080 6 5 0 200) 710 0 2° L030 LOS OO 33 ad) (0) LjeelOr x6 3810 0 20: «0 0 4 0 0 30 0 0 5210" 10 fow 0710 ya ie 10> SOO (eh 80 0° 0 8, 0) 0 LOOMOT 9 9:10), 0 150 Oe 12 0 0 26 0 8) 30220 £015 0 110 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 SOG Teo 14 0 0 16 0 0 25 0 0 68 0 0 68° 0 "0 ia 00 90 10 0 138 0 0 “614 0 0 34 0 0 £480 0 0 We have thus a clear profit of £480 for seventy years, or an annual rent of £6, 17s. per acre. This seems large, and yet I believe that under favourable conditions the actual receipts will ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. 49 exceed the preceding quotations. I avoid retaining an excessive number of trees towards the end of the periodical thinnings. I have also valued the trees under, rather than over, their value. For instance, at sixty years old forty trees are cut, which are entered at 50s. each, certainly not an extravagant value. If ash trees are planted in deep loam and sheltered situations, no one will consider 30 feet an unusual growth for sixty years, The selling price of growing ash is 2s. per foot, so that trees containing 30 feet of timber should be valued at 60s. each, clear of expenses. It will further be observed that I only cut ninety trees after they are fifty-five years old, whereas it is not unusual to retain that number after the last thinning. Birch is a valuable underwood, but unprofitable as a timber tree. It rarely acquires large dimensions, and its timber is of little value. It prefers a dry, warm position, but succeeds tolerably well in cool moist soils, provided water does not stagnate at the roots. It grows rapidly when young, but its rate of growth decreases as the tree increases in size. It is a graceful tree, with long, slender, drooping spray. After rain, the leaves emit a deli- cious odour, which makes birches desirable specimens for lawns and pleasure grounds. In mixed hardwood plantations, their silvery bark, glittering among the stems of other trees, is pecu- liarly picturesque. They seldom occupy prominent places in mixed hardwood plantations, but frequently occur in Scotch fir enclosures on gravelly moors. They are accommodating in regard to soils, and often spring up spontaneously on moorland covered with heath and furze. In such soils they are sometimes con- sidered more remunerative than Scotch firs, but in my opinion this is a fallacy. The early returns are superior; but at the end of sixty years, a Scotch fir plantation judiciously managed will realise 30 per cent. more than birch. The thinnings are valuable, because the whole of the spray is made into brooms, and the stems are utilised for brush or rake ware ; whereas the Scotch fir thinnings are only fit for firewood or inferior fencing rails. The usual practice in birch plantations is to plant the trees 34 feet apart, and to allow the whole to grow undisturbed for nine years. It is then sold standing ; but previous to sale, about 500 trees per acre are marked and reserved for a permanent crop. The stems shoot again, and are recut after another period of nine years, and the trees are thinned as much as required at the same time. This is repeated from time to time until all the trees are cleared, VOL. VIII., PART I. D 50 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND PROSPECTS OF and succeeded by stockshoots, which have been reserved in the same way as the previous crop. Another system is to treat the whole as a plantation from the beginning, when the trees are thinned early and frequently, and the undergrowth is a secondary consideration. All the cut stems where the trees have been thinned are allowed to shoot, and the spray is invariably converted into brooms previous to each periodical thinning. Of the two systems I prefer the first, but both are open to objection, and not so profitable for gravelly, moorland soils, as a crop of Scotch firs. To mix birch with Scotch fir I consider to be a mistake. Having referred to the beech and lime trees, little more requires to be said. Both occupy prominent positions in our parks and pleasure grounds, but not in our mixed plantations. Some sixty or eighty years ago, beech was extensively planted in North Hants for ornament, and probably also for profit. At that time large beech timber was valuable, but its value has depreciated, and is held in little repute. The beech is now only planted in excep- tional cases, causing a scarcity in the country ; and as the demand exceeds the supply, prices are again rapidly advancing. Within six years the price of beech has advanced from 10d. to 1s. 6d. per cubic foot ; but in its young state it is still difficult to dispose of. At present rates, I consider it the most profitable tree for the chalk formations, in situations too exposed for the lime-tree. The reaction in regard to planting beech has not yet begun, but in a few years we may see it more extensively planted in North Hants than hitherto. In sheltered positions, the lime-tree excels the beech for rapidity of growth, is more valuable when young, and when mature, sells readily for 2s. 3d. per cubic foot. Even the limbs and large branches are valuable ; and if over six inches in diameter, can be disposed of at prices varying from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per cubic foot. It is not adapted for elevated positions ; and if exposed to prevail- ing winds, assumes a stunted and unhealthy appearance. For avenues, and planting by the sides of roads, it is a general favourite. When planted in double rows, as is frequently done, it forms a spacious canopy, whose shade is an agreeable resort in the sultry summer months. In July and August it is pleasant and refreshing to walk under its umbrageous head, listening to the busy hum of myriads of bees, and enjoying the sweet perfume of its fragrant flowers. Like the beech, it has hitherto been culti- ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE. 51 vated principally in parks and pleasure grounds, but it is increas- ing in favour, and is now occasionally introduced in mixed hard- wood plantations. It stands pre-eminent for profitable planting on soils superincumbent on chalk, and is worthy of more attention than it has hitherto received. Puture Prospects. The intelligent forester will have gathered from the preceding remarks that the future prospects of the woods and plantations of Hampshire are, on the whole, unsatisfactory, particularly in districts where underwood is in good demand at remunerative prices. The area of underwood and coppice is steadily increasing, while that of timber plantations is gradually diminishing. Larch, Scotch and spruce fir enclosures, as they become matured, are generally suc- ceeded by underwood, for which there is a demand in the neigh- bourhood. Occasionally a few mature trees are left to retain the wooded appearance of the district, but these are a poor substitute for a healthy crop of timber. Scotch and spruce firs are seldom planted in new enclosures, even where the soil is incapable of growing any other crop. Larch is more frequently planted, but the new plantations on private properties are not nearly equal to the areas annually cleared or converted into other crops. This defici- ency, however, is more than compensated by the large enclosures periodically planted in the Government forests. Several of these are in Hampshire, the principal one being the New Forest, where there are large tracts of unproductive land, over which freeholders and proprietors of adjoining estates have certain rights. Freeholders’ rights, however, do not preclude the Crown from planting any portion of these wastes so soon as the trees on an equal portion of the enclosed forest are out of danger from cattle, and thrown open in exchange. Thus large tracts are enclosed and planted from time to time. These are probably more than equivalent to the decrease of larch plantations on private properties. On soils suit- able for larch, underwood is generally cultivated, and on soils only adapted for Scotch fir, larch is occasionally planted. This, I believe, is caused by the greater demand for larch poles than Scotch firs of the same age. The difference in value tempts people to plant larch in poor gravelly soils, and the result is a diseased and unprofitable crop. The prospects of arboriculture in Hants would be improved if larch was more planted in soils at present occupied with coppice; if Scotch fir was not so com- 52 ON THE PRESENT STATE AND PROSPECTS OF pletely ignored where large tracts of land exist, incapable of growing any other crop; and if the various hardy coniferz re- ceived a fair share of attention. The cultivation of underwood has a more deteriorating influence on oak coppices than on any other sort of trees, as will be apparent from the following facts. The general practice is to reserve a number of stockshoots for permanent trees. These are afterwards severely thinned to encourage the growth of underwood, often the main consideration. Under any circumstances, they tend to pro- duce short stems, with wide-spreading bushy heads, which damage the undergrowth. When severely. thinned, this peculiarity is more marked, and the trees soon acquire a sickly and stunted appear- ance. The fewer trees left, the more money will each successive fall of underwood realise. By thinning severely, therefore, we increase the value of future crops of underwood, and augment the profits by the sale of the timber trees, This system gives excellent results so long as the timber trees last ; but when these are cleared without a succession, the prospective value of the crop is seriously diminished. To prevent deterioration, a subsequent crop of trees must be planted to succeed the stockshoots which are removed. It is also requisite that the blanks occurring by the decay of old stools should be regularly filled up with young trees. Where planting is systematically neglected, the underwood rapidly deteriorates until it may be decided to trench the ground for agricultural purposes. One case may be cited near Andover, where an enclosure of over 1000 acres is at present being con- verted into an arable farm. ‘The enclosure consisted chiefly of hazel underwood and oak timber. Both crops had been rendered permanently defective by neglecting to plant, and injudiciously clearing the oak timber. Such cases are the result of mismanage- ment. With careful attention and adequate planting, the prospects of our coppice woods might be much improved. On many well- regulated estates, where present profits are not the chief con- sideration, coppice woods are not only remunerative, but are increasing in value. The prospects of plantations cultivated exclusively for timber are more encouraging. They are, on the whole, healthy and vigorous, and promise larger profits than can be derived from any other source, whether the plantation consists of Scotch firs, spruce, larch, oak, ash, lime-tree, or mixed hardwoods. If planted for timber, and judiciously managed, the result will be more satis- ARBORICULTURE IN HAMPSHIRE, 53 factory than striving to accomplish two things at once. When these are planted in favourable soils, and are afterwards thinned and regulated as they require, there can be little doubt as to the future results. The only cases where failure may be anticipated are when by due care the crop has not been adapted to surround- ing circumstances. This occasionally occurs in mixed plantations, but more frequently where only one sort of tree is planted. The reason is obvious. Where various trees are intermixed, those that are misplaced can be removed in the usual course of thinning. If the forester has discretion to remove the worst and all un- healthy trees, those best suited to the soil and situation will soon predominate, and a healthy crop be secured. This is the best way of treating a plantation where trees have been planted in un- genial positions. The time, however, is approaching when such mistakes will be things of the past; when the ultimate result of planting a piece of land will be so correctly ascertained, and so clearly defined, that mistakes cannot occur; when particular trees will no longer be planted, because they are in demand, but because they are specially adapted for the geological formation and soil ; when every arboriculturist will be as conversant with the physio- logy of trees, as the farmer is with the nature and habits of the animals under his care; and when practical foresters will be as cheerfully and liberally rewarded as their abilities and superior intelligence deserve. When this is the case, we will be able to report more favourably on the present state of our woodland, and the prospects of private properties will improve so rapidly that employers will be amply repaid for any encouragement they give to those in charge of their woods and plantations. 54 PRUNING IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TIMBER, IV. Pruning in relation to the Production of Timber. By Joun B. Smyru, Forester, Duff House. Arboriculture may be looked upon as the oldest of all sciences, and can be traced back to the earliest existence of man upon earth. Scriptural records inform us that in the past ages our ancestors laboured as we ourselves labour. In the remotest centuries we are told by oral tradition that planting and felling of timber formed subjects of legal enactment. Need we wonder that a science so old and so useful, and which displays so beautifully the works of an all-wise Creator, has been extolled by the writers of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as by modern anthors? Evelyn, in his “Sylva,” says—‘ Men seldom plant trees till they begin to grow wise, and that is when they grow old.” But we are well aware that the science of Arbori- culture is not in that stage of advancement which it justly de- serves. Many engaged in the science at the present day have no fixed principles, their only theory being that their fathers before them did it. Doubtless, many things have been discovered by chance, while others have been the result of accident. However skilful a person may become by experience, more success is to be expected when he acts upon fixed rules, the soundness of which has been ascertained. At the present day, there is no want of empirical rules, based upon practice only, supposed to be suc- cessful ; but our opinion is, that no man is capable of performing the operation of pruning until he be conversant with the laws of vegetable physiology. In the first part of our subject, viz., pruning physiologically, we hold that every man should have a thorough knowledge of the growth of trees, so that his operations may be in harmony with the laws of vegetable physiology. In the second part, viz., “In relation to the production of the greatest value of timber,” we are of opinion that this requires practical skill, combined with know- ledge of the foregoing laws, in order that a wound may cause the least possible loss of blood. It is also essential to know whether the wound produced will be beneficial, or otherwise, to the plant operated upon. In the art of pruning, we are convinced there is nothing more detrimental than extreme measures. It is essential to success, in this branch of forestry, that we act upon fixed principles. We PRUNING IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TIMBER. 55 are all aware that plants are living beings, although they have no power of locomotion, and are entirely destitute of sensation, We propose to give a brief description of pruning, physiologi- cally considered, in the form of a dialogue between a proprietor and his forester, and hope that it may tend to establish sound principles of practice. Dialogue between my Lord Buchan and his forester :— Lord Buchan—Having selected you to undertake the duties of forester on my property, I should like to hear your opinion upon pruning, the more so that you are a member of the Scottish Arbori- cultural Society. JI am aware that pruning is a subject to which you have devoted great attention. You say that no man should attempt pruning unless he is acquainted with the laws of vegetable physiology. I shall therefore ask you several questions relative to these laws ; and, first, What are plants ? Forester—Plants are organised bodies endowed with a principle of life, capable of being either starved to death or fattened by abundant matter ; in fact, they are analogous to animals. Plants also consist of masses of tissue, both vascular and cellular, and woody fibre, each performing their various offices. Lord Buchan—Let me hear what the root is, and what office it performs. Forester—When a seed is deposited in the soil, and begins to grow, the root is that part that strikes into the earth, and con- tinues to lengthen beneath the soil, sometimes to a considerable depth ; but for the healthy execution of its functions there must be access of air. The office of the root is to fix the plant in the soil, and to absorb food, although not absorbing by all parts of its surface. The chief supply of the plant is from the extremities of the newly-formed roots ; these are called spongioles, and are of the most delicate structure, and easily injured, therefore, in removing plants from one place to another, the greatest care is necessary for the preservation of these organs. The spongioles have no power in selecting food, but whatever the earth or air may contain, they suck up, provided it be fluid enough to pass into their mouths, or through the sides of their tissue, so that they are capable of absorbing that which is injurious as well as that which is suitable. Lord Buchan—N ow, tell me as to the stem—its structure and development. Forester—The structure of stems in their earliest state is ex- tremely ‘simple, being merely a mass of cellular tissue, which is 56 PRUNING IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TIMBER, the first trace of the pith. The most vigorous stems are those that grow most erect, therefore the more a stem deviates from that position the less vigorous it is. Stems increase annually in diameter by the addition of new matter to the outside of the wood and inside of the bark. In the case of the oak, for instance, the duramen or heart-wood is hard, dark, and more durable than the alburnum or sap-wood. The duramen or heart-wood, when young, was simply alburnum or sap-wood, and afterwards became solidified by secretions peculiar to the species. Stems have also the power of propagating their own species by means of leaf buds ; and they also form the channels through which the sap flows from the roots to the leaves. Lord Buchan—What are leaves, and what office do they per- form ? Forester—The leaves are the lungs of the plants; they are traversed by veins, and enclosed in a skin or epiderm, which pro- tects them from great variations in temperature. It is in the leaves that all the secretions of plants are formed, and the more they are exposed to light and air, the more active will the vital powers be. This clearly explains why plants languish and die if deprived of their leaves and if crowded to the exclusion of solar light and heat. You will find the same effect from excessive pruning, for if you lop off branches with the leaves close to the trunk, you remove a number of its essential organs. Lord Buchan—I shall now revert to our particular subject, and ask you—What effect pruning has upon plant life? Forester—There are various methods of pruning, some of which are injurious to plant life. Close pruning is a system practised by many; this is doubtless very injurious and detrimental to the value of the timber. Another system of pruning, viz., foreshorten- ing or disbudding, I consider to be beneficial for the future develop- ment of the tree. This system also produces the greatest quantity of sound timber, and consequently the greatest value. Lord Buchan—How is close pruning injurious to plant life? Forester—Trees, like most other plants, derive their nourish- ment from the soil, and their nutritive organs are the roots, the stem, and the leaves with the branches—the leaves acting as the lungs of the tree, or its breathing organs. In spring, when the ground is sufficiently warm, the spongioles absorb the nutritive fluid or sap, and pump it into the tree, after which it describes two courses, viz., an ascending and a descending one. The ascend- PRUNING IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TIMBER. 57 ing sap is simply the water of the soil; but after it reaches the leaves it combines with the gases absorbed from the atmosphere, through the pores or hairs of the leaves ; here it exhales the fluids not essential to vegetation, and is changed into the nutritive food of the plant. It is thus evident that to lop off a branch close by the stem is to divest the tree of a portion of its essential organs. You had an instance this year, on the 13th March, when you saw a number of men pruning on a neighbouring estate by the road- side, and asked my opinion as to the system practised. I said that the trees were individually weakened by the loss of so many of their nutritive organs. There was also nothing done to arrest the progress of contending leaders, nor of overstrong side branches —nearly as large as the trunk itself. The large wounds were like- wise injurious to the value of the timber, for it is impossible for nature to heal them over without causing a defect in the bole. On the 20th of the same month, your lordship returned and ex- amined the trees, and saw that they were all bleeding, especially the sycamore or plane tree, which was bleeding severely, and there was a hole in the earth as if made by water from a spout. Un- questionably such a loss must be injurious to plant life. You had also an example among your own oaks, which were taken out some years ago. ‘These had been all close pruned, the result being that the quality of timber was greatly marred by the wounds not having healed ; and from the water having got into the wound, the wood was materially damaged. I therefore maintain that close pruning is injurious, and should never be resorted to, especi- ally after the plants have attained any size. Lord Buchan—I am satisfied with your explanation. I re- member looking at those large wounds referred to, and at my own oaks, and observing that the timber was damaged in both cases, evidently by the close pruning to which you object. I wish you now to prove that foreshortening or disbudding is beneficial to the quality of the timber, and, at the same time, not injurious to the trees. Forester—In the operation of pruning, it is easy to overstep judicious limits, and the actual evils have arisen, no doubt, from abuse of the practice. It would be as unreasonable to suppose that the accumulation of timber should be increased by reducing the roots as by reducing the foliage, both being necessary, as we have shown. Foreshortening or disbudding the branches is beneficial to the timber in this way: If you reduce a branch by 58 PRUNING IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TIMBER. one-third of its original length, more sap or vigour is thrown into the main stem, and this branch does not appropriate too much of the food of the plant for its own support; and also those large wounds on the bole, so injurious to timber, are avoided—indeed, this system of foreshortening causes no injury to the tree. It cannot be injurious to plant life in this way, for although you have foreshortened the branch to about two-thirds of its original length, there are still as many leaves on the remaining portion as keep up a healthy action, which is all that is necessary. Again, supposing a tree to be possessed of several lateral branches, claim- ing to be the main stem or leader, by foreshortening or disbudding a number of these branches, in proportion as the case may be, but selecting or leaving the best for its future leader, by its having the terminal bud left, it will make a much larger growth than any of the others, and will soon gain a supremacy over them all. This method is beneficial to the timber, because it prevents those large wounds on the bole; and by reducing the branches indicated, it throws more vigour into the main stem. Again, although you have foreshortened or disbudded the branches, you have left as many branches and leaves on the tree as are essential for its future support. Further, by foreshortening or disbudding, you can even bring a tree of a branchy habit to a more formal appear- ance without injuring or weakening its system. Your lordship saw the effects of this system on your own young larches, some of which lost their leaders. By disbudding all the lateral branches save one, some of them made large growths the same season, while those left untouched in the same plantation did nothing. You will also recollect those hardwoods which we pruned this spring on April 15th by foreshortening, and that you were well pleased with the effects. On close examination, you admitted that it was impossible it could be injurious to plant life, or detrimental to the quality of the timber, because those large wounds: on the bole were avoided that would have been inflicted by close pruning. You also saw that there was no bleeding. You are further aware of my having been in the Edinburgh Botanical Garden, and haying examined the deodars pruned by Mr M‘Nab by fore- shortening. Then trying the same experiment on a few of our own, we found that the method tended to increase the growth of the main stem. Lord Buchan—I am satisfied with your explanation, and can corroborate all you have said. From the fact of my having wit- PRUNING IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TIMBER, 59 nessed your operations, I confess that the evils of pruning have arisen from abuse of the practice. Now, then, as the second part of our subject is “ Pruning in relation to the production of the greatest value of Timber,” let me ask you—Suppose I wish a mixed hardwood plantation to produce the greatest value of timber, whether should I have recourse to pruning on the system suggested, or allow the trees to grow, so as to prune themselves ? Forester—By all means have recourse to pruning on the principles already laid down, so as to produce the greatest value of timber, and keep the trees from pruning themselves, 7.¢., nature’s pruning. Lord Buchan—Why should I avoid nature’s pruning ? Forester—If timber trees stand so close upon the ground, so that nature prunes them herself, the branch is amputated and the wound healed at the same time. This she does gradually but surely ; but she heals also a portion of the decayed branch. By this method of pruning, you will often see on the timber, on its being sawn up, a defect in the bole, caused by these black knots so common in such cases. For example, you will recollect the sale of hardwood this year. The ash sold was tall and clean when growing ; the planta- tion had never been attended to, the trees being allowed to prune themselves. These ashes, after being sawn into barrel-staves, were unsaleable, owing to the black knots, some of which went through the stave—in fact, two-thirds of the wood had to be burned, This is the general result of nature’s pruning, upon hardwoods especi- ally. But by “foreshortening or disbudding the branches,” you prevent all this, for by gradually pinching in the branches, you prevent the growth of over strong side branches, thereby throwing more sap and vigour into the main stem. Lord Buchan—I remember the circumstance you allude to. Then, suppose I was to grow a young plantation of Scotch pine, with a view to produce the greatest value of timber, would you advise close pruning, foreshortening, or nature’s pruning ? Forester—In the pine or fir tribe there is a great amount of resin, which, if you apply close pruning, will doubtless bleed very much—in fact, some of the species, if severely cut, will bleed for years. Severe close pruning is injurious to all forest trees, but more especially to conifers. Foreshortening or disbudding is applicable to all classes, and in the pine tribe it may be more freely practised. Ifa pine loses its leader, you will assist the tree greatly in forming a leader, by foreshortening the upper tier of 60 PRUNING IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TIMBER. lateral branches but one, for that branch having its terminal bud left will unquestionably make the largest growth, and ultimately form the leader ; if this plan was more freely adopted, there would be fewer trees with large bushy heads and wide-spreading arms in our plantations, In allowing pine woods to prune themselves, the system is no doubt abused. The trees are overdrawn by excessive crowding upon the ground ; and after the timber attains size, then thinning is often too freely administered, so that the wind gets too ready access ; and from the want of roots the trees are unable to withstand severe storms, especially in exposed situations. arly thinning, boldly, but systematically performed, when the planta- tions are young, is the only way to establish a good sound crop of timber, as well as timber of the largest dimensions, and conse- quently the greatest value. Lord Buchan—You are still in favour of foreshortening; then how would you prune those small dead branches in that fir wood— would you saw them off or leave them as they are? forester—I would not advise sawing them off, because generally a piece of the dead branch is often left within the bark, and as the tree grows, it heals over it. I prefer breaking them off, for the branches will then break within the outer bark, leaving no dead wood to be enclosed. You thus assist nature in performing that operation, and she has nothing to do but commence the healing process, THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. 61 a V. The Failures of the Larch.* By Wuiiuiam Gorriz, Rait Lodge, Trinity. The failures of the larch, whether considered economically or scientifically, is the most important subject that now forces itself upon the attention of both forest-owners and foresters ; for not only have failures of the larch involved vast pecuniary losses in many districts of Britain, but the diversity in appearance which the plague-stricken trees present under apparently similar, as well as very different influences, has led to the adoption and dissemina- tion of many theories regarding their causes and prevention, most of which have not stood the tests of minute inquiry and careful experiment. Under such circumstances, I cannot expect that the opinions I now promulgate will entirely coincide with those of many members, so that ample room will be afforded for eliciting information on the important subject before us. And in regard to the opinions, or rather convictions, that I express, I may state that they are the results of long-continued as well as widely- extended practical observations. The principal causes of larch failures I shall notice under three heads :— I. Heart-rot, dry-rot, or pumping. Il. Surface-rot, cancer, cankeriing, or blistering, and top-rot. III. The larch bug, or blight (Adelgis laricis of Vallot, and Coccus laricis of previous authors), which is also frequently desig- nated the Aphis disease. I. Heart-rot, dry-rot, or pumping.—The outward indica- tions of fully-established heart-rot are—the tree becoming per- ceptibly thickened under about two feet from its base; the bark of both stem and branches assuming an unhealthy, dried, and more or less moss or lichen covered appearance — the length and abundance of such covering being in proportion to the atmospheric dampness of the situation; and the stunted, de- creasing growth of the annual shoots and foliage, till the tree becomes partly and ultimately wholly dead. When cut down, the internal appearances are—first, unhealthy, darkish discoloration of the portions of the red or heart-wood, spreading and changing from * Read by the author at the Twenty-Second Annual Meeting in opening a discussion on the Failures of the Larch.—Ep. 62 THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. dry rottenness to total decay and hollow-heartedness or pumping ; the decrease in the width of the annual wood-layers being propor- tionate to the increase of rottenness till arrested by death. These symptoms occur at all ages, but are most frequent between ten and thirty-five to forty years, and are attributable to occasional droughts, as well as occasional over-saturation ; to fungoid attacks on the roots such as emanate from decaying remains in ground previously occupied by Scotch fir; and by lopping off or other- wise destroying the roots. In fact, by anything that thoroughly checks or materially weakens the root action, that in those of the larch when once fully stopped, is incapable of resuming sap circulation, hence these must inevitably decay, when they first con- vey their rottenness to those parts of the stem that are in most direct communication with them, from whence it spreads with rapidity proportionally to the extent of the root injury. The cor- rectness of these remarks being assumed, it follows that the only prevention of dry-rot is to avoid planting larch in places likely to produce it. The only remedial measures that can be adopted—for cure there is none—are cutting down the trees when it first appears, and replanting the ground with other more suitable kinds. II. Surface-rot, cancer, cankering or blistering, and top-rot presents the appearance of a dark, flattish, thickish margined bruise or cancerous-like wound, from which more or less thickish resinous matter exudes. Frequently several of these exist on one stem, and they occasionally include the base of the branches, so as to deprive them of vitality. Sometimes they are also to be found on the branches themselves. Wherever they appear, the injury to the stem or branch has only been at first partial, a suffi- cient portion having been left sound to admit of the sap flowing beyond ; and when only slightly affected, the tree often resumes and maintains a healthy growth, soas to’nearly, if not entirely, ob- literate all traces of the injury. If, on the other hand, the injury is of such an extent as to prevent the further ascent_of the sap, all above speedily dies without presenting the appearance of blistering, but merely that of dead tops or top-rot. Canker and top-rot are due to the effects of late spring frosts occurring after the sap-flow and growth is in full progress, and to early autumn frosts setting in before the growths of the season are fully matured, The late spring frosts are, however, those most generally productive of canker, from the facility with which they THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. 63 penetrate to the lower and earlier leaf-covered portions of the tree, when on its upper extremities the leafage is yet undeveloped, and the sap-flow comparatively limited as well as languid. On the other hand, late autumn frosts are those most productive of top-rot, from the upper extremities being the latest in maturing, as well as the least protected. And it may be here remarked that this most common form of top-rot, and that to which the name is most generally applied, is not to be confounded with the before-men- tioned, which proceeds from internal decay or heart-rot ; whereas in both the forms of failure (canker and top-rot) here associated, the heart timber remains comparatively sound, unless the trees have been affected with heart-rot prior to suffering from either early or late frosts, a by no means uncommon occurrence. Canker and top-rot may be induced at all stages of larch growth, being occasionally observable in one-year-old plantations, but both, and especially the former, become comparatively scarce after from forty to fifty years of age. Cure for these injuries being out of the question, and cases of that recovery being very limited as well as uncertain, the best procedure is to clear them away, as recom- mended under the last head, and replant with other kinds suitable for the soil and situation. And the only prevention for the wide spread and heavy losses that occasionally arise from canker and top-rot lies in the judicious selection of soils and situations in which to plant young larches, avoiding warm southerly exposures that excite their too early spring growth, and more especially all low, flat, moist-surfaced districts, that are subject to cold ground fogs and hoar-frosts. These severe early and late frosts are not of frequent occurrence, but when they do happen they are occasion- ally very disastrous. The following examples may be adduced in confirmation of the forestated conclusions regarding the cause of canker and top-rot in the larch :— About the middle of May 1837, I left Huntly for Edinburgh, where I had been conducting planting operations on the Duke of Richmond’s estates, the most extensive, I believe, that have ever been done within the same space of time. Proceeding by the *« Defiance ” coach to Aberdeen, continuous frost, with occasional snow showers, lasted throughout the day. At night the frost be- came much more intense ; next morning a covering of snow con- cealed the ground surface and hung thickly on the trees, especially on the larches, which were then in full leaf. By the time we 64 THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. reached Laurencekirk, most of the snow had melted under the in- fluence of bright, warm sunshine. As we proceeded, the sun heat became still more intense, and the larch leaves became more and more flaccid or flagged, till on nearing Forfar and onward they hung so pendant as to appear irrecoverably injured. In travelling through the same and other parts of Strathmore the following autumn, I found many of the larches entirely killed, and most of the rest more or less injured. These effects were specially marked in a fifteen to twenty year old low-lying plantation by the road side between Forfar and Cortachy, which was in course of being cut down, many of the trees having entirely succumbed, and among the others were innumerable examples of canker or blistering which only wanted more time to become transformed into the hard, swollen-edged, matter-discharging sores, to which the terms, canker or blistering, are applied. Again, I think in 1853, we had a cold late season, with an early and severe autumn frost, which effected much larch injury and destruction in the shape of blistering or canker, as well as in top-rot. The last became conspicuous next season in the district of Gala Water, as well as along other middle tributaries of the Tweed, the lower slopes of the Lammer- moors, the Moorfoot and Pentland Hills, Peebleshire, etc. At Prestonhall, where I then resided, many fine young Lombardy poplars, of from 15 to 25 feet in height, were entirely killed, none in fact escaping except such as were sheltered by plantations on their northerly and easterly sides, a decided proof of the severity of that early autumn frost, as well as of the unpreparedness of late- maturing plants for resisting it. As before mentioned, many of the larches that were only slightly injured recovered, and by cut- ting up these and counting the annular layers of wood that they have formed since the injury was sustained, the year in which that injury was produced can be ascertained with accuracy ; and the dates of other like injuries in the same manner. In 1835 there appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Agricul- twre, a paper on the native larch forests of Switzerland, by that most eminent vegetable physiologist M. de Candolle of Geneva, in which he mentions that although he had traversed these large larch forests in different situations, he and his “ numerous cor- respondents can name the larch as the alpine tree which is less liable to disease than any other,” although “ sometimes it is seen having a wound or resinous cancer ;” seemingly the same as that noticed under this heading. . From his paper we further learn THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH, 65 that these native larch forests predominate on the northern slopes of the mountains; that the larch is not particular about where it grows, and seems only to fear extremes. Marshy grounds are the only ones it essentially dreads, nor is it found on those that are often too dry. ‘“ What appears to be most necessary to the larch is, that it have its roots in a soil habitually but moder- ately damp, and its top exposed to the direct rays of the sun.” “ Larches generally thrive on the declivities of our mountains, seldom on flat places; because on declivities there is always a little dampness in the earth, coming from the summit; and at the same time the trees, on account of the inequality of their bases, have more space at their tops and are better exposed to the light ; whereas flat places are often too dry, and the trees being all of the same height, overshadow each other. Among declivities, these which are connected with summits covered with perpetual snow are those where larches grow best.” Those descriptions of the situations in which the native larches thrive best, are in conformity with the experiences of home planters; and were larches only planted in such, growers would have little to fear from either of the fore-mentioned injuries, nor would the larch bug become very hurtful, provided clean young plants were planted, and that the young plantations were sufliciently removed from old infested ones, to prevent contamination. III. The larch bug or blight (Adelgis laricis of Vallot, and Coccus laricis of previous authors).—In the winter or leafless period of the year bug-infested larches are readily distinguished by the darkish colour of their bark, the somewhat reflexed or drooping appearance of their branches and branchlets, and notably, by the abbreviated as well as attenuated growths of the previous season. Microscopic examinations of the expanding buds in spring show them to be thickly covered with the so-called bugs and their eggs, the former emitting a honey dew-like discharge, which in the warmer portions of the day may often be fairly said to “wet with misty showers” the trees themselves, as well as the undergrowing herbage, and even the clothes of underwalkers, covering all with a hurtful, honeyed viscidity. Unless checked by adverse weather or other causes, these insects go on breeding successively and abundantly throughout what may be termed the active growing season of the larch, the successive broods becoming winged in due time, and flying away VOL, VIII., PART I. E 66 THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. to spread their kind after the most rapacious feeding period of their existence is past; while in summer and autumn they assume that white cottony or flaky appearance, by which their presence is most distinctly and unmistakably marked. The larch bug infests trees of all ages, but in their nursery growth it is comparatively rare on what are termed “ one-year seedlings ;” while on “‘two-year seedlings,” and “ one-year seedlings one year transplanted,” although seldom entirely absent, it is fre- quently nearly so. But on older plants it is generally much more evident, sometimes even to the extent of permanently withering their foliage, commencing with that of the lower branches and proceeding upwards. Hence nurseries that can produce ‘‘ two-year seedlings, two-year transplanted larches,” free, or nearly so from the bug, deserve favourable attention from intending planters. William Boutcher, a famous nurseryman at Comely Bank Garden, Edinburgh, who dedicated a treatise on forest trees to Henry, Duke of Buccleuch, in 1775, therein recommended that larches ‘intended for planting where beauty and shelter were immediately required” should have three nursery transplantings previously, and be “finally removed when ten to twelve feet high.” Who would think of practising this nursery treatment of larches now ? Or if it were attempted, assuredly the blight-stricken plants would neither be objects of beauty nor subjects for shelter. In planta- tions, the larch bug is most prevalent in low, hollow, and flattish, shéltered situations, more especially where timeous thinning has been neglected; in fact, just in such places as blistering or surface-rot is most likely to be produced ; hence some have formed the erroneous opinion that it is the cause of that injury. M. de Candolle, in his treatise before referred to, leads us to infer that the bug is unknown as an injurious infectant of the larch in its native forests. Most probably it may there be associated with some other insect which preys upon it, and thus keeps it within harmless bounds. Many other plants have their health-destroy- ing “mealy bugs,” or white blights, such as the silver fir, beech, apple, etc. ; but all these are essentially different from that of the larch, which I have never found feeding upon any other plants. This would favour the conclusion that it is not naturally indi- genous to Britain, but that it has been introduced with the larch. In fact, that the latter has been brought to us with its bane, with- out the antidote, as were orange trees to the Cape of Good Hope, and nutmeg plants to Pulo-Pinang, where, in consequence of the THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. 67 absence of the latter, the former prevailed to such an extent that many plantations had to be abandoned before curatives were dis- covered. In this country the larch bug seems to have first attracted notice in 1785, when it was observed in the plantations at Raith, in Fife, where it increased in an alarming manner in the three dry, warm summers of 1800, 1801, and 1802; but from 1806 it decreased, till by 1815 it had almost disappeared. Previous to 1795, it was noticed in the Athole forests, and then, and for eight to ten years afterwards, it materially retarded the growth of the larch, but thereafter became comparatively scarce and harmless. Observing that it did not appear at higher altitudes than 600 feet, the Duke of Athole transferred his planting of larch generally to higher elevations. In 1779, James Webster, who acted as gar- dener and forester at Munches for more than forty years, noticed the larch blight in that south-western district of Scotland ; and writing thirty-six years after, he stated that he had since watched the disease carefully in all the plantations he was concerned with, and in others, and was satisfied that trees so infested did not make the progress in growth which those do that are not infected. And going to one of the best nurseries of the district in 1834 to select plants, he there discovered a number infected with the disease, which he “advised the nurseryman to destroy, and he did so.” Turning now to the able comments on the diseases of the larch, in the second volume of our Transactions (1863), by Mr M‘Cor- quocale, of Scone, it is therein stated that the ravages of the Aphis disease were fearfully abundant among young larch plantations in Scotland for the four years 1838-1842, but since then the insects had, comparatively speaking, ceased. This irregularly alternating _ great increase and decrease in the larch bug is in unison with the habits of many other plant insects, and although pretty correct ideas may be formed as to some of the causes, we are still quite in the dark as to others. Here, then, is much scope for investigation. And I fear that this disappearance or diminution of the larch bug noticed by Mr M‘Corquodale, must only have been local, as during the period assigned for it, I found it injuriously prevalent in Mid- lothian, where I then resided, as well as throughout the lower parts of Lanarkshire and elsewhere. And that it has again returned to Perthshire in unwelcome abundance, is evident to passengers along the Highland Railway, where to practised eyes its abounding presence is observable in the adjoining plantations ; 68 THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. and notably in those at the Murtkly station, where young blight- stricken larches are maintaining a hopeless struggle with Scotch firs, It is now nearly forty years since my attention was attracted to a large break of two-year transplanted larches in the vicinity of Edinburgh, where nursery crops have long been supplanted by dwelling-houses. Early in the summer, two small circular patches appeared where the foliage presented a whitish tint. Both of these patches increased in size and whiteness, till the presence as well as the effects of larch bug was unmistakable, even when viewed from a considerable distance, each patch being whitest in the centre, and shaded off to clean, healthy green, at its cireum- ference. In autumn the diminution in growth of the plants in both was proportionate to the whiteness, being shortest in the middle, and rising gradually to their junction with the surround- ing uninfected plants. Just before the falling of the leaves, the centres presented a brownish, withered-like appearance; and throughout the winter a shaded-off blackness held the place of the former whiteness. In the succeeding summer those indications became much extended, as well as intensified, each of the patches widening to about 20 yards in diameter, while the plants in their centres made very short growth, and these around the circular margins remained clean and healthy. Since the period here indi- cated, continuous as well as extensive observations of nursery larch crops throughout the kingdom have still furnished me with more distinctive evidence than the above of the regular and rapidly progressive spread of the bug over previously healthy young larch plants. And these observations have further shown that while no nursery visited was entirely clear of this plague, its virulence among many of the older transplants showed that the fire was the only proper place for them. After larches have suffered from late spring frosts, the bugs often become so conspicuously abundant as to induce the unten- able notion that they have been produced by the frost ; while that injuring agent may only be blamable for more fully exposing and concentrating them by its partial removal of their leafy covering, and limiting of their feeding ranges, by its restricting or stunting the growths of both the young shoots and foliage, It is a very common notion that weak and unhealthy plants are the most susceptible of injury from insects. The insects are, however, much more frequently the cause than the effect of such THE FAILURES OF THE LARCH. 69 unhealthiness, and this is specially evident in the case of the larch. Hence the importance of planting out only clean plants, more particularly in places so distant from previously existing plantations that the insect plague is not likely to be transmitted from them. And as nursery plants are seldom, if ever, entirely clean, it is highly desirable that a steep or other curative be found that will destroy any insects or their eggs which may be on plants intended for transplantation, without affecting the health of the latter. No better subject than this can be chosen by this Society for which to offer a high premium; and next to it would rank one for a detailed account of the transformations, propagation, and habits of the larch bug, founded on minute, careful, and fre- quently-repeated observation, extending over two or three years ; for as yet little or almost nothing is definitely known of the natural history of this and other most troublesome members of the Coccide and the Aphide. In conclusion, I have only to add that, while admitting that as in the case of the Scotch fir, a diminution in the size of larch trees may to some extent be induced by long continued collecting of the cones from the easiest got at plants, or dwarf sub-varieties ; I have no belief in the often-advanced theories that degeneracy or weakness of constitution has been produced in the larch by rearing the young plants from seeds that have not been produced in its native climate; by collecting seeds from so-called diseased, but which are actually injured trees ; by over-heating the seeds, in order to their more easy extraction from the cones, or other like un- tenable supposed causes ; for if the seed is sufficiently matured and sound to produce healthy young plants, no bad results can follow from the trees on which it grew having been injured by drought, saturation, frost, insects, and other causes, or from the seeds being over-heated in the kiln-drying of the cones. 70 THE AGE FOR PROFITABLY VI. On the Age at which various Timber Trees in Scotland may be most Profitably Felled. By D. F. M‘Kenzis, Forester, Mel- drum House. ’ The question discussed in this paper involves the consideration both of bulk and quality. It is the producer’s interest to have the greatest possible bulk of timber in a given time. Any one who has given attention to arboriculture, knows that after a cer- tain time most trees, though growing and apparently healthy, cease to produce sufficient timber to warrant their being left to occupy the ground. It is therefore the producer’s interest to have the crop removed as soon as this is determined, and replaced by another crop. Were consumers of timber fully alive to their own interests, they would look more to good quality than they do; it would then pay the producer to let the crop stand till full maturity. Distance from market and places where large quanti- ties of timber are consumed, has much to do with the time at which to fell timber to advantage, as for example, near mining districts ; but this is the exception, not the rule, for generally when pit and spar wood fetch high prices, larger sizes also increase in value. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior).—The ash is one of our most useful timber trees, and can be cut with profit from thirty years old and upwards. It luxuriates in a rich deep loam, well drained by the natural formation and position of the ground. It does not suc- ceed on poor soil, especially in exposed situations. Though found in a natural state in some parts of the Highlands, it is only pro- fitable when planted in good soil. In exposed situations the wood is brittle and almost useless for many purposes to which it is generally applied. Alder (Alnus glutinosa). — The wood of the alder is more valuable now than many imagine. It is in great demand for herring-barrel staves and heads, and this season (1875) I received for alder the same price per thousand superficial feet, as for the best larch for the same purpose. Im 1868 alder was scarcely worth felling, except for bobbins, powder works, etc. ; this year it fetched 100s. per thousand superficial feet, 31 inches broad, by 2 inch thick; free on rail, two miles from the saw-mill. It thrives best in damp soils along the margin of lakes and streams, and can be cut to advantage after a growth of thirty-five years. FELLING TIMBER TREES. 71 Beech (Fagus sylvatica).—Beech timber is not valued so much, and is not so largely planted as it was a century ago. It is still used for wringing and mangling machines, lasts, carpenters’ planes, and partially for bushes in machinery ; but lately, another market has opened up for beech in a manufactured state ; it is now used for mining purposes in blocks from 20 inches to 3 feet long, and from 4 to 8 inches square, to which is given the name chocks. I have disposed of many thousand chocks during the last few years, and have found them pay well. Beech thrives on most dry soils, but not on stiff clay, even though tolerably dry. Although a hardy tree growing on exposed places, it prefers a low sheltered situation, where it may be felled at about seventy years of age. Birch (Betula alba), — The birch is very graceful, but of moderate size compared to many of our forest trees. Since the introduction of Norwegian birch for barrel staves and other pur- poses to which our birch was generally applied, it has been little asked for, except for bobbins and turnery ; but well-grown trees still fetch good prices. It is not particular as to soil or situation, and when cut down springs readily from the stool. It may be felled profitably every thirty years, and at present is in demand for bobbinwood, chocks, and burnwood. Spanish Chestnut (Castanea vesca).—The sweet chestnut is a timber tree of the third class, and never attains large dimensions even in favourable situations. The wood is durable and useful for many purposes ; and the tree from its rapid growth is well adapted for planting among others which require longer time to mature, from among which it can be thinned out at twenty to thirty years of age. It is then fit for any purpose to which the timber is applicable. It answers well for barrel heads, and I frequently receive a good price for it. I have also found, on comparing the price of an acre of larch with an acre of sweet chestnut, taking larch to be mature at seventy years, and sweet chestnut at forty, that the annual value yielded by the sweet chestnut exceeded that yielded by the larch. In favourable situations this tree may be felled when about thirty-five years old. Horse Chestnut (Aisculus hippocastanum).— This tree, like the foregoing, is a rapid grower, but of little use for timber. The wood is soft and not durable, and may be used like the willow and poplar for railway brakes, agricultural implements, saddlers’ cut- ting-boards, patterns, etc. It can be recommended for lawns, 72 THE AGE FOR PROFITABLY avenues, roadsides in plantations, and solitary trees in parks: it requires good soil and sheltered situation. Though a hardy tree as regards cold, yet the young wood is so brittle as to break under ordinary storms. It can only be felled with profit when of large dimensions, which in good soil would be when about eighty years old. Scotch Elm (Ulmus montana).—Next to the oak, the elm is the most useful of our deciduous timber trees. Its timber, which is of great strength and durability, is much used by coachbuilders, cartwrights, and cabinetmakers, and also for agricultural imple- ments and cooper-work. To grow the elm well it must be planted in deep loam, resting on a dry porous subsoil, and it can only be cut down with profit when of large dimensions, which under ordi- nary circumstances it attains when about eighty years old. Thin- nings of the elm 6 inches in diameter can be profitably disposed of, being used for barrel staves, drawing bars, ete. English Elm (Ulmus campestris). — Generally speaking, the English elm furnishes better and larger timber than the Scotch, and is used for the same purposes. Its wood is usually more cross in the grain, and better adapted for wheel naves. It cannot be felled to advantage before ninety or one hundred years of age. Oak (Quercus robur var. pedunculata, and var. sessiliflora).— Since iron has become the principal material for the construction of our navy and large trading vessels, large-sized oak is not so much in demand. It is used for constructing coasting vessels, agricultural buildings and implements, and in mining operations. The bark is also much used for tanning. In favourable situations it can be felled with profit when about one hundred years old. Sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus).—The sycamore is one of our hardiest timber trees, and grows well on most soils and situa- tions. When of great age, if of fair quality, it commands a high price. Cabinetmakers give fabulous prices for some trees of large dimensions. It is largely used for veneers, and is stained in imi- tation of various woods. On account of this it is difficult to esti- mate the time at which it ought to be felled. I am aware, how- ever, that it is profitable to cut it at any age over forty years. At this age it is suitable for barrel staves, and would exceed in value any crop of larch. It is also an excellent coppice wood, springing readily and rapidly from the stools, and in many cases growing 4 to 6 feet in length in one season. I have seen in good soil and sheltered situations shoots 20 feet long in four years, but FELLING TIMBER TREES. 73 this is exceptional. Considering the value of a cubic foot of old timber, we believe it to be most profitably felled when mature, which, in good soil and sheltered situation, it would be when about 120 years old; in inferior soil and exposed situation it should be cut down earlier when signs of maturity appear. Willows and Poplars.—All the timber varieties of willows and poplars are fast growers, and are generally soon matured. Their timber is used for railway brakes, cutting-boards, agricultural - implements, barrel staves and heading, and for patterns in most engineering departments. They succeed only in moist soils, and moderately sheltered situations, and can be profitably felled at thirty-five to forty years of age, after which they become stag- headed and unsightly, and liable to warp at the heart. In good soil and sheltered situation they grow to very large dimensions, and are longer of coming to maturity. Larch (Larix Europea).—This is the most useful and rapid growing pine cultivated in Scotland, and without doubt the most valuable. Of late years it has shown a great tendency to disease, especially heart-rot. When larches are planted in hardwood plan- tations as nurses, they may be thinned out with profit at twenty- five years of age. If well grown, they command a high price for mining operations, fence posts, etc. In soil suitable for this crop the time to remove it would be about sixty-five years old. On thin soil, however, it matures much sooner. Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris)—None of our timber trees are more extensively cultivated than the Scotch fir, its timber being applied to almost all purposes to which common wood is applicable. This tree is not particular as regards soil or situation, and it can be cut down with profit at thirty-five years of age and upwards. I felled a large wood of Scotch fir on an estate in the North, on land worth less than 2s. 6d. per acre. The age of the plantation was thirty-five years, and the net return after manufacture was £33 per acre. The ground is again planted, and the crop, considering that the soil is thin and resting on rotten sandstone at two feet from the surface, promises to do well. The wood referred to showed signs of maturity, and ceased to grow. Many of the trees were dying. It may be stated, however, that the quality of the timber was inferior. It was sawn into staves and pit props, for which the same prices were obtained as though it were superior timber. The most profitable time to fell the Scotch fir is when about sixty years old. 74 THE AGE FOR PROFITABLY Spruce (Abies excelsa).—The spruce fir is a very useful tree, its wood being largely used in the erection of agricultural buildings. Byres fitted up with spruce are admitted to be more durable than those fitted up with planted Scotch fir, and not inferior to those with natural grown pine, It is not affected by the cattle breath, _ nor liable to the attack of moths or beetles. It is also used for mining-poles and other pit wood, and for railway sleepers. It likes good moist soils, which may be considered too damp for other timber, willows and poplars excepted, provided there is no stag- nant water near its roots. When this is the case, even on good soil, the tree dies prematurely. The most profitable time to fell this tree is when about sixty years of age; if, however, the soil is dry and hard, the tree will be ready for cutting when about forty or fifty years old. On deep moss it requires to stand longer— say from ninety to one hundred years. I felled a wood of spruce at 125 years. It grew on boggy moss, from 3 to 9 feet deep, resting on a bed of gravel mixed with blue clay and sand. On examining this wood, I found that taking all the crop, it averaged only 4 inches in diameter during the first twenty-five years of its growth. Those trees on the shallow parts of the moss grew double this diameter in the same time. The slowness of growth can only be accounted for by the want of imorganic matter in the soil. After the decomposition of the leaves of the trees and other vegetable matter which supplied the soil to a certain extent with inorganic and healthy humus, they grew rapidly. From seventy years of age to seventy-five they made 3 inches, when they diminished till about one hundred, after which they seemed to add little to their timber. A short distance from this wood was an- other spruce wood planted on a rather dry soil, on a hard gravelly bottom. It was only fifty years old, and most of the trees were decayed at the heart. Silver Fir (Picea pectinata).—Till twenty years ago the silver fir was planted more for ornament than for its timber. It is now largely cultivated, and will be used for fitting and roofing farm buildings, for which it is well adapted, especially if grown in good soil, and in cold but sheltered situations. It grows rapidly after the plants are well established, and thrives best in deep, damp, loamy soils. It is not, however, particular with regard to soil, provided the situation is not very exposed. Seventy-five years of age may be the average time to fell the silver fir with profit. It may be stated that wood, like most other crops, is sooner FELLING TIMBER TREES. 75 matured on light soils and moderately exposed situations, and has much less bulk than that grown in good soils and in sheltered situations. Soils of the same class differ greatly ; they are, however, esti- mated according to the proportion of clay, lime, humus, and sand, in a given number of parts ; and are divided into seven or eight classes, and subdivided into sixty different species ; but properly speaking, soil consists of two parts, organic and inorganic matter, the latter also consisting of two parts—the soluble and insoluble. To distinguish soils they require to be analysed, but the experienced eye knows pretty nearly by turning up the soil and examining it and the surrounding herbage. Appended is a table giving an average of the age at which the timber trees referred to cease to grow profitably on different soils and situations. This table, however, is imperfect, and I believe that no definite rule can be laid down. I have therefore given only the average ages at which I found, during eighteen years’ experience in the management and manufacture of timber, the varieties men- tioned could be most profitably felled in the different soils and situations, considering the producer’s interest. My data were taken on the ground on which the timber grew, in eight counties, and over forty estates, a list of which is given below : ABERDEEN.—Auchry, Ballater, Blelack, Byth, Meldrum, Mid- mar, Dunecht, Monymusk, and Delgaty Castle. Banrr.—Auchlunkart, Auchanacie, Arndilly, and Rothiemay. Inverness.—Aigas, Aldourie, Belladrum, Beaufort, Dochfour, Drumaglass, Erchless, Faraline, Foyers, Lentran, Newton, Rothie- murchus, Castle Grant, Duthel, Abernethy. Moray and Natrn.—Altyre, Brodie, Cawdor, Darnaway, Dumphail and Kilravock. Ross and Cromarty.—Ardross, Brahan, Conon, Coul, Balna- gown, Culrossie, Highfield, Ord, Raddery, Flowerburn, Kilcoy, Redcastle. Prertu.—Abercairney and Ochtertyre. THE AGE FOR PROFITABLY FELLING TIMBER TREES. 76 ‘ayerpoumtoyuy “J “pesodxm “m “poroqpeus ““S—"g Nv "S[TOs doop qsow pur sueor pus ur seat, | °° | “* | °* | csueumoadsaoog J | -* | | ¢8 | ¢s}o6] 9 | 09/02] 06 | 06 | 06 | o8 | os |¢s-08]° ‘ata seats “109 J BUI 91qBJ9S9A JO sarqTJUBND ose] ( “303 , Be le Ne RE Stonaha SuyuyeyMO s[jos duwp uy yseq sMOrH | OOT | 06 | OOT | -sivoy 09 o1qerT og | Sh} 0g} se | se) OFT OL 04 | 94 09 | 0¢] 0 porta s “STIOS [[B JSOUU]e UT [TOM er OL 08 OL 08 G8 08 ~ 09) 09 | 09} Sh | 09 | OFF O04 | OL] OL} O09 09 og g9 OL | 09-0¢ f° “Ila yo}00g “IOS 100 Ul SUIMOIS TOYA 4OI-JIvay OF OTGVIT | OOLT | 06-08] OOT | Od g9 OL | OF | OF | SP] GL | 04) 08} SL | 09 | OL} OL 09 GL 09 | OF |}e9-09}° * “Worery *suOTyengIs é persyeys pue sfos ystou saambay | ep | og | og | ‘suemoedsaoog | ~* | -* | °° | 09 | 09 | oF { z ee ce é a oz | of | o¢ | o9 | 09] oF Jo ‘sxefdog PUL SALOTIEAL ee * a 09 09 08 #99) 09|0L} 08 | 04) 067 SS | G8 | 06] OOT 06 OOL | OOT | OTT] OZE J° ‘exouvodS ‘Apavy ATOA | er “1 06 | 08 | 06 |" | ** | ** | OOT | 06 | OOTJOOT-06| 06 | COT {OOT-06} 06 |00T-06} OOT | OOT) Ost J * * “ARO <3 i ‘S 08 GL 08 “" J) ** | "* 146-06 | $8 | 06 JOOT-06| 06 | OOT}] 06-08} O08 06 | 06-08| 08 |0OT-OS] ‘Ie UsITsaq “Ke ‘4 08 GL 08 “J ss | ** 104-69 | 09 | OL [00T-06| 06 | OOL] 06-8} OL 06 | 06-08] 04 |00T-06] * “WITH Yo}00g ‘spuya £q uayorq oq on aqqert | *° | * | *- | o9 | og | o9 J-° | 7) -* | 06 |es|e6]} 04 | 09] 02] o& | 9 | 08 | og | 04 | e8-08 nee oS x ik * ch 09 08 Sree eal ecm OO 2S) NOS TROOR I: a2 09} OS] S9 g9 OL 02-69) 09) OL f° epee eg *su0T} l “CNIS PUB S[TOS 4SOU UT ATIOAJ SMO. 0g 0s 0& OF OF 0g GP | OF | 0S OF SP | OF 09 OL | 0g g9 og 09 | 09-S¢ | 0S 09 et “qoug, j = = 7 OL 09 08 “al cae | G9 | 09 | o£ GL | 09] 08] 08 OL 06 08 | 04) 96-06}° ° ‘qov0g “stvarys JO SUISIvUT ; Se pODe Mon cusp used Sema L 0h} 00. joes) “~s| er a 2) te ea a] gp foi] og ha ee ena og | oF | 09 |os-oF| ge |os-0Ff° * “ptV “suOTyeNyIs pasodxe Ur ssou 3 “ysno} sr sosor poom ous ‘prowoum | “| - | | os | os | on PAMONMOPLT os | os] os] o4 | 08 | 09} 08 | 6-08 | o4-02| 04-29 TPS eA 2 : P : : : Se ; 3 : : fats | : : : E AOE 499J OOST 0} g WOIJ sUOTIeADTHT I a S I a S) I} @] ‘$8 I a/'s I a| Ss I a i} I Sane é j *jrosqns AT[9A F ‘SHUVINHIY Tosqns ATjeae13 Tosqus snorod Danae uo THOS “mVOT WSLT ‘mreoy Lavo Trog ARID wo |10s Assout deaq | deep uo [Ios Apueg [los Ayyvoyy SUITABLE DISTANCES FOR PLANTING FOREST TREES, 77 VII. On the Distances at which Forest Trees should be planted on different Soils and Situations. By Lewis Bayne, Forester, Kinmel Park, Abergele. There is probably no point in forestry on which the opinion of practical men has undergone less change than as to the distances at which forest trees should be planted ; and it is a matter of im- portance, as the first start of a plantation has much to do with its after progress—that is, whether it will turn out a profitable or a losing investment. The nature and quality of the soil, the situation, and altitude at which trees are planted, will in great measure settle the ques- tion, as the better the soil, and the more sheltered the situation, the fewer plants will be required, and vice versd on poor thin land and exposed situations. In planting hardwood trees that are to form the ultimate crop, particular attention should be directed to the size they are likely to attain in the different soils and situations, so that after the plantation has been regularly thinned, those to be left may stand at proper distances apart, before arriving at timber size. In con- sidering this, it should be borne in mind that in most cases larch and other coniferous trees are of more value when young than hardwood trees of the same age ; and that accordingly in view of the after thinning, the former class, larch, etc., should be thickly planted, and the hardwoods as widely apart as the circumstances will admit of. It must, however, be carefully guarded against planting the latter too thinly, as the system of planting the exact number of hardwood trees required for the main crop, and filling in the remainder with quick-growing trees of more value when young, would be impracticable, because the hardwood varieties, in order to thrive, require an amount of sun, light, and air, which would be denied them by the great shade of the tall and faster- growing trees of the fir tribe. The same objection is not applicable to close planting of coniferous trees, providing they are thinned in proper time, but by planting an unnecessary number per acre, extra expense is incurred in plants and labour, when it may be the labour is required elsewhere ; for instance, the trees required to plant an acre at 3 feet apart exceed the number by over two thousand, if planted at 4 feet apart, which at 20s. per thousand (including carriage and labour), 78 SUITABLE DISTANCES FOR would make a difference in expense of over £2 per acre. Ona large plantation this would amount to a considerable sum, which might be saved or expended to better advantage in draining the plantation, or other useful purposes. Further, when trees are planted very close together, they are more liable to be drawn up by overcrowding, if not thinned at an early age. But while this is the result of too close planting, the opposite extreme should be avoided, for in the case of too thin planting, especially in exposed situations, the trees get one-sided, by the want of shelter to one another from prevailing winds, and become to a great extent starved and scrubby, and make but little progress. From the small value of the early thinnings of plantations, it seems a pity that trees will not thrive if planted at such distances apart that the first thinnings might be of considerable size and value. If this were practicable, it would do away with close and thick planting, which ruins many young plantations that are left without timely thinning, with the view of the first thinnings becoming of the greatest possible value before being taken out. When trees are planted in clumps or masses, they can be more regularly dispersed than when the mixing system is adopted, as some trees are of faster growth than others, have a greater spread of branches, and require more room. It is proposed, therefore, to consider the question of distance in regard to each variety of tree under the clump or massing system of planting. The oak, in favourable condition, grows to a great size, with considerable spread of branches ; and as a good revenue may be derived from its bark and branches, for tanning and charcoal, etc., it should have room to develop itself. When it is planted in a good soil, low altitude, and moderately-sheltered situation, a distance of 20 feet from each tree, with the spaces filled in with Scotch fir, larch, or spruce as nurses, at 5 feet apart, will not be found too wide. In such favourable circumstances the plants will make rapid progress, taking their girth with ample branches and foliage, and laying a good foundation for after-growth, and these will be of more value at the first thinning than if planted close together. But when planted in less favourable soil, at higher altitude, and in an exposed situation, a distance of 12 feet apart, with the intervals filled in with Scotch fir or larch to 3} feet apart, will be wide enough, as neither the principals nor the nurses will make such progress as in good soil and sheltered situation. PLANTING FOREST TREES. 79 Neither will the oaks grow to such a size, nor require so much room to mature. Moreover, after the first thinnings of the hard- woods, and the removal of the nurses, they will require little more thinning until they arrive at good size and value. Ash requires to be grown more clean and lengthy than most timber trees, and should therefore be more closely planted than other hardwood kinds of large dimensions ; and when the soil is good, altitude low, and situation moderately sheltered, 15 feet apart, intermixed with nurses at 5 feet, is a fair average distance. If the soil is of a thin and inferior quality, 9 feet apart, with nurses at 3 feet, will not be too close. From the ready sale of, and demand for, good clean ash of small dimensions, the thinnings are more valuable than most others of the hardwoods, which is in itself a good reason for not planting ash too widely apart. Lm (Scotch) is of little value when young, and although a tree of great spread of branches when mature, it should not be planted too widely apart when grown for the market. In good dry loam and subsoil, 16 feet apart, with nurses to 4 feet, will be a suitable distance ; but in less favourable soils, and more exposed situations, 12 feet apart, with nurses to 3 feet, will not be too close. Lim (English) is a fast-growing tree, of an upright habit of growth, and, although of less spread of branches, is of larger size when grown in suitable soil and situation than the Scotch or Wych elm. On this account, therefore, and also because it is of little value when of small dimensions, it should be allowed ample room, and not planted too closely, as it is less hable than many hard- wooded trees to be over-topped or shaded by firs or other nurses. When the soil is dry and good, and the situation sheltered, 20 feet apart, with nurses to 5 feet, will not be too wide; while in less suitable situations, 14 feet apart, with nurses to 3} feet, will be about the proper distance. Beech is seldom planted in first-class soils for profit, but fre- quently for landscape effect ; and in the case of a light, dry soil, and moderately sheltered position at a medium altitude, it may be planted at 16 feet apart, with nurses 4 feet apart; but in an exposed situation, 12 feet apart, and 3 feet for the nurses, will be sufficient. Sycamore and Norway Maple may be planted in good dry soil, moderately sheltered, and medium altitude, at 16 feet apart, with nurses to 4 feet; and on thin and poor soil, and more exposed situation, 12 feet apart, and filled in with nurses to 3 feet. 80 SUITABLE DISTANCES FOR Alder being a tree of smaller dimensions, and in most cases cut before arriving at old age, may be planted moderately close. In sheltered situations and dampish soil (free of stagnant water, how- ever), it may be planted at 12 feet apart, with nurses to 4 feet apart ; and on poor soil and high elevations, at 9 feet apart, and filled in with nurses to 3 feet apart ; but when planted as coppice- wood, or in swampy places, a preferable course would be to plant the trees at from 5 to 6 feet apart, without nurses. The Birch is a tree that does not require much room, for its spread of branches is not very wide, having an erect tendency of growth. It is often grown on poor soil and high elevations, in which position 9 feet apart, the spaces planted- with nurses of Scotch fir to 3 feet apart, will not be too close; or the trees may be planted in masses at 4 feet apart, without nurses. When in low elevations and good soil, and moderately sheltered, the birch may be planted at 12 feet apart, with nurses to 4 feet. The Poplars all grow rapidly to large dimensions, and require considerable room for their development, with the exception of the Lombardy poplar (Populus fastigiata), which is of upright growth, and requires little room. But it is seldom planted for profit in plantations, and 5 feet apart, without nurses, will be found suitable in favourable soils and situations. The other varieties of poplar, viz., Black Italian, Balsam, Ontario, Silver, etc., may be planted in good loam and sheltered situation, 6 feet apart, without nurses ; but in less favourable situations and soils, at 9 to 10 feet apart, with larch and spruce nurses at 44 to 5 feet apart. The same distance is equally applicable to the mountain poplar, filled in with Scotch fir, or other nurses, to 3} feet apart. Willows are fast growing trees, and require plenty of room ; when planted in good and rather moist soil, and sheltered situa- tions, without nurses, 6 feet apart will be close enough. Chestnut (Spanish) luxuriates well with the oak ; and the same distances, in the same varieties of soil, altitude, and situation, will be suitable for its growth. Chestnut (Horse) being principally grown for ornament, should be planted widely, so as to allow abundance of room to expand its branches; and when the soil is good, and the position well sheltered, 18 feet apart, with nurses to 4} feet, will be a suitable distance. The Lime, although a valuable timber tree, is more frequently planted for ornament than for profit, and requires considerable X PLANTING FOREST TREES. 81 room for its growth. It may be planted at distances ranging from 16 to 18 feet apart, with nurses from 4 to 4} feet apart. Coniferous trees grown by themselves require to be planted much more closely than hardwoods, as they constitute both principals and nurses. When the Scotch fir is planted in good soil, at a moderate elevation, and in a sheltered position, 44 feet apart will be found close enough ; but when the elevation is high, and the soil poor, 3 feet apart will not be found too close. Although the Scotch fir is one of our hardiest forest trees, if planted widely apart on poor, thin ground, and exposed situations, it becomes scrubby and branchy, especially when the ground slopes towards the exposed _ or windy side ; but on level ground they may be planted at wider distances towards the interior of the plantation, having the margin more close to break the prevailing winds. The Larch is a tree of fast growth, and in favourable soils and situations soon outreaches the Scotch fir. Planted in moderately sheltered situations, 5 feet apart, and in more exposed positions, higher elevations, and less favourable soils, 34 feet, are suitable distances ; but being less hardy than the Scotch fir, Austrian and Corsican pines, it is preferable to substitute some of these, or to mix them with larch, rather than to plant larch alone at a closer distance in poor and exposed situations—the latter to be removed at the early thinnings. Spruce should never be planted alone, in exposed situations, nor in high altitudes, but in favourable soils and situations it may be planted at 4 feet apart, and in less favourable places at 34 feet. Austrian pine being of fast and strong growth, and thick, dark foliage, should not be planted too close, on account of the amount of shade it produces, thereby depriving one another of the necessary amount of sunlight. It is particularly adapted for exposed margins of plantations, and when so placed, should never be planted closer than 434 feet apart, except in very exposed situa- tions, where 3} feet will be a good distance. The Corsican pine is of more upright growth, and less shady and spreading in its habit than the Austrian pine, and although a rapid grower, it requires less room. It should seldom be planted wider than 44 feet, nor closer than 3% feet. The Cluster pine (Pinus pinaster), when planted in dry or gravelly soil, may be placed at the same distance apart as the Corsican pine. The Douglas pine has a little of the habit of the common or VOL. VIII., PART I. F 82 SUITABLE DISTANCES FOR Norway spruce, and may be planted at the same distance apart, or at 8 to 9 feet apart, with common spruce or larch as nurses. This latter course is recommended on account of the superior quality of the Douglas pine timber, and the expense of the plants over the spruce fir, thus placing it in the same position as a hardwood tree, using the others as nurses. Silver fir being more hardy than the common spruce, may be extended to more exposed situations, and planted at a distance of 34 feet apart; in good soils and sheltered situations at 43 feet apart. The writer’s experience in growing other varieties of coniferous trees is too limited to warrant his remarking upon them specifically, or at any length, as he has done with the more common varieties. Most of those which have been planted in this country are princi- pally confined to the Pinetum, or pleasure ground, or as orna- mental specimens in plantations. In few instances have they, to any great extent, been planted for profit, but rather as a trial of their hardiness in standing the winters and climate of Great Britain, and to prove whether they are worthy of being ranked amongst first-class timber trees. Only one or two general observations fall now to be made. When planted in a moderate soil and sheltered situation, the Corsican pine (Pinus laricio) is one of the best conifers for attaining, from its erect habit and fast growth, a good size before thinning; but the larch is most valuable when young in this country, in consequence, perhaps, of the quality of its timber being better known than that of the Corsican pine. Poplars, without nurses of the fir tribe, may, from their fastness of growth, be planted at a greater distance apart, and be more remun- erative, from their first thinnings, than any of our hardwood trees. In planting hardwood trees, it is preferable to place them at as wide distances apart as the circumstances of the case will allow, and to fill in the spaces with coniferous trees; for when hard- wooded trees are cut down, in the case of thinning, their roots send forth numerous shoots in the shape of underwood, while the roots themselves continue to grow, and draw the nourishment from the soil, thus impoverishing the trees left growing. The following schedule shows, in a detailed tabular form, the distances apart at which the various kinds of trees referred to may be planted in certain circumstances. The altitudes are dis- tinguished as follows: low, 30Q ¢eet and under; medium, 300 feet to 700 feet ; and high, above 700 feet : 83 PLANTING FOREST TREES, oe wee eee 7 SP SF wae ‘IaMOIs ysuq | Fe 4 %e F ap ad a3 "Ras ayy ee 7 S eee wee sae g JO oOMONYUL ot} 3 ¥ ¢ ip > aad 45 UTYFIM [LOA SALO.LY) ¢ iy ac oP § g 8 ne [te | |e bee |e eee eee eee p & SF eee ‘Apreg L194 | 8 Veeye ste ee 3 g ‘SOSINU JOYITA ae ses at 9 9 1 San 6L GL al a ie GI GL "SOSINU YT AL a mi 6 OL 6 Or ae - a (al GI oT 8I S ‘ cee ate 91 OL 81 ile "OZI8 oer 6 GL GI a 9T él aSIVT B 0} SMOID sas “ ol of SI = *. ay al cI 91 81 oa ‘sosinu yy =| C6 6 6 Sh (et0L .|> Oo 6 GL GL SI GI SI 9T GT ‘SOSIMU [ITAL - ie oes éL 6L at we 6 6 6 ai 6L GT 6 ‘opny | ‘epny | ‘epny ‘opny | “9pn} | ‘epny “epny HIV THV “THLV “HIV “HIV: “HIV HIV Use | as [wnrpepjemipayy| MoT | mo jampayy “pore4 *portey | “porey *pesod | -jeyg | ‘pesod | -jayg | -1eyg | ‘perey | “pesod -xq | Ajeyer -xq | Ajeqea | Apozer | -payg -x ‘SUUVNAYY -opolw -opow | -epow “0110940q | *[T0 ¢ ‘9104s ee qieyod eld Tet ‘ euydonae ae “OCHTT HO! overs xo |pue ok : pue |, WIM DUS ae le Aryoavap| MOL | Apaes | meor | cero ter| range) “Urty Ajeaeiy| Aq | Buoy |* dueg| wont | ‘xoog mie AIO? JOR —lCR CO oH SH SH always in stock, Liberal Dis- counts for large py Orders. ih No. 16 No. 19. No. 18. No. 17, Extra Mesh. Light, Medium. Strong. Strong. in Boldt s. d. 5: ds s ere le: eee i; #4... 06 1 I eee (3) Sea naaee 0: 4h ses Orbs Sere 07 IR Sans ORAL aes On shawn O65. 222.22 08 he tae ak Digi ee 10 UntoP oer: oles eG GARDEN REQUISITES of every Description, including Lawn Mowers, GARDEN ROLLERS, WATER BARROWS, GARDEN ENGINES, SYRINGES, GARDEN Hosr, REEts, and HosE PipzE; GARDEN SEATS, CHAIRS, and TABLES; IRON and WIRE EsPALIERS, ORNAMENTAL WIRE FENCES, WIRE BORDERINGS, Wrre ArcHways, FLOWER TRAINERS, WIRE BASKETS, WIRE FLOWER Sranps, PEA TRAINERS, PEA and SEED PRoTECcTORS, PouLTRY FENCING, Povuttry Runs, HEN and CHICKEN Coops, etc., etc. Head Offices and Works— CLYDESDALE IRON WORKS, POSSIL PARK, GLASGOW. Warehouses— 25 HOPE STREET, GLASGOW. 64 DAWSON STREET, DUBLIN. 108 QUEEN VICTORIA, LONDON. 25 GEORGE IV. BRIDGE, EDINBURGH. ADVERTISEMENTS, THE LAWSON SEED & NURSERY COMPANY (LIMITED), EDINBURGH anp LONDON, Successors to PETER LAWSON: & SON, The Queen’s Seedsmen, &c., Most respectfully invite personal inspection of the NURSERIES, comprising GoLDEN AcRE, WINDLESTRAWLEE, WARDIE, and BANGHOLM, which abound in every description of Forest TREES, ORNAMENTAL TREES and SHRUBS, Fruit Trees, Roses, &., &c. CATALOGUES FREE UPON APPLICATION. London Address: 54 BISHOPSGATE STREET WITHIN, E.C. Registered Office: 1 GEORGE IV. BRIDGE, Edinburgh. DAVID SYME, Manager. J. F. R. ANDERSON, Secretary. ESTABLISHED 1883. SEEDLING axnp TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES anp GENERAL NURSERY STOCK. Wo PP LAIRD «& SINCE NURSERYMEN, SEEDSMEN, anp FLORISTS, DUNDEE. Nurseries—Monifieth and Broughty Ferry. Ten minutes walk from Monifieth Station (Caledonian Railway, Dundee and Arbroath Section). ADVERTISEMENTS, CHARLES FRANCE & SON, NURSERYMEN, SEEDSMEN, anp FLORISTS, LANARK. Forest Trees, Ornamental Trees, Fruit Trees, Shrubs, and Roses. GREENHOUSE anp BEDDING PLANTS, &c., &e. Reports and Specifications for laying down New and filling up Old Plantations, Valuations of Growing and Cut Timber, &c., &c. ~~ Contract Planting Executed on the most Moderate Terms. Gardeners, Foresters, and Land-Stewards, Recommended. Gentlemen who apply to us will find the characters of the individuals we may recommend such as we describe. The Nurseries are Five minutes’ walk from Lanark Railway Station. PLANTING SEASON. LARCH and all other FOREST TREES. HOLLIES and all other EVERGREENS. CONIFERS—a full collection in all sizes. ROSES—complete and superior collections. FRUIT TREES—many acres of splendid Trees. VINES—splendid Canes of all leading varieties. GAME COVERT PLANTS, of all sorts. THORN, QUICK, and all HEDGE PLANTS. The whole in great quantity, also in the best, hardy, stout, and vigorous condition, with ample Roots for safe removal. PRICED CATALOGUES POST FREE. JAMES DICKSON & SONS, “Newton” Nurseries, CHESTER. ADVERTISEMENTS. SECATEURS, OR FRENCH PRUNING SCISSORS, As used in the Royal Horticultural Society's Gardens. Stuart & Mein, traordinary Kelso power (although : very light); they Have much plea- make @ Clean sure in introduc- ing these valu- able PRUNING Scissors, being certain they will prove a_ great boon to Garden- ers and others, especially _ for Pruning Fruit Trees, Roses, &c. They are of ex- Cut, are very simple, and will last for many years. Should they get blunt, by simply undo- ing the screw they can be sharpened on any ordinary stone in a few minutes. PRICES, Free by Post, Box HANpLES—Ist Size, 4s.; 2d Size, 5s.; 8d Size (strong), 6s. 6d. BurraLto HANDLES—Ist Size, 6s.; 2d Size, 7s. 6d. Ivory HANpLEs—Very suitable for Ladies, 7s. 6d. BALFOUR’S BOTANICAL WORKS. MANUAL OF BOTANY. New Edition. Crown 8vo, with 963 Wood Engravings. Price 12s. 6d. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Third Edition, with 427 Wood Engravings. Feap. 8vo. Price 3s. 6d. This Work is used at the Examinations of the Highland and Agricultural Society. By Jonn Hurron Batrour, M.D., Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh. EpinpureH: ADAM & CHARLES BLACK. To Landed Proprietors and their Agents. WILLIAM GORRIZ LANDSCAPE GARDENER, GARDEN ARCHITECT, CONSULTING FORESTER, &c. Terms for Advice, Plans, Reports, &c., may be had on application. Address—RAIT LODGE, TRINITY, Epineuren. ADVERTISEMENTS. EDWARD SANG & SONS, NURSERYMEN AND SEED MERCHANTS, KIRKCALDY. ESTABLISHED 1791. VEGETABLE, FLOWER, AND eee ee i ee RAL 1 Se Bs: SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES, ORNAMENTAL TREES, EVERGREEN AND DECIDUOUS SHRUBS, FRUIT TREES, VINES, ROSES, FERNS, AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS. GREENHOUSE AND BEDDING-OUT PLANTS, Ere., Ere. Priced Catalogues Post Free on application. mer OR SO NS. .de CO. NURSERYMEN, SEEDSMEN, AND FLORISTS, 1 WATERLOO PLACE, EDINBURGH, HaAveE a very large and healthy Stock of LARCH (Native and Tyrolese), SCOTCH FIR (true native Highland Pine), and all other kinds of FOREST TREES and SHRUBS, of different sizes, at moderate prices. (Samples and Prices on application.) Larce Trees, of sorts suitable for giving immediate effect in Parks, Avenues, etc. ; GREENHOUSE and STovE PLANts, BEDDING Viowas, Show and Fancy Pansies, PHLoxes, PENTSTEMONS, and a full Collection of Hrrpacrtous and ALPINE PLANtTs, Roses, Fruit Trees, Vines. Garden and Agricultural Srrps, Finest mixed Grass Seeds, for Lawns and Bowling-Greens and for permanent Pasture. Garden and Forest Toots of all kinds, including Dunse Hedgebills, Foresters’ Knives and Gloves, Lawn-Mowers, etc. NEW NURSERIES at PILRIG PARK, PILRIG ST. (Opposite Rosebank Cemetery). Experienced Foresters, Gardeners, and Land-Stewards recommended. ADVERTISEMENTS. 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M‘Nas, M.D., Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, Dublin. (With Plate.) In 1874 Dr C. E. Bertrand of Paris published a work on the comparative anatomy of the stems and leaves of the Gnetacez and Coniferee.* In that work, after giving an historical sketch of the literature of the subject, he describes the minute anatomy of the leaves of most of the important genera, and in many cases gives synoptic tables by which the species of certain of the genera may be determined. In the present essay I propose to state very briefly the results of an independent investigation, made during the past eighteen months, on the anatomy of the leaves of the various species of Abies of Link (Picea, Don) and Pseudotsuga, Carriére (Abies of authors). In so doing, I hope to be able to correct many errors that Bertrand seems to have committed, owing probably to the imperfection of the materials at his com- mand ; and, further, to throw some light on the obscure synonymy of this extremely interesting group of plants. In examining the structure of the leaves of the species of Abies, it is chiefly necessary to obtain good transverse sections from the middle of the leaf. These must be thin and accurately cut, and are best rendered suitable for careful examination by being placed in a solution composed of equal parts of glycerine and water. The slices require to be examined with a moderate magnifying power, say of from 80 to 100 diameters. The chief points to notice in * “Anatomie comparée des tiges et des feuilles chez les Gnétacéas et les Coniféres,” par C. E. Bertrand. Paris: G. Masson, 1874. VOL. VIII., PART II. G 94 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY the transverse section are the following. First, carefully examine the central midrib or vein of the leaf. It consists, in Abies, of a pair of fibro-vascular bundles, placed in general very close together, and exhibiting distinctly two wood portions, or groups of wood prosenchyma, one belonging to each of the separate bundles. Abies can be at once separated from Pseudotsuga and Tsuga by this character, as in both of these the bundle is single, only one wood portion being visible. Second, observe the sheath of delicate paren- chymatous cells surrounding the single or double bundle. Itisa single layer of cells, very different from the tissue of the mesophyll or ground tissue of the leaf on the one side, and from the cells of the fibro-vascular bundles on the other. Thirdly, the general parenchyma of the leaf is to be scrutinised. If stomata are developed on one side of the leaf only, that is, on the under side, then the chlorophyll-bearing cellular tissue is loose, with many intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata of the under surface. On the upper side the chlorophyll-bear- ing cells are generally placed so as to form two zones or more of the pallisade tissue. If, however, stomata be present on the upper side, then the pallisade tissue is interrupted, and the loose tissue, with the usual intercellular spaces will be noticed. Fourthly, in the mesophyll, two resin canals will be found, their position varying in different species. The resin canal is an inter- cellular canal, surrounded by a zone of small rather thick-walled cells, The canals are, in one series, placed in the middle of the parenchyma, and run from base to apex of the leaf parallel to the midrib, but about equidistant from the midrib and margin, and also nearly equidistant from the upper and under sides of the leaf. In another series the resin canals are placed very close to the epidermis of the under side of the leaf, running parallel and close to the margin of the leaf. The resin canals are very conspicuous objects in the transverse section, and are of great importance in separating the different forms. Fifthly, the epidermis of the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf, and the cells immediately beneath it, have to be carefully examined. The epidermis consists of a single layer of cells with thick walls, and externally provided with a well developed cuticle. It also bears the stomata in rows, the rows forming very definite white bands on the under surface, one on each side of the midrib, When stomata are present on the epidermis of the upper side, they generally occur in long rows, sometimes over the whole surface, or limited to the upper half or THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF. 95 third of the leaf; or, lastly, may form a narrow band down the whole centre of the leaf above the midrib. Beneath the epidermis a series of thickened cells is generally developed. These belong to the ground tissue of the leaf, and have nothing to do morpho- logically with the epidermis. These thickened cells form a continu- ous, or interrupted, or scattered series called the hypoderma, and in a few rare cases they are wanting altogether. The study of the minute anatomy of the leaf, as shown by making a simple transverse section of the fully developed leaf, cannot fail to be useful to all arboriculturists. After the examina- tion of several hundreds of specimens, native and cultivated, I can testify to the permanence of the characters, and to their value in separating many closely related forms. It must be kept in mind, however, that attention must be paid to the proper selection of the leaves for examination. They must be full grown, and from plants of some size, as the leaves of very young specimens (say two or three years old) often differ from those of mature ones. The differences in the structure of young and old leaves generally have a certain relation. Thus a species, which has no hypoderma in the mature leaf, will not have any in the young leaf; and a leaf, with a continuous zone of hypoderma, when mature, will have a more or less interrupted one in the young leaves. In a few cases the position of the resin canals seems a little variable in the young and old leaves. This has been observed in a few cultivated forms, as Abies bifolia, A. Murray, Abies firma of gardens, and in Abies pichta of gardens. In some of the species, two kinds of leaves are produced, those in the ordinary vegetative shoots being differ- ent from those on the cone-bearing axes. This is very well marked in Abzes befolia, Murray (hence the specific name), also in Pseudo- tsuga magnifica and nobilis, and probably also in A. Pinsapo, but I have not been able to examine the cone-bearing shoot of an authen- tic specimen. In this essay I propose to take Parlatore’s species, as described in De Candolle’s Prodromus, and make some remarks on the syn- onomy. It will be necessary to depart from his arrangement somewhat, as it is of importance to separate the anatomically distinct species belonging to Pseudotsuga (of which A. nobilis is the type) from Abies. It is also impossible to give full details of the microscopic structure of the leaves of each species, as that would require more space than I have at my disposal, and would need numerous drawings to render the description intelligible. It is 96 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY the less necessary as a full account of the structure of these plants will shortly be published in another place. Axiss, Link (Picea, Don, Loudon). No. 1 (88).* Pinus (Abies) bracteata, Don, Parlatore. Abies bracteata, Hooker and Arnott. Leaves pointed, stomata on under side of leaf only. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the under surface. Hypoderma forming a continuous zone under the epidermis of the upper side. Most nearly related anatomically to A. religiosa, but distin- guished by the form of the leaf, and by the non-resinous, yellow bud-scales, as well as by the conspicuous difference in the cones. Several cultivated and native specimens have been examined. The characters are very uniform, and, as far as observation goes, it is a plant that does not vary in appearance or in the structure of the leaf. Living specimens have been examined from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh ; from Glasnevin Garden, Dublin; and from Elvaston Nurseries, Derby, kindly sent by Mr Syme. Native specimens have been examined in Kew Herbarium, from Douglas, and also from Lobb (No. 119). Leaves and cones in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, from Mr Andrew Murray, have also been carefully studied. No. 2 (90). Pinus (Abies) Frasert, Parsh., Parlatore. Abies Fraseri, Lindl. Leaves short, blunt at the points. Stomata on both sides of the leaf. Hypoderma slightly developed under the epidermis of the upper side. Resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf. Most closely related anatomically to A. balsamea, from which it can be distinguished by the appearance and position of the leaves, as well as by the very distinct cones. Although placed close to bracteata and religiosa by Parlatore, it is in no way related anatomically to these species. I have only examined one living specimen of this species, kindly sent to me by Mr Fowler, from Castle Kennedy ; and have ex- amined a cone (without leaves) in the Museum, Royal Botanic * The numbers in brackets refer to the numbers in Parlatore’s Monograph in De Candolle’s Prodromus, vol. xvi. THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF, 97 Garden, Edinburgh, presented by Mr Fowler, and grown at Castle Kennedy. Specimens from Kew Herbarium have also been examined. One from the summit of the Hoosack Mountains, Massachusetts ; another from Canada, and a third from Newfoundland, named Pinus Americanus ; but I am rather doubtful of the two last, as some leaves of Fraseri and balsamea approach each other exceed- ingly closely anatomically, and are not readily separated when dried specimens only are consulted. No. 3 (91). Pinus (Abies) religiosa, Humbl., Parlatore. Abies religiosa, Schlecht, Lindl. Leaves long, sharp at the points; stomata on the under side of the leaf only. Hypoderma, forming a continuous, or only slightly interrupted, layer under the epidermis of the upper surface. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the lower side of the leaf. Most closely related anatomically to A. bracteata, but distin- guished by the form and arrangement of the leaves, by the very resinous, yellow bud-scales, and also by the cones. Living specimens have been examined from Glasnevin Garden, Dublin, where it is kept with difficulty ; and from Castle Kennedy. I have also examined leaves from a cone-bearing shoot from Castle Kennedy (1867), now in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. An authentic specimen of Abies hirtella was examined from Kew Herbarium. It differs in having the leaves blunt and emar- ginate, and having only a few large, scattered hypoderm cells. As some of the leaves from the rather unhealthy plant in Glas- nevin Garden exhibited a similar character, I am not disposed to consider hirtella a distinct species. (92.) Pinus (Abies) Abies, Duroi, Parlatore. As Parlatore unites Abies pectinata, De C.; Abies Nordman- niana, Spach. ; Abies Cephalonica, Loudon ; Abies Apollinis, Link ; and Abies Regine-Amalie, Heldr., and makes them either syn- onyms or varieties, I must depart from his arrangement. No. 4. Abies pectinata, De Candolle. Leaves rounded or emarginate at the apex. Stomata on the under side of the leaf only. Hypoderma forming a very slightly 98 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY interrupted layer under the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf. Resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf. All the specimens of A. pectinata examined have the resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf, and are thus at once separated from A, Nordmanniana. No. 5. Abies Nordmanniana, Spach. Leaves emarginate at the apex. Stomata on the under side of the leaf only. Hypoderma forming a slightly interrupted layer under the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf. Resin canals placed close to the epidermis of the under side. Closely related to A. pectinata, but has the resin canals in a different position. No. 6. Abies Cephalonica, Loud. Leaves pointed at the apex. Stomata rarely forming a row or two on the upper surface of the leaf, generally confined to the lower. Hypoderma well developed, forming a zone two or three cells thick under the whole epidermis of the upper side. Resin canals placed close to the epidermis of the under side. Very different from A. pectinata. More nearly related to A. Nordmanniana, but at once separated by the enormous develop- ment of hypoderma. A. Apollinis, Link, and A. Regine-Amalie, Heldr., have both been examined. They can hardly be considered, anatomically, as being anything more than slight varieties of A. Cephalonica, having a slightly less development of hypoderma, and having the stomata more constantly present on the upper side of the leaf. No. 7 (93). Pinus (Abies) cilicica, Antoine and Kot., Parlatore. Abies cilicica, Carriére. Leaves obtuse and emarginate at the apex; upper surface with no stomata. Hypoderma well developed, but consisting of rather scattered cells. Resin canals near epidermis of lower side, Living specimens of Abies cilicica have been examined from Glasnevin Garden, Dublin, and from Elvaston Nurseries, and an authentic specimen from Kotschy (370), in the Herbarium of Trinity College, Dublin. It is extremely closely related, anatomically, to Abies Nordman- niana, but as I have not had the opportunity of examining an authentic cone-bearing shoot, I shall consider them quite distinct. THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF. 99 No. 8 (94). Pinus (Abies) Pinsapo, Boiss, Parlatore (part). Abies Pinsapo, Boiss. Leaves projecting all round the stem, short, rigid, with a very sharp point; upper surface with six or eight rows of stomata, placed rather distantly over the whole surface, below with a band on each side of the midrib. Hypoderma well developed, often two or three cells thick, but forming a zone, interrupted by the sto- mata. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the under side. Living specimens only of Abies Pinsapo have been examined ; and I have not been able to examine leaves from an authentic cone-bearing shoot. Related, although distantly, to A. Vordmanniana and A. Cepha- lonica, more nearly to A. Baborensis, but in all respects a remark- able distinct form. No. 9. Abies Baborensis, Coss (Pinsapo, Parlatore in part). Abies Numidica, De Lannoy. Leaves short, blunt, or emarginate at the apex, above with one or two short rows of stomata near the apex, below with a band on each side of the midrib. Hypoderma scanty. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the under side. Somewhat intermediate between Pinsapo and Nordmanniana in appearance, but differing anatomically in the presence of stomata on the upper side, and in the scanty development of the hypoderma. Living specimens only have been examined from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, from Glasnevin Botanic Garden, and from Elvaston Nurseries. It is cultivated under the names of Vumidica and Baborensis. No. 10 (95). Pinus (Abies) balsamea, Linn., Parlatore. Abies balsamea, Mill. Leaves short, apex emarginate; upper surface with two or more rows of stomata in the middle line, near the apex, below with a band of stomata on each side of the midrib. Hypoderma wanting. Resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf. Closely related to A. Fraseri, and not easily separable anatomi- cally. Living specimens have been examined from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and from Elvaston Nurseries. Two American specimens from Kew Herbarium, and the leaves from a cone-bearing shoot in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edin- 100 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY burgh, have also been examined. The cones of A, balsamea and A, Fraseri are sufficiently distinct. (96.) Pinus (Abies) firma, Parlatore (not Antoine). Parlatore gives Abies bifida and Abies homolepis as synonyms of his P. firma. In this I cannot concur. No. 11. Abies firma, Sieb. and Zuce. (not Parlatore). Leaves slightly wider near the apex than above the base, apex rounded and emarginate. A few stomata occasionally in a patch on the upper surface near the apex, below with a band on each side of the midrib. Hypoderma well developed. Resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf. Only two specimens of firma have come under my notice, both of them in Kew Herbarium, and named firma, Sieb. and Zuce. One was sent from Nagaski, Japan, by Oldham, in 1862; the other was collected in Japan, Nippon, by Maximiowicz in 1864. It is not in cultivation, all the plants I have seen under this name being A. bifida. Abies homolepis, Sieb. and Zucc., sunk by Parlatore as a synonym of firma, I have not seen; but, according to Bertrand, it only differs from A. firma in having fewer stomata on the under surface of the leaf, a character of no importance. Abies brachy- phylla, Maximiowicz, Pinus brachyphylla, Parlatore (No. 98), is anatomically the same as Abies firma. No. 12. Abies bifida, Sieb. and Zuce. Leaves tapering towards the bifid apex; no stomata on the upper surface, below with a band on each side of the midrib. Hypoderma well developed. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the lower side of the leaf. Parenchyma of the mesophyll of the leaf with numerous scattered, elongated, unbranched, greatly thick- ened, liber-like cells (idioblasts), quite peculiar to this species. I have received the plant under the name of bifida from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and have compared it with an authentic specimen in Kew Herbarium. A narrower leaved form of the same species is also cultivated (without a name) in the Edin- burgh Garden. It is the form cultivated as Abies firma, and has been sent to me under this name from Messrs Veitch of Chelsea, and from Castle Kennedy. Mr Fowler sent me a “ late variety,” in one of the leaves of which there was a slight abnormality, the resin canal of one side being slightly distant from the epidermis. THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF, 101 (97.) Pinus (Abies) holophylla, Parlatore, One of Maximiowicz’s species, of which I have seen neither living nor dried specimens.* (98.) Pinus (Abies) brachyphylla, Parlatore. The examination of an authentic specimen in Kew Herbarium, Abies brachyphylia, Maxim., Japan, Yokohama, 1862, shows that A, brachyphylla, Max., is A. firma, Sieb. and Zuce. (not Parlatore), while A. firma, Parlatore (not Ant.), seems to have been described from a mixed set of specimens of firma and bifida. No. 13 (99). Pinus (Abies) Pindrow, Royle, Parl. Abies Pindrow, Spach, Leaves long; apex bifid, with two narrow sharp points. No stomata on the upper surface of the leaf. Hypoderma forming an interrupted layer of cells. The margin of the leaf sharp. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the lower side of the leaf. Closely related anatomically to A. Webbiana, and differing more in the outline of the transverse section than in the actual struc- ture. Living specimens from Glasnevin Garden and Elvaston Nurseries have been examined. No. 14 (100). Pinus (Abies) Webbiana, Wall., Parl. Abies Webbiana, Lindl. Leaf slightly contracted towards the bifid apex, the two por- tions either small and very sharp, or slightly rounded. No stomata on the upper side of the leaf. Hypoderma forming an interrupted layer of cells. Margin of the leaf rounded. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the lower side of the leaf. Closely related to A. Pindrow, I have received living specimens from Glasnevin Garden and from Elvaston Nurseries, and have examined dried specimens (with leaves) from Castle Martyr, Cork ; and two without leaves, from Castle Martyr and Holkam Hall, all in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. A third form has come under my notice, the first specimen in the Herbarium of Trinity College, Dublin, from the Himalayas, named A, Webbiana, from Hooker fil. and Thomson’s collection ; and a second specimen of the same thing bearing a cone, from Castle * Since the above was written I have been able, through the kindness of Professor Oliver, F.R.S., to examine an authentic specimen of A. holophylla, Maxim., from Kew Museum. It is a distinct form, not yet in cultivation. 102 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY Kennedy, in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and named A. Pindrow. Both these are distinguished by the position of the resin canal, which is in the parenchyma of the leaf. It requires further investigation. No. 15 (101). Pinus (Abies) sibirica, Turcz., Parlatore. Abies sibirica, Ledeb. Leaves with the apex rounded or slightly truncate. No stomata on the upper surface. Hypoderma wanting. Resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf. Cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and in the Glasnevin Garden, Dublin, under the name of A. pichta. Also received from Elvaston Nurseries as A. sibirica. Anatomically a most distinct species, most nearly related to A. balsamea and Fraseri, but at once distinguished by the form of the leaf, the total absence of any trace of hypoderm cells, and the absence of stomata on the upper surface of the leaf. No. 16. Abies amabilis, Douglas (not Parlatore). Leaves rounded and emarginate at the apex, peculiarly arranged, forming two lateral rows, and those on the upper side of the shoot twisted so as to bring their upper surfaces superiorly, and placed with their axes nearly parallel to the long axis of the shoot. No stomata on the upper surface. Hypoderma well developed, forming a thick, slightly interrupted layer of cells. Resin canals close to the epidermis of the under side of the leaf. Many specimens of this species have been examined. It is the amabilis of gardens, the Abies grandis of A. Murray (“Synonyms of Various Conifers,” p. 18), who figures the peculiar arrangement of the leaves (op. cit., p. 19, fig. 20). It is cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, at Elvaston Nurseries, and by Mr Anthony Waterer, as amabilis. Three specimens in Kew Herba- rium, collected by Dr Lyall, have also been examined. On the Continent it is known as Abies spectabilis, Herpin de Fremont, (teste, Bertrand), Parlatore confounds it with lasiocarpa of Hooker and Abies bifolia of Andrew Murray, the description given by Parlatore referring to bifolia, Murray. This species was sent home by Jeffrey as No. 409, and was de- scribed and figured as Picea lasiocarpa, Balfour. No plants seem to have grown from Jeffrey’s seeds, as all the plants called lasio- carpa are grandis. 'The examination of the original specimen in THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF. 103 the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, enables me to state with confidence that A. Jasiocarpa (Balf.) is A. amabilis (Dougl.). Mr Murray’s figures (op. cit., p. 34, figs. 1 and 2) also prove the same thing. A. lasiocarpa (Hook.) is a distinct thing, and equals A. bifolia (A. Murray), A. amabilis (Parlatore). No. 17. Abies lasiocarpa, Hooker (not Balfour). A, bifolia, A. Murray, Syn. var. Conif., p. 31. A. amabilis, Parlatore, De C., Prod., 426, No. 102 (not Dougl.). Leaves of two kinds, those on the vegetative branches rounded or emarginate, on the cone-bearing shoots sharp and pointed. Sto- mata on both sides of the leaf. Hypoderma well developed. Resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf. Very different, anatomically, from A. amabilis, with which it is confounded by Parlatore. It was confused by the Oregon Com- mittee and Jeffrey with Pseudotsuga magnifica, both plants being mixed in Jeffrey's (No. 1480) in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. I have examined Hooker’s type specimen in Kew Herbarium, a specimen sent by Douglas in the same Her- barium, five specimens from the Oregon Boundary Commission collected by Dr Lyall in 1860-61, with the native name “Marielp.” It is also P. bifolia of Murray. I have examined specimens from M. Roezl, sent to me by Mr Syme. The only living plants observed were seedlings from Elvaston Nurseries. None of the seeds sent out by the Oregon Committee seem to have germinated. A glance at the figures of the bracts given by Mr Murray in his work already quoted, p. 34, figs. 4 and 12, will show that Jlasio- carpa (Hook.) equals bifolia (Murray). No. 18 (103). Pinus (Abies) concolor, Engel., Parlatore. Abies concolor, Lindl. Leaves obtuse at the apex, closely covered with stomata on both sides. Hypoderma scanty. Resin canals touching the epidermis of the under side of the leaf. A very distinct form, related to Lowiana and grandis, and more distantly to amabilis. I have only seen dried specimens from Engelmann (No. 828) in the Herbarium at Kew and Trinity College, Dublin, and have not as yet seen it in cultivation in this country. Bertrand (op. cit., p. 90) gives the anatomical characters 104 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY of A. concolor as those of grandis (Lindl.), and cites grandis and lasiocarpa as synonyms, grandis of Douglas being Bertrand’s Gordoniana. No. 19 (104). Pinus (Abies) grandis, Dougl., Parlatore im part. Abies grandis, Lindl. Abies amabilis, A. Murray. Abies Gordoniana, Carriere. Abies lasiocarpa, Hort. (not Balf. or Hooker). Leaves obtuse and emarginate at the apex, without stomata on the upper surface (very rarely with two or three in a small cluster near the apex). Hypoderma consisting of a few scattered cells under the upper epidermis. Resin canals touching the epidermis of the under side of the leaf. A very distinct form (No. 393 of Jeffrey), the scale of which is figured by Mr Murray (op. cit., p. 25, fig. 32). Known com- monly in gardens under the names of grandis and lasiocarpa. It is A. Gordoniana of Carriere and Bertrand. This species can be distinguished with the greatest ease from all its allies by the hypoderma of the leaf, as well as by the bracts of the cone. No. 20. Abies Lowiana, Murray, Syn. var. Conif., p. 27. Picea Lowiana, Gordon. Pinus (Abies) grandis, Parlatore im part. Picea Parsonsti, Hort. Picea lasiocarpa, Hort. Leaves long, narrow, obtuse or emarginate at the apex, with a broad band of stomata on the upper surface, running in the middle line from base to apex. Hypoderma well developed. Resin canals touching the epidermis of the under side. Closely related to Abies grandis, but distinct. Separated by the different development of hypoderma, by the presence of the stomata on the upper side, and, when growing, by the paler, more yellow colour of the young leafy axes. Many native and cultivated specimens have been examined. Specimens from Mr Low of Clapton in Kew Herbarium. Two in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, one from Jeffrey (without a number), the other from Mr Andrew Murray, collected by Mr William Murray. It is cultivated extensively, and passes under different names, such as Lowzi, Lowi glauca, Parsonii, and lasio- THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF. 105 carpa. It was described in 1862 by Mr Gordon as Picea Lowi- anu. No. 21 (105). Pinus (Abies) Vettchit. Pinus selenolepis, Parlatore. Abies Veitchwi, Carriére. Picea Veitchii, Lindl. Leaves obtuse and emarginate at the apex. Stomata on the under surface of the leaf only. Hypoderma wanting. Resin canals in the parenchyma of the leaf. Only a single specimen of the remarkably distinct form has been seen. It is in Kew Herbarium, and bears two labels, “ Abies microsperma” and “ Picea Veitchii (Lindl.).” It has no- thing to do with the Abies Veitchit in cultivation. No. 22. Abies Harryana. New species. Abies Veitchii, Hort., Veitch. Not of descriptions. Leaves acute at the apex. Stomata on the under surface of the leaf only. Hypoderma forming a continuous or almost continu- ous layer under the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf. Resin canals touching the epidermis of the under side. This is the plant cultivated as A. Vettchii, and sent to me under that name by Messrs Veitch. It differs in appearance from true Vettchit, and can be at once separated anatomically by the great development of the hypoderma, and by the position of the resin canals. If further investigation confirms the opinion that it is new, the name Harryana will be retained in compliment to Harry J. Veitch, Esq., the head of the firm of Veitch & Sons, in London. No, 23. Abies sp., from Drummond. A single plant, in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, has been examined, and I fail to refer it to any of the forms already noticed. Pseupotsuaa, Carriére. Leaves not in cushions, but inserted directly into the stem, as in Abies. Two resin canals, one on each side of the leaf. Fibro- vascular bundle single. 106 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY No. 1 (89). Pinus (Pseudotsuga) nobilis, Dougl., Parl. Abies nobilis, Linn. Picea nobilis, Loudon. Leaves projecting upwards on the upper side of the shoot ; leaf with an obtuse apex. Stomata on both sides of the leaf. Leaves on the vegetative shoot furrowed on the upper side. Hypoderma chiefly developed at the margins of the leaf and below the longi- tudinal furrow. Resin canals close to the under surface of the leaf. Very many specimens of P. nobilis, native and cultivated, have been examined. The leaves are rather variable, being flattened in young plants, and on the cone-bearing shoots approaching that of the next species, P. magnifica. I have examined specimens from Douglas, and also from Jeffrey (No. 398). * No. 2. Pinus (Pseudotsuga) magnifica. Abies magnifica, A. Murray, Syn. var. Conif., p. 27. Abies amabilis, Parlatore, under 102. Abies robusta, Hort. Leaves rounded or acute at the apex, more or less tetragonal, not grooved on the upper surface. Stomata on both sides of the leaf. Hypoderma well developed. Resin canals close to lower epider- mis, surrounded by hypoderma. Many specimens of this have been examined, both cultivated and native. The specimens from Lobb are in Kew Herbarium. It was also sent home by Jeffrey (No. 1480, part), and is exten- sively cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, under the names magnifica and robusta. It is very closely related to P. nobilis, but separated at once by the short bracts of the cone. The bracts are well figured by Mr Andrew Murray, Syn. of var. Conif., p. 28, fig. 42. It is difficult to understand how Parlatore could have confounded it with his P. amabilis, and it seems inexcusable when he had Mr Murray’s most excellent figures before him. A specimen of amabilis (Douglas) in Kew Herbarium, and sent tome by Professor Oliver, as the type of Douglas’s species, is either magnifica or nobilis, so that some confusion must have been made at a very early time. Further investigation will, however, be made on this point. THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF. 107 No. 3. Pseudotsuga Davidiana, Bertrand. A species from Thibet, unknown to me, and described by Dr C. E. Bertrand, op. cit., p. 82. It is not in cultivation. No. 4 (111). Pinus (Pseudotsuga) Douglasii, Sabine, Parl. The characters of specimens of Douglaswi seem variable, and I have seen two distinct plants under this name. The large plant in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, may be taken as the type of the one form. The other I have only seen herbarium specimens of, one from Kew, and two from the herbarium of Trinity College, Dublin. These latter—the herbarium specimens —are all distinguished by the presence of remarkable star-like, thickened cells of large size lying in the parenchyma of the leaf. The specimen from Kew Herbarium is from the Rocky Mountains, and marked “ Douglasii?” The next, from Trinity College Her- barium, is from New Mexico, C. Wright (No. 1885). The third is from the same herbarium, and was collected by Fendler in New Mexico (No. 829). Parlatore cites this plant as belonging to P. amabilis, but itis anatomically identical with Wright’s specimen referred by Parlatore to Douglasti. Further observation is wanted to clear up the difficulties in the synonymy. No. 5 (112). Pinus (Pseudotsuga) Fortunei, Parl. Abies Fortunet, Lindl. Abies Jezoensis, Hort. Leaves long and pointed. No stomata on the upper side of the leaf. Hypoderma not very well developed. Resin canals close to the lower epidermis. A very distinct form, most closely related to Abies Veitch (Hort., Veitch), A. Harryana mihi, differing only in the larger leaf and single fibro-vascular bundle. I am indebted to Messrs Veitch for the only living specimen I have seen. It is well described and figured by Mr Andrew Murray in his ‘Sketch of the Conifers of Japan.” 108 SPECIES OF ABIES DETERMINED BY LIST OF SPECIES OF ABIES AND PSEUDOTSUGA No. 1 (88). yy» 2 (90). » 8 (91). (92). > 4 (92). » 5 (92). » 6 (92). », 14a. » 15 (101). » 16. »» 17 (102). ,, 18 (103). 5» 19 (104). 5» 20 (104). 7 (93). »» 8 (94). 9 (94). 0 (95). (96). , 11 (96). 5, 12 (96). (96). (97). (98). 4 13 (99). 5» 14 (100). ABIES. A. bracteata, Hook. and Arnott. A. Fraseri, Lindl. A. religiosa, Schlecht. (A. hirtella, Humb.) Pinus Abies, Duroi, Parl. A. pectinata, D. C. A. Nordmanniana, Spach. A. Cephalonica, Loud. (A. Apollinis, Link.) (A. Regine-Amalie, Heldr.) A. cilicica, Carriere. A. Pinsapo, Boiss, Parlatore in part. A. Baborensis, Coss. (A. Numidica, De Lannoy.) A. balsamea, Mill. Pinus firma, Parlatore, not Antoine. A. firma, Sieb. and Zucce. (A. brachyphylla, Maxim.) A. bifida, Sieb. and Zuce. (A. firma, Hort.) 2A. homolepis, Sieb. and Zucc. 2A. holophylla, Maxim. . brachyphylla, Maxim. (A. firma, Sieb. and Zucc.) . Pindrow, Spach. . Webbiana, Lindl. . nov. sp. 22 (A. Webbiana, Hook. fil. and Th.) (A. Pindrow, Mus. R. B. G., Edin.) . sibirica, Ledeb. (A. pichta, Hort.) . amabilis, Dougl., not Parlatore. (A. grandis, A. Murray.) (A. spectabilis, Herp. de Fr., Bertrand.) (Picea lasiocarpa, Balf.) (Jelfrey’s, No. 409.) A. lasiocarpa, Hook. (A. amabilis, Parl., 102.) (A. bifolia, A. Murray.) (Jeffrey’s, No. 1480, zn part.) A. concolor, Engel. (A. grandis, Bertrand.) A. grandis, Lindl. (A. grandis, Parl. in part.) (A. amabilis, A. Murray.) (A. Gordoniana, Carriére.) (A. lasiocarpa, Hort.) A, Lowiana, Murray. (A. grandis, Parl. in part.) (Picea Parsonii, Hort.) (Picea lasioearpa, Hort.) (A. grandis, A. Murray, in Mus. R. B. G., Edin.) RR RRA A Lae : R. ae bat enh fy a” ‘ iy i Trans. Scot. Arbor.Soe. Vol. VHT. SEAXS ees AW Scale ito of an Inch “ Farlane & Erskine, Lith™® Edit THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF. 109 No. 21 (105). A. Veitchii, Carriére. (P. selenolepis, Parl.) aes A. Harryana, nov. sp. (A. Vettchii, Hort.) pe 20, A. sp., Drummond. PSEUDOTSUGA. No. 1 (89). P. nobilis, Dougl. . A. magnifica, A. Murray. (P. amabilis, Parl., in part.) (Jeffrey, No. 1480, in part.) (A. robusta, Hort.) bo — a Oo bo — mee a8 P. Davidiana, Bertrand. 4 (111). P. Douglasii. (Two forms ?) , 5 (112), P. Fortunei, Lindl. (A, Jezoensis, Hort.) - - EXPLANATION OF PLATE. (The figures are copied from the Plates (46, 47, 48, and 49) in the Proceed- ings of the Royal Irish Academy, Series II., Vol. ii., Science.) Letters in figures: e. Epidermis. h. Hypoderma. c. Resin canals. s, Sheath of fibro-vascular bundles. . Abies pectinata (Glasnevin Garden), Pl. 48, Fig. 20. A, Nordmanniana (Glasnevin Garden), Pl. 48, Fig. 22. . A, Cephalonica (Glasnevin Garden), Pl. 48, Fig. 24. . A. firma (Kew Herbarium), Pl. 47, Fig. 14. . bifida (Messrs Veitch, Chelsea), Pl. 47, Fig. 15. . amabilis (Jeffrey, No. 409), Pl. 46, Fig. 3a. . lasiocarpa (Kew Herbarium), Pl. 46, Fig. 7. . lasiocarpa, leaf from cone-bearing shoot (Kew Herbarium), Pl. 47, Fig. 9. », 9. A. grandis (Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh), Pl. 46, Fig. 4. », 10. A. Veitchti (Kew Herbarium), Pl. 47, Fig. 13. », ll. Pseudotsuga magnifica (California, Lobb, in Kew Herbarium), Pl. 49, Fig. 30a. », 12. P. Douglasii? (Fendler, No. 829, in Herb., Trinity College, Dublin), Pl. 49, Fig. 320. bh be be VOL. VIII., PART II, H 110 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. XI. On the Timber Supply of. Australia. By the Hon. Mr Kricuaurr, Member of Legislative Assembly of South Australia. With Note, by R. Hutcuison of Carlowrie, V.-P.S8.A.Soe, The following deeply interesting and instructive paper was recently read before a Meeting of the Chamber of Manufactures, in the South Australian Institute, Adelaide, under the Presidency of His Excellency the Governor of South Australia. As much of the ground so ably traversed in his address is very suggestive, and at the same time instructive to the practical forester of our own country, and to the younger Members of the Scottish Arboricul- tural Society, Mr Krichauff’s paper is here reproduced, in the hope of showing the strenuous calls for forest conservancy and extension of plantation works which exist, and are being grappled with in some of the most important colonies of the British Crown. A perusal of so able an advocate as Mr Krichauft’s views may suggest reflections applicable to our own native land, and arouse the attention of Arboriculturists to the fact that, if such conditions of necessity for forest conservancy exist in comparatively sparsely-peopled and new countries, it is surely the more incumbent upon the practical labourer in the cause of Arboriculture in the mother country, to endeavour, by all the means in his power, to further the art of his profession, and to promote the home growth of valuable timber, seeing so many of the old timber supplies in countries whence we have been accustomed to draw largely for our constructive wants at home, must now have yearly increasing demands upon their resources, in competition with our own, from those rapidly progressing colonies which Great Britain has estab- lished for her surplus population in all quarters of the world, even in climates where timber for constructive purposes is by no means over abundant. Mr Kricuaurr said: No raw material, I venture to say, is of greater importance to a larger number of tradesmen and manufac- turers than timber, and, even by the simple appellation of fuel, wood takes with manufacturers a place at least next to coal. If, therefore, the Chamber of Manufactures takes an interest in the supply of timber and fuel, it is a duty which the Chamber owes to its members ; and I feel proud of being requested to call this day ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. lil special attention to our forests, and the supply of timber and fuel. I may not be able to furnish much that is new, but the collection into a small compass of available statistical information, and extracts from various books, lectures, or speeches bearing upon the question, but not accessible to everybody, may secure your atten- tion for a short while, and show you that the preservation of our never very extensive native forests is urgently required; and I hope you will only earnestly recommend the planting of forest trees on a large scale. A thousand pities that the present planting season, with such abundant rain, should be again lost. My statistical information as to the number of persons who work in wood is neither complete nor of a late date. In the year 1871 we had in South Australia 6 manufactories of organs and pianos, 13 of picture frames, 1 of washing machines, 16 establishments for boat and ship building, 29 saw mills; and in the municipalities alone there were as long ago as in the year 1866 already 146 shops occupied by carpenters and cabinetmakers, 18 by coopers, 12 by turners, and 42 by wheelwrights. At least 30 of the more reputed mines require in the aggregate an enormous quantity of both timber and fuel. For the year 1873 coal and coke have been imported into the colony for the sum of £88,002; timber of all kinds (deducting re-exports) for the sum of £125,726, 5s. During the first quarter of the year 1875 we have actually imported timber for the very large sum of £62,971, and admitting that the larger proportion of our present importation of timber consists, of such kinds as we may probably have to import, even if we plant forests, it is yet noteworthy that we have not yet exported one shilling’s worth of our native timber against such large sums, I think we are the only Australian colony which cannot or does not export some kind of native timber. With the increase of population this large importation will, however, not simply become larger still, but must, even if we found coal, increase in the same ratio as our supply of native timber decreases. To fortify this position, it is best to give you an idea of the very great consump- tion of firewood, and consequent rapid decrease of native timber. As we have no peat, and only imported coals, the quantity of fire- wood used in our households, considermg our mild winters, is proportionately large; and we may assume that 15 tons of fuel, irrespective of the consumption for manufactories, is consumed in each of the 38,333 households which the census of 1870 enumer- ated, With a consumption of 574,995 tons in 1870, we certainly ITZ ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. used more than 600,000 tons of firewood in 1875. Add to this the yearly increasing quantity of sleepers and firewood required by our railways, the timber for our mines, and the fences for our farmers and graziers, and I have no doubt it will make it clear to you that something must be done for the future. Of late years this subject—the necessity of preserving and planting forests—has presented itself more forcibly to the attention of all civilised Governments. Dr Hooker, of Kew Gardens, says, in a letter dated October 22, 1873, addressed to the Under-Secretary (Her- bert): “The duty of conserving the natural resources of the colonies for the benefit of future generations, whilst encouraging a fair use of them by the present, is becoming the most pressing and arduous duty of those entrusted with their government.” This was written after he had perused the rules for the conservation of the Ceylon forests. Mr Dalzell, the Conservator of Forests, Bombay Presidency, says in his observations on the influence of forests: “It has been said that to pursue the progress of man step by step in the destruction of forests, would be to write the history of civilisation, as man is developed only at the expense of forest vegetation. Hence an endeavour has been made to establish it as a maxim that civilisation is antagonistic to the conservation of forests. When this sentiment is analysed it is more distinguished for brevity than for truth, for it is in civilised countries such as Germany and France that the conservation of forests is considered of vital importance to the progress and well-being of man, and that without forests these would become, like Asia Minor, the cradle of the human race, a country of ruined cities. Itis only in the first step of civilisation that man is the enemy of forests.” To some Govern- ments, like that of Mauritius and some of the Leeward Islands, in the West Indies, it is, or must become, the question of questions, as most affecting the present or immediate future. Much as France, Austria, Sweden, and especially Germany, have done for the preservation and planting of forests, it is quite certain that even in these countries timber and firewood are rising in value. In North America forests were thought to be inexhaustible only thirty years ago; now, it is estimated that, while the Western States of the Mississippi already import timber, the whole region east of the river will be without useful timber within another twenty years. Even now the regular depth of this river is decreas- ing every year, and sudden floods are occurring, which were formerly unknown, American oak for shipbuilding is nearly ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA, 113 exterminated, and the price of walnut, so much valued for cabinet- work, is greatly increasing, in consequence of the distance it has now to be brought to the shore. Mr N. Hawthorn now tells us that the New England yeoman is at the present time as niggardly of each stick of firewood as if it were a bar of Californian gold. The reports of the Agricultural Department of the United States predict that the export of timber cannot long be continued, as the consumption within the States increases, and now requires annually more than one million of acres of forest land. No wonder is it, therefore, that Congress now offers a liberal bonus in land to all those who will plant forest trees on one quarter of such land! The Parliamentary librarian, Mr J. C. Morphett, has kindly supplied me with the following information respecting recent Congressional action about forests in America: “A very important bill was lately introduced into Congress by Mr Haldeman, of Pennsylvania, and has now become law. It provides that every future sale of Government land shall be with the condition that at least 10 per cent. of the timbered land shall be kept perpetually as woodland ; and if the land be not timbered, then the patent is to be issued on the condition that 10 per cent. of the quantity is to be planted with forest trees within ten years, and to be kept for ever as woodland. If this be done, an abatement of 50 per cent. is to be made on account of the expense of planting. A violation of this agreement is to be met by forfeiture of the land. It is also pro- posed that any one who may wish to acquire title to the public land, under the Homestead Act, can do so by proof of the fact that he has had, at the end of three years after taking possession, at least one acre under cultivation with timber for two years,’ and that this shall be continued until one acre in every ten is planted with trees, in clusters not more than sixteen feet apart (House Bill, Forty-Second Congress, 3008).” The great attention which is paid in East India to forest conservancy and planting is well known, and certainly did not commence too early. To a great extent the famines occurring periodically in certain portions of that vast empire, through absence of rain, are a consequence of deforestation. If we observe the alarm so generally expressed by members of the Legislature in New Zealand (Dr Hector calculated the area of forest land in New Zealand in the year 1830 at 20,370,000 acres, in the year 1873 at only 12,130,000 acres) at the rapid disappearance of the native forests of these, in our opinion, still densely wooded islands, it is certainly for South Australians 114 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA, a matter of far more immediate and pressing importance to think of the preservation of our native forests, and the planting of others by private means as well as by the Government. On purpose, I speak also of planting by private means, as I hope to see at least many of our wealthy colonists take a special interest in tree plant- ing. If gentlemen will follow the good examples of C. B. Fisher, Esq., and of John Hodgkiss, Esq., J.P., and plant as extensively on their estates (I think 40,000 forest trees), it will go far to show a good example to others, who can only be moved to follow their steps if they see the success of such plantations, ‘¢ Which shielded them against the broiling heat, And with green branches decked the gloomy glade ;” and find that after twenty or twenty-five years such a plantation pays handsomely. The demand for timber is beginning to arise, but it will be sometime before it presses on the people with sufficient force to make them turn their attention to the growth of trees, which is expensive, and may yield only a return after years of patient culture. Meanwhile these difficulties will increase as the country becomes more and more exposed to the full force of the winds, hot winds especially, sweeping over it with a violence which trees cannot stand, or which cause young seedlings to be scorched, ‘‘ How long will the supply of native timber probably last in your locality, if no further steps are taken for the preserva- tion or planting of timber, keeping in view a gradual increase of population ?” was the question to which an answer was requested two years ago from corporations, district councils, and private gentlemen. Many of the answers received by the Commissioner of Crown Lands were of the following kind, viz.: Very little useful timber left, except in a few isolated patches too far from any centre of population. In a large number of the northern districts the supply of firewood even is so limited that there is scarcely time for trees now planted to attain a sufficient size to supply it when wanted. How many of our farmers will manage to renew their fencing, except at a ruinous cost, appears to me a mystery, when, even in the better wooded districts, posts already command 50s. to 80s. per hundred. Thus far I have not heard of any attempt to claim a land order under the Forest Planting Encouragement Act of 1872. This may be because our Government has proclaimed no districts under that Act, or because the bonus offered is considered insufficient, and therefore nobody asked the Government to pro- ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. 115 claim districts. Certainly, New Zealand, with a climate more congenial to tree-growing, because of its greater humidity, has acted far more liberally in offering a bonus twice as large, and relatively perhaps three or four times as large. At all events it is clear that the preservation and planting of forests is too important to be left under the Crown Lands Department, with a bare chance of being once attended to at the right time, and at another forgotten or neglected, with no trained staff, or employing men who take no special delight in their duties, or executed by men who put in a tender for it. If such plantation is successful, it would be a sur- prise to me. Compare with this the care which is taken by the foresters in Germany, of which Dr Brandis, the Inspector-General of Forests in India, says the following: ‘The steepest and most rocky sides of the hills are covered with forests which have been, so to speak, created by the ingenuity and labours of the Forest Department. In many such places, where even the few handfuls of soil placed round the young tree have had to be carried some distance, it is not contended that the first plantations will yield a direct pecuniary profit, but the improvement in climate by the retention of the moisture, and reclamation of large tracts formerly barren and unproductive, is taken into account, besides which the droppings of leaves and needles from the trees will ere long create a soil and vegetation, and ensure the succegs of plantations in future years, and consequent surplus.” And in another place: *‘ Nothing that I can say or write can convey too high an idea of the attainments and thorough knowledge of their work possessed by German forest-officers of all grades, A very little time served to convince me that the practice of the German foresters was as good, if not better, than their theory, and that they were, in fact, perfect masters of their duties in all their details.” And again: “Where are we to look for a model or precedent on which to work? and the reply appears ready—To Germany, where forestry has been carried on for hundreds of years. Not the mere planting of a few hundred acres here, or reserving a few thousand acres there, but a general system of forest management, commencing by a careful survey, stock-taking, careful experiments in the rate of growth, the best soil for each description of tree—in fact, in every branch of the subject, and resulting in hundreds of thousands of acres mapped, divided into periods and blocks, and worked to the best advantage, both with regard to present and future, and the annual yield of which now and for many years to come is known 116 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA, and fixed to within a few hundred cubic feet.” Compare with our happy-go-lucky style the grand success in planting with Pinus pin- aster, the Dunes or shifting sands near the mouth of the Gironde, 150 miles in length ; and the equally grand success of making the poor, swampy, formerly uninhabitable Department des Landes, by draining and planting, productive and habitable. I think, there- fore, with Dr Schomburgk, “that a Forest Board, consisting of men enthusiastic on this question (and if possible having some knowledge of forestry), not merely friends of Chief Secretary or Commissioner, should be a sine gud non.” Victoria also has called into life a Board of Forests, with an Inspector of Forests, and under this direction the preservation of forests and young planta- tions has been secured. Local Forest Boards do not seem to have given much satisfaction where tried in the neighbourhood of the gold mines. Eventually Local Forest Boards may be desirable ; but, for the present, unity of action under one Conservator may be preferable until the extent of our plantations may make a division desirable. The necessity of one such board, however, and the appointment of a well-qualified man as conservator, is, in my opinion, obvious. Although the Government cannot undertake the obligation of providing firewood or other timber for the people throughout the country, and experience may eventually show that our Government cannot accomplish such undertakings so success- fully, or at least not as economically as private individuals; and although it might be impolitic to monopolise a branch of industry which ought to attain considerable importance, it is still very desirable that a well-conducted example should be set to the people in different localities, where it is quite unlikely that private enter- prise will step in. It is desirable to obtain really reliable informa- tion on the subject of growing timber and firewood by commencing a series of systematic experiments as to the best description of trees for the respective purposes in different localities, the best time and mode of planting or sowing, the proper number of differ- ent kind of trees to the acre, the best age at which to cut, ete. I know, of course, that in Germany the State derives a very large profit from State forests ; and here also the Government may be forced, through the neglect of private enterprise, to grow timber for the necessary public works, especially railway sleepers. Every mile of new railway requires at least 2000 sleepers—to be renewed in perhaps ten years. I can, therefore, subscribe to the following passage, being an extract from a letter, addressed by the ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. 1 bf Secretary of State for India to the Governor in Council, Madras, dated the 24th day of April 1863: “To forests, from their nature, the usual maxim of political economy, which leaves such under- takings to private enterprise, cannot be applied. Their vast extent, the long time that a tree takes to reach maturity, and the consequence that few persons live long enough to obtain any, and more especially the highest returns for expenditure, even once in the course of their lives, are proofs of the necessity that forest management should be conducted on permanent principles, and not be left to the negligence, avarice, or caprice of individuals, and therefore point to the State as the proper administrator, bound to take care that in supplying the wants of the present generation there is no reckless waste, no needless forestalling of the supply of future generations. This is a matter of experience, not in India only, but in all other countries of the world.” We must at once admit that here also the principal causes preventing at present the planting of forest trees on a really large scale are : (1.) The want of capital to wait for a return, and the necessity of incurring mean- while the further expense of tending and protecting any such plantation as long as the same capital and labour devoted to grain- growing or sheep-farming bring a more immediate and a more certain, probably for some years even a larger profit. (2.) The physical unsuitability of certain districts, at least at present, for the successful growth of forest trees, unless at a great risk and too great cost. But if we neglect this matter much longer, the ques- tion of reproduction of forests may have to be taken up under such adverse circumstances, even in the more favourable districts, as to baffle all our attempts by either private enterprise or the Govern- ment, unless at a ruinous expense. Enlightened nations fully appreciate their duty to posterity, and will provide with keen fore- thought beforehand what cannot be called forth at any time at will. I can fully agree with the proposal of our Surveyor-General (Mr Goyder) to establish at first in various parts of the colony, on the Forest Reserves, nurseries of forest trees. Irrespective of their necessity for the plantations by the Government, they will give great encouragement to private plantations. Seeds or seedlings might be supplied either gratis, if planted by public bodies, or at a cheap rate, and the young plants would be in less danger than if they had to be carried perhaps one hundred or several hundred miles from Adelaide or Melbourne. Before, however, entering upon the subject of establishing these nurseries here, it may be 118 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. well to see in what manner operations have been carried on, for instance, in Madras, East India, where the necessity for a future supply of timber has led to great exertions. The report by the officiating Conservator of Forests (Major Beddome) for the year 1869-70 contains seventy-nine folio pages of small print, and shows the great interest taken by the Government in forestry, the energy of the official staff, the great success with which many experimental plantations have been made, and the reasons for failure in other instances. The report deals with several thousand square miles of forests under conservancy; also with seventeen nurseries and plantations, of from 50 to 500 acres each, and in at least as many more places, operations were begun and plantations contemplated. In many places the operations were tentative, intended as experi- ments and for the instruction of the subordinates of the depart- ment. The following items in this report appear to me of par- ticular interest, as either referring to Australian trees or to the mode of sowing or planting adopted: “Codoor plantation is 50 acres in extent, surrounded by a bank topped with an aloe fence. The trees are generally watered only for one year after transplant- ation. They are mostly planted out in pits; others sown in trenches at 15 feet apart.” A tree known in Mexico as the Geni- saro (Pithecollobium saman) had been received from Dr Thwaites, director of the Botanical Gardens in Ceylon, and was praised as of rapid growth, If this tree is a native of Mexico, and not, like others of its genus, of Brazil, it might be advisable to introduce it here for the above reason. At Trevellan Nursery 358 acres have been planted with 52,310 Casuarina or sheaoak, at distances 12 by 12, or 15 by 15. They had to be shaded when planted, and watered occasionally during the first year, but their planting had been found far less precarious than any other on the plains. In the Putney Hills plantations most of the gum seedlings (Hucalyptus) that were first put down were killed by the frost. Im many other places our gums do well in India. At Talliamally plantation of sandalwood, various experiments were tried at first, such as grow- ing the seed in nurseries, and transplanting into bamboo pots, baskets, etc., and eventually in the ground; also growing the seed in bamboo pots, and the result was that the most successful plan was to plant the seed in pits where the tree was to stand, water well, and never transplant. Shade being very necessary to young plants, experiments were made with different sorts of shade ; cotton was tried, but abandoned, and now the seeds of the Chili plant are ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. 119 sown round the seedling sandal for a shade, as the leaves of this plant remain always green, and are not large. At Parapa 70,471 teak (Lagerstroemia) were planted on 30 acres, and these trees attained in six yearsa height of 20 feet, and more than 7 inches in girth. At Gooty the plantation is 404 acres and 3 roods, The soil is a stiff black clay, with an admixture of sand, salt, and lime, on which scarcely anything appears to thrive. During the early rains of June, 23 acres were sown broadcast with Acacia arabica and speciosa seeds, which have grown successfully, although in other places they have generally failed if so sown. Of other trees transplanted, it would not be a wide remark that, with the number of substituted plants in the place of those which failed, the whole land could have been planted once again. Sowing in trenches has there been found to be the most suitable and simple mode of planting. The expense of these nurseries and plantations is, even with the low rate of wages in India, very considerable, yet the success of the plantations as an ultimate source of revenue to the State, becomes more and more certain every year, since even failure one year with one kind of tree, leads to the adoption of another mode of sowing or planting, or the substitution of other trees more likely to succeed the next year. Nurseries in India or here, are not likely to produce any consider- able revenue, although such is the case with forest nurseries in Europe. I find that the average cost pf keeping the Royal nur- sery for forest trees at Kiel, in Holstein, consisting of only six acres, was about 400 dols. a-year, and the income from sales, at a very low figure, about 700 dols. If we can manage to keep such nurseries, after a few years, without a pecuniary loss, I dare say nobody will complain in view of the advantages which we shall derive indirectly. The salaries of the Conservator of Forests and of the men constantly employed at the forest reserves, will be afterwards the chief expenditure, and nearly all the work can be done by common labouring men, or even boys. In the details I cannot agree with Mr Goyder’s estimate of the first year’s expense ; but our sum total is nearly the same. Mr Goyder omits all refer- ence to a matter which is an absolute necessity in most places— the sinking of wells for watering, or the forming of large reser- voirs of rain-water. My estimate of the first year’s expense for each nursery will be £1530, irrespective of salaries and wages, Viz. : 120 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. Two horses and cart, F ; ; F . £80 Cottages and sheds, A ; » : . 500 Implements, : ’ : : - bre jou Seed, : : : : ; : 50 Hay and fodder, and sowing of same for next year, 7 = 780 Pots and boxes, . : : ; : . 3800 Fencing, . - : : : : . 250 Wells and tanks, . B ; ; : . 250 £1530 Wages and contingencies, . 5 - - . 670 £2200 This does not include the salary of the Conservator of Forests, which ought to be not less than £400 a-year ; and if we intend to keep three forest nurseries and establishments for planting, also a travelling party, who may attend to the travelling reserves about to be planted, a sum of £3000 may be required after the first year, and a sum total of £9000 for the first year. I believe it is too un- certain to calculate the direct profits which may be received by the Government or Forest Board as a return for such outlay. Mr T. Calcutt, of New Zealand, says in a memorandum as to the cost of planting and managing forest trees: “I have little or no hesitation in believing that £10,000 expended properly in planting trees would within fifty years result in their having a market value of half a million sterling.” With a few favourable seasons at the commencement, the direct profits arising after the first eight or ten years ought to be sufficient to pay not only current expenses, but at least interest on former outlay, and after the timber arrives at maturity the whole of the principal sunk will doubtless be obtained, and as much more, as will enable the State to con- stantly undertake operations on a larger scale, with men who have become experienced in the work, at a greatly reduced cost, and with far greater certainty as to results. You will undoubtedly agree with Pope’s lines : ‘* First follow Nature, and your judgment frame By her just standard, which remains the same, Unerring ;”’ and only extend operations in the same ratio as you have col- lected much-needed experience in arboriculture. It may be that in some of our reserves little more is required to ensure the certain and quick growth of young saplings than to keep cattle out and to sow ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. AAI during the early rains some seeds on the surface. It is more likely, and probably safer, to plough and harrow the land either for sowing broadcast, or, better still, in well-prepared strips in rows. It may be advisable to plant some kinds of trees in pits after raising them in nursery-beds or pots, and to specially prepare the soil in those parts by adding ashes or compost, or to cover the surface by an inch of sand, ashes, chaff, or sawdust. In dry loca- lities it may be preferable to have the tree planted in a hole a few inches deeper than the surrounding soil, and not to fill the whole of the soil into the pit back again. In Europe, forestry has in the course of centuries become an art; but the difference in climate upon many of the kinds of trees to be raised, is such that experience gained in Europe can only assist us in arriving at rational conclu- sions, by which we must be guided. Even in South Australia our foresters will have to follow different rules in north and south. Much of the land in the south-east may be too cold and wet for a great many varieties, but by raising strips of the land, 8 feet wide, by the sod of other 8 feet, successful plantations can surely be made. The dry soil of the north requires, again, the greatest care as to shading, and watering from creeks, reservoirs, or wells, during the first season. In the report for 1874 on the Dandenong Forest the Secretary for Agriculture in Victoria says: “The renewal of the consumed trees by the hand of Nature seems to be sure under certain condition. The great fire of 1851 cleared large areas of every kind of vegetation. These are now covered with a thick growth of fine young trees from 80 to 100 feet high. The only fault that can be found with Nature’s handiwork in this case is the fact of the young trees growing much too thickly to render it pro- bable that, without thinning, trees such as preceded them will be produced, Very different to this exuberant growth is the appear- ance of those parts of the forest thinned by the hand of man. Here seedlings do not, as a rule, take the place of the felled trees, but the forest in these places is left open, with an appearance of bareness. It is such places as these that suggest. the expediency of assisting Nature’s efforts to renew the original tree-growth, or to attempt improvement of the forest-production, by the substitu- tion of improved species of trees. There are several spots in this forest that require attention, and some that offer special facilities for the experimental raising of the trees of other than the prevail- ing species—the best species of Eucalyptus which is suited to elevated volcanic regions, is, for instance, the Tasmanian bluegum. 122 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. Expense would be necessarily incurred, in the first instance, in burning off the vegetation now covering these spots, and in after- wards preventing its growth, so as to keep any accidental fire within bounds. It would be suflicient, beyond this, merely to sow the seed on the burned surface. Other places on the lower ranges, covered with rough grass, are not so likely to suffer from fire. The soil is poor compared with the higher ranges, and is more or less stony, and the existing trees few and far between. No other spots in the forest seem, at first sight, so well adapted for a trial planta- tion of some species of conifere, if deemed advisable to attempt to create a local supply of the soft woods now so extensively im- ported.” It will require many years’ experience before we can ascertain the most profitable trees for different localities, or before we can point to trees which are safe to plant as a narrow belt or break-wind, in the shelter of which afterwards the more desirable timber can be grown. And here I will take the opportunity of making a remark in reply to a very incorrect notion held by a great many persons. The wood of one and the same kind of tree is not always of the same value. Suitable or unsuitable position has considerable influence on the value of the timber, and there is generally a great superiority in timber growing artificially to that growing wild. But artificial planting is not only preferable from the greater absence of knots and other faults—it is even more en- durable—and the quantity which may be grown per acre is very much larger. In artificial plantations you hope and can fairly ex- pect to turn every tree into prepared stuff, not one-nineteenth only, as is, for instance, the case with the natural forests in New Zealand. Forests sown broadcast are also almost in every case inferior to those where the trees stand in rows as regards the quantity of use- ful timber, although in other respects every care and attention may be paid to both alike. I can show most remarkable comparative tables relating thereto, which conclusively prove quicker growths and larger numbers of trees upon the same area and soil, Another matter, however, connected with the value of timber is of still greater importance, namely, the selection of the proper season for cutting the trees, and not to cut them all the year round, as has been the custom in South Australia. I presume we must select the close of the summer season, and before the heavy rains have again circulated the sap more freely, as the best season. I found posts and rails cut in spring decay sooner, and so will posts, if put into the ground quite green. We should hear far less said ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA, 123 against our colonial timber if we took the trouble to cut at the right time, and to season it with as much trouble as other persons take with imported timber. If this is not well seasoned, it will shrink quite as much. If only efficient means are adopted to ex- tract the sap from sawn timber, or to steam it or to impreg- nate it with salt or some mineral oil, that will preserve it: it can be cut at any time. No person who has had any practical ex- perience in the construction of public works, or who is constantly working in timber, will undervalue the importance of cutting tim- ber at the proper season, It is well known how difficult it is to sell even full-grown trees, which a hurricane sometimes uproots at any other time than the proper season for felling them. The sap being up, they are considered almost valueless, except for immediate consumption as firewood, and only with the assistance of chemical compounds, and at considerable expense, can such tim- ber be made useful for other purposes. The formerly perhaps despised and little-valued native timber-trees of Australia, and those belonging principally to the genus Eucalyptus, are exten- sively planted in many countries (as lately near St Louis), which find themselves in a similar position to our own, that State forests must be established without delay. Garibaldi’s scheme also to re- gulate the banks of the Tiber, and to drain the swamps of Pontini, seems intimately connected with a very large plantation to be made of bluegums, probably the Tasmanian bluegums. And no wonder, if we consider the excellent qualities of many kinds of gum-trees, their quick growth, the great durability in some, flexi- bility and strength in others, and their decided influence in purify- ing the air from malaria, we also ought to make them the first trees which we attempt to plant in great numbers. With them we may be pretty sure of success; the seed is cheap, easy to col- lect, and—a matter of importance—fresh. As soon as we decide on planting other trees, especially different kinds of Pinus, we will do far better to collect what fresh seeds are obtainable in the colony or in the neighbouring colonies, even at a much higher price. Imported seeds are too often dear at any price; we lose a year and our labour to save a few pounds. We may succeed in raising these and other trees in places where nobody expected it previously. Our first aim must therefore be shelter plantations, consisting perhaps of Robinia pseud-acacia, Acacia lophantha, our native black wattle, the tobacco tree, Callitris, or native pine, or shrubs answering the purpose. It may be well to excavate a 124 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. ditch 2 feet 6 inches deep, 4 feet wide at the top and 2 feet wide at the bottom, and to form by means of the earth thrown out a bank of similar dimensions. In some positions shrubs might be grown on the top of this, in others it may be only possible to gain further protection against wind and cattle by an upright fence of stakes or stronger timber firmly driven or dug into the embankment, and held together by means of hoop-iron bands, to which the stakes are nailed. Several kinds of poplar besides the common, as Populus alba and tremula, also the American ash and Pinus alba, are well known in Germany as trees which grow in the most open and ex- posed localities. They defy there the cutting north-westerly winds even on the poorest soil, and we may hope that they or other trees may grow near to the sea, or where for 100 or more miles no trees at present exist. Eventually they may enable us to plant such trees in their shelter as are preferable to them. I am, how- ever, quite unable to advise as to forest-planting from my experi- ence gained in South Australia, and I fear but little experience is available from other persons in the colony. J am therefore ob- liged to leave this subject, and refer to some other subjects con- nected with the conservancy of our native forests, which are of sufficient importance to be mentioned in such a paper as I have prepared. I heard at different times that the gum-trees died without any apparent cause in many parts of the colony, and especially in the south-east. I observed once, many years ago, ” that our bluegums died suddenly over an area of perhaps 15 or 20 acres in the Bugle Ranges, in the midst of a well-wooded dis- trict. Last summer, however, my attention was called to the following alarming fact: On a very large tract of timbered country in the Hundred of Strathalbyn, said to be about 15 or 20 square miles in extent, not a bluegum remained alive. All other gums, white, yellow, or red, were luxuriant, while the bluegums, from the largest tree to the smallest sapling, were dry, and the bark, already cracked, ready to fall down this winter. It was remark- able and perplexing to observe the exactly straight boundary-line on one of the outskirts of this tract of land which I visited. Within a few yards all bluegums were dead, and outside the line they were as vigorous as ever. My time being too short, I could not examine the trees properly to ascertain anything further ; but such an examination ought yet to be made. At all events, inex- plicable as it is to me, I thought it right to mention it, so that one or other of my hearers or readers may venture an explanation, or ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. 125 the enigma may be solved by comparing the observations of a number of persons at different localities and times, and perhaps as regards different kinds of trees. Another matter of the greatest importance as regards forest conservancy and timber supply is the issuing of timber licences. In the report of our Surveyor-General (Mr Goyder), he advises to let the present system of granting licences for cutting timber remain intact, except in fenced reserves. This seems to me a more than questionable policy. I am sure he did not give such advice with the view of obtaining the paltry sum raised by such licences for our Treasury. He must have thought of the necessities or convenience of our rural population. I admit that timber is needed, and the convenience of our farmers should be consulted, but I venture to say in a different manner. No forest can stand the present issue of licences—there must be a re- striction and supervision from the Forest Department. The total amount received by the Crown Lands Department during the year 1874 for timber and bark licences, and licences to carters to remove the timber, was only £1305. This isno compensation to the State for the enormous injury done to our forests. To fell a number of trees, perhaps the growth of ages, and leave them because they do not split quite so easily and freely as was expected of them, to cut them 3 feet from the ground, to take perhaps merely one length of rails or posts and leave the rest of the trunk, together with all the branches, to be consumed by the next bush fire, or to cut numberless young saplings for rails and posts, which will last, as a matter of course, only a few years, while the forest may contain plenty of trees of mature age which might give really lasting rails or posts, is a waste of the property of the nation—a sacrilege. I do not object to give all settlers an ample supply under proper regula- tions and at a reasonable rate, but I object to the present state of affairs, whereby valuable trees are cut down indiscriminately to save a little trouble or delay. On this matter I give a short ex- tract from the above report on Victorian forests: “Timber trees would be economically utilised if the men were forced to pay for each tree they felled. There would then be some check upon the enormous waste and the indiscriminate destruction of the largest timber trees in Victoria—which trees, once cut, will naturally re- quire centuries to replace—and the selfish indifference to the wants of future generations displayed by timber-cutters would not be ex- hibited as at present.” Another extract is taken from a report of Mr J. Innes, Dunedin, to the Chief Commissioner of the Waste VOL, VIII, PART Il. i 126 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. Land Board, New Zealand: “It is of the utmost importance to the community to have the existing forests protected from the reckless extravagance which is so prevalent in this province. If prompt measures be not taken all the sound timber will, in the course of a few years, be entirely destroyed, and the consequence will be a sudden rise in the price of that material. The public are admitted into the forests of the country simply by paying a small licence fee. While this is the case, no regulations, however rigor- ous, and no staff of officials, however numerous and zealous, can control the wasteful destruction. Young trees as well as matured ones are cut at 2, and in many instances 3 feet from the root. Timber that could be profitably used in the construction of a rail- way bridge or of the most refined piece of architecture, is cut down for fuel or some temporary construction. A method must be adopted whereby the person who fells timber will have an interest in using it economically, and the public be supplied through a less extravagant system.” He suggests: (1.) ‘That the public be ex- cluded from the Crown forests ; (2.) That the demand for timber be supplied by selling at auction annually, or at any other time that might be deemed expedient or necessary, such quantities of growing timber as the state of the market might require for local or outside consumption.” These suggestions seem rational. We ought to be guided by the principle, that we should no more than absolutely necessary curtail the usefulness of our forests to our farmers and the colonists generally, but at the same time prevent unnecessary waste. No farmer will ever consider the interests of posterity or any climatic consideration, however important, of any moment as compared with his present convenience—that of obtain- ing posts and rails or timber for building purposes or firewood, and a person who splits for sale still less so. Such considerations must come from the Government or from the Forest Department as soon as we have it. It is quite true that even on their own land farmers destroy frequently too much valuable timber, as being im- pediments to the plough or reaping-machine, as expressed in the lines of an American poet, Mr J. R. Lowell: ‘* This tree, spared I know not by what grace—for in the blood Of our New World subduers, lingers yet Hereditary feud with trees, they being (They and the red man most) our fathers’ foes,” I recollect only too well how many thousands—no, millions—of ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA, TaF tons of useful timber were in former years destroyed to make room for the plough ; how, night and day, fires were fed with the giants of the forest, to leave nothing but a heap of ashes, upon which the grain grew luxuriantly, but generally became blighted. In other instances, where the timber trees stood more dense, they have been only girdled by the axe, and left standing upon cultivated fields, their whitened trunks being a sad spectacle by day, and looking like huge spectres on a moonlight night. These trees, while green, represented perhaps a greater value, and were more important to the State than the produce of all the grain crops which may have been grown on these fields since the settler took possession of his land. I myself did err twenty and more years ago, before I became better acquainted with other treeless portions of South Australia. A settler who finds himself in the middle of a well-wooded tract of country naturally has no other idea than to get rid of the timber somehow, and at the smallest amount of trouble and expense, and the consideration of the national welfare is with him out of the question. The mischief being done, never- theless, should act as a warning; and in such parts of the colony where it is found desirable to protect the timber either for the necessities of future generations or for climatic advantages, it will be important to prevent the ringing of trees by all possible means short of an absolute prohibition. I hope the farmers of the day do not waste so much: and that if they grub and destroy, they will find time, and also a suitable place on the farm, along the boundary lines of their holdings or different fields, along water- courses, around wells, reservoirs, and homesteads, and in their permanent grazing paddocks, where they will plant again, If they have no other example nearer their home, let them look at the plantations of native and other trees on the Adelaide Park lands, how well they grow. It has been suggested that the plant- ing of a certain number of forest trees should be made one of the conditions to be inserted in all agreements with the selectors of land on credit ; and that no Crown grant should be given to any person who has not planted and properly tended such number of trees on his selection. Such a condition, if carried out—and I am inclined to think it can be as well reported upon by Mr Bonney and his subordinates as other improvements—would be of incalculable value to the whole colony, and especially to the farmer himself, or his family, in after-years. Still, we ought to hesitate. Intending settlers may see in this another objection to our land law. It may 128 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. deter them from selecting land where special difficulties for the raising of trees are to be expected, and thus drive further numbers across the border. It may therefore be far better to give even a greater bonus than that offered by the Forest Trees Planting En- couragement Act of 1873 to those who will plant trees after the heavy work on the new farm is behind them. If at any time the Legislature should decide that only perpetual leases shall be granted, and not the fee-simple, the former suggestion would pro- bably be of easier attainment. But the time until the fee can be purchased is rather short. You cannot in fairness ask the selector to plant any considerable number of trees before he has a consider- able part of his selection under the plough, nor until a few good harvests make him somewhat independent as regards time and money. The only way which appears to me safe and fair under the present law is the following: that selectors claiming an ex- tension of time beyond the five or six years for paying their pur- chase-money might be compelled to accept the planting of a number of trees as a further condition imposed on them, We shall not lose them on account of such a condition, for they have already settled, and they have had time enough during the previous years to get their farm in order, so as to be able to spare a little time for the carrying out of such a condition. And the number of selectors who will claim such an extension of time in after-years may be very considerable. This condition will also give the State somewhat of a guid pro quo, if the selector does merely intend to crop the soil for ten years, and to leave an exhausted soil without making it his permanent home. If a Government nursery be near, or extensive State plantations, I believe farmers will soon see the importance of such plantations and apply for established seedlings. I know that in some Continental States it is even a question how far private landholders can be allowed to destroy the timber upon their land, whereby they may seriously affect climatic influences, on which agricultural results may depend. In Tinne- velly, Madras, for instance, the small clearances already made for coffee plantations may have caused some small streams, previously known as perennial ones, to become perfectly dry at some seasons, and rushing torrents at others. And for a number of similar cases I refer to the remarkable speech made in 1874 by the Premier of New Zealand, the Hon. J. Vogel, especially to his extracts from Dr Lindley’s leading article in the Gardener's Chronicle, which quotes numerous instances of humid localities having become arid ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. 129 in France, North America, and even Britain. A meeting of the Geographical Society was held at Vienna on the 22d of January 1875, at which Mr Hofrath Wex read a lecture on “The De- crease of the Water in Rivers and Springs.” He and others had made observations as to the decrease of the height of the water, and had found since fifty years a decrease in the rivers Elbe and Olga of 17 inches, in the Rhine of 24 inches, in the Vistula of 26 inches, in the Danube, at Orsova, of 55 inches. And this de- crease in the depth of the rivers does correspond with the decrease in the quantity of water in these rivers, These observations are corroborated by the constantly decreasing number of springs dur- ing the last hundred years. The lecturer is afraid, if it continues as heretofore, that the large German rivers will become unnavigable, the smaller dry ; industrial pursuits, etc., will be in danger ; future generations be unable to rely upon a sufficient supply of water, and this within a time not very remote. The causes, as given by the lecturer, are destruction of forests; and, as a consequence, the far less quantity of rain-water or snow which is absorbed by the soil, also the artificial draining of lakes, ponds, etc. Mr Hof- rath Wex therefore only confirms more fully what was already contained in certain resolutions passed in 1873 by the Interna- tional Congress of Land and Forest Culture, held at Vienna. The resolutions there passed were to be forwarded to the various. Governments of the globe; and in a few words they may be condensed as follows, viz.: ‘That international agreements are needed to effectually check the continually increasing devastation of forests, and that the efforts of legislators should be directed tocausing exact data to be gathered, with a view of obtaining a sufficient ‘knowledge of the evils—disturbances in nature—which are caused by the devastation of forests.” History records that many countries described as covered with immense forests are now an almost hope- less desert. Thus the interior of Spain, which now only is little better than a bare heath. Greece has, in the place of her former beautiful oaks and beeches, only poor scrub ; and where formerly cattle were feeding, the goat alone can find her food; or where previously kinds of forest trees bearing leaves solely occupied the ground, the most miserable specimens of pines eke out their stunted growth. The deforestation on the sources of the Rhone and Saone in France led to the too well-known sudden inundations during the last fifty years. And the climate of Iceland—formerly well wooded—has deteriorated in the most marked degree. 130 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. Through the centre of Schleswig-Holstein and Zetland the soil is now only overgrown with heather, here and there intermixed with low bushes of oak, covering many square miles; and yet from that part of Holstein the magnificent timber was exported from which the large city of Amsterdam is erected; and 800 years ago the country town of Jevenstedt was situated in a forest of oaks, and the church erected from this kind of timber. Incidentally, I wish to make here a few remarks about our “ madlee” country, as I am inclined to compare it with the low scrubs of oaks in Schleswig- Holstein, and to express my opinion that “mallee” also is only the remnant of a stately gum-tree destroyed by extensive fires, and that thereafter the duration of droughts increased so materially as to preclude the possibility of a re-establishment by nature of the ancient forests in these extensive tracts of country. My own acquaintance with the mallee scrub, however, is imperfect; but Victoria having in its north-eastern corner fully 270 miles of mallee, while our wide belts of mallee along both sides of the Murray, and the scrubs between the great Australian bight and the overland telegraph line cover such an immense area, it is of course not merely a matter of curiosity, but of the greatest im- portance to obtain full information whether this vast area at any former period was clothed with timber trees. Very large stumps have been found frequently in Holstein; and there it has been found quite possible to re-establish forests by careful forestry. If persons who cultivate land in the Murray, or other extensive scrubs, find large stumps under the surface which appear to be those of trees, not of mallee, I hope they will make it known ; and also whether they dissent from my herein-expressed opinion. In observations made by Alfred Selwyn, and presented by him in a report on the Geological Survey of Canada for the year 1873-74, the following passages occur, p. 58: “The drying- up of the country already alluded to has been ascribed to various causes, but it is generally supposed to be connected with the gradual destruction of the forests over large areas by fire, dimin- ishing the rainfall. Whatever the effect may be of these destruc- tive conflagrations, in reference to the water supply of the region, there is no doubt that at different times almost every square mile of the country between Red River and the Rocky Mountains has been subjected to them, and that hundreds of miles of forest trees have thus been converted into wide and almost treeless expanses of prairie. After leaving the valley of the Assineboine, the second ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA, 131 and third prairie steppes may be said to be entirely denuded of good timber. For a total distance of 400 miles neither oak, ash, elm, birch, pine, or spruce trees were seen, and even the poplars were of small size, and suited for little else than firewood.” Weare aware that very destructive fires have also taken place not long ago in the United States—fires which seem to have swept over enormous tracts of land covered with forests. In Austria it is now impossible upon a large tract of land, 1700 to 2000 feet above the sea, to grow cereals. The forests which formerly protected the land have been cut down, and the soil has become too dry, parched, and sterile, through exposure to the cutting winds. The inhabitants of the island of Mauritius are now obliged to turn their most serious attention to tree-planting ; and it is to be hoped that they may succeed in quickly arresting the evil effects which the destruction of the natural forests have upon their climate, and the growth of the staple produce of that island. With so many examples before us of a deterioration of the climate and soil as a consequence of the unreasonable destruction of forests, it is almost ag easy to prove the amelioration of climate and soil almost desti- tute of trees after successful planting of forests. In Lower Egypt, and in Algeria, the extensive planting of trees by many millions has had a most marked effect upon the yearly rainfall. From the report of the Department of Agriculture for the United States, I take the following: “In many parts of the country forest planting, in the opinion of many observers, is changing the climate and capabilities of the plains beyond the Missouri. Twenty years ago the plains were nearly destitute of trees, and vegetation was parched and scanty ; but it is now claimed that in some localities —where farms have been taken up, villages built, and trees planted —they are clothed with verdure ; and river-beds, which were then dry, are now covered with constantly running water. A part of the city of Denver was built on one of these ancient river-beds, where it was supposed that water would never flow again; but there is now a constantly-running stream, so large that it has been found necessary to bridge it. Great Salt Lake is said to be seven feet higher than it was ten years ago, and is constantly rising.” The reappearance of the spring on the Island of Ascension, which had dried up after the trees had been felled, is another instance of the influence of the planting of trees on springs. The town built near the Lake of Valentia, in Venezuela, found itself 200 years later fully two miles farther from the water’s edge; and Von 132 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. Humboldt, visiting the town, ascribed the gradual diminution of the water to the extensive clearings of the forests. Twenty-five years later the waters of the lake had gradually risen again, agri- cultural operations having almost ceased, and the forest regained possession of the soil. Whatever may be the direct effects of trees on the rainfall, there is no doubt that the actual temperature of the country becomes considerably higher by the destruction of its forests. Trees attract moisture, and retain it; their roots retard too rapid drainage, their presence benefits springs, their shade checks evaporation ; and we shall have heavier dew in the neigh- bourhood of forests. Sir George Strickland Kingston says, in his valuable ‘Notes on the Rainfall of Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney,” printed in Parliamentary Paper No. 10, of 1875: “ Dur- ing the first four months of the year want of moisture in the atmosphere, accompanied by intense heat, putting a stop to vege- tation, and baking the surface of the ground, has a somewhat similar effect, in so far as agricultural pursuits are concerned, to that produced by the wet and frosts of the winters of England. The benefit of the rainfall depends not so much on the quantity during a given month as on the rapidity or otherwise of its fall, as well as the season of the year.” After stating that during the first four months of the year nothing under an inch of rain at one fall is of much value to renew the exhausted energy of vegetation, he remarks that from the end of April to September the quantity of rain during the twenty-four hours is of little importance as com- pared with the frequency of its occurrence, keeping the ground moist, and provided that the average of the monthly falls are fairly kept up, the ground is more benefited by the occurrence of numerous rainy days than by a great fall in any one day. As an instance he mentions the year 1860, where the rainfall was much below the average, yet the harvest was in excess of the average yield of the four years 1855 to 1858, in which the rainfall was considerably above the average. But the rains were gentle, con- tinuing for several hours, soaking into the ground, and being fol- lowed by many days of cloudy weather, little or no evaporation took place, and the crops derived the fullest possible benefit from the limited quantity of rain.” This is unquestionably true; and I believe that tree plantations will add to the number of showery days and the general humidity of the climate. The former and pre- sent climate of St Croix is a case in point. As long as trees were everywhere abundant on this island rains were profuse and fre- ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. te quent. Twenty-five years later one-third of the island had become an utter desert. With the destruction of the trees the short copious showers which frequently occurred in former times had ceased, and the process of desiccation gradually advanced. The sugar-canes failed, and desolation came slowly but irresistably. Before I come to my closing remarks I wish to say a few words of well-merited praise in honour of the few persons in the Australian Colonies who have tried to advance our knowledge of forest conservancy, and matters connected therewith. Foremost I must name Baron von Miiller, the Government botanist of Victoria, who, as far as I know, has acted as pioneer in this respect ; and next to him Dr Hector, of New Zealand, and our Dr Schomburgk and Mr Goyder, who have, either by lectures or reports, or lists naming the principal timber trees which may be suitable in the respective colonies, done much to arouse public attention. The interest now evinced by the Legislatures of these three provinces must be chiefly ascribed to their public services. I wish to call your special attention to a map prepared by Mr A. Everett for the State Forest Board, with the assistance of Baron von MiiJler, showing in different colours over the whole province of Victoria the distribution of the principal timber trees, and also to two maps kindly prepared by Mr Goyder’s order—one to show our intended, although not yet proclaimed, timber reserves and travelling-stock reserves, the other the proposed districts under the Forest Trees Planting Encouragement Act of 1872. If you peruse the number of papers which have lately been laid before Parliament in the provinces of Victoria, New Zealand, and South Australia, you will say the time for action has come. With such an amount of valuable preparatory work now collected in the various lectures and Parliamentary papers, it may be safely pre- dicted that with proper machinery we ought to have a fair start, and we will eventually succeed. I have dwelt, perhaps, rather long on the importance of obtaining for the settled portions of South Australia a due proportion of woodland to our open agri- cultural and grazing lands; also on the necessity of a supply of timber and firewood for our industrial pursuits and households ; and I have alluded only cursorily to some of the indirect advan- tages which a country, with a climate like South Australia, most certainly will derive from more extensive forests. With their increase, the number of birds will increase, which may delight us with their melodies; and they will aid us in the destruction of 134 ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. many insects. The bee-keeper will be more certain of his crop of honey, and our eyes will rest with pleasure on the improved aspect of the landscape, which is now, especially on our wide northern plains, extremely monotonous. Surely you value also these minor advantages, and many of you still think with delight of the beauty and grandeur of European forests, and the pleasure you derived while roaming through them, Byron, in “Childe Harold,” says: ‘¢ All things are here of him ; from the black pines, Which are his shade on high, and the loud roar Of torrents, where he listeneth, to the vines Which slope his green path downward to the shore, Where the bowed waters meet him, and adore, Kissing his feet with murmurs; and the wood, The covert of old trees, with trunks all hoar, But light leaves, young as joy, stands where it stood, Offering to him, and his, a populous solitude. ‘* A populous solitude of bees and birds, And fairy-formed and many-coloured things, Who worship him with notes more sweet than words, And innocently open their glad wings, Fearless and full of life: the gush of springs, And fall of lofty fountains, and the bend Of stirring branches, and the bud which brings The swiftest thought of beauty, here extend, Mingling, and made by Love, unto one mighty end.” We ought not merely to bear in mind the words, ‘‘ Woodman, spare that tree,” and to preserve our present native forests; we want also plantations. The answer to those who ask where we will get the money for it, is also simple enough. The present yearly income from our forests is certainly not large; but what has be- come of the large aggregate sum received by our Treasury in years gone by? During the last eleven years no less a sum than £18,494, 17s, has been received for timber and bark licences, and licences to cart timber. Previously the licence-fee was in all cases £5; now monthly licences are issued at 15s.; and I venture to say that fully £40,000 was received since the foundation of the colony, irrespective of the not inconsiderable amount which dis- trict councils have collected, and which may swell the total sum thus derived from our native forests to £50,000. Since writing this, I have received a return from the Surveyor-General, showing that the amount is even more than I have calculated. I accept as " “@ ON THE TIMBER SUPPLY OF AUSTRALIA. 135 correct, what I read somewhere, that the present generation has merely a life estate in the forests of a country, and I claim, there- fore, as a right for those who come after us, at least in young plantations, a full equivalent for all the forests already destroyed. Can such a demand be resisted? Can any valid arguments be brought forward to show that our children and grandchildren should not have timber as cheap and as plentiful? Old colonists —farmers as well as graziers—know to their cost that we have had long droughts; they cannot wish their recurrence. They themselves, however, have now in their hands the future of South Australia. They may also decide the future climate of South Australia, and on this point I give you another extract from Mr Dalzell: “Man, feeble as he is, wants only time and proper com- bination to produce the most marked changes, not only in the climate of the country he inhabits, but on places far distant from his abode. If this be found to be really the case, then forests de- serve to become an object of careful examination, not only in a financial, but in a politico-economical point of view.” At all events, we may prevent floods, obtain permanent water, and our crops and fruit-trees will receive the much needed shelter from hoar-frosts while in blossom, and from the scorching effects of our north winds. The soil of South Australia is certainly generally very good in the settled portions, and if we can be sure of about as large a rainfall as in Victoria, the average of our grain crops will be as good, if not better, and the number of cattle and sheep which can be kept will increase in the same ratio. In many parts of South Australia, perhaps by far the largest part of it, the ab- sence of useful timber is one of the principal impediments to settle- ment. A Mr Thompson once said that in some plains the wind was at times so strong that the sheep had to hold on by the tus- socks. Nothing is more calculated to add to the wealth of this country than the growth of forest trees; this is my firm convic- tion. For years to come we may not be able to materially alter the hygrometrical condition of our atmosphere, or to break the force of our “ briekfielders,” or to increase the number of permanent springs, but we ought to commence, without further delay, a series of experimental plantations of forest trees, preparatory to a most determined attempt, not only to avert the calamity of a future want of timber, but to make it possible for South Australia to become the home of millions of a happy, healthy, wealthy, and in- dustrious population. 136 ON THE CLEARING OF LAND FOR PLANTING. XII. On the Cheapest and most Effectual Means of Clearing Land for Planting. By D. F. M‘Kenziz, Forester and Overseer, Meldrum House, Old Meldrum. On this important subject little has been written, and it is difficult to give a reliable estimate to guide intending planters, on account of the variable condition under which we find land covered with whin, broom, or other shrubs. In some cases the land is wholly, and in others partially covered, causing a greater or less amount of work on a given extent of land; the wages also vary in different localities. Although I have practical experience in such work, and have paid large sums for the removal of brushwood, etc., in various localities, yet I know my figures may be at fault when applied practically to other places, even under the same circum- stances, From the available data, I give a brief account of what I believe to be the best mode of clearing off heavy crops of brush- wood, whin, broom, and thorn, and removing the roots. The implements required are—an ordinary pickaxe, four or six chains, about 6 feet in length, made of }inch round iron rod. To each chain there should be attached a large link at one end, and a strong hook at the other, made of 43-inch iron rod. One, or a pair of well draughted oxen, yoked with ordinary plough harness, and plough or harrow drawing bars, made of strong but light material, fitted to use singly if wished. To conduct the operations properly, one man is required to drive the oxen, another to use the pickaxe, and two or three lads to arrange the chains in the following manner: Pass a chain round the bush, close to the ground, bring the ends of the chain to meet, pass the hook through the large link, and pull it as tight as possible with the hand. Attach the hook to the eye of the draw- ing bar, which is fastened to the oxen; move the oxen in such a direction as will tighten the chain, without allowing it to slip over the bush. The animals should be moved slowly forward ; and the person with the pickaxe cuts any roots too large for the animals to tear away with ease. Meanwhile the lads arrange the other chains, one of course relieving the chains after the bush has been pulled and thrown aside, and returning the chains to those arrang- ing them round the bushes. If the cover is close, and consists entirely of thorns, the cost per acre will be about 58s. ; and if ON THE CLEARING OF LAND FOR PLANTING, 137 broom and whins, about 40s. The thinner the crop, the less the cost of clearing, provided the shrubs are of the same size. The same work done by steam power would cost 70s. to 75s. per acre imperial. Tf the land to be cleared is near a town or village, the broom and whins may sell readily at from 6d. to 1s. per cart-load. In some cases I have had considerable profit from clearing such land, by selling the materials, especially the roots. In one exceptional case, the profit received for whins and broom clearings was over 30 per cent., after paying costs. When land covered with rough herbage is to be planted, burn- ing is often resorted to, but by this method the evils are increased, as, after being burnt down, whins, thorns, etc., grow with two-fold vigour, and the heat which the earth receives during the process, causes the seeds lying dormant in the soil to vegetate; and both crops coming up, any young trees within their reach are choked, In- instead of burning then, the crops should be thoroughly rooted out before planting. The young trees will, in any moderate soil and climate, soon overtop the young herbage, which will eventually die out. To this end the plants should be set closer than usual. Scots fir and larch are the best trees to plant in such localities. If the herbage threatens to overtop the plants, it should be cut out at the roots with an implement resembling a ship-carpenter’s adze. The cost per acre would be from 20s. to 23s. These figures represent the cost of clearing land of a close cover; for lighter scrub it would be proportionally less. To clear land of a heavy crop of heather, burning is the best and cheapest method. This should be done one or two years before planting. If the situation be exposed, the heath should be burned in strips, only a few yards wide, all over the extent of land intended for planting. This is easily done by a man on each side of the fire, lashing it within the required space with brooms, spruce branches, or any soft supple material. Strips, one or two yards wide, should be left at intervals to shelter the young plants from the prevailing winds of the district. The burning can there- fore only be done when the wind blows moderately, and from such a quarter as to burn the lines in the direction wanted. The breadth of these strips should be from 15 to 100 feet wide, according to the severity of the exposure. The cost per acre would be from ls. 9d. to 2s. 3d. The broader the strips burned at one time the cheaper the work. I have burned heather in 138 ON THE CLEARING OF LAND FOR PLANTING. this manner, within and near plantations, without damage. The work is best performed when the heather is in a very dry state. Clearing land from which a crop of heavy timber has been felled is the most difficult of all operations before planting, and the modes are various and expensive. Although such land is often planted, the roots are seldom removed, but these harbour and attract insects, which often ruin the crop. The most effectual means of getting rid of the roots is to trench the land, but the ex- pense is so great that few resort to it; those who do remove them adopt those means which are most convenient, such as grubbing out with the pickaxe, etc. Besides trenching, the locomotive engine, the screw, lever, and lever by horse power, are all appli- cable and advantageous. But steam or horse power, combined with the block and tackle, is the most speedy and most economical, and I can recommend that system of clearing or extracting roots, carried out as follows: Procure a set of blocks of strong fender plate, fitted with 4-inch metal pulleys, of four and three pulleys respectively, laced with a strong close-made chain about 60 feet long, with a large hook, to which is attached the steam or horse power. With short chains attach the blocks to the longest and stoutest roots. Very often the root chosen for a stay comes away with the one wished to be pulled, in which case the chains must again be attached to a stronger one. The only preparation necessary is to have a few of the strongest roots cut away at the point. The working of the block and tackle is very simple. The blocks should in every case be attached to the longest limb, to have as much lever power as possible. With strong proportional blocks an ox will easily pull 15 tons, and with a four or six horse power locomotive steam-engine attached to one of them, the result is all that can be desired. When the trees are of the pine tribe, and the roots not very large, oxen will be more profitable than steam power. Dynamite (Noble’s Patent Blasting Powder) is now being used with good results in removing roots, but it is too expensive for general use ; but where the roots are very large, it will be found to answer well, as when placed underneath the root it has the effect of blowing out the soil, which facilitates the application of the tackle and removal of the roots. The cost of clearing by the steam-engine is from £4 to £5 per acre; smaller roots, by oxen or horse power, about the same. Clearing tree-roots by dynamite costs from £10 to £12 per acre, but ON THE CLEARING OF LAND FOR PLANTING. 139 it is by far the most economical method of blasting stones. Hay- ing used large quantities of it, I consider that it should always be exploded by electricity, and as many charges as possible at one time, for the gas evolved is highly injurious to those employed. The charges should be fired about the time the workmen leave at night. The gas will be dissipated before they return. 140 ON THE DISEASE OF THE LARCH. XIII. On the Disease of the Larch By D. F. M‘Kewnziz, Forester and Overseer, Meldrum House, Old Meldrum. The larch is the most popular as well as the most useful of our timber-producing conifers. It is popular for its rapid growth, its hardy nature, and its fine natural appearance ; and it is useful, as its timber may be applied to most of the purposes to which pine, and in some cases hardwood, is adapted. Its timber is of long duration when of proper age before being felled. During recent years it has been found to become diseased in many of the planta- tions in Britain, and consequently many landed proprietors who had planted the tree largely have been disappointed, and the loss in many cases is great. It has been asserted that the larch has undergone a constitutional change; some arborists allege that since the Dunkeld larches were planted our climate has consider- ably modified. But both of these theories are unfounded, and are proved to be so by the laws of physiology. Others hold the most opposite views regarding the cause of the disease, such as degener- acy in the seed, atmospheric influences, ungenial climate, insects, fungi, etc., etc. All these are held to be the cause of one and the same disease. But where disease exists, there is always sufficient evidence to prove its origin, provided one takes the trouble to carry out the investigation further than by mere ordinary observa- tion. The writer having had considerable experience in the general management of woods, felling the various kinds of timber, and reclaiming land from which timber had been felled, the planting of larch, and disposing of large quantities of it as timber, in various forms, both in England and Scotland, has long since been firmly convinced that, by judicious planting and after-management, larch could still be planted with profit and advantage. The varieties of larch are numerous, but those chiefly planted in Britain for their timber are the red and white flowering varieties. The former is the best timber one of the two, the latter, though it grows more freely while young, and though no more liable to general debility than the other, is more tender in foliage, and seldom attains the same dimensions. The diseases to which the tree is liable are many, but I shall only observe those of most consequence: (1.) Disease of the roots ON THE DISEASE OF THE LARCH, 141 and heart, known as heart-rot; (2.) Blister or cancer ; and (3.) Insect or blight. The first of these diseases is the most disastrous, being found under a great variety of circumstances, and apparently not peculiar to any soil or situation. The cause I have found, without exception, to be mutilated roots. When larch is planted on soil no matter how good, if the subsoil is unfavourable, heart- rot sets in when the tree is from fifteen to thirty years of age, the time of its attack being regulated by the depth of the hard subsoil from the surface, or the time the roots take to penetrate to it. After the roots are in, or in contact with a hard stony subsoil of whatever formation, the surface soil being invariably softer, sub- jects the roots to a large amount of friction when the tree is agi- tated by storms. The roots, by the surface soil yielding and the subsoil remaining stiff and stubborn, lose many of their spongioles and the underside of their bark, and, being thus mutilated, imme- diately cease to be of any use to the tree, either by way of supply- ing nourishment or throwing off excrementitious matter. After a while these mutilated roots absorb moisture from the soil, and in course of time begin to rot, the tissue being attacked by micro- scopic and other fungi. The disease presses slowly upwards, and eventually the tree dies or is blown over. This is not the case when the tree is grown on fissured rock, because the base is set on a solid'foundation, the roots being held firm in the rock, the bole only is subjected to the pressure of storms. If the mutilation of the roots takes place during the latter part of the year, while the sap is descending, the wound may get sealed up with resinous matter. Unfortunately for the larch, its roots generally get damaged in the early summer, being at that time in full leaf, and presenting a greater resisting surface than in winter, when the foliage is off. Scotch and spruce firs are also subject to the same diseases, and from the same cause. In the case of the Scotch fir, however, though its roots be muti- lated, yet from the nature of the tree, and it generally receiving the damage during the winter season, the resin, by sealing up the roots and thus excluding all unnatural moisture and other dele- terious matter, prevents the heart-rot. Some years ago I was called upon to examine, value, and dis- pose of a mixed plantation of nearly 300 acres in extent. A por- tion of this was planted on arable and part on heathy soil. The situation of the whole wood was at an average of 800 feet above VOL. VIII., PART II. K 142 ON THE DISEASE OF THE LARCH. the level of, and 9 miles distant from, the sea, and on the north side of a steep hill, freely exposed to the prevailing winds. About 15 acres, some of which grew on arable and some on uncultivated soil, was the first examined. The soil was of a thin, yellow, hazel, loamy description, resting on a hard subsoil of granitic till, so hard that a pick could not be forced into it without the greatest difficulty. I found this por- tion in a very diseased state with heart-rot, blister, and aphis. In one spot, about the centre of the piecs referred to, were a number of large trees in a thriving state, which on examination I found to be growing in loose deep soil formed by the fillmg up of large pits with weeds and earth, through which the roots penetrated for a distance of about 5 feet. Each of the trees growing here had a few blisters, but none showed the least trace of heart-rot. The rest of the plantation was from seventy to eighty years old, and grew on different varieties of soil, but had the same elevation and exposure as the younger part. Where the soil was thin and the subsoil hard, almost all the trees were diseased ; but where the soil was deep, and the subsoil loose and free from large stones, no disease was seen. One very large tree was found in a very diseased state when cut away from the root. The soil on which it grew was of a light loamy nature, and about 4 feet deep. On grubbing up the root a large boulder of rough granite was found directly under and in contact with the diseased side of the tree. There is also good reason for supposing that soil previously occupied with Scotch fir tends to produce heart-rot in larch, because the subsoil is often very hard, much more so than if it had not been planted. The disease in this case is more disastrous than in any other, as the fungi on the old roots attack the roots of the larch on receiving the least injury. Consequently it is ob- served much earlier and on a larger scale than if planted on virgin soil of the same quality. The only means at our disposal to prevent this disease are to plant the tree in such places, where not only the soil but also the situa- tion and exposure are suitable to its nature. The best soils for growing larch are those formed by the débris of rocks and alluvial soils on the banks of rivers. Deep, sandy, loamy soils are all good for rearing larch, provided there is no stagnant water about the roots. Nevertheless it grows and thrives well though the roots are continually many feet under water, if not stagnant. For instance, ON THE DISEASE OF THE LARCH. 143 on this estate on the banks of the lakes, where the soil consists of a thin, mixed, peaty loam, resting on sandy gravel, there are a number of fine old trees, and though the water often runs over their roots to within a foot of the level on which they grow, they are still, to all appearance, sound and full of vigour. The situation may be on hill-sides or on the bottom of ravines, other things being equal. As to exposure, the tree is very hardy, and will rear its head where the beech gives way ; nevertheless, it ought to be planted where the natural configuration of the country screens it from the prevailing winds. Blister, or Cancer, or Canker.—The appearance of this disease is too well known to all foresters, and requires no description here. Cancer is caused by anything that suddenly checks the flow of sap to the small lateral branches. It invariably begins in one-year- old wood, and in most cases at the junction of the branch with the main stem. It seldom breaks out in the latter, but when it does, it is always ata bud. In young plantations it affects first the most luxuriant grown trees when in warm, damp situations ; and in all woods it affects most those trees already attacked with heart-rot, since the flow of sap presses to the outside vessels by being unable to circulate in the centre of the tree. Generally speaking, the disease usually affects the same side of the tree, but in some situa- tions there are blotches to be found all over it. These appear- ances point clearly to the cause of the disease. The flow of sap is checked by intense cold, such as early autumn frosts, which injure the buds and wood before they are matured, and also by late spring frosts after the buds are expanded. The main stem being thicker, is not so much affected by the frost as to prevent the flow of sap upwards through the trunk, but the congealed laterals check its passage through them till thaw takes place. Very often this suddenly occurs by the heat of the sun, the result being an increased pressure at the junction of the branch with the stem, which bursts many of the sap-vessels arranged round the base of the branch, and causes the sap to flow out at the rupture, producing an irregular growth, and leaving a gummy, black, resinous substance on the tree. Eventually the branch dies very often the first year after the rupture takes place ; and if there are many of these ruptures, the tree presents a very sickly appearance, and in a few years dies off above the rupture. The wounds invariably occur on the side exposed to the prevailing winds, and generally more about the outside of plantations, 144 ON THE DISEASE OF THE LARCH. and near cold, damp situations. Pressure on the branches from late spring snows, especially those storms late in April, after the tree is in leaf, are, along with the cold and frosts, the princi- pal cause of this disease. Trees planted singly are seldom affected with cancer. The branches of such trees are more robust and better able to resist pressure, and this shows the necessity of early and judicious thinning, so as to admit light and air sufficient to encourage a strong and healthy growth. From the above state- ment it is not to be inferred that the larch is too tender for our climate, the contrary is the fact; it will stand any amount of cold and frost, provided they be seasonable. But this is not the case in our variable climate. This disease reduces the value of the timber very much. Large timber sometimes has to be sold for fence and pit wood at less than half price, as the blemish renders it unfit for boat or ship building. With our present limited know- ledge of the diseases of trees, it is my opinion that we cannot do anything to cure them, but we can in a great measure prevent them by planting in suitable soils, situations, and exposure, early and judicious thinning, and subsequent good management in the latter. Insect or Blight.—Although found on strong healthy trees, they seldom occur to any great extent, and only appear like a disease on plants and trees whose vigour is impaired by some other cause. The sap of such trees is of a saccharine nature, and favours the attack of insects. Coccus laricis, or mealy bug, is the principal depredator. Both the insect and its eggs are microscopic, and can be observed to advantage only by a powerful lens, An ordinary magnifier shows the insect to be of an oblong shape, all closely corded across the body, and of a bluish purple colour. Its eggs are oval in form, and of a pale grey colour, approaching to green. They are encased in a white downy-looking substance, and under this covering the insect may be found. Plants or trees affected with the C. laricis are easily detected. The bark of the stem and branches presents a dirty black appearance in spring, and in summer the foliage appears of a grey whitish hue at a distance, but on close examination it is covered with small white woolly flakes, adhering tenaciously to the leaves and bark. The excrements of the insect make the branches feel gummy to the touch, and taste like the honey-dew of the oak or beech. As already stated, the C. laricis, although found on healthy plants and trees, mainly attacks only ON THE DISEASE OF THE LARCH, 145 those growing under unfavourable circumstances. Trees affected with heart-rot, blister, those growing in a crowded state, and all the other circumstances unfavourable to larch, favour the disease, which I strongly suspect to be the effect rather than the cause. Plants in nurseries are often affected with the C. laricis ; indeed, the larch is seldom free from this pest, and, when grown year after year in the same locality, and often transplanted in the same soil, no wonder that the plantations suffer. Before planting out, however, plants can be thoroughly cleansed by having all the plants sheughed in as dry a state as possible, and not too tightly packed. If the plants could be kept for a few days in the packing shed, they would be all the better. Take of perchloride of mercury 1 lb., and dissolve in thirty gallons of tepid water, syringe the plants with this solution, and when they are thoroughly dry syringe again. This quantity is sufficient for about 20,000 to 30,000 plants ; the cure will be found to be complete, and its good effect remains in the tree for a number of years. The perchloride is a deadly poison, and should be handled with the utmost caution, This solution must not in any case be applied to fruit trees, as the poison might pass into the fruit. I am not of opinion that it is practicable to use it in plantations. The only remedy for them is to avoid all circumstances likely to favour the attack. The larch, like all other forest trees, is more or less infested with cryptogamous plants, and whether it is a disease or not is a question of importance to arboriculturists. It is quite certain, however, that trees thickly covered with lichen appear to have lost their vigour, their foliage is scant, and in general presents a very sickly appearance. But this appearance is not due directly to the effects of the lichen. The lichen itself is produced by the tree being either affected with some other disease or grown in a crowded plantation, or on a heathy, peaty, ill-drained soil, or on too severe an exposure. Under these conditions, the lichen will insinuate itself and choke up the pores of the bark to the total exclusion of the necessary light, air, and heat. The consequence is, that the health of the tree, unless relieved, goes from bad to worse, and eventually the tree dies. ‘Till the lichen lay hold and cover up the wood of trees from one to six years old, it has no injurious effect ; but unless the tree is in a thriving state naturally, this it soon does with the results already stated. On the bark of old trees, lichen has no bad effect whatever, as it is rugged, and 146 ON THE DISEASE OF THE LARCH, falls off periodically in scales (the smooth-barked trees excepted), and with these scales the lichen for the most part drops off. The formation of lichen may be prevented, and its injurious effects cured by thoroughly draining damp land, and by judicious planting and thinning. If these suggestions be followed, the larch will still remain one of our best and most useful conifer. Although larch can be reared to advantage only under the con- ditions mentioned above, it does not follow that the tree should be planted in no other circumstance. On the contrary, it should be largely employed as nurses in all plantations, in most soils, and in most situations; to be thinned out at pleasure in those unfay- ourable to its growing in a healthy state, and to large dimensions. Such thinning requires to be executed in a very careful manner, taking soil, situation, and exposure to guide the operation, instead of the appearance of the tree, since at the age of from fifteen to twenty-five the larch would appear to be the proper tree to leave for the permanent crop, and would be apt to mislead the operator in his selection. Larch thinnings pay better than any other, and this alone is a recommendation to plant it largely as nurses, and have the greatest possible returns in a given time. REPORT ON OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES, 147 XIV. Report on Old and Remarkable Trees growing on the Estates of Bayham Abbey and Wilderness Park, in the County of Kent. By James Durr, Wood Manager, Bayham Abbey. No. 1 is a gigantic ash tree, growing on a strong loamy soil, resting on a substratum of sandstone, on the farm of Great Shoe- smith, in the parish of Wadhurst and county of Sussex. The dimension, at 1 foot from the ground, is 15 feet 4 inches in cir- cumference, and at 5 feet high it is 12 feet 6 inches in circumfer- ence ; from thence it runs up with a straight, clean, sound trunk, with no perceptible taper, to a height of 38 feet, where it sends out gigantic limbs, expanding from tip to tip 83 feet wide. All these branches are healthy, and send out vigorous young shoots. The total quantity of marketable timber in this tree, including the largest limbs, is 356 cubic feet, which, at 2s. 6d. per foot, would yield a return of £44, 10s. The entire height of the tree is 84 feet. No. 2 is a large beech, growing also on the farm of Great Shoesmith, in a clump of beech, called the Beechin Toll. At 1 foot from the ground it is 13 feet in circumference, and at 5 feet it is 11 feet 6 inches in circumference, with a straight, clean, and sound stem, without a single branch, to the height of 48 feet, where it sends out giant branches, which are of an upright habit of growth, owing to their being pressed upon all sides by rival trees. The spread of branches is 70 feet from tip to tip, and the entire height 95 feet. This tree is quite healthy, and is growing vigorously. No. 3 is also a beech, growing near No. 2. At 1 foot from the ground it is 18 feet 6 inches in circumference, and at 5 feet it is 13 feet in circumference ; from thence it runs up, with a clean bole, to the height of 20 feet, where it sends out large limbs, three of which contain 90 cubic feet of timber, with a spread of 66 feet from tip to tip. The entire height is 95 feet. Numerous trees of similar magnitude are in this clump, and all are healthy, and growing vigorously on a sandy loam, No. 4 is a gigantic hedgerow oak, growing on a sandy clay loam, on the farm of Wickhurst. Its circumference at 1 foot from the ground is 24 feet 4 inches; at 5 feet, 17 feet 4 inches and 19 feet high to the first branch; at 9 feet 6 imches, which is 148 REPORT ON OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES. the middle of the tree, it is 15 feet 8 inches in circumference ; and from 19 feet high to 27 feet high, there is a length of 8 feet, girthing in the middle 12 feet 9 inches. After making ample allowance for bark, this giant, together with the limbs, which alone amount to 236 cubic feet (some of them large trees in themselves), amounts to 548 cubic feet of marketable timber, which at 3s. per foot, would be £82, 4s. The entire height of this monarch is 65 feet, and the spread of branches is 92 feet across one way, by 98 feet the other. This tree is quite sound and healthy, growing vigorously, and has the appearance of grow- ing for many generations to come. : No. 5 is a hedgerow beech, also on the farm of Wickhurst, which, at 1 foot from the ground, is 15 feet 10 inches in circum- ference; at 5 feet, is 12 feet 3 inches in circumference; and at the height of 27 feet 2 inches it is 10 feet 11 inches in circum- ference. This is a model specimen of a park tree. The outline of its branches is symmetrical, and expanding to 94 feet in width, with an entire height of 80 feet. No. 6 is an oak, growing on a sandy loam on Little Shoesmith farm. At 1 foot from the ground it is 22 feet in circumference ; at 5 feet it is 14 feet 6 inches in circumference; and at the height of 31 feet 6 inches it is 11 feet 8 inches in circumference, where it sends out giant branches to the spread of 78 feet. This tree shows slight signs of maturity. Its entire height is 85 feet. No. 7 is a large oak, growing on a clay loam, in a grove of oak trees, several of which are nearly of equal dimensions, and growing _ in the home park, near the old Abbey of Bayham, in Sussex (the new Abbey being in Kent). This tree measures 18 feet 6 inches at 1 foot from the ground; at 5 feet it measures 12 feet 6 inches in circumference; and at the height of 30 feet it is 11 feet 6 inches in circumference. At this height it sends out a great number of giant branches (many of them equal to large trees themselves), the whole of which contain 235 cubic feet of market- able timber, and expanding to the unusual width of 110 feet from tip to tip. The number of cubic feet of marketable timber in this tree, including the large limbs, is about 460. It is to all appearance quite sound and healthy, and making good annual growth. The entire height of the tree is 90 feet. No. 8 is a huge pollard ash tree, supposed to be about 800 years of age, and the largest extant. It is now a mere shell, or part of a shell, as one side is entirely crumbled away. The REPORT ON OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES. 149 relic which is left measures 38 feet round at 1 foot up, and at 5 feet up it measures 28 feet round. There is an archway right through the centre of this tree, wide enough at one side to admit a horse and cart. It is clasped with iron hoops, its branches are supported by wooden props, and every care is used to prevent the wind blowing it asunder. The primary branches of this monarch have crumbled away by the hand of time, and those that remain are all covered with moss and ivy, and only expand 45 feet—a poor remnant of what they must have once been in their meridian splendour. The tree grows on a sandy loam, close to the old ruins of Bayham Abbey. ‘A few more years and this old monarch will be numbered among the things that were. No. 9 is an oak in the home park. At 1 foot from the ground it is 19 feet 7 inches round; at 5 feet it is 14 feet round; and at. the height of 22 feet it is 12 feet 9 inches in circumference, The entire height of this tree is 70 feet, while the spread of its branches is 84 feet. It is quite sound and healthy, and growing on a loamy soil. No. 10 is an oak, also in the home park, growing on a clay loam. At 1 foot from the ground this tree measures 22 feet 4 inches round; at 5 feet up it measures 12 feet 6 inches; and at the height of 28 feet it measures 11 feet 7 inches, where it sends out giant branches, some of which measure 7 feet 8 inches round, and a spread of 86 feet from tip to tip of its branches. Entire height, 86 feet. All the foregoing trees are in the county of Sussex (while the following trees are in Kent). No. 11 is an oak tree, also in the home park, growing on a clay loam, by the side of the stream which divides the two counties. At 1 foot high this tree is 16 feet 7 inches in circum- ference ; at 5 feet is 14 feet 2 inches; and at the height of 23 feet 6 inches it is 12 feet 8 inches in circumference; the spread of its branches, 92 feet; and the entire height, 80 feet. The trunk of this tree is straight, clean, and sound, and a very hand- some piece of timber, quite healthy, and growing vigorously. No. 12 is a tall oak tree, in Rear Wood, growing on a hazelly loam, and at 1 foot high it measures 14 feet 5 inches round; at 5 feet up, 10 feet 1 inch; at the height of 47 feet it is 7 feet 4 inches round; and at 55 feet high it is 4 feet 3 inches; the entire height is 83 feet, with a spread of branches 72 feet from tip : to tip. This tree is very healthy, and growing very fast, and has every appearance of being some day a monster oak. 150 REPORT ON OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES. No. 13 is an old beech, growing on a sandy soil near the village of Pembury, and called the Pembury Beech. At 1 foot high it is 22 feet 5 inches round; at 5 feet high it is 13 feet 8 inches; at the height of 27 feet 4 inches it is 11 feet 2 inches; and at the height of 36 feet it measures 8 feet 11 inches round, where it sends out some branches, measuring 7 feet round, which spread out 56 feet, and are crooked and twisted in all manner of shapes and forms; frequently artists are to be seen sketching the outlines and rustic branches of this fine old venerable beech. No. 14 is an old oak tree, growing on a sharp sandy loam in Wilderness home park, one of the seats of the Marquis of Camden, which measures at 1 foot from the ground 23 feet 8 inches in circumference ; and at 5 feet up it measures 16 feet 10 inches, running up with a handsome stem to the height of 30 feet. At this height, giant branches are thrown out in all directions, which expand 100 feet wide, while the height of the tree is only 76 feet. The tips of the branches begin to show signs of decline. No, 15 is an old oak, also in Wilderness home park, about 230 years of age, and growing on a sandy loam. At 1 foot up it measures 23 feet 10 inches round ; and at 5 feet up it is 17 feet 2 inches round, with a straight, clean, and very handsome stem, 20 feet to the first of the branches, some of which measure 3 feet through. The entire height is 104 feet, while the spread of its branches is only 91 feet from tip to tip. About one-third of the branches of this tree are dead, or what is called stag-horn topped. No. 16 is an oak in Wilderness Park, which is 20 feet 2 inches at 1 foot from the ground; at 5 feet up it is 15 feet 10 inches round ; and at the height of 20 feet it sends out large branches, expanding to the width of 90 feet from tip to tip, while the entire height of the tree is 80 feet. No. 17 is a cedar of Lebanon, growing on the lawn at Wilder- ness Park. This tree was planted by the first Marchioness of Cam- den about ninety years ago. It is now a perfect beauty, one of the gems which decorate the lawn of this fine park. At 1 foot from the ground it measures 17 feet 5 inches round; at 5 feet up it measures 15 feet 4 inches ; and at the height of 11 feet it sends out a profusion of branches, which expand to a width of 80 feet ; and the entire height is 75 feet. The deep, sombre appear- ance of this tree, which is thickly set with cones of a light- green colour, forms a very striking and pleasing object on the lawn. REPORT ON OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES. Lot No. 18 is a minor companion cedar to No. 17, and evidently planted at the same time, but in poorer soil, which accounts for its inferiority. At 1 foot high it measures 12 feet; and at 5 feet up it is 11 feet 10 inches in circumference. The entire spread of its branches is 53 feet, while its total height is 70 feet. No. 19 is a pollard Spanish chestnut, in one of the avenues at Wilderness Park, which measures 19 feet 3 inches in circumfer- ence at 1 foot from the ground; at 5 feet is 17 feet round; and at the height of 11 feet it sends out monster branches, expanding to the breadth of 60 feet. The breadth and height of the branches of this tree are equal. No. 20 is a pollard Spanish chestnut, growing beside No. 19, which measures 21 feet round at 1 foot up; at 5 feet is 19 feet 4 inches; and at the height of 9 feet it sends out eight large branches, some of which are nearly 3 feet in diameter. There are several pollard trees in this avenue, which have had large branches broken off by wind close to the stem; their stumps have been neatly sawn off, and the wounds plastered over with Portland cement, which is admirably adapted for this purpose, as it entirely excludes rain, sun, and weather from acting on and decomposing the tissues of the wood, and thereby prevents decay spreading in the trunk. No. 21 is a fine old park beech, in the home park at Wilder- ness, which is 30 feet round the swell of the roots 1 foot from the ground; at the height of 5 feet it is 17 feet 6 inches in air- cumference ; at the height of 12 feet it sends up a profusion of branches, which expand 74 feet wide; and the height of the tree is 66 feet. No. 22 is an oak in Chance Wood, on Wilderness estate, and growing on a sharp sandy loam. At 1 foot from the ground it is 15 feet 10 inches round; and at 5 feet it is 12 feet 6 inches. From thence it runs up with a fine, clean, straight, sound, and hand- some stem, without a single branch to the height of 40 feet, where it is 8 feet in circumference. At this height it sends out its branches, which expand only 30 feet, being pressed on all sides by tall heavy beech trees. The entire height of this fine oak is 85 feet. No. 23 is an oak, also in Chance Wood, which is at 1 foot from the ground 17 feet in circumference ; at 5 feet is 12 feet 6 inches ; and from thence it ascends with a very handsome, clean, straight, and sound bole, to the height of 52 feet to the first 152 REPORT ON OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES. branch. At this height it must be between 8 and 9 feet in girth. Trees of this description are seldom to be met with, having such a girth and length, and so straight. The spread of branches of this handsome tree is 75 feet, while its entire height is a little over 100 feet. No. 24 is a very tall beech, also in Chance Wood, which at 1 foot up is 14 feet 6 inches round; and at 5 feet is 9 feet 8 inches, rising to the unusual height of 65 feet (to the first branch), its stem as straight as an arrow, clean and sound. This is certainly one of the handsomest trees to be seen growing in any county. The spread of its branches is 40 feet, while the apex reaches to 110 feet high. Many trees in this wood are of much larger dimensions, but not so clean, tall, and handsome. No. 25 is an evergreen oak, growing on a loamy soil, by the side of the turnpike road near Bidborough. It is 13 feet 9 inches at 1 foot up, and at 5 feet high it is 9 feet 9 inches in circumfer- ence; at 7 feet high it sends out four branches, expanding 68 feet from tip to tip; and at the height of 13 feet, where it is 8 feet round, it sends out a profusion of branches, two of which are each 5 feet 9 inches in circumference. These two branches were a few years ago bolted together with a 14 inch iron bolt, to prevent them being split asunder by wind. The entire height of this beautiful tree is 48 feet. Its outline is very compact and uniform, and of a globular form, with its branches nearly touching the ground all round. It is quite healthy, and makes annual shoots 6 inches long. It is enclosed for protection by a continuous iron bar fence. ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. 153 XV. On the Arboriculture of the County of Kent. By James Durr, Wood Manager, Bayham Abbey, Tunbridge Wells. The county of Kent, the extreme south-eastern corner of Eng- land, 64 miles in length from London to North Foreland, and 38 miles in breadth from North Foreland to Dungeness, has an acre- age of about 996,480 acres, while the woods, coppices, and planta- tions cover an area of 78,000 acres. Kent differeth not more from other counties than from itself; in some parts health and wealth are many miles distant, and in other parts abide in the same place. The physical features of the county are strongly marked, divid- ing it into three very distinct districts: (1.) That of health with- out wealth, embracing the higher parts of the Downs, and forming what is called the backbone of Kent; (2.) That of wealth without health—this consists of parts of the tree-covered Weald of Romney Marsh, and along the rivers Medway and Swale, where the pastur- age is deep and rich, but where ague and low fever are common ; and (3.) That in which health and wealth are found together, covering by far the greatest part of the county. Five geological belts, of varying width and outline, extend throughout the county from north-west to south-east. The first, stretching from London to the Isle of Thanet, and embracing the Isle of Sheppey, consists partly of plastic and London clay, and is a continuation of the basin of London. The second belt, of chalk, is a continuation of the North Downs; it extends from Surrey to the sea or eastern coast, forming a broad mass of cliff. A low marshy coast stretches from Walmer to the Isle of Thanet, where the chalk reappears and forms the fine promontory of North Fore- land. The chalk intrudes through the valleys of the Darent and Med- way, and extends in a thin line along the banks of the Thames from Greenwich to Gravesend. The third and fourth belts con- sist of gault and lower green sand, both underlying the chalk. The fifth is the Weald clay, which covers the greatest part of the county, the flat of Romney Marsh lying below it. Some portions of the Hastings sand formation of Sussex are occasionally found isolated in the Weald clay, but are not sufficient to constitute a sixth belt. 154 ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. Except the marshes along the Thames and the south coast, no part of Kent is level; the Weald is a succession of low hills rising gradually to the height of 400 or 600 feet above the sea. From these heights the rich tree-covered Weald is of extreme beauty, the quick-set hedges which enclose the pasture-fields and hop-gardens, the hedgerow trees, and the apple and cherry or- chards, make the country look like one garden, and Kent may justly claim to be the garden of England. The hop, for which this county is so celebrated, covers from 95,000 to 100,000 acres of soil, and is the most valuable crop. Kent must have been at some remote period covered with vast forests of primeval oak, for throughout the county the oak is the predominating tree, except on the chalk formation, where beech luxuriates. Larch and Scotch fir frequently grow tolerably well on the chalk formation, where the chalk is not near the sur- face, but I have never seen large fir trees on chalk. Scotch fir is only planted for ornament, as so far from coal mines there is no demand for such timber. The acorns dropping from the oak trees in October readily germinate, and in summer the woods are covered with young oaks, most of which are soon smothered with the thick coppice. In autumn large herds of swine are to be seen attended by a boy, which live on acorns for several months; and men, women, and children, out of employment, gather the acorns, and sell them for feeding swine at 1s. per bushel. Against the oak, which at one period covered the county, there has been a constant warfare waged by man, clearing woodland for pasture and agricul- ture, and, above all, for the cultivation of hops. Even in the pre- sent generation large quantities of woodland have been cleared, and we now find that woodlands occupy a small percentage of the former area. Before the introduction of hops into England in the beginning of the sixteenth century, the forests were purely of timber, but after hops began to be extensively cultivated, the demand far ex- ceeded the supply, and proprietors found that the cultivation of coppice for hop poles paid better than the growing of timber, This great local demand has steadily increased, till it has now become the primary object of arboriculture in the south-east corner of England, by the oak trees being severely thinned, and chestnut and ash planted instead, so that he who plants may often reap. Contrasting the acreage of woodland and coppice, now only 78,000 acres, out of 996,480 acres which the county contains, and that the ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. 155 acreage of hops amounts to nearly 100,000 acres, it is evident that the cultivation of coppice for hop poles must yield a handsome re- turn. And as, in our time, present profit is more looked at than future prospects, consequently it is not to be wondered at that the cultivation of coppice, which often realises from £30 to £40 per acre in ten years, receives so much attention. The demand for hop poles has recently increased much owing to the extension of hop plantations, and has caused the importation of spruce fir hop poles from Norway and Sweden, which sell from 20s. to 45s. per 100, according to size, leaving the importer a large profit. As supply and demand are the ruling agents in all trades, the less acreage of coppice and the more of hop plantations, the price of hop poles, in proportion, must inevitably rise. The system of management in this county has been to thin the oaks severely, and fill up with Spanish chestnut, ash, willow, or alder, as the ground is adapted for each of these trees. The hazel and oak coppice, natural to the soil, is gradually giving place to coppice of chestnut and ash. As the hazel and oak are not nearly so durable for hop poles as chestnut and ash, they sell at-a corre- spondingly low price. ‘This system has been carried on for a con- siderable time, and now many of the plantations are in a satisfac- tory state, thickly studded with fine, clean, straight, and thriving coppice, carefully looked after, and with all vacant spaces filled up. Previous to the underwood being exposed to public sale, which is the usual system of disposal, the coppice is inspected, and a number of the best oak tellers, grown from the acorn, are marked with red paint, to be reserved for oak timber, so as to maintain the amenity of the estates. This operation is tedious and laborious, owing to the thickness of the almost impenetrable coppice, and much time is occupied in the operation on estates where from 200 to 250 acres are sold annually. The underwood is afterwards lotted in different sizes, and ex- posed to sale by public auction, subject to such conditions as insure the vendor the payment of each lot, and that the ware is all cut and cleared within the time specified. Before commencing to cut the underwood the purchaser pays a deposit, and finds security for the remainder, failing in such, in the given time specified, the lot or lots are resold, and the deficiency, if any, made good by the defaulter. The underwood is afterwards cut and cleared out of the wood, before the lst of May, by the purchaser, and all ware found in the 156 ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. coppice after that date is forfeited. The mode of cutting is this: A man with a hand-bill brushes off all side branches, and ties them into kiln faggots for brick-burning, at 2s. 6d. per 100, which sell at 4s. 6d. per 100. Being far from the coal mines, these faggots supply the place of coal in many ways; but in many places this small spray is worthless, and is either gathered into heaps and burned, or it is allowed to decay in the wood. The coppice is then cut off the slab with an axe, and cut into hop poles of different lengths, as the ware will admit. 10 feet poles are cut for 1s. 1d, and sold at 9s. per 100; 12 feet poles, cut at 1s. 4d., and sold at 15s.; 14 feet poles, cut for 1s. 8d., and sold for 22s.; and 16 feet poles, cut for 2s., and sold from 30s. to 36s. These are the aver- age prices for good poles in the wood, inferior poles will not realise these figures, while choice poles will exceed them, The smaller ware is cut into hooping for cement and flour barrels, both for the home and foreign trade. ‘These are cut for 3d., and sold at 1s. per 100. Large quantities of flower-sticks and pea-boughs are cut, which greatly contribute to the revenue. The refuse is made into house faggots for firing at 5s., and sold for 22s. per 100. When the coppice grows too long for the poles wanted, a bat is cut off the butt end, and sold at 20s. per 100 for sheep hurdles, which are always in demand. Fences.—The woods are enclosed by a turf bank ; the proprietor makes the fences by piece-work ; the ditch around the wood is cleaned out, and small stakes, 3 feet long, are driven into the top of the bank 15 inches apart, around which are twisted long straight rods, forming a strong basket-work, which protects the coppice for ten or eleven years. This cleaning the ditch and making the fence is done for 8d. per rood of 54 yards. The oak timber to be cut is marked with red paint, selecting those trees that have attained maturity, and those that have a short stem and bushy top, as they will never produce large timber, and they injure the coppice. Trees of an upright habit of growth should be reserved, as they do less injury to the coppice, In the woods there are oak trees of all ages and all sizes, from the young teller ten years of age up to full-grown timber. This is caused by the regular saving of young tellers at the fall of underwood every ten or eleven years. After the trees to be cut are marked, they are generally sold by private treaty to timber merchants at so much per foot measured down. ‘The price is regu- lated by the size and quality of the timber the current price of ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. 157 which is as follows: Trees under 10 cubic feet of timber sell at 2s. per foot for top, lop, and bark ; from 10 feet to 30 feet of tim- ber, 2s. 6d, per foot ; and trees measuring 30 feet and upwards are sold at 3s. per foot, the purchaser felling the timber and barking the trees, which is done for 32s. per ton of bark. For felling the trees, and stripping and drying the bark, the men are paid by the tanyard weight which is in Mid-Kent. Some foresters may say that oak bark cannot be peeled for the money. I know from experience that in Scotland it costs double the money, but in the south of England the bark strips much more easily, and one man can strip a ton with greater ease than 10 cwts. in Scotland. The tops of the trees are then made into faggots and cordwood, the smaller branches and spray into house faggots, at 4s. per 100, and sold at 22s. ; the larger branches are cut into 3 feet lengths, and piled up 3 feet high and 14 feet long, called a cord of wood, and sold at 22s. for firewood, or charcoal for drying hops, and large quantities are sent to London. The timber merchant can clear away the top and the bark when itis dry, but leaves the trees to be measured by the forester immedi- ately afterwards, and pays by bill at three, six, or nine months’ date. The oak timber of Kent is of first quality, and generally grows to large dimensions. Trees measuring 300 to 400 cubic feet of timber are frequently seen, and trees ranging from 80 to 130 cubic feet of timber, and about the same number of years’ growth, are annually cut. These are found on a good, deep, clay loam. But the oaks growing on sandy soil are subject to coult and ring shakes, which greatly reduce the value. I have often had to allow one-third where some trees were a mere bundle of laths. As the wood-merchant fells the trees, strips the bark, cuts up the top, and clears off the whole at his own expense, the price at which the timber is sold is the net revenue. On some estates the timber is sold by public auction, but it is not a satisfactory system in this part of England, as the timber merchants are able to arrange before the sale which lot each is to buy, and in nine cases out of ten they have the oak at three- fourths its value. ' The following winter all vacant spaces in the wood are planted with Spanish chestnut, ash, willow, or alder, as the ground is adapted for each tree, at the price of 1s. 6d. per 100 for digging the pits and planting ; and even at this low price men can earn from 3s. VOL. VIII., PART II. L 158 ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. to 3s. 6d. per day, and more where the soil is easy to dig. The Spanish chestnut is extensively planted in Kent for hop poles; it is a first-class coppice producer, grows free, fast, and straight, and is durable as hop poles. It is surprising to see the growth it makes on poor soil, where it is dry and open; but on damp soil, even though rich, the result is unsatisfactory, as it grows stunted and sickly, and is often injured by late spring frosts. The first ten years after planting it yields no return, as it takes that time to get established, and to make a stub, but after the first cutting it grows strong, often producing three poles per stub at the second cutting, and increasing in vigour at each cutting, and strong shoots, 5 and 6 feet high, and from six to twelve on each stub, are seen the first year after it is thoroughly established. Spanish chestnut, as a timber or park tree, is very ornamental, but, in a financial point of view, it is comparatively worthless. I have cut large numbers in the last three years, and nine out of ten were so shaky they were worth little more than firewood. The ash gives a valuable coppice crop on damp or retentive clay or loam, realising from £3 to £3, 10s. per annum. In 1874, at our annual sale of underwood, a large quantity of ash coppice was sold at £33, 15s. per acre, of ten years’ growth. This is the most profitable crop of underwood where the soil is too wet for chest- nut ; where rabbits and hares are numerous, their depredations to the ash in winter, when the ground is covered with snow, are sometimes very great ; they peel off the bark round the stem, when it dies, shooting again from the root only to be cut down next winter ; and, where these creatures abound, they soon destroy the coppice. Asa timber tree the ash ought to receive more atten- tion than hitherto; it is a fast grower, valuable at all ages, and saleable at all sizes, and does not damage the coppice as oak does. Trees of large dimensions readily sell at 2s. 6d. per foot. Alder and willow are planted in low soils, too wet and marshy for ash. These are next in value for hop poles; and in such soils they realise a handsome return. As timber trees here they are of little account, and only realise 8d. per foot. The foregoing trees are all planted from 3 to 5 feet high, and 4 feet apart. Smaller plants are useless, as the coppice soon smothers them. When the planting is finished, the coppice is left undisturbed for ten years, when it is again cut. On most estates there is about an equal number of acres ready to cut annually in rotation. The coppice is sold in November, cut in winter, and cleared in spring, ARBORIGULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. 159 then the oaks are marked, peeled in April and May, measured and cleared in summer, and the woods planted up in winter, every- thing in regular order. Many foresters object to this system of growing coppice and timber together, and contend that two crops cannot be grown pro- fitably at the same time on the same piece of ground, saying, either have all coppice or all timber. In many cases they are right, as timber can be grown better and more profitably alone ; and coppice can be grown better, faster, and more profitably when it does not contain a single tree. But coppice pays an annual revenue of from £2 to £3, while arable land is only worth half that amount, and the timber will yield about 15s. per annum besides. It is only where the oaks have been severely thinned, and chestnut and ash coppice stand thick on the ground, that these prices are realised. There are many districts where this system has been neglected, and where the oaks stand wide apart for a crop of oaks alone, the underwood being of a description inferior for hop poles, viz., hazel and oak, which is natural to the soil and which only realises £4 to £5 every eleven years. Iam certain that if all the oaks were cut, and only coppice grown, the revenue would be greater than at present, but the landscape effect would be greatly impaired, and the present beauty of the country altered. If a Scotch forester were entrusted with the management of woods in the south of England, it would be a gross mistake to introduce the Scotch system, and vice versa; each country must be managed according to its peculiar circumstances. Planting larch for hop poles is by far the most remunerative crop that can be grown, In ten years larch pays an annual revenue of from £5 to £6 clear profit per acre. At our sale of underwood in 1874 a quantity of larch plantation was sold at £72 per acre, ten years old; in 1864 this enclosure was planted with chestnuts, 4 feet apart each way, and then filled up to 2 feet with larch, at a cost of £15 per acre, leaving a clear profit of £5, 12s. per acre per annum. ‘The soil was a poor, sandy clay, worth about 18s. per acre for agricultural purposes. I am informed upon good autho- rity that a quantity of larch plantation was sold several years ago on a neigbouring estate at the enormous price of £100 per acre, fifteen years old. What system of forestry can equal this? After the larch is cut, the young chestnut stub grows into permanent and profitable coppice. 160 ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF_KENT. On the chalk formation the principal tree is beech, but as cop- pice for hop poles it is worthless. Hop poles made of beech decay in two years, while Spanish chestnut and ash poles stand eight to twelve years ; and chestnut has often lasted double that time. The poles are dipped in creosote, which makes them twice as durable. In several parts of Kent English elm is grown, which sometimes attains large dimensions, measuring 250 to 300 cubic feet, and realises from 2s, to 2s. 6d. per foot. The county abounds in hedge- row timber and park trees in the pasture fields, which afford fine shade for stock in summer. Were it not for these hedgerow trees, it would be impossible to keep stock out of the coppice in hot weather. The hedgerow timber in Kent has escaped the barbarous treatment it is subjected to in many parts of England (especially elm), that of lopping the side branches, and leaving only a small tuft at the top, which gives the landscape a poor appearance com- pared to that it would have were these trees allowed to follow their natural habit of growth. Larch, spruce, and Scotch fir are interspersed among the oak on many estates in clumps, and single specimens for embellishment, but are seldom grown for profit, except on the downs or poor moorish soil. The quality of Scotch fir grown in Kent is inferior to that grown in Scotland. It sells at 6d. to 9d. per foot, and is in little demand even at that price. In several districts in Kent and Sussex, where the soil is thin and poor, the oak trees spread out a bushy top at the height of 8 or 10 feet, which is caused by the roots not being able to descend into the soil, which rests on a white barren gravel or sand; but as chestnut thrives well, the oak trees have been cut, and coppice cultivated instead, which realises a far better return. Viewing this system from a financial point of view, it is the best that can be adopted, as the soil is not fit to grow oak profitably. The rate of growth is small. There is little yield of revenue from the oaks; and their spreading tops do great injury to the coppice. On the other hand, in a landscape point of view, the removal of the oaks greatly impairs the amenity of the estates where practised; and if only ten trees were saved per acre, they would give a clothed appearance to the country. Ash for timber ought to be cultivated, instead of oak, in moist clay ; in such it is a profitable tree, always saleable of all sizes, a fast grower, and preferable among coppice, which it does not injure like oak. Another system which is remunerative, especially on dry, open ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT, 161 soil, is that of planting larch for timber among coppice. This is a system adopted on several estates of late years, but unfortunately the foresters have been compelled to abandon it on account of depredations by ground game. Larch was planted in the open spaces at the rate of twenty plants per acre, 4 to 5 feet high, strong and well rooted. The result is, that not 5 per cent. are now alive; only the largest plants have escaped being destroyed by hares and rabbits. Where ground game is less abundant, this would be the most remunerative system in this part of England. Thirty or forty years ago it was adopted; and in several places handsome larch trees stand at wide intervals among fine chestnut coppice, worth £30 in ten years, They are thinned at each fall of underwood, to prevent the coppice being too much shaded. The upright habit of the larch conduces to the growth of the coppice when trimmed up to the height of 15 or 18 feet. Its linear leaves do not exclude light and air. Its roots run shallow in the soil, drawing food from the surface, while the Spanish chestnut root is more of the nature of the oak, drawing nourish- ment from a greater depth. Under this system chestnut hop poles may be seen growing luxuriantly close to the stem of the larch. On the whole, I think, that in Kent the yield of revenue from woods and coppices can be compared favourably with that of any other county of Britain, where coppice is entirely ignored, and nothing but timber grown. In such counties hundreds of loads of firewood lie and rot in the woods as of no value, while here the smallest twig forms a source of profit. In Kent underwood is preferred to timber growing, as the returns are larger, quicker, and more certain ; and by the annual increase in demand for hop poles, great inducements are offered to make new coppice planta- tions. These will not lose their value so long as hops continue to be cultivated ; and as these have maintained their position for over two and a half centuries, there is little reason to anticipate their failure. On the contrary, the acreage is annually increas- ing; and to keep pace with this increase, fast-growing coppices are now cut two, and in some cases three years earlier than they used to be. Hop growers find that they get a better crop of hops by what is called under-poling, or using shorter poles, thereby enabling foresters to cut the coppice two years earlier. If coppice can be cut at nine years old, which used to stand till eleven, two years are gained at first cutting, while the coppice will be ready four years earlier next cutting. 162 ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT, Before hop growers adopted the system of dipping the poles in creosote, coppice was not cut till it was eleven years old, the object then being to get as much heartwood as possible; but by the creosoting process, poles full of heartwood or full of sapwood are brought more on a level, and made twice as durable. Had this process not been introduced, the county could not have grown poles to supply the demand ; and even now large quantities are brought from Sussex, and also of late from Norway. For the most part, the underwood is bought by farmers and hop growers, who thus find winter employment for their men and horses in carrying away the ware. Wood is also bought by industrious, well-to-do workmen, who are able to pay 10 or 20 per cent. of the purchase-money, the balance for which they must find security to be paid that day twelve months. By this system we can realise 10 to 15 per cent. more for the coppice than by the payment of ready money, as ten buyers may come in place of one—a great consideration to the result of a public sale, as the price is thereby greatly increased, and men of enterprise may better themselves. Underwood cutting is the chief outdoor work here during the winter months. Birch is frequently cultivated as coppice for poles, on shallow, poor, hard soil, unfit to grow chestnut, ash, alder, or willow, and on such soil it often realises £8 to £12 in ten years, and in good soil £20 have been realised in some cases ; but the stubs often bleed to death, and ground game kill the young shoots. The poles are inferior to larch, chestnut, ash, and willow; it is therefore not much cultivated as coppice. In several districts, chiefly on the chalk formation, large plan- tations of beech have heen planted, which thrive luxuriantly, and yield a good profit for poor soil. At Sevenoaks, where the soil is a sharp sandy loam, resting on gravel, there are thriving planta- tions of beech and oak. Many trees measure 150 to 200 cubic feet ; the beech realises 1s. 3d. per foot, and is much used for making windsor chairs, heavy planking, ete. These beeches often measure 40 to 60 feet to the first branch, and many trees measure 2 feet on the side at the height of 20 feet. In the adjoining part of Sussex, on the estates of Hridge, Crobore, and Ash Down Forest, larch fir, extensively cultivated for hop poles and timber, thrives uncommonly well on a loamy soil, A surprising number of telegraph poles are grown on an acre of this soil, yielding a very handsome return ; and trees, 70 to 90 ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT. 163 feet high, and containing nearly the same amount of timber, are frequently met with, which realise 1s. 3d. per foot. Prospects.—It will be seen from the foregoing that the cultiva- tion of trees for timber in Kent is on the decline, while the culti- vation of coppice is on the increase. On some estates the timber, much neglected during the lives of previous proprietors, has been indiscriminately felled or thinned, leaving about one-third of a crop to keep up an appearance. Several attempts have been made by the foresters to replant coppice for poles, but have been entirely baffled by the abundance of ground game, which have destroyed almost every plant to the extent of several thousand pounds value. Though the timber is disappearing, it is generally supplanted by coppice, which yields a better, more certain, and speedy return. It is more profitable to grow a crop for which there is a great local demand, than to grow a crop for a distant though profitable market. There are large tracts of poor sandy soil in several parts of Kent, yielding 10s. to 15s. per acre as arable land, which, if planted with chestnut and larch for hop poles, would realise in ten years £40 to £50 per acre, and after the larch was cut the chestnut would become profitable coppice. The superiority of larch poles over all others often leads to great mistakes in planting larch on soil only fit to grow Scotch fir and spruce. There are several hundred acres of moorish peaty soil, part of which is covered with a healthy thriving crop of Scotch fir, but much is still lymg waste. If it were planted, it would realise 20s. per acre for the time it occupies the ground, although small Scotch fir only sells at 6d. per foot, while trees 8 inches through sell at 9d. per foot. It is principally used for barrel staves, and who can tell but Scotch fir may yet realise ls. 8d. or 2s. per foot? In all probability it will do so, when our supplies from America and the Baltic are exhausted. If the thousands of acres of waste land throughout Britain, in many cases now realising only 2s. 6d. per acre, were planted, much money would be secured to posterity, and the humidity of our island would be maintained and increased, While spruce fir poles are imported from Norway, and fetch great prices, I do not see why the downs of Kent should not be planted with spruce for poles. As a rule, growing hop poles in this county pays better than growing timber of any kind. Larch is often planted on soil only fit for Scotch fir and spruce, on account of the greater demand for larch than for spruce of the same age. 164 ARBORICULTURE OF THE COUNTY OF KENT, On a shallow, peaty, wet soil, it unmistakably proves a failure ; but if spruce were planted, a good result might be looked for. The oak is subject to be shaky on sandy soil, which greatly de- preciates its value, and the more larch is planted on such soil, the better will the prospects be, as it does little or no harm to the coppice. Large profits might be made on the chalk hills, where the soil is shallow, but where larch hop poles can be profitably grown. But larch never attains timber dimensions where the chalk is within a few inches of the surface. Much is required throughout the county in filling up the coppices with trees suited to the soil. The soil would then be turned to the best possible account, and the coppices and wood- lands be ina more flourishing and prosperous condition, and Kent would then be able to grow sufficient poles for her own wants. EFFECTS OF SULPHUR UPON IRON FENCING. 165 XVI. On the Deleterious effects of Sulphur upon Iron Fencing. By Tuomas WILKIE, Forester, Invergarry, Fort-Augustus. The beauty of the policy, as well as the scenery of the landscape, is much increased by the style of fences adopted. Till within the last twenty years it was customary to erect stone walls or dykes of various kinds with common stob and rail fences, or hedges where suitable. These are now being superseded by iron and wire fencing, of which many thousand miles are erected all over the country. In some parts double-pronged standards have been extensively used ; in others, self-fixing vases are adopted, but the kind most largely used hitherto has been batted into stones. Straining pillars or posts are batted 4 inches, and the common standards generally 3 inches deep. Sulphur has been adopted more largely for batting than any other substance. Several years ago I instituted inquiries as to the suitableness of sulphur for batting, as I believe it contains an acid ; and as all acids are corrosive, I sus- pected that sulphur would corrode the iron. Only one practical forester corroborated my opinion. I examined several fences which were erected with sulphur, and stood only for six years. I found that the iron was being reduced nearly one-sixteenth, having adhered to the sulphur. I scraped this off, and found the sulphur as good as when run into the stone. I wrote to various quarters, and having spoken about it to some gentlemen, who made inquiries, it was found that some doubted the suitableness of sulphur. One said although the sulphur caused corrosion to a certain extent, it soon became expended, forming what engineers term a “rust joint,” which is reckoned the best of all joints. I also learned that a fence erected with the use of sulphur, having standards, etc., of a common size, 1} inches by ;3;ths had been corroded through. Having mentioned this fact, the answer given was, possibly the iron was not good, the sulphur not rightly managed, or bad stones were used. It was, however, erected by practical fencers. If the acid became expended, how was the fence corroded as described ? Either the acid was present in the sulphur, or if expended, it caused corrosion to commence, and to operate on the iron sub- sequent to its being expended. A respectable fence contractor, whom I asked if he believed sulphur to be deleterious to iron, said, “ Of course it is; and many practical fencers know the fact.” 166 EFFECTS OF SULPHUR UPON IRON FENCING. He had seen four fences, erected with standards the same as above, rendered as thin as the blade of a pocket knife, having stood respectively for ten, fourteen, sixteen, and twenty years. The pillars, straining posts, etc., were reduced in like degree; also a gate hung upon iron pillars, 13 by 1? inches, about fourteen years ago, during a sharp breeze of wind one night, was laid flat upon the road, pillars and all. I have sent for inspection samples of iron corroded by sulphur, with a paper giving the following par- ticulars: Sizes, where and when erected, by whom, practical or ama- teur fencers. I need only say further that the iron is found in its early stages of corrosion firmly adhering to the sulphur, and is gradually reduced ; more room for expansion having thereby been made, the corrosion goes on rapidly, and ultimately the iron is wasted. Some stones more porous than others may tend either to in- crease or to retard the progress of corrosion. Another matter for consideration is whether the stone bedded in wet or dry soil has the greatest tendency to cause corrosion, or stone deeply bedded in the soil, or laid upon its surface. I would make a natural rise or fall with the ground where the fence is to be erected, and leave the top of the stone exposed, as the fence could be easily varnished during winter or spring before the foliage grows to cover the stone, or any part of the fence. Galvanised materials, however, are pre- ferable, and the cost is little more; the process, however, reduces the strength of materials by about 20 per cent., as varnishing is thereby rendered unnecessary. Larger stones, in some cases, might require to be used if bedded upon the surface. Batting with lead is the best plan in either case, as it does not injure the iron. I find iron which has stood for twenty years, batted with lead, as clean and sound as when put in, the rule sur- face of the iron never having been broken. Lead is not more frequently used, because it gets loose in the stone ; the iron, heated by atmospheric influences, expands, and the lead yields before it ; and when it cools and contracts, a vacuum remains round the iron. To prevent this, I drive in four small half oval wedges 3 inches long round the straining pillars and resisting posts, the hole 4 inches deep, as suited to size of bore in stone, and two similar wedges, 2 inches long for the standard, the holes being 3 inches deep, putting the flat sides inwards, and driving them tightly on the opposite sides at the same time, when the lead becomes solid round the pillars, ete., at top and bottom of the hole; and this EFFECTS OF SULPHUR UPON IRON FENCING. 167 process renders staving unnecessary at first, and, I believe, ever afterwards ; but, if needed, a little driving home of the wedge will fix it. I would suggest that all fences erected with sulphur be imme- diately examined, and the substance extracted, particularly from any ornamental or costly fence, as it will ultimately become use- less, and only sell at the price of old iron or metal. This subject concerns proprietor and tenant alike; and if no antidote can be found to prevent corrosion, the use of sulphur must be discon- tinued, as the iron pillars, straining posts, standards, etc., will not serve for erecting a new fence of the same height. 168 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT CARNWATH. XVII. Report on the Meteorological Observations made at Carn- wath, Lanarkshire. By ALEXANDER Bucuay, M.A, F.BS.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society.* Mr Bucuan read the report of the Committee on the grant for the prosecution of the inquiry into the influence of forests on climate, and ultimately in reference to the influence of forests on rainfall. The Committee have already expressed their decided conviction that no amount of rain gauges, however placed, would throw any light on the question of the influence of forests on rain- fall, for the simple reason that there were many causes which determined the amount of the local rainfall of which we knew nothing. The Committee had therefore come to the conclusion that the question could only be attacked by means of instrumental observations on the quality of the air, and particularly as regards its temperature and humidity. The greatest care has been taken to secure that the two sets of thermometers, with their pro- tecting louvre-boarded boxes, are placed in positions so circum- stanced that the one set is surrounded by air either not influenced at all, or only in an inappreciable degree by the forest, and the other set by air under the full influence of the trees of the forest, in so far as that is possible, when the instruments are at the same time placed directly under the influences of solar and terrestrial radiation ; in other words, not under the shade of the trees. As stated in previous reports (vol. vii., p. 285), the locality chosen for the observations was a wood at Carnwath, which was kindly placed at the service of the Committee by Hector Maclean, Esq., Carnwath House. The Committee particularly desire to state that, in selecting the locality for the instruments, their exposure and precise relation to immediately surrounding objects, the question of the viscosity or adhesiveness of the air, was kept steadily in view as regards currents of air, and the bearing of these currents on solar and terrestrial radiation. The observations of 1876 were, as had been agreed on, made with the same instruments, and in the same positions as on previous years, with the view of testing the correctness of the results formerly arrived at. They were made by Mr Fotheringham, and extended * Read at the Annual General Meeting, 1st November 1876. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT CARNWATH. 169 over three months from August to October. The result is a general, and in many cases a minute correspondence with the conclusions previously obtained. The following are the more important of these conclusions: First, and most important of all, the mean temperature inside the wood was greater than it was outside during the whole of the year, except the autumn months, the mean annual temperature being 45°5° inside, and 45°3° outside the wood ; second, the temperature at nine P.M. was the same both inside and outside the wood ; third, in the spring and early summer, the air inside the wood was both warmer and moister than outside ; fourth, during the autumn the excess of moisture inside the wood is very greatiy increased, and this result has been confirmed in a remarkable degree by the observations made during September last, when the weather was unusually damp. Your Committee are of opinion that something should be done next year to have a more complete discussion of the observations made than had yet been effected. For instance, the daily observa- tions ought to be separated as regarded strength of wind, the amount of cloud, the effect of sunshine, of cold, of frost, long con- tinued cold, and the effect of continuous rain on the quality of the air, both inside and outside the wood, and the converse, the effect of continuous drought. Until this is done, the full value of the observations will not be realised. It is proposed, about the close of the year, to remove the box with the thermometer from the station at Gallowhill, outside the wood, to a new position inside the wood, where the thermometers will be, as before, 4 feet above the ground, completely shaded by the trees, but otherwise in close proximity to the Winterlaw station inside the wood, at which the box is fully open to the influence of solar and terrestrial radiation. It is further proposed to add at each of these stations a set of underground thermometers, of depths of 3, 12, and 22 inches, which will be observed daily with the other instruments. It would have been preferable to have retained the instruments at Gallowhill, and procured a third set of instruments for the new station under the trees; but the funds placed at the disposal of your Committee will not admit of this additional expenditure. The chief point in this large and important inquiry which these arrangements have been designed to elucidate is this: Whether there be not a very considerable difference in the mean annual 170 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT CARNWATH. temperature of the air, and of the ground at two stations in the same wood within 100 yards of each other, and under the same conditions as regards height above the ground and the sea, and slope of surface, etc., but differing in the important particular, that while the one is completely shaded by the trees from direct solar and terrestrial radiation, the other station is open to these influences, the instruments there being placed on a grassy patch, about 50 feet in diameter, surrounded on all sides with trees of various sorts, varying from 40 to 50 feet in height. We need scarcely add that, in thus pursuing this line of investigation, other important questions in connection with the influence of forests on climate will be brought under examination and discussion. ON TWO NEW MODES OF FENCING. PPT XVIIL On Two New Modes of Fencing. By Tuomas WILKIE, Forester, Invergarry, Fort-Augustus. I suggest two methods of fencing, as possessing many advan- tages. They are not costly in the formation, and do not require frequent repairs : 1. The Pollard Fence.—If to be along the margin of a planta- tion of deciduous trees, or passing through one, I select a line either straight or circled, as the case may require, and if I have such trees growing say at distances of 12 or 20 feet, I put in a few stobs in the interspaces, in a straight line with the trees, on either side. I pollard all the trees in the line of fence, leaving a few of the lower branches to keep the pollard alive, and dress the cuts with a common pruning-knife. I then place double winders at distances of 150 to 200 yards apart ; if much circled, I put them at the former distance, and if straight, at the latter. I then staple on the wires at various distances as required, and strain up by the double winder. Haying done so, I pollard a sufficient number of other trees, which I transplant to the line of fence, placing them 6 feet apart. When on a level and straight line I staple on the highest and second lowest wires, to keep them in position. But when in hollows, I have a stob as near every pollard as possible, and staple on the highest wire only, lest they be raised up from the pits. This fence is not costly at first, and on outlying parts of property is not more expensive than good common larch stobs, and if plenty of pollards can be got near the line of fence, it would be no more so than strong stobs charred and tarred. With me the cost of erection was from 3d. to 43d. per lineal yard, but all de- pends upon the number of trees in the line of fence, and the supply of those suitable for transplanting to it ; my pollards averaged 74 feet in height and 4 inches diameter at the small end, and con- sisted of oak, ash, beech, elm, birch, thorn, alder, and hazel. It may be added, that where an unobstructed view is desired, this fence is not observed at a distance of 500 yards. For a divi- sional fence between fields none excels it for strength, durability, and shelter, A beautiful diversity of hedgerow can be introduced by this process, as every fourth or sixth tree may be allowed to grow, while the others are pollarded where necessary, otherwise the oscillation caused by the wind would make the wire to cut the staple or the staple the wire. When circles or angles occur, the 172 ON TWO NEW MODES OF FENCING. wire ought always to be put on the outside, for the same reason. I found this fence impregnable to horses, cattle, or sheep, and if it be introduced as a divisional fence when the fields come under a course of cropping, by the time of pasturing it would be perfectly established. Trees suitable for this purpose can often be spared out of young hardwood plantations, and selected according to the nature of the soil. The alder, poplars, or willows are best for damp loamy soil, and the others enumerated for gravelly or richer soils. If carefully and economically done, this fence would supersede, in my opinion, any kind of fencing yet introduced, combining strength, durability, ornament, invisibility, as well as shelter. When planta- tions are being formed plants should be put in with a view to its subsequent adoption, and should larch stobs be used in the first erection, in most cases the pollard system can be adopted when the stobs are decayed. 2. The Willow Hedge was formed thus: I had a low 3-wire fence running along the edge of a leading drain outside the planta- tion, which was of itself a fence for cattle, but not for sheep. Having to make it so, I cut a trench 8 inches deep along the whole line below the wires, extending to nearly 2 of a mile. I then pre- pared cuttings of common willow, 18 to 24 inches in length, and put them in 12 inches apart, with an angle of 30 degrees, and an- other cutting in the interspaces with an opposite angle, those forming two diagonals, thus: KA AAR K AAR RAS RAAAALA YX SOWELL LASOSS ; (X This was done in September and October, and cost about 143d. per lineal yard. I disbudded all the lower end of the cuttings, and put the dampest and warmest of the soil next them, which I firmly tramped. Next season they were growing rapidly. When I left the place I intended to twist the young shoots round the highest wire, which I trust has been done. I tried for experiment 12 pieces of the same, 4 feet long and 4 inches at the small end ; these also grew well next season. By the time the stobs decay I believe they will not be longer wanted, as I crossed the willows upon the two lower wires, and if the shoots have also been twisted, they will keep the fence firm and strong enough. From the yearly crop of basket willows this fence, in the neighbourhood of large towns, and especially in England, would be profitable to the proprietor. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. 173 XIX. On Insects Injurious to Forest Trees, and their Destruction. By Matcotm Dunn, Palace Gardens, Dalkeith.* Whether we look at our subject from a scientific or cultural point of view, it is of the greatest importance to foresters and others who have to do with the cultivation of trees and shrubs, and the management of timber, to be able to distinguish readily the cause of any injury they may suffer from, and to quickly apply a remedy, if such be known. No doubt trees suffer from many other causes beside the injuries inflicted upon them by insects ; but when, at the present time, the attention of scientific and practical men in other branches of rural industry is so anxiously and laboriously directed towards finding out effective remedies against the voracious attack of some of the worst insect plagues that have harrassed cultivation in modern times, such as the ravenous attack of the Colorado beetle (Doryphora decem-punctata) on the potato in the United States of America, and the still more fatal ravages of the vine aphis (Phylloxera vastatria) in the vine- yards of France and the south of Europe, I consider it an oppor- tune time for the Society to take up the important subject before us, and discuss it in an intelligent and practical manner, so that some useful result may be obtained from the expression of the various opinions of members present, the comparison of their notes on the injuries inflicted by insects upon trees and shrubs which have come under their notice, and the remedies they have applied or can suggest. In order to open the subject for discussion, I will make a few remarks upon some of the best known insects which prey upon and do most injury to trees and shrubs in this country, as it would far exceed the time at our disposal to go into a minute and detailed description of all the species of insects that infest, and more or less injure our forests. The Aphide or plant-louse family is perhaps the most uni- versally distributed of all the pests that prey upon trees and the vegetable kingdom generally, and the injury done by them is incalculable, as there is not a tree or plant which appears to be exempt from their attacks in one way or another. Their extraord- inary powers of reproduction render them a terrible scourge to forest trees in seasons favourable to their existence, and the ray- * Read at the Twenty-Third Annual General Meeting, lst November 1876. VOL. VIII., PART II. M 174 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. ages they commit upon the young growth of the trees they fasten upon is always hurtful, and often the cause of irremediable injury. It has been calculated by Professor Owen of London, in one of his lectures on “ Comparative Anatomy,” thata single aphis (Aphis lanigera) is capable of producing the enormous multitude of 1,000,000,000,000,000,000—one quintillion—in a year, which affords some explanation of the vast multitudes in which -these insects often appear. They live upon the young and tender wood and leaves, sucking the sap, and causing the leaves to curl up or blister, ultimately turning yellow, and dropping off prema- turely, to the great and often permanent injury of the tree. The -aphis emits the well-known honeydew, so common on trees and hedges in spring and early summer, which is very deleterious to vegetation, by clogging up the stomata of the leaves upon which it is deposited, attracting other insects, and collecting dirt upon the surfaces of the leaves, which is not beneficial to them. From the investigations of some of our most eminent entomologists, it appears that almost every species of plant has a variety of aphis peculiar to it, and upon which alone it feeds; but it may suffice to mention one of the most mischievous to forest trees, viz., the larch aphis (Adelgis laricis), which has been so fully treated in the Transactions of the Society, by Mr M‘Corquodale, forester, Scone Palace, Perthshire (see vol. ii, p. 45), and the able and interest- ing paper, read by Mr Gorrie of Rait Lodge, Trinity, Edinburgh, at our meeting last year, and printed in the Transactions, vol. viii, p. 61, in which papers are given full details of the grievous injury inflicted upon the larch by the aphis. Another variety of aphis well known to foresters, Aphis crategi, or the thorn-fly, in some seasons does a vast amount of injury to young thorns in nurseries and hedgerows. The chief means of destroying the aphides is tobacco, in some shape or other. So far as I am aware, there is no practicable way of destroying the aphis when it attacks large trees, except the final one, cutting down and burning. To get rid of them on young trees in nurseries or plantations, when it is thought worth the trouble, the best remedy is diluted tobacco juice, applied by a syringe or engine to every part of the plants on which an insect can be seen. There are many other methods for eradicating the aphis from trees recommended by various authorities, some being applied in the same way as the tobacco liquor, such as a decoction of bitter aloes, laurel leaves, INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. 175 quassia chips, and soap suds; and others dusted over the insects, as snuff, soot, quicklime, etc., but none are so effective or easily applied as tobacco liquor. I find that one gallon of tobacco juice, of the ordinary strength sold in shops, to six gallons of water, is sufficiently strong to kill all aphides, if applied with force through a syringe or engine, so that every insect is thoroughly wetted with it ; the operation is most effective in hot, dry weather. There are some insects which ought to be protected and encour- aged whenever possible, as they are deadly foes to all aphides —the larva of the ladybird (Coccinella bipunctata and septem- punctata), the pearly moth (Hemerobius perla), the bee-fly (Syrphus parasitica), and several species of Aphidius, ichneumon or lion flies, all of which devour aphides with the greatest avidity. The ear- wig and ant are also said to be bitter enemies to aphides, but as they are themselves addicted to mischief, they ought not to be encouraged, There are also many birds which devour vast numbers of aphides as well as other insects, and all such birds ought to be strictly preserved and encouraged to increase as much as possible in our forests and plantations. If the insectivorous birds were more plentiful in the country, we would be less troubled with the ravenous attacks of insects upon vegetation. In hot and dry summers, trees and shrubs suffer severely from red spider (Acarus telarius), one of the mite family, which often infests limes, elms, poplars, and other deciduous trees, so as to cause the leaves to turn a russety brown, and fall off prematurely, weakening and exhausting the tree of its sap, and preventing the season’s growth from arriving at maturity. As the extent of the ravages of the red spider is much influenced by the dryness or other- wise of the season, it is hardly necessary to go into a lengthened detail of its nature and habits. I need only remark that it detests cold and wet, and if young plants are infested with it, a good syringing with soap suds is the best remedy I have tried. The spider is very tenacious of life in dry, warm weather, and the syr- ingings will have to be repeated so long as the insects are seen to be on the move. If the plants are dry at the root, a heavy water- ing will be beneficial to them and assist in dispelling the spider. Should specimen conifers be attacked by spider, as they often are in dry weather, especially firs and spruces, the same treatment will clean them, that is, a heavy watering at the root, and a thorough washing overhead with an engine. Of the numerous varieties of the coccus or scale family, some 176 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. one or other of them infests almost every species of tree and shrub, when circumstances are favourable to their nature and habits. Unlike the aphis and spider already mentioned, the changes of climate and temperature in this country do not seem to have much influence upon them. Most of the species which infest trees and shrubs live through our severest winters un- scathed, and ready to extend their devastations with renewed vigour when genial weather sets in, They generally prefer to attach themselves to the young bark and undersides of the leaves, where they can easily penetrate to the sap upon which they feed. When a tree is badly infested with them they cause great injury to it, and if allowed to remain unmolested, they dry up the bark, the tree becomes “ barkbound,” sickens, and ultimately dies from the baneful effects of the scale. During my experience in various parts of the three kingdoms, I have seen the oak, ash, elm, beech, willow, poplar, silver fir, spruce, thorn, and hazel, besides many varieties of shrubs, severely infested with scale of various species, the trees assuming a dried up and stunted appearance, leading to early decay, and deteriorating much from the value and usefulness of the trees. Although we have many recipes for the destruction of scale, none are thoroughly effective, except when applied with an excess of care that can only be given to a limited extent by foresters to some rare or valuable small specimen of tree or shrub. JI have found a mixture of one gallon of parafiine to four gallons of water to be very efficient in getting rid of scale on dry, hard bark, applying it with a stiff brush, so as to raise as many of the scale as possible. This mixture must not be applied to green wood or leaves, as it will kill them. The only safe plan to clean young wood and leaves is to wash the scale off with a sponge and soft water. Any other plan, or a mixture applied strong enough to. kill the scale, would certainly injure and probably kill the leaves and green wood. Diluted spirits, turpentine, and train oil, are recommended by some for killing scale. They will do so, but are very dangerous remedies, and ought never to be used except with the greatest care, and by some one having a knowledge of their strength and its effects. In regard to large trees and the ordinary run of plants that come under the care of a forester, if they are discovered to be infested with scale to any serious extent, they ought to be rooted out and burnt, taking care that every morsel of twig and bark is consumed that would afford shelter to a single insect. The bark and twigs of all old trees that are cut INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. Lith down, ought to be carefully collected and burnt, so as to destroy as many as possible of the numerous insects that haunt their crevices, We will next devote a few remarks to the extensive Order of Coleoptera, or beetles, an order that includes some of the most destructive enemies with which the forester has to contend, and which, owing to their insidious habit of feeding in the dark, and committing many of their most serious ravages under the bark, or in the interior of the buds and branches, it taxes his utmost watch- fulness to quickly discover their presence, and his determined per- severance and ingenuity to get speedily rid of them. One of the best known and most destructive to the Scotch fir is the pine beetle (Hylurgus piniperda), upon which, and all other insects which infest Conifers, a most able and instructive essay was written in 1873 by our highly-esteemed vice-president, Robert Hutchinson, Esq. of Carlowrie, and published in vol. vii., p. 123, of the Society’s Transactions. The next I would draw attention to is the fir beetle (Hylobius abietis), which is about as destructive as the pine beetle. In the Society’s Transactions, vol. ii., p. 48, is a very instructive and practical paper upon it by one of the most experienced members of our Society, Mr M‘Corquodale of Scone, in which is given an interesting history of the discovery of the insect in Scotland, and a full and clear detail of the operations he found to be suc- cessful in preventing the attacks of the beetle on young planta- tions of Scotch fir made on ground which had just been cleared of a crop of the same tree, and was badly infested with the beetle. There is also an excellent practical paper by Mr William Tivendale, forester, Houston, in the Zransactions, vol. vii., p. 80, giving an interesting account of his experience with both the fir and the pine beetles. In the papers referred to, the subject is so fully treated, and the remedies tried and found effective, so clearly described, that I need not take up your time by recapi- tulating them. I may state, however, that the ravages of the Hylurgus piniperda are by no means confined to the Scotch fir, as I have seen it do severe injury to the Weymouth pine in the midland counties of England, and also do considerable damage to the shoots of Pinus insignis, excelsa, and laricio,—in fact, at one time and another, I have seen most of the pine tribe grown in this country attacked by it; so that wherever a collec- tion of these is grown for specimens, a careful look-out ought to 178 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. be kept for the enemy; and whenever he makes his appearance, attack him at once, and get rid of him by picking and burning as quickly as possible, to save the trees from irretrievable injury to their health and symmetry. I have noticed that the Hylurgus seems to have a partiality for trees growing in a dry, warm soil ; and one of the worst infested trees of Pinus insignis I have ever met with, grew on the top of a dry steep slope on a gravelly sub- soil, where for several years it was severely attacked by the beetle, while others growing in a deep and moister soil, in a hollow near by, were scarcely touched. I have also observed the same thing occur in other similar situations, and with other species of pine ; but those having greater experience with the beetle amongst Scotch fir will be able to say whether or not this partiality of the beetle for dry spots is characteristic. Several species of bark beetles commit great devastation amongst trees and shrubs by boring into the young wood or alburnum, and perforating it in all directions, thereby cutting off or interrupting the flow of the sap, and causing the death of the tree. Bostrichus topographus attacks the pine tribe, especially the silver fir, and works extensive mischief under the bark, where it cannot be easily detected until it is too late to apply any remedy, if such was prac- ticable. Of the same nature are Bostrichus pinastri, B. laricis, and B. orthographus, which prey upon the alburnum of the pine, larch, and silver fir. Scolytus ligniperda also attacks the albur- num of some of the conifers. Some years ago great fears were expressed that the ravages of Scolytus destructor would destroy the fine old elms in Hyde Park and other places about the west end of London. Various means were suggested, and experi- ments tried, to stop its ravages, and if possible to exterminate it without sacrificing the trees, but none of the plans tried could be said to be really successful, nor were they of such a nature as to recommend them as generally applicable. AScolytus “intricatus attacks the oak, S. vittatus the lime, S. frawini the ash, and so on, all doing injury in the same manner by perforating the albur- num of the trees they live upon. The grub or larva of the cockchafer (M/elolontha vulgaris) devours the young roots and soft bark of the larger roots of trees; and as they remain about four years in the grub state, they commit sad havoc where they are numerous. As soon as they arrive at the fully-developed state of a beetle, they immediately commence a ravenous attack on the leaves of trees, preferring the oak when INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. | 179 they have a choice, JI have seen oaks in Worcestershire com- pletely stripped of their leaves by the voracious vermin. The grubs of several species of Curculio, or weevil, are also very destructive to the roots of trees, and the best means for destroying them, and all grubs or larve that prey upon the roots of trees, is to thoroughly saturate the soil infested by them with a strong dose of lime-water, ammoniacal liquor, or salt and water. The last is generally found to be the most efficient, but caution must be used not to apply it too strong to tender-rooted or valuable trees. Many other beetles and weevils, which are more or less injurious to trees, might be mentioned, if time permitted, but I must pass on to notice some of the most ‘destructive of the moth or butterfly family. The goat moth (Cossus ligniperda) is not only one of the largest British moths, but also one of the most destructive to timber trees, attacking the trunks of the oak, lime, walnut, willow, and others, the caterpillars perforating the wood with holes or tunnels large enough to admit the finger ; and when the insects are numerous, the trees attacked often fall a sacrifice to their ravages. I have seen many trees completely riddled by them in the midland and southern counties of England, especially poplars and willows, for the soft wood of which they seem to have a preference ; but they have no reluctance to attack the hardest oaks and walnut, and bore holes right through them, making the perforated timber utterly worthless for any useful purpose. The leopard moth (Zeuzera csculi) is similar in its habits, and nearly as large, as the goat moth, and its caterpillar is a deter- mined borer into the trunks of willow, poplar, and birch, render- ing the timber worthless, and often fatally injuring the trees. The workings of these large caterpillars are easily detected, and when they are observed, a good plan for destroying the caterpillars is to run, a wire into the holes, twisting it about so as to crush them, or to blow the fumes of sulphur into the holes, which is fatal to the insects. The moths, Zortria twrionana, resinella, buoliana and hireyni- ana, are almost as injurious to pine trees as the pine beetle. They deposit their eggs in the buds, and when the caterpillars are hatched they eat the buds and pith of the shoots, similar to the pine beetle, only it works upwards and they work downwards. They are not very numerous in this country, but if ever they be- come plentiful they will be extremely injurious. The larva of the 180 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. hawk moths, Sesia bombyliformis, and tipuliformis, perforate the branches and feed upon the pith of trees and shrubs. The cater- pillar of many other moths and butterflies feed greedily upon the leaves of trees and shrubs, few plants or trees being free from their depredations. Most caterpillars that live upon the leaves of trees are easily destroyed, when they can be got at, by dusting them over in moist weather with snuff, hellebore, quicklime, or soot, either of which, if properly applied, will destroy all such cater- pillars. There are besides many other species of insects which, when they are numerous, are very injurious to trees and shrubs, but, owing to their small size and peculiar habits, they are not easily discovered before they have inflicted grievous injury to the health of the trees infested by them. When any of them are detected at their mischief, every opportunity ought to be taken to diminish their numbers and exterminate them altogether when possible. We too often see our woods thickly strewn with fallen and de- caying branches and other arborial débris, which forms the best breeding ground and nursery for many of the most destructive in- sects that afterwards ravenously prey upon the living trees ; there- fore, to assist in keeping our forests and plantations as clear of insects as possible, no dead or fallen wood should be allowed to lie rotting on the ground to harbour them, but it should be regularly collected and burnt, if it cannot be more profitably disposed of for firewood or some useful purpose. All prunings and small thinnings should be similarly dealt with as soon as possible after the operations have been performed. When large trees are felled and found to be infested with insects, the bark ought to be stripped off, carefully collected, and burned, along with all the twigs and other parts likely to harbour the vermin. By prompt and careful attention to such matters, the direful ravages of insects will be considerably curtailed, and the numbers of many species so far reduced as to be comparatively harmless, and by continued perseverance they may be extinguished altogether in many localities. As I have already suggested, all birds that prey upon insects ought to be strictly preserved, and encouraged to increase by all available means, such as the woodpecker, starling, chaftinch, gold- finch, sparrow, wagtail, swallow, nuthatch, white throat, flycatcher, titmouse, blackcap, goatsucker, redstart, greenfinch, robin, tomtit, INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. 181 thrush, and wren, which devour multitudes of insects as their daily food, and are harmless to the trees; although some of them are, it must be allowed, too fond of seeds and fruit, when these are an object of cultivation. Living, as foresters generally do, in sequestered parts of the country, far away from the busy haunts of men, they have excel- lent opportunities for studying some of the most interesting sections of natural history, and their spare hours could hardly be better employed than in gaining a knowledge of those branches which affect the welfare of the plants under their care. 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