UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AT AMHERST UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Special Collections & Rare Books UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY S 95 C2 v.l T7Q9_0^ TRANSACTIONS OF T H H SOCIETY, INSTITUTED IN THE STATE OF NEW-YORK, FOR THE PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE, ARTS; AND manufactures; PART I- IpulJltfteD t^ jOrDer of tSe ©octets* ^'E\V-YORK :— PRINTED BY CHILDS AND SWAINS. M,DCC,XCII. lo'iO.O (a V vdi of clover in all dry foils, or even in wet foils in a dry feafon. 5th, That limeftone pulverjzpd has fimilar effe61s with Gypjmiv whether--ttJ^(beiii€c a(^]^ei^:tp.;wpt,fe-y^^^ :d€iet£riine. -. bfidi-nlab aic'isd lio'l -jocq r>/fj ni ,: vf To -■" ' 6tli/'' AFo rtl^'R ' fafl^feenis tb"^ b^e Veiy well eftkbliflied, thb' I can fay nothri^g of it from iriy own experience, to wit, that its effefts as^a m'aHu''fe'a:rfe hardly pei'ceivable in the vicinity of the fea. I KNov/ not whether tjipfe ia'Bs will be deemed fufficieni^ tp ferve as the bafts o£-a.;theory On. .the Jiature .of this manure; i)ut as this fubjejSl appears invQlv^d i/jif difficulties which np ,one has yet attempted to re^ipye, I conceive that the man who in doubtful cafes hazards; p^eii ; vhe.ak.is expofed only to tj^ aQioii of -tlie -air^ and not, waflied by. water, that it forms fy^jLoe qfflpreijrences, w):|ich fpeak tl^e ufliion of alkaline aqi^y.^nd , earthy; fub,llances. Dr. Wai,/m',te\\^]TQiSy jthat, from the mortar . ofan old [barn that was covered , with; thefe efflorefTences, he .^ .graded perfed. jcryftals of pure nitre, without the application ©f^any alkali; ^ndyet w£ knpw, that an alkali and an acid are eflential-in di^,c^Ojinpoli,uon;Qf nitre.-— IJe. does not' attempt to account for. thisr—^I fliouldhowv:erprefume, that it couJ,d only happen by the lime in the mortar, having recovered a nitrous acid from the air, inftead of the fixed air it had loft, and that the putrid exhalations from the vegetables contained in the barn, had furniftied the alkali, and that from the combination of thefe, with the moifture of the air, relulted thofe effloreff- ences that formed the nitre. Dr. Black ailerts, that the effloreffences found in damp caverns or cellars in England, contain a great proportion o{ fojjil alkali — this alkali is not foiirid in Europe, unlefs combined with fea fait, of which it makes the bafis ; and yet thefe eflloreffences are derived from the moifture of die air : does not this argue the exiftence of an alkaline fait in the atmofphere ? It maybe objeded, that if alkalies and acids exift in the atmofphere, dicy would by dieir union form neutral lalts in On Caicarious and Gypjious Earths. 47'^ the clouds. Tho' I by no means confider this as a neceflary ' confequencc, fincc therepuHive power of the particles of air, may keep the alkalies and acids they contain without the fphere of each others attraction, yet I am inclined to believe, that this combiaation does aClually take place. To the heat generated by this combination while the falts are forming, I attribute the variations that are felt in the degrees of heat that prevail at different times, in the ftillefl; weather, when fummer heat (hould be uniform ; to the folution of thefe falts, that cold which generates froft and hail in the warmeft feafons. There are places among the mountains, and in great forefls, where fro (Is prevail ex.ery month in the year. There are others, which by clearing are freed from this calamity, which is known fo often to diftrefs the firft fetders of a new diftricl. If frofls were occalioned merely by the influence of cold winds, the places mofl expofed to thefe would be fabje6l to them, and woods and yallies would afford a flielter againft: them, a^ indeed they often do againft frofts which are derived from this fource. The reafon of the prevalence of froft in woods and fheltered vallies, when the general temperature of the air elfe where is warm, I fhould take to be the greater exhalations of thofe fubftances that form falts, and the folution of them by the vapours Note. The ruft of iron will yield a volatile alkali — nift is scqinred by cxpofure to llie air. [^B/aci.^ ^3 ■ Experiments and Ohferijati'qnS) . j that arife from tliefe moill and ^aelt^rjcd fitua^kns. . Hail: too cannot be afcribed to^any othqr caiife ; if k owed its origin, to cold only, it would l:?q,nw)r^ prevalent in winter than in fummer; it would, like,fli9,wer& ojEar^in, extend over. large traOs of country; and it would fall from -much^ greater heights than it generally does. But hail, like fro^ft, is often confined , to a very narrov/ region, prevails in the warmeft weather, g.nd in long clofe vallies at a diftance from the fea, more than in the. open country or near the ocean. Thus France and Italy are extremely incom-. moded by hail-ftorms ; in England they are very rare. All thefe phenomena correfpond with the theory laid down j in fummer are the greateft exhalations of volatile alkalies. Thefe arc more like to arife, and form their union with the aerial acids in vallies where the air is moft comprefTed ; in thefe fituations they frequendy meet with thofe moift clouds that diffolve them fu'ddenly, and afford the water that is by the folution of the falts converted into hail. The fait compofed of an acid and a volatile alkali, as fal amoniac, difTplves with great rapidity when it comes in contaB: widi water, and generates a great degree of cold ; while common fait diflblves much flower, and does not generate fo much cold by 1 8 degrees in its folution ; for which (among other reafons) hail prevails lefs near the fea than at a diftance from it. That fuch falts are formed in the air is farther proved from the experiments of Margraff and DoQor Ratty, who both obtain a bitter fait from fnow and rain On €alcanms aitd Gypjious Earths. 49 •water in diftillation, but much lefs from fnow than from rairi water. Do8;or Black admits that both nitre and common fait are fornied in the air. A farmer needs no better proof of the exiftence of the latter in the atmofphere on die fouth fide of the Highlands, than the indifference which cattle fliew there for fait, and the eagernefs with which they feek it at a greater diftance from the fea. I fliall now endeavour to reconcile certain phenomena in the operation of Gypfum to this theoiy. ift. It benefits dry more than wet foils. Because Calcarious and Gypjious earths are at all times foluble in the water. In wet foils they will be diffolved and wafli away ; befides the moifture which invelopes the particles of Gypfum, proteQ it from the adion of the air, and prevent the combinations on which this theory is founded. As lime- ftene is lefs foluble in water than Gypfimiy perhaps if applied in larger quantities, it may be more beneficial to moill land. 2d. It is proportionally more advantageous to poor than to rich foils. ift. Because the putrid vegetables which compofe a rich mold aflFord a fufficient quantity of alkalies, oils and acids, but principally becaufe after the Gypfum has parted with its acid by combining with the alkali, as before fuppofed, its earth being thereby rendered cauftic, combines with the oils with which fuch foils abound, and is thus fhekered from any further opera- tion of the air upon it. Perhaps too the vitriolic acid inflead Q 50 • -Experiments and Obfervations of uniting with an alkali, is attraded by the oils it finds in the earth ; thefe it renders vifcious, and by its combination forms fulphur, and thus is rather hurtful than ferviceable — on fuch foils pulverized limeftone fhould be preferred. 3d. It is lefs beneficial near the fea than at a diftance from it, ift. Because the v/inds that blow from the fea which are the prevalent fummer winds, are probably lefs impregnated with thofe alkaline fubflances which putrid animals and vegetables afford, than thofe which blow over a large tra6l of land. 2d, Because it appears from experiments made in Ireland, that fea fait is contained there both in rain and fnow water. Sea fait is compofed of the marine acid, and a foflil alkali, to which latter the vitriolic acid found in Gypfiim has a greater affinity than the marine acid ; it will therefore decompound the fait and unite with the foflil alkali perhaps, (I fpeak with deference, not knowing the fa6l) perhaps, I fay, the foflil alkali may be unfriendly to vegetation, or not of a nature to be ab- forbed by the plant. In this cafe on the folution of the fait formed with itand the vitriolic acid,.the latter would be abforbed fingly, and the foflil alkali being left, would form new combinations with the marine acid, which is found in the atmofphere near the fea, and be again converted into common fait, which is known to have litde or no effeft as a manure. That the vitriolic acid would be abforbed, I infer from the prefence of vitriolated tartar in pearl afiies, which fhev/s that the acid mull have exifled On'Calcarious and Gypjfious Earths. 51 ' in the plants from which it was made, and from the following faft which I have feeii in fome writer on hufbandry : — A gentleman whofe court-yard w^as overgrown with w^eeds, was advifed to fprinkle them with vitriolic acid, but to his great furprize he found that inftead of killing them they grew with additional vigor. Thdl fojfd alkali is unfriendly to vegetation, I infer from its not being found in any plant, fome marine plants excepted. Perhaps in the vicinity of the fea, if pulverized limeftone could be afforded fufficiently cheap, and was ufed in large quantities, it might be found beneficial, becaufe its acid or fixed air is not fufficiently powerful to detach the marine acid from its foffil alkaline bafe. This idea feems to be juftified by the general ufe of chalk in England, and limeftone gravel in Ireland, and the beneficial effe6ls that are known to arife from the ufe of fea fiiells applied in large quan- tities on Long-Ifland and elfewhere. There is a remarkable faQ which may perhaps be adduced to ftrengthen my theory, and to fiiew that either the air or earth is lefs impregnated with alkalies near the fea, than at a diftance from it. The Long-Ifland farmers fend annually a number of boats to colleft the afhes from the pot-afli works along the banks of the Hudfon, and at the diftance of two or three miles from it. Thefe they purchafe at 2d. per buftiel ; pay the expence of a cartage to the river; of a water tranfportation of 120 or 130 miles, and then cart it again tv/o or three miles to their farms, while a North River farmer, if the afties were ^iven 52 Experiments and Ohfervations him, would not be at the expence of carting them three miles. This has by hafly obfervers been attributed to ignorance or indolence in the latter. The reproach is unmerited ; the people on the north Tide of the Highlands are not lefs enterpri- zing or intelligent than thofe on the fouth ; they are the fame people. The fa£l is, that lands near the fea derive much greater advantages from alkaline manures, than thofe at a diftance ; aflies will contribute to fertiUty every where, but much more fo (if I can rely upon the information of intelligent farmers on Long-Ifland, compared with my own ohfervations). in the vicinity of the fea, than at a diftance. I have myfelf never been able to procure half the grafs from an acre of land manured with lOO bufliels of undrawn afhes, which coft, exclu- five of the expence of putting it on, £. 5, that fix bufhels of GypfLim has given mc from the fame field ; it is alfo on my farm the leaft permanent of all manures ; the effect of it not being vifible after the fecond year.* I WILL intrude upon your patience one moment longer, while I mention another facl v/hich appears to me to fupport my theory. It is generally afferted that Gypfum renders the earth black. It is well known to thofe who have been attentive to its effe6ls, that bare fpots in a field that has been manured with it, will * Note — The Chancellor's feat at Clermont, wliere his experiiaents were made, !s 1 20 miles from the fea coait. On Calcarious and Gypjious Earth's, 53 difcover a great number of fmall black fpecks, particularly on fandy grounds that have been wet. It is alfo known that beds of oyfter-fiiells, and the thin ftratum of earth that covers lime- ilone rocks, is always black, like the richeft vegetable mould. Now as thefe fubltances are white when reduced to powder, from whence can they derive the power of rendering the earth in contaQ; with them black ? Unlefs in their decompofition they attraft oils from the air, or communicate the phlogiflon they contain to the moift earth, as the chalk appeared to do to the vinegar in the inftance I have mentioned. We may add to this, that ground which lays over a ftratum of limeftone rock is lefs fubje6l to froft, and thaws earlier than any other foil. Both oils and fait have a confiderable power in refifting froft. Should the fyftem I have endeavoured to eftablifli be true, it will follow that Calcarious earths are very permanent manures in proportion to the quantity employed. For as I have before obferved, if this is fmall it muft be frequenly renev/cd, becaufe this earth is foluble in v/ater, and will be carried off by it, or imbibed by the plants themfelves. As far as experiment has gone, this opinion of its duration is fully juftified. Oyfter fliells, craig, marie, laft for ages in full vigor ; thefe are all different modiiications of this earth. Whether my ideas on this fubjefl: are juft or not, I confefs I take a pleafure in thinking them fo. I clafs in my own mind this eifed of Calcarious earths with the provifion which nature 24 JExperiments and Ohfervations, ^c. in the creation of coal mines has made for after ages. I consi- der it as a proof of the duration of this globe for many thoufand years to come. It is evident that the vegetable tribes flourilhed lono" before men were fufficiently numerous to make war upon them ; left to themfelves for centuries, they grew, flourifhed, faded and died, and by their death and putrefaftion, covered the earth with a rich mould, from which men and other animals have hitherto drawn their fupport. This, however, muft gradu- ally diminifli ; vegetable fubftances are not fuffered as for- merly to cover every part of the earth ; to die and putrify on the fpot on which they grew ; animals take more from it than they return ; every rain draws down a part of it to the hidden caverns of the earth; every ftream and rivulet hurries it into the fea ; every fire preys upon it ; every breeze is impregnated with its fpoils. Let us not, however, tremble for the fate of pofterity ; the foffils which the fea afford, the vaft quarries of marble, chalk, Gypfum, marie, which all derive their origin from the fame fource, not only reftore the lofs which the water occafions, but, agreeably to this fyflem, compel the air to depofit the fpoils of the vegetable world, and the fires which have con-- fumed the old, to animate new plants. C 55 ] ^ ^Letter on the Ufe of Plaijler of FariSy as a Manure, From George. Logan, Efq. to the Philadelphia County Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and Domeflic ManufaBures. From the American Mufeum — Vol. VI. Page 399. Gentlemen, T TAVING for four years paft, made ufe of Plaiftcr of Paris, or Gypfiim, as a manure upon variety of foils, and under different circumftances — I beg leave to lay before you the refult of my experiments, together with fome obfervations refpefting the nature of this foffil. I am the more anxious to comply with my duty to the fociety in this refpeft, becaufe many of our fellow-citizens are lofing the great advantage to be derived from the ufe of this manure ; entertaining an opinion, that it does not, in itfelf, contain any nutriment to plants, but that it afts merely as aftimulus to the foil, by which, although vegeta- tion is for a fliort time rapidly .promoted, yet the ground becomes exhaufted, and is left a dead inert mafs. ift. In the year 1785. I fowed three acres of alight ifinglafs foil, containing a little clay, with barley and clover. In the month of April, the following year, I divided the field into * Note — Tho' this letter of Mr. Logan lias been publifhed, yet as it contains much nfefiil information, and Pnews the ability of Gypfum in aiding the fertility of ground in the produdion of wheat and rye, to which in the firft inftance it appears to be of little ufe, it is thought that u would ferve as an jllullration of Mr. Livingllon's theory. 5$ AJLdter on the Uje of Plaifier of Paris. three parts, and ftrewed fix bufhels of French Gypfam on No. 1 ; the fame quantity of the American Gypfum^ brought from the Bay of Funda, on No. 2 ; and left the intermediate fpace No. 3, without any. On cutting the firft crop, that year, litde difference could be obferved ; the fecond crop, produced double the quantity of grafs, where the Gypfum had been put ; and the fucceeding year, the difference was flill greater in favor of this manure. Early in Oftober, 1787, the clover lay was ploughed once, about four inches deep ; was fowed with rye, and in that rough ftate was harrowed. The rye was of a fuperior quality, and double the quantity on No. 1 and 2, of that on No. 3. After harvefl, the rye-llubble was ploughed, and fowed with buck-wheat, when a llriking difference was Hill obfervable in favor of the Gypfiimy and which continues in the, prefent crop of Indian corn. 2d. In April, 1787, I fowed three acres of potatoe-ground (a light loam) with barley and clover. Jull as the barley was above ground, fome Gypfum was ftrewed diagonally acrofs the field, about eight feet wide. Litde or no difference could be obferved in the barley ; but in the month of September follow- ing, there was a ftriking difference in the clover, in favour of the manure, which would have afforded a good crop of hay, whilft the remainder of the field v;as but indifferent. I have frequently put Gypfum upon grain, without obferving any immediate diflereuce in the appearance of the crops. A Letier on the life of Plaifler of Paris, 57 3d. In April, 1 786,fixacres of a poor ifinglafs foil, fituated ori Germantown hill, were fowed with oats, the ground not having been manured for twenty years ; it produced a crop not pay- ing expences. In April, 1787, one half of the field was co- vered with the Gypfum, fix bufhels to the acre. The latter end of the fame fummer,that part, on which the manure had been put, produced good pafture of blue grafs and white clover, whilft the remainder afforded little but a few fcattered weeds. In 06lober, the field was ploughed once, and fowed with rye ; at harveft, the former produced ten bufhels to the acre, the latter not above five. 4th. A Fi E L 0 of 1 5 Acres, a light loam, was, in April, 1 784, fowed with barley and clover, the produce only twenty bufhels to the acre, the ground not having been fufficiently manured. In 1785, it produced a good firft, and a tolerable fecond crop of clover. In 1786, the firft crop but tolerable; the fecond very indifferent and therefore paftured. In the fpring 1787, I wifhed to try liGypfum would not renew the clover. In the month of April, the whole field was covered with Gypjumy fix bufhels to the acre, except the width of twenty feet, through the middle of the field. St. John's wort, mullain, and other weeds, had taken fuch poffeffion of the ground, that, although the manure produced a great luxuriance of grafs,. yet, being full of weeds, it did not anfwer for hay ; and therefore was paftured until Odober 1788 : the whole was then ploughed 8 inches deep, with a ftrong three horfe Dutch Plough : laft H 58 A Letter on the Ufe of Plaijler of Paris. Aprils it was well harrowed, and crofs ploughed, four inches deep, widi a light two-horfe plough, leaving the fod at the bottom. The field was fowed with fpring barley ; at harveft, the difference of the crop was allonifhingly great in favour of the part where the Gypfam had been put, two years before. This ground is now under wheat and winter barley, which have a promifmg appearance : the rotted fod, being turned up and mixed with the foil, affords a ftrong nourifhment to the prefent crop. 5th. I PUT a quantity of GypfuiUy three years ago, on feveral fmall patches of a tough fod ; it produced a difference in the ftrength of vegetation, which is ftill obfervable. From the above recited experiments it appears — ift. That there is no difference between the European and American Gypfum.. 2d. That Gypfum a6ls as an immediate manure to grafs,. and afterwards in an equal degree to grain. 3d. That one drefling will continue in force feveral fuc- ceeding crops. Gypsum not producing any remarkably beneficial effefts, when ufed as a top dreffmg to grain, may arife from two caufes ; firft, from the fmall quantity made ufe of, which is loft in the rough ground ; and fecondly, from the fhort time of its appli- cation. It has been found of advantage to Indian corn> but m A Letter on the XJje of Plaljler of Paris. 50 this cafe, it is abfolutely neceflary to apply it immediately to the corn, as it appears above ground, and that in a confiderablc quantity — I have put it on grafs ground every month in the year, except during the feverity of winter, and have found, that early in April is preferable to any other feafon ; at which time, the grafs juft; fliooting, the fmall particles of the Gypfum arc retained about the roots, and prevented from wafhing away. On ftiff clay foils, it will produce an increafe of vegetation, but not fufficient to pay the expence of the manure. [ 6i ] *<■*— ^ I M ■ .1 ' I • ■ ^ ■ i ! ■ ' •' Uiiliiy of preparing Seed-Oats with Plaijier of Paris. Ad~ drejfed to Samuel Pozuely Efq^ Prefident of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society. Sir, T>ERMIT me through you to lay before the Agricultural Society, the re fult of the following little experiment, fo far as I have as yet been able to afcertain it. Late in the month of April laft, having a piece of ground in the vicinity of the borough of Lancafler, prepared to be fawn with oats, which I fuppofed would take fixtcen bufliels of feed, the evening before it was to be fown, I had eight bufhels put into a trough, and covered with water. The next morning the water was drawn off, and the oats laid in a heap to drain, for a fhort time, fay half an hour ; then Plaifter of Paris in powder was thrown on, by frhall quantities at a time, and mixed with the oats, till they acquired a fuff.cient degree of drynefs to be fown evenly ; in this procefs one bufliel of the Plaifter was confumed : the feed thus prepared, artd dry feed from the fame original heap, were fown on alternate lands throughout the field. The whole came up together, and in due time, and no difference was vifible for feven or eight days. From that time forward the diftinftion became very evident ; the oats on the land fown with the prepared feed were much more luxuri- ant and of a deeper green, until they began to ripen. On the 62 On preparing Seed-Oats with Plaijler of Paris. fecond inftant they were cut, being^ then perfeftly ripe^ while thofe on the lands Town with the unprepared feed were yet green, the heads much Tmaller, and promifing in every refpeft a worfe crop. On the eighth I left home. They were then unfit to cut, and appeared as if they would not be ripe for five or fix days after — To the fa6ls above ftated, many of my neighbours are witnefs. I MEAN to have the oats, produced from the prepared and unprepared feeds, threflied feparately, to afcertain with prccifion the diflPerence in the quantity and quality of the produce, which (hall be communicated to the fociety, fo foon as conveniently may be. I have the honor to be. Sir, your obedient, humble fervant, EDWARD HAND. ^ Philadelphia, Au^ujl 17, 1790. C ^3 ] ■' COMMUNICATIONS MADE TO THE SOCIETY, RELATIVE TO M AN U R E S. Bt tue HONORABiB EZRA L'HOMMEDIEU, Escj. L ITTLE or no attention before the late war, in Suffolk county and other parts on Long-Ifland, was paid to making manure ; the land was eafily tilled, and in moft parts by cropping with wheat was fo reduced, that on an average not more than five or fix bufhels was raifed to the acre. This mode of hufl^andry was ftill purfued, and altho' the land was gradually impoverifhed, the farmer found the crop, altho' fmall, more than would pay for his labour and expence. The wheat infeft, or Heflian Fly, a"s it is commonly called, put an end to this kind of hufbandry, and in that refpe6l has proved a blefrmyhich is ufual in its natural fituation in the field. Befides thefe effefts proceeding from heat, I am inchned, for feveral reafQns, to fuppofe tliat different degrees of moiiiure will ;produce efiefts ofafnnilar nature. 1. Becaufe the chryfalis: will perifh, when expofed to the rays of the fun, in fuch manner as to become very dry, and have all its natural moifture exhaled. 2. Becaufe the fly when hatched in the houfe, where the chryfalis has been kept .more dry than in the open air, will always come forth very feeble . and will never acquire that life and a6livity which it mufl be fuppofed to have in the field. 3. . Becaufe there is rcafon to believe, that too great a degree of moifture, will in this cafe, .produce effects hmilar to thofe which muft arife from too fmall a degree of heat. Although it will prove fatal to the chryfalis, [ to be expofed to any great degree of heat, beyond that which is ufual in the open air in the fummer feafon, yet cold and wet, even in the greateft extremes ever known in our climate in the winter feafon, appear to affecl it no otherwife, than to continue it in the fame ftate, and prevent its transformation into a fly, until it can again enjoy that degree of heat and moifture which is moft agreeable to its conftitution. Thefe circumftances render it difticult to afcertain with precifion, the length of time that the infect will continuea chr\falisduring the fummer feafon. But from the beft obfenations I have been able to make, it is 100 Ohfervatiom on the Hejfian Fly, not lefs than two months, and may be prolonged to a much longer time by any of tlie caufes before mentioned. AU.thefe feveral caufes of variety in the time of its continuing in this ftate, together with the various times in which it is firft formed into a chryllilis injthe month of June, confpire to render the period of time in which it makes its next transformation into a fly, much longer than any of the other periods of time in which the infeft makes its feveral transformations. It generally begins about the 20th or 25th of Auguft, and continues ina s^reater or lefs degree through the whole month of September, but by far the greater part of the fpecies are without doubt transformed into a fly, in the firft part of 'this latter month. This appears fufficiently evident from this confideration, that wheati fown early enough in the feafon to be up in the firft week in September, will generally be deftroyed ; and on the contraiy when it is fown fo late as not to be up until fome time in Oclober, it will . in great meafure efcape. I have fuppofed this transformation to take place, between the 20th of Auguft and the firft of 08;ober, but this ought no doubt to be under- ftood with fome exceptions ; for it is very probable that in fome few inftances, and in fome particular fituations with re- fpeft to heat and moifture, it may begin fomewhat fooner ; and on the contrary, if the weather fli'ould prove moderate in the month of Oftober, there is no reafon to doubt but that it may continue in fome degree through the greater part of that month. A reflexion will here naturally arife from the fore- Ohfervaticns on the Hejfian Fly. . loi going account, that nature appears to have fixt this transfor- mation to commence with, and continue through the whole of that feafon of the year, which is moft proper for fowing wheat. ' The fly is the third and laft flate of the infeft, and com- pleats what I have here termed one generation. It very much refembles the mofchetto, except that it is much Imaller and has a fliort bill. I never could difcover that it preyed upon the wheat, and very probable it requires no other nourifhment than what it may obtain from dew or moifture. It is of a texture fo delicate, as to be injured or deftroyed by the flighted accident. Soon after it becomes a fly, it again lays the maggot on the wheat fown in the fall ; and if this is not up at the parti- cular time the fly requires it, the maggot muft be in great meafure loft, and the fpecies reduced to a fmall number. It is difficult to difcover for what length of time the infeft will con- tinue a fly in its natural fituation in the field : in all iiaftances where it has been hatched under cover, or in glaffes provided for thatpurpofe, it has foon periflied ; and if wx may reafon by way of analogy from the cafe of other infe6ls, there is little reafon to doubt, but that the time of its continuance muft be very fliort. The maggot generally proves more deftruclive to wheat in the fall of the year than in the fpring ; and before cold weather is transformed into a chryfalis, in which ftate it is prepared to remain during the winter, and in the fpring will again be transformed into a fly ; which compleats two genera- tions of the infect in one year. 102 Obfcrvations on the HeJJian Fly. It may not be improper here to mention fome few experi- ments and obfcrvations which I have made on this fubjeft; all of which appear to confirm the foregoing opinion refpefting the number of generations which this infeQ paffes through in a year. A number of the chryfahs gathered from the wheat, about the middle of laft June, were kept in the houfe in glaffes, and in actuation where they were not expofed to the rays of the fun, and a part of thofe were transformed into a fly between the lOth and the 1 3th of September ; and a number of others gathered from the ftubble after harveft, and placed in the fame fituation, became a fly about the fame time. The remainder of thofe, which were not transformed into a fly at that time^ continued in the fame flate until the weather became too cold for them to make their transformation. In the year eighty- feven, I made experiments of a fmiilar nature, with only this difference, that the chrylalis was expofed to the rays of the fun in fuch manner that the heat would not be too violent, and in this cafe, a few of them were transformed into a fly, as early as the middle of Augult. It mull however be obferved, that in all experiments made in this manner, there is reafon to fuppofe fome degree of uncertainty, becaufe the chryfilis is removed from its natural fltuation : for this reafon I have always fuppofed, that the befl; method to arrive at truth on this fubjed, is to examine the progrefs of the infeO; in the field ; and with diis view I examined the fl:ubble of a field of wheat, where great numbers of the infe6l were to be found, as often as Ohfervations on the Hejjian Fly. 103 twice in a week, from the ruft of September until tlie 1 4th of N^ovember in the lafl fall, and found them continually to diminifli in number, but that there were ftill fome few of the chry falls re- maining. Thefe I have fuppofed muft either be confidered as fome few which were anomalous, and never intended by nature to undergo any transformation ; or elfe it mufl be concluded, that many of thofe which become a chiyfalis late in the month of June, will remain in that ftate f^r fo long a time, that the weather will become too cold for them to be transformed into a fly in the fall, and then they mud necelTarily continue in that ftate through the Vv inter, until it becomes warm enough in the fpring: and if this latter conclufion be confident with truth, it will follow, that fo far as refpefts thefe, there can be only one generation in a year. It is an opinion entertained ;by many, that there are three generations of this infe6l in a year; but in anfwer to this, I fhall only obfervc, that independent of what has been before faid on this fubj eel, this opinion mud appear improbable from this con fide ration — that if we fuppofe three generations in a year, it will follow, that the infed will be twice a fly before harveft, and the fecond time of its being a fly muft happen when the wheat is in the milk or very near it ; at which time it is fo large and rank, and fo foon after changes its colour and becomes dry, that the maggot which muft then be laid in it, would not have fufficient time to compleat its growth, and would therefore perifli, and in the fall of the year the infeft would difappear. Others are of opinion, that there is fo 104 Ohfervations on the Hejfian Fly. great a variety in the transformations of this infe61, that it. may- be found in all its different ftates, at all times in the year, excepting in the cold weather, or in tlie fpring. From what has been before obrerved on this fubjecl, it appears, that this opinion may very probably be true, fo far as it refpecls the month of September, and a part of Oclober, and pofTibly with refpeft to the latter part of May, if the fly, which is hatched in the fpring, fliould continue until that time; but cannot be applied with propriety to June and July, in which months I have fuppofed that the infetl does not exift in the (late of a fly. It is probable that this opinion may have arifen from thefe circumftances ; that there are feveral fpecies of gnats, ar flies, which may very eafily be miftaken for the HeflGian fly ; and that in examining wheat, to difcover whether the infetl is transformed into a fly, it is very diflRcult to difl;inguifli the fhells of the chryfalis v/hich has lain in the wheat during the winter, from thofe of the next generation which has fucceeded them in the fpring and fummer following ; and this latter cir- cumfl;ance, without great care, will be a fource of perpetual miftake and error to thofe who may examine into the nature of the infeft, and is perhaps one of the greatefl obftacies to . arriving at certainty on this fubjeci. Of all the various methods which have been propofed to the public, for preventing the injurious efifefts of this infcft, that of raifmg the different forts of bearded wheat has befl fucceeded. This kind of wheat having a more folid fl;raw than Ohfcrvatiom on the Hcjfian Fly. to^ the bald wlieat, refills the imprefTion made by the body of die iiifecl, and in great meafure prevents the injury which arifes from preventing the rife of the fap ; and for the fame reafon is very probably more difagreeablc to the conftitution of the infeft. During the laft year, I had an opportunity of making one fair experiment, to determine whether any preference ought to be given to any one of the different forts of wheat, whofe ftraw is more firm and folid than the bald wheat. I fowed three different forts of wheat, adjoining to each other, and all at the fame time ; the white bearded, the yellow bearded, and the great red-chaff wheat, whofe flraw is equally hard with that of the bearded wheat ; of thefe three forts, the red-chafF was by far the moft injured; and the yellow bearded which lay adjoining to it, leafl of all. I SHALL now take the liberty of fuggefting a method of deftroying the infe6l, which naturally occurred to my mind, on obferving that it is not to be found in any other flate than that af a chryfalis in the time of harveft, and that it remains in that ftate in the Hubble for fome time afterward ; and that is, to dejlroy the Jlubble of grain foon after harvefl. Whether this would be befl effefted by burning or otherwife, and whether the grain in this cafe ought not to be cut with the fickle rather than mowed or cradled, and whether the cofts that would attend it would not overbalance the advantage, are points to be taken into confideration in determining whether any thing of this kind would be feafible, and which I fliall not now pretend to difcufs j O io6 Oh/ervations on the HeJ/ian Fly. but if the ftubble of wheat were to be univerfally burnt, turned over with the plough, or dellroyed in any other manner, foon after harveft, and this- were to be done for feveral years toge- ther, I have Htde doubt but that it would prove an effeftual mean of deflroying the whole fpecies : I here mention only the flubble of wheat, becaufe it is not very probable that the fpecies would be continued long on rye, more efpecially as that can be fown much later than wheat, without injury from the winter ; but the ftubble of rye might, if neceflary, be as eafily deftroyed as that of wheat ; and if in aid of this the belt fort of bearded wheat were to be ufed, and that to be fown as late as poflible confiftent with a good crop, it would be ftill more likely to fucceed. With refpeft to the probability of their being imported from any foreign country, I fhall make only one remark, that from the foregoing account it appears evident, that they may be removed from their natural htuation in the field, and be kept alive long enough to be carried acrofs the Adantic ; from which circumftance it appears poflible that they might have been imported in ftraw or ftubble. It has been generally remarked that in fpreading over the country they go between twenty and thirty miles in a year ; but as they are a fly twice in the fame feafon, it appears probable, that the fly itfelf never goes much fardier than twelve or fifteen miles. Before this fubjeft is concluded, it ought to be remarked, that the truth of what has been here faid concerning the nature of this infeft, and the feveral generations through which is pafl^es Obfervations on the Hejfian Fly, 107 in a year, does not entirely reft on my own particular experi- ments and obfervations, but has been corroborated by the obfervations and experiments of the gendeman, to whom I have before alluded in treating on this fubjeft. How far this account may have been confirmed, or contradifted by others who may have obferved the various phenomena of the infeft, I am not able to fay ; but if it fhould appear upon further inveftigation, that what has been here advanced is erroneous, it ought to give me and every other lover of truth, great pleafure to ftand correfted, on a fubjeft of fo much importance to the public. — ■ It has been before obferved, that the fureft way of arriving at truth on thisfubje6l, is to examine the progrefs of the infeft in. the field ; and to carry this into efFe8, I would fuggeft the following method : — Let thofe who may have leifure and curi- ofity on this fubjeft, and who may refide in different parts of the country where the infeft may prevail, fow fmall patches of different kinds of wheat, as often as once or twice in a month, during the whole feafon, adjoining to fome field of wli««tt or ftubble, where the infeft may be found in greateft number ; and let the progrefs of the infe6t be obferved on thofe different patches of wheat ; and let the refult of thefe obfervations be colleded and compared with each other ; this, if it could be carried into effeft, I have conceived would be the fureft method of arriving at certainty on this fubjeft, and perhaps fomediing not now thought of might be difcovered, which would prove cin efieSlual remedy againft the injurious effe6ls of this infe6l. /^yiA^ ^'A METEOMOM}G-ICAI. CHART /.•...///. /..^^ ^ .-.v.^...../^..'. .-/.- C 109 ] RefpeBing a Plan of a Meteorological Chart, for exhibiting a comparative view of the Climates of North America, and the prog7-efs of Vt^eiSLi'ion, by Simeon De Witt, m. a. p. s. I T will not be denied that it is a defideratum, of no fmall moment, in pradical Agriculture, to be enabled to afcer- tain, with as much precifion as the nature of the cafe will admit, the relative degrees of heat and cold, and of the proo^rels of vegetation, through the feafons, in the various climates of America, and fo to arrange them, as that they may be obferved in the readieft manner. Without adducing any other reafon, a fmgle reflexion will convince one of its utility ; for, as the ftate of vegetation is very different in different climates at the fame time, without knowing what allowances are to be made on this account, the farmer, in one climate, will not be able properly to apply to his pradicc the experiments on hufbandry made in another ; and unlefs the refult of the obfervations, from which this knowledge is to be deduced, be conveniently arranged, one will be necefTitated to rumage through a confufed heap of meteorological tables, colleded from various quarters for a fuccefTion of years ; a bufinefs too difficult to prove generally beneficial. It is in fome meafure owing to this caufe that we profit fo little by books of hufbandry written in Europe. To obviate thefe inconveniencies is the defign of the plan which I have the honor of prefenting. The requifites for no Plan of a Meteorological Chart. xonftrufling it will be, befides the common obfervations on the weather, obfervations on the annual commencement, progrefs, maturity and decay of vegetation, made in various parts, for a number of years j the averages whereof may be taken for ftandards by which to exhibit a comparifon of climates. To effe8: this defign, I would propofe that the different focieties on the continent, which comprife agriculture among the obje6ls of their inftitution, be requefted to co-operate. The remarks on vegetation fhould commence with the firfl appearance of it in the fpring, and be made on grafs in general, the budding of trees, the flowering of plants, the maturity of the feveral kinds of winter grain and fruit, and the falling of leaves, and other fymptoms of decay, in the fall. — In thefe obfervations a preference fhould be given to thofe vegetables which are of the moll valuable kind, and to others which are known to be common to all the places where the obfervations are made. Cultivated annuals, the feeds of which are planted or fown in the fpring, fliould be entirely omitted, as their forwardnefs depends principally on the degree of care bellowed upon them. In general the Linnean, as well as the vulgar names fliould be given, fmce the latter are well known to differ in many inftances, even in States adjoining each other, and therefore might lead into error. After a fufficient courfe of obfervations is completed fuch vegetables, as will befl anfwejp Plan of a Meteorological Chart. t\% the piirpofes intended, may be felefted for the meteorolo^ gical chart. A MEAN between the extremes of heat and cold within the twenty-four hours, which I think will be befl determined by the ftate of the thermometer at or before funrife, and the middle of the afternoon, fhould be taken for the temperature of the weather. Perhaps it would not be amifs, alfo to note the firft appearance and difappearance of birds of paffage, particularly the fwallow, as a criterion by which to judge of the advanced ftate of the feafons. Explanation of the Chart. At the head of the chart, on the right hand fide, are to be the names of the places, where the obfervations are made, oppofite to their refpeftive latitudes, expreffed on the gradu- ated fcale immediately below them ; from each place, a line is drawn perpendicularly downwards. The large fpace on the left, is for the remarks on vegetation, oppofite to the feveral months in which they occur. The next column is divided into months, and its fubdvifions, carried by ftraight lines horizontally acrofs the chart.' In the next column the mean degrees of heat, taken from Farenheit's thermome- ter, are to be inferted for every ten days throughout the year ; from each of which, curve lines are to be drawn, in fuch a manner, as to interfefl the perpendicular lines of the feveral places oppofite to thofe times refpe6lively, in the 1^2^ Plan of a Meteorological Chart. column of months, of which they are of the fame temperature.' Perhaps it would be of ufe to have three columns, inltead of one, for the thermometer ; one to receive " the mean of the mornino- obfervations, the other the mean of the afternoon obfervations, and the third the mean of the two others. In the fame manner, dotted lines are to be drawn, to fliew at what times any of the phenomena of vegetation occur at different places. The neceffity of this diflinftion arifes from the circum- fhance, that the thermometer and vegetation do not exaftly keep pace with each other. Farther to illuftrate the ufe of this chart, let it be required to find what time at Williamfburgh correfponds in temperature with the firft of May at New- York. In the perpendicular line of New-York, take that point which is oppofite to the firft of May, and from thence, follow the direction of the black curve lines, till you interfeft the line of Williamfburgh, and the place in the column of months to which you are oppofite, will exprefs the required time. Again, let it be required to find when wheat is ripe at Williamfburgh — In the column of remarks fee the figure, annexed to that remark, which exprefles the day of the oppofite month ; and from that part of the month, follow the direftion of the dotted lines, till you interfed the line of WiU liamfburgh, and the time will be fiiewn in the column of month oppofite to it. It is a fa8; well known, that the weftern parts of this country do not correfpond in climate, with thofe lying in the fame J^lan of a Meteorological Chart. 1 1 ^ latitude along the fea coaft. If, therefore, fuch a chart be con- flru6led, from obfervations made in places near the Atlantic, correfpondent obfervations made in the interior parts of the country, will enable us to afcertain to what latitude in the chart they are to be referred. Ira diftin61 chart were conftrufted, on the fame plan, for the principal places in Europe, one might with equal facility, by the help of both charts, compare their climates with thofe of America. It is to be obferved, that the plan which I have produced, mufl be confidered as a mere defign, as I have but lately taken, up the idea, and have no materials at prefent before me, from which I might make an attempt to come any way near to the truth ; but I trult it is reprefented fufficiendy plain to fhew its nature and ufe, and that the advantages of it will, at firft vit-w^ appear of fuch importance, as to engage fcientific gentlemen to colleft and contribute materials for perfeding it. tti' Meteorohgical -Ohftrvations, 6 r-l < cloudy cloudy clear clear rain cloudy clear and wind high clear cloudy dull cloudy clear cloudy clear clear clear clear fnow dull cloudy clear rain dull wet rain rain wet dull dull cloudy ^5 F o 3 (« 3 U O a 3 "a -0 -a hazy fleet wet wet dull cloudy clear cloudy clear O 8, P.M. ^ w g ^- c/^ ^ ^ ^ z "A 2, P.M. ^ ^ 8,A.M. w is i:; w ;^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ f4 w p4 ^■^ |2^ 1^ ^ ca 8 o'cl. P. M. w \C ^C. 00 \o «o M c^ 'T CO CO <~r) ■cf CO CO CO ^ ■* CO c-:. 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O c< OO O so r^vO ^ t-~O0 ro r^ sOvOsOSO •O'O'O'O -OSO so .„ ris vy-,00 f< MsO O rOioWOOOO "O "OOO OO so w-i 00 OO 00 M r> OsOO r< sO SO <^ O 5 ^ lo "^ »o >o ■* "^ "o i^so io>o'o'o«o>o'o>o>o>n "oso so k-j >o^ "^ 'o "^"O Q Meteorological OhfcrvatiGm. 117 3 1 rt rt 3 — 3 u «J 0 p ~ ; '0 0 -a clear cloudy clear cleat- clear cloudy dull cloudy cloudy clear cloudy clear (4 ^' ^;^ ^-^ CO ^2; <^y:Z:i{'^cs:p..f^':^r::s:^'i^^r:z^r^ 0 OS Hi 2^ w F-H T3 3 u '2 t- 3 rt clear cloudy clea cloudy clea clear clear cloudy clea cloudy clea clear cloudy cloudy clear dull clear n •T3 3 0^ >^ •T3 3 0 t>s U I-. rt cloudy dull rail rain dull cloudy clear clear !>s >, u 1 T clouuy cloudy clear clear clear Q 8,P.M. 00 CO w • . CO CO 2 :? CO CO •Z 2,P.M. (2; CO CO CO CO CO CO 1^ CO WW -w . 5; . W • co^ .'h CO ro CO *^ Co" CO CO ^ 8^^.M. 2?^ CO CO CO CO ?i ^ en ■ji ■/, /U CO ►- ni'%> -/I CO CO > IS CO ^ ^ ^ 5 ;s :?; -X -:;? '}^ 8 oVl. P. 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(-1 c< CO T "-.SO O r-»oo On O t-< f^ M M W a M M PH W t^OO ON O M l-i H W O CS O 0 CO ■4- i^so (^oo c< (S M c< d 0 On 0 n C« CO CO 0 Y^- iv>:i-:;j?c;^- .«.;i.-,*:^ni'!^'^ .,■,>, ..-^jj'i^t^j.t ;vij^'5S)<::r>{r;^!;4)-tS; ^ w rt 2w:rii::?i;;<":^,!C2 0 «^ M < cloudy cloudy clear clear clear rain clear and frefh gale clear cloudy clear clear dull dull clear clear cloudy clear clear rain clear dull dull cloudy cloudy dull clear cloudy clear clear clear cloudy cloudy drizzling clear cloudy cloudy clear dull clear hard rain clear clear clear cloudy rain very heavy rain dull cloudy dull dull cloudy dear 8,P.M. 2, P.M. CO I^ CO CO 'i.T^ W "^'^ CO CO 2 ^ ■ J2i CO copj;z;wcoco^^Wco"^ co' CO* ^ 15 w w ^ CO CO CO CO ^ 8,A.M. ^^■^^^^■^"^"^•"N^s^'- CO or^ON":tro>ovONO >o 0 0 CO 0 M 00 >ooo 0 i', "^ ■* r^NO c< nOsononOnOnonONO u-jno SO no no «o "nNa ^ << 2 o'cl. p. M. M CJ\rTCOO <-^Onc>,-^oooo ost~-o t^t^t^t-^t^-ONO^O <-^t^r--NCNO «^ «-^ M- -OOO c* ^ ON 0 00 vonO t^ 10 0 00 ^ •O NO ^ NO NO NO ^ 4--M3 NO 'O ^ NO ^0 No NO "8 o'cl. A. M vO 0 "^"oOO fOO "*«-~.0O « rN-rj^r< r~.«-^.OO000 co>oOO N^ i^NO NO -^ ^ ^ NO >o v3 r^NO NO ^ >o *o ^NO »o "O^ NO »o lO M loNO SO 0 U-JNO NO >0 No NO Day. HI CI (O T tONO 1-.90 ON 0 M C< 0 •4- a u toNO r^oo On 0 '-I « CO koNO r^oo On 0 r( c< « c^ « c^ ^efevrological Ohfervaiions* 41a _^ 3 6 O Cl. p. M. 2 o'cl. P. M. S^o'^cl." A.M. '^ SO r^ 00 a- O "' i-( « CO ■^r Day. 0 Cv 1 <: dull cloudy clear, clear cloudy clear cry.dull,h.galc,rn.thr. clear cloudy clear clear clear cloudy dull ckar cloudy cloudy clear clear dull ckar clear clear clear mifty dull rain dull clear cloudy rain raia dull • ^dull clear cloudy clear dull clear ckar j2 ^ rt rt -rf 5, 3 3 " 0 8,A.M. i.P.M. « ^ 1 ^ m ^ 1$ W 'Z ^2 ""2: U l^^^'S ^ Z 2-. CO ^ 1,A.M. ^1'^^^ Zen 2^(/; Z; CO 'f\^ 'S 8 o'cl. P. M. 3 o'cl. P. M. vo "^ "^ '*■ ■* ■^-hCsioOoo 1-1 ^0 csw 0 0 f> ^-O n n 0. n d Ov r> >^, PJ •^ n n CO ct CO CO CO -0 -O no <^ IT) U-> W-) >o •* 0 "o «^ 0 C ti-ZO '.-5 »0 ^ CO to CO CO CO CO 3 o'cl. A. M. 0 rl Cs r^ "^ •^ "1 ■* 'a- T '*•-:^nr^ ^t^ n(^r^f-~0 '^. O m O O m »OOC»0\wc*MC* ■^■^corl cococ, CO Day. 1-1 c< c--, -q- "- NS t^J>0 Ov 0 w M "^ -^ "VO 5>-»0 Ov 0 M r< CO ■"^ vovo r-^oo r\ 0 c<«c\c^clc/>• J 72 82 77 I 73 81 T7 79 7^ Augufi J 70 76 73 80 76 68 66 September J 63 6j 65 I 63 67 65 f 55 63 59 OUober J 46 54 50 1^45 51 48 r42 48 45 November < 2>9 43 4^ [37 45 41 [3^ 34 32 December ^ 31 37 34 L26 34 30 [ 121 ] bfiSERVATIONSON THE D R I L L I N G o Y W H E A T. Bt WALTER RUTHERFORD, Esquire. Gentlemen, ■ T A S I confider Wheat as the firft ftaple of the trade and wealth of the middle dates, I" beg leave to recommend a method of promoting this article^ without adding to, but rather diminifiiing the expence of culture. The drill hufbandry has .been long recommended and prac- tifed in England, but in a manner fo complicated, machinery fo expenfive, and fuccefs fo various, that it has never come in general pra6lice there, nor attempted in that method in America; but fome years ago a farmer in Somerfet county, in New- Jerfey, firft introduced a feed-drill of his invention. Being a feed-box over a cyhnder that turns with the wheels, with four holes in the box, that anfwer notches floped in the cylinder, by which the feed falls into drills at thirteen inches apart, wl:^h machine is drawn by a pair of horfes, with a tongue to turn it ; when turning, the wheel to be held faft, and bringing the wheel to run in the outfide drill ; and afterwards drilling the head- lands, the whole field will be drilled at thirteen inches apart, and may put in about eight acres a day, being underftood to be well harrowed before drilling. 122 Ohfervations on the Drilling of Wheat. The advantages of this method is found by the experience of many farmers to be, ift. It takes fomewbat tefs feed — 2d, The feed is mUiCh .better cgvergd^g'd, Tlie ridgespn each fide mouldering gradually on the green grain, prevents it from freezing out, or being winter killed— 4th, It is llieltered from the bleak fpring winds — 5th, It drains off the wet- — 6th, It better flands the drought, the roots being well covered. "Where the land i§ ricjily rnanured, perhaps this nietbodl may not be fo neceffary ; and if the fallov/ is covered with large flones, or flumps of trees, it will be impradicable ; but on land confiderably exhaufted, our farmers have experienced great advantage ; I reckon it yields /about at tliir^ rnbre— my neigh- bour, a judicious' farmer, thinks it yields him double the old method. When I firft praftifed this way, it was on a field that the year before was in fummer grain ; one part of it gave a much better crop than the reft ; without direclions, the teams- man fowed this part by hand ; moft certainly the crop proved to be the worft part of the field, which many of the neighbours viewed, and next year began, and in general have followed this praftice. Our carpenters deliver this drill compleat for eight dollars. , New-York^ Feb. 28, 1792, [END OF PART I.] TRANSACTIONS O F T H E SOCIETY, INSTITUTED IN THE STATE OF NEW-YORK, FOR THE PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE, ARTS, AND MANUFACTURES. PART II. pufiUfteD IJ^ £)rDetr of tje @)Ociet^. PRINTED BY CHILDS AND SWAINE, PRINTERS TO THE STATE. MjDCCjXCIV. X IN ASSEMBLY, FEBRUARY 27, 1794. JxESOLFED, (if the Hon. the Senate concur thereiny) that the Printer to this State be direSled to piiblijh for the Agricultural Society of this State j Five Hundred Copies of fuch of the Communications made to the Societyj as they may deem mojl likely to promote the Interefi of Agriculture ; and that the faid Printer deliver one of the faid Copies to each Perfon who fhall be entitled to receive the Laws and Journals of this State j and that the Legijlature will provide for the Expence cf printing the fame. IN SENATE, MARCH 3, 1794. RESOLVED^ That the Senate do concur with the Hon. AJJembly m their faid Refolution. Ciii] INTRODUCTION. SINCE the publication of the firfl volume of the Society's Tranfadtions in 1792, the objeds for which the aiTociation was formed have been purfued with dihgence. Confiderable proficiency having been made, it has again been judged proper to lay before the pubhc the refult of their inquiries. The Society during the feiTions of 1792 and 1793, continued its meetings in the Senate chamber, in the city of New- York j and on the 29th December, 1792, Mr. G. C. Willet, from the committee appointed for that purpofe, in purfuance of a memorial oftheSociety of Brewers, made the following report on the method of cultivating fummer-barley in the ftate of New- York, after a crop of Indian corn, to wit : " In the fall, or early in the fpring, as beft fuits the oeconomy of the farmer, turn under the fward, and keep vegetation down with the harrow until the feafon of planting." IV INTRODUCTION. " Indian corn prepares the ground well for barley, by rendering It mellow, and deflroying the natural growth of grafs and weeds. After gathering the corn, and removing the ftalks, manure fliould be carted on during the winter, or early in the fpring ; fpread the manure, plough it in, and make the earth as mellow as pofTible : then fow the barley early, at the rate of at leaft two bufhels to an acre." " If the field is to be brought into grafs, fow grafs-feed with the barley, as Is cuftomary with wheat, remembering always, that clover is the mofl fure.'* " Cut the crop when ripe, and not fooner ; the lefs it is cxpofed, after cutting, even to the dew, the better, and heavier is the grain. This is the fyflem adopted in the ftate of Rhode-Ifland, where the farmers frequently cut about forty bufhels on an acre." " On the wefl end of Long-Wand, the farmers that raife barley, plough the flubble under as foon as the crop is off, check vegetation by repeated ploughing and harrowing, until the time of fowing wheat, and by this management procure a good crop of wheat, In fucceflion to that of barley : But, in this cafe, it is neceffary to give the ground a larger quantity of manure." " The committee are at a lofs to fay, whether barley will anfwer on new ground, as the growth of it has, in their belief, been chiefly confined to old cultivated land. From experience, INTRODUCTION. v however, it is known, that the more northern latitudes favour the production of the bell barley. Whence a prefumptiou arifes that the northern and weflern parts of the flate of New- York are well adapted, by nature, for the cultivation of this grain. Therefore, it is highly probable, that the interval land on both fides of the Hudfon and Mohawk rivers, as well as on other llreams, and between many of the mountains, mud produce good crops of barley', without the affiflance of manure, every third or fourth year ; and, upon the plan recommended, both the foil and its productions be improved, by the culture of corn, barley, and grafs-feeds, with now and then, if necef- fary, a feafonable manuring." " It is difficult to procure barley free from an admixture of oats : The befl method of feparating the oats from it is by means of water — take a large tub, filled with water, and let the barley run flowly into it ; the oats and light grains will fwim on the furface, and muft be Iklmmed off — the heavy and vigorous grains of barley will fmk to the bottom, and ought to be preferved for fowing j thefe being the befl of feeds." " This grain feparates very eafy from the flraw; but the beard that adheres to the end of the grain mufl be feparated by , threfhing it over again after the flraw is pitched off. It may be threfhed very well by hand, though horfes, or indeed cattle, will tread off the beard more eafily than it can be removed by the flail." VI INTRODUCTION, "Barley-ftraw is hearty fodder for horned cattle in the winter. " By cultivating barley, the farmer v/ill be enabled, with induftry, to receive his money for a crop in fix or feven months from the time of fowing; the fall of the year being the time for bringing it to market, and the brewers infuring him five Shillings and fix-pence the bulhel, or, if he prefers it, the market price." Which being agreed to, the fame was direded to be publilhed. By order of the Society, S. L. MITCHILL, Secretary. Col. John Smith produced the model of a plough-lhare,. according to which it was projected to have that utenfil made of caft iron^ in order to fave expence in husbandry, and come cheaper to farmers than thofe in common ufe, forged from wrought iron ; and Mr. Smith and Judge Hobart were appointed to get feveral cafl for trial. Dr. Mitchill prefented to the Society Mr. Kerr*s tranflation of Mr. Berthollet's new method of bleaching by means of the oxygenated muriatic acid ; which procefs has been fmce very faccefsfully applied to the paper manufadure, in Europe, as- appears by a printed book fent from Scotland, part of whofe paper was bleached in that way. The book is in Mr. Mitchill's hands for the infpedion of fuch manufadurers as wifli ta view it. INTRODUCTION. Vii Mr. Chancellor Livingfton, the Prefident, prefented a letter from a Society of Gentlemen in Albany, affociated for the purpofe of promoting the manufacture of fugar from the maple- tree, foliciting their friendly aid in procuring legiflative coun- tenance and afliflance, in encouraging the manufadure of that article of domeftic produce bypremiums or bounties. This letter Was accompanied by various famples of the fugar of different qualities prelenred by ihc manufa£lurers to the Albany- Aflbcia- tion, for which, already, premiums had been given ; and by the hiftory of that affociation, &c. After this letter and the accompanying papers had been read, and the famples of fugar infpeded, it was ordered that the Prefident fliould draft and forward to the legillature a memorial on the fubjecl, to concur with the memorial on the fame fubjed from the gentlemen of Albany. Mr. Simeon De Witt was appointed to colled meteorological obfervations and regifters, from whatever fources he may be able, throughout the Hate. The Prefident communicated a French memoir from Mr. Chanlat, refpecting the improvement of hufbandry and farming in the neighbourhood of New-York, and reciting fome experiments of his own for the promotion of agriculture in France. viil INTRODUCTION. Dr. Mitchill communicated to the Society, a memoir of Mr. Ezra L'Hommedieu, on the method of catching porpoifes and manufadiiring their Ikins into leather, at the eaft end of Long-Illand ; and a memoir on the culture of daify-grafs on exhaufled foils j and a memoir on the improvement of impo- verifhed lands by fowing clover ; and alfo a hiflory of his experiments on manuring land with drift-fea-weed, green fea-weed and Indian fliells : — And alfo ah eflay on hedges and ditches, with a view of the caufes of the deflruftion of prim and white-thorn hedges, in the towns of Eafl-Hampton and South-Hampton in Suffolk county, Long-Ifland ; and propofmg to fupply their place with the native thorn of our country. Mr. Recorder Jones communicated an eflay written by Peter De La Bigarre, on the making of hedges and inclofures with white-mulberry-trees, founded on experience of their utility in France ; and of their ufe at the fame time in affording food for filk- worms on their leaves in the open air : — Alfo a memoir on the importance of agricultural inftitutions and on the propriety of applying to the legiflature during the prefent feffion for an ad; of incorporation. A fpecial meeting was called in purfuance of Mr. De La Bigarre's propofal, and a committee appointed to apply to the legiflature for an ad of incorporation. The ad is in the following words : — viz. INTRODUCTION. IX An A6i to incorporate the Society infiiiuted in the State of New- York, J or the promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufac- tures. Pafled the 12th of March, 1793. " WHEREAS feveral perfons in the State of New- York, have by a voluntary agreement, afTociated themfelves for the lauda- ble purpofe of promoting Agriculture, Arts and Manufadures . in this State. « And whereas the faid Society have prefented a petition to the Legiflature, fetting forth, that the petitioners confidering that the wealth and profperity of a country, very much depend upon the flourilhingftate of its Agriculture, Arts and Manufaaures ; and obferving the benefit which in other countries have accru- ed from the inflitntion of focieties, for the purpofe of encourag- ing thofe great objefts, have voluntarily affociated themfelves, with a view of collecting from different parts of the State, the different modes of Agriculture that are in pradice ; to fuggefl fuch improvements as may be found to be beneficial ; to excite among their fellow citizens, a fpirit of making experiments for the amelioration of lands which have been exhaufled, or in their natural flate are unproduftive or unfit for cultivation ; for increafmg the produce of fuch articles as are propagated amongflus, and promoting the culture of others which have been found ufeful in other parts, and for the improvement of field-huibandry in general: and to introduce, as far as circum- B X INTRODUCTION. ilances mav render proper, an emulation for the eflabliihment of ufeful Arts and Manufadures in thofe parts of the State, where they can be beneficially carried on. That the petitioners conceive it would greatly conduce to advance the important ends of their aflbciation, if they were authorized to a6t as a corporate body, and poffefs property to fuch amount as would enable them to effeduate their purpofes more fatisfa£torily to themfelves, and more beneficially to the public : They therefore prayed, that the Legiflature would be pleafed by law to incor- porate the Society for the purpofes aforefaid, under fuch Hmi- tations and reftridions as to the Legiflature Ihall feem meet : — Therefore " BE it enaBed hy the people of the State of New-Yorky repre- fented in Senate and Afembly, That Robert R. Livingfton, John Slofs Hobart, Samuel L. Mitchill, John M'Keffon, Matthew Clarldbn, Samuel Bard, John Cantine, Samuel Jones, Thomas Tillotfon, Jofeph Hafbrouck, James G. Graham, Jacobus Swartwout, Melandon Smith, Abraham Hardenburgh, John Gelfton, William W. Gilbert, David R. Floyd Jones, George CHnton, Aquila Giles, Ezra LTiommedieu, John Schenck, James Hunter, Egbert Benfon, John Blagge, John P. Delancey, Francis Childs, John Watts, Peter Vandervoort, Henry Will, Ebenezer Purdy, Jofiah Ogden Hoffman, John Smith of Suffolk county, CorneUus J. Bogart, William Dunlap, Walter Ruther- ford, Philip Van Cortlandt, John Williams, Richard Varick, INTRODUCTION. xi John Jay, Ellas Newman, Amafa Dingley, Gilbert Golden WIl- Ictt, Stephen Lufh, John Stevens, John Kemp, Abraham Beach, Samuel Nicoll, Jonathan N. Havens, John L. Gardner, Frederick Rhynelander, Pierre De La Bigarre, Edward Living- flon, JohnThurman, Jeremiah Van Renflelaer, James Duane, Simeon De Witt, Nathaniel Sacket, William Rhinelander, Sa- muel RufTell, Mofes De Witt, David Frederick Laring, John Nicholfon, Andrew King, John Barber, Jofeph Barber, Johan- nes Miller, William Thompfon, David Ogden, John Deiafield, Horatio Gates, Benjamin Strong, and Samuel Jones, junior, and fuch other perfons as fliall from time to time become mem- bers of the faid fociety, fliall be, and hereby are ordained, con- ftituted, and declared, to be one body corporate and poHtic, in deed, fa£t, and name, by the name of The Society for the pro-- ^ motion of Agricidture, Jrts, and ManufaBures ; and that by that name, they and their fuccelTors, until the firfl day of May, one thoufand eight' hundred and four, fhall have fucceffion, and Ihall be perfons in law capable of fuing and being fued, pleading and being impleaded, anfwering and being anfwered, defending and being defended in all courts and places whatfoever, in all manner of actions, fuits, complaints, matters and caufes what- foever : And that they and their fuccelTors may have a common feal, and may change and alter the fame at their pleafure; and that they and their fuccelfors, by the fame name, fhall be per- fons capable in law, to purchafe, take, receive, hold, and enjoy xii INTRODUCTION. to them and their fuccelTors, any real eftate in fee fimple, or for term of hfe or lives, or otherwife ; and any goods, chattels, or perfonal eftate, for the purpofe of enabling them the better to carry into execution, encourage, and promote fuch meafures, as may tend to promote Agriculture, Arts, and Manufadures in this State.*' Provided^ The clear yearly value of fuch real and perfonal efliates, fhall not exceed the fum of eight hundred pounds, law- ful money of New- York, and that they and their fucceflbrs fliall have full power and authority, to give, grant, fell, leafe, demife and difpofe of the faid real and perfonal eftates, or any part there- of, at their will and pleafure ; and that they and their fucceflbrs fhall have power from time to time, to make, conftitute, ordain and eftablifh, fuch bye-laws, conflitutions, ordinances and regu- lations, as they fhall judge proper for the election of their offi- cers ; for the eleQion or admiflion of new members of the faid corporation, and the terms and manner of admifTion ; for the better government and regulation of their officers and mem- bers ; for fixing the times- and places of the meeting of the faid corporation ; and for regulating all the affairs and bufmefs of the faid corporation. Provided, That fuch bye-laws and regulations fhall not be repugnant to the conflitution or laws of the United States, or of this State. And for the better carrying on the bufmefs and I N T R O D C U C T I O N. XHl affairs of the faid corporation, there fhall be a Prefident, Vice- Prefident, Treafurer and two Secretaries of the faid corporation, who fhall hold their, offices from the time of their appointment or eledtion, until the fecond Tuefday of January then next, and until others fhall be chofen in their places. And that the faid Robert R. Livingflon, is hereby appointed Prefident ; the faid John Slofs Hobart, Vice-Prefident ; the faid Samuel Jones, Treafurer, and the faid Samuel L. Mitchill and Saniuel Jones, junior. Secretaries of the faid corporation ; and that their fuc- ceifors in office Ihall hereafter be chofen by the members of the faid corporation, in fuch manner and at fuch times and places, as fliall be directed by the bye-laws of the faid corporation to be made for that purpofe ; and that the Prefident or Vice-Prefident, and any twelve or more of the members of the faid corporation, fhall be fufficient to conftitute a legal meeting of the faid cor- poration. And he it further enabled. That the members of the Legifla- ture, who fhall not be fliled members of the faid corporation, be neverthelefs in virtue of their flations, honorary members of the faid corporation, and fhall fit but not vote as fuch for officers, or have any voice in the difpofition of their funds. Mr. Mitchill communicated a letter from Mr. Woodrufl^ of Albany, relative to the feeds of the Maple-Sugar Tree, and ac- companied by a box of the feeds. Several of the members of xlv I N T R O r> U C T I O N. the Society took parcels of the feeds, with a view of making experiments on their growth j and were directed to report the event of them, at the next feflion. Mr. De La Bigarre reported from his enumeration and ex- periment, that a pound of large red Clover-Seed contains about two hundred and fix thoufand grains ; and a pound of Lucern- feed contains about one hundred and two thoufand. The Prefident prefented a memoir by Mr. De La Bigarre, re- lative to the nature, cultivation and produce of feveral fpecies of graffes, chiefly from his own experience. Mr. De La Bigarre prefented a letter from the Prefident of the United States to the Prefident of the Society, expreflive of hk pleafure on hearing of the ellabHlliment and progrefs of the Society. Mr. Mitchill prefented a letter from Mr. Valentin of Cape- Fran9ois, together with the following donations : to wit — i. The Charter, lift of members and minutes of the proceedings of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences in Saint Domingo — 2. The firft volume of their Tranfadions and one of their pub- lic orations — 3. Travels to Guaxaca, by Monfieur Menonville, with a treatife on the cultivation of nopal, and the management of the cochineal-infeft, 2 vols. 8vo. with coloured plates — 4. A pamphlet on the difeafe called Tetanus, compiled and publiihed by order of that Society. INTRODUCTION. xv Mr. Prcfident made a communication concerning Hieep. Mr. Prefident, Mr. Jones, and Mr. Mitchill, were eleded Members of the Committee of Publication and Review. Mr. Ruffel, in behalf of the Committee appointed for that purpofe, made the following report on the cultivation of hops, viz. The Committee appointed to invejligate and report the hejl method o/raijing Hops y offer the following as the mojl perfed the Jhortnefs of the time would allow them to collet. — Suggefling at the fame time the propriety of a further examination of the fubjedl, embracing improvements ivhich time and experience are continually unfolding. A RICH deep foil, rather inclining to moiflure, is, on the whole, the befl adapted for the cultivation of Hops ; but it is obfervable, that any foil, (fliff clay only excepted), will fuit the growing of hops when properly prepared —-and in many parts of Great Britain they ufe the bog- ground, which is fit for Httle elfe. The ground on which hpps are to be planted, fhould be made rich with that kind of manure bell fuited to the foil, and rendered fine and XVI INTRODUCTION. mellow by being plowed deep and harrowed feveral times. The hills fhould be at the diflance of fix or eight feet from -each other, according to the richnefs of the ground. — On -crround that is rich, the vines will run the moft, the hills o muft therefore be the fartheft apart. At the firfl opening of the fpring, when the frofls are over, and vegetation begins, fetts, or fmall pieces of the roots of - hops, muft be obtained from hops that are efleemed thebefl* cut off from the miain ftalk or root, fix or eight inches in length. Branches, or fuckers, mofl healthy, and of thelafl year's growth, mufl be fought for. They may eafily be known by their looking white. Two or three joints or buds fhould be left on each fet. The fets Ihould be put into the ground as foon as taken up, if pofTible ; if not, they fhould be wrapped in a cloth, kept in a moifl place excluded from the air. A hole fhould then be made large and deep, and filled with rich mellow earth. The fprouts fhould be fet in this earth with * of the different kind of hops, the long white is moft cfteemed. It yields the greattft quantity, and is moft beautiful. The Feauty of hcpsconCfts in their being of a pale bright gieen colour. Care muft be taken to obtain all of one fort: but if different forts are ufcd, they muft be kept fcj)arate in the field; for there is in differcut kinds of hops a material difference in their time of ripenirg; and if intermixed jWJU occafion CKtia trouble in gathering. INTRODUCTION. xvli the bud upwards, and the ground prefled clofe around them. If the buds have begun to open, the uppermoft mufl be left jufl: out of the ground ; otherwife, cover it with the earth an inch. Two or three fetts to a pole will be fufficient, and three poles to a hill will be found moft produ£live. Place one of the poles towards the north, the other two at equal diftances about two feet apart. The fetts are to be placed in the fame manner as the poles, that they may the eafier climb. The length of the poles may be from fourteen to eighteen feet, according as the foil is for richnefs. The poles fhould be placed inchning towards each other as to meet at the top, where they may be tied. This is contrary to the European method, but will be found bed in America. In this way they will flrengthen and fupport each other, and form fo great a defence againft the violent gufls of wind, to which our climate is frequently fubjeded in the months of July and Auguft, as to prevent their being blown down. They will likewife form a three-fided pyramid, which will have the greateft poffible advantage from the fun. It is fuggefled bv experience, that hops which grow near the ground are the beft. Too long poles are not good, and care mull be taken that the vines do not run beyond the poles : twilling oif their tops will prevent it. The befl kinds of wood for poles are the Alder, Aih, Birch, Elm, Chefnut, and Cedar. Their durablenefs is. diredly the reverfe of the order in which thev (land, and C xviii INTRODUCTION. burning the end put into the ground will be of fervice to prefen'e them. Hops lliould not be poled till the fpring. of the fecond year, and then not till they have been drefled. All that is necelTary for the firfl: year, is to keep the hops free from weeds, and the ground light and mellow, by hoeing often^ and plowing if the yard is large enough to require it. The vines when run to the length of four or five feet, fhould be twilled together to prevent their bearing the firil year, for that would injure them. In the months of March or April of the fecond year, the hills muft be opened, and all the fprouts, or fuckers, cut off within an inch of the old root, but that mufl be left entire with the roots that run down j* then cover the hills with fine earth and manure. The hops mufl be kept free from weeds, and the ground mellow, by hoeing often through the feafon, and hills of earth gradually raifed around the vines during the fummer. The vines mufl be affifled in running on the poles with woolen yarn, fuffering them to run with the fun. * Hops muft be drefled every year as foon as the froft will permit. On this being well done, depends in a great meafure the fucccfs of the crop. It is thought by many to be the beft method to manure the bop-yard in the fall, and cover the hills entirely with manure ; afferting, with other advantages, that this prevents the frofts during the winter, from injuring the hop. The truth of this may be determined by experiments ia our climate and country. I N T R O D U C 1' I O N. xix By the lafi: of Auguft or firft of September, the hops will ripen and be fit to gather. This may eafily be known by their colour changing, and having a fragrant fmell : their feed grows brown and hard.* As foon as ripe, they mufl: be gathered without delay, for a florm, or frofts, will injure them materially. The mod expedient method of picking hops, is to cut the vines three feet from the ground, pull up the poles and lay them on crotches horizontally, at a height that may be conveniently reached. Put under them a bin of equal length, and four may fland on each fide to pick at a time. Fair weather mufl be taken to gather hops in, if poflible ; and hops ought not to be gathered when the dew is on them, for dew is apt to make them mould. They fhould be dried as foon as poffible after they are gathered ; If not immediately, they mufl be fpread on a floor to prevent their changing colour. The bell mode of drying them Is, with a fire of charcoal, on a kiln covered with hair-cloth, in the manner of a malt-kiln.f The fire mufl be kept fleady and equal, and the hops flirred gently. Great attention is necefTary in this part of the bufinefs, * Hops had better be gathered before they arc quite ripe, than remain till they are over ripe ; for then they will loofe their feed by the wind, or on being handled. The feed is the flrongeft part of the hop, and they will lofe their green colour, which is very valuable. t Mats made of the fpHnters of walnut, or aOi, will znAvei the purpofe, and corae cheaper than hair cloth. XX I N T.R O D U C T I O N. that the hops be uniformly and fufficiently dried : if too much dried they will look brown, as if they were burnt ; and if too little dried they will lofe their colour and flavour. They fhould be laid on the hair-cloth about fix inches thick, after it had been moderately warmed ; then a Heady fire kept up till the hops are nearly dry, left the moillure or fweat, that the fire has raifed, fhould fall back and change their colour. After the hops have been in this fituation about feven, eight, or nine hours, and have got through fweating ; and when ftruck with a flick, will leap up, then throw them into a heap ; mix them well and fpread them again, and let 'them remain till they are all equally dry. While they are in the fweat, it will be belt not to move them for fear of burning them. Slacken the fire when the hops are to be turned, and increafe it afterwards. Hops are fully dried when their inner flalks break Ihort, and their leaves are crifp and fall off eafily. They will crackle a little when their feeds are burfting ; and then they mufl be taken from the kiln. Hops that are dried in the fun, lofe their rich flavour, and if under cover, they are apt to ferment and change with the weather, and lofe their flrength. Fire preferves the colour and flavour of hops by evaporating the water, and retaining the oil of the hop. After the hops are taken from the kiln, they fhould be laid in a heap to acquire a little moiflure to fit them for bagging. It would be well to exclude them from the air, by covering INTRODUCTION. XXI them with blankets. Three or four days will be fuiFicient for them to lie in that ftate. When the hops are fo moift that they may be preiTed together without breaking, they are fit for bagging. Bags made of coarfe hnen cloth, eleven feet in length, and feven in circumference, which hold two hundred pounds weight, are moil commonly ufed in Europe ; but any fize that bed fuits may be made ufe of. To bag hops, a hole is made through a floor large enough for a man to pafs with eafe : the bag mufl be faftened to a hoop larger than the hole, that the floor may ferve to fupport the bag. For the convenience of handling the bags, fome hops fliould be tied in each corner to ferve as handles. The hops fliould be gradually thrown into the bag, and trod down continually tilt the bag is filled. The mouth of the bag mufl: then be fown- up, and the hops are fit for market. The harder hops are packed, the longer and better they will keep ; but they mufl: be kept dry. In mofl: parts of Great Britain where hops are cultivated, they efl:imate the charges of cultivating an acre of hops at forty-two dollars for manuring and tilling, exclufive of poles and rent of land. Pole^ they efl;imate at fixteen dollars per year, but in this country they would not amount to half that fum. An acre is computed to require about three thoufand poles, which will lafl: from fix to twelve years, according to the kind of wood ufed. The Englifli growers of hops think they have a very .vxii INTRODUCTION. indifferent crop, if the produce of an acre does not fell for one hundred and thirty-three dollars, and frequently they fell for two hundred dollars ; and have been known to rife as high as four hundred dollars. In this country experiments -^ have been equally flattering. A gentleman in Maffachufetts, in the fummer of 1791, raifed hops from one acre of ground that fold for three hundred dollars ; and land is equally good for hops in this flate. Upon the loweft eftimate we may fairly compute the nett profit of an acre of hops to be eighty dollars, over and above poles, manure and cultivation. There is one circumftance farther we think has weight, and ought to be mentioned. In the Englifh eftimate, the expence put down, is what they can hire the labour done for by thofe who make it their bufinefs to perform the different parts of the cultivation. A great faving may therefore be made by our farmers in the article of labour ; for much of it may be performed by women, children, and the aged. Add to this, we have another advantage of no fmall moment. In this country the hop harveft will come between our two great harvefts, the EngHfh and Indian, and interfere with neither : but, in England, the grain and hop harveft interfere, and create a great fcarcity of hands, it then being the moft bufy time in the year. It is found by experience, that the foil and climate of the Eaftern States are more favourable to INTRODUCTION. xxm the growth of hops than Great Britain ; they not being fo fubje£b to moid foggy weather of long continuance ; which is mod injurious to hops. And the Southern States are fliil more favourable to the hop than the Eaftern States, in point of flavour and ftrength. The State of New- York unites fome advantages from either extreme of the Union. The cultivators of land in this State have every inducement w^hich policy or interefl can afford, to enter with fpirit into the cultivation of hops. We fliall therefore be enabled to '/upply our own demand, and export this article, inflead of fending abroad for all we ufe ; and no crop that can polTibly be put on land, will yield an equal profit. This culture will require but little land — the labour may be performed at intervals, fo as not to interfere or injure the other bulinefs of the farm, by the aged, women, and children. There is no farmer of this ftate but may, with eafe, raife from one quarter of an acre, to as much as three or four acres of hops, the advantage of which would, in a few years, be moft fenfibly felt, both by the individual concerned, and by the State at large. In the city of New-York there are at prefent a number of very large and refpeftable breweries eflablifhed, and new ones are continually erefting. Thefe breweries not only fupply this State and the fhipping with beer, but alfo the greateil xxiv INTRODUCTION. part of the four Eaflern States ; as there is not a fingk brewery, of any confequence, in all thofe ftates. It is, however, a fad no lefs mortifying than true, that moft of the malt, and all the hops the New- York breweries ufe, are raifed in the Eaflern States. If the farmers of the State of New York would but make the experiment, they would find the cultivation of hops fo much for their interefl, that very foon we fhould have hops in fuch plenty, as not only to fupply our own confumption, but for exportation. In fome parts of this flate, there is exifling a ftill farther inducement for the growing of hops ; which is this, the foil is unfriendly to the cultivation of the Apple-tree, and Beer is an excellent fubflitute for Cyder, affording more nourilhment than either Rum or Cyder, and is a much greater prefervative of health and morals. Mr. DIngley made a Report from the Committee appointed for that purpofe, of the following plan for the eflablifhment of different Branches of this Society in the -diiferent Counties of the State, to wit :. I. YOUR Committee are of opinion, that the Inflitution of County Societies, will happily co-operate v/ith the State Society in facilitating the difFufion of Agricultural knowledge;. in general : And that this plan will alfo excite a fpirit of INTRODUCTION. xxv emulation among pradical farmers in the various parts of the State, which will lead to important improvements, both in hufbandry and gardening : Economics, arts,^nd manufa£lures, by this means, in the courfe of a few years will, in all probabihty, be greatly benefited.'* " 2. Under the influence of thefefentiments, the committee believe, that it fhould be ftrongly recommended to the members of this Society, who refide in the feveral counties, and to fuch other perfons as are willing to contribute their affiftance in advancing fo laudable an inftitution to affociate themfelves, and eftablilh Agricultural Societies in their refpedive counties, on a plan fimilar to that which has been adopted by this Society ; and the feveral Societies thus to be inftituted, are to be confidered as branches or appendages of the State Society : — And further, that each Society thus eftablilhed, ihould be invited to communicate the refult of their obfervations and experiments to the State Society, as often as they can make it convenient : — ^i^^nd alfo, that each County Society ihould be furnifhed with all the pubHcations on Agriculture in America, as well as the moft approved European publications. This will lay the foundation of County Libraries for the promotion of information in every town and neighbourhood in the whole State, and will doubtlefs in a few years, be the means of dilTeminating much ufeful knowledge. But it is D xxvi INTRODUCTION. intended that each County Society fhall always defray Its own expences." " 3. In order to encourage the eftabHfhment of County Societies, the Committee are of opinion, that this Society ihould unanimoufly agree, that all the members of the feveral County Societies, hereafter to be chofen, fhould always be confidered as members of the State Society, under the fame reflriftions as are propofed in the acl of incorporation, for the members of the Legiilature when they attend the meetings of this Society." The Prefident communicated to the Society his correfpondence with John Broome, Prefident of the Chamber of Commerce in the City of New- York, refpe£ting the introduftion of plants and animals from foreign places, which is as follows : SIR, NeW'Yorkj ^th Dec. 1793. THE Legiflature having, with a view to commercial and agricultural interefts, beenpleafed to incorporate your Chamber, and the Society for the promotion of Agriculture and Ufeful Arts, over the latter of which I have the honour to prefide, "it becomes our duty mutually to forward their views in the formation of thefe corporations. There can be little doubt that the profitable commerce of this country muft be founded upon its agriculture, and that its agriculHire derives new INTRODCUCTION. xxvii vigour from the extenfion of its commerce. In thefe views, our intereft and that of the State are too clofely connected to permit me to doubt the readinefs of the refpedable corporation over which you prefide, to attend to every objedl which may intereft our agriculture ; nor will they, Sir, I truft, find any difficulty in believing that the Agricultural Society will cheerfully embrace every means that they fhall fuggeft for extending the commerce of this State. The requeft which I am now to make, on the part of the Society in which I prefide, will indeed rather be a tax upon the pubHc fpirit of the members individually, than upon the Chamber ; but it is a tax which I am fatisfied that they will readily pay, if it meets the approbation, and is recommended by the corporation. In this perfuafion, I inclofe a draft of general inftru£lions for captains of veffels failing in the employ of the members of your Chamber, with a requeft on the part of the Society, for the Promotion of Agriculture and Ufeful Arts, that they may, under the patronage of the Chamber of Commerce, be recommended to their care and attention. Not having yet had any opportunity of confulting the Society on this fubjedl, I ftiall hold myfelf perfonally bound for any reafonable expence that may be incurred. If the Chamber of Commerce fhould adopt the inftrudions, with any alterations that they may deem proper, the Secretary of the Agricultural Society^ * Samuel L. Mitchill, Efq; on their being fent to him,. XXVlll I N 1 R O D U C 1' I O N. Mdll have a number of copies printed and diftributed to the members of your Society, who will be pleafed to give them, or fuch of them as they may refpedively aprove, in charge of the captains of their veffels, and dire£l them to be ftuck up in their cabbins. I have the honour to be. Sir, With much confideration and efteem, Your mofl obedient humble fervant, ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON, JOHN BROOME, Efq; Prejldent of the Chamber of Commerce, At a fated Meeting of the New -York Chamber of Commerce, held at their Chamber the ']th of fan. 1794. A COMMUNICATION of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and Ufeful Arts, by letters from Robert R. Livingston, Efq; Prefident, and Samuel L. Mitchill, Efq; Secretary, was read, and the object of that communication being approved, it was, upon motion, refolved — That the Corporation of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New- York, in the United States of America, recommend a compliance with the following Inftrudions, to all Captains of velfels failing from this port to Afia, Africa, 1 N T R O D I? C T I O N. xxix the North of Europe, or the Southern or Wcilern parts of North-America, as far as may be done with perfed fecurity to the property and intercft of their owners ; and that they may caufe a fair printed copy thereof, with which they will be furniihed, to be ftuck up in their refpedive cabbins. By order of the Chamber, JOHN BROOME, Prefident. Attejl. WM. LAIGHT, Secretary. INSTRUCTIONS to Captains of Vejfe Is failing to any part of Afiay Africa^ the North of Europe^ the Southern or Weflern parts of North- America, Firfl. PROCURE a fmall quantity, not exceeding one quart, of thofe kinds of grain which make the principal food of the inhabitants, and this even though it fliould be wheat, barley, rye, oats, or maize ; for though thofe grains are common in this country, yet there are varieties which may be extremely important, as was inftanced in the accidental introduftion of the white-bearded wheat, which was found to refift the infe£l: when every other fpecies was deflroyed by it. Second. Procure alfo fmall quantities of the feeds of thofe kinds of pulfe and legumens which are of any eftimation in XXX INTRODUCTION. the opinion of the inhabitants of the country you vifit, with inftruclions for their proper cultivation, of which a minute ihould be made upon the fpot. Third. In countries where the rigour of the cHmate compels the inhabitants to procure dry food for their cattle in the winter, inquire what that food is, whether hay, grain, or roots : obtain feeds of the fpecies of grafs from which they make their hay, if not hmilar to that in common ufe here ; and a fmall quantity of the grain and roots, wdth the modes of cultivation. — ^Procure the feeds and flones of fuch fruits as Ihall appear to you of importance to this country, or which are not known here, tropical fruits only excepted, fmce there is little profpeft of their fucceeding in this climate. This exception is not, however, to apply to annual fruits, fmce they may probably fucceed here. Fourth. Remark any differences that may diflinguijfh the cattle, either ufed for food or draft, in the country you vifit, from thofe found here ; make notes of the variance, and communicate your obfervations to the Prefident or Secretary of the Agricultural Society, in order that if any advantage lliould refult from their introduftion, the Society may take meafures to import them. Fifth. Be particularly attentive to the breed of llieep, and w^henever they lliall appear fuperior to thofe of this ftate, either INTRODUCTION. xxxi In fize, or In the finenc/s or the quantity of the wool proportioned to the fize of the fteep (for fmall fheep may be very valuable if their fleeces fliould be fine) to import if poffible a pair of them, or a ram at leaft, particularly if you fhould be able to obtain the fheep of Spain or Barbary, which are amongft the moft valuable, even though they fhould not appear to you fuperior to thofe of this country. Sheep from China would alfo be defirable, as would thofe of the fine wool kind from India, Angora, and other parts of Afia. There is alfo a fpecles of fine white long haired goat In Africa, the fkin of which is ufed for muffs ; it would be defirable to procure a pair of thefe if it could be conveniently done. Sixth. South-America affbrds a fpecles of fiieep, (the Vigone or Peruvian flieep) which if introduced and found to fuit the climate, would be an invaluable treafure. From the fame country, the Gulph of Mexico, and the Bay of Honduras, Cayenne, &c. may be brought the Pecari, which is a fmall and fmgular fpecles of wild hog : This may, on experiment, be found worth while to domeftlcate here, if a pair of them could be conveniently procured. Seventh. If any land or water fowl, not known In this country-, fhould be domefticated in the country you vlfit, you will procure a few of them; amongft which may be remembered the IIoco of the Bra?;Ils and Cayenne. It is nearly of the ft^e - xxxii INTRODUCTION. of a turkey, black, and frequently domellicated. It is known by various names. P. S. You will obferve that it is not expedted that you fhould bring any jfheep from England or Ireland, or any other country from which the exportation is prohibited, as you are on no account to incur any perfonal rifk, or hazard the property of your owners. New~Yorky Felruary lO, 1794. SIR, AT a meeting of the Chamber of Commerce next after the receipt of your letter of 5th December, I did myfelf the honour to lay it before them, together with the Inflrudions to Captains of veffels,, failing to any part of Afia, Africa, the North of Europe, the Southern or Weilern parts of North America ; and at the fame time recommended them to their patronage, with which they cheerfully complied : — ^A copy of the refolution of the Chamber thereon, together with the Inflrudions, I have fent to Mr, Mitchill, Secretary to the Agricultural Society ; wifliing the laudable end you thereby propofe, may be fully anfwered. I have the honour to remain. With great confideration and regard. Sir, your moft obedient Servant, JOHN BROOME. Hon. ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON, Efq. INTRODUCTION. xxxlii The Secretary informed the Society, tjiat the Legillature, by an A£l pafled April 12, 1792, had granted the fum of L. 750 for five years to the Truflees * of Columbia College, for the purpofe of endowing additional Profeflbrfhips, and that * \fTHE Editors trujl they ivlll be exctifdd for inferting the folloiuhtg account of the prcfcnt fiate of Learning in Columbia ColLgSy as coniaimd in Jl-fr, Jllitchili's report to the Senatus Academicus in Jidy, 1 794.] i HE College confifts of two Faculties; i. The Facxdtj of Arts, compofed of the Prcfident and feven Profeffbrs ; and, a. The Faculty of Phyftc, comprehending the Dean and feven otiier ProfexTors. The Plan of Inftru of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern hufbandry. When thefe things It may not be uninterefling to fomc to be informed, of the particular a.Ivarita«-ci which the School of Anatomy in Columbia College affords. The ProftlTor has been at confiderablc pains to eflablifti an Anatomical Mufeum, and for this purpofe he has made two vifits to Europe; the laft exprcfsly to colle(5l anatomical preparations; and what a twelvemonth of labour and induflrycouldobtain,if.now exhibited in ColumbiaCollege. In this colledlion, the intimate flrufture of all the important organs in the body is mademanifcft and confpicuous ; fo that where defcription fails to give clear conceptions, the eye makes Tip the deficieney, and communicates to the mind a jufl and accurate knowledge. The advantages of preparations in a courfe of anatomical ledlures are fo obvious, that any obfervations tending to fhow their utility are quite unnecefTary. It is fuflScient to add that without fnch aid it is impoffible for any teacher to convey precife ideas of the ftrudlure of the animal bedy. 4. The Obftctric Branch, of which John R. B. Rodgers, M. D, is ProfelTor, comprehends the Phyfiology and Pathology of Parturition. The Profeffor gives an anatomical defcription of fuch parts as are ncceffary to the confideration of his fubjeft, and explains the difeafcs to which they are incident, as well as the general difeafes of the female fyflem. He recites the various complaints of pregnancy, and the means of alleviating them. The varieties of parturition arc detailed, and exemplified by machinery, as well as in pra<9;ice. The difeafes of the child-bed flate are accurately treated of, together with the management of women at that time. I The laft part of the courfe comprehends not only the difeafcs to wiiich children are fubje(5l in the month, but alfo thofe which moft generally affed tkeni in the firft years of their lives. The Obftetric courfe, in fhort, gives a confiderable view of PhyOoIogy, and takes in an extenfive range of the Pradice of Phyfic. xliv INTRODUCTION. are duly confideredj it can fcarcely be doubted, that a Botanic Garden, under the direclion of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural intereft, will be The utility of fuch a coiiife is obvious to all, and efpecially ferviceable to medical fniJents from the country, who muft neceffarily be often called on to praflice midwifery, ai;d ought therefore to be well acquainted with this branch of education. 5. William Pitt Smith, the ProfefTor of Materia Medlca, confidcrs the fubje but very few can hope for political fame, while their purfuits .have a direct tendency to injure the fineft feelings of the mind, and to add poignancy to the mod painful paflions. The thorough-paced party>politician concurs in many meafures that he does not approve, he confides in men that he fecretly defpifes — ^he oppofes the meafures of his antagonift, though his reafon tells him they are proper — His fins of omiffion and commiffion daily flare him in the face, and if ever he finds time to pray, he mufl confefs in the words of the Common Prayer, " That he has done thofe things which he ought not to have done, and left undone thofe things zvhich he ought to have done ;" while with a diflruftful eye he is compelled to guard againfl the defeftion of his partizans, he indulges the moft rancorous refentment againfl his antagoniiis : thus, jealoufy and hatred, thofe painful pafTions, are nourifhed like the vulture that feeds on the liver of Prometheus, to prey on his vitals. Rural life is exempt from thefe evils. The hufbandman hates no one, becaufe he dreads no rival. If his neighbour's field is more produftive than his own, he borrows a ufeful leiTon, and turns his profperity to his own advantage : Two important maxims are ever in his mind — Firll, that the earth yields nothing to the idle and the negligent — Second, that though labour will do much, yet the ^2 • Addre/s to the Society, return it meets will often depend upon circumflanccs which it is not in his power to command — He is therefore at once fatisfied with the neceffity of ufnig the means, as the divines f^y, and of his dependance on the Supreme Being for crowning them with fuccefs ; thus reconciling (at leaft in an earthly fenfe) the intricate dodrines of woih and grace. The con ft ant attention that the farmer is compelled to give to the vrants of his domeftics, and to the animals under his care, render him habitually companionate, humane and careful ; and, if happinefs is to be found on earth, it muft certainly be fought in the indulgence of thefe benign emotions.— As Cicero fums up all humane knowledge in the character of a perfect orator, fo we might with much more propriety claim every virtue, and embrace every fcience, when we draw that of an accompHlhed farmer. — He is the legiflator of an extenfive family, and not only men, but the brute creation, are fubjeded to his laws — He is the magiftrate who expounds and carries thofe laws into execution — He is the phyfician who heals their wounds, and cures the difeafes of his various patients — He is the divine who ftudies and inforces the precepts of reafon — And he is the grand Almoner of the Creator, who is continually difpenfmg his bounties not only to his fellow mortals, hut to the fowls of the air, and the bea/ls of the f eld, I was led into thefe reflections by finding myfelf furrounded by gentlemen who are not lefs capable of rendering their Adclrefs h the Society. 53 country icrvlces in the promotion of iigriculture and ufeful arts, than in their refpe£live political ftations. — I wiflied to convince them that at leaft, as much reputation, with more permanent fame, might b.e acquired in the firft than in the lafl: of ihefe purfuits ; and yet to the difgrace of this State it has fo happened, that though it has always pofl'efled men of diftinguiflied talents, the rage for party pohtics and diffipation, have defeated every attempt to eftablifh any fociety for the promotion of arts, agriculture, or any literary or fcientific objeft : how many now hear me who are capable of wiping off this reproach — who have ample means of doing honour to the State, by promoting that of this Society, but who have yet offered it no aid ! The exertions of a few friends to ufeful knowledge, have enabled us to ftruggic through three years : And I would fain hope that many now prefent will flep forward to our future fupport. I proceed to difcufs the fubje6t which I particularly defigned to fubmit to the confideration of the Society ; I mean the comparifon between the advantages of agriculture in Britain, and in this State. I am well affured that falfe conceptions on this fubjeft have led many theoretical farmers into important errors. The inhabitants of every part of the world (our own excepted) entertain ftrong prejudices in favour of their native country : here, on the contrary, the people are habitually led to form exalted ideas of Britain, and degrading ones of America.— I 54 Addrefs to the Society. do not remember that this fingular circumftance has been obferved or accounted for. The fettlers of this country confifted originally of emigrants from various parts of Europe, but principally from the Britifh illes. Though their pradice ihewed their preference, yet they could not diveft themfelves of this prejudice in favour of their native country. And that prejudice, as was natural, v^^as increafed by the diftance and the hardiliips to which their change of fituation expofed them; it was llimulated into exercife by the vanity of raifmg themfelves above their neighbours, for every man fuppofes he borrows a certain degree of confequence from the fuperiority of his country. Thus an Irifh, a Dutch, and a Britifh emigrant, fettled in the neighbourhood of each other, would boaft the fuperiority of their refpe£tive countries ; would conceal their defects, and exaggerate their advantages ; and difagreeing in every thing elfe, would unite in admitting the inferiority of America to Europe, that tie which conne£led them with each other ; their children and neighbours having no means to contradid exphcitly, credited thefe tales, and felt themfelves inferior to thefe boafling natives of a diftant land ; their defcendants endeavoured to fhare in the honour of their parents, by recording their defcent from fuch illuftrious anceftors ; and gloried in difleminating falfe ideas of countries of which they had no other knowledge except through this fource, and from other boafling and confequential travellers. — -It is ^' \] Adurefs to the Society. ^^ true, thefe prejudices are wearing ofF, yet there are few pei-fons who do not even now confider the foil and climate of Britain as fuperior to that of this State, when the fa£l is directly the reverfe. The proportion of land unfit for cultivation in the ifland of Great Britain, is much greater in comparifon to the whole quantity, than it is in this State — The foil is lef3 productive, except where great labours are bellowed in cultivation ; and the climate in many refpefts lefs friendly to agriculture. I alfert this from a careful examination of the bell Englifli writers on the fubjed, and particularly from Yoking and Marflial, who are much better authority than the aifertions of emigrants, that for the mofl part have -given little attention to the fubjed:, or judge of the whole kingdom from a fertile or highly cultivated fpot in their neighbourhood. Let us now defcend to particulars, and candidly weigh its advantages and difadvantages — The fir ft advantage England pofTefTes, confifts in her early fpring ; this enables the farmer to commence his workfooner thanhe can in this country: tothiscaufe it is owing that fuch crops as require early fowing on a well prepared fallow, fucceed better In Britain than here. Barley, for inftance, requires at leall four good fpring ploughings, and yet fhould be put in by the firft of May : this cannot be done here except upon very light lands, our clays being hardly fit to plough before May ; but light land will not produce jgood barley without manure. In England It may be railed ^6 Addrefs to the Society. to advantage on flrong loams, and even on clay. It is for this reafon that barley is nearly as cheap in England as here, though ev^ry other grain is 60 per cent dearer than in America —The fame reafoning applies to beans which are unproductive in England, unlefs fown in February and March, which is hardly poffible here on ftrong clays, the foil thefe require. Turnips cannot be raifed in our chmate to advantage, as a food for cattle : the feafon in which they are fown being ufually very dry, and the plants liable to be deftroyed by the fly. Great Britain has alfo fome advantage over us in the fhortnefs of the winter, but much lefs than is generally imagined. Their Autumn is cold and wet, and though there is fome apparent verdure, yet the vegetation is fo flow, as to render it ufual for good farmers to houfe their cattle by the firfl of November, rather than fuffer them to poach their fields in gleaning a fcanty fubfiflance from them ; nor do they turn them to pafture till late in April. Thefe are, I believe, all the advantages that the Britifh farmers fairly claim over us. Let us now examine thofe we exclufively poflefs : The nobleft of thefe is the maize or Indian corn ; neither the beans or turnips of Britain can be compared to this plant : Firil, it need not be planted till the laft of May, fo that the farmer is never hurried by it with his fpring-work : Second, it is cultivated with a plough or horfe-hoe; and as the plants are large, and placed at five feet diftance, there is ample room for this ; and though it Addrefs to the Socitty. 57 is alfo ufual to hand hoe; yet as this is done after the ground is loofened by the plough, and when the plant is a foot high, and then only juft about the jflem, it is eafier to hoe ten acres of this than one of the turnips or beans : Third, it defies the drought, and never fails to make ample returns to the hufbandman that cultivates it with diligence ; forty bufhels an acre being a common yield when well tended ; and from fixty to feventy, in a good foil, and in the beft flate of cultivation. The grain fumilhes a palatable and nutritious food for man, and is greatly fuperior to any foreign fpecies for farm flock — and while bean-haulm is of httle value, the tops and blades of maize are not inferior, if gathered in feafon, to the beil hay ; and as this crop is eafily and neceifarily kept clean, it is the befl of all fallow crops. The writers on agriculture in England, are conflantly recommending horfe iioed crops inflead of fallow : but neither precept nor example have been able to overcome the reluctance the great bulk of farmers feel to fubmit to this expence, for crops fo little profitable, and requiring fo much labour if hoed, as either beans or turnips — while maize has, by it^ fuperior excellence, and the facility with which it is effected, rendered the practice univerfal here, and I believe I fpeak within bounds when 1 fay, that the whole ifland of Britain has fewer acres cultivated with the horfe hoe, than we have in this flate alone — The want of turnips may be amply compenfated by carrots which H ^8 Aidre/s to the Society. may be raifed at lefs expence here than in Britain, becaufe we have much fewer weeds, which are the greateft enemies to that root ; by cabbages and potatoes, which grow well here ; and by pumpkins, which are raifed in very confiderable quantities in our Indian corn fields, without any other expence than that of dropping a few feeds in the hills, and carting the crop — ^Nor can I help recommending them as a rich and nutritious food that will fave two month's hay, if ufed in the beginning of the winter, and afford milk and butter equal in quantity and quality to the produd of the richefl paflure — Thefe legumens would not be fo much neglefted here as they generally are, were it not that hay is made in this country at half the expence that it requires in the moifl climate of Britain ; Vegetation there is extremely flow ; their fpring Is nearly one month earlier than our*s ; yet though their wheat begins to grow in March, It is not reaped till late in Augufl- — our*s is cut fix weeks earlier, though it does not begin to vegetate lill late in April : So that it takes five and one half months in Britain to perfe6l a crop which is performed here in little better than three. The fame caufes influence the growth of grafs — In foils therefore of equal quality, much lefs will grow in a given time in Britain than in America, as I infer from the general average of their clover and natural grafs in not exceeding ours, though they are longer in a growing flate. |t is true, that the moiflure of the climate, and mild winters. Addrejs to the Society. y-^ give a great verdure to their fields at fome feafons ; but this is only an apparent advantage, which deceives fuperficial obfervers, while it is attended with real inconveniencies : Firfl, the grafs itfelf is by that circumflance rendered lefs nutritious, as is well known by every farmer : Second, while the hay is lighter, it is got in at more expence than ours, which is made at the drieft feafon of the year — In our crops of grain we enjoy fimilar advantages ; their harvefts are frequently wet, while nine years in ten ours is got in without the leafl obftruftion from rain — ^The produce would alfo, I am well fatisfied, be greater here than in England on highly cultivated foils, fmce it is well known that the ftrength of the ftraw depends upon the drynefs of the feafon. In a moift climate, therefore, without fufficient fun to harden the ftraw, heavy crops mufl: be very often injured by lodging— efpecially if we take into confideration, that high winds are much more ufual in Great Britain than here — Blight and mildew are effects of a moift climate ; thefe are feldom and partially known in this State^ prevailing only in particular diftrifts in extraordinary feafons. In Britain it often happens, that wet weather, when the wheat is in bloffom, affeds all the wheat hi the kingdom, many parts of which, on this account, do not pretend to raife it. If vegetation is flower in Britain than here, and if the grafs is alfo lefs nutritious, it muft follow, that with the Dame 6o Addrefs to the Society, attention to flock our paflures with the bell grafs, and to keep the cattle out of them at improper feafons, a larger ftock may be maintained on the fame quantity of ground in this State, than in England ; and thus the difference in the length of our winter be amply compenfkted. This obfervation leads me to a circumflance in Britifh hufbandry, which might be advantageouily pradifed by us — Many of their farmers fow rye for the ufe of their fheep and iambs in the fpring ; in order to this they muft be at the expence of a fallow, and as their rye grows two fifths flower than ours, it mufl follow that they can only keep three fheep, where we may have five. If therefore this practice is advantageous in England, it would be much more fo in America, to fow our corn fields with rye, to feed oS with flieep in the fpring, not only becaufe of the additional numbers that we can keep, but becaufe we are more pinched for fheep-food in the fpring ; befides that the rye that cofls the Britifli farmer a complete fallow, cofts us nothing but the feed, if fown . among the corn when it is topped ; and as five fheep will leave more manure than three, the rye field fo fed down, will be left in better order here by this praftice, than it would in Britain. — In the healthfulnefs of our ftock we have alfo great advantages over Britain. Among our black cattle I have been told that fome diforders prevail, though they are fo extremely rare, that in twenty years fmce I commenced farming, I do not recolle(5t to have Addrefs to the Soae'x, (">i lofl one creature, unlefsit were by Ibine accidental hurt : nor have I known any others to die among my neighbours, except from the fame caufe, or bad keeping in the fpring : and wlule the rot fweeps away whole flocks of flieep in Britain, it is a diforder intlrcly unknown in this country. All thefe natural advantages being in favour of the American farmer, I fhali be allied how it happens that the lands in Britain are more produdlive : Admitting the facl, which however i>s not quite out of doubt, when the general average of the cultivated parts of both countries, are compared, the anfwer would be found in the low price of labour, and in the high price of land. More labour is therefore expended upon lefs land there, and the product is always in proportion to the labour, the foil and the climate. But does it yield more profit to the cultivator ? — ^No man need be told that a garden where one] man is conftantly employed upon half an acre of ground, will produce more pulfe than the fame quantity of ground cultivated with a plough, in which way one man can tend ten acres ; but does it follow the one half acre is more profitable than the ten acres, even though the additional rent Ihould be fuperadded ? That hufbandry is more profitable here than in Britain, is evident from this fingular circumftance, that the labour is dearer, and lands proportionably worfe cultivated, yet the American farmer can afford to fell his produd 60 per cent cheaper than the Britifh hufbandman — ^The reafon is obvious : 62 Addrefs to the Society. In England a greater capital is neceflary, even though labour is cheaper than in America, to render their lands equally produdive, and the intereft of their capital muft be added to the price of the produce. In Britain the average of labour, when the labourer is lodged and fed, is below forty dollars a year, here it is above fixty ; and yet the American farmers can afford to fell their product fixty per cent cheaper than the Britifh cultivator : Does it not follow then, that the fame labour produces more by fixty per cent, and the whole difference of the price of labour ? And where the cultivator, as is the cafe with mofl of our farmers, is his own labourer, is not the difference in the price of labour to be confidered as part of his profit, fmce he earns fixty dollars where a Britifli cultivator earns forty j and yet makes fo much more from his land over and above this difference in the value of his own labour, as to underfell the Britifh farmer even in his own market ? All thefe obfervations are intended to apply to lands in their common flate, not to lands on which a great capital has been expended in one country, and nothing in the other. Thus I do not mean to fay that a bog meadow in America without a ditch, fhall produce as much as a meadow reclaimed at a great expence in Britain ; or that a piece of clay ground in England completely under-drained, will not produce more than a fimilar piece here without a fingle water-furrow : I know too that thefe improvements are much more ufual in Addrefs to the Society, 63 England than in America, where lands are cheap, and the farmers' capitals too fmall for expenfive improvements : all I mean to fhew is, that this country has natural advantages in its foil and climate over Britain, and to encourage our farmers to hope, that whenever their circumftances ihall enable them to circulate their artificial improvements, that agriculture will be carried to a much higher pitch here than in Britain : One of the cheapefl and moft obvious improvements, and to which England is more indebted than to any other, is the fowing of grafs feeds, and particularly clover, and putting in their wheat upon a clover clay inflead of an expenfive fallow. To this permit me to add another from my own experience, which is, the pra£licability of raifing lucerne as eafy here as in any part of the world : a plant which as much exceeds red clover, as the red does the common white ; but which the want of fun, and the moifl xlimate of England generating an infinity of weeds, prevents their cultivating to any advantage — to thefe phyfical, every man's reflections will add thofe moral advantages that arife from the enjoyment of freedom under the happiefl of conilitutions ; the equality of our fortunes, which facilitates our mutual interefls ; and the refped: in which Agriculture is held by thofe who govern and dired our affairs ; where the Hero, the Patriot, the Statefman, Washington, does not difdain to guide, who can refufe to ?^enerate the Plough ? C ^s J EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS O N LUCERNE: Br THE Hon. R 0 B E R T R. LIVINGSTON, PRESIDENT OF THE CORPORATION. EXPERIMEN T— N^ I. " APRIL 20, 1 79 1. — Mixed 2 lbs. of lucerne with 2 lbs. of clover feed, fowed them with oats on ^ of an acre of ground, the foil fand to the depth of 14 feet, but in good order, having been the two preceding years in potatoes with dung. — 6th April, 1792. — Spread two bufhels of gypfum. — May 25. — The clover very luxuriant ; the lucerne, though of fuperior height, branches fo little, and is fo comprefTed by the clover, as hardly to attract attention. About the middle of June, cut the grafs produdl in dry hay, a large load for two oxen, or fomewhat more than half a ton. — Auguil 8. Cut afecond crop, about 5 cwt. The fummer having proved very dry, and the foil being naturally fo, the clover did not rife fufficiently I 6'6 Mr. Livingjlon's Exptriments on Lucerne. to be cut, fo that this crop confided wholly of lucerne : I now experienced the want of feed, for though the lucerne was about ly inches high, it occupied too little fpace to produce a great crop. The lucerne and clover rofe after this cutting, and might have yielded a tolerable crop, but I preferred leaving the rowan to proted the roots againfl the winter winds. — 1793, I ft April. Dreffed this fpot with one bufhel of gypfum. — 28th April. The fpring proving uncommonly early, the ground being naturally warm, having a fouth afpeQ:, and the plants having been protected by a good winter coat. The lucerne exhibited a moft beautiful appearance ; it was 1 3 inches high, the clover growing w^ith it not more than two. The common paftures were barely green. As my hay was gone, and none to be purchafed, (the year preceding having yielded but bad hay-crops) I was compelled to employ my lucerne to feeding four plough horfes, three times a day in the ftable as they came fro'm their work ; and four fows that had pigs, which were regularly fed with it three times a day ; the horfes were turned out at night to glean what they could in the paftures ; it lafted them till the twenty-third of May, and what was laft cut, was near three feet high. — loth June. Began again to cut for two very large coach-horfes, kept altogether in the ftable; it lafted them to the twenty-eighth. In this cutting; the clover amounted to near one half of the crop, which was I think more produdive on that account Mr. Living/ion's Experivwiti on Lucerne. 6'j than the one that preceded, or thofe that followed it. — On the 28th of July, mowed a third time for hay ; the produft as nearly as I could judge, about 6 cwt. dry. The clover aided this crop very Httle, the drought having prevented it from rifmg much after the lafl cutting, and indeed a confiderable part of it had dried out. As no clover appeared after this, and the lucerne was perfeftly free from weeds, I conceived the idea of leaving it for feed ; and did not therefore cut it when in bloifom, as I might have done, and have had a fifth crop : the feeds were not ripe till the ift of October, when it was again cut, and produced about 6 cwt. of dry hay. Though the feed looks fair and ripe, and promifes to yield a confiderable quantity, yet from not underftanding the management, or from the lucerne's having been touched by the froft, I have been able to make no hand of colledinp- it ; perhaps after it has laid longer, it v/ill be more eafily feparated from the pod. EXPENCE PER ACRE OF THIS EXPERIMENT. NO. L Ploughing, &c. charged to oats, 16 lbs. clover and lucerne feed, at 1/3 ;^. i 00 Sowing and harrowing in, .... 3 o 8 buflaels gypfum, at 4/^ . . . . 112 o id cutting, making, &c 010 o id Do 80 13 o 68 ' Mf. Living Jlon* s Experiments on Lucerne. 2d Year, 1793. 3 13 o I ft cutting and feeding . . , . o 10 o 2d. Do o 10 o 3d. Do. and making into hay, &c. .080 4th Do. Do ....08.0 4 bufliels of gypfum, at 4/ . , . o 16 o 2 12 o Total expence per acre, Z. 6 5 o Profit per Acre, 1792. I ft crop, 2 tons of hay, at 2/6 ...500 2d crop, I ton of hay, 2 lo o 1793- 1 ft crop, invaluable, as neither hay or 1 oats were to be got, valued at 2 t. hay, J ^ 2d crop, two horfes, or at rate 8 per acre, 1 1 8 days, at 6 d, per diem, J -^ 3d crop of hay, 24 cwt. at 2/6 ...300 4th do. exclufive of feed, ....300 22 © o Dedu£l and expence, 650 2 years — Clear profit per acre, . . . Z,. 15 17 o Encouraged by this fuccefs, I went this year, 1793, largely into the culture of lucerne ; as land marks to others, my errors and lofles are now to be recorded. Mr. Livingjlon^s Experiments on Lucerne. 69 10th March, 1793. EXPERIMENT, NO. 2. LAND a light loam, indifferently prepared for wheat by two ploughings only, being an old pafture in little heart, ploughed every fifth year for fifty years pafl, and never manured; fown lafh autumn with wheat ; fowed over eight acres of the wheat, lucerne and clover, in various proportions, to the amount of forty pounds of clover, and feventy-fix of lucerne feed ; manured at the fame time with fifty-feven bulhels of gypfum in various proportions, from five to ten bufhels per acre. The largefl quantity produced the beft wheat, and the whole being better than could have been expeded from the foil ; the farmers who infpeded the crop were of opinion, that the gypfum had been of ufe to the wheat. The grafs feeds vegetated very well, and came up thickly, but not vigoroufly. A drought, very unufual at that feafon, came on as early as the lafl of April, and continued till the middle of June : the clover and lucerne promifed fo httle when the wheat came off, that I fed the flubble (this experiment-ground being part of a large field) ; I fhall order it to be enclofed, to fee whether the next year will repay a part of my expences, which ftand as follows : ii6 1b. lucerne and clover feed, .694 Sowing, 30 57 bufhels of gypfum, at 4J. . . n o Carting and fowing do. . , . o 10 o o -JL. il 70 M7'. Living/Ion's Experiments on Lucerne. EXPERIMENT, NO. 3, I793. * LAND, a light fandy loam, three years under clover, and twice in that time manured with gypfum, feven bulhels to the acre ; broke up 20th April, fowed with oats on one ploughing, fod hurrowed fine ; over three acres of this fowed on the ifl of May, eight pounds of clover, and eight pounds of lucerne feed to the acre mixed, at the rate of 16 lb. feed. The oats came forward with fuch luxuriance (yielding fixty-four bufhels on the average to the acre), and fuch abundance of flraw, that the greater part was lodged, and the grafs feeds fo effedually deftroyed, that I have fmce ploughed up the ftubble 5 this was alfo dreifed with gypfum, five bufhels to the acre. EXPENCE. 48 lb. clover and lucerne feed< . Z. 2 16 o Sowing, 020 15 bufhels of gypfum, at 45. . . 2160 Sowing do. and harrowing, ...060 Entire lofs, except the gypfum may 1 r ^ be of ufe in the next crop, J EXPERIMENT, NO. 4, I793. SOIL and management as above j being part of the fame field. Ploughed twice for barley ; once laft autumn ; once early in April ; fown with barley about 20th. Sowed the next day two acres of this ground with clover and lucerne, mixed eight pounds of each to the acre, except about half Mr» LivingJlo7i* s Experimcnii on Lucoiie. 71 an acre with lucerne alone, 16 lb. to the acre, harrowed with a light harrow. The lucerne and clover came up very well, and would have produced about half a ton of hay to the acre, had it been mown this autumn ; it has been fed down, though not fo clofely as to injure it. Put in at the fame time, and in the fame manner, one acre upon a ftrong loam, laying flat, and fomewhat wet, the ground having yielded potatoes for the two laft years. The lucerne after the barley on this ground, is very promifmg, and has not been fed — Expences the fame as above, L.6 o o on the three acres : however I am well fatisfied that the enfuing crop will amply repay the expence. EXPERIMENT, NO. 5, I793. LAND, a hill fide ; foil, flaty gravel, on a clay bottom, had been two years under white clover, brought in by gypfum, without being ploughed or feeded. Ploughed twice this fpring and fummer ; one acre fown with one peck of buck- wheat i ft July, after which feeded with 1 8 lb. of lucerne, and manured with 7 bufhels of gypfum, a fliower fell juft after it was fown. The lucerne came up ftrong and healthy, and for fome days feemed to keep pace with the buck wheat ; but this in a fliort time, owing to the gypfum (as appeared by a fmall fpot that I had not given any,) ftiot far a-head, rofe to near five feet in height, and fo efl'edually overftiadowed the lucerne, that I had ni Mr, Livingjlon s Experimenti on Lucerne. no hopes of faving it, but by cutting down its too powerful rival ; I moved a fmall part, but fo much againft the inclination of my overfeer, who wiflied to fee whether it would be as productive in grain as in haulm ; in which I own alfo my own curiofity was very much interefled ; I accordingly let four-fifths of the piece take its chance, and the lucerne continued as well as it was able with its umbrageous inmate. Where the buck wheat had been cut, the lucerne at firft languifhed, from being fo fuddeniy^expofed to a hot fun ; but, as the buck-wheat rofe again, the lucerne fprung with it, and neither much out-topping the other, the firft recovered its looks, and promifes very well. Where the buck- wheat was left to ripen, as the whole lodged, the lucerne, if not abfolutely dead, is at leaft fo very fickly, that I dare not promife myfeif much return from this experiment. EXPENCE OF EXPERIMENT, NO. 5. 18 lb. feed, at 146? i 10... Sowing and harrowing, ....026 6 bufhels gypfum, and fpreading, .170 L. 2 10 EXPERIMENT, NO. 6. PLOUGHED one-third of an acre of oats-ft ubble, mentioned in Experiment No. 4 j fowed ift Auguft with turnip-feed and 5 lbs. of lucerne, being all I had left ; the turnips too fmall to gather, the lucerne came up well, confidering the Mr. LivingJlon*s Experiments on Lucerne. ^j quantity of feed, which was much too fmall, the only object of this experiment was to fee whether fowing upon (lubble would forward the plant more than a fpring feeding. Next year will anfwer this enquiry. EXPERIMENT, NO. 7, I793. BROKE up the middle of May a fmall ftrip of ground next to the lucerne of Experiment No. i. Raked fine and put in I lb. lucerne-feed alone. This came forward fo fall as to flower, and many plants, had they not have been cut, would have probably perfeded their feed. The general refult of thefe experiments, in which I have employed 230 lb. of feed, and expended Z. 34 6 10, cannot be abfolutely pronounced upon till the next year. No. i will doubtlefs pay me the enfuing feafon, what it has done this, as it contains no marks of deterioration, to wit : L. 't^^ after deducling all expences for one quarter of an acre, or Z. 12 per acre clear profit. — No. 2 may poffibly pay its expences in good pafture next year, as the lucerne and clover are ftill alive, though not promifmg. — ^No. 3 is totally loft. — No. 4 looks fo well, that I can hardly doubt that it will yield as much as my firft experiment did, that is about three tons of hay an acre the firft year, and proportionably afterwards ; nor am I quite out of hopes of No. 5. — It r.nght rih^^ns have K 74 ^"^^^ Livingjloii' s Experiments on Lucerne. been thought better to have deferred this communication till another year had afforded me the means of flating thefe refults ; but as I was led into this cdurfe of experiments with a view to acquire fuch a knowledge of this plant, and the mode of cultivating it, as would enable others to avail themfelves of my errors and my experience, without incurring expences that would difcourage them in the outfet, I have thought it prudent thus early, to ftate them, fmce even now, important deductions may be drawn from them. From the firft experiment It appears, that it may be eafily fov/n on a dry foil with oats and clover, and that its annual clear profits, after deducing every expence, will exceed, on the two firft years, L. 7 per acre. The failure therefore of that fown this year with oats, muft be afcribed to the following caufes : i ft, A luxuriance in the oats, which was by no means to be expeded from the foil, and is v/holly to be attributed to the improvement it had received from clover and gypfum, and is fo far a ftriking leifon to farmers, as well as a confirmation of the conje6lures I had the honour to fubmit to the Society on the effed: of gypfum as a permanent improver of the foil. 2d, The oats having been fown on one ploughing, fo that the ground was lefs mellow than it fhould be for the reception of lucerne. — 3d, To the extreme drought of the fpring ; clover having not fucceeded better than lucerne, when fown together. The fecond experiment proves that ground which has not been M}\ Ltvingflon'i Experiments on Lucerne -c; ploughed in the fprfng, or pulverized fully, is improper. The failure, however, of this experiment, may in fome fort, be charged to the early fowing, fmce the rapid growth, of that fown with the buck-wheat, during the hotteft feafon of the year, would intimate, that the ground fhould be warm and mellow, to fuit the conftitution of this plant while in its infant ftate. The fuccefs that attended the fowing with barley proves, that notwithflanding the unfavourable feafon, if the earth is properly pulverized, a good produd: may be expefted. An important queflion ftill remains to be decided, relative to the propriety of fowing lucerne alone or mixed with red clover feed. I was prejudiced in favor of the latter mode from the following confiderations : I ft. I wiflied to know whether it was equally hardy with clover ? Whether under fimilar circumftances it was able to contend with it in our climate ? Experience has convinced me that it will, and that in dry feafons it will fiourifli — while clover is too faint and languid to raife its drooping head ; and what is more extraordinary, that this child of the fummer, better braves the biting frofts of the fpring and the keen autumnal blafts, than clover, or any cultivated grafs of this cHmate.— Thefe are important circumftances, when I am labouring to introduce It into common hufbandry, in the face of prejudices arifmg from the Englifh experiments, which are far from encouraging to farmers of moderate capitals j I hope, however, to fhew. 76 Mr. Lhnngjlon s Experiments on Luccnu. that it is infinitely better adapted to our climate than to that of Great-Britain. 2dly. It having been conllantly aiTerted that it takes three years to come to perfection, and that the profpedls are very trifling the year fucceeding that in v^^hich it was fown, by mixing the feeds with thofe of clover, 1 expected, and indeed found, that an immediate profit might be obtained ; for the clover came forward as early, as if it had been fown alone, was fupported by the lucerne, which added fomething to the crop, and both together yielded at the rate of more than three and a half tons an acre, the very firfl year ; the merit of the lafl cutting being wholly due to the lucerne, fmce the drought prevented the clover from rifmg a fecond time to the fcythe ; fo that, had this ikid been fown with clover alone, it would have yielded twenty-four hundred weight per acre, and lefs than it did by the addition of the lucerne feed the veryjirjl year. — The fecond year's produd is flill more conclufive in favor of the lucerne. 3dly. As clover is a beneficial plant, I expected that as the lucerne advanced, the clove-r would die out and leave the ground free from weeds that miojht have robbed the heritage during the minority of the lucerne. Tho' this reafoning was plaufible and influenced my condu£t in my experiments this year, yet I am not fatisfied that it is jufl. I argued from Englifh books of hufbandry, which are not however, calculated in this particular Mr. Livingflon^s Experiments on Lucerne, yy for our climate. The principles they maintain are — ift. That lucerne does not attain any confiderable degree of ftrength till the third year ; hence the neceflity with them of drilling and hoeing to keep down the weeds. Some that I fowed this year with my barley, as well as a crop which my neighbour Mr. De La Bigarre fowed with his, yielded, on being cut this very autumn after his barley, almofl eleven hundred weight per acre, convinces me that its growth is more rapid here than in England — (In this however it is not peculiar, as I fhall on fome other occafion fhew that plants grow more rapidly by two- fifths here than in Britain) I am therefore very doubtful whether it will not pay as much and as early, provided from 16 to 24 lb. of feed are fown to the acre, as the mixed crop would do. This I fhall next year afcertain with accuracy^ — Should it be eflablillied on experim.ent, the clover-feed fhould' e omitted, as it tends to check the lucerne, and to render the crop thin when it dies out ; befides, that neither fpringing fo early, nor bearing drought fo well, it muft be confidered as inferior, in every refpeft, to the lucerne. There is one confideration however in its favour, that is, that in warm fituatlon?, the lucerne will be fit to cut before the clover rifes to the fcythe. The fecond crop in this cafe, will be earlier, on account of the clover, which will confift almofl wholly of it, becaufe having efcaped the v/ounds which the lucerne received, it will be ready to take the field before the lucerne has recovered from its amputition. yb Mr. Ltvinojhii's Expenraents on Luceriir There are two confiderations which render weeds here iel'j troublefome than in Britain ; the [sverity of our zvinter, and the Jicat of our jiimmer. Many, from the firfl of thefe caufes, are annual here, which are perennial there, by being able to live thro' their mild winter. The ilightefl fallowing in the heat of fummer, kills mod weeds here, while in England their moid climate enables the greatefl part of them, like Anteus, to bid defiance to wounds and bruifes, if they are permitted but to touch their parent earth. We may add to this that the indigenous weeds of this country are few, becaufe the children of the foreft, as well of vegetable as of animal tribes, fly the haunts of men ; the only troublefome weeds we have are convidls, that have been tranfported from our mother-country — They muft therefore, neceflTarily, be much fewer than thofe that remain behind, not only becaufe the habits of many of them are too delicate to afTimilate themfelves to our unpolifhed climate, but becaufe their number, in both countries, muff be proportioned to the time from which they began to be cultivated, and to the extent of their commerce — for ivceds and vices are the children of cultivation and commerce. Nor will they ever be eradicated in an improved country till fome agricultural millenium fliall advance cultivation to the higheft pofTible point of perfetSlion : All thefe confiderations form decided arguments in favor of the cultivation of lucerne (whofe greatell enemy is faid to be weeds) in this country, rather than Mr, LivingJlon*s Expenmcnt- ^r. LXice'rnc. 79 in England. Upon the whole then I would recommend, as th? refult of my experiments, as far as they have yet gone : I ft. Never to fow on ground that is not perfedly pulverized. 2d. Not to fow till the earth has acquired a degree of warmth friendly to rapid vegetation, that is, not earlier than the month of May. 3d. To fow with no crop that will probably lodge. 4th. If fown with buckwheat, to apply no gypfum or other manure, till the buck-wheat is off. 5th. "Where the quantity to be fown is fmall and the farmer can afford to lofe a crop, to give the ground one turn in the autumn, another in April, harrowing it fine, and a third the beginning of May, and then if the weather is mild and warm, fow, if the ground is in perfed tilth, otherwife give it another ploughing: 18 or 20 lb. of feed are not too much ; were it not for the expence, I fhould prefer 251b. if an early profit is the objeft. I fear that I have, in the opinion of many, dwelt too long on this fubjed ; if I have, my apology will be found in my anxiety to imprefs upon my countrymen, the importance of cultivating this plant, which I am fatisfied, is better adapted to our climate, than clover ; which exads no more labour ; which leaves (I fpeak upon the authority of Young's travels) the foil much 8o Mr. Living fton*s Experimenii on Liicernf. better than it found it ; which will even bear pafturing ; having myfelf remarked two plants in a^ common paflure which had defied the bite of cattle for upwards of twenty years, one of which is flill alive. Thefe confiderations have induced a convidion in my mind, that the man who introduces a plant which promifes to be fo important to agriculture, will have a better claim to the gratitude of his country than any other, that one only excepted, whofe military and civil virtues have afforded us the means of purfuing in peace, our rullic labours. I confefs that I am not unambitious of that honor — to the rich I have facilitated the means of procuring the feed, which has hitherto been very rare here ; fmall parcels I have diflributed to common farmers whofe exertions I have ftimulated, by fhewing the flourifhing ftate of my little field ; nor can I conclude without addreffing myfelf (in the words of the gofpel) to every member of the corporation who is blefl with equal or greater means " go thou and do Ukexuije." C 8i 3 EXPERIMENTS On lucerne. £r TUB Hon. RO B E RT R. L I V I N G S T 0 h\ (Continued— fro7n lajl year.) THE delay which has attended the printing of our memoirs, enables me to lay before the Society, a continuation of the experiments upon lucerne, which I had laft year the honor io fubmit to their confideration. No. I. CONTINUED. ill April — Manured with ten loads of black earth from a fwamp — or at rate of forty loads to the acre. It was very luxuriant and cut twice before the twentieth of June for plough-horfes kept in the flable— being when they began to cut each time, about fixteen inches high, the average heighth, taking the firft and lafl cutting, each time about 20 inches. On the 24th July, cut and made into hay, produced looowt. or two tons to the acre. On the laft of Auguft, cut a fourth time — produce 600 wt. or i ton 400 wt. to the acre. The fifth crop is not cut, but is now the ift October, 20 inches high, and very promifmg in its appearance ; if we have no fevere froft before the middle of this month, it will produce about 600 v/t. of hav. L $2 Mr. LivlngJlon*s Experiments on Lucerne, Produce and expence per acre of No. i. EXPENCE. 40 loads of black earth from an adjoining fwamp— at upcr load . . . . . . X. 2 o o Cutting 5 crops and making three into hay — at 8/" .200 Z., 4 o © Two firft crops valued at 500 wt. hay each, or Tons. C, 20a 3 crops In hay » . .200 4th crop in do. . « .140 5th eflimatedat • • « i o o 640 6 tons 4 cwt. at 2/6 • • • . . X. 15 10 er Expcnces above . • • . ,400 Profit X. 10 10 o There are fo many vacant fpots in this piece, owing to its being too thinly feeded, that I am fatisfied that had I fown the lucerne alone, at the rate of 2olb. inftead of 81b. to the acre, that produce would have been at lead one third more, tho' I believe L. 10 10 per acre, after paying for manuring and all expences, will be deemed fufficient profit to juftify the culture ©f this in preference to any other grafs. No. 2 CONTINUED. The lucerne fown over the wheat in the fpring of 1793^ yielded nothing, fo that the whole of this muft be flated as Mr. Living/ion's Experiments on Lucerne, ^x lofs, except that the expence of gypfum fhould be deduced from the account, as it produced a very noble crop of white clover, on ground on which I fhould otherwife have had little pallure. It is however to be remarked, that the red clover feed fown over the wheat at the fame time, in the manner mentioned in the experiment, fucceeded no better than the lucerne ; this mull be attributed in part to the feafon — and the experiment of lucerne upon wheat fhould again be tried, but only on a fmall fcale, as I am inclined upon the whole to think it will feldom fucceed. The lucerne fown with the oats, as I mentioned, was fo choaked by it as to promife nothing ; that fown with buck- wheat very little for the fame reafon, and both were ploughed up. The remaining experiments are thofe in which the lucerne was put in with barley and with turnips. The firit of thefe I mufl divide into two clalfes — ift. That fown on light-loam — 2d, That fown on clay. Produ^and expence^per acre^ of two acres of lucerne, fown with barley and clover, Aprily 1 793. T. C. Q, 26ih. June, cut and made into hay , . 120 26th July . . ^ . . .150 20th September ► , . . .140 ^ II 84 M'>'' Livlngjlons Experiments- on Lucerne, Expence per acre cutting and making hay Sy per acre . Z. i 4 c 3 tons 1 1 cwt. of hay, at 2/5 Dedu6t expences Clear profit Z. 8 17 . I 4 6 0 Z. 7. 13 6 Part of this was injured by the poultry and pigs which were conflantly upon it — thofe parts on which clover was mixed with the lucerne, very much inferior to that on which the lucerne grew alone. Lucerne and Clover on Clay. This cut only twice — the fecond time the 20th of Augufl : The product at both cuttings three tons to the acre — the iirll crop was much injured by the cattle breaking in, and by its being lodged. The lucerne among the clover is now fit to cut a third time, but having been fown thin, it will not make a trop alone, and the clover is too fhort to be worth cutting ; but the after grafs is fo fine, as to be adequate to all the expences attending the two firfl crops, fo that the three tons of hay or Z. 7 10 may be confidered as the neat profit upon this acre. Lucerne /own lyziA TuRMiPS, Aug. 1793. I exprefled my fears tha-t this lucerne would hardly live thro' this winter — however I was agreeably difappointed j early in th« fpring, the' the plants were fmall, and as I thought much Mr. Living/Ion* s Expsri7nents on Lucerm. 85 too far apart, yet as the feafon advanced, they (hot forward very luxuriantly, and this piece has been cut three times with that fown with barley. Altho' fown near four months later, tho firft crop was nearly equal to the barley fown, the fecond and third much fuperior to it, fo that its acreable produce may be ftated at four tons ; and its future produd will be greater than any I have, as it is perfectly even, without any vacant fpots, and uninjured by the clover which I fowed with my other crops. The introduction of a new plant is liable to fo many difficulties from ill management and prejudice, that I think it important flill to continue the regifter of my experiments at the rifk even of tiring the patience of the Society. I remember the avidity with which I read every thing that I could find on this fubjedt before I began my own experiments, and I remember too how much all I read fell fhort of my wifhes in many particulars, which I am now able to elucidate for the benefit of others, EXPERIMENT NO. I. Sept, 1793. Ploughed up four acres oats-flubble, foil, alight Ibam— I79i-i792in clover, manured with gypfum ; 1793? in ©ats, yield very great — ^about 64 bufliels to the acre. April, 1794. Ploughed twice — ifl May fowed two' acres^ with barley and 36ib. of lucerne feed, which covered by tlic roller. B6 Mr. Livingjlon^s Experwunis on Lucerne'. This barley was but tolerable, yielding about 20 bufhels to the acre. The lucerne is far from anfwering my expectation ; it is thin and in patches ; the rains which prevail this fummer have filled the ground with clover, fo that I expefl next year to cut more clover than lucerne from this ground. EXPEIMENT, NO. 2. The adjoining acre was fown with lucerne alone without barJey. It looks at prefent exadly as that fown with the barley, neither promifmg much as a lucerne crop. I fhould obferve that thefe plants came up very thick and well, but foon changed their colour in fpots to yellow, and died away, except where the ground was rich. EXPERIMENT. NO. 3. Ploughed up ^ of an acre that had been in potatoes lafl year, foil as above : dung was put in the rows when the potatoes were planted at the rate of 40 loads to an acre. ill May, fowed with barley and 12 lb. of lucerne-feed ; the barley good, but much injured by the poultry, being near my houfe. The lucerne a very fine and promifmg crop, cut the laft of September, about half a ton to the acre. This experiment is important, fince it proves that if lucerne is fown in the fpring, it fliould be on ground in good health, and warmed with dung. I have no doubt of cutting 4 or 5 tons of hay next year from this fpot. Mr, LivingJloh*s Experiinents on LiLcerne. 87 EXPERIMENT — NO. 4 — onc acrc, 1794. Soil as above, but poorer — ^fown this fpring with vetches, they were cut 20th July, for hay — ploughed immediately after, and put in i81b. lucerne feed; it came up very thick, and maintains a healthy colour, though the ground is very full of weeds ; this gives me no uneafmefs as they are annuals, and the feafon too far advanced to permit them to ripen their feeds ; they will only ferve to proted the lucerne againft the cold of the enfuing winter*. EXPERIMENT NO. C. Half an acre of my laft year lucerne (landing very thin, F ploughed it up this year, and firft July, fowed it with 81b. of lucerne feed and a fmall quantity of turnip feed, having previoufly manured the ground with ftable-dung — this, with a very wet feafon, has brought up fo many weeds as to injure the lucerne by overlhadoviring it, tho* it came up very vigoroufly —on the 20th Aug. mowed the weeds and turnip tops, which were very large, not however mowing very clofe. The lucerne at this time, ift Od. tho' very full of weeds,-, has a fme healthy appearance, and I have no doubt of its doing very well ; the turnips do not appear to have been injured by the mowing. . EXPERIMENT^ NO. 6. 5oil as above — ift May, planted three-fourths of an acre, mth early potatoes, the beginning of the ifl Aug. took them*. 88 Mr. Living jion*s Expcritnents en Lucerne. up and put in upon one ploughing i2lb. of lucerne feed — this has come up even and thick, and is very free from weeds ; if it flands the winter, which I hardly doubt, it will make a very fine crop the next year. EXPERIMENT NO. 7. One acre of gravelly clay fown this fpring with vetches left for feed, cut about the laft of Auguft and the beginning of September, fowed with i6 lb. lucerne: It is now (ift 061.) but juft beginning to fliew itfelf, owing to there having feared any rain fallen hnce ; and the refjalt of this experiment will determine whether it may fafely be fown with wheat in good foils, and how far it is capable bearing cold when very young. Having with a view to introduce this very ufeful plant, made (as I believe) more experiments, and upon a larger fcale than any other farmer in America, I fliali ftate the conclufions which I have drawn from them, as inflrudions to others that may chufe to cultivate it. I ft. It appears to me to be full as hardy as clover ; but like it, to delight in a warm dry foil, tho' it will flourifli in a moifj:* clay — ^fubjeft, however, to the fame cafualties in open winters, when both Vvdll be thrown out by the froft. :>nd. When verv young it requires a natural or artificial warmth in the foil, otherwife it languiflie?, and when the weeds and natural graffes come up, it is unable to contv-nd with tb.en\. Mr. Livingjlon's Experiments on Lucerne* 89 Thefe two obfervations point, firft to the foil in which it fliould be fown; to wit, a warm dry foil in tolerable heart; and fecond, to the means of procuring the warmth which I fpeak of as neceffary to the plant ; this may be obtained in two ways : ill, by dung ; and, 2d, by fowing when the fun has given the earth an addition?.! heat. If fpring fowing is intended, I fhould prefer ground that had been manured and bore a potatoe crop the year preceding, becaufe by that means the weeds which the dung produces will have been deftroyed by the hoeing of the potatoes. Ifnofuch ground is ready, and a fpring fowing is intended, the dung fliould be ploughed in July or Auguft, and the ground harrowed fine ; this will bring the weeds forward, when a fecond ploughing, and the winter will deftroy them before they have perfected their feeds ; the lucerne may be fown early in May (2olb. to the acre) after the ground has had three or four fpring ploughings with barley, which will pay the expence of the manure and ploughings. Second mode by which the feeds will come up quicker, and v/ith more regularity, is to manure early in the fpring, and to plough and harrow the ground fine when the weeds have fprung and got fome head ; and when the earliell kinds begin to blolfom, plough again and harrow fine; repeat this four times by the ifl of July, when the lucerne feed fhould be fown (i61b. to the acre) every feed of which will then vegetate : The feed fliould always be fown when the ground is dry, and rolled in, M <)Q Mr, Livingflon's Experiments on Lucerne. if committed to the earth while it is very moifl, the feeds will fwell, and if a dry feafon fiicceeds before they have fluck root, they will wither away. 3d — Lucerne is frequently liable to turn yellow, and look fickly. I have not been able to difcover the caufe of this evil, tho' I have carefully examined the roots with a microfcope — The remedy is to mow the plant ; it will com^e up free from the diforder. 4th — ^The time for cutting this for cattle is when ever it will fill the fcythe ; for hay when it begins to bloffom, if left till the bloifom turns, it becomes too hard : I would prefer cutting for cattle the firfl year, as this effectually deflroys all weeds. 5th — It may be fed down by any kind of cattle with as much fafety as clover. 6th — I would recommend it to the young farmer not to be difcouraged from purfuing the culture of this plant by the obfervations of fome of the older ones, who will tell him that Mr.. A and Mr. B tryed it, but it would not do. Experiments carelefsly made, or not regularly purfued, the accidental circumftances of foils, or feafons, afford no conclufive arguments, as may be inferred from the regifler which 1 have exhibited. ,Out of about fifteen acres which I fowcd laft year, but four fucceeded ; had I not tried the plant in various ways, I fhould probably have determined that it was Mr. Living flours Experifttents en Lucerne. 91 not worth attention. My errors and inflrudlons will render the ta(k eafier for thofe that chufe to attempt future experiments. And whether they fucceed or not, they will render agriculture fome benefit by communicating to this Society the refult of their experiments. R. R. LIVINGSTON, Clermont, 4,th 0^, iTQlt C r- ] ZxtraH of a Letter from Robert R. Livingston, Ejq; to the late Wm. Livingston, Efq; Governor of ^Qw-Jerf^ey, 1785, on the Subject of Green-gage Plumbs. Mrs. LIVINGSTON mformed me when I was lafl at Elizabethtown, that you had not been fuccefsful in raifmg the green-gage plumb. I fend you two of a very fine kind ; I have now above twenty bearing trees, none of which have been grafted, but were all the offspring of one that was raifed from the ftone of a grafted tree, which has produced fome hundred trees, as thofe I fend you will do, if planted in a loofe foil. The general complaint is, that this fruit drops before it ripens : I do not find that this is the cafe with mine, except fo far as is neceflary to keep the tree from being over-loaded. — I cannot help thinking, therefore, that thefe trees have in many places fuffered (in common with an higher order of beings) from the ignorance of their phyficians, who Infift that this evil arifes from too great a quantity of fap, or, in other words, from too much health, and accordingly dire£t a fpare regimen, and plant them in ftiff foils, where they cannot feed without difficulty ; and left they fhould not fuffer enough from this treatment, they cut their roots, put fiones in their mouths, bind their bodies with bandages, and even go fo far as to pierce and beat them, as if the fruit of this tree, like that of religion, was the offspring of mortification. Mr. Liviiigjlon^s Remarks 077 Grccn-gagc Plumhs. 93 I have never yet heard, that thefe prefcriptions have been attended with much fuccefs ; nor do I think they ever. will. — Except man, I know no animal that fuffers from a plethora, nor would he, if luxury had not provoked his appetite to exceed its natural bounds ; all others acquire flrength' from plenty of food.; the fame reafoning applies to vegetables, vvhofe feeds and fruits are always moH perfect, when a fufficiency of food is furniflied them. The plumb is in no foil a very vigorous tree ; its growth is flow ; and when it begins to bear, it is generally very heavily laden ; as the fruit increafes in fize, it makes a demand upon the roots for more fap than they can readily furnifli,, particularly as the droughts often come on juft as this demand is made. The circulation in the tree becomes more languid, and the fruit alters, withers and drops for want of nourifhmeut, or is deftroyed by worms, which are produced in it, as in the Itomachs of feeble children, .from unwholfome food. If this reafoning is juft, the remedy muft be the reverfe of that, which is ufually prefcribed. I have therefore always" planted my plumbs in the richeft fpots of my garden (the foil of which is a loam upon a light fand, dug up and mixed, and very highly manured every year), and my trees have fcarcely ever failed to ripen as much fruit as the branches could carry without danger of breaking. I have alfo had fome plumbs upon a ftiff clay, none of which have borne any fruit worth fpeaking of j one, aDrap D'or, had flood fifteen 94 ^^^' Livingjlons Remarks on Green-gage Plumbs, ■ years, and was not nine feet high when I removed it into my garden laft fpring a year j it has grown more fmce, than in the fifteen years preceding. Thefe circumftances convince me that my theory is right, and has induced me to enlarge upon it, in hopes that it may be ufeful to you, and that when confirmed by your experiments, it may be adopted by others. C 95 ] THE MANNER OF TAKING PORPOISES, AT THE EAST END OF LONG-ISLAND. £r EZRA L'HOMMEDIEU, es^ire^ VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE CORPORATION. A SEINE is made eighty rods long, with lines about the bignefs of ratline fluff, fuitable for a vefTel of fixty tons j the meOies are nine inches fquare, and the feine, in depth, is between twenty and thirty feet, or according to the depth of water where it is propofed to take the fifh : the buoys, are made of tight cafks of the bignefs of ten gallon kegs. — The feine is fet parallel v/ith the (hore and kept flraight, by an anchor at each end, with a buoy, at the diflance from the fhore, of about eighty rods. Two other fienes are made with meflies of fix inches fquare, with cordage of the bignefs of a large codline. The two feines are put in feparate boats which lie at the fhore, oppofite the ends of the great feine. The porpoifes go in flioals, and in following the fmall fifh, come between the fliore and the great feine ; when the porpoifes are got about the middle of the feine, one boat fets off a-head of them, and goes diredlly to the end of the great feine, throwing out the light feine from the fhore to the end of the great feine, when they are bothfaftened together, and difcharged 96 Mr. L. Hommedieu on manner of taking Porpoifcs. from the anchor : The other boat goes off foon after the firH;, and in hke manner puts out the fmall feine, till it is faflened to the other end of the great one. The fifli are then entirely inclofed. A number of flakes are put down in the beach, oppofite the great feine about three rods afunder ; a capflan, which two men can carry, is fallened with a rope at the outermoft ftake at each end. A large rope from the capftan is faflened to the lead-rope of the feine, and each end is hove up by two men with this capilan; and after the feine is hove up to the capflan by the rope, the rope is then fleeted and fallened again to the fame lead-rope, at the edge of the water ; and, as often as is neceffary the capflans at each end are brought nearer together and faflened to the next flakes. As foon as the fmall feines are afliore, and you begin to dravv^ on the great feine, three or four boats are fent behind the feine, and the top line of the feine is Hfted on the gunnels of the boats, left the porpoifes fliould make an attempt to jump over ; hitherto, they have been very eafy and quiet, but as they find they are circumfcribed within a fmall compafs, and the water begins to grow fhoal they grow uneafy, and colled: together in a body, and as if by mutual confent or agreement, they all go as one with their utmofl force againfl the bag of the feine : Their force is fo great when there are many together that it is neceffary to let the capflans run, left fomething might give way •, after this attempt to efcape is over, they do not make the fecond exertion, but become very gentle, fo that Mr. V Hommeiicu on the Manner of taking Porpoifes, 97 you may wade among them and put the flip-noofe over their tails, or fecure them with an iron, and hawl them up on the beach, where they are ftuck in the jugular veins with a knife, and foon die by bleeding. The blubber or fat on thefe fifli is from one to two inches thick, and they make on an average fix gallons of oil. After they are dead the blubber is cut through on the belly and on the back from the head to the tail, and is pealed off from the flefti or lean part in halves. The fkin of thofe fifh is fo clofe to the blubber, that there appears to be no feparation, and it cannot be feparated in the ufual way with a knife. Thefe half fides when taken from the Porpoife are laid on a beam fimilar to the one a currier or tanner ufes in taking the ilefh or hair from hides, with the Ikin downwards, and with a knife not unlike a currier's flefhing inife, the blubber is pared down till y "U get to the Ikin ; they ar^ then fent to the tanner, when they are made into leather, which is the ftrongeil of any hitherto known, and is excellent for the upper leather of boots and fhoes. N C 99 J EXPERIMENTS MADE BY MANURING LAND WITH S E A - W E E D, TAKEN DIRECTLY FROM CREEKS, AND WITH SHELLS: Er EZRA L' HOMMEDIEU, £S^, THE year before lafl I fenced about ten acres of poor land of a light dry foil, and which produced little except Jive-fingers and ground pine ; it was ploughed up and planted with corn, which was dunged in the holes, but the land was fo poor that the crop did not pay the expence of culture. Lafl year I contradted for one hundred tons of fea-weed, at fourteen pence per ton, and let out five acres of this piece of ground for raifing wheat. I was to find the manure, twenty ox-cart loads to the acre, which was to be carted and all other expences borne in raifing the crop, and I was to have the one half of the wheat dehvered in the flieaf in the field : Early in March the five acres was fowed with clover feed ; at harveft the wheat much exceeded my expectation ; that which was befl put in, by computing the fliocks, w^ould yield fixteen bufhels per acre — the clover came up very well and after harvefl headed, and the heads being collected by women and children among the flubble. 100 Mr. V Hommcdieu on Manuring Land with Shelhy 'zdc. the beft of it yielded a bufhel per acre, on an average fay forty pounds (the one half of whichlgave for gathering) ^there would have been much more had it not been for the difficulty of collefting among ftubble which mufl principally be done by hand j there is no doubt but this five acres will yield at leaft one ton of hay to the acre the next feafon. The computation of profits on this five acres is a^ follows : The one half of the crop, on an average, fay 7 bufhels wheat per acre at 8s. - - £" 2 i6 o 20 lb. Clover-feed - - - - -loo Deduct 2o tons of manure, at is. 2d. The neat profit per acre is The land was not worth more than forty (hillings per acre ; but by this tillage, the land, by the loweft computation, mufl now be worth five pounds per acre, which makes the difference of three pounds, which being added to the neat-profit, makes five pounds twelve fliiUings and eight pence clear gain per acre. Three acres of this piece of land, directly after the wheat was fown, was covered with drift fea-weed, which coft nothing but the carting : Early in the fpring it was fowed with clover feed, the fea-weed prevented any injury to the wheat from the winter, the kernel was good, and yielded eight bufhels to the acre : the clover came up well, but did not produce more £ 3 i6 O I 3 4 £ 2 12 8 Mr, V Hommcdieu on Manuring Land zuith Shells, C^c. loi than half the quantity of feed which the land adjoining did, which was manured with fea-weed from the creek. Perhaps thefe three acres may yield half a ton of hay by the acre the next feafon. The remaining two acres I manured with-fhells called Indian fhells ; that is, the fhells of clam.s, oyfters, wilks, and fcollops, collected by Indians, and by length of time fettled under the furface of the ground, and fo diflblved as to be broken in pieces and mixed with the earth ; twenty loads to the acre were carted on the two remaining acres of the ten ; on one acre twenty tons were carted and laid in heaps fix weeks before fowing : on the other acre the twenty loads was carted and dire£tly fpread, and harrowed in with the wheat : thefe two acres were fowed early in the fpring with daify-feed at harvefl ; the laft-mentioned acre did not produce a fufficient quantity of wheat (although the kernel was good) to pay the expence of tillage feparate from carting the fhells. The other acre where the fhells lay in heaps onh" fix weeks, was equal to that covered with drifted fea-weed. The daify-feed came up well on both acres, but grew much better on the acre where the fhells lay in heaps, than on the one where the fhells were immediately fpread, and by appearance will produce a good crop of that hay the next feafon : in many parts of the country, efpecially on the fea-coaft, there are vafl quantities of thofe Indian fliells, and by the above experiment, it is neceifary for a crop of grain, that the fhells be expofed to the air fome time before they are put in the ground : if they arc (s 102 Mr, V Hommedieu on Manuring Land with Shells^ &c, carted in the fpring, and lay In heaps till fowing, it may well anfwer the purpofe, though the longer they lay in heaps perhaps the better for the crop j a few experiments which may be made without any expence, will determine the time neceflary for their expofure. By a number of experiments made in Suffolk County, thofe fhellsare found to be a durable manure, and very favourable to the produdlion of grafs, and the land for a nunfber of years is growing better both for grafs and grain. s .« [ 103 ] O N D I T C H E S AKD HEDGES: Hi- EZRA VHOMMEDIEU, es^ V JC E-PRESID t NT OF THE CORPORATION. THE fcarcity of timber in many parts of this ftate for fencing ■'A'here there are no Hones for walls, has greatly affeded the price of land, and farmers wiM foon be in a very difa.greeable fituation unlefs fome expedient be found for fencing their farms at a cheaper rate, in the old fettled parts of the country, than is at prefent praclifed. In many parts of the new fettkments too there is but very little timber fuitable for fencing the inconveniences of which will foon be felt by the inhabitants. In confidering this fubje£t itwili readily occur that Ditches and Hedges can be the only fubftitute where there is no ftone. It will be worth the attention of this Society to get information of the bed method of making Ditches and raifmg Hedges, that the fame may be communicated for the benefit of the public. This fubject is much talked of by farmers ; but fmce the deflrudion of the prim and the EngliJJi black tkorn, few attempts have been made to raife hedges in any manner whatever. In the town of Eaft Hampton, in Suffolk county^ by the beft computation, at leall two hundred mtles of good prim-hedge died in the courfe of two or three years, which was a greater lofs to the inhabitants than if every houfe in the townfhip had been burnt down at the time ; it has not as yet been difcovered what occafioned the deflruction of the prim. I04 Mr. L*Hommedieu on the dejlruction of priUy &c. The Engliih black thorn in Southampton was nearly equal to the prim in Eail Hampton : This has lately all died there, as it has in every other part of the colintry where it grew. A certain fly makes a hole thro' the bark of the thorn, and there depoiits its eggs or maggots ; the fap of the thorn runs out at this hole and hardens on the bark, and becomes a hard burch round the limb, and prevents all circulation of the fap or juices in that part, and intirely kills the limb ; this being the cafe in the different branches from the fame flock, the whole is foon deftroyed. There are frequently three or four of thefe maggots in one bunch ; they grow near half an inch long before they become a fly. They have alfo by the fame means deftroyed all the plumb and damfon trees on the Eaft end of Long-Ifland ; and have lately began on the cherry- trees, efpecially on the black cherry, which was fet in ditches and bade fair -to make good hedges, and in a ihort time will probably kill the whole ; and it is to be feared that they will increafe and deftroy all our cherry trees, tho' I have not feen any large trees injured by them as yet. Where the prim and thorn hedges were deftroyed no fubftitute has been attempted. Where poft and rail fence cannot be got the ditches are kept up, and with ftakes and poles on the top a temporary fence is made. It is difficult to fay what would be the beft thing for a hedge that we can depend on : The thorn of this country would make an excellent hedge, far fuperior to the Englifh white thorn, but we have not as yet been able to raife it from, the feed or haws. Mr. VHommedieuon Ditches and Hedges. 105 If we may judge by the great mortality of the prim and Englifli black thorn, the thorn of this country will not be fo liable to diforders as fhrubs which are imported from Europe. It anfwers but little purpofe to have ditches unlefs you have hedges to fupport them. The wild cherry is of quick growth, and bears lopping, but Is eafily deflroyed by cattle who are fond of the leaves ; this is the cafe with the locuft tree. It is found that where lands have been cleared, and young oaks, walnut, or any other trees that will bear lopping, have been left, they have anfwered well for a hedge by lopping the fame on a ditch, and is a good fence againfl cattle and flieep. I would recommend the fetting out any kind of young trees, that will bear lopping, of two or three feet in length, which will be fit to lop on the ditch two or three years fooner than if raifed from the feed. I have lately gone into this practice, and make no doubt of its fuccefs. If the pom^ace of apples is fcattered in ditches^ the feed will come up, and if kept from the cattle a few years, will be fufficiently grov/n to expofe to cattle, who will bite the tops, and prevent then- growing, higher -, they will then grow thick and thorny, and make a very good hedge. Lafl year I ftrewed all my pomace in ditches for this purpofe. I have feen young apple trees put in a ditch, that is, the bank, between the fods or turfs, when the ditch or bank was making : they grew well, and being expofcd to eattle, became a good hedge, and well fupported the baiik,- O C io6 ] O N IMPROVING POOR LANDS, B Y SOWING RED CLOVER-SEED: BT EZRA L* HOMMEDIEU, es^ VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE CORPORATIOK. SOME years ago,I faw a piece of verypoor loomy land, grown over with raofs, and yielding no pafture except five-fingers and a few daifies ; it was ploughed up early in the fpring and fowed with nothing but red clover-feed, four quarts to the acre. The next year it produced a confiderable quantity ot hay, which was the only crop, tho' the land was much better afterwards. I make no doubt but this mode of culture mio-ht o be improved to great advantage. It is the only inftance I have feen of clover feed being fown alone on any land. It is commonly faid that the fowing of this feed will anfwer no purpofe on very poor land ; perhaps the reafon is that wheat, rye, oats, or fomething elfe, is fown at the fame time, which exhaufls all the flrength of the land to bring it to perfection, and leaves the clover that comes up in fo weak and languid a ftate, that it eventually comes to nothing ; when if the clover had all the nourifliment the land was capable of affording, it might Mr. UHommedieu on improving poor Lands, &c. 107 produce a fafficlency of feed the firfl year to pay for the feed fown and the tillage ; and the next year a confiderable crop of hay, which would be a clear profit ; and if the lands were ploughed up the next fpring after cutting the hay, while the roots of the grafs were alive, it would fo inrich the land that in the next procefs the feed and hay would be much increafed, and by continuing this mode of culture the lands would be made good without further manure. I would propofe that the advantages of this mode of improving poor lands be afcertained by experiments to be made on different foils by gentlemen of the Society Vv^ho are farmers. C io8 ] ON THE ADVANTAGES OF RAISING THE LEUCANTHEMUM, or Great Common DAISY, J5r EZRA VHOMMEDIEU, es^ I AM fully fenfible of the prejudices of farmers In general agalnfl this plant, and of the expence and labour which have been judged neceflary to deflroy it. I have known many farmers take great pains to eradicate it, when the prefent occupiers, their children, fow many bufhels of the feed every year on the fame farm ; while the land remained good and would produce white clover. After cropping, this plant no doubt was not fo beneficial as the clover j but after the lands were reduced fo low as not to produce grafs equal to the daify — ^in many parts of the country the averfion againll it was ftill continued, and is fo to this day — thoygh I am fully fatisfied by experience and obfervation, that upon old worn out lands it Is the mofl profitable plant that Is propagated on Long-Ifland. This year I intend fowing fix bufhels of the feed on poor light land, now fowed with wheat, which probably will produce about feven or eight bufliels to the acre. This plant affords very good food for fheep and cattle ; it makes good butter, and if it is not paflured, makes hay, (if cut in feafon while in the bloom and well cured) equal to clover. Horfes, horn cattle and flieep eat it as readily as any other hay. I had much rather have a load of this hay than one of coarfe red clover j the On the Advantages of raifing Daify, 109 advantages of propagating It on poor lands are many — iil. Lands which will produce this hay may not be flrong enou^-h to produce any other — 2d. Poor land will produce much more pafture with this plant than any other— 3d. Sheep and cattle are very fond of it, while it is young — 4t]i. It is not eafily affeded by a drought; this makes it peculiarly advantageous to Long-Ifland, which from its fituation is more fabjea to drought than mod other parts of the country ; when other paftures are dried up this remains green and flourifhino- 5th. It is never affeded by grubs or other worms ; when whole fields of other grafs are deftroyed by worms, the daify receives no injury from them— 6th. It is favourable to a crop of wheat, and if you choofe to turn your daify-field to a clover-field, you have nothing to do but manure it well, which will deftroy all. the daifies. It yields much feed, and is commonly fold for about four fhilHngs per bufhel tho' not well cleaned. Some people ftrew the feed on poor lands without ploughing ; this anfwers fome purpofe, but the belt pradice is to plough the poor lands for wheat or rye, and fow the daify feed either with the grain or early in the nextfpring, as may be moil convenient. About three quarts of clean feed will be fufficient for an acre. no ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP: Br EZRA VHOMMEDIEU, Es^ ON obferving that flieep kept by fhepherds in flocks, and folded every night, for the purpofe of manuring land, were poor and fmall, compared to others which were kept in no better paitures, and not folded, I determined to make an experiment of the profits which might arife to the farmer by folding 'his flocks of fheep, which I concluded might be advantageous, if properly conducted ; for this purpofe, on the firft day of June, the year before iafl, I fenced and ploughed up one acre in a field which contained about feventy acres, and on which were kept eighty grown fheep, and fixty lambs. I concluded that if the fheep were folded every night at fun-down, and let out every morning by fun-rife, the fheep would not be much iujured, the crop of wheat propofed to be raifed on the acre, v/ould be confiderable, and iJhe land much improved, which then was very poor. The fheep were properly attended to, which v/as eafy to be done, as the fold was in the Iheep-paflure, and 'the farm houfe not more than twenty rods from the fold. I ioo'n Mr. VHommedicu on the Folding of Sheep. 1 1 1 dlfcovered, after folding the flieep, which began about the middle of June, that they did not look fo well as iifual, and was advifed by the overfeer to difcontinue the pradice : I determined however to make the experiment, and continued the folding till the firfl of Anguft. After which the ground was fowed with wheat, fome turnip-feed and red clover-feed. The lambs were fo much injured by the pradlice, that they ' fold for one {hilling lefs on an average than thofe which were raifed on the fame paflure before and fmce ; and the grown fheep fuffered fo much, that by the beft judgment I could make, by confidering their being poorer than otherwife they would have been, and calculating the reduced quantity of wool which they yielded the next fpring, that the average lofs was two {hillings on each grown {heep. The wheat was hurt by the winter, though had it not been for this circumflance, by computing that part which was not v/inter killed, the product would have been {ifteen bulhels. Sixty bu{hels of turnips were pulled from the fame ground^ and I expeded that the land would have been fo improved as to produce a good crop of hay the next year, but in this 1 was difappointed ; the wheat and the turnips having exhaufled almo{l the whole of the manure which was obtained by the {heep, and the land left in a flate not much fuperior to what it was at firfl. 112 Mr. V Hommedieu on tJit Folding ef Shetp, Computation of Profit and Loss. Ploughing, fowing, and reaping the acre, . . £. i lo o Pulling and cutting the turnips, o ro o Lofs on eighty grown Iheep, at 2S. . , . . . 8 o o Lofs on fixty lambsj at is ..300 Attending the flieep, 080 £.i3 8 o Produce. Fifteen bufliels of wheat, in cafe no part had been winter-killed, at 8s 6 o o Sixty bufhels of turnips, at is. 6d. . 4 10 o ' 10 10 © Lofs, . ,......*,....£. 2 iS o By this experiment I was convinced no advantage would arife from the conflant folding of Iheep. The injury done to the fheep by folding, appears to arife from a number of caufes. They became very dirty by lying on ploughed ground, which muft check their ufual perfpiration. Their noflrils are alfo affeded by the duft which is taken in with their breath, and their refpiration impeded, which with the breath of fo many lying clofe together, mufli be unfavourable to their health. But the principal caufe I apprehend, arifes from their being prevented from feeding at pleafure, when the dew is on the grafs, when it affords the greatefl nouriiliment. Sheep feldom feed in the middle of the day, and drink but very little, which I conclude is owing to their feeding Mr, V Hommedieu on the Folding of Sheep, 1 1 '. principally while the grafs is moiftened by the dew. I am induced to believe this, becaufe it is found by experience, that a horfe, by being accuftomed to go in a paflure without water, will foon learn to eat while the dew is on the ground, and will thrive as well as if he could go to water whenever he chofe. It Is alfo found by experience, that calves will obfervation, I am convinced that this pradice is wrong, and that calves taken from the cows wean much better in a paflure without water, than in a paflure of equal goodnefs with water. Lafl year I faw in a paflure without water, more than twenty calves, in which they had been kept without drinking from the time of their being taken from the cows till fometime in the fall : I frequently faw them and obferved them , more attentively, on account qf the particular manner in which they were kept y they were ail thrifty and remarkably gaunt orfmall bellied, which, the owner (a gentleman cf Suffolk:. Mr. VHommedieu on raifing Calves. n:;; county) imputed to their not having water ; and obferved that he never had calves do fo well before — and his obfervations on the fubje6t very well accounted for the fa£ls. He fuppofed that calves accuftonied to get their fupport from milk (being a liquid) when they are feparated from the cows, and put in a pafture where there is water,, after becoming very hungry and dry, betake themfelves to water, which being a liquid, and more fimilar to what they have been accuftomed to, than grafs, they drink and drink again, till they appear round and full ; but this not being fufficient to fupport nature, after falling away confiderably, -they eat a Httle grafs, and that principally in the day-time, which does not alleviate their third, fo as to prevent their drinking too much. But on the other hand, when there is no water in the pafture, the calves, preifed by hunger, are obliged to feed on grafs which contains fome moifture, and foon learn to allay their thirft by eating while the dew js on, and for the fake of the moifture or dew on the grafs, eat much more than they would do, if they could go to water, and foon get accuftomed to feed chiefly in the night and in the morning, before the dews are exhaled. By this practice you will fee no pot-bellied calves, which is occafioned by drinking' too much, and eating too little : this too brings on poverty in flefti, which produces . lice, and the lice prevent the thriving and growth of the calves till their coat of hair is ftied the enfuing fpring, one or tv/o other facts, which I flmll relate. From this and II 6 Mr, V Hommedieu on raiftng Calves, I am induced to believe that there is fomething more nouri/liing in dew than is commonly imagined. On obferving a horfe owned by a perfon in my neighbourhood, for a number of years, to be very fat in the fummer feafon, although it was the only horfe the owner had, and was worked fteadily, and went in very poor paflure, I afked the owner by what means he kept his horfe fo much fatter than his neighbours, who made ufe of much better paflures. He informed me that he gave the horfe no grain of any kind, but kept him in a. very- poor palture adjoining a. creek where creek-thatch grew on fand-flats : that the horfe got but very little from the upland,, but fed on the thatch at nights and in the mornings, while the dew remained, but after the dew was exhaled, he would cat no more of the thatch, but return to the upland, and: if at liberty, would take, his refl the bigger part of the day. Horfes in general will not eat this thatch, and it is very poor fodder for cattle, although it anfwers with the help of ether fodder, to keep them through the winter. The owner, further informed me^ that before his horfe had learnt to feed on thatch, which was two feafons, he continued to be quite poor in the paflure in which he then went,. No perfon acquainted with this fedge, will fuppofe that a horfe can be. kept on it in any -tolerable o_rder, with common water ; and; it mufl be fuppofed that the dew added very materially to ths. HQuriiliment. of the horfe.. Mr. D Hommedieu on raifmg Calves. ny It is obfervable, that the dew in fummer, frequently has a fweet tafte, not very difTimilar from honey, and is called a honey-dew. It is probable that all dew has more or lefs of thofe particles, and affords very confiderable nourifhment to animals in general'. C ii8 J ESSAY ON SOME PERENNIAL GRASSESj with the most approved method of their cultivation, and various references to their proper soil: By peter DELABIGARRE, Es^ HON OMNIS PERT OMNIA TELLUS. yiRG. AMONGST a great number of grafles ufed for artificial paflures, I thought it my duty to feleQ: thofe which I prefume the moft fuitable to this State, and mofl friendly to cattle, as far as I am able to judge, from my experience of the country- LUCERNE, I ESPARCET, ) CLOVER, SAINFOIN, j PIMPERNEL, j VETCHES. This Eflay will be extend^ only to four of the perennial, confidering the three others as annual, and lefs ufeful, which therefore require a feparate treatife. LUC E R N E. It is not true that lucerne can grow every where : it requires a light, but fubftantial ground, not too dry nor too wet: it delights in a deep and gravelly foil, or rich fand. Mr. Delabigarre on Perennial Grajfes^ i^c. 119 where it may root down eafily, rather upon a level fpot, than on mountains or declivities. As much as poffible I would chufe a fituation fheltered by woods or hedges from the cold winds in the winter, and from burning breezes in the fummer. TILLAGE AND SOWING. The ground intended for lucerne, muft be ploughed twice before the winter, fifteen inches, or at leafl a foot deep. In the latter end of March you plough it again, and drefs it with a harrow before the day of fowing : the feed is buried in the ground by the harrow, taking care to fix chatwood or branches under and betwixt the teeth, in fuch way as to facilitate the covering of the feed, without going too deep into the ground. There are two ways for the fowing of lucerne : the firft, by itfelf, which is the beft : the fecond, mixed with, barley or oats — ^but obferve not to mix lucerne with any other perennial., "Whether lucerne is fown by itfelf, or mixed with barley, take twenty pounds weight for an acre. If you chufe to fow it with barley, take the exact meafure of the quantity of barley which you are ufed to fow upon one acre — then put in that meafure twenty pounds of lucerne feed, and- I20 Mr. Ddahigam on Perennial GraJJeSy ^3c. fill it up afterwards with the barley, that procefs will eftablilh the jufl proportion. If you intend to fow lucerne by itfelf, fill up the meafure with fand or alhes over the above-mentioned quantity of feed, that method makes the fowing eafier and more regular. When your barley is ripe, you may mow it as clofe as poflible to the ground without any danger of hurting the young plants of your lucerne, of which you cannot expedl but a very indifferent crop that firft; year. Don't let cattle feed upon it at that time. The fecond year will give you two crops. In the beginning of the third year, as foon as the winter is over, you mufl harrow your lucerne about two inches deep when the ground is yet moift, in two or three different directions, in order to root out the weeds : Never mind nor be uneafy if your lucerne is torn to pieces by that hard dreffmg ; the more it is torn the better it will grow : this is a lad of long experience, upon which you may rely. MANURE. AFTER the above dreffmg, you may manure your lucerne with greater advantage, by fpreading over fome new ground or mud taken from creeks and fwamps, or employ fome pulverized gypfum. Mr^Delahigarre on Perennial GraJfeSf C5c. m The beft manure for lucerne which I know, is the dung of fowls and pidgeon-houfes, well dried by the fun, and reduced into powder ; but it feems very fcarce, and too difficult to be got in this country, although a great deal lefs of this laft manure would be required, as in the proportion of one to nine. Dung of cows, horfes, or of any other cattle, ought to be rejected as bad manure, upon lucerne — becaufe they bring with them fuch a quantity of weeds, as to poifon the beft lucerne in the courfe of two years. PRODUCE. The third year the lucerne has acquired its full flrength^. then upon a common average one acre v/ill produce, viz. The firft crop, ». . . . . . . 2500 weight. The fecond, 1400 do. The third, 600 do. After the third crop, let it be fed upon by your cows all the remainder of the falL Such a piece of lucerne will laft from nine to ten vears : but however great may appear the profit of that cuhure, there is- a greater one after the lucerne is v.-orn out : 1 mean the richnefs- aiforded to the ground by the roots of that plant : Vv hich is fdch, that the firft year the lucerne has been ploughed up, I isas. never able to raife wheat, which grew too rich, tall, C>. ■■■Si. 12-2 Mr. Delahigarre on Perennial Qrajfes, &c. luxuriant, and lodging. Inflead of wheat, then you mull fow barley or oats. MOWING. The moil proper time to get good and tender forage, relifhed by the cattle, is to mow lucerne when in full blolTom, or a little before the ripenefs of the feed. Another advantage of mowing early, is to have the weeds cut down, which otherwife would come to feed, and fpread over the field. When the weather is clear, one or two days are fufficient to dry your lucerne hay ; and by fpreading over each row a thin bed of any flraw — (that of oats and barley is the befl) you may carry your lucerne to the barn, without any danger of being hekted or rotten. The flraw fo intermixed v/ith lucerne, receiving the juicy emanations of it, becomes more palatable, and it is eaten like the befl hay by the cattle. It would be needlefs to obferve what increafe of food that procefs affords to a farm. DISORDER. In fome uncommon fummers, it happens that lucerne is attacked by caterpillars, or other infeds. When this is the cafe, and you perceive the flems and the leaves turning pale, ycUov/, or fading, the only and befl remedy is to mow inflantly Mr. Ddabigarre on Perennial GraJ/ts, &c. 122 your lucerne, which will foon grow again, fine and Tree from thofb ini;:cis. SAINrOIN. It may be afcertalned that fainfoin, confidercd like hay, is one of the nioft friendly foods to neat cattle ; horfes are particularly fond of it in the winter, when it furnifhes thein fo flrong a nourilliment as to be a good fubditute for oats. It grows upon any kind of foil, except upon flony ground. Its moft advantageous quality is to fucceed in the pooreft land, fandy loam, and upon dechvi'ties, of which it keeps the ground. TILLAGE AND SOWING. Two tillages as deep as poffible, according to the nature of the ground ; never mind if the plough turns up a part of that reddifh and yellow flratum which they call unvegetable among the farmers. It is fown by itfelf, or mixed with the fame grains pointed out for lucerne : but as the feed of fainfoin is bigger than that of lucerne, the mixture mufl be in proportion. MANURE. Any kind of well-rotten dung, or any pulverized gypfum, ■will increafe the crops, though it may do without. When 124 Mr* Ddahigarre on Perennial GraJfeSt &c^- it Is three or four years old, a good harrow-fcratching cannot fail to be of fervice. PRODUCE. It will be according to the foil, commonly two crops. The firft richer than that of any other grafs : The fecond lelTer in the proportion of one to nine — ^becaufe you cannot mow the fainfoin as early as you do lucerne. If you wifh to make a ftrong food for your horfes, you mult wait till it is grown up in feed for the firfl crop. MOWING. I would recommend the method pointed ont for lucerne, as the moft profitable. LONGEVITY. Sainfoin is in full ftrength the third year, and will lafl from nine to twelve years, fometimes more, according to the f(^il and expofition. DISORDER. It is not liable to be deflroyed by any kind of infecl, as far as I know from an experience of fifteen years. Its mortal enemy is a flock of fneep, particularly when it is young. ESFARCLT. This grafs, unknown I believe in England, may be clafled imong the plants of perennial Idnd, and more like the fainfoin Mr, Delahigarre en Perennial GraJJes^ Qc. 1 25 than any other. It has fome peculiar "advantages — It may be fown in every month of the year, except in time of fnov/ or froft, growing upon every foil, it roots very well through flifF clay, flony or hard red gravel, provided the ground has been ploughed as deep as poflible. MANURE Xike for fainfoin. PRODUCE, MOWING, &:C. Though It would afford a crop nearly like that of fainfoin, I preferred keeping it for conflant pafture ; and in that wav I have feen one of twenty-three 3'ears old, producing as fine grafs as any young meadow. It is remarkable for keeping well the ground upon declivities. — No Diforder. PIMPERNEL. This perennial plant, which I would rather call immortal, on account of its long continuance, highly deferves to be introduced into this country. It is capable of withflanding the feverefl: cold^ as well as heat ; belides it grows as well upon the top of mountains as in plains and valleys : it delights above all In light, fandy, gravelly or calcarious foils. This vivacious plant has the pov/er of deftro}ang every other kind of grafs or weeds. It keeps green all the winter, and the cattle are fo Tond of it, that whenever they fmell it, they foon remove the 126 Mr, Velahigarre on Perennial GraJfeSy ^c. fnow to get at It. Whether eaten dry, green, or wet, it never hurts the cattle : Its nutritive qualities differ from thofe of cthsr plants of the fame clafs : for inftead of heatinn-, it refrefiiss. Give me kave to fiibniit to you a fjngk inRance, reconimending this plant belter than any other defc?iption. In the province of B ^rrl It was knov.'n and remarked long ago, that all the Iheep who fed upon certain meadov/s full of wild pimpernel^ had finer wool. In confequence, a gentleman jof my acquaintance took the trouble to cultivate a piece of pTound with that pimpernel, and his fuccefs has confirmed beyond any doubt our preceding remark. He bought twenty poor wretched fheep, who never had before but coarfe and common wool. In the courfe of the firfl year the alteration in the wool was fenfible, and the little flock was bearing a good and healthy appearance. ' Not further than at the third {hearing, the wool was fo fine that it fetched one-fifth above the common price. In fhort, this plant, whether as hay or in grafs, affords the moft relifhing food to horfes and cows j thefe laft give much better milk. TILLAGE AND SOWING. The ground muft be well ploughed at leafl fix inches deep, once in the latter end of September, the fecond time in October. Then twelve pounds of feed will do for an acre, Mr. Delahigarte on Perennial Grajfes^ i3c. 127 if the ground is good : — add to it as much fand or afhes, and fow it as you do lucerne. MANURE. It may do without, but gypfum and any kind of dung would by all means increafe the crops. Like lucerne, this grafs will receive a great benefit, by being fcratched with a harrow, every other year in the beginning of March. PRODUCE, Commonly three crops, like lucerne, if it is refcrved for hay. MOWING, Like lucerne. ^DISORDER, None, as far as I know. LONGEVITY, Immortal. [ 128 ] EXCURSIONS O N. OUR B L U E MOUNTAINS : .Br PETER DELAB IGARRE, Es^ AGENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AT NEW-YORK. STIMULATED by the flroiigeft defire of paying my lliare to your iifeful or curious difquifitions, tending to enlarge the natural hiftory of this State, I beg leave to lay before you my nrft excurfions on that ridge of mountains oppofite Redhook Landinn-, commonly called Catfkill, or Blue Mountains. I do not prefume to give you atprefent an accurate or complete defcription of the many curiofities, plants, trees, and minerals, unexplored in that wild part ; to obtain which, would require more time and knowledge than I could apply to fuch extenfive refearches laft year — ^thus the only merit of this communication is the novelty of many objeds, and a fl^etch of my zeal. The 9th of April, 1793, at 11 o'clock, a,. m« calm and- clear weather, I was at the foot of- that part of the mountains due weft of Redhook landing :. the firft afcent, to the height of four hundred feet, is very eufy and gradual: there fome banks of rocks run laterally and in a femi-circular hne round the fid.c of the mountain, rifing a little higher towards tlie: Mr. Dclallgarrt's Excuyfions on the Bhe Mountaim. 129 fouth, like the firfl walls fupportmg the upper ground. i\ll over thefe rocks of Itard free-ftones, there is a fufficifiut quantity of vegetable earth to cover them with trees fimilar to thofe of the lower ground. I was much furprifed at finding not a fmgle run of water from that place to the fummit of the mountain, which I reached after many hard windings : Almofl choaked by the heat of the day, and the difficulty of my afcent, I felt myfelf very diilrefled ; but taking a turn to the north fide, I was relieved by fome heaps of remaining fnow, which, melted with brandy, afforded me a delicious drinking, tenfold better than any ice-cream. My elevation then was about 2,800 feet above the level of the river j and at four o'clock being on the higheft top, I had the pleafure of contemplating a moil magnificent profpe6l all around the compafs. That large river, which I could hardly crofs In half an hour^ appeared like a rivulet : a floop was no more than a fmali <:anoe rigged with a blanket. What was become of thofe lands, places and buildings, left in the morning ? Was I able to perceive then any of thofe bufy people riding on the roads, or working in their fields ? Could I diflinguifli the rich abode from the humble cottage ? Could I hear the noife of a buflling world ? No : the whole of it was confounded in the vafl horizon before my eyes, like a grain of fand "at my feet. I will not atteniDt to defcribe the elevated and noble ideas then R 230 Mr. Delahi^arre*s Exctirfions on the Blue Mountaius, excited in any mind for fear of attenuating the great by a. little picture ! The top of the mountain is covered with evergreen, pitch, and white pines, hemlock, fpruce, and large filver fir trees : Lower down on each fide, are fugar-maple, beech, alh, birch, oak, and elm trees. The underwood is compofed of many ihrubs like thofe of the other mountains, except that there is a greater number of wild currants, goofeberries, rafberries,, than any where elfe. In fome fhaded places I difcovered a kind of liquorice very much refembling that of Italy, as to the tafte of the root,. I obferved with fome pleafure that the fouth-fide of the mountain is full of fox and winter grapes, upon which l make no doubt' the bears make a pretty good vintage every fail. It confirms my former ideas on the poffibility of cultivating the grape in this country with as much fuccefs as in Europe. Though it would be ufelefs, and by no means delirabie, to anticipate the time, we may fbrefee that a day will come when neceffity with her iron rod, fliall compel the more numerous Americans to cultivate thefe wild gifts of a rude but beautiful nature—then Madeira will give place to the Blue Mountain-claret. A fa^^ Mr, Dclahigarrc on Silk Worms, l^5th Que.) What time is moft proper to hatch the eggs ? (An3.) As it is impolTible to determine any particular day, it mufl be calculated from the temperature of each climate and the knowledge of the feafon, relative to the putting forth of mulberry leaves, in fucli way as to be certain of getting fufficient food for the young worms. Notwitflanding, the fooner the better : becaufe the young worms want the tendereft leaves ; thus the moil proper time to begin the hatching is, when you perceive the firft buds of Mulberry difpofed to come out. (6th Que.) What is the befl method of hatching? (Ans.) The choice of the eggs and the method of their hatching, are the two important objeds upon which depend chiefly all our future fuccefles, and in the mean while, it is worth the while to obferve, that both are entirely at our own difpofal. As foon as the buds of mulberry are coming out, we mud take particular care to have our eggs hatched. The eggs mud be properly divided into ounces, in fuch a way, that one ounce fliould be hatched all at once if poffible, in order to avoid the trouble and labour of feeding feparately the worms hatched at different times. The eggs are commonly put in a fmall bag, to the "quantity of an ounce. If you intend to raife a great quantity, at the interval of a day, you put as many bags as you wifh to hatch Mr. Delahigarre on Silk Worms, j^y at the foot of your bed, under the mattrafs or feather bed, then you move them nearer and nearer by degrees to the middle of the bed. The bags mufl be opened every day, ta admit frefli air to the eggs, and facilitate their pcrfpiration. When they turn whitifli, it is a fign that the worms will' come out very foon : then a greater attention is neceffary to the eggs ; befides the cuflomary airing, they ought to be moved and flirred up five or fix times in the courfe of twelve hours, for fear that the embryo fliould be choaked by a too clofe heat. Any inconvenience of that kind, may be better avoided by putting the eggs in fmall boxes of pine boards, about an inch deep, pafled infide with white paper, the bottom of which is filled with cotton of about 6 lines deep and covered with a bit of white linen, upon which the eggs arc fpread. Though the eggs hatched in that way are not liable to be heated fo foon as in the bags, the boxes notwithflanding ought to be opened once a day, and oftener according to their age or time of hatching. In Italy, Spain and fome part of France, it is the bufmefs of women to hatch the eggs of filk worms, by wearing the above mentioned bags under their petti-coats, and when they go to bed, they put them under their pillow for the night. Each of thefe ways is good, provided care is taken to air them as recommended before. The mean degree of heat mod 1^5 Mr. Delahigarre on Silk Worms* fuitable to the hatching, is 42° of Reaumur's, or ^6° of Farenheits thermometer, which is reckoned the common heat of the human blood. (yth QvE.) Is it not poflible 'o hatch thefe eggs by artificial fire, in ovens, ftoves, or hot rooms ? (Ans.) That way is praftifed and recommended by people raifing filk worms upon a very extenfive fcale, but we find that it would require too much expence, to render it prafticable to the greater part of our country folks. Thefe coftly experiments agree very well with fome curious and rich people, who can afford to build ovens and fl:oves, &c« The moft-eafy and leaft expenfive way, ought to fix all our attention at prefent. Merely to fatisfy the curiofity of forae of our readers, we beg leave to give here a fiiort defcription of a new contrivance for the purpofe of hatching. "Under the roof of a houfe, chufe a room of about 10 feet fquare, and 8 or 9 feet high ; fix a ftove in the middle, the funnel of which mufl carry the fmoak out through the r roof; make two fmall openings in the roof, 3 feet diftant from the funnel on each fide ; fix on both openings an iron pipe, open around like a grate ; it may be made of iron wire fo as to give an eafy accefs to the air. In the mean while, to prevent the coming in of birds, rats, or any vermin, you Mr, Ddahigarre on Silk Worms, lyy muft cover the top of the pipes with a kind of iron plate made like an elbow, as you might have feen many caps fixed on chimneys, turning very much like a weather-cock. The room being difpofed in that way, it remains to build up upon four or fix pods, a kind of floor made with narrow boards half an inch diilant from each other : that floor muit be about four feet high, and fixed horizontally upon the pofts ; on the floor yon lay as many fieves made of clear filk fluff, or of fome gauze as you have occafion and room for ; in thefe fieves you fpread at the thicknefs of two or three lines only, and as equally as pofTible the eggs to be hatched. Then you mufl regulate the temperature of the room by a thermometer, according to the degree already mentioned. In order to keep an uniform degree of heat, you will have a kind of turning focket infide of the funnel of your fliove, with which you may open or fhut up that funnel as you think proper. The eggs being well fpread in the fieves, never run the rifk of being choaked by their natural perfpiration, and there is no need to flir or turn them over from time to time, as in the common way of the bags, the heat penetrating as well under as above the fieves : if you want to give frefh air to the room, you may open the door or a window for a few minutes. This new method of hatching is lefs expenfive than many other contrivances we have feen before : provided you can go to the Z 178 Mr. Delahigarre on Sill Worms, expence of fuch room, you may hatch as many eggs as yoa chufe, without trouble and inconvenience/* (8th Que.) How many days are required for hatching before the worms come out I (Ans.) The hatching will be quicker or flower according to the heat or cold to which th€ eggs have been expofed in winter, and according to the temperature of the months of February, March, and April. But, fuppofmg the eggs were kept all winter in a proper place, as mentioned before, the • worms will come out from 9 to 1 2 days after the beginning of the hatching. * If this common time of hatching is (hortened by a hafly fire or fudden heat, a great number of the worms will perilh in the courfe of the raifmg. (9th Que.) After the time above mentioned for the coming out of the worms, how do you know that the remaining eggs will not hatch at all ? (Ans.) Whatfoever care, whatever attention is paid to the eggs, it is almoft impoffible that in an ounce of feed which * Since this article was written, we are informed that the hatching does not exceed 8 or 9 days in this country : this is another proof that this climate is the more friendly and fuitable to the filk worm. Befides it confirms our other obfervations on the quiciter growth in the vegetable, as well iii the animal. fpccics of America,. Mr. Delahigarre on Silk Worms. 179 •contains about 42,000 eggs, there fhouldnotbe fome without fperm or unfit by reafon of fomc defed ; therefore, after two days it is needlefs to wait for other worms," and the remaining eggs muft be thrown away ; they would produce but very •indifferent and weak worms. In confequence of that ordinary and unavoidable wafte of eggs, we would advife to add half an ounce more to every four ounces in the hatching, and fo on in proportion, to compenfate that lofs. (loth Que.) Is it not proper to give fome previou* preparation to the eggs, in order to facilitate their hatching I (Ans.) Experience the bejfl of all mailers, teaches us that they are excluded in a flate of the bed preparation, and that therefore we ought not to meddle or tamper with them. We Ihall obferve only, that bathing them in wine, or any- other liquors, as praftifed by fome people,' is fo far from accelerating or helping the eggs, that it has a directly oppofite effeft. (nth Que.) Is It neceffary to take up the worms the firfl day that they are come out ? (An3.) By all means, becaufe we-re they to remain longer among unhatched eggs, they would communicate to them a noxious heat, and would contract thejnfelves fome difordcr and die before the term of their natural growth. i8o Mr. Delahigarre on Silk Worms* ( 1 2th Que.) Is it neceflary to feed the worms as foon as they come out of the eggs, and how ? (Ans.) If the egg's have been hatched In fmall bags, when on looking into the bag you perceive fome of the worms coming out, it is time to fpread all the eggs in a box, the bottom of which muft be covered with a thin bed of cotton, overfpread with a piece of old white linen ; then as foon as there is a fufficient number of young worms come out, you put over them a piece of parchment as wide as the box ; that parchment muft be pierced with holes all over like a i\Q\e. ; you lay over it fome tender leaves of mulberry ; you will obferve to put two ftrings to each fide of the parchment, in order to take out the new worms upon their leaves and to ftir up the remaining eggs with the end of a quill, as well as to give frelh air to the box. Some people ufe a piece of paper inftead of parchment, but it is obvious that this laft is a great deal preferable to the other ', the paper attracting all the moifture of the leaves, foon fticks to the eggs, and makes them fo cold as to prevent many worms from coming out. If the hatching has been done on fieves in the ftove-room, you have nothing to do but to put the parchment over the eggs in the fame way. As foon as you perceive a fufficient number of worms upon the leaves, by lifting up the parchment you carry thofe leaves Mr, Ddahigarre on Silk Y/orms. i$/ with the worms into a larger box or flielf, pafled infidc and at the bottom with white paper ; you muft obferve not to fill up but about a third part of the bottom with your leaves ; * there you feed the young worms till after their firft moulting. After that firft crop, you put the fame parchment again upon the remaining eggs with fome other leaves over, and repeat the operation till the whole hatching is come out ; it is underftood in the courfe of two days and no longer. You will obferve not to mix the worms collected the firft day, with thofe come out the fecond ; thus by keeping apart the worms of the fame age, you will avoid an irkfome trouble at the time of their getting upon the boughs to fpin their filk. V (13th Que.) What degree of heat is neceffaryto the worms after their coming out ? which is the moft proper leaf for them ? (Ans.) Provident nature takes care to cloath the filk worms for the firft days of their life, with a kind of furred hairs, which go off before the third moulting ; that evinces enough the want of warmth ; thus we think it neceffary to keep the worms in the fame degree of heat for i o or 12 days after their coming out. * Becaufe the worms growing bigger every day, could not find room enough if they were crowded into the box at firft. 1^2 Mr. Delahigarre on Silk Worms. As to the age and the quality of the leaves fit to be .given to the young worms, many writers entertain different opinions : but on that fubjefl: we mufl ftick to nature, and advife you to give the tendereft pofTible, whether thofe of grafted or ungrafted, young or old trees. You may depend only on this experienced facl, that the filk worms cannot live upon any other fort of leaf but that of mulberry : though they may cat by way of paftime fome other leaves, hke thofe of lettice, rofe-oak, or elm, they could live as long without any food at all, and if they are deprived for feveral days of mulberry leaves, they mud die. (14th Que.) How many times a day ought the worms to be fed in the beginning ? (Ans.) The moll general cuflom is, to feed the worms twice a day till they get in their firft moulting, but we have found it better to feed them three times, obferving not to give but few leaves at once, and take care that the firft leaves fhould be eaten before you give the other. By that way, you keep the worms in a more uniform ftate of heat and cleannefs, as by the change of leaves no unwholefome dampnefs, nor any noxious vapours have time to rife from their food. How many days they continue to eat from the moment they come out to that of the firft moulting, is not to be determined precifely : it depends in a great meafure on the degree of heat, and the quality of the leaves ; for Mr, Dclahigarre on Silk Worms, 183 example : — If the weather is mild and favourable ; if the worms are kept in the fame degree of heat in which they came out ; if the leaves are tender, dry and free from frofl and burning winds, then the worms will arrive in fix or feven days to their firfl moulting. On the contrary, they will take more time in proportion to the circumftances here pointed out, and when they do not arrive to that moulting in lefs than a fortnight, there is little hope of their doing well for the future : we have remarked in that cafe that they afford but an indifferent profit. We have feen many people going to the trouble of mincing the leaves in order (as they fuppofe) to make the worms eat the heartier, we found however it was to no purpofe, and we mention it only to deter our readers from fuch ufelefs trials which may be recommended or heard of. (i5t:h Que.) Before you proceed further, pray what is the nature of that moulting of filk v/orms ? How many moultings do they undergo '^. Is there not a way to prevent worms from perifhing by that kind of diforder ? (Ans.) The moulting of filk worms, is a torpid and fleepy flate, which cannot be called properly a diforder, becaufe it is natural to them, and feems neceffary to digeft by a preparatory attion^ all the' glutinous- particles deflined for their future filk. 184 Mr, Dekhigarre on Silk Worms, In that periodical revolution, worms want no food ; tliey leave their old coat to get out with a new one. They undergo four moultings before they, arrive to their fpinning work : feveral die through thefe critical periods, but no remedy has been found yet, and we think it would be hurtful to attempt to accelerate even the courfe of that natural revolution. The «nly help is, to . keep the worms a little warmer if poffibie, and particularly not to difturb them. (i6th Que.) How is the time of the moultings to be known ? What care is required after ? (Ans.) a little before their moulting, the worms lofe their appetite ; they look dull and weak ; their fkin becomes bright ; they feek for a place to hide themfelves, under the leaves or in fome corner of the ilielf, always out of the way of other worms ; there they remain motionlefs for about two days ; their head becomes bigger and flands up ; in the latter part of that time, their Ikin bends in wrinkles, and their body fcems fomewhat fhortened. All thefe fymptoms are better perceived in the three lad moultings than in the firfl, according to the bignefs of the worms. It is not to be expeded, that all the worms of one fnelf will come to their moulting the fame day ; but if the greateft part is come out in three or four days, which you may perceive by the colour of their fldn as well as by their activity, fhen it is time to change their litter and clean the fhelfp Mr. Delahigarre on Silk Wormi, i^^ In order to get the worms out, you mud fpread over feme frefh leaves, upon which they Avill get foon, fo as to enable you to lift them up from the flielf. You mufl obferve to proportion your fhelves to the increafe of the worms : for inflance, after the firfl moulting, thofe who were contained in one llielf, mufl be divided in two fhelves of the fame dimenfions, in order that they fhould have fufficient room. The fame attention is necefTary for their progreflive growth at every other moulting. (17th Que.) When the firll moulting is over, how may we diftinguifh the worms that will do well, from thofe that will not fucceed, and are likely to perifh before they pafs through the other moultings ? Out of the four moultings, which is the mofl dangerous ? (Ans.) As foon as the worms come out, you may remark three different kinds, fome of a reddifli, fome of an afh, and fome of a black hue. The reddifh colour is reckoned the worft, that kind of worm will never do well, and we know from unqueflionable experience, that it is better to throw * them away : the two other kinds will fucceed and fpin the beft filk. As to the mofl dangerous moulting, it has been reckoned always, that a greater number of worms perifh in the third ; no reafon can be afTigned for it j the fa<^ lays open to our Aa 1 86 Mr, Belahigarre on Silk Worms, obfervation, while the courfe of it remains hid, like a thoufand other fecrets of nature. (i8th Que.) What time of the day do you chufe to gather leaves for the feeding of your worms ? How do you keep thofe leaves ? (Ans.) Avoid carefully the picking of the leaves in the morning, until three or four hours after fun-rifmg, and only when they are free from dew or any dampnefs. Before the firfl; moulting, the worms require fo little food, that it is eafy to keep a few leaves in an earthen pot, covered with a bit of linen, and put in a dry cellar or in any other part of the houfe, out of the heat of the fun. According to the number and fize of your worms, if you want a great quantity of leaves every day, they muft be kept in large tubs or fpread on the floor of a room, only open on the north fide ; then take care to ftir or turn them over two or three times a day, according to the temperature, for fear they fhould be heated or withered, N. B. The number of meals after the firfl moulting, as well as the quantity of leaves to be given to your worms, muft be regulated by their appetite : the belt method is to feed them with few leaves at once, and to repeat it as many times, day and night, as they confume the leaves of the former feeding. Jf your worms are dull an4 without appetite, it is a certain Mr. Delabigarre on Silk Worms, 187 fign that they are in want of heat ; then you muft warm the room to the degree mentioned in our 6th query. We obferved that it was in vain to accumulate food for the worms as long as they were too cool, and deprived of appetite ; too many leaves in that cafe make them cooler than before, and at Lift kill a great number of them. (19th QtTE.) What is the interval betwixt the firfl moulting and the fecond, betwixt the third and the fourth ? Is it neceflary to keep the worms warmer, in proportion as they grow bigger ? How often ought their flielves to be cleaned ? (Ans.1 I ft. Suppofmg worms in good order and thriving, they will get into their fecond moulting, feven or eight days after the firll, and fo on for the two other following. 2d. The bigger worms grow, the lefs they ftand in want of heat : however, as long as they eat heartily, it would be needlefs to lejftn or to alter fuddenly the degree of heat which they have been ufed to from their coming out. The only thing which we would recommend after the third moulting, is to open a v/indow for a few hours in the day time, in order to introduce frefli air into the room. 3d. Provided no diforder, nor too long interval has taken place betwixt one moulting and the other, the fhelves want to be cleaned only once after every moulting ; becaufe, you muft carefully avoid difturbing your w^orms, Notwithftanding, if 1 88 Mr. T)dahlgarrc on Silk PFormu ' one ihelf Is too much crowded you may take out as many worms as you think proper at the moment of a new moal, when they get on frefh leaves. Thefe infeds cannot bear to be touched, and It Is common for them to die pf the bruifes received by the rude handhng of perfons unaccuflomed to them. (20th Que.) Refpefting the food of filk worms, is there a great difference betwixt the leaves of wild mulberries of this country, the red Englifli mulberry, and thofe Italian trees which are called white mulberries ? (An 5.) We make no doubt that filk worms could eat leaves of wild mulberries, and thofe called red Englifli mulberries ; but experience teaches us, that the moll proper feod is the leaf of the white mulberry tree. Yet there is a difference betwixt leaves of the ungrafted white mulberry and thofe of the grafted one ; betwix;t leaves of a young tree and thofe of an old one : but for fear of being prolix in giving a full account of that difference, we jQiali only obferve, that leaves of ungrafted and above all of young trees, are better adapted to the lirfl age of filk worms, as far as their third moulting ; after which, as they grow ftronger, leaves of grafted or of old trees, being more fubftantial, will agree better with them for the remainder of their fliort hfe. They who may not have it in their power to chufe the food of their worms according to the above inftructlon, fliouI4 Mr Ddahigarre on Silk Worms, 189 nsverthelefs be by no means difcouragcd, fmce they will find a fufficient reward in feeding them even upon one fort of leaf, till time fliould have made fuch improvements, as cannot be expected now that we are juft beginning this branch of riiral induftry. '* r2i{LC)uE.) You recommended in the 14th query, not to gather leaves but when dry ; what then is to be done in rainy weather ? (Ans.) It is well known that wet leaves are very hurtful to the worms, and fuppofmg that the rain fliould lafl more than twenty four hours, (which is very feldom the cafe in the months of May and June) it would be neceffary to dry leaves as well as poflible upon fome flieets previoufly warmed for that purpofe. As it requires a confiderable time to dry the leaves, it is advifable in cafe of a long and conftant rain, to diminifli the ufual quantity of food, till the firfl clear moment will aliov/ the gathering of dry leaves again. (22dQuE.) Could not the filk worm feed upon leaves of fome other tree ? (Ans.) We can fay in pofitive terms, that tho' many curious trials and attempts have been made to this effe^b, nothing has been found to ferve as a fubllitute for mulberry leaves. A fa£l well known, is worth our attention refpefting the leaves of mulberry ; they are as much the peculiar food of the filk-worm, as thofe of other plants and trees are unfit for him j i^o Mr. Delahigarre on Silk IVorms, and we may affert with confidence, that the mulberry feems referved to the filk-worm alone, no other worm or caterpiller, whatever likenefs they might have in their fhape," habits, &c. to our filk-worms, ever feed upon mulberry leaves. Caterpillers may be feen by chance upon mulberries, but if you take the trouble to look attentively, you will perceive that they foon leave that place where they came by millake, or by a mere accidental wandering as they might have come upon a ilone, &c. (23d Que.) Is it neceifary to keep the worms in darknefs ? Does a full light hurt them ? ■ (Ans.) It has been obferved long ago, that the filk-worm is inclined to avoid a bright light. Many naturalifts confider him as a nocturnal infeft. You may remark as a proof of it, that filk-vv^orms are eager to conceal themfelves under leaves in the day time, and when there is any diforder in a worm's houfe, you will find many more of them fick in places moft expofed to the light than any VN^here elfe. Therefore we advife to (hut up the windows of the room in the day-time, or in cafe the weather fliould be too hot, to, hang up brown or green curtains, and let them open in the night. (24th Que.) Is heat more noxious to filk worms than cold? (Ans.) The diiFerence is fuch, that a great heat makes- worms lazy, dejcded, and without appetite. An cxcefTive Mr. Ddahigarre en Silk Worm^. irji heat happening at the time of their getting up to fpin, is apt to choak the greateft part of them. On the other hand, a cold, fuch as happens in the month of May, fometimes put.^ the worms a Httle back, but it never injures them fo much in the heat above the degree before mentioned. Then we may judge, that worms do better in dry weather, with a northerly wind, than in damp weather, with a foutherly wind, or during a dead calm. In this lafb fituation, it is good to make fome light fire in their room, in order to rarify the air, provided the room is well opened, and the fire fhould not lafl longer than about half an hour. (25th Que.) How long do the worms remain feeding upori the mulberry leaves, before they begin to fpin? (Ans.) Being over his lad moulting, the worm eats voracioufly, and wants a great deal more food than before. At the end of feven or eight days, he begins his cocoon; iu that fliort interval it is very neceflary to clean the fhelves every day, and procure as much pure air as the weather will permit. (26th Que.) How may it be known that the worm is mature and ready to fpin ? (Ans.) When you perceive him creeping upon the leaves without biting them, but keeping his head up and turning it in different diredions, as if he was looking for a place fit to 102 Mr, Delahigarre on Silk Worms> failen his cocoon on when he tries to get off the Ihelf j v/hen his body is become tranfparent and bright, and like the colour of llraw ; then it is high time to have fome heath or other thin bufhes fixed beforehand upon tables. (27th Que.) Do you fix thofe buflies or boughs with their leaves on ? (Ans) Thofe bufhes or boughs muflbe dry and well cleared of all their leaves. The befl way is to fix them upon tables, in double rows, fo as to make a kind of arched form betwixt the extremity of the twigs. At the foot of the boughs it will not be ufelefs to put fome thinner branches of birch tree or fome clean fhavings, in order to facilitate the getting up of the worm. Great care mufl be taken not to put too many v/orms on the fame place. (28th (>UE.) Notwithflanding ail your care and fldll, when worms are carried on the boughs, there may be fome amongfl them who want flill to be fed for one or two days : in that cafe, what is to be done ? (Ans.) It is true that fome of them want feeding yet, after they have been brought on the bough-table ; then we mufl give them leaves on that table, and feed them fo till they get up by themfelves on the boughs. (29th Que.) How can the worms be carried and placed upon the bough-table without hurting them ? Mr. Dclahigarre on Silk IVonns, ig^ (Ans.) From the fymptoms given in our 27th query^ when you know that your worms are mature, you prdent them your finger, to which they readily attach themfelves ; but as it would be too long and tedious to carry them ail one after the other, you depolite as many as you can upon a varniflied plate, to which they cannot ftick fafl, and you carry them all at once upon a bough-table. It will be eafy to diftinguifh thofe who want to be fed yet ; becaufe they lay on the table, and refufe to get up on the bough. (30th (^E.) How many days does the filk worm employ in the fpinning, and what is the time to pick up the cocoon ? (Ans.) The worm's fpinning is completed in three or four days ; but as among a great number, they do not fpin all at the fame time — the beft method is to pick up the cocoons twelve days after the firft worms have begun their fpinning. (3 1 ft Que.) Is it neceflary to kill the worms in their cocoons ? "When and how ? (Axs.) If you cannot draw the filk foon after the picking up of cocoons, it is indifpenfible to choak the chryfalis contained in each cocoon, otherwife that chryfalis would foon become a butterfly, and by boring its way through the cocoon, break the contexture of the filk. Therefore, after you have chofen and fet apart the beft cocoons intended for eggs or feed, as mentioned in the 4th query, vou muft take off" the upper Bb 194 ^^^' Belahigarre en Silk Worms. part of your other cocoons, which is called the downy tow, and which is quite feparate from the filk ; you put the cocoons in large bafl^ets, furniflied on the infide with a coarfe brown paper : when the oven is heated at the common degree for baking bread, you may put the bafkets into it, and leave them there for about two hours, till you hear no more the rattling noife of the infeds, as they move and ftir about on account of the heat which they feel during that time. Take care afterwards to wrap up thofe cocoons in a blanket, in order to kill entirely thofe who lliould not have been choaked by the heat of the oven. C32d Que.) How to manage the cocoons intended for eggs ? (Ans.) We forgot to mention before, that in the choice of cocoons, particular care muft be taken to referve an equal number of males and females. The male cocoon is fharp^ pointed, while the female is round at both ends. This choice made, the cocoons ought to be divefled of that downy cover heretofore mentioned. Then you firing them together, males and females alternately upon a coarfe thread ; but you muft. take care that the needle fliould not go further than into the furface of the cocoon, in order not to hurt the chryfalides, nor to open any way to the air ; hang this firing of cocoons in a dry and airy place till the butterfly comes out. Upon a common average, one pound of cocoons will produce one ounce of eggs. Mr, Delahi^arre on Silk Worms. 19- (33d Que.) When chryfalidcs come out of the cocoons under the form of butterflies, how are the males to be diflinguiflied from the females ? Is it neceffary to help their copulation ? (Ans.j It is very eafy to diflinguifli the males from the females : the firfl are Jmall^ Jliarp pointed and more active, the lafl being full of eggs, are bigger, heavier and round. i\s to the fecond part of this query, we may fay that art in this cafe ought to concur with nature. As thefe butterflies are very heavy, and live but few days, there is no doubt that many females would lay their eggs without meeting with males ; therefore, it is necefl'ary to take the lazy males by their wings, as gently as pofTible, in order to carry them to the females upon a bit of black cloth ; let them be united for about four hours, afterwards throw away the males, and leave the females only till they have laid their eggs. Thefe eggs ought to be expofed to the air two or three days, in order to dry them ; after which, roll them up upon the cloth, put them in a frelh room during the fummer, and out of the reach of the frolt in the winter. (34th Que.) Befides the four moultings of filk worms which may be looked upon as a Idnd of natural difeafe, are they not liable to fome other diforder ? (Ans.) Generally fpeaking, careleffnefs, neglect, or want ig6 Mr. Delahigarre on Silk -Worms, of fldll In ralfing room fiik worms, bring upon them the greateft part of their, diforders ; however it is necefiary to be acquainted with thofe different diforders. 111. Some worms turn fat, and are eafily difcovered in the time of every moulting, becaufe they never undergo that natural change pecuHar to the good worms, as ftated in our 15th query. The fat worms inftead of remaining flill or motionlefs in the time of moulting, are moving about and eating ; they continue to grow and are eafily diftinguiihed, being a great deal whiter and looking oily ; they muft be thrown away for fear they fhould fpoil the others : befides, as they perilh fooner or later, it would be an ufelefs trouble to feed them longer. 2d. This fecond diforder is quite the reverfe of the firll:. After the third or fourth moulting, fome worms become lean, they refufe to eat ; then turning foft, fmaller and fliorter by half than they were before : they mull die in the courfe of three or four days, as in a confumption. 3d. The yellow worms never appear but a little before the time of fpinning, inftead of becoming mature, they fweli up, and you may perceive feveral nally yellowilh fpots, on their head firfl and foon after fpreading all over their body j they mud be thrown away. It is eafier to defcribe thofe diforders, than to point out the Mr. Dddhigarre on Silk Worms, 197 remedy : and Indeed after many expenfive trials, It has been found more advantageous to throw away worms taken by one of thefe diforders, than to let them contaminate the others, as every attempt to cure them fell fliort of fuccefs. * * Since the defcription of the above mentioned diforders, I was favoured with information of an experiment made in this ftate, by which it appears that this climate is more fi-iendly to the filk worm, than that of Spain or France. Out of 6000 worms raifed by Mrs. Montgomery, very few died in the courfc of their education ; and it is worth while to obferve, that no greater lofs happened in the preceding years. Therefore, what an immenfe advantage have we over Europe in raifing of filk worms, where (upon a common average) four fifths of the worms perifli before their fpinning ! What powerful encouragement to you, happy people of this country, when certain of obtaining complete fuccefs, you may reap in the courfe of fix weeks uich an affluent crop ! Oh blefled land ! Oh ten times fortunate Americans, could they but know and improve their natural and local advantages ! [ ^99 J PART II. ON THE RAISING OF SILK WORMS, IN OPEN AIR UPON HEDGES. BY PETER DELABIGARRE, E/q. AFTER a long and tedious defcrlption of the various cares and expences attending the befl mode of raifmg filk worms within doors, we feel an agreeable relaxation in relinqui filing art, to come into the arms of nature. — Let us play with her eafy ways ; let us admire how little trouble is required to obtain plenteous favours from her rich bofom ! The firft flep is to have a white Mulberry hedge, three years old at lead, and four or five feet high. For the mode of planting fuch an hedge, we would have referred our readers to a communication made to the Agricultural Society of New- York, on the utility of white Mulberry trees in making hedges ; but confidering the trouble of getting that communication among fo many other pieces prefented to the fociety, we thought it preferable to give here an extra6: of it, with fome neceffary additions. Around the field to be enclofed, dig a ditch three feet wide and two feet deep, in the fall of the year : then in the momh 200 Mr. Dclaoigarre- en Silk Worms. of March or in the beginning of April, as foon as the froft is out of the ground, give a light hoeing to the bottom of your trench. The longeft roots of your plants being cut off near the hairy fibres, they muft be planted about eighteen inches deep, at the diflance of three or four inches from each other ; after the trench is filled up, every fhoot muR be cut at the height of two or three inches above the ground ; whether the plant is big or not, is no matter, provided it is at leaft one year old ; obferve only to give the preference to the white mulberry as the food of filk worms. The fecond year it is neceifary to cut again the flioots about fix inches above the ground, in order to give more flrength to the fprouting branches, which will form a pretty ftrong hedge the third year, and at laft grow fo thick as to be impaifable for any cattle : it may be twifled and intervv'oven a great deal eafier than the hawthorn. If you chufe to make a ftronger hedge, you may plant it in a double row. Since this communication was written, we are happy in informing our readers, that lafl March, after the planting a mulberry hedge according to the above directions, we ftuck along fide of it fome remaining flips of our plants to form a double row : and though thefe flips had been thrown away and laid out of the ground for ten days before we thought of making that trial, we perceived with a pleafing furprife, that the greateft part were putting forth leaves, and are now adually grovving as well as the rooted plants themfelves. Mr, T)dahlp;arrt on Silk Worms t io\ Therefore, fuch a Hiving, will make , the planting of white mulberry hedges, if not cheaper, at lead as cheap as thofe of any other wood, if we except only the willow tree. Then from this already acquired improvement, you may make your hedges as flrong as you pleafe. At any time or at any age of your hedges, if fome place become vacant, or feeble, you can eafily replace it with a few flips. For three years the young hedge mufl be defended againfl; the cattle by a proper fence, like every other plantation of the kind ; the ground -mufl be worked and kept clear from weeds every year after. It is neceflary to keep conftantly the hedge at the height of four or five feet, as the moft proper for the raifmg of filk worms. No wood grows quicker than the mulberry tree ; you may remark that after the firll leaves have been employed in the fpring to feed the filk worm : the other leaves of the fall may be gathered, and when dry, they afford a good fodder for cattle. The objedlon will be, the difficulty of getting thofe young mulberry plants to make hedges with. They mufl be bought in fome particular nurferies, like thofe in New-Jerfey, upon Long-Ifland, &c. However, any farmer not wifhing to go to that expence, may eafily raife the plants from feeds, in the following way ;— Cc C02 Mr. DelaUgarre on Silk Wormsl Gather all the ripe berries fallen down under the white mulberry tree, put them for two days in a dry place, where they mud be turned up and down for fear they fhould be heated. After which you muftwafli them with your hands in a tub, pouring over fome water from time to time, in order to feparate the feeds from the mufl. Let then the water fettle for a quarter of an hour, and all the ufelefs particles floating above may be poured off. You mufl repeat the above wafhing till the feed is well difengaged and pure. The bed feed being the heaviefl, will always flay at the bottom of the tub. This being done, fpread all the good feeds to dry upon a bit of linen ; when dry, keep them in a clofet till the proper feafon f®r fowing. Obferve, that this kind of feed never keeps longer than one year. The befl time to fow the Mulberry is in the beginning of April. Some people pretend that the feeds grow very well when fowed in the very trench made for the hedge, but a long experience teaches us, that it is better to raife the plants in a nurfery where the ground is rich and well manured : you will choofc for that purpofe, a place flickered from the north and cold winds ; that place mufl be digged and prepared before the winter. The befl way is to make a bed four feet wide only, in order to be able to water it and pick the weeds out, without trampling upon the feed's-bed. Before you water the feeds, you muft fpread over fome light flraw to prevent the Mr. TtdaVigam on Silk Worms. 203 ground from becoming too hard, which otherwife would be an obflacle to the raifmg up of the young plants. The plants are fit to be tranfplanted the following year, in the trenches intended for hedges, after the manner and at the time above mentioned. The mulberry grows in every foil, but it delights in a rich fandy ground, (ifl Que.) What is the mofl proper hedge to feed the filk worms upon ? (Ans.) An hedge three years old begins to be fit for the worms ; but we mud own, that one or two years older, v/iU produce more leaves of a ftronger fubflance and aftbrds a flronger Ihelter for thefe infeas. The thicknefs of the hedge is a great advantage to the filk worm, in rainy or boifterous weather ; befides, they climb upon branches well interwoven, they hide themfelves better and reft more fecured, than upon rare and thin branches. (2d Que.) Do you put the eggs or the worms already come out, upon the leaves of the hedge, and how ? (Ans.) It is obvious, that the eggs fhould never be hatched in open air, when we know that the hatching requires an equal and conftant degree of heat, even at home. Therefore, you mufl follow the direftions mentioned in the firfl part, as well for the choice of the eggs as for their hatching ; befides, you muil not exped that the young worms could be put o 204 ^^^' Ddahigarre on Silk Worms* the hedge before two or three days after the firft moulting ; then chufe mild weather, and as fine a day as poffible, to take your worms upon fome leaves as diredled in the 20th query of the firft part, and in that way, carry and put them on the frelh leaves of the hedge, taking care not to fpread them too thick ; about one hundred will be fulEcient for the fpace of thirty feet in length, if the hedge is young yet and thin, but more in proportion to the age or to the thicknefs of your hedge. (3d QiTE.) If your filk worms upon hedges are not attacked by other infects, will not they be picked up by the birds which are in fuch great numbers in this country ? (Ans.) Though we have not remarked that birds are fond of our filk worms, we are fatished that they may be cafily defended againft them. Suppofing that among fuch a variety of birds, fome are deftrudive of our worms ; then you may fpread an old net over the hedge, or fix fome rows of tv/ine •all along with a few pieces of rags at proper diftances ; any kind of fcare-crow will keep the birds away. It is efpecially necelTary to overlook the hedge before you put on your worms, in order to deftroy all the nefls, or rather not fuffer any bird to fet his neft on in the beginning of the fpring. By that little and unexpcnfive attention, you will not be injured by the birds. (4th Qriji;.) Are worms ralfed upon the hedges, liable to the difordcrs common to thofe raifed within doors ? And what Mr, Delabio;arre on Silk Worms, C05 care or attendance do they require after being put on the hedges ? (Ans.) It is proved by experience and beyond any doubt, that worms raifed in open air are free from every diforder ; their only fate depends upon the feafon : but as the temperature from the fifteenth of May to the fifteenth of July, is a great deal fmer and more moderate here than in Europe : above nil, as we have very few inftances of fhov.^ers of hail, which are fo frequent and fo deflruclive in other countries, we remain perfeftly fatisfied, that filk worms will fucceed and thrive beyond our expectations in this blefled part of the world. Therefore, as foon as they can be fecured agalnft the voracioufnefs of certain birds, you may leave them to the bountiful hand of nature ; you need not afterwards take any more care, they muft do, and they v.ill do very well for themfelves. The only thing which you have to do, is to enjoy the pleafure of paying them a vifit from time to time. — Like the happy farmer contemplating his promifmg harvefl, you will look at the growth and progrefs of your induftrious worms ; you will watch the time when they will have completed their fpinning ; — Is it done .'' Come and collect with a thankful hand, the cocoons hanging on the twigs of your hedge, like the golden fruit of the Hefperian garden. C 207 ] EXPERIMENTS On wheat, clover and LUCERNE, SUBMITTED TO THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE AND USEFUL ARTS : BY JOHN STEVENS, oj Hoboken, THE cultivation and management of a field of about ten acres : No. I. About three and a half acres, part of the above, Is a- loamy foil, which having a N. W. expofure, is rather inclined to be wet and cold in the fpring. In the month of May of 1792, planted it with Indian corn, manured in the ordinary way, with farm-yard dung in the hills. The crop was a good one. The latter end of October, cut it up clofe to the ground, and carried it off. Then gave the whole a good dreffing — part with farm-yard dung — part with heated allies, and part with ftreet dirt ; gave it one ploughing, and harrowed in three and a half bufhels of wheat. In the month of March following, fowed the whole with thirty •pounds of red clover j and on an acre of the driefl part inclining to fand, fowed at the fame time about 8 pounds of lucerne feed. The wheat turned out a much better crop than I had expefted from its appearance in the fall ; for it jvas manifeft to the eye, that it had not been fufficiently feeded. My overfeer has rendered me an account of eighty one bufhels 2o8 Mr. John Skums on Wheaty Clover and Lucirne, of clean wheat; but as the crop had after harveft been put up in a barrack where great depredation had been made on it by poultry, hogs, &c. and confiderable wade accrued from threlhing on an open temporary floor, I fhould fuppofe the produd might be fairly eflimated at one hundred bulhels, which is at the rate of about twenty eight and a half bufhels per acre. Although the feafon was remarkably dry, the clover came on after harvefl, at an aftoniihing rate, and as I was under the neceffity of keeping up the field, it was not paftured as ufual. In the beginning of October, the clover was cut, and notwithftanding the ftubble prevented it being clofe, the produtl was as nearly as I could eftimate at lead four tons. One four ox load was taken into the barn ; the remainder was taken immediately from the field to the boat, and delivered from thence into my flable in New- York. I have kept a pair of horf^s and a cow on it fmce the beginning ' of January, and exped it will laft me till April. As to the part fown with the lucerne feed : On the far greater part of it the feed failed altogether, and the few folitary plants that here and there made their appearance were evidently Hunted and overpowered by the clover. No. 2. About three acres were fown in the fpring 1792, with oats, and produced a tolerable good crop. In the fpring 1793 it was manured with flreet mud, and ploughed, J believe but once, and jTown with barley and clover ; over ?\ Mr. John Stevens 07i Wheat, Clover and Lucerne, 209 part of it, lucerne feed was alfo fown, but in what proportion of feed per acre I cannot now afcertain. The crop of barley was a miferable one. It came up very thin, and, as the fpring was v/et, the manure brought forward an ample crop of weeds, with which at harveft the ground appeared to be completely covered : however, towards fall, the clover began to make a pretty good appearance. Although the lucerne has come up better than on No. i, it is too thinly fcattered to promife hope of any thing like a full crop. That part of No. 2, on which the lucerne was fown is more fandy than No. i. No. 3. About three acres may be called a fandy foil. In 1792 it was partly in corn, and partly in potatoes. In the fpring 1793, it was well manured with ftreet mud, and ploughed, I believe, but once, and fowed with barley about the lafl of April. Twenty-five pounds of lucerne feed was at the fame time fov/n over the whole of it, without any clover feed. The barley turned out very indifferently, though better than No. 2. Although the foil was fandy, it was much infefted with weeds. The lucerne, in fomc parts of the piece, came up pretty well, though I fhould fuppofe not thick enough for a full crop the enfuing feafon. In many parts, it flands very thin, and in fome places it has failed altogether, particularly in thofe places where the manure had been thrown in heaps out of the cart, the weeds had almoll entirely overpowered both barley and Dd 2IO M?'. John Sttvem on Wheats Clover and Lucerm. lucerne. The lucerne was not paflured 'till after the clover was taken off of No. i, which was early in October. It was then in many parts of the field upwards of two feet high, and in full bloom. And though I am perfuaded in my own mind, it would not have yielded fo large a crop as the clover, even if it had fucceeded equally as well, yet, as it was, the pafture it afforded was very confiderable. The whole field, from the time the clover Y>'as off, till late in November, fupported five head of fatting cattle, and three horfes. The cattle throve greatly, although at that feafon the pailures were every where in the neighbourhood, almoft entirely dried up, owing to a fevere and long continued drought. I fhould by no means have troubled the fociety with any thing refpeding thefe experiments in the prefent flage of them, as lucerne is faid to require at lead two years to attain to any degree of perfeftion ; but although thefe experiments, as yet, can aSbrd no conclufive inferences refpeding the ultimate profit of a lucerne crop, yet I apprehend fome important deductions may be drav/n from them. "I. From the almofL total failure of the lucerne on No. i, we may fairly conclude^ that the feed was committed to the ground tco early in the feafon, efpecially as the clover that was fown "v/ith- it fucceeded fo well. 2. The indilTerent appcarr.nce of No. 2, may, I prefume, be jittributed, principal iy, to the v/ant of a proper mehoration of th'j foil. A fit matiix for vegetation was thereby, in t^;ie firiC Mr, John Stevens on Vvlieat^ Clover and Lucerne. 2 1 1 place wanting, and, in the next place, the plants of thofe feed^ which did vegetate, were nearly fulFocated by weeds. 3. The luxuriant growth of the lucerne on No. 3, would countenance a conclufion that lucerne may fucceed very well when fown on barley xvithout clover. 4. Upon the whole, thefe experiments, as far as they go, indicate,that lucerne ought not to be fown d^^r/r in the leafon — perhaps midfummer may prove the fittefi: time for fowing it. That every care fhould be taken to render the ground as mellow and as free from weeds as pofTible, and that therefore it would be moft advifeable to prepare the ground the fucceeding year, by a crop of potatoes, pumpkins, or other horfe hoed crop, with which a generous coat of manure (hould be laid on, fo as to fupercede the neceffity of manuring the lucerne, except, perhaps, with a top dreffing of afhes, &;c. Perhaps no one fubjecl of rural ceconomy vvdll eventually prove of more importance to the American agriculturifl than the culture of lucerne. From the habits of the plant it appears admirably fitted to our climate. It requires heat and endures drought — And on a foil properly adapted to it, it will laft from a dozen to twenty years in full perfection. I mean the enfuing fpring to make further experiments on this noble plant, and to note minutely the progrefs of thofe 1 have already began — and hope I fhall be able to furniih the fociety with a more fatisfa^lory detail of fads on this fubje61: than is contained in the prefent memoir. C 2'3 ] On the Cultivation of the Tall-Meadow-Oats (avenii elatior) for pafkire and Hay ; — and on Gypsum and Btone-Coal as a Manure, Communicated by the Rev. Dr. Henry Muhlenberg, of Lancajlcr (Pennfylvania) to Dr. Mitchill, dated May 15, 1793. * Dear Sir, MY brother Frederick Auguilus Muhlenberg informed mc you would be glad to fee fome feeds of the grafs he mentioned and recommended to you at New-York. I have cultivated the fame a number of years from imported feed, and find it, after a great many trials of pretty near all other grafTes, the earliefl:, lateft, and beft grafs for green fodder and hay. It bloflbms in the middle of May, the fame time with the common red clover, and the feed ripens a month after. Horfes, it is true, do not like it green, at leaft not all of them, but eat it in hay. Horned cattle prefer it to all other graffes. It will grow bed In clover foil, and the leaves are from two to four feet high before it bloflbms ; in the bloflbm the flalk rifes from five to feven feet. It ought to be cut in bloflbm about the end of Mayor beginning of June, and will yield an abundance of fweet good hay. The feed may be fown in the fall or fpring, with or without grain, and mufl: be bruflied in or lightly harrowed. If mixed with clover, it will make uncommon good tipland meadow. The name of the grafs is avcna elatior 214 ^^- Muhlenberg on Tall-Mcadom-Oais, Sc. (LinriceiJ the wiefenhaferfranz-^fifch 7'aygras of the Germans ; or, in Enolifii, tall-meadow-oats. A very good figure and defcription is given in Schreber's Abhandlung und Abbitdu7ig der Grafer, vol. i. tab. i. I fend you fome feed, and advife you to fow it in a good fpot of your garden. I began with lefs feed than I fend you, and have now laid down feven acres for it. — We have a number of other good gralTes which deferve to be cultivated. According to my trials, they range in this order: — i. Tall- meadow-oats, or tali-oat-grafs (avena elatiory imported.) 2. Tall-fefcue-grafs, (fejluca elatiory native.j 3. Meadow-fox- tail-grafs, falopecurus pratenfiSj imported.) 4. Meadow-foft- grafs, or Yorkfhire grafs of the Englilh, (holcus lanatiis, native.) 5. Timothy or meadow-cats-tail-grafs, (phleuin pratenfe.) 6, Rough-cocks-foot-grafs, (dadylis glomerata, native.) 7. Englifh or common ryc-grafs, (lolium perenne, imported^. 8. Sweet- fcented-vernal-grafs (anthoxanthum odoratum, imported.) 9. Reedy-cinna (cinna arundinacea. native.) 10. Broom-grafs, two fpecies, (bromi) — All thofe Ihould be cultivated with Timothy in our bottoms or meadows which can be watered. As for upland meadows I would prefer clover (trifolium pratenfe) lucerne (medicagofativa) and faint foin (hedyfarum onobrychis.) The firfl is certainly the beft preparation for a good crop of wheat, if well managed. For many years, I have wifhed that our American patriots Dr. MuhUnberg on Tall-Meadow-Oats, ^c. 215 might join hands, and the literary and intelligent men of this country might have more intercourfe. How much could be done for the profperity of thefe States ! We do not know the half of our riches. Agriculture will, I hope, be our chief ftudy, "and be the means to raife the Americans, amongft the firft nations of the earth. Manufadures are now indeed in their infancy, but the many good materials we have in this country, promife more encouragement if we learn to know and efteem them. The gypfum has had many fair trials in our neighbourhood, and on dry poor lands has always anfwered our expedations. I could never obferve any efFeft on dry or v^^ell-manured lands. Clover, oats, and indian corn, agree befl with it. Apple-trees have likewife been much benefited. We fow it early in the fpring, three or four bufliels to an acre, before we exped rain. I made a number of experiments with gypfum, and never found any harm ; but we muft import it ; and, as an American, I wilh a fubflitute. I think pulverized limc-Jionc is of the fame fervice, and fome of cur lime-ftones are eafy pounded, and ufed in the fame manner as gypfum. If Mr. Meyer (the firft that ufed gypfum and recommended it fo warmly to the world) is not millaken, stone-coals pulverized, are Jafer and go farther in melicrating the lands than gypjavi. I heartily wifh fome of your agricultural friends would make an experiment with our American Jlone-coal -y 4coIb3. arc neceflary to 18a 2i6 Dr. Muhlenberg on Tall- Meadow-Oats, 6?c. fquare perches. Should thefe experiments prove fuccefsful, as I do not doubt, what a noble acquifition would our flone-coals be ! At prefent they are too dear, but when the Sufquehanna is improved, I expert they will be exceeding cheap. I have a very valuable treatife on thefe mineral manures, written lately by a German chemill, Ruckers. THE Society is very happy in hearing that a part of the valuable life and learned labours of Dr. MuhlenbePvG are employed in making cut a " Hiftory of the Graffes ;" fmce from the agricultural fldll and botanical knov/ledge of this gentleman, fuch a work may be expcfted to be highly ufeful, both to the man of fcience and the praftical farmer. The fmall work of William Curtis, containing practical obfervations on the Britifli graffes, beil adapted to the laying down, or improving of meadows and paftures, to which is added, an enumeration of the Britifli graffes, has been received by the Society ; and the following abflrad made from it, is offered to fuch of their fellow-citizens as cannot procure the original : Mr. Curtis begins by obferving, that much meadow and pafture land may be rendered infinitely more valuable than it is at prefent, by the introdudion of fome of their bed graffes, and obferves, that neither the founded reafonings nor befl diredled premiums have fucceeded in exciting the hufband- man to collect and cultivate feeds of this fort, and laments Review of M)\ Curlls's Pamphlet on Grafts., 217 ferioufly that many of the ufeful hhits 'm Anderson's Efuys on agriculture and rural ajfairs are rendered abortive from his want of botanical information. lie thinks it extraordinary, that out of more than an hundred grafles, ftriaiy fpeaking, growing in Britain, rye-grafs, however inadequate for the purpofe, is ftill the principal one employed in laying down lands.. Out of this variety Mr. C. has feleded fix, which he is confident will do all that their natural graffes can do ; they arc chofeu from among thofe that conftitute their bell paftures ; mofb of them being early, all of them produdive, and adapted to luch loils and fituations as are proper for meadows and paflures. After cautioning his readers not to expeft wonders, he g-ives a concife account of each of the fix graffes with a copper-plate ann-exed. They are the following : i. Sweet-fcented-vernal- grafs, (anthoxanthum odoratum.) 2. Meadow-fox-tail-grafs (alopecurus pratenfis.) 3. Smooth-ftalk-meadow-grafs (poa pratenfis.) 4, Rough-ftalked-meadow-grafs (poa trivialis.) 5. Meadow-fefcue-grafs, (feftuca pratenfis.) 6. Crefled-dog's- tail-grafs, (cynofurus crluatus.) The order of their iiowerincr is the fame with that of their prefent enumeration. And he obferves, that the meadow-fox-tail and rcugh-ftalked-meadow- grafs are fittefl for moift lands j the meadow-fefcue and fweet- fcented-vernal, for land either moift or moderately dry ; and the fmooth-ftalked-meadow-grafs and crefled-dog's-tail, for dry pafi:ure. The culture of thefe graffes being particularly recommended Ee 2i8 lUviezo of Mr. C.crlis's Pamphlet on Grajfes. in preference to others, Mr. C. goes on to give a concife account or charafter of twenty-feven other graifes, derived, as he fays, from fourteen years culture and obfervation. Among thefe he mentions the tall-meadow-oats as being early, productive, and affording a plentiful after-math. The author proceeds next to give practical directions for lowing the feeds which he recommends. From the numerous applications made to him by a variety of gentlemen, for grafs- feeds, it appeared incumbent on him to do fomething which might gratify them, and render the pubHc an effential fervice. He has accordingly provided alTortments of feeds put in packets, ready for fowing ; each kind of feed being in that proportion which fuits beft. At the end of this chapter, Mr. C. obferves, that common v/orms, by "throwing up great quantities of earth, contribute greatly in meadow lands to prevent the rrowth Gjf mofs, as well as to afford frefli foil for the roots of plants to fhoot into, and for feeds to vegetate in:" He calls them '* the natural diggers and dungers of land ; worm cads being nothing more than the dung of the worms." Then follows a botanical arrangement of the Englifn graffes in twenty-five genera, with the Trivial and Englifh names annexed ; and the work concludes with an appendix, containing hints relative to the improvement of meadows, in refpect to their produce, bateablenefs and early growth.— The packet of grafs-feeds may be had at No. 3, St. George's Crefcent, near the Obehflv, Black-Friar's Road, London,, price half a guinea. [ 219 J On the decay of APPLE TREES. From a Letter of William Dinning, Efquirc, /j ]Mr. MiTCKiLL, ddlcd December 22, 1793. Dear Sir, IT is undoubtedly of confequence to the farmers of this country, as well as to others, that the cultivation and prefervation of apple trees, be duly attended to. It is therefore with great concern, that I have marked the progrefs of a diforder, prevailing and increafmg in this valuable and ufeful tree, for many years, without having it in my power to devife a remedy. As no obfervations have as yet appeared on this interelling fubjed, I hope my giving you the trouble of my remarks thereon may be attributed to my wifli for the prefervation of thofe trees ; which I hope may be effected by fome ingenious invention or difcovery adapted to the novelty and urgency of the difeafe. I firft obferved it in my orchards in the vicinity of Hudfon's river, north of the Highlands, in the year 1780. I have fmce obferved its baneful progrefs further fouth. And, if I am not miftaken, it is fpreading rapidly. I have obferved it alfo, attacking pear trees and quince trees, to the total deflruftion of them in a few years : and as thefe trees are of a flow growth, the lofs, is of courfe irreparable to the prefent proprietors. C20 William Demiing, EJq. on the decay of Apple Trees* A long time this diforder baffled my moil critical refearches, As I oblerved the young, remote, and tender fhoots firft afFeded, I traced the malady to the fpot where the fap ceafed to flow, but could difcover no external caufe. On the fecond year I found the boughs wounded deeper, and progreffing yearly, the trees continued to ficken, and in fix or feven years died. It is to be obferved, that every fpring the trees appear in full vigour (^except the limbs already periihed from the former years attacks) and continue fo until the latter end of June, or beginning of July, when fuddenly the leaves wither, turn red, and ibon fall off; the whole tree appears fick, and the fruit full of fpots, and unpromifmg ; hence the indifferent appearance of many of our apples brought to market for fale, few of them being fair and fniocth as they form.erly were. As foon as the leaves fail off, as above defcribed, it will then appear how far the tree is affected for this fe'dion. Finding all my efforts to difcover the caufe in vain, I hazarded feveral experiments ; among others, two years fmce, I laid bare the roots of two favourite pear trees in the month of Oftober, and left them fo until May following : one of thefe trees was fo injured, that I had no jiiopes of its recovery. Laft year they Ihewed few or no additional fymptoms of the difeafe, were very full of fruit, and had a great fupply of new flioots ; this year, both trees were very William Denning, Efq. on the decay of Apple Trees, 221 full of fruit, tho' again they difcovered fymptoms of the difcrder, but not in fo great a degree as in former years. Still purfuing my enquiries, I have had fomc apple trees cut down, that were far decayed. In the firil I difcovered two worm holes, running perpendicular from the tap-root up through the heart j thefe holes were large enough to admit a common pipe-flem, and reached about fourteen inches above the furface of the ground, and from each hole I fcrewed out a worm. All the other trees I found perforated with worm- holes, Cuch as have been already defcribed, and in fome to the number of eight or ten. Having extracted fome of thefe worms entire, I find them nearly of the fame iize and fpecies of thofe fo common and io well known to be the conftant attendants on peach trees ; indeed fo fimilar are they to thofe worms, tliat I am of opinion, they are of the fame kind. I have loft feveral valuable trees by this m.ofl pernicious worm, and my v/hole orchard is in a flate of decay. This diforder appears to me to be of a more ferious nature than any thing that has ever infefted orchards. The canker-v/orm, only deilroys the leaves and fruit for the feafon, and perhaps every fourth year, if not attended to when a fly ; but this worm radically deilroys the tree itfelf. I have inquired of many farmers in my travels, whofe orchards I have obferved in this flate, what they fuppofed the caufe of it ? they generally anfwered, the trees were blafled by lightning, and this I found C22 William Denning^ Efq. on the decay oj Apple Trees. to be the prevailing opinion; none of them, of ccurfe thought of fearching for the true phyfical caufe. As I am confident I have difcovered it, the next flep is to find a remedy ; as I have not yet fucceeded, I fubmit it to the confideration of the Agricultural Society, whether a publication of the real caufe of the diforder may not lead to a difcovery that may tend to ftop the ravages of this worm ; and perhaps induce many, whofe intereft it is to preferve their trees, to attempt to fecure them from its fatal attacks. To lay bare the roots of a large orchard, every autumn, would undoubtedly be attended with great trouble and expence, yet even that would be eafier than to raife another orchard. And I have befides, obferved very young trees, even in nurferies, ficken from the fame caufe* [ 223 ] ON THE EFFECTS OF THE SHADE OF TREES upon VEGETATION. ExtraB, of tiuo Letters from the Honourable Robert R Livingston, Efquire, to Mr. Mitchill. Clermont, lyth, Sept. 1792. Dear Sir, THE plans that I had projefted of Agricultural improvement for this year, have been fruflrated by the building a country houfe, which has occupied my attention and the labourers that I ufuaily employed' upon my farm, fo that I fliall be able to offer nothing on the fubjedt of experimental hufbandry that will merit your attention, unlefs it be an obfervation which I have frequently made, but v/ith more attention this year than before, and which may, I conceive, if properly purfued, lead to important confequences. I mean the baleful effect of the fiade (if I may fo call it) of fome trees, upon the vegetation of corn. I will ftate the facts as they have appeared to me, and you will the more readily comprehend my ideas. 1 planted mai^e on the well fide of a young wood, confiding of oaks, poplars, a few chefnuts, and a large mulberrv fbmewhat advanced into the field; the fhade made by the rifmg fun^ extended nearly acrofs the field, and was not entirely off until about lo o'clock ; I remarked, that as far 224 M'" Living Jlon on the Effetts of Shadcy (B-c, as the fliade of the chefnut reached, the corn was extremely injured ; it was yellow and fmall \ the conical fliape of the morning fiiade from particular trees, might be traced a confiderable extent, in the fickly appearance of the plants ; the black oaks were likewife injurious, but lefs fo than the chefnut ; the poplars very little fo.— Near the mulberry tree, the corn was covered by its lliade for a very long time every morning, and tho' not fo large as that which had more fun, maintained a healthy appearance. . To what caufe are v^'e to attribute this phEsnomenon ? it is certainly not the mere ahfence oj light or heat ; for in this cafe the trees would have been equally injurious, or rather the mulberry would have been moil So, It is not to any dropping from the trees ; for the corn grew under none but the mulberry. It is not to any ej^.uvia from .the trees; for this would either be emitted m circles, or wafted irregularly by the wind ; whereas the ihape of the ffiade was plainly traced upon the corn. Were I permitted to form a conjefture upon this extraordinary circumftance, I fliould conclude, that the mifchief v^^as not occafioned by the Jbade^ but by thofe rays of light that aClually palled through the tree, either perforating the leaves (for none of them are perfeftly opake) or being brought into contaB with them ; and that this light ferved as a menftruum, to diflblve certain parts of the tree noxious to corn, and as a vehicle to convey it in the direction of the rays (which neceflarily are that of the fhadc) As the injury is done in the line in -^'hich Mr. Livingpn on the Effeds of Shade, &c. 12 ~ thedired rays of light pafs through the tree, it mufl follow, that neither air nor water are folvents for this body j for if they were, it would be wafted in different directions. If this idea is juft, what a field does it open for important difcoveries? To how many medical purpqfcs may this new menflruum be applied? The only properties of vegetable fubftanccs with which we are acquainted, are thofe that we colled from the appHcation of the whole plant, or a folution of it in water or fome other liquid. By the firil of the means, we may indeed obtain thofe parts which light only can diffolve, but mixed with various fubftances which may probably count .^rad the effed. By the laft, this matter, whatever it may be, cannot be obtained. Many plants that are confidered as poifonous, when fubjeded to this trial, may be found to contain a falutary fubflance, and the rays of the fun paffing through them, be made to convey health and vigour. Should thefe conjedures be verified by experiment, the Phyficians may again claim Apollo for their patron, after having long abandoned him to the poets, to whom indeed they will feem, in fome fort to affimilate themfelves, when, inflead of pills and powdas, they fhall prefcribe zephyrs and funbeams. Will not this fad, in fome meafure, account for another, which feems well eilablifhed by Dr. Ingenhouz, to wit, that the effluvia of plants are falutary in the light, and hurtful at night ? The fads I have ftated are confirmed by a variety of intelligent farmers, to whom I Ff 226 Mr. Livingjhn on the Effect of Shade, ^c, mentioned by obfervatlons. General Schuyler, upon my expreffing my fuprize at the circumftance, told me, he had long fmce obferved, that the fhade of the black-oak was particularly noxious to wheat. To Indian corn, it appears to be lefs fo, than chefnut. The JJiade of the locuft (I ara compelled to ufe this term, though as you fee it does not exprefs my idea) is well known to be extremely beneficial to grafs grounds. — ^Think of fome mode of trying its EFFECTS UPON THE ANJ.MAL SYSTEM. Clermont, nth Augvfl, lygy Dear Sir, I HAVE, fmce I faw you, been confirmed in my conjefture? relative to effed of light paffing through certain fubftances, by the following experiment : — I feled:ed a fpot of ground, of one hundred yards long, and eighteen wide near the centre ; on the weft fide (the length of the ground laying from north to fouth) was a tall chefnut tree, v/hich I trimmed up, fo as to make the fhade of the head fall at fome diftance from the tree, when the fun was about forty degrees from the horizon on the fouth well end of the ground ftood a chefnut and a black oak. On the fouth end, and only eighteen yards from them grew a clump of mulberry trees, and one large apple tree ; the fhade caft by the two lafl from 9 to ii o'clock nearly meeting with that cad by the oak^nd chefnut from ^ Jljfr. Llvingjlon on ihe Effects oj Shade, ^\\ 227 I to 3. This ground I fowed with buckwheat, on tlic i(t oF July, from a perfuafion, that the mere abfcncd of a portion of light, at a feafon of the year, when the days arc very long, and the fun inconveniently hot (particularly to buckwheat, whofe blolToms drop off without producing grain, if the heat of the fummer's fun is for two or three days untemperated with clouds) could not be very prejudicial to this plant, or at leaft that the fhade of trees at each end, which were equally thick, would be, in that cafe, equally prejudicial. The contrary however^ is the faB. — Gypfum having been ftrev/ed over the field, the whole has fuch a degree of luxuriance as I have never before feen ; the buckwheat is upwards of four feet high, as well where it is fliaded by the mvlberry and apple trees, as where it has no Jjiadc. — Where the fhade of the block oak falls, the colour is lefs healthful ; but the fpots fhadowed in both parts of the field by the chefnut trees, if mown at this time (becaufe now in bloifom) would not, I am fatisfied, produce half the weight that the fame fpace of ground would yield in any other part of the field, not even excepting that fhaded by the apple and mulberry trees, which is however inferior to the reft of the field J this I attribute to the apple fliade (though it is too much united with the mulberry to be diflinguifhed) fmce I have before found, that the fhade of the apple tree was hurtful to Indian corn. You will obferve that my experiments lafl 228 Mr, Livingjlon on the Effe^s of Shade, ^c, year, were drawn from chef nut trees (landing on the eajlfids of a field of corn : this year, from thofe which grow on the Tjoejl and [outh wefi fide of the buckwheat : This experiment which I have made with attention under the mofl favourable circumftances, as well with refped to the pofition of the trees, the nature of the vegetable and the feafon of the year, have confirmed me in the theory I hinted to you ; that the injury which fome vegetables receive from the fhade of certain trees, is not owing fimply to the diminution of light, but either to a change the light undergoes in paffing through them, or from its diflblving and becoming the vehicle of fome fubftance noxious to certain plants contained in the tree, through which it paffes. There are few fads in phyficks that do not admit of fome ufeful dedudions ; I have taken pains to eftabhfh this, that you, or fome other chymifl of more leifure and equal information may make them. C 229 ] FRENCH AND ENGLISH MEASURES COMPARED : BT PETER DELABIGARRE, Efq. IT may not be ufelefs to be acquainted with the references of the French meafures to thofe of this country, as far as it can help farmers in their refearches on various improvements and procefTes made In foreign agriculture. We find often in different treatifes the names of meafures which are not evaluated according to thofe ufed where we live : therefore, without fuch calculated references we are unable to determine our judgment or to balance an exa6l refult, whether advantageous or not. The Enghlh foot ftands for 11 inches 3 lines and 25-100 of a line of a French foot. Fifteen fquare French feet are equal to feventeen Englifli. Two acres of different extent are generally ufed in France ; one for arable lands, the other for woods and forefts. The firff is compofed of 100 rods, but each rod of 18 feet fquare, which gives 900 fquare fathoms to an acre. The fecond contains 100 rods, each rod of 22 feet fquarCj which gives 1344 fquare fathoms. Thus an Englifh acre containing 1135 fquare French fathoms, has 209 fathoms lefs than the foreft-acre above mentioned. The Englifh yard contains only 2 French feet 5 inches 9 lines. 230 Mr. Ddahigarre on French and £ngli/li Mea fares. The Englifli^mile of 1760 yards Is equal to about 825 French fathoms, as the fathom is equal to y6 3-4 Englifh inches. The Enghfh gallon of grain contain? 222 cubic French inches. Two gallons make a peck, which is the quarter part of a bullielj'and contain 444 cubic French inches. The Enghfli Bufliel, as ufcd in London, contains 1778 cubic French inches ; the French bulhel, as ufed in Paris, contains 640 cubic inches and 71-100 of an inch. Thus fomething lefs than three French bufliels or what they call half a mine in Paris, is equal to an Englifh or ftatute bufhel. ' An Englifh quarter containing eight bufliels is equal to one French feptier, 8 and 1-2 bufhels. TABLES of Progreffion, to reduce various French acres, and to fliew how many feet and fquare fathoms are contained in the fquare rod, ac- cording to its fui-face from i8 to 22 feet. The Rod having feet. 18 «9 20 21 22 TheSq uarc Rod contains Feet. Fathoms & Feet. 324 9 0 361 10 I 400 1 1 4 441 12 9 484 13 16 How many feet and fquare fathoms arc contained in a fquare acre, ac- cording to its furfftce from i8 to 2Z feet. The Rod having feet. 18 19 20 21 22 The Square Acre contains Feet. Fathoms & Feet. 32400 QOO 0 36100 1002 28 40000 I I II 4 44100 1225 0 48400 1344 16 TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Introduction, including the Hlftory of the society and State of ^^^' Learning in the College of New-York, .... j II. Addrefs to the Society, by R. R. Livingfton, Efq. . . 47 III. Experiments and Obfervations on Lucerne, by the fame, - - 65 IV. Continuation of the fame, by the fame, - - - 81 V. On the Culture of Green-Gage Plumbs, by the fame, - - 91 VI. The manner of taking Porpoifes, by E. L'Hommedieu, Efq. - 95 VII. On manuring Land with Sea- Weed and Shells, by the fame, - 99 VIII. On Ditches and Hedges, by the fame, ... 103 IX. On improving Land by fowing Red-Clover-Seed, by the fame, - 106 X. On the Advantage of cultivating the Great Common Daify, by the fame, loS XI. On the Folding of Sheep, by the fame, - . . no XII. On the raifing of Calves, by the fame, - - - •114 XIII. On Perennial Graffes, by P. Delabigarre, Efq. - - ng XIV. Excurfions on the Blue Mosntains, by the fame, - - ijg * XV. On the Excretory Duft of the feet of Sheep, by R, R. Liylngfton, Efq. 140 XVI. Letter to Arthur Young, Efq. by the fame, - - - 142. XVII. On Vegetation, Tillage and Manures, by J. Miller, Efq. - 149 XVIII. On White Mulberry Hedges, by P. Delabigarre, Efq. - - i6z XIX. On Caft-Iron Plough-Shares, by John Smith, Efq. - - - 168 XX. Obfervations on conftrufling Green-Houfes, by J. W. Watkins, Efq. 169 XXL On Silk- V/orms, by P. Delabigarre, Efq. - '_- - i;a XXII. Experiments on Wheat, Clover, and Lucerne, by John Stevens, ]£fq. 3,07 CONTENTS, XXIII. On the Cultivation of Tall-Meadow-Oats, by the Rev. Dr. Muh- Page, lenberg, ....... ^x^ XXIV. Review of Mr. Curtis's Pamphlet on Graflcs, - - 2i(> XXV. On the Decay of Apple-Trees, by W. Denning, Efq. - 219 XXVI. On the Shade of Trees, by R. R. Livingfton, Efq. - - 223 XXVII. Comparifon of French and Engliih Meafures, by P. Delabigare, Efq. 229 XXVIII. Meteorological Table, by Mr. Gardiner Baker. K A T A B L E O F M E T E 0 R O L O G I C A L P H ]'. : • N A. OBSERVED IN Till; CUPOr.A OF THR ' IN THi; CI FY OF NEW-YORK, I.OWEIl i'.\KT OF BROAD-STREE TIIK THi:.RVTOMnT.R IS MADE RY NAIRXE AND RLUNT, AN]> OP^ADTTATED ACCORrjFNO TO FAMRI SCA) ]■ : IMF HVOKOMirFER JS UPON TLiK PLAN O! MI',. \)V. f '. MM)!- BY lli£ SA:^ .\;n'ISTS :— AND BOTH CORRESPOND WFFll l.Y-FR!':: TME b^AME KJND IN' THE POSSESSION OF THE PROFESSOR Oi eiiiNHSTRY AND AGi'.ICL'LTUlUi^iJX COEUMlilA COLLEC:E. «•_ " ^4- C ;^ ^ — t; ■ S It = 1^11 ■t: ~ -a y -ra ^T -. t^ — « 2 - ~ - , ft o 1- ■ -^ k t! *« •ill •^i O ^ O ir-l ii Greateft 0 u 1 c> ni>n ■ , /( N _4 - ! ^"5' ; ^- ";^ Day oftiK- mo degrees and '■: _ I Imndredths — ^^ Day of the mo. {■> ^■j o c> ^ o ^ aegrccs and hundredths — M •j- - i 7^ 1 - 1 1 ! c t; Cireateft month- ly range — o o I" p difference in in- T j^ 1 •2 \^[ es and looths. ^ O 0 O O ^ D he ay of the mo. ight ofmerc.in St: 0 o - 1 £ f £ f •^. •^ 2? 55 inches & lootha. _o CN C^ O CN « o »^, C^ I;- =^ '7 tT 1 =< Day of the mo. height of mere, in inches & jooths. o o 5 7 '1 O O "^ " o 0 6 <-i ^, »'. O 0 5 I Mean temperature ufthe whole month. .1 •■I i ~1 -*- M I 1 -r 1 O I oo r 0 0 1 1 0 i T 2, Greateit range in •d O O o tu'cnty-four hours. z- i^ lO 1 oo « v-i I 1-4 Greateft monthly •d O O r O o range. to ""5 I to 1 1 Cs o ^' oc Number of Davs at and below froft at 8 A. M. H r< *< « 'T Number of Davs the wind to the f^ 0« caf N^ t of N. and S. mber of davsj t ■5 he wind to the ft of N. and S M « t« " 1 to so U'.ujnert Days. Coldeft Dav*. rtii Number of Days | that it'.vao floudyi three t-' ■ ■ n <*-^v.\ Nunei ] that :■ three I Nup^'- 13 V. iSUiiiuci V 1 ua.yi that it f.iO'.vcd. -> ■5 :^ i < S >. c C-i rJ ^ p u 0 5 h ~" ', , ^^ 0 c ^ **-^ w* •«